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This is a list of stations that were affiliated with Air America Radio at the time of its shutdown in January 2010.
Affiliate list
Conventional radio
Former affiliates
References
External links
AAR station list
Air America (radio network) | wiki |
Sea level is the altitude where the ocean meets the atmosphere. It is often short for mean sea level, the average height of the ocean.
Sea level can also refer to:
Sea Level, North Carolina
Sea Level (band), 1970s musical group
Sea Level (album)
Sea Level, a 2011 Malaysian CG animated film known internationally as SeeFood
Standard sea level, a set of conditions for physical calculations
See also
Below Sea Level, a 2008 film by Gianfranco Rosi (director) | wiki |
Cervid alphaherpesvirus 3 (CvHV-3) is a species of virus in the genus Varicellovirus, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae, family Herpesviridae, and order Herpesvirales.
References
Alphaherpesvirinae | wiki |
USS Marin may refer to the following ships operated by the United States Navy:
, was purchased by the Navy 14 November 1940 and placed out of service 18 June 1946
, was a tugboat launched in April 1960 and struck in 1991
United States Navy ship names | wiki |
The European Alliance (EA) is a political group in the European Committee of the Regions composed of a mix of regionalist parties and independent members. It was established in 1996, with strong influence of the European Free Alliance, and has since then existed in several incarnations.
Currently, the group gathers 29 local and regional politicians from the following Member States: Belgium, France, Ireland, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Spain.
History
Since its foundation in 1996 until 2004, the European Alliance group consisted of the European Free Alliance's member parties aligned with a group of independents and the then-governing party of the Republic of Ireland, Fianna Fáil, thus serving as a relatively loose grouping of regionalist and non-regionalist members of the European Committee of the Regions. The group's main founding principles included:
Support for an open Europe of regions and nations
Support for highest possible standards for environmental protection, workers' health, consumer protection, veterinary rules, social welfare and democratic principles
In 2004 the group was reconstituted as Union for Europe of the Nations – European Alliance (UEN–EA), uniting a wide range of political options, from traditionally centrist parties to more national-conservative ones. At the time, the group was partly affiliated with the European Parliament's Union for Europe of the Nations.
In 2009, the group restored its original name and has since returned to its regionalist roots.
Present
EA group currently gathers 29 members and alternates from Catalonia, Corsica, Flanders, Friesland, Hungary, Ireland, Lithuania, Navarra, Poland, Romania and Slovakia.
Political priorities
Apart from its regionalist affiliations, the group gathers a significant number of independent members active in the development of Europe's disadvantaged regions, particularly rural, mountainous and island areas. In addition, a strong focus is put on the promotion of green economy and the protection of Europe's cultural and linguistic diversity, especially regional identities.
Some of the group's main priorities include:
Cohesive Union based on common responsibilities and solidarity
Increased EU support for entrepreneurship, SMEs and social enterprises at a local and regional level
Balanced development across all of EU's regions, particularly focused on narrowing the gaps between rich and poorer regions and ensuring an urban-rural balance.
Investment in green growth and technologies aimed at enhancing a low carbon economy, improving energy efficiency and protecting the environment and natural resources
Universal access to education
Promotion of Europe's cultural and linguistic diversity, particularly of lesser used and regional languages
Support for the principle of self-determination, including support for the EU's "internal enlargement", provided that it is achieved through a peaceful and democratic process
Better European governance through a considerable improvement in the functioning, simplicity and transparency of the EU.
Presidents
The current president of the group is Mr Karl Vanlouwe, Member of the Flemish Parliament.
Previous presidents include:
References
External links
Official website
EA Group's political priorities for 2020-2025
EA Group's mission statement
European Committee of the Regions
European Free Alliance
Political organizations based in Europe
European Committee of the Regions party groups | wiki |
A tricam is a type of climbing protection equipment.
A versatile nut/cam hybrid, the Tricam was invented by Greg Lowe in 1973, and came to market in 1981. They are currently manufactured by C.A.M.P. of Premana Italy.
Design
The Tricam is a passive camming device consisting of a carefully shaped aluminium-alloy cam attached to a length of webbing tape. Most sizes are produced as a solid forged unit, but the larger sizes are made from riveted sheet metal.
The device is inserted into a crack so that pulling on the tape makes the piece cam outward against the sides of the crack, gripping the rock tighter. Camming action is achieved by the position of the pointed fulcrum or pivot of the cam relative to the attachment of the tape. As the webbing is pulled, the downward force is pivoted onto the point, which can bite into soft rock or ice and increases the holding power of the tricam.
Benefits
Tricams are not as easy to place or remove as spring-loaded camming devices (SLCDs) but are cheaper and lighter. Some cracks and pods too shallow to protect with SLCDs are easily protected with tricams. They have no moving parts to freeze, making them an excellent choice for a mountaineer's rack. They can also be used as nuts.
Drawbacks
Placing a Tricam takes practice to achieve proficiency. Care must be taken so the Tricam does not loosen while climbing above it due to rope drag. Typically, this additional safety is provided by clipping a longer sling to the tricam. Tricams can "weld" into the placement after being subjected to a hard fall, making them hard to clean and likely to be left behind.
Specifications
Tricams are available in a range of sizes to suit cracks from 10–140 mm wide. They are especially useful in horizontal cracks, quarry drill holes, and limestone pockets, where they may be the only type of protection that works. The smallest size can also work well in old piton scars.
As manufactured they come in size numbers 0.125 to 7, with strength 2–22 kN, width 10–140 mm, and weight 9–264 g.
Gallery
References
External links
Tricams manual from CAMP
Climbing equipment
Mountaineering equipment | wiki |
Variable-frequency oscillator, oscilator promjenljive frekvencije
Višegodišnji financijski okvir | wiki |
The K7025/7026 Harbin-Qitaihe Through Train () is Chinese railway running between Harbin to Qitaihe express passenger trains by the Harbin Railway Bureau, Harbin passenger segment responsible for passenger transport task, Habin originating on the Qitaihe train. 25G Type Passenger trains running along the Binsui Railway, Tujia Railway and Boqi Railway across Heilongjiang provinces, the entire 596 km. Harbin East Railway Station to Qitaihe Railway Station running 10 hours and 16 minutes, use trips for K7025; Qitaihe Railway Station to Harbin East Railway Station to run 9 hours and 48 minutes, use trips for K7026.
See also
K7225/7226 Harbin-Qitaihe Through Train
References
Passenger rail transport in China
Rail transport in Heilongjiang | wiki |
Honey bucket may refer to:
Sanitation systems
Different sorts of toilets, for example:
Bucket toilet
Chemical toilet, a toilet which collects human excreta in a container and uses chemicals to minimize odors
Portable toilet, a movable toilet used in a variety of situations
Other
A bucket of honey (see beekeeping)
Honey Bucket (musical group), a band from Portland, Oregon
"Honey Bucket" (song) – a 1993 song by The Melvins | wiki |
Нойшванштайн:
Нойшванштайн — за́мок в Баварии
Нойшвайнштайн (нид. Neuschwanstein)
Нойшвайнштайн (англ. Neuschwanstein) — метеорит | wiki |
Jinx peut faire référence à :
Jinx, film muet de Victor Schertzinger avec Mabel Normand sorti en 1919 ;
Jinx, série télévisée britannique diffusée en 2007 ;
Jinx, album de musique de Rory Gallagher ;
Jinx, album de bande dessinée de Brian Michael Bendis ;
Jinx, personnages des comics DC ;
Jinx, groupe de hard-rock originaire de La Roche-sur-Yon ;
Jinx, jeu vidéo commercialisé sur PlayStation ;
Jinx, personnage de League of Legends ;
, nom du principal personnage féminin dans le film Meurs un autre jour.
Jinx, jeu enfantin anglophone. | wiki |
Jack the Ripper was an unidentified serial killer active in and around Whitechapel, London, England, in 1888.
Jack the Ripper may also refer to:
Film and television
Jack the Ripper (1959 film), a British film
Jack the Ripper (1973 TV series), a BBC television drama
Jack the Ripper (1976 film), a Swiss–German thriller film
Jack the Ripper (1988 miniseries), a television mini-series
Literature
Jack the Ripper: The Final Solution, a 1976 book by Stephen Knight
Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend, a 1996 book by Richard Wallace
Jack the Ripper (Black Clover), a character in Black Clover
Jack the Ripper, a Fate/Apocrypha character
Music
Jack the Ripper (band), a French alternative rock band
Jack the Ripper (musical), a 1974 musical by Ron Pember
Jack the Ripper, a 1963 album by Link Wray
Songs
"Jack the Ripper" (song), a 1961 song by Clarence Stacy covered by Screaming Lord Sutch in 1963
"Jack the Ripper", a 1961 song by Link Wray
"Jack the Ripper", a 1989 song by LL Cool J
"Jack the Ripper", a 2011 song by The Misfits from The Devil's Rain
"Jack the Ripper", a 1992 song by Motörhead from March ör Die
"Jack the Ripper", a 1992 song by Morrissey from the single "Certain People I Know"
"Jack the Ripper", a 1992 song by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds from Henry's Dream
"Jack the Ripper", a 1986 song by Seikima-II
Video games
Jack the Ripper (1987 video game), a text adventure game by CRL
Jack the Ripper (2003 video game), an adventure game for Microsoft Windows
Raiden (Metal Gear) or Jack the Ripper, a character in the Metal Gear games
Other uses
Casebook: Jack the Ripper, a website started in 1996
The perpetrator of the New York Ripper murders
See also
Black the Ripper (born 1987), British rapper
Whitechapel murders, associated with Jack the Ripper
From Hell letter, associated with Jack the Ripper and the Whitechapel murders
Ripper (disambiguation)
Jack (disambiguation) | wiki |
A drop catcher may be:
A small piece of absorbent paper put on the bottom of a beer glass to prevent its contents from dripping onto the table (not to be confused with a beermat).
A Domain name registrar who sells dropped names. | wiki |
Plays Pretty Just for You è un album discografico di Jimmy Smith (a nome Jimmy Smith at the Organ), pubblicato dalla casa discografica Blue Note Records nel settembre del 1957.
Tracce
LP
Lato A
Lato B
Musicisti
Jimmy Smith - organo
Eddie McFadden - chitarra
Donald Bailey - batteria
Note aggiuntive
Alfred Lion - produttore
Rudy Van Gelder - ingegnere delle registrazioni
Francis Wolff - foto copertina album originale
Tom Hannan - design copertina album originale
Leonard Feather - note retrocopertina album originale
Note
Collegamenti esterni
(Sessione dell'album Blue Note BLP 1563) | wiki |
Bruna Tenório (born 27 June 1989) is a Brazilian model.
Personal life
Tenório was born in Maceió, Brazil. She is of Native Brazilian descent.
She married Felipe Faria in May 2017. They have a son, born December 2020.
Career
Tenório started her career in 2006 when she walked the runway for designers like Chanel, Christian Dior and Dolce & Gabbana in Paris and Milan. After that, she was already featured as a rising star by Style.com.
Since her debut, in 2006, Tenório has been the face of advertising campaigns including Anna Sui, Gap, Kenzo, D&G, Chanel Haute Couture, Vera Wang, Valentino Haute Couture, Me & city. She has been on the covers of top fashion magazines including international editions of L'Officiel, Vogue and Elle. She has walked the most important shows in the Paris, New York and Milan fashion seasons like Alexandre Herchcovitch, Chanel, Dolce & Gabbana, Louis Vuitton, Marc Jacobs, Versace, Carolina Herrera, Christian Dior, Michael Kors and many others.
Tenório is represented by Women Model Management in New York, Paris and Milan, Storm Models in London and Ford Models in São Paulo.
References
External links
Bruna's official blog
Bruna Tenório at Stylished.de
1989 births
Living people
People from Maceió
Brazilian people of indigenous peoples descent
Brazilian female models
21st-century Brazilian women | wiki |
A polar circle is a geographic term for a conditional circular line (arc) referring either to the Arctic Circle or the Antarctic Circle. These are two of the keynote circles of latitude (parallels). On Earth, the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 14.5 m per year and is now at a mean latitude (i.e. without taking into account the astronomical nutation) of N; the Antarctic Circle is currently drifting southwards at a speed of about 14.5 m per year and is now at a mean latitude (i.e. without taking into account the astronomical nutation) of S. Polar circles are often equated with polar regions of Earth. Due to their inherent climate environment, the bulk of the Arctic Circle, much of which is sea, is sparsely settled whereas this applies to all of Antarctica which is mainly land and sheltered ice shelves.
If Earth had no atmosphere then both polar circles (arcs) would see at least a day a year when the center of the sun is continuously above the horizon and at least a day a year when it is always below the horizon – a polar day and a polar night as is the case for longer, within the circles. Up to and including the associated poles (North and South), known geographically as the frigid zones such duration extends up to half of the year, namely, close to the poles. Instead, atmospheric refraction and the Sun's light reaching the planet as an extended object rather than a point source means that just within each circle the Earth's surface does not experience any proper polar night, 24 hours where the sun does not rise. By these same two factors, just outward of each circle still experiences a polar day (a day in which the sun does not fully set).
The latitude of the polar circles is + or −90 degrees (which refers to the North and South Pole, respectively) minus the axial tilt (that is, of the Earth's axis of daily rotation relative to the ecliptic, the plane of the Earth's orbit). This predominant, average tilt of the Earth varies slightly, a phenomenon described as nutation. Therefore, the latitudes noted above are calculated by averaging values of tilt observed over many years. The axial tilt also exhibits long-term variations as described in the reference article (a difference of 1 second of arc (″) in the tilt is equivalent to a change of about 31 metres north or south in the positions of the polar circles on the Earth's surface).
Effect of atmospheric refraction and the angular diameter of the Sun
The polar circles would almost precisely match the boundaries for the zones where the polar night and the polar day would occur throughout the winter solstice and summer solstice day respectively. They do so loosely due to the two effects. The first one is atmospheric refraction, in which the Earth's atmosphere bends light rays near the horizon. The second effect is caused by the angular diameter of the Sun as seen from the Earth's orbital distance (which varies very slightly during each orbit). These factors mean the ground-observed boundaries are 80–100 km away from the circle. A further global factor for this numerical range is Earth's nutation, which is a very small change in tilt. Observers higher above sea level can see a tiny amount of the Sun's disc (see horizon) where at lower places it would not rise. For the Arctic circle, being 80–100 km north of the circle in winter, and 80–100 km south of the circle in summer; the inverse directions apply to the other circle.
See also
Antarctica
Antarctic Circle
Arctic
Arctic Circle
Frigid zones
Polar climate
Polar day and Polar night
Polar region
Notes
Circles of latitude | wiki |
Make Me Lose Control may refer to:
"Make Me Lose Control" (song), a 1988 single by Eric Carmen
Make Me Lose Control (Grey's Anatomy), a 2005 television episode | wiki |
The Y Chromosome Consortium (YCC) was a collection of scientists who worked toward the understanding of human Y chromosomal phylogenetics and evolution. The consortium had the following objectives: web resources that communicate information relating to the non-recombinant region of the Y-chromosome including new variants and changes in the nomenclature. The consortium sponsored literature regarding updates in the phylogenetics and nomenclature.
See also
International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG)
Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup
References
External links
Y-DNA Haplogroup Tree at ISOGG
International scientific organizations
Phylogenetics
Population genetics organizations | wiki |
Gymnastes gloria är en tvåvingeart som först beskrevs av Alexander 1921. Gymnastes gloria ingår i släktet Gymnastes och familjen småharkrankar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.
Källor
Småharkrankar
gloria | wiki |
Lepa may refer to:
People
Astrid Lepa (1924–2015), Estonian actress and director
Margus Lepa (born 1953), Estonian radio journalist and actor
Places
Palma de Mallorca Airport, assigned the ICAO code LEPA
Lepa, Samoa village in Samoa
Lepa, Estonia village in Estonia
Lepa Ves, village in Croatia
Science
LEPA, low-energy precision application irrigation
Leader peptidase A (LepA), elongation factor (biology)
Lepas, a genus of goose barnacles
Other uses
Lepa (ship), the traditional houseboats of the Sama-Bajau people
Lepa (given name), a feminine given name
See also | wiki |
Listed below are the dates and results for the 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds for the South American zone (CONMEBOL). For an overview of the qualification rounds, see the article 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification.
A total of 9 CONMEBOL teams entered the competition. Chile was banned by FIFA due to the 1989 Maracanazo incident. The South American zone was allocated 3 direct places and 1 play-off places in the final tournament.
The 9 teams were divided into 2 groups. The teams would play against each other on a home-and-away basis. The number of teams and spots for each group were as follows:
Group A had 4 teams. The group winner would qualify. The runner-up would advance to the CONMEBOL / CONCACAF / OFC Intercontinental Play-off.
Group B had 5 teams. The group winner and runner-up would qualify.
Qualification seeding (CONMEBOL)
Group A
Colombia qualified. Argentina advanced to the CONMEBOL / CONCACAF / OFC Intercontinental Play-off.
Group B
Brazil and Bolivia qualified.
Inter-confederation play-offs
Qualified teams
The following four teams from CONMEBOL qualified for the final tournament.
1 Bold indicates champions for that year. Italic indicates hosts for that year.
Goalscorers
7 goals
Luis Ramallo
5 goals
Erwin Sánchez
Bebeto
Freddy Rincón
4 goals
Ramón Medina Bello
Marco Etcheverry
3 goals
Milton Melgar
Ricardo Gomes
Raí
Eduardo Hurtado
Alfredo Mendoza
2 goals
Gabriel Batistuta
Branco
Palhinha
Romário
Faustino Asprilla
Adolfo Valencia
Iván Valenciano
Daniel Fonseca
Enzo Francescoli
Fernando Kanapkis
Ruben Sosa
Juan Enrique García
1 goal
Abel Balbo
Fernando Redondo
Alvaro Peña
Luis Cristaldo
Marco Sandy
Dunga
Evair
Müller
Alexis Mendoza
Wilson Pérez
Cléber Chalá
Carlos Muñoz
Raúl Noriega
Byron Tenorio
José Luis Chilavert
Catalino Rivarola
Estanislao Struway
Darío Muchotrigo
Roberto Palacios
José del Solar
Jorge Soto
Gabriel Cedrés
José Oscar Herrera
Luis Morales
Oswaldo Palencia
External links
1994 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL) at FIFA.com
CONMEBOL
FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL)
World | wiki |
"I Sure Can Smell the Rain" is a song written by Walt Aldridge and John Jarrard, and recorded by American country music band Blackhawk. It was released in August 1994 as the third single from their self-titled debut album. It peaked at number 9 on both the United States Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks and the Canadian RPM Country Tracks charts.
Content
The song is an introspective ballad about a relationship falling apart.
Music video
The music video was directed by Marius Penczner, who also directed the video for "Goodbye Says It All".
Chart performance
The song entered the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart on the week of September 2, 1994, and peaked at number 9 on the week of November 12, 1994.
Year-end charts
References
1994 songs
Blackhawk (band) songs
1994 singles
Songs written by Walt Aldridge
Songs written by John Jarrard
Arista Nashville singles
Song recordings produced by Mark Bright (record producer) | wiki |
Roarke may refer to:
People
Roarke Smith: a professional Australian rules footballer
Adam Roarke: American actor and film director
Mike Roarke: retired American catcher and coach in Major League Baseball
John Roarke: American actor
George Roarke: American songwriter
Fictional characters
Literature
Roarke (In Death): a fictional character from J. D. Robb's series in Death
Patrick Roarke: a fictional character from J. D. Robb's series in Death
Television
Mr. Roarke: a fictional character from the American television series Fantasy Island
Henry Roarke: a fictional character from the American television series Quantico
Brendan Roarke: a fictional character from the American television series Sons of Anarchy
Film
Roarke Hartman: a fictional character from the American film The River Wild
Roarke: a fictional character from the American film Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance
Josephine 'Jo' Douglas O'Roarke: a fictional character from the American film Jealousy
Larry O'Roarke: a fictional character from the American film Jealousy | wiki |
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land, soil or surfaces.
Irrigation may also refer to:
Agriculture
Drip irrigation, slow watering of roots
Lift irrigation, irrigation where water is lifted using pumps or other means
Surface irrigation, irrigation where water is applied using gravity
Tidal irrigation, irrigation by river water under tidal influence
Irrigation in viticulture, use of irrigation in wine-making
Health
Nasal irrigation, cleansing of the nose with water
Therapeutic irrigation, cleansing with water in medicine
See also
Irrigation management | wiki |
Relación de vencedores de la competición individual masculina de todos los torneos del ITTF Pro Tour que tuvieron lugar en el año 2009:
Enlaces externos
International Table Tennis Federation
All about table tennis
Competiciones de tenis de mesa | wiki |
The Fairview City Hall is a historic building in Fairview, Utah. It was built by Oscar Amundson in 1936 as the city hall of Fairview under the Public Works Administration program, and designed by architect Hugh Anderson. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since April 9, 1986.
References
City and town halls on the National Register of Historic Places in Utah
National Register of Historic Places in Sanpete County, Utah
Moderne architecture in the United States
Buildings and structures completed in 1936
1936 establishments in Utah | wiki |
The 2004–05 UEFA Cup qualifying rounds was the qualification competition that determined the teams participating in the main competition of the 2004–05 UEFA Cup. It began on 13 July 2004 with the first qualifying round and ended on 26 August 2004 with the second qualifying round. The two qualifying rounds narrowed the clubs down to 80 teams in preparation for the first round.
Times are CEST (UTC+2), as listed by UEFA (local times, if different, are in parentheses).
Teams
In total, 89 teams entered qualifying stage, which consisted of the following rounds:
First qualifying round (50 teams): 50 teams which enter in this round.
Second qualifying round (64 teams): 39 teams which enter in this round, and 25 winners of the first qualifying round.
The 32 winners of the second qualifying round will advance to the first round, joining 42 other teams.
Below are the participating teams of the Champions Path (with their 2004 UEFA club coefficients), grouped by their starting rounds.
Format
Each tie is played over two legs, with each team playing one leg at home. The team that scores more goals on aggregate over the two legs advance to the next round. If the aggregate score is level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e. the team that scores more goals away from home over the two legs advances. If away goals are also equal, then extra time is played. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e. if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team advances by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot-out.
In the draws for each round, teams are seeded based on their UEFA club coefficients at the beginning of the season, with the teams divided into seeded and unseeded pots containing the same number of teams. A seeded team is drawn against an unseeded team to determine the ties. Prior to the draws, UEFA forms "groups" in accordance with the principles set by the Club Competitions Committee, but they are purely for convenience of the draw and do not resemble any real groupings in the sense of the competition. Teams from the same association or from associations with political conflicts as decided by UEFA may not be drawn into the same tie. After the draws, the order of legs of a tie may be reversed by UEFA due to scheduling or venue conflicts.
Round and draw dates
The schedule was as follows (all draws are held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland).
First qualifying round
The draw for the first qualifying round was held on 25 June 2004, 14:00 CEST.
Seeding
A total of 50 teams played in the first qualifying round. Seeding of teams was based on their 2004 UEFA club coefficients. Prior to the draw, UEFA formed three regional groups of seeded and unseeded teams in accordance with the principles set by the Club Competitions Committee.
Summary
The first legs were played on 13 and 15 July, and the second legs on 27 and 29 July 2004.
|-
!colspan="5"|Northern Group
|-
|-
!colspan="5"|Southern–Mediterranean Group
|-
|-
!colspan="5"|Central–East Group
|-
|}
Notes
Matches
Levadia Tallinn won 3–1 on aggregate.
FH won 4–1 on aggregate.
Östers IF won 4–1 on aggregate.
Žalgiris won 4–2 on aggregate.
Ventspils won 11–0 on aggregate.
Haka won 5–2 on aggregate.
Ekranas won 3–1 on aggregate.
Vaduz won 4–2 on aggregate.
Liepājas Metalurgs won 11–2 on aggregate.
Glentoran won 4–3 on aggregate.
ÍA won 6–3 on aggregate.
Maribor won 2–1 on aggregate.
Primorje won 3–0 on aggregate.
Željezničar won 9–1 on aggregate.
Oțelul Galați won 8–1 on aggregate.
Modriča won 4–0 on aggregate.
Omonia won 8–1 on aggregate.
Partizani won 5–4 on aggregate.
Illichivets Mariupol won 4–0 on aggregate.
Tbilisi won 5–1 on aggregate.
Dinamo Tbilisi won 4–2 on aggregate.
Tiraspol won 4–1 on aggregate.
Nistru Otaci won 3–2 on aggregate.
Budapest Honvéd won 2–1 on aggregate.
Dukla Banská Bystrica won 4–0 on aggregate.
Second qualifying round
The draw for the second qualifying round was held on 30 July 2004, 14:00 CEST.
Seeding
A total of 64 teams played in the first qualifying round: 39 teams which entered in this round, and 25 winners of the first round. Seeding of teams was based on their 2004 UEFA club coefficients. Prior to the draw, UEFA formed six regional groups of seeded and unseeded teams in accordance with the principles set by the Club Competitions Committee.
Summary
The first legs were played on 10 and 12 August, and the second legs on 26 August 2004.
|-
!colspan="5"|Northern Group 1
|-
|-
!colspan="5"|Northern Group 2
|-
|-
!colspan="5"|Southern–Mediterranean Group 1
|-
|-
!colspan="5"|Southern–Mediterranean Group 2
|-
|-
!colspan="5"|Central–East Group 1
|-
|-
!colspan="5"|Central–East Group 2
|-
|}
Matches
IF Elfsborg won 3–1 on aggregate.
Beveren won 5–2 on aggregate.
Odd Grenland won 4–3 on aggregate.
1–1 on aggregate. Ventspils won on away goals.
Hammarby IF won 4–1 on aggregate.
Stabæk won 6–2 on aggregate.
3–3 on aggregate. Bodø/Glimt won 8–7 on penalties.
FH won 4–3 on aggregate.
AaB won 3–1 on aggregate.
3–3 on aggregate. Liepājas Metalurgs won on away goals.
2–2 on aggregate. Gençlerbirliği won on away goals.
Levski Sofia won 8–0 on aggregate.
Bnei Sakhnin won 6–1 on aggregate.
Steaua București won 5–4 on aggregate.
2–2 on aggregate. Maribor won on away goals.
Litex Lovech won 9–1 on aggregate.
Dinamo Zagreb won 4–2 on aggregate.
CSKA Sofia won 4–2 on aggregate.
Partizan won 1–0 on aggregate.
Maccabi Petah Tikva won 4–3 on aggregate.
Terek Grozny won 2–0 on aggregate.
3–3 on aggregate. Dinamo Tbilisi won on away goals.
Rapid Wien won 3–2 on aggregate.
Austria Wien won 3–0 on aggregate.
Dukla Banská Bystrica won 4–2 on aggregate.
Sigma Olomouc won 6–1 on aggregate.
Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk won 4–1 on aggregate.
3–3 on aggregate. Zenit Saint Petersburg won on away goals.
Újpest won 5–1 on aggregate.
Metalurh Donetsk won 5–1 on aggregate.
Legia Warsaw won 7–0 on aggregate.
1–1 on aggregate. Amica Wronki won 5–4 on penalties.
Notes
References
External links
First qualifying round, UEFA.com
Second qualifying round, UEFA.com
1
July 2004 sports events in Europe
August 2004 sports events in Europe
UEFA Cup qualifying rounds | wiki |
91st Regiment or 91st Infantry Regiment may refer to:
91st Regiment of Foot (disambiguation), several units of the British Army
91st Punjabis (Light Infantry), a unit of the British Indian Army
91st Cavalry Regiment, United States
91st Coast Artillery (United States)
Union Army (American Civil War):
91st Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment
91st Indiana Infantry Regiment
91st New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment
91st Ohio Infantry
91st Pennsylvania Infantry
See also
91st Division (disambiguation) | wiki |
Roan is a coat color found in many animals, including horses, cattle, antelope, cat and dogs. It is defined generally as an even mixture of white and pigmented hairs that do not "gray out" or fade as the animal ages. There are a variety of genetic conditions which produce the colors described as "roan" in various species.
Roan horses
A horse with intermixed white and colored hairs of any color is usually called a roan. However, such mixtures, which can appear superficially similar, are caused by a number of separate genetic factors. Identifiable types of roans include true or classic roan, varnish roan, and rabicano, though other currently unknown factors may be responsible for ambiguous "roaning." Gray horses, which become lighter as they age until their hair coat is nearly completely white, may be confused with roans when they are young. Duns, which are solid-colored horses affected by the dun dilution factor on their bodies but with darker points, are also sometimes confused with roans, but they do not have the intermixed white and colored hairs of a roan.
Horses with the classic or true roan pattern may be any base color which is intermingled with unpigmented white hairs on the body. Except for white markings under the control of other genes, the head, mane, tail, and lower legs are dark. Roan is a simple dominant trait symbolized by the Rn allele. The University of California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine's genetics services have developed a DNA test that uses genetic markers to indirectly determine the number of Rn or rn alleles a horse has. The mutation responsible for true roan has not yet been identified exactly, but been assigned to equine chromosome 21 (ECA21) in the KIT sequence. The overall effect is that of a silver or lightened appearance to the affected part of the coat.
Descriptions of roan coat colors are as follows:
Red Roan or strawberry roan describes true or classic roan on a chestnut base coat. The mane and tail remain red or have only a few white hairs, while the body ranges from nearly chestnut to pinkish. Geneticists prefer the term "chestnut roan," but this term is not in common use.
Bay Roan is true roan on a bay coat. The particular shade depends on the underlying shade of bay; but the mane, tail, and lower legs are black, and the reddish body is intermingled with white hairs. The head is usually red. Formerly, bay roans were lumped together with chestnut roans and both called "red roans."
Blue Roan is true roan on a black coat. The mane, tail, head, and legs remain black, while the body takes on a grayish or bluish appearance. Blue roans are sometimes mistaken for grays or grullos. However, Grays fade with age, while roans do not; and grullos are blue duns and possess dun markings but not intermingled white hairs.
Any other coat color may also be affected by roaning. Few combinations have the same unique terminology applied to the common roan colors, although palomino roans are sometimes called honey roans.
Roan mimics
A varnish roan is not a true roan; it is actually one of the leopard complex coat patterns associated with Appaloosa, Knabstrupper, Noriker horse and related breeds. Rabicano is a white pattern that falls into the category of roaning or scattered white hairs, the genetics of which are not yet fully understood. Sometimes called ticking, rabicano is common even in breeds that do not have true or classic roan, including Arabians and Thoroughbreds. This pattern usually takes the form of scattered white hairs around the junction of the stifle and flank, and peculiar rings of white hairs near the base of the tail. This trait is called a coon tail or skunk tail. Some forms of sabino, which is a pinto pattern, have roaning along the edges of other white spots or markings A roan horse may not fit into any of the traditional categories as there is much still to be learned about the genetics of roan. The existence of other types of roaning conditions not covered by those mentioned here is possible and likely.
Roan dogs
The genetics behind roan dogs are still unclear, and at present candidate genes have been ruled out. There remains a great deal of ambiguity in terminology regarding mottled dogs, which are called roan, ticked, mottled and belton depending on the context. The roan or ticked color is described in many breeds of gundogs such as English Cocker Spaniels, American Cocker Spaniels, English Springer Spaniels, Field Spaniels and Brittanys, German Longhaired Pointers, German Shorthaired Pointers, Bracchi Italiani, Spinoni Italiani, Lagotti Romagnoli, English Setters, Small Münsterländer as well as Border Collies and many other breeds.
In dogs, roan manifests itself only in unpigmented areas, the presence and shape of which are determined by other genes. This is in stark contrast to true roan horses and roan cattle, which are roan only in pigmented regions of their coat and may have white markings. Instead, dogs with roaning or ticking are born with clear, open white markings which begin to fill in with flecking in the subsequent weeks and continue to darken with age. Most breed standards use the terms "ticked" and "roan" interchangeably, with the former referring to clearly defined flecks on a white background and the latter to flecks so closely spaced that the mixture appears even.
The terminology that relates the underlying coat color with the roan modifier is often breed-specific, but most standards call a black dog with roaning blue. In breeds that are characterized by roaning and ticking such as the Large Munsterlander, clear white-marked individuals may be called plated. The term belton is reserved for English Setters.
In 1957, Little suggested that roan and ticking were controlled separately, and postulated that roan may have been homologous to "silvered" coat in mice. This condition in mice is actually homologous to merle, which might be described by some as "roan." In 2007, the gene responsible for roan cattle (KITLG) was refuted as a possible cause of roan in dogs. Neither roan nor ticking, if they are independently caused, appear to be recessive.
Roan cattle
Breeds of cattle known for roans are the Belgian Blue and Shorthorn. Among the former, coat color may be solid black, solid white, or blue roan; the latter may be solid red, solid white, or red roan. Belgian Blues also typically exhibit spotting patterns, which are genetically separate from roan. As a result, most roan cows exhibit blotches of clearly colored and clearly white hair, with roan patches. Some "cryptic" roan cattle appear solid, but upon close inspection reveal a small roan patch. Roan cattle cannot "breed true" but breeding white cattle to a solid mate will always yield a roan calf. The white color typical of Charolais and White Park breeds is not related to roan.
Roan in Shorthorns and Belgian Blues is controlled by the mast cell growth factor (MGF) gene, also called the steel locus, on bovine chromosome 5. Part of the KIT ligand, this region is involved in many cell differentiation processes. Mast cell growth factor promotes pigment production by pigment cells, and without it, skin and hair cells lack pigment. With two functional MGF genes (homozygous dominant), cattle are fully pigmented; without any functional MGF genes (homozygous recessive), they are white. MGF-controlled roan occurs when cattle possess one functional and one non-functional MGF gene (heterozygous), resulting in a roughly even mixture of white regions and colored regions.
The reproductive condition "White Heifer Disease," associated with the MGF gene, is characterized by homozygous MGF-white heifers with incomplete reproductive tracts.
Roan guinea pigs
The roan coloration of guinea pigs is linked to microphthalmia. The allele that controls roaning in guinea pigs is incompletely dominant: an animal with one copy of the allele will have varying amounts of white hair scattered through its coat, particularly on the back and sides.
About 25% of guinea pigs born to two roans are completely white, having two copies of the "roan" allele, and may have a constellation of deformities associated with "lethal white syndrome", although this condition has no relation to overo lethal white syndrome in horses or double merle syndrome in dogs. Lethal white guinea pigs ("lethals") often die shortly after birth or at weaning age, but with hand-feeding and regular dental care, lethals may live 2 to 3 years. Some lethals have reportedly lived to 6 or 7 years. It is worth noting that, unlike anophthalmic hamsters, guinea pigs with the condition are not sterile, but females may be unable to deliver live young.
Lethal white syndrome symptoms include:
Partial or complete blindness
Partial or complete deafness
Microphthalmia or anophthalmia
Unpigmented eyes
Missing or deformed incisors
Deformed molars
Elongated tooth roots
Malabsorption in the small intestine, due in some cases to lack of intestinal villi
Increased susceptibility to illness
Roan coloration is not to be confused with the "magpie" coloration of guinea pigs, which is a brindle color lacking red pigment due to the "chinchilla" allele, an allele also responsible for self white and silver agouti coloration.
See also
Equine coat color
Equine coat color genetics
References
External links
Photos of roan English Cockers
Horse coat colors
Dogs
Cattle | wiki |
January 2014 winter storm may refer to:
2014 North American cold wave (disambiguation)
2014 Gulf Coast winter storm
Winter storms of 2013-2014 in the United Kingdom | wiki |
is a Japanese baseball-themed manga series written and illustrated by Shuichi Shigeno. It was serialized in Kodansha's seinen manga magazine Weekly Young Magazine from June 2015 to April 2017, with its chapters collected in six tankōbon volumes.
Publication
Written and illustrated by Shuichi Shigeno, Sailor Ace was serialized in Kodansha's seinen manga magazine Weekly Young Magazine from June 1, 2015, to April 3, 2017. Kodansha collected its chapters in six tankōbon volumes, released from November 6, 2015, to May 7, 2020.
Volume list
References
Further reading
External links
Baseball in anime and manga
Kodansha manga
Seinen manga | wiki |
The RDS-5 () was a plutonium based Soviet atomic bomb, probably using a hollow core. Two versions were made. The first version used 2 kg Pu-239 and was expected to yield 9.2 kilotons. The second version used only 0.8 kg Pu-239
Testing
The two versions of the RDS-5 were tested during a series of 3 tests on September 3, 8 and 10 1953 in the Semipalatinsk test site. The test on September 3 (Joe 6.) was probably of the 2 kg version and achieved a yield of 5.8 kilotons (compared to the expected 9.2 kiloton yield). The test on September 8 was probably of the 0.8 kg version and yielded 1.6 kilotons.
See also
Soviet atomic bomb project
RDS-1
References
Bombs | wiki |
In statistics, an exact (significance) test is a test such that if the null hypothesis is true, then all assumptions made during the derivation of the distribution of the test statistic are met. Using an exact test provides a significance test that maintains the type I error rate of the test () at the desired significance level of the test. For example, an exact test at a significance level of , when repeated over many samples where the null hypothesis is true, will reject at most of the time. This is in contrast to an approximate test in which the desired type I error rate is only approximately maintained (i.e.: the test might reject > 5% of the time), while this approximation may be made as close to as desired by making the sample size sufficiently large.
Exact tests that are based on discrete test statistics may be conservative, indicating that the actual rejection rate lies below the nominal significance level . As an example, this is the case for Fisher's exact test and its more powerful alternative, Boschloo's test. If the test statistic is continuous, it will reach the significance level exactly.
Parametric tests, such as those used in exact statistics, are exact tests when the parametric assumptions are fully met, but in practice, the use of the term exact (significance) test is reserved for non-parametric tests, i.e., tests that do not rest on parametric assumptions. However, in practice, most implementations of non-parametric test software use asymptotical algorithms to obtain the significance value, which renders the test non-exact.
Hence, when a result of statistical analysis is termed an “exact test” or specifies an “exact p-value”, this implies that the test is defined without parametric assumptions and is evaluated without making use of approximate algorithms. In principle, however, this could also signify that a parametric test has been employed in a situation where all parametric assumptions are fully met, but it is in most cases impossible to prove this completely in a real-world situation. Exceptions in which it is certain that parametric tests are exact include tests based on the binomial or Poisson distributions. The term permutation test is sometimes used as a synonym for exact test, but it should be kept in mind that all permutation tests are exact tests, but not all exact tests are permutation tests.
Formulation
The basic equation underlying exact tests is
where:
x is the actual observed outcome,
Pr(y) is the probability under the null hypothesis of a potentially observed outcome y,
T(y) is the value of the test statistic for an outcome y, with larger values of T representing cases which notionally represent greater departures from the null hypothesis,
and where the sum ranges over all outcomes y (including the observed one) that have the same value of the test statistic obtained for the observed sample x, or a larger one.
Example: Pearson's chi-squared test versus an exact test
A simple example of this concept involves the observation that Pearson's chi-squared test is an approximate test. Suppose Pearson's chi-squared test is used to ascertain whether a six-sided die is "fair", indicating that it renders each of the six possible outcomes equally often. If the die is thrown n times, then one "expects" to see each outcome n/6 times. The test statistic is
where Xk is the number of times outcome k is observed. If the null hypothesis of "fairness" is true, then the probability distribution of the test statistic can be made as close as desired to the chi-squared distribution with 5 degrees of freedom by making the sample size n sufficiently large. On the other hand, if n is small, then the probabilities based on chi-squared distributions may not be sufficiently close approximations. Finding the exact probability that this test statistic exceeds a certain value would then require a combinatorial enumeration of all outcomes of the experiment that gives rise to such a large value of the test statistic. It is then questionable whether the same test statistic ought to be used. A likelihood-ratio test might be preferred, and the test statistic might not be a monotone function of the one above.
Example: Fisher's exact test
Fisher's exact test, based on the work of Ronald Fisher and E. J. G. Pitman in the 1930s, is exact because the sampling distribution (conditional on the marginals) is known exactly. This should be compared with Pearson's chi-squared test, which (although it tests the same null) is not exact because the distribution of the test statistic is only asymptotically correct.
See also
Exact statistics
Optimal discriminant analysis
References
Ronald Fisher (1954) Statistical Methods for Research Workers. Oliver and Boyd.
Mehta, C.R. ; Patel, N.R. (1998). "Exact Inference for Categorical Data". In P. Armitage and T. Colton, eds., Encyclopedia of Biostatistics, Chichester: John Wiley, pp. 1411–1422. unpublished preprint
Statistical tests
de:Statistischer Test#Exakter Test | wiki |
There It Is may refer to:
There It Is (film), a 1928 short film starring Charles R. Bowers
There It Is (911 album), 1999
There It Is (James Brown album), 1972
"There It Is" (James Brown song)
"There It Is" (Ginuwine song), 2001
"There It Is" (Shalamar song), 1982
"Whoomp! (There It Is)", a song by Tag Team, 1993 | wiki |
Ford Ranger is a nameplate that has been used on multiple model lines of pickup trucks sold by Ford worldwide. The nameplate has been used for distinct model lines of vehicles worldwide since 1982 from the compact and mid-size pickup category.
The Ford Ranger debuted as a compact pickup mainly sold in North America since 1982 for the 1983 model year, with later introductions in some South American countries. Between 1998 and 2011, the Ranger nameplate is also used for models that was developed by Mazda for sale outside the North American market. In 2011, Ford introduced the first Ranger based on the T6 platform. Considered a mid-size pickup truck, the model was developed in-house by Ford Australia. In the same year, the North American-market Ranger was discontinued, leaving the T6 platform-based Ranger as the sole Ranger model worldwide.
For the 2019 model year, the Ranger was reintroduced in North America using the globally-marketed T6 model. It is produced at the Michigan Assembly Plant at Wayne, Michigan. The Ranger is currently slotted below the F-150 and above the Maverick in the Ford North American pickup truck range, while for markets outside the Americas it is typically the only Ford pickup offered for sale.
The second generation of the T6-based Ranger was released in 2021 for worldwide markets, using the same T6 platform with revisions.
Origin of name
Prior to its use on compact pickup trucks, Ford used the Ranger nameplate on three different model lines. The Edsel division was the first to use the name, with the Edsel Ranger introduced in 1958 as its lowest-trim sedan; the model line lasted through the 1960 demise of the Edsel brand.
For 1965, the Ranger name returned to use by Ford as a trim package for F-Series trucks; in 1972, a corresponding Bronco Ranger was introduced. Offered through the 1981 model year, the Ranger trim served as the mid-level to high-level trim package.
Following the 1981 model year, the Ranger trim line was withdrawn from its light trucks, largely in anticipation of its 1983 model year compact pickup truck which was introduced in early 1982.
Americas
North America
Compact pickup (1983–2012)
For the 1983 model year, Ford introduced the Ranger for the United States and Canada. The first compact pickup truck designed by Ford, the American-produced Ranger replaced the Mazda-produced Ford Courier. Produced across three generations using a single chassis architecture, the model line was marketed from the 1983 to the 2012 model years (ending retail sales after the 2011 model year).
The Ranger light-truck chassis architecture served as the basis for a wide range of vehicles over its production. Along with sharing body and powertrain components with the Ford Bronco II and Ford Explorer SUVs, the Ranger also shared components with the Ford Aerostar minivan and the Ford Explorer Sport Trac mid-size pickup truck. Through the use of rebadging, from 1994 to 2009, Mazda marketed the Ford Ranger in the United States and Canada as the Mazda B-Series (the reverse of the 1970s Ford Courier and also the reverse of the Ford Ranger outside of North America).
While among the highest-selling vehicles in the compact segment for nearly its entire 29-year production, an overall decline in demand for compact trucks led to its discontinuation after the 2011 model year (a short 2012 run was produced for fleet sales). On December 22, 2011, the final Ford Ranger produced for North America was assembled at the Twin Cities Assembly Plant, the final vehicle assembled at the facility.
Mid-size pickup (2019–present)
For the 2019 model year, the Ranger returned to its model range in North America after an eight-year hiatus to slot below the F-Series. The first example was assembled on October 22, 2018. The first generation of the model line sold as a mid-size pickup truck, the fourth-generation Ranger is derived from the global-market Ranger T6 designed by Ford Australia with adaptations accommodate US government regulations along with other modifications made to match local market demands.
The current generation of the Ranger is offered in two configurations on a 127-inch wheelbase, including a 2+2 door SuperCab (6-foot bed) and a 4-door SuperCrew (5-foot bed). As of the current model, the two-door standard cab is not offered for sale in North America.
The model line is produced by Ford at its Michigan Assembly Plant at Wayne, Michigan.
South America
In 1995, exports of the Ranger began to select Latin and South American countries. To accommodate the demand for the vehicle, Ford Argentina commenced local production of the Ranger in 1998, introducing a four-door cab not sold in North America. During the 2000s, Rangers produced by Ford Argentina shared a common chassis with North American-produced vehicles, while offering a diesel engine option to meet local demand. For 2010, the locally-produced Ranger underwent a final exterior revision exclusive to the South American market.
Ford Argentina ended production of the compact Ranger following the 2011 model year to shift its production to its replacement, the mid-size Ranger T6.
International
Mazda-based (1998–2011)
In 1971, Ford entered the compact truck segment as it marketed the second-generation Mazda B series under the Ford Courier nameplate; the Courier was sold worldwide. For 1983, the Ranger replaced the Courier in North America, but Ford continued to source the Courier from Mazda for global markets into the 1990s, following the development of the B-Series model line. In 1998, Ford introduced the Ranger name on Mazda-sourced pickup trucks, however the Courier name continued through 2006 in Australia and New Zealand.
The first-generation Mazda-based Ranger was produced from 1998 to 2006, while the second generation was produced from 2006 to 2011; the latter was derived from the Mazda BT-50 (which replaced the Mazda B series). These Ranger models were sold in Asia, Australasia, Europe, Africa, and several Latin American markets.
T6 platform-based (2011–present)
In 2011, Ford introduced the first Ranger based on the T6 platform (codename: P375). Developed by Ford Australia, the T6-based Ranger replaced the American and Mazda-sourced Rangers with a single model, also forming a basis of the second-generation Mazda BT-50. The T6-based Ranger models are marketed worldwide, although it was not marketed in the United States and Canada between 2011 and 2018 model years. The second generation model of the T6-based Ranger (codename: P703) was released in 2021, featuring major changes while riding on a revised T6 platform dubbed as "T6.2".
References
Ranger
Cars introduced in 1982 | wiki |
Mimosa townsendii é uma espécie vegetal da família Fabaceae.
Apenas pode ser encontrada no Equador.
Os seus habitats naturais são: matagal árido tropical ou subtropical.
Referências
Mimosa | wiki |
Ellerby (East Riding of Yorkshire) – miejscowość w hrabstwie East Riding of Yorkshire (Anglia)
Ellerby (North Yorkshire) – miejscowość w hrabstwie North Yorkshire (Anglia) | wiki |
Duck foot or duck's foot may refer to:
Duck foot, alternative name for club foot (furniture)
Duck's foot, type of 19th-century volley gun
Duckfeet, or splayfeet, a deformity in which the feet are abnormally flat and turned outwards. | wiki |
A representative image is an indirect visual depiction of the message, for example, used when that particular event has not been visually captured or is visually available. The degree of representativeness can vary significantly. The accuracy of the representative image in areas such as tourism can significantly affect users using search engines.
See also
Representation (arts)
References
Further reading
Internet search engines | wiki |
Church of San Nicolás may refer to:
Church of San Nicolás (Guadalajara)
Church of San Nicolás (Madrid)
Church of San Nicolás (Portomarín)
Church of San Nicolás (Soria)
Church of San Nicolás (Valencia) | wiki |
Contact stomatitis is inflammation or pain of the oral mucosa caused by external stimuli. It is characterized by cutaneous lesions that may be located where the offending agent contacts the mucosa for a prolonged time. Oftentimes it presents in the mouth after contact with hot food or from ill-fitted dentures or other irritant. Consequently, patients may seek resolve from their dentist rather than a dermatologist. Unlike with allergic contact stomatitis, the skin requires no previous exposure to a stimulant before crafting an immune reaction.
See also
Contact urticaria
List of cutaneous conditions
References
Contact dermatitis | wiki |
Lacquer dermatitis (also known as "Lacquer sensitivity") is a cutaneous condition characterized by a contact dermatitis to various lacquers.
See also
Toxicodendron dermatitis
List of cutaneous conditions
References
Contact dermatitis | wiki |
Adventures of the Gummi Bears is an American animated television series. The series aired on Saturday mornings on NBC from 1985 to 1989. It moved to ABC in the fall of 1989, where it aired as part of The Gummi Bears/Winnie the Pooh Hour until January 1990. In the fall of 1990, the series became a part of Disney's weekday afternoon syndicated cartoon block, The Disney Afternoon. Season 6 premiered as part of The Disney Afternoon, with new episodes interspersed with reruns of previous ones. In total, there are 95 individual 11-minute and 22-minute episodes, which make up 65 half hours.
Series overview
Episodes
Background
Seasons 1–5 are listed here in their original U.S. network episode order. In the original network run from season 2 onward, some 11-minute segments originally aired mixed with repeats; when the show was distributed internationally, the segments were combined into standardized half-hour combinations. (Season 5 had an odd number of 11-minute segments; "Never Give a Gummi an Even Break" is coupled with the season 6 segment "Friar Tum" in the "international" order.)
(The episode arrangements for the Disney Afternoon airings were completely different, with half-length segments from different seasons mixed together. These versions subsequently aired on The Disney Channel, Toon Disney, and the Family Channel in Canada.)
Season 6 premiered as part of The Disney Afternoon. The order and airdates presented here correspond to the first airings of the new episodes on TDA. Three of these were 11-minute episodes, "Friar Tum", "Zummi in Slumberland", and "A Recipe for Trouble", which each aired in the U.S. coupled with a segment from a previous season; here, each of them is listed by itself. However, in international markets, season 6 was presented in a different order than in the U.S., and these segments were grouped together into two half-hours (with "Friar Tum" being coupled with the leftover season 5 segment "Never Give a Gummi an Even Break"). This is why some episode guides list "Friar Tum/Never Give a Gummi an Even Break" and "Zummi in Slumberland/A Recipe for Trouble", which is how the episodes were presented internationally. (Also, though most consider the two-part "King Igthorn" story to be the series finale, and it comes last in the international episode order, six more episodes premiered after it in the U.S., over a two-week period in February 1991.)
Two numbers are given for each episode: One number corresponding to the order in which it premiered in the U.S., and a second corresponding to Disney's official "international" order (with the 11-minute segments marked "a" or "b" to denote the first or second segment).
Season 1: 1985
Season 2: 1986
Season 3: 1987
Season 4: 1988
Season 5: 1989–90
Season 6: 1990–91
References
Bill Cotter, The Wonderful World of Disney Television: Supplemental Material, available on CD-ROM from the author
Lists of American children's animated television series episodes
Lists of Disney Channel television series episodes | wiki |
The Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR) is the primary criterion for domestic student entry into undergraduate courses in Australian public universities. It was gradually introduced to most states and territories in 2009–10 and has since replaced the Universities Admission Index (in NSW and ACT), Equivalent National Tertiary Entrance Rank (in VIC), Tertiary Entrance Rank (in ACT, TAS, NT and SA) and the Overall Position (in QLD). It is a percentile ranking between 0.00 and 99.95 which shows student’s relative position compared to all other students in the age group of 16 to 20 years for that year. Though ATARs are calculated independently by each state, they are all considered equivalent. Since some students quit studying early or do not qualify for an ATAR in their state, the average ATAR amongst students who achieve one is 70.00. Admission to universities is granted based on the "selection rank" calculated by each university based on its own unique criteria. Selection ranks are a combination of ATAR and additional points based on universities' own criteria used for selecting students such as a "personal statement, a questionnaire, a portfolio of work, an audition, an interview or a test". Some universities also provide additional points on the basis of disadvantage such as for rural or Indigenous Australian applicants.
The ATAR rank provides an indication of the overall position of the student in relation to the student body for that year across the state. A higher ATAR gives preference to that student for the course to which they wish to enrol in a university of their choice. The ATAR is used by all Australian public universities via their respective state-level admissions centres:
Universities Admissions Centre (UAC) in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory,
South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre (SATAC) in South Australia and the Northern Territory,
Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC) in Victoria,
Tertiary Institutions Service Centre (TISC) in Western Australia,
Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC) in Queensland,
Office of Tasmanian Assessments, Standards and Certification (TASC) in Tasmania.
These bodies then allocate positions for the tertiary institutions in their relevant states. Tasmania is an exception, where the University of Tasmania is the only tertiary institution and therefore acts as a self-governing admissions centre. Private universities, with the exception of Bond University, do not primarily consider the ATAR and students must apply directly.
History
Introduction of ATAR
During June 2009, the Federal Minister for Education Julia Gillard announced the removal of Universities Admission Index (UAI) and the introduction of the Australian Tertiary Admission Rank, or ATAR, for Year 12 students of 2009 within the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales, and for the rest of the country, excluding Queensland, in 2010. The ATAR was introduced to unify the university entrance system in Australia, where previously each state or territory had its own individual system (UAI in ACT/NSW, TER in SA/NT/WA/TAS, ENTER in Victoria). In 2020, Queensland switched to the ATAR as the primary tertiary entrance pathway, replacing the Overall Position (OP).
2016 ATAR error
In 2016, a computer error allowed 2075 students to receive their ATAR score five days earlier than they were supposed to be announced. External SMS provider for VCAA, Salmat Digital, created an error that allowed students to receive their results by texting VCAA and requesting their scores to be sent to them on the expected release date. This sparked outrage from parents of students who did not receive their scores, citing that they considered it "unfair", as well as concern about some students receiving their results before they were equipped to deal with them (particularly with regards to counselling).
Changes from UAI
The shift to ATAR means that the ranks most students receiving a UAI would increase by a small amount (although this would not present as any advantage as cutoffs would subsequently increase), while the maximum rank in NSW/ACT would change from a UAI of 100 to an ATAR of 99.95.
Calculating the ATAR
In all states, the ATAR is a percentile given between 0.00 and 99.95 which compares a student's performance in senior secondary with that of their peers. For example, an ATAR of 99.00 would indicate that the recipient performed better than 99% of their peers. "Peers" is not the body of students receiving an ATAR that year, but a notional body of persons who might have qualified to receive an ATAR – as a result, the median ATAR score is generally around 70.00. For example, the median ATAR score for 2014 was 68.95. Since 2020, all jurisdictions have used a one-parameter cubic spline model to convert their aggregate scores into percentiles. In most states, when a student achieves an ATAR between 0.00 and 30.00, their notification will only indicate an ATAR of "30 or less".
Though there are differences in how each state calculates the ATAR, they are all primarily based in the student's scaled subject results. Scaling is a process that is performed by all states which aligns student results along a common axis such that the same score in two subjects equates with the same level of achievement. In this way, students are not disadvantaged by taking difficult subjects where the average achievement is lower. Theoretically, this ensures that the ATARs between students is comparable even when they took a different combination of courses. Despite this, in a 2018 survey, 35.8% of HSC students said they chose one or more subjects because they believed it would help them achieve a higher ATAR.
Victoria
The Victorian ATAR (formerly ENTER) is calculated by the Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC) using student results provided by the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA). VTAC will combine the student's results into an "aggregate" which is a sum of selected (scaled) results from eligible subjects:
the student's best score in one of English, English Language, Literature, or English as an Additional Language (EAL),
the student's next three best scores; along with the English score these form the "primary four" results,
10% of the next two best scores, known as "increments".
The Victorian aggregates are then mapped to percentiles for conversion to an ATAR. Students must pass an English subject in order to qualify for an ATAR as well as the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE). The primary four results must be taken from VCE or Vocational Education and Training (VET) Units 3 and 4 sequences, while the increments can also include other results, such as interstate study or other lower-level VCE and VET results.
New South Wales
The New South Wales ATAR is calculated by the University Admission Centre (UAC) using student results achieved in the Higher School Certificate (HSC). The marks included in the calculation can be accumulated over five years. Subjects are scaled such that "the scaled mean in a course is equal to the average academic achievement of the course candidature where, for individual students, the measure of academic achievement is taken as the average scaled mark in all courses completed". The aggregate is a sum of scaled marks in 10 units of eligible courses:
2 units of English
6 units from Category A subjects
2 units from Category A or B subjects (if English Studies was used for the English marks, then these must be Category A units).
Students will achieve the highest possible aggregate given their results. The aggregates will be mapped to percentiles and given to students on their ATAR Advice Notice.
Australian Capital Territory
The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) ATAR is calculated alongside the NSW equivalent by the University Admissions Centre (UAC). Results are calculated on the basis of students' achievement in the ACT Senior Secondary Certificate (ACT SSC). UAC treats all ACT and NSW students as one cohort and thus the two regions' ATARs are exactly equivalent. The aggregate score is calculated as a sum of the student's three best scores from major courses and 60% of the next best course.
Queensland
Queensland transitioned from the Overall Position (OP) to ATAR in 2019, with the 2020 cohort to be the first to graduate through the ATAR system. When the OP was still in place, the Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC) used a scaling method known as the "Queensland Core Skills Test". Since the introduction of the ATAR, Queensland now uses inter-scaling methods used by other states. ATAR can be calculated from a any of the following combination of results:
5 general subjects at Units 3 and 4,
4 general subjects and 1 applied subject, both at Units 3 and 4,
4 general subjects at Units 3 and 4, and 1 Vocational Education and Training (VET) qualification (Certificate III or higher).
Like in New South Wales, students will be awarded on the basis of the combination ensuring the maximum final percentile. Students must pass an English subject in order to receive their Queensland Certificate of Education (QCE) and thus qualify for an ATAR, but their English result does not necessarily need to be included in the calculation of their ATAR.
Tasmania
Since Tasmania has only one university, the University of Tasmania (UTAS), there is no state-wide admissions body. Students' results from the Office of Tasmanian Assessments, Standards and Certification (TASC) are provided directly to the university for calculation of scaling and ATARs. UTAS uses a polytomous Rasch model to scale course results. Students who qualify for the Tasmanian Certificate of Education (TCE) are automatically awarded an ATAR if they also pass four or more courses at the pre-tertiary level (Level 3 or 4). Unlike in other states and territories, students do not need to pass an English course to quality for a TCE or ATAR, though they must demonstrate an adult level of reading, writing and communication through another subject or through a safety net test. Most students who qualify for an ATAR will have completed an English course anyway, since pre-tertiary English is required for the majority of university entry.
The Tasmania ATAR is calculated from a Tertiary Entrance Score (TES), which is the sum of a student's scaled results in their five best pre-tertiary subjects. Three of these subjects must come from the student's final year of study (Year 12 or 13), and students may only count scores from two years of their study, even if they have taken a Year 13. Other subjects, such as selected University Connections Program (UCP) and High Achiever Program (HAP) units, may also contribute to a students ATAR. Since UCP and HAP units are only one semester long, only 8/15 of the scaled score may be counted towards the ATAR. The other 7/15 may come from any other subject but is generally chosen from the alternative semester UCP/HAP unit.
Western Australia
The Tertiary Institutions Service Centre (TISC) is responsible for the calculation of students' ATARs in Western Australia. TISC does not require that students complete an English subject, though they must demonstrate literary competency through their Year 9 NAPLAN results or an Online Literacy and Numeracy Assessment (OLNA). TISC derives an ATAR percentile from a student's Tertiary Entrance Aggregate (TEA), which is calculated as a sum of the student's best four scaled subjects out of their Year 12 ATAR subjects over up to five consecutive years. Students may additionally count 10% of their score in any of the following subjects:
any Language other than English (LOTE),
Mathematics Methods,
Mathematics Specialist.
The maximum TEA is 430. Mature age students may also receive a Mature Age Tertiary Entrance Aggregate, which only incorporates a student's best two subjects and well as 10% of any of the above subjects. The TEA is converted to an ATAR percentile using the cubic spline model.
See also
Austudy Payment (for above 25 years old)
Youth Allowance (for below 25 years old)
List of universities in Australia
Universities Admissions Centre (UAC) in NSW and ACT
Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC) in VIC
South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre (SATAC) in SA and NT
Tertiary Institutions Service Centre (TISC) in WA
Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC) in QLD
Bored of Studies website calculator for approximate ATAR
References
Higher education in Australia
School qualifications | wiki |
Gastroparesis (gastro- from Ancient Greek γαστήρ – gaster, "stomach"; and -paresis, πάρεσις – "partial paralysis"), also called delayed gastric emptying, is a medical disorder consisting of weak muscular contractions (peristalsis) of the stomach, resulting in food and liquid remaining in the stomach for a prolonged period of time. Stomach contents thus exit more slowly into the duodenum of the digestive tract. This can result in irregular absorption of nutrients, inadequate nutrition, and poor glycemic control.
Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, feeling full soon after beginning to eat (early satiety), abdominal bloating, and heartburn. The most common known mechanism is autonomic neuropathy of the nerve which innervates the stomach: the vagus nerve. Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus is a major cause of this nerve damage; other causes include post-infectious and trauma to the vagus nerve.
Diagnosis is via one or more of the following: barium swallow X-ray, barium beefsteak meal, radioisotope gastric-emptying scan, gastric manometry, and esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). Complications include malnutrition, fatigue, weight loss, vitamin deficiencies, intestinal obstruction due to bezoars, and small intestine bacterial overgrowth.
Treatment includes dietary modifications, medications to stimulate gastric emptying, medications to reduce vomiting, and surgical approaches.
Signs and symptoms
The most common symptoms of gastroparesis are the following:
Chronic nausea
Vomiting (especially of undigested food)
Abdominal pain
A feeling of fullness after eating just a few bites
Other symptoms include the following:
Abdominal bloating
Body aches (myalgia)
Erratic blood glucose levels
Acid reflux (GERD)
Heartburn
Lack of appetite
Morning nausea
Muscle weakness
Night sweats
Palpitations
Spasms of the stomach wall
Constipation or infrequent bowel movements
Weight loss, malnutrition
Difficulty swallowing
Vomiting may not occur in all cases, as those affected may adjust their diets to include only small amounts of food.
Causes
Transient gastroparesis may arise in acute illness of any kind, as a consequence of certain cancer treatments or other drugs which affect digestive action, or due to abnormal eating patterns. The symptoms are almost identical to those of low stomach acid, therefore most doctors will usually recommend trying out supplemental hydrochloric acid before moving on to the invasive procedures required to confirm a damaged nerve. Patients with cancer may develop gastroparesis because of chemotherapy-induced neuropathy, immunosuppression followed by viral infections involving the GI tract, procedures such as celiac blocks, paraneoplastic neuropathy or myopathy, or after an allogeneic bone marrow transplant via graft-versus-host disease.
Gastroparesis present similar symptoms to slow gastric emptying caused by certain opioid medications, antidepressants, and allergy medications, along with high blood pressure. For patients already with gastroparesis, these can make the condition worse. More than 50% of all gastroparesis cases are idiopathic in nature, with unknown causes. It is, however, frequently caused by autonomic neuropathy. This may occur in people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes, about 30–50% among long-standing diabetics. In fact, diabetes mellitus has been named as the most common cause of gastroparesis, as high levels of blood glucose may effect chemical changes in the nerves. The vagus nerve becomes damaged by years of high blood glucose or insufficient transport of glucose into cells resulting in gastroparesis. Adrenal and thyroid gland problems could also be a cause.
Gastroparesis has also been associated with connective tissue diseases such as scleroderma and Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, and neurological conditions such as Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy. It may occur as part of a mitochondrial disease. Opioids and anticholinergic medications can cause medication-induced gastroparesis. Chronic gastroparesis can be caused by other types of damage to the vagus nerve, such as abdominal surgery. Heavy cigarette smoking is also a plausible cause since smoking causes damage to the stomach lining. Idiopathic gastroparesis (gastroparesis with no known cause) accounts for a third of all chronic cases; it is thought that many of these cases are due to an autoimmune response triggered by an acute viral infection. Gastroenteritis, mononucleosis, and other ailments have been anecdotally linked to the onset of the condition, but no systematic study has proven a link.
People with gastroparesis are disproportionately female. One possible explanation for this finding is that women have an inherently slower stomach emptying time than men. A hormonal link has been suggested, as gastroparesis symptoms tend to worsen the week before menstruation when progesterone levels are highest. Neither theory has been proven definitively.
Mechanism
On the molecular level, it is thought that gastroparesis can be caused by the loss of neuronal nitric oxide expression since the cells in the GI tract secrete nitric oxide. This important signaling molecule has various responsibilities in the GI tract and in muscles throughout the body. When nitric oxide levels are low, the smooth muscle and other organs may not be able to function properly. Other important components of the stomach are the interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) which act as a pacemaker since they transduce signals from motor neurons to produce an electrical rhythm in the smooth muscle cells. Lower nitric oxide levels also correlate with loss of ICC cells, which can ultimately lead to the loss of function in the smooth muscle in the stomach, as well as in other areas of the gastrointestinal tract.
Pathogenesis of symptoms in diabetic gastroparesis include:
Loss of gastric neurons containing nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is responsible for defective accommodation reflex, which leads to early satiety and postprandial fullness.
Impaired electromechanical activity in the myenteric plexus is responsible for delayed gastric emptying, resulting in nausea and vomiting.
Sensory neuropathy in the gastric wall may be responsible for epigastric pain.
Abnormal pacemaker activity (tachybradyarrhythmia) may generate a noxious signal transmitted to the CNS to evoke nausea and vomiting.
Diagnosis
Gastroparesis can be diagnosed with tests such as barium swallow X-rays, manometry, and gastric emptying studies. For the X-ray, the patient drinks a liquid containing barium after fasting which will show up in the X-ray and the physician is able to see if there is still food in the stomach as well. This can be an easy way to identify whether the patient has delayed emptying of the stomach. The clinical definition for gastroparesis is based solely on the emptying time of the stomach (and not on other symptoms), and severity of symptoms does not necessarily correlate with the severity of gastroparesis. Therefore, some patients may have marked gastroparesis with few, if any, serious complications.
In other cases or if the X-ray is inconclusive, the physician may have the patient eat a meal of toast, water, and eggs containing a radioactive isotope so they can watch as it is digested and see how slowly the digestive tract is moving. This can be helpful for diagnosing patients who are able to digest liquids but not solid foods.
Complications
Complications of gastroparesis include:
Fluctuations in blood glucose due to unpredictable digestion times due to changes in rate and amount of food passing into the small bowel. This makes diabetes worse, but does not cause diabetes. Lack of control of blood sugar levels will make the gastroparesis worsen.
General malnutrition due to the symptoms of the disease (which frequently include vomiting and reduced appetite) as well as the dietary changes necessary to manage it. This is especially true for vitamin deficiencies such as scurvy because of inability to tolerate fresh fruits.
Severe fatigue and weight loss due to calorie deficit
Intestinal obstruction due to the formation of bezoars (solid masses of undigested food). This can cause nausea and vomiting, which can in turn be life-threatening if they prevent food from passing the small intestine.
Small intestine bacterial overgrowth is commonly found in patients with gastroparesis.
Bacterial infection due to overgrowth in undigested food
A decrease in quality of life, since it can make keeping up with work and other responsibilities more difficult.
Treatment
Treatment includes dietary modifications, medications to stimulate gastric emptying, medications to reduce vomiting, and surgical approaches.
Dietary treatment involves low fiber diets and, in some cases, restrictions on fat or solids. Eating smaller meals, spaced two to three hours apart has proved helpful. Avoiding foods like rice or beef that cause the individual problems such as pain in the abdomen or constipation will help avoid symptoms.
Metoclopramide, a dopamine D2 receptor antagonist, increases contractility and resting tone within the GI tract to improve gastric emptying. In addition, dopamine antagonist action in the central nervous system prevents nausea and vomiting. Similarly, the dopamine receptor antagonist domperidone is used to treat gastroparesis. Erythromycin is known to improve emptying of the stomach but its effects are temporary due to tachyphylaxis and wane after a few weeks of consistent use. Sildenafil citrate, which increases blood flow to the genital area in men, is being used by some practitioners to stimulate the gastrointestinal tract in cases of diabetic gastroparesis. The antidepressant mirtazapine has proven effective in the treatment of gastroparesis unresponsive to conventional treatment. This is due to its antiemetic and appetite stimulant properties. Mirtazapine acts on the same serotonin receptor (5-HT3) as does the popular anti-emetic ondansetron. Camicinal is a motilin agonist for the treatment of gastroparesis.
In specific cases where treatment of chronic nausea and vomiting proves resistant to drugs, implantable gastric stimulation may be utilized. A medical device is implanted that applies neurostimulation to the muscles of the lower stomach to reduce the symptoms. This is only done in refractory cases that have failed all medical management (usually at least two years of treatment). Medically refractory gastroparesis may also be treated with a pyloromyotomy, which widens the gastric outlet by cutting the circular pylorus muscle. This can be done laparoscopically or endoscopically. Vertical sleeve gastrectomy, a procedure in which a part or all of the affected portion of the stomach is removed, has been shown to have some success in the treatment of gastroparesis in obese patients, even curing it in some instances. Further studies have been recommended due to the limited sample size of previous studies.
In cases of postinfectious gastroparesis, patients have symptoms and go undiagnosed for an average of 3 weeks to 6 months before their illness is identified correctly and treatment begins.
Prognosis
Post-infectious
Cases of post-infectious gastroparesis are self‐limiting, with recovery within 12 months of initial symptoms, although some cases last well over 2 years. In children, the duration tends to be shorter and the disease course milder than in adolescent and adults.
Diabetic gastropathy
Diabetic gastropathy is usually slowly progressive, and can become severe and lethal.
Prevalence
Post-infectious gastroparesis, which constitutes the majority of idiopathic gastroparesis cases, affects up to 4% of the American population. Women in their 20s and 30s seem to be susceptible. One study of 146 American gastroparesis patients found the mean age of patients was 34 years with 82% affected being women, while another study found the patients were young or middle aged and up to 90% were women.
There has only been one true epidemiological study of idiopathic gastroparesis which was completed by the Rochester Epidemiology Project. They looked at patients from 1996 to 2006 who were seeking medical attention instead of a random population sample and found that the prevalence of delayed gastric emptying was fourfold higher in women. It is difficult for medical professionals and researchers to collect enough data and provide accurate numbers since studying gastroparesis requires specialized laboratories and equipment.
References
Further reading
Overview from NIDDK National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive, and Kidney Diseases at NIH
External links
Congenital disorders of digestive system
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach and duodenum
Gastrointestinal tract disorders
Stomach disorders | wiki |
Martin H. Pomeroy was interim Chief of Police of the Los Angeles Police Department between May 7, 2002 and October 26, 2002.
References
The LAPD: Chief Parks. Los Angeles Police Department. Accessed 2011-03-11.
Chiefs of the Los Angeles Police Department
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
Arsenal is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character first appears in Iron Man #114 (Sept. 1978) and was created by Bill Mantlo and Keith Giffen.
Publication history
Arsenal first appeared in a two-part storyline in Iron Man #114 (Sept. 1978) and The Avengers Annual #9 (1979). The character made a final appearance in Hulk vol. 2 #282 (April 1983). The Arsenal "Alpha" unit appeared in Iron Man vol. 3 #84-85 (Aug. 2004).
Fictional character biography
In the final days of World War II, a group of Allied scientists led by Howard Stark developed "Project Tomorrow" and the creation of a robot called Arsenal, a prototype fighting unit to be deployed in the event of an Axis victory. The robot was also guided by Howard's early computer program called Mistress. When the Allies won the war, Arsenal was placed in storage. The robot was activated for a military demonstration during a worsening Cold War but was never used. In the present day, the Avengers are battling the Unicorn underneath Avengers Mansion, when Arsenal suddenly appears and attacks the group. However, Iron Man successfully drives Arsenal off.
The Avengers learn the robot's origin from the group's government liaison Henry Peter Gyrich. Arsenal reappears and captures Hawkeye and Beast and stuns Yellowjacket with an electric shock. Yellowjacket, however, recovers and alerts the other Avengers, advising the group that Project Tomorrow is directly beneath the mansion.
Guided by Mistress erroneously believing the Allies lost World War II, Arsenal defeats several Avengers, until confronted by Thor and Scarlet Witch. On the verge of defeat, Arsenal apparently self-destructs while Iron Man confronts Mistress programmed with Maria Stark's brain patterns. Once Iron Man unmasks and explains that the Allies won the war, and that Mistress is simply modeled after Maria, the computer program wipes its own memory.
Arsenal actually faked its own destruction. When She-Hulk and the Hulk visit Avengers mansion, it attacks the Avengers' butler Edwin Jarvis. Arsenal then incapacitates She-Hulk, and the enraged Hulk pummels Arsenal until it is destroyed.
Iron Man eventually learns that only a "Beta" unit had been destroyed, and that an "Alpha" unit remained deactivated beneath Avengers Mansion. Homeland Security ask him to shut it down without informing the other Avengers due to the security risk it poses. Iron Man tracks the unit, but is unaware that the Avengers have followed. The unit is activated when transmission codes are radioed to Iron Man, which results in a battle between the new Arsenal and the Avengers. Iron Man then realises that Arsenal was activated by interference with its signal, which was set to "inert". Iron Man occupies Arsenal while Warbird stops the source of the interference, causing Arsenal to deactivate. The unit is then dismantled.
Fully reassembled and under control, Arsenal is later used as a test for a group of Avengers recruits, under the pretext that it is out of control.
During the "Iron Man 2020" event, Arno Stark recreates the eScape variation of Arsenal as well as a robot version of eScape's Mistress to serve as new bodies for his copies of Howard and Maria.
Powers and abilities
Both Arsenal units possess amplified strength and durability. The Beta unit also possesses air jets and inertia darts; can radiate an electro-stun field and project a high-intensity laser beam from its eyes. The Alpha unit possesses a flame-thrower, multiple gun systems and a toxic gas dispenser.
Other versions
Ultimate Marvel
The Ultimate Marvel equivalent of Arsenal is Howard Stark Sr. after having used "Project Tomorrow" to turn himself into a human/machine hybrid capable of leading additional Arsenal units.
Marvel Noir
In Iron Man Noir, the Arsenal robots were created as a Nazi weapon by Baron Zemo.
In other media
A variation of Arsenal appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced by Jim Meskimen. This version is a robot designed by Howard Stark to safely absorb and maintain massive amounts of energy. Introduced in its self-titled episode, it is discovered by Iron Man in an abandoned Russian city, where its body was used to contain a reactor's gamma radiation for decades until the Hulk uses the Power Stone for its reactivation. In "Thanos Rising", Arsenal serves as Iron Man's friend and protector. Arsenal first helps Iron Man and Thor fight the Grim Reaper. Arsenal next helps the Avengers, sacrificing itself by self-destructing to send Thanos away from Earth. After recovering its head, the Avengers gradually rebuild and modify Arsenal over the course of "Ghosts of the Past" and "Back to the Learning Hall". In "Thanos Triumphant", Arsenal's new form absorbs the Infinity Stones' energies to help the Avengers defeat Thanos once more. However, Ultron's AI hijacks Arsenal's body to absorb the Infinity Stones. In "The Ultron Outbreak", Arsenal briefly regains control to say goodbye to Iron Man before sacrificing itself again to defeat Ultron.
References
External links
Arsenal at Marvel.com
Arsenal at Marvel Wiki
Characters created by Bill Mantlo
Characters created by Keith Giffen
Comics characters introduced in 1978
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics robots
Marvel Comics supervillains
fr:Liste des ennemis de Iron Man#A | wiki |
Stardrive may refer to:
StarDrive, a 4X space strategy game released in 2013 for Microsoft Windows
"Star drive", alternate name for Torx screw drives
"Stardrive", a 1981 episode of Blake's 7
Star*Drive, a setting for the role-playing game Alternity, published in 1998 by TSR, Inc. | wiki |
The flyweight division has been added as the lightest weight category for the 1972 Summer Olympics. It had been contested international since 1969. Only men competed in all the weight classes.
Results
Total of best lifts in military press, snatch and jerk. Ties are broken by the lightest bodyweight.
Final
Key: WR = world record; OR = Olympic record; =OR = equaled Olympic record; DNF = did not finish; DQ = disqualified; NVL = no valid lift
References
External links
Official report
Weightlifting at the 1972 Summer Olympics | wiki |
Inflight smoking refers to smoking tobacco on an aircraft while in flight. While once prevalent, it is now prohibited by almost all airlines and by many governments around the world. The bans on inflight smoking have been imposed in a piecemeal manner around the world beginning in the 1980s. The use of electronic cigarettes is also prohibited on many flights.
History
North America
In 1969, consumer advocate Ralph Nader was among the first in the United States to call for a smoking ban on airlines. Pressure for an inflight smoking ban also came from flight attendants' unions, such as the Association of Flight Attendants.
United Airlines created a nonsmoking section in 1971, the first airline to do so. Aurigny Air Services became the first airline to ban smoking entirely on its flights, in July 1977. In 1994, Delta was the first US airline to ban smoking on all worldwide flights.
In the United States, both tobacco companies and airlines fought any regulation. In 1976, the US Civil Aeronautics Board banned cigar and pipe smoking on aircraft, but under pressure from tobacco interests, it sought to limit this ban in 1978. Also, CAB banned and then unbanned smoking in 1984, with chairman Dan McKinnon saying, "Philosophically, I think nonsmokers have rights, but it comes into marked conflict with practicalities and the realities of life." After years of debate over health concerns, Congressional action in 1987 led to a ban on inflight smoking. In 1988, airlines based in the United States banned smoking on domestic flights of less than two hours, which was extended to domestic flights of less than six hours in February 1990, and to all domestic and international flights in 2000. The 1990 ban applied to the passengers and the cabin of the aircraft, but not the flight deck; pilots were allowed to continue smoking after the 1990 ban due to concerns over potential flight safety issues caused by nicotine withdrawal in chronic smokers. Despite a prohibition of smoking, the US Federal Aviation Administration regulations mandate that functioning ashtrays be conspicuously located on the doors of all airplane bathrooms. This is because there must be a safe place to dispose of a lit cigarette if someone violates the no-smoking rule.
In 1990, Air Canada adopted a nonsmoking policy on all its routes. In 1994, Canada was the first country to ban smoking on all flights operated by Canadian carriers, which also covered charter flights, but not foreign airlines flying to Canada. It had previously banned smoking on commercial domestic flights in Canada and international flights of less than six hours, which obviously did not cover the Japan route. Canadian Airlines had opposed the blanket ban, saying it would put the airline at a competitive disadvantage especially on the lucrative Japan route. It said it would lose millions of dollars in business from smoking passengers. It estimated it would lose $22 million in annual revenues on its 14 flights a week to Japan. It said that three quarters of its passengers on the Japan route were Japanese and that 60% of them smoked.
In March 1995, the United States, Canada, and Australia agreed to ban smoking on international flights traveling between those countries.
Japan
In April 1988, Japan Airlines (JAL) was the first Japanese airline to introduce a smoking ban on domestic flights of less than one hour, which was extended in October 1990 to flights of less than two hours. In 1998, All Nippon Airways and JAL banned smoking on all domestic flights, which covered more than 50% of Japanese domestic travelers. These airlines extended the ban to international flights in March 1999, among the last airlines to ban smoking on international flights. Japan Tobacco lobbied the airlines to reconsider the ban, noting that smoking was earlier banned on all flights of 22 foreign airlines using Japanese airports and that with the smoking ban by the two major Japanese airlines more than 80% of seats on international flights departing from Japan would be nonsmoking.
Europe
In 1986, flag carrier of Turkey, Turkish Airlines banned inflight smoking for all domestic flights and international flights of less than six hours. The airline banned all inflight smoking in 1999.
In 1988, SAS made domestic flights in Sweden and Norway non-smoking and in 1989, the policy was expanded to domestic flights in Denmark and flights between the Nordic countries. In 1996, SAS flights to the Benelux countries, France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria and the United Kingdom became non-smoking. In 1997 SAS banned smoking on all flights. Also in 1997, the European Union banned smoking on flights in member states. Air France, the French state-run carrier, did not allow inflight smoking from November 2000.
Other
Australia banned smoking on domestic flights in December 1987, on international flights within Australian airspace in 1990, and in 1996 banned smoking on all Australian international flights.
Cuba’s state-owned Cubana banned smoking on international flights in 2014.
China banned smoking on domestic flights in 1983. In 1993, China announced that all flights would be smoke-free by January 1995. Both 1983 and 1993 bans only applied to passengers smoking in the cabin, while pilots were allowed to smoke in the cockpit. A total ban of inflight smoking was announced in October 2017, and individual airlines were given two more years before a cockpit ban was to take effect; however, this concession was scrapped in January 2019 following incidents that triggered safety concerns.
Consequences
In 1937, an international Aeroflot flight from Moscow to Prague crashed near Herina after a passenger lit a cigarette in the toilet, causing accumulated avgas fumes to ignite. All 6 occupants (3 crew, 3 passengers) were killed.
Following the crash landing of Varig Flight 820 -- due to a fire possibly caused by a lit cigarette thrown into a lavatory waste bin -- in 1973, the US Federal Aviation Administration banned smoking in aircraft lavatories. Following a fire that originated in a lavatory (not necessarily from smoking) on Air Canada Flight 797 in June 1983, resulting in the death of 23 passengers, new requirements to install smoke detectors in lavatories were brought in.
Normally, passengers found to be smoking on non-smoking flights will, at least, face a fine and, at most, be arrested and detained upon landing. Due to stringent security measures, this often causes disruption; a flight may have to be diverted or a scheduled landing might have to be expedited upon arrival at the destination airport in order to escort the smoker from the plane.
Such regulations have on occasion met with defiance; in 2010 a Qatari diplomat was arrested upon arrival at Denver International Airport for smoking in the onboard lavatory on United Airlines Flight 663 and for making threats; when confronted by airline staff, he jokingly suggested that he was attempting to set his shoes on fire.
On February 3, 2013, a family of four were accused of smoking during a Sunwing Airlines flight from Halifax to the Dominican Republic. The flight made an unscheduled landing at Bermuda L.F. Wade International Airport, where the two eldest of the family were arrested by Bermuda Police Service and subsequently sentenced to a $500 fine or 10 days in prison.
Most new aircraft, built after the no-smoking regulations were put into place, now have a permanently lit no-smoking sign that can not be independently turned off.
Use of electronic cigarettes
In October 2015, the United States Department of Transportation prohibited the use of electronic cigarettes on flights, as well as transporting such devices in checked luggage, because of fire risk from their batteries. In July 2019, an Air China aircraft made an emergency descent after cabin oxygen levels dropped, which has been linked to a co-pilot smoking an e-cigarette during the flight.
See also
Olympic Airways v. Husain
CAAC Flight 2311
Smokers Express
Smoking ban
References
Civil aviation
Smoking
Tobacco control | wiki |
Rain or Shine may refer to:
Rain or Shine (film), a 1930 film directed by Frank Capra
Rain or Shine (Dick Haymes album)
Rain or Shine (Houston Person album)
Rain or Shine (O.A.R. album)
Rain or Shine (Paul Carrack album)
"Rain or Shine" (song), a 1986 song by Five Star
Rain or Shine Elasto Painters, a team in the Philippine Basketball Association
Rain or Shine (TV series), a 2017 South Korean TV series
See also
"Come Rain or Come Shine", a 1946 popular song
Rain, Hail or Shine, a 1998 album by The Battlefield Band
Reign & Shine, a 2005 album by the Mahotella Queens
Raynor Scheine (born 1942), American actor | wiki |
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the Cold War:
Cold War – period of political and military tension that occurred after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others) and powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact). Historians have not fully agreed on the dates, but 1947–1991 is common. It was termed as "cold" because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides. Based on the principle of mutually assured destruction, both sides developed nuclear weapons to deter the other side from attacking. So they competed against each other via espionage, propaganda, and by supporting major regional wars, known as proxy wars, in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan.
Participants
Cold War participants – the Cold War primarily consisted of competition between the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc. While countries and organisations explicitly aligned to one or the other are listed below, this does not include those involved in specific Cold War events, such as North Korea, South Korea, and Vietnam. It also does not include countries such as China which, while not aligned to either blocs, still played an influential part in the Cold War.
Eastern Bloc
Eastern Bloc – the communist side of the Cold War conflict, including the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Eastern Europe. Organizations that the Soviet Union created in order to solidify its control over Eastern Europe, and which tied the Eastern Bloc together, included:
Comecon – the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was founded in accordance with Joseph Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe. Initially, the Comecon served as cover for the Soviet taking of materials and equipment from the rest of the Eastern Bloc. Its members were:
People's Republic of Bulgaria
Czechoslovak Republic (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic since 1960)
Hungarian People's Republic
Polish People's Republic
People's Republic of Romania (after 1965 the Socialist Republic of Romania)
Warsaw Pact – defensive pact led by the Soviet Union for defence in Eastern Europe. It was the military complement to Comecon. Its members were:
People's Republic of Albania
People's Republic of Bulgaria
Czechoslovak Republic (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic since 1960)
German Democratic Republic (withdrew in September 1990, before German reunification)
Hungarian People's Republic
Polish People's Republic (withdrew on January 1, 1990)
People's Republic of Romania (after 1965 the Socialist Republic of Romania)
Additionally, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Byelorussia) and the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Ukraine) were represented separately in the United Nations in addition to the Soviet Union. Though not parties to the Warsaw Pact, Vietnam, North Korea, Cuba and Laos, maintained Cold War alliances with the Eastern Bloc.
Western Bloc
Western Bloc – the United States and countries allied with it against the Soviet Union and the rest of the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. As part of its Containment policy, the United States backed a series of regional alliances:
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization) – In the North Atlantic and Europe, NATO was formed in 1949, and its members during the Cold War were:
- Joined 1952
- Joined 1952
- Joined 1955
- Joined 1982
SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) – formed in 1954 for the collective defence of Southeast Asia, though disbanded in 1977. Its members were:
- including modern Bangladesh
ANZUS – formed in 1952 as a form of defensive cooperation in the Pacific. Its members are:
CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) – formed in 1955. Although the United States did not formally join, the country did support the alliance, aimed at containing Soviet ambitions in the Middle East. The organization was disbanded in 1979.
- Withdrew 1959
History
Timeline of events in the Cold War
Overview articles
Cold War (1947–1953)
Cold War (1953–1962)
Cold War (1962–1979)
Cold War (1979–1985)
Cold War (1985–1991)
Beginnings
Origins of the Cold War – the Cold war was a major part of the aftermath of World War II, and was caused by frictions in the relations between the Soviet Union and the allies (United States, United Kingdom, and France) that emerged during and after the Second World War.
Creation of organizations
Cold War organisations – throughout the Cold War a series of organisations were created to either further the goals of individual and groups of states, or to act as intermediaries in reducing the tension.
NATO - Formed 1949
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization - Formed 1954, disbanded 1977.
Central Treaty Organization - Formed 1955, disbanded 1979.
International Atomic Energy Agency - Formed 1957
Warsaw Pact - Formed 1955, disbanded 1991.
Non-Aligned Movement - Formed 1961.
Key areas of competition
Nuclear arms race – competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War.
Space Race – 20th-century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), for supremacy in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following World War II, enabled by captured German rocket technology and personnel.
Cold War espionage
Cold War propaganda
Proxy wars
Conflicts
Conflicts related to the Cold War – there were a number of conflicts during the Cold War, and none of them escalated to direct fighting between the superpowers (which would have constituted a hot war). Some of them were:
Proxy wars
Proxy wars of the Cold War – while the superpowers never engaged each other directly, they fought a series proxy wars throughout the period of Cold War, with one, or both sides arming or otherwise supporting one side against another.
Korean War (19501953) – started when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United States and their allies came to the aid of the South, while China and the Soviet Union came to the aid of the North.
Vietnam War (19551975) – fought primarily between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The United States and their allies came to the aid of the South, while China, the Soviet Union and others came to the aid of the North. Fighting occurred in Vietnam, along with neighboring Laos and Cambodia.
South African Border War (19661989) – fought between South Africa and its allies on one side, with the Angolan government and its allies, including Cuba, on the other. During the conflict, the United States supplied South Africa and their allies.
Yom Kippur War (1973) – started when an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel. Throughout the conflict the United States and the Soviet Union heavily supplied Israel and the Arab coalition, respectively.
Soviet–Afghan War (19791989) – fought between the Soviet Union and allied Afghan forces on one side, against the insurgent groups known as the Mujahideen. The insurgent groups received aid, and training in Pakistan and China, paid for by the United States and Arab monarchies in the Persian Gulf.
Periods of heightened tension
US-USSR confrontations during the Cold War – while open conflict did not break out between the two superpowers during the Cold War, there were some very intense confrontations that seemed likely to trigger World War III. As the Cold War stretched on, the main concern became the possibility of a nuclear exchange—the ultimate fear characterizing East-West tensions. Some of these confrontations included:
Berlin Blockade (19481949) – while located wholly within the Soviet zone of Allied-occupied Germany after World War II, Berlin was not considered to be part of the Soviet zone. The major city (and former Nazi capital) was jointly occupied by the Allied powers and subdivided into four sectors. On 24 June 1948 to 12 May 1949, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to Berlin. Not to be outdone, the Western Allies organized a massive air lift and flew up to 8,893 tons of necessities into the city each day.
Berlin Crisis of 1961 – the USSR demanded the withdrawal of NATO armed forces from West Berlin. After the West Bloc refused, the East German government put up the Berlin Wall to block traffic between the Western and Eastern sectors of Berlin.
Cuban Missile Crisis (October 16–28, 1962) – 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union concerning Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. Along with being televised worldwide, it was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war.
Able Archer 83 (1983) – NATO exercise mistaken by parts of the KGB, Politburo, and Soviet Armed Forces as cover for an attack. The USSR responded by readying its forces for war.
Ending
End of the Cold War – While many observers state the 1989 Malta Summit was the end of the Cold War, it was December 1991 before the Presidents of the United States and the Soviet Union formally recognised the conflict's end, with the Soviet Union also being dissolved at that time. Some key events leading up to the end include:
Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria (1989) –
Fall of the Wall (1989) –
Malta Summit (1989) –
German reunification (1990) –
Warsaw Pact dissolved (1991) – Between 1989 and 1991, Communist governments were deposed by popular uprisings in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Romania and Bulgaria; effectively ending the Warsaw Pact.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991) –
Belavezha Accords (1991) – agreement that declared the Soviet Union effectively dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place.
Aftermath
Effects of the Cold War
New world order
Post–Cold War era
Cold War foreign policy and diplomacy
Superpower disengagement
Trust, but verify
Influential people
Military personnel
Stanislav Petrov
Vasily Arkhipov
National leaders
The United States
Harry S. Truman - 19451953
Dwight D. Eisenhower - 19531961
John F. Kennedy - 19611963
Lyndon B. Johnson - 19631969
Richard Nixon - 19691974
Gerald Ford - 19741977
Jimmy Carter - 19771981
Ronald Reagan - 19811989
George H. W. Bush - 19891993
Soviet Union
Joseph Stalin - 19221953
Georgy Malenkov - 1953
Nikita Khrushchev - 19531964
Leonid Brezhnev - 19641982
Yuri Andropov - 19821984
Konstantin Chernenko - 19841985
Mikhail Gorbachev - 19851991
See also
Cold War II, for tensions that arise between Eastern and Western powers after the Cold War
Canada in the Cold War
Cold War in Asia
Cold War (TV series)
Culture during the Cold War
Danube River Conference of 1948
Finlandization
Index of Soviet Union-related articles
The Internet during the Cold War
List of Soviet Union–United States summits
McCarthyism
Mutually assured destruction
Post–World War II economic expansion
Soviet Empire
Soviet espionage in the United States
Timeline of events in the Cold War
World War III
Notes
References
Further reading
Brune, Lester, and Richard Dean Burns. Chronology of the Cold War: 1917–1992 (2005), : 720 pp
Tucker, Spencer, et al. eds. The Encyclopedia of the Cold War: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol., 2007) 1969pp
External links
Archives
An archive of UK civil defence material
Post-Cold War World Economy from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
CONELRAD Cold War Pop Culture Site
CBC Digital ArchivesCold War Culture: The Nuclear Fear of the 1950s and 1960s
The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP)
The Cold War Files
Documents available online regarding aerial intelligence during the Cold War, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Bibliographies
Annotated bibliography for the arms race from the Alsos Digital Library
News
Video and audio news reports from during the cold war
Educational Resources
Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
Electronic Briefing Books at the National Security Archive, George Washington University
Cold War
Cold War | wiki |
An Arizona room is a semi-outdoor recreational room found frequently in homes in Arizona, based on similar concepts as the Florida room. The room is often a patio that has been covered and screened-in, creating an outdoor feeling while preventing excessive heat and keeping insects and animals out. The room generally borders the back yard of the house and is often accessed directly from the living room, kitchen or other common room of the home.
According to a website run by Phoenix newspaper The Arizona Republic, residents slept in their Arizona room during the summer months, before the advent of air conditioning, because the flow of cool night air made them more comfortable than in an enclosed bedroom.
Arizona rooms are often decorated with Southwestern decor and furniture, and reflect the casual, informal style characteristic of the Southwest.
See also
Florida room
Screened porch
Sleeping porch
References
Room
Rooms | wiki |
A public body is commonly a statutory corporation created by a state.
“Public body” may also refer to:
Administrative division or public body, a political division of a country
Public body (Netherlands)
Scottish public bodies
See also
Non-departmental public body | wiki |
Invisible thread is very thin monofilament thread used by magicians to make small, lightweight objects seem to levitate and animate. It is usually made from nylon which has been separated into individual strands. A famous illusion is the Floating Bill.
Invisible thread is available in stripped or unstripped form. In an unstripped form the thread is actually a cluster of invisible threads and has to be separated (stripped) to be used in a performance.
Invisible thread may also be constructed from single strands of silk. Edges of silk that are fraying will reveal "invisible thread".
References
External links
Magic (illusion)
Textiles | wiki |
The List of athletes with Olympic medals in different sports is a list of athletes who have won medals in two different sports at the Olympic Games.
The list
This table is sorted by individual total gold medals.
Table with arts competitions and 1906 Intercalated Games.
See also
List of Olympians who have won medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics
References
External links
Olympics Statistics and History at Sports-Reference.com
Lists of Olympic medalists | wiki |
The Multnomah Community Ability Scale is a standardized mental health assessment which scores several different axes of functionality independently. The test was originally developed in Multnomah County, Oregon, whose name it still bears. The MCAS is a common tool in assessing progress on treatment goals, as it is more in-depth than the more simplified GAF scale.
External links
Detailed explanation and instruction for the MCAS
Multnomah County, Oregon | wiki |
Dry roasting is a process by which heat is applied to dry foodstuffs without the use of oil or water as a carrier. Unlike other dry heat methods, dry roasting is used with foods such as nuts and seeds, in addition to some eaten insects such as house crickets. Dry-roasted foods are stirred as they are roasted to ensure even heating.
Dry roasting can be done in a frying pan or wok (a common way to prepare spices in some cuisines), or in a specialized roaster (as is used for coffee beans or peanuts). Dry roasting changes the chemistry of proteins in the food, changing their flavor, and enhances the scent and taste of some spices. Roasted spices are commonly prepared by adding various herbs, spices and sugars in the frying pan and roasting until brown.
Common dry-roasted foods include peanut butter, which is made from peanuts that have been dry roasted; tea, which is made from tea leaves that have been dry-roasted (either immediately after picking or after fermentation),; and coffee and chocolate, which are made from roasted coffee beans and roasted cocoa beans, respectively.
See also
Coffee roasting
References
Cooking techniques | wiki |
Roy Rubin may refer to:
Roy Rubin (basketball) (1925–2013), American former college and professional basketball coach
Roy Rubin (rower) (born 1941), American rower | wiki |
On a firearm or other tools, a pistol grip is a distinctly protruded handle underneath the main mechanism, to be held by the user's hand at a more vertical (and thus more ergonomic) angle, similar to the how one would hold a conventional pistol.
In firearms, the pistol grip is located behind the trigger and generally held by the hand that operates the trigger. Rifles and shotguns without pistol grips are generally referred to as having "straight" or "upland" (shotguns only) style stocks. Some firearms, starting from a 1840s Belgian carbine, and most automatic weapons in the 20th century (e. g., Chauchat MG, Thompson submachine gun, AK-47 assault rifle), have a second frontal pistol grip (or foregrip) on the firearm's fore-end to be used by the support hand for better stability in operation.
Pistol grips can also serve multiple functions, such as a magazine housing (in semi-automatic pistols), bipod (in some foregrips) or tool storage device (for spare batteries, gun oil/cleaner, hex keys, etc). In few firearms, like the Finnish Kk 62 light machine gun, the pistol grip is also used as a handle to charge the weapon.
Pistol grips are regarded as a defining feature in United States gun law. Pistol grips that protrude below the weapon but are not integrated with the shoulder stock (i.e. as part of a thumbhole stock) are currently regulated in some states and were regulated by the now-expired Federal Assault Weapons Ban.
Tools with pistol-style grips run the range from hand tools such as bar clamps and hand saws, to power tools such as electric drills and pneumatic surgical sternal saws. Often the word "gun" appears in the name of pistol gripped tools such as the glue gun, caulking gun and nail gun. Spray painters and grinders also often include this feature for added precision control.
One of the reasons that pistol-style grips are so common in machinery is because it is possible to ergonomically position the operating controls for use with minimal hand movement. For example, on self-loading rifles such as the AR-15 and M16 rifle, the user's grip hand can manipulate the trigger and magazine release with only the index finger, while using the thumb to control the safety or selector switch, all without needing to remove the palm from the grip.
References
Human–machine interaction
Firearm components | wiki |
This is a list of islands in Europe ordered by area (excluding the Canaries).
Islands over 200 km2
Islands 100–200 km2
Islands 50–100 km2
Data for some islands is missing, particularly for some Arctic islands in Russia and Svalbard.
Islands 20–50 km2
Artificial islands or not usually regarded as islands
See also
List of Caribbean islands by area
List of European islands by population
List of islands by area
List of islands by population
Notes
Madeira and the Canary Islands are not considered part of Europe, whereas Cyprus is. Cyprus is often considered to be a part of both Asia and Europe.
Islands of Arctic Russia are considered part of Europe as long as they are situated west of the Yamal Peninsula. This means that the islands of Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya plus for example Kolguyev and Vaygach Island are considered part of Europe. Islands of Svalbard are in the same category, whereas for example islands of Greenland are considered part of North America.
The figures of Bolshoy Berezovy, Storøya and Wahlbergøya are rough estimates from map.
Sources
ISLANDS
Suomen suurimmat saaret (also includes freshwater islands)
Finland The Land of Islands and Waters
Islands
Islands by area
Lists of islands by area
Lists of islands by continent | wiki |
Cousudor peut faire référence à :
Brigitte Cousudor, personnage de fiction
Fiacre Cousudor, personnage de fiction | wiki |
A vegetable wash is a cleaning product designed to aid in the removal process of dirt, wax and pesticides from fruit and vegetables before they are consumed.
Contents and use
All fresh produce, even organic, can harbor residual pesticides, dirt or harmful microorganisms on the surface. Vegetable wash also removes germs, waxes on vegetable and fruits, and also the pesticides. Vegetable washes may either be a number of specially-marketed commercial brands, or they may be home recipes. Commercial vegetable washes generally contain surfactants, along with chelating agents, antioxidants, and other agents. Home recipes are generally dilutions of hydrogen peroxide or vinegar, the former of which may be dangerous at high concentrations.
Effectiveness
Neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor the United States Department of Agriculture recommend washing fruits and vegetables in anything other than cold water. To date there is little evidence that vegetable washes are effective at reducing the presence of harmful microorganisms, though their application in removing simple dirt and wax is not contested.
References
Cleaning products
Vegetables
Edible fruits | wiki |
Aaron Suski (21 maart 1976) is een Amerikaans professioneel skateboarder. Hij staat Regular, wat betekent dat hij normaal skate met zijn linkervoet voor.
Hij staat bekend om het uitvinden van de Suski Grind, die naar hem vernoemd is.
Externe links
Aaron Suski's pagina op de Zoo York website
Suski, Aaron | wiki |
Zered Basset (6 februari 1984, Cape Cod, Massachusetts) is een Amerikaans professioneel skateboarder. Hij staat Regular, wat betekent dat hij normaal skate met zijn linkervoet voor.
Hij staat bekend om zijn deel uit de video Skate More van DVS.
Externe links
Zered Basset's pagina op de Zoo York website
Basset, Zered | wiki |
The following table lists the 100 largest bank holding companies in the United States ranked by total assets of September 30, 2022 per the Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council; their market capitalization is also shown. This list does not include some large commercial banks, which are not holding companies.
As of September 30, 2022, there were 4,157 commercial banks in the U.S. insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) with US$23.6 trillion in assets.
Banks listed amongst the 100 largest by the Federal Reserve but not the Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council, because they are not holding companies, are as follows:
First Republic Bank ($197.91 billion in assets)
Signature Bank ($115.97 billion in assets) (defunct: March 2023)
City National Bank ($91.12 billion in assets)
Zions Bancorporation ($87.78 billion in assets)
Bank OZK ($25.92 billion in assets)
See also
List of largest banks
Banking in the United States
List of largest banks in the Americas
List of largest banks in North America
List of largest banks in Latin America
List of largest banks in India
References
Lists
Banking in the United States
Largest | wiki |
Katie Roche is a 1936 expressionist play by Irish playwright Teresa Deevy. It has been staged by the Abbey Theatre eleven times with the most recent revival being in 2017.
Described as a "reputed favourite with amateur dramatic societies and theatre groups" the play has been staged by a broad range of companies, notable amongst these are productions by Radio Éireann, Lennox Robinson in the Torch Theatre and New York's Mint Theater Company.
References
External links
1936 plays
Plays by Teresa Deevy
Plays set in Ireland
Expressionist plays | wiki |
A quadrat, in ecology and geography, is a frame used to isolate an area for study.
Quadrat may also refer to:
Quadrat (hieroglyph block), a virtual rectangle or square in Egyptian hieroglyphic text
Quadrat (patience), a solitaire card game
Quad (typography), originally quadrat, a metal spacer used in letterpress typesetting
See also
Quadrate (disambiguation)
Quadratic (disambiguation) | wiki |
True vertical depth is the measurement of a straight line perpendicularly downwards from a horizontal plane.
In the petroleum industry, true vertical depth, abbreviated as TVD, is the measurement from the surface to the bottom of the borehole (or anywhere along its length) in a straight perpendicular line represented by line (a) in the image.
Line (b) is the actual borehole and its length would be considered the "measured depth" in oil industry terminology. The TVD is always equal to or less than (≤) the measured depth. If you imagine line (b) were a piece of string and pull it straight down, you would see that it would be longer than line (a). This example oil well would be considered a directional well because it deviates from a straight vertical line.
See also
Depth in a well
Driller's depth
References
Oilfield terminology
Petroleum geology | wiki |
There are four deep cerebellar nuclei embedded in the white matter of the medullary centre. The nuclei are the fastigial, globose, emboliform, and dentate nuclei.
Inputs
These nuclei receive inhibitory (GABAergic) inputs from Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex and excitatory (glutamatergic) inputs from mossy fiber and climbing fiber pathways. Most output fibers of the cerebellum originate from these nuclei. One exception is that fibers from the flocculonodular lobe synapse directly on vestibular nuclei without first passing through the deep cerebellar nuclei. The vestibular nuclei in the brainstem are analogous structures to the deep nuclei, since they receive both mossy fiber and Purkinje cell inputs.
Specific nuclei
From lateral to medial, the four deep cerebellar nuclei are the dentate, emboliform, globose, and fastigial. Some animals, including humans, do not have distinct emboliform and globose nuclei, instead having a single, fused interposed nucleus. In animals with distinct emboliform and globose nuclei, the term interposed nucleus is often used to refer collectively to these two nuclei.
Topography
In general, each pair of deep nuclei is associated with a corresponding region of cerebellar surface anatomy.
The dentate nuclei are deep within the lateral hemispheres,
the interposed nuclei are located in the paravermal (intermediate) zone,
and the fastigial nuclei are in the vermis.
These structural relationships are generally maintained in the neuronal connections between the nuclei and associated cerebellar cortex,
with the dentate nucleus receiving most of its connections from the lateral hemispheres,
the interposed nuclei receiving inputs mostly from the paravermis,
and the fastigial nucleus receiving primarily afferents from the vermis.
References
.
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20150621011739/http://www.mona.uwi.edu/fpas/courses/physiology/neurophysiology/Cerebellum.htm
Cerebellum | wiki |
Patrice Hauret (né en 1977), mathématicien français ;
Robert Hauret (1922-2009), homme politique français. | wiki |
is a Japanese hairstyle worn by (apprentice geisha). It was also worn in the latter Edo period (1603–1867) and in the Meiji period (1868–1912) by young married women. wear it before and during the ceremony, which marks their graduation out of apprenticeship.
References
Hairstyles
Geisha
Japanese words and phrases | wiki |
JingBaJian () is a series of eight Chinese desserts created by the Qing Imperial kitchen. It is an improvement on traditional imperial pastry called the 'big eight'. Each dessert holds a different meaning: happiness, success, long life, luck, wealth, education, excess and fertility.
JingBaJian (the eight-set Beijing style pastry) is a traditional Chinese cake. "Jing" refers to Beijing and BaJian means eight pieces. It was originally made in the Imperial kitchen. With time, this dessert became popular among the public. Each cake contains a different type of stuffing baked into unique shapes. The ingredients include dates, plums, raisins, rose, red bean, sugar, banana, pepper and salt. JingBaJian evolved considerably, incorporating new ingredients such as mung bean and Liao flowers.
References
Chinese desserts | wiki |
The Centre Colonels men's basketball team is an American college basketball team that represents Centre College in NCAA Division III. The Colonels are currently coached by Greg Mason. The team won several Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference titles. M. B. Banks and J. Quinn Decker once coached the team.
References
External links | wiki |
The upper part of the posterior district of the medulla oblongata is occupied by the inferior cerebellar peduncle, a thick rope-like strand situated between the lower part of the fourth ventricle and the roots of the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
Each cerebellar inferior peduncle connects the spinal cord and medulla oblongata with the cerebellum, and comprises the juxtarestiform body and restiform body.
Important fibers running through the inferior cerebellar peduncle include the dorsal spinocerebellar tract and axons from the inferior olivary nucleus, among others.
Function
The inferior cerebellar peduncle carries many types of input and output fibers that are mainly concerned with integrating proprioceptive sensory input with motor vestibular functions such as balance and posture maintenance. It consists of the following fiber tracts entering cerebellum:
Posterior spinocerebellar tract: unconscious proprioceptive information from the lower part of trunk and lower limb. This tract originates at the ipsilateral Clarke's nucleus (T1-L1) and travels upward to reach the inferior cerebellar peduncle and synapses within the spinocerebellum (also known as the paleocerebellum).
Cuneocerebellar tract: unconscious proprioceptive information from the upper limb and neck. This tract originates at the ipsilateral accessory cuneate nucleus and travels through the inferior cerebellar peduncle to reach the spinocerebellum part of the cerebellum.
Trigeminocerebellar tract: unconscious proprioceptive information from the face.
Olivocerebellar tract: "error signal" in movement originates from the cerebral cortex and spinal cord. This tract originates at contralateral inferior olivary nucleus and enters the cerebellum as a climbing fiber.
Vestibulocerebellar tract: vestibular information projects onto the vestibulocerebellum (also known as the archicerebellum).
This peduncle also carries information leaving cerebellum: from the Purkinje cells to the vestibular nuclei in the dorsal brainstem located at the junction between the pons and medulla oblongata.
See also
Cerebral peduncle
Juxtarestiform body
Middle cerebellar peduncles
Superior cerebellar peduncles
Additional images
References
External links
Brainstem
Cerebellar connections | wiki |
Xanth ( ) is a series of novels by author Piers Anthony, also known as The Magic of Xanth.
Anthony originally intended for Xanth to be a trilogy, but a devoted fan base persuaded the author to continue writing the series, which is now open-ended. He has stated that he has kept the series going as long as he has because the Xanth novels are "just about all that publishers want" from him.
The novels are set in the fantasy world of Xanth, in which magic exists and every human has a magical "talent." The books have been noted for their extensive use of wordplay and puns.
Since the peak of its popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, the series has been criticized by many scholars and reviewers for what they characterize as misogynist and pedophilic undertones; one reviewer has called it the "most divisive non-media publishing enterprise in all
of fantasy." Anthony has downplayed these critiques.
The series was optioned in 2017 for a film and TV series.
Books
As of October 2021, there are 45 published novels.
World of Xanth
Inhabitants and talents
Each human character in Xanth is born with a unique magical ability, called a talent. With the exception of the curse fiends, the winged centaurs, and the child Surprise Golem (Daughter of Rapunzel and Grundy Golem), these abilities never repeat exactly in individuals throughout the entire history of Xanth (although nearly identical talents show up on occasion). Though many talents are limited in scope (called the "spot-on-a-wall" variety), the series focuses mainly on individuals with "Magician" caliber abilities (one of the criteria for serving as King of Xanth).
In addition to the human characters, Xanth is populated by elves, centaurs, demons, dragons, fauns, gargoyles, goblins, golems, harpies, merfolk, naga, nymphs, ogres, zombies, curse fiends, and other fictional beasts. Though initially introduced as obstacles to the human characters, some individuals from those groups become main characters in later books of the series.
As the series progresses, some of the half-human species are discovered to have the potential to possess magical talents. The centaurs of the primary centaur community, Centaur Isle, exile any centaurs who demonstrate a magical talent (although some centaur communities are more lenient about possession of talent); however, they tolerate talents in "lesser" races such as humans. Goblins and harpies are shown to have the potential to possess half-talents, the complementary half existing in a member of the other species, (i.e., a goblin must team with a harpy for them to utilize their talent); the hostility between goblins and harpies proved a major obstacle to any serious effort by them to work together to develop these potential talents. Other non-human species are also known to possess talents, for example: Sesame Serpent and Claire Voyant. Visitors from other dimensions with talents retain their talents after arriving in Xanth.
Geography
Geographically, modern Xanth resembles the state of Florida in the United States in shape, but has landmarks that mimic well-known geographical features from around the world. One major example of this is the Gap Chasm, an enormous canyon a mile wide which completely bisects the country, paralleling the DMZ of the Korean Peninsula. The position of the Chasm could also correspond with the Cross Florida Barge Canal, which, similar to the chasm, is generally forgotten except for those who stumble upon it. The Gap is guarded by a resident dragon, known as Stanley Steamer, and is crossed by means of treacherous bridges. Many of Xanth's other geographical features are puns on those of Florida (for example, Lake Ogre-Chobee and the Kiss-Mee River). The Florida Keys also exist, though they are, in Xanth, actual keys. Other punning feature names include the Isle of View ("I love you"), Mount Ever-Rest (Mount Everest) and the Centaur Aisle (center aisle) created by a magician from the Centaur Isle. The moon is close enough that flying creatures may land there; the back side is sweet and honeyish, the visible side has turned sour and become curdled cheese, due to observing what has happened on Earth and Xanth. Plants may bear fruit of all descriptions (pie trees and shoe trees are common) or they may be carnivorous (such as the tangle trees), making travel in Xanth risky.
Xanth has a connection with the normal world, which is referred to as "Mundania"; its people are called "Mundanes". Although any citizen of Xanth can enter Mundania at any time through an isthmus in the northwest, Mundanes enter the isthmus in Xanth from random geographic locations and time periods throughout history. In other words, Xanth does not have a fixed location or time in the mundane world; and the timeline between Xanth and Mundania seems to jump backwards and forwards. For example, within the lifetime of a normal citizen of Xanth, an American Mundane from and an Egyptian Mundane from 3000 BC could both walk across the isthmus. However, Mundanes seem to have trouble finding Xanth on a consistent basis, making any travel to Xanth a somewhat rare occurrence. Despite these seeming difficulties, Xanth was colonized in several waves by groups of invaders and nomads from Mundania over the course of several centuries. The series ties these colonization events to actual historical events on Earth, most notably the Punic wars.
Adult Conspiracy
First mentioned in Crewel Lye, the Adult Conspiracy is one of the prominent features of the Xanth world. In an interview with Moira Allen, Piers Anthony referred to the "Adult conspiracy to keep interesting things from children" as a literary device "parodying current societal conventions". Nearly all subsequent books contain references to the Conspiracy and its effects, particularly those novels in which the main characters are children.
At its core, the Adult Conspiracy seeks to protect children from knowledge that could bring them to great harm. The precise age for entering into the world of adults is age 18, corresponding to the age of majority in most places. The primary principle that inducts children into the Conspiracy is the understanding of the secret of "summoning the stork". In Xanthian terms, "summoning the stork" literally means to put out a call to summon a stork which will deliver to the couple a child. In Isle of View, it is revealed that summoning the stork will release an "ellipsis" (...) into the air to fly off to the stork. This is a play on the joke that all the "adult" things happen after a paragraph ends in an ellipsis. Most inductees actually discover the specifics of the act "by accident" after marriage, or under the influence of a love spring (a magical spring which causes two drinkers, not necessarily human, or even of the same species, to fall madly, and lustfully, in love with one another at first sight).
Other faculties of the Adult Conspiracy include:
Censorship of foul language – All foul words contain the ability to cause various effects (the wilting of plants (negative), removal of curse burrs (positive), etc.). These are automatically bleeped when said in the presence of someone who has yet to be inducted.
Visual access to underwear – Because underwear is so closely tied to sexuality (even more so than nudity in Xanth), men become automatically "freaked out" when they view panties. This is made a common joke, most prominently in the novel The Color of Her Panties, and is often used by women to gain advantage over men. Panties only carry their effects when worn, but because of their nature, they are forbidden to be shown to children.
Inability to have childish fun – Children believe that once they join the Adult Conspiracy, they will no longer have pillow fights, eat sweets and drink "tsoda popka" (soda pop), or want to have fun. While this belief is exaggerated, the entry to the Conspiracy does cause the couple to lose their bed monster, inadvertently creating the appearance of losing all childhood spirit under the responsibility of Adulthood.
It is important to note that there have been occasions when children gained access to the Adult Conspiracy prematurely. Jenny Elf, Che Centaur, and Gwenny Goblin had to be given access to the Adult Conspiracy when Gwenny received a pair of contact lenses that corrected her poor eyesight while giving her the ability to see others' dreams (some of which could contain Conspiracy material). In one rare instance, a little girl was born with the magic talent of immunity to the magical censorship of Adult Conspiracy, causing her family much distress. This was remedied with magician Sherlock's talent of reversal and a vial of lethe water which erased her memory.
Related works
Encyclopedia of Xanth (1987, by Jody Lynn Nye) a Crossroads Adventure role-playing game book
Ghost of a Chance (1988, by Jody Lynn Nye) a Crossroads Adventure role-playing game book
Piers Anthony's Visual Guide to Xanth (1989, with Jody Lynn Nye)
"Xanth" Board Game (1991, created by Mayfair Games, a board game for 1-6 players set in the Xanth Universe)
Companions of Xanth (a 1993 video game described in and following the plot of Demons Don't Dream)
Letters to Jenny (1993, nonfiction)
References
Sources
Piers Anthony's Bibliography List
Ghost of a Chance () (1988) by Jody Lyn Nye (A Crossroads Adventure in the World of Piers Anthony's Xanth)
Bio of an Ogre () (1988) by Piers Anthony (Xanth: Part Five: Number 4 p. 213)
External links
Xanth on Hipiers.com
I was a captive of Xanth a review of the from Salon (December 7, 2000)
The timeline of Xanth
Fictional countries
Zombies and revenants in popular culture
Book series introduced in 1977
Fantasy novel series
Novels by Piers Anthony
Peninsulas | wiki |
Dentate may refer to:
A species having dentition
An energy-dissipating baffle block in a spillway
An individual not being edentulous
Dentate gyrus of the hippocampus
Dentate nucleus of the cerebellum
Denticity in chemistry
Dentate leaf, a kind of leaf margin
Dentate wing, a wing shape on Lepidoptera species
See also
Denticulate (disambiguation) | wiki |
Yooper may refer to:
Yoopers, people from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (the "UP")
Yooper dialect: The dialect of English speech used by the inhabitants of the Upper Peninsula
Da Yoopers: A comedy–musical group from the area of the Upper Peninsula
American regional nicknames | wiki |
This article includes a list of U.S. states that have highest portion of savings (i.e. pensions, investment products, 401(k)); regular savings account, certificate of deposit, or Individual Retirement Account. The increase in people has also increased the Nest Egg index within a given year.
External links
Nest Egg Index by state @ StateMaster.com
A.G. Edwards 2007 Nest Egg Index Ranking by State @ HR.BLR.com
Savings rate | wiki |
A dingo–dog hybrid is a hybrid cross between a dingo and a domestic dog. The current population of free ranging domestic dogs in Australia is now probably higher than in the past. However, the proportion of the so-called "pure" dingoes (dogs with exclusively dingo-ancestry) has been on the decrease over the last few decades due to hybridisation and is regarded as further decreasing.
Because of this ongoing interbreeding of dingoes and domestic dogs and the resulting hybrids, there is a much wider range of colours and body shapes today among the Australian wild dog population than in the time before the human introduction of domestic dogs. The full extent of the effects of this process is currently unknown and the possibility of potential problems, as well as the wish to preserve the "pure" dingo, often leads to a strong rejection of the interbreeding.
In 2021, DNA testing of over 5,000 wild-living canines from across Australia found that 31 were feral domestic dogs and 27 were first generation hybrids. This finding challenges the perception that dingoes are nearly extinct and have been replaced by feral domestic dogs.
Causes
Dingoes arrived in Australia together with seafarers four millennia ago, and reverted to the wild there. The dingo has been proven to have existed on the continent for at least 3,500 years, which was confirmed by archaeological as well as genetic examinations and findings. Additionally, it was suspected that there was later no significant introduction of other domestic dogs before the arrival of the Europeans.
European domestic dogs arrived in Australia in the 18th century, during the European colonization. Since then, some of those dogs dispersed into the wild (both deliberately and accidentally) and founded feral populations, especially in places where the dingo numbers had been severely reduced due to human intervention. Although there are few records of such releases, their occurrence is supported by reports of free-living dogs of specific breeds being seen or captured in remote areas. The spread of farming and grazing activities in the 19th century led to a further spread of other domestic dogs, both pet and feral ones. Interbreeding with the native dingoes has probably been occurring since the arrival of domestic dogs in the year 1788.
Forms
Dingoes and domestic dogs interbreed freely with each other and therefore the term "wild dog" is often used for describing all dingoes, dingo-hybrids and other feral domestic dogs, because the borders between the three are unclear.
Interbreeding of dingoes and domestic dogs is not necessarily unintended and dingoes have been used for the breeding of certain dog breeds. These breeding attempts started in the 19th century. The only attempt to date that was regarded as successful was the breeding of the Australian Cattle Dog. It is possible that the Australian Kelpie is descended from dingoes too; however, that has not been proven.
Occasionally claims are made that interbreeding of dingoes and domestic dogs together with successful rearing of hybrids is a rare phenomenon in the wild due to supposedly radical differences in behaviour and biology and the harshness of the wilderness. However, cases of dogs that came from human households but nonetheless manage to survive on their own (even by active hunting) and to successfully rear pups have been consistently proven. German behaviourist Eberhard Trumler (who is regarded as a nestor of cynology in the German speaking area) believed that cross-breeds of dingoes and shepherd dogs might have good chances of surviving in the wild. In addition Alfred Brehm already reported of interbreeding of dingoes and domestic dogs of both sexes. There are even reports of dingo-like wild dogs mating with restrained female domestic dogs.
The rate of interbreeding increases when dingoes come to urban centres, due to the prospect of easily accessible food resources. However, since interactions between dingoes and feral domestic dogs in the bush differ greatly from those in urban places, so too do the rates of hybridisation. It is known that domestic dogs get lost in the bush time and again. However; it is assumed that the behavioural differences between dingoes and domestic dogs are big enough to make it difficult for these dogs to be integrated into dingo-society and successfully breed, especially in remote areas. A further spreading of hybrids might hasten the process of interbreeding by reducing behavioural differences. This could partially explain the higher proportion of dingo-hybrids in Southeast Australia. The most likely possibility is that the territorial behaviour of established dingo-packs, which keeps away all foreign dogs (dingoes included) and prevents them from breeding, curbs the rate of interbreeding. Dingoes owned by humans as pets are likely to use their owner's home as a base from which to roam, or are abandoned when they reach adulthood. The result of this pet trend is that contacts between dingoes and domestic dogs are increasing; because pet dingoes grow up without learning the social behaviours that curb mating and therefore crossbreeding. Many such hybrids are rejected by owners or stray to the bush where they may breed with "pure" dingoes. In addition it is proven that hybrids can appear when dingoes mate with livestock guardian dogs; interbreeding can even occur with dogs that were acquired by their owners to specifically kill dingoes.
There is currently no evidence that the known measures for the control of dingoes and other wild dogs are effectively able to slow the process of interbreeding. It seems rather to be that these controls hasten the process of interbreeding since it breaks up traditional pack structures and therefore causes some mechanisms of population control to disappear.
Degree of interbreeding
Dingo-samples that have been collected in the 1960s and 1970s indicated that half of the wild dogs of southern Australia were dingo-hybrids; analyses from the early 1980s supported the trend of increasing interbreeding. Based on skull features researchers found out that the proportion of "pure" dingoes in the highlands of the Southeast decreased from 49% in the 1960s to 17% in the 1980s. During examinations in the year 1985 in Southeast-Australia only 55% of the 407 studied "dingoes" weren't hybrids. 36% of the dogs were dingo-hybrids and the rest wild dogs of other origin. In the middle of the 1980s the proportion of "pure" dingoes to dingo-hybrids in Central Australia was estimated (based on skull features) to be 97.5% and 2.4% respectively. In contrast, in Southeast-Australia the estimates were 55.3% and 33.92% respectively. It was reasoned from these findings that mixed populations can be expected in areas where human settlements exist and wild dogs remain, furthermore that hybrids can be expected to be rarer in remote areas. Broken colour-patterns, red with white, black or bluish spots, completely black, brown or bluish, black-and-white and piebald striped patterns were also more prevalent in the second area (34.8%) than in the first (5.7%). In Southeast-Australia there were no differences between areas near farmlands and forest concerning the frequency of the colourations. Many of these colourations also occurred in breeding experiments of reddish dingoes with variously coloured other domestic dogs. All in all about 50% of the populations in Eastern and Southern Australia consisted of hybrids in the 1980s. Depending on the area in Southeast-Australia it was estimated that the proportion of "pure" dingoes was at least 22% and at its most 65%. 100 dog skulls from the Queensland Museum were measured and analysed, to determine the frequency of dingoes in the dog-populations of Queensland. The highest frequency of dingoes (95%) was found among skulls from central Queensland and the highest frequency of other domestic dogs and dingo-hybrids (50%) was found in the Southeast of the state. K'gari had only a low frequency of hybrids (17%) that were mostly limited to the southern half of the island. It was estimated back then that the proportion of dingo-hybrids in the continent-wide population was about 78%. At the turn of the millennium only 74% of 180 skulls from seven main areas of Australia could be classified as dingo-skulls during measurements and none of the populations consisted exclusively of dingoes. According to Laurie Corbett some examined wild dog populations in New South Wales consisted entirely of hybrids.
Hybrids of dingoes and other domestic dogs are considered to exist in all populations worldwide today. Their proportion is regarded as increasing and completely "pure" populations may no longer exist. However, the exact extent of this interbreeding is unknown. This process might have reached such a high extent that there are big populations that consist entirely of hybrids. Traditional methods for the identification for dingoes, dingo-hybrids and other domestic dogs (based on skull features, breeding patterns and fur colour) also indicate that interbreeding is widespread and occurs in all populations of Australia, especially in the East and the South of the continent. Based on skull features there are only a few "pure" dingoes left in New South Wales and the "pure" form might be locally extinct in the highlands of the Southeast. Even in areas that were once regarded as safe for "pure" dingoes, like the Kakadu national park or parts of the Northern Territory, dingo-hybrids now appear on the border zones of bush and settlements. In addition, hybrids have been spotted in northern Australia and in remote regions.
According to some sources, the dog population of Southeast Australia and along the East Coast now consists to 90% of dingo-hybrids, other sources state that the dog population along the East Coast consists to 80% of hybrids and only 15% to 20% of the dingoes in Southeast-Australia and South-Queensland are supposed to be "pure". In the Southwest of Australia and the interior of Queensland the 90-95% of the dingoes might be "pure". Genetic analyses during the last years came to the conclusion that the populations of wild dogs in the southern Blue Mountains consists of 96.8% dingo-hybrids. The statements (respectively estimations) on how many dingo-hybrids there are in the whole of Australia are very high but not homogeneous. Sometimes statements appear saying that most populations contain 80% hybrids or that 80% or 90% of all Australian wild dogs are dingo-hybrids.
However, these hybrids don't necessarily have to be of low dingo-content. During an analysis of 56 wild dogs in Southeast-Queensland the researchers found that these dogs had a dingo-content of more than 50% or were "pure" dingoes. "Pure" feral dogs of other origin or hybrids with low dingo-content could not be found. Therefore, it was reasoned that the wild dogs of Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast are the descendants of dingoes, instead of escaped or rejected dogs. During studies on wild dogs of the Kosciuszko national park, many hybrids were found but these dogs were of relatively high dingo-content.
In 2011, a total of 3,941 samples were included in the first continent-wide DNA study of wild dogs. The study found that 46% were pure dingoes which exhibited no dog alleles (gene expressions). There was evidence of hybridisation in every region sampled. In Central Australia only 13% were hybrids, however in southeastern Australia 99% were hybrids or feral dogs. Pure dingo distribution was 88% in the Northern Territory, intermediate numbers in Western Australia, South Australia and Queensland, and 1% in New South Wales and Victoria. Almost all wild dogs showed some dingo ancestry, with only 3% of dogs showing less than 80% dingo ancestry. This indicates that domestic dogs have a low survival rate in the wild or that most hybridisation is the result of roaming dogs that return to their owners. No populations of feral dogs have been found in Australia.
Identification
There are a couple of external features that can be used to distinguish "pure" dingoes from other "pure" domestic dogs. However this might not be the case when concerning mixed-breed dogs and especially dingo-hybrids.
Dingo-like domestic dogs and dingo-hybrids can be generally distinguished from "pure" dingoes because of coat colour, since they have a wider range of colours and patterns than dingoes. However, even among "pure" dingoes, there is a wide variation of colours. According to the Australian Museum, a dingo's coat colour is largely determined by the area it inhabits. Generally, the coat colour is ginger with white feet. In the desert, dingoes are more golden yellow while in forested and bush areas they are a darker tan to black. Also reports by early settlers in the Blue Mountains region of NSW described dingoes which had wide variations in coat colours. Additionally the dog-typical form of barking appears among dingo-hybrids.
At the end of the 1970s it was found out that the skulls of dingoes can be distinguished from those of other domestic dogs based on alveolar distance along lower premolars, maxillary width, bulla volume, crown width of upper carnassial tooth, basal length of upper canine and width of nasal bones.
To determine the possibility of dingo-hybrids in the wild, hybrids were bred in captivity in the 1970s and the start of the 1980s. Thereby differences in skull features were all the bigger the nearer the hybrid was genetically to other domestic dogs. Even a non-dingo content of about 25% to 12.5% lead to a significant difference when compared to the 8 dingo parents.
Unlike dingoes other feral domestic dogs and dingo-hybrids are theoretically capable to come in heat twice annually and tend to have a breeding cycle less influenced by the seasons. However, it is considered to be unlikely that they are capable of rearing two litters per year in the wild since this would require much time and energy. Successful rearing of two successive litters would probably only be possible in the wild under very favourable conditions and there is currently no proof that it ever happened in the wild.
During observation at the start of the 1990s captive hybrids did not show the same breeding pattern like "pure" dingoes and many testicle-parameters did not show the same seasonal variations. Furthermore, they had bigger litters and some were able to reproduce over the whole year. Concerning the duration of the pregnancy there was no evidence for any differences.
Although hybrids may have a weight up to 60 kg (supposedly even up to 70 kg), most hybrids do not weigh more than 20 kg, which is considered to be within the normal range for dingoes. Furthermore, during breeding-experiments there could be no differences in growth patterns of dingoes and similar sized crossbreeds found. Additionally, the average age of wild living domestic dogs in Australia is also not higher than what is considered normal for dingoes.
A genetic discrimination is possible but difficult, since there are only a few genetic characteristics that differentiate dingoes from other domestic dogs. A couple of years ago, some scientists from the University of New South Wales developed a relatively reliable method with 20 genetic "fingerprints" using DNA from skin and blood samples to determine the "purity" of a dingo. If one of these "fingerprints" would be found, this would indicate that the examined dog is possibly a hybrid and not a "pure" dingo. The reference group for this test was a group of captive dingoes, thought to cover the whole range of the dingo population. Samples that lay outside of this range would be regarded as hybrids. With increasing development this method might be possible to use on hair and scat samples and provide more exact results.
In 2016, a three dimensional geometric morphometric analysis of the skulls of dingoes, dogs and their hybrids found that dingo-dog hybrids exhibit morphology closer to the dingo than to the parent group dog. Hybridisation did not push the unique Canis dingo cranial morphology towards the wolf phenotype, therefore hybrids cannot be distinguished from dingoes based on cranial measures. The study suggests that the wild dingo morphology is dominant when compared with the recessive dog breed morphology, and concludes that although hybridisation introduces dog DNA into the dingo population, the native cranial morphology remains resistant to change.
Problems in identification
Despite all the characteristics that may be used to differentiate a dingo from other domestic dogs, there are several problems.
There is no clarity on the subject from which point on a dog is considered a "pure" dingo. There are conflicting opinions in literature on what defines a dingo. The following problems occurred frequently:
Geographic variations in the allometry of dingo skulls were not taken into account, when dingoes from Central Australia were used as standard for the "purity" of dingoes.
Genetic variations of dingoes in captivity were not taken into account, when the genetic markers for "purity" were selected
Methods for the collection of samples, to determine a dingo via genetic testing, are susceptible for flaws in the identification (e.g. mistakes during collecting of the samples)
Microsatellites have been used to determine the "purity"; however an examination of microsatellite data indicated that they are only useful for making conclusion on relatedness
New research results show that chemicals can influence the gene expression and development of the neural crest during the early stages of the embryonic development
From this data it was reasoned that characteristics of dingoes from geographic isolated areas differ from each other and different populations might not be consistent with common description of a dingo.
No distinguishing characteristic is currently one-hundred-percent reliable. Furthermore, results gained under captive conditions cannot be transferred one-on-one to the situation in the wild, because it is not known which characteristics permanently remain under the conditions of natural selection. Biology and behaviour of dingoes and other wild dogs are generally considered to be so similar, that it is difficult to discriminate between them. Furthermore, much of the information on dingoes might just as likely apply to any other wild dog in Australia. In addition, the external characteristics of living dingoes cannot always be reliably distinguished from dingo-hybrids; since many hybrids are visually indistinguishable from "pure" dingoes (e.g. hybrids resulting from mating with Australian Cattle Dogs). Even the colour variations, which are regarded as characteristics of the "pure" dingo, can be a hindrance when identifying hybrids and other domestic dogs, when they show the same colourations. Furthermore, historical records report black dingoes but did not mention black-and-tan ones. This colouration might have been overlooked; if not than this would be another feature of hybrids. During breeding experiments with dingoes and other domestic dogs, dogs were born that could not be distinguished from dingoes based on external features but had two heat-cycles annually even down to the third and fourth generation. In the case of skull features there is the problem that they don't discriminate between the different degrees of dingo-content in the hybrids, are less and less effective the further the hybrid is genetically away from other domestic dogs and can only be used on already dead specimen. Methods like X-ray and CAT-Scans are possible, but impractical. Also, signs of dingo attacks on livestock are not reliable as a distinguishing characteristic, since the attack methods and the success rate possible depends the most from the experience and motivation of the attacker and the reactions of the prey.
Although genetic testing can theoretically determine whether an individual is a hybrid, "pure" dingo or another domestic dog, mistakes in results cannot be excluded. To get reliable data from genetic testing, suitable and sufficient genetic material from the period before the European colonization should be available for comparison, which is currently not the case. Even genetic testing is less effective, the further away the non-dingo is in the dog's ancestry and it is possible that the hybrid had not inherited any genes which were ascribed to other domestic dogs during examinations. Furthermore, even in the case of a "pure" dingo, genetic testing might show results that were not present in the used reference group.
Besides, the different methods for identification of hybrids (DNA, skull features and fur colour) can lead to different results that might be in conflict with each other. During the before-mentioned analysis of 56 wild dogs in southeast Queensland, there was 17.9% conformity between the three used methods for determine the "purity". The conformity between DNA and skull features was lowest. During this a hitherto unknown form of the "pure" dingo was discovered (based on DNA and skull features): a white dog with orange spots on the fur. This variant was considered as a single mutation or the result of interbreeding with an isolated dingo population.
Contrary to constantly recurring claims of radical differences in behaviour and biology, a single annual breeding cycle, seasonal adapted oestrus, monogamy, parental care by the males, regulation of breeding via ecological and social factors, and howling have all been observed among domestic dogs of most diverse backgrounds. Howling is considered normal for all wild dogs of Australia. Hybrids as well as other domestic dogs have been observed in tight pack structures and free-ranging domestic dogs in Southeast-Australia have been observed hunting and foraging in groups. Free-ranging dogs in Victoria were generally observed in pairs (54%) or alone (34%), with packs of three to seven dogs in 12% of the sightings. Furthermore, there are also reports of dingoes with more than average size and weight and cases where hybrids were successfully used as working and companion dogs and the Australian Cattle Dog was proven to have dingo ancestors. A generally higher aggression of hybrids could not be confirmed by owners, who worked with respectively investigated them; furthermore hitherto observations and encounters with hybrids in the wild did not reveal any evidence, that hybrids are generally more aggressive than "pure" dingoes.
Importance and effect of hybridisation
Interbreeding with domestic dogs is regarded as the greatest threat to the survival of the "pure" dingo. Genetic analyses, observations and skull measurements over the course of several years strongly indicate that in approximately 50 years the "pure" dingo will have disappeared in the wild and that it is no longer possible to preserve them. The dingo researcher Laurie Corbett considers that, given the current rate of interbreeding, there will be no more "pure" dingoes in the wild in Victoria in 20 years. The president of the Dingo Conservation Association Barry Oakman was, in an interview in the year 2003, of the opinion that without appropriate measures the "pure" dingo would be extinct in the wild in 30 years, in New South Wales possibly in less than 10 years. According to other statements the "pure" dingoes are either close to extinction or they will be close to it over the course of the next 20 years. It is assumed that, should the process go on unhindered, the increasing number of genes from domestic dogs will effectively lead to the extinction on the Australian continent of the dingo as a separate subspecies by 2100 and that the dog population will then consist of hybrids and other feral dogs.
Opinions on hybridisation
Fear of interbreeding of dingoes with domestic dogs is no phenomenon of the last years and already led to a ban on the import of German Shepherd Dogs to Australia by the Commonwealth of Nations in 1929. It was feared that the German Shepherds (partly due to the old name "Alsatian Wolfdog") would be a danger to sheep, become friendly with dingoes and possibly interbreed with them. This ban was first relaxed in 1972 and repealed in 1974.
This phenomenon is a problem for some people and for others not. In the scientific area there are two main positions concerning the process of interbreeding:
The "pure" dingo should be preserved
Populations of wild dogs should be preserved, no matter whether they are hybrids or not.
The first position is probably the most common one. It means that the "pure" dingo should be preserved via strong control measures and only "pure" or mostly "pure" dingoes should get protection.
The second position is relatively new and was first officially stated by Laurie Corbett and Mike J. Daniels. They represented the opinion that dingoes have changed and that it is not possible to bring the "pure" dingo back. Furthermore, historical definitions and the protective legislation based on them, have been rendered "obsolete" by anthropogenic environmental change. Thus interbreeding only means that the dingo today exists in a different form than its ancestors - some researchers now use the term evolving dingo. Protection for these dogs should be based on how and where they live, as well as on their cultural and ecological importance, instead of concentrating on precise definitions or concerns about genetic "purity". This approach was generally agreed to, but also hinted that it would be difficult to prove that a species shapes its environment. Essentially the genetic integrity of the dingo is already lost due to interbreeding; however, the importance of this phenomenon is disputable according to Corbett and Daniels, since the genes come from a domesticated version of the same species.
This view point is rejected or at least controversially discussed by those who want to preserve the "pure" dingo. Here for instance the molecular biologist Alan Wilton from the University of New South Wales argues that a maximizing of the "genetic purity" is an essential aspect of the dingo conservation. Dingo-hybrids would supposedly increase the predation on native species, because they would have more litters per year and therefore would have to raise more pups and some of them would be bigger than the average dingo. He also argued that it is, for instance, not sufficient to regard a wild dog with a little non-dingo-content as a "pure" dingo if it more or less acts the same way. Wilton was of the opinion that the scale had to be set higher when "pure" dingoes are available. Corbett and Daniels agreed that it is practical and desirable to minimize the effect of domestic dog genes. By this it would first be possible to find areas where the process is slower and to be able to limit it later; and second the populations would be able to develop accordingly to their natural environment. Furthermore, hybrids and other feral domestic dogs would probably not have the same tourist effect, because they don't correspond with the current expectations on wild dingoes.
To label this process, apart from the word interbreeding/hybridization, also terms like dilution of the dingoes or weakening of the genetic line are in usage. Even in the scientific area the process was called a sort of genetic pollution (itself a controversial term).
A demand for control of this process is based on the principle of caution and effective control measures are regarded as necessary. However this faces problems that are not negligible. To separate the "pure" dingo from other domestic dogs is difficult, if it is possible at all. The costs would be enormous, and even if all hybrids are destroyed, there are currently no methods to tests the dingoes in the field. Furthermore, control measures usually do not discriminate between dingoes and other domestic dogs. According to the biologist David Jenkins from the Australian National University there is little that can be done to reverse the process of interbreeding. Even if selectively searching for hybrids during the killings, it would only disrupt the pack structure and therefore affect the breeding rate of the dogs.
Possible changes in behaviour and biology
The exact effect of domestic dogs from human households on the social structure of free living dogs in Australia is not well documented. However, it is regarded as likely that the same factors that influence the social organization of dingoes in different areas also influence the social behaviour of other feral domestic dogs and dingo-hybrids.
The biology and ecology of dingo-hybrids has only been insufficiently researched, because most studies were limited on the topic of controlling these dogs. However, some changes in the wild dog population could be observed.
It is proven that there is a much wider range of fur colours, skull features and body sizes among the modern day wild dog population than in the times before the European colonization. Within Queensland for instance the different dog populations vary significantly, depending on the extent of interbreeding, while a bigger diversity of characteristics led to classification problems in Victoria and the term "wild dog" is now often used to label the current dog population. Evidence from south-eastern populations of Australian wild dogs indicates that the regular breeding rhythm of the dingo is interrupted, when a high number of dingo-hybrids and other domestic dogs, exists.
According to a five-year study of 2000 wild dogs from all states of Australia by Ricky Spencer from the University of Western Sydney some populations consist to 80% of dingo-hybrids and this enrichment of genes has provided a catalyst for the selection and micro-evolution of bigger wild dogs. Over the course of the last 40 years there was an increase of the average wild dog body mass of about 20%, with 40% of the adult wild dogs in the Southeast of the continent now weighing more than 17 kg. This larger dog size has led to a higher efficiency with which wild dogs kill major prey and models indicate that a pack of wild dogs today requires almost a quarter more daily energy intake than an average pack of wild dogs prior to 1980. Furthermore, due to the high number of kangaroos and livestock, the wild dogs have been given the necessary environment to reach larger sizes.
On the topic of possible changes in behaviour Ricky Spencer commented that it is not predictable how the interbreeding will affect the behaviour of the dingoes; he assumed that there could be potential problems since supposedly only dingoes are not accustomed to humans. According to David Jenkins, the claims stating that hybrids are bigger, more aggressive and a risk to public safety have so far not been supported by data and personal experience. He mentioned that there are reports of one or two unusually big dogs captured each year, but that most hybrids are close to what's considered to be the normal weight range of dingoes. In addition, Jenkins has encountered wild dingoes and hybrids and reported that "there's something really going on in that hard-wired brain", but also that the dogs "tend to be curious, rather than aggressive".
Most attacks of wild dogs on livestock are supposedly caused by dingo-hybrids and not "pure" dingoes, however the effect of wild dogs on the cattle industry is very variable, generally low (0-10% losses per year) and the majority of the much more susceptible sheep industry is located in the areas south of the Dingo fence, were the majority of the area has no stable wild dog populations and many of the remaining populations tend to have a high number of hybrids.
Ecological impact
It is unknown if, in the case of the disappearance of the "pure" dingo, the then-existing hybrids will alter the predation pressure on other species. It is also not clear what kind of place these dogs will have in the Australian ecosystem and research results on this topic are rare. However, it is considered probable that the dynamics of the various ecosystems will not be disturbed by this. One example in this topic are the bush rats, where it is also seen as unlikely that there could be problems due to the dingo-hybrids, because these rodents had been exposed to the influence of the dingoes for thousands of years.
During studies on the efficacy of baits with 1080 (a deadly poison for canids) in the Kosciuszko national park in the middle of the 1980s, the local dogs (which were not classified as dingoes) have been observed with home ranges of similar sizes like dingoes from Southeast Australia. In addition these dogs also showed a preference for living prey, which lessened the efficacy of the baits. During studies in the Blue Mountains from March 2005 to April 2006 the main prey of the studied dogs consisted of red-necked wallabies, swamp wallabies, grey kangaroos, common wombats, common brushtail possums and European rabbits. The results indicated at a big hybrid population that exerted significant pressure on swamp wallabies and controlled outbreaks of the rabbit populations. According to David Jenkins, studies on wild dogs from the Kosciuszko National Park proofed that these dogs had about 75-80% content of dingo genes and filled in the role of the apex predator. Similar to "pure" dingoes, these hybrids hunted alone as well as in coordinated packs. The same ecological role was officially reported for the hybrids of the Namadgi-national park who filled the place of the apex predator and kept kangaroo numbers low.
See also
Canid hybrid
Pariah dog
Free-ranging dog
Coydog
Jackal-dog hybrid
Wolfdog
Literature
Lawrence K. Corbett: The Dingo in Australia and Asia. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1995, .
Claudio Sillero-Zubiri, Michael Hoffmann and David W. Macdonald (editors): Canids: Foxes, Wolves, Jackals and Dogs. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, 2004
Peter Fleming, Laurie Corbett, Robert Harden and Peter Thomson: Managing the Impacts of Dingoes and Other Wild Dogs. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Commonwealth of Australia, 2001
References
Dogs
Canid hybrids
Population genetics
Dog breeding
Canis lupus dingo
Dog types
Dog law | wiki |
Videoteces was the Spanish version of the famous North American TV Show "America's Funniest Videos". It was produced for Telemundo of Puerto Rico by Executive Producer Hector Marcano, Producer-Writer Jackie Torres, and Producer-Writer José Vallenilla. The show aired on 1993 and was among the top ten shows in ratings for its entire run.
It had guest hosts in almost every show, the most frequent being Luisa de los Rios.
As for the meaning of the title, it's a cross between "Video" and "Idioteces" which is a rough latin Spanish version of the word "Idiocies" referring to someone doing something considered stupid or idiotic.
Jackie TorresHector Marcano
WKAQ-TV
1990s Puerto Rican television series
1993 American television series debuts
1990s American reality television series
Year of television series ending missing | wiki |
Suphan Buri Line is a railway line in Western Thailand, opened on 16 June 1963, by Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat. There were initially 16 stations, but only seven stations now remain in operation. The line branches off from the Southern Line.
At present, only one train is served once a day at 04.40 p.m. The train departs from Bangkok railway station and reach the destination at 07.40 p.m.
And returning from Suphan Buri to Bangkok the train departs at 04.40 a.m. to destination at 8.10 a.m.
Stations
Gallery
References
External links
Suphan Buri Line in 2006
Suphan Buri Line in 2007
Railway bridges on Suphan Buri Line
Railway lines in Thailand
Railway lines opened in 1963
Metre gauge railways in Thailand | wiki |
The pound of force or pound-force (symbol: lbf, sometimes lbf,) is a unit of force used in some systems of measurement, including English Engineering units and the foot–pound–second system.
Pound-force should not be confused with pound-mass (lb), often simply called pound, which is a unit of mass, nor should these be confused with foot-pound (ft⋅lbf), a unit of energy, or pound-foot (lbf⋅ft), a unit of torque.
Definitions
The pound-force is equal to the gravitational force exerted on a mass of one avoirdupois pound on the surface of Earth. Since the 18th century, the unit has been used in low-precision measurements, for which small changes in Earth's gravity (which varies from equator to pole by up to half a percent) can safely be neglected.
The 20th century, however, brought the need for a more precise definition, requiring a standardized value for acceleration due to gravity.
Product of avoirdupois pound and standard gravity
The pound-force is the product of one avoirdupois pound (exactly ) and the standard acceleration due to gravity, .
The standard values of acceleration of the standard gravitational field (gn) and the international avoirdupois pound (lb) result in a pound-force equal to
.
This definition can be rephrased in terms of the slug. A slug has a mass of 32.174049 lb. A pound-force is the amount of force required to accelerate a slug at a rate of , so:
Conversion to other units
Foot–pound–second (FPS) systems of units
In some contexts, the term "pound" is used almost exclusively to refer to the unit of force and not the unit of mass. In those applications, the preferred unit of mass is the slug, i.e. lbf⋅s2/ft. In other contexts, the unit "pound" refers to a unit of mass. The international standard symbol for the pound as a unit of mass is lb.
In the "engineering" systems (middle column), the weight of the mass unit (pound-mass) on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the force unit (pound-force). This is convenient because one pound mass exerts one pound force due to gravity. Note, however, unlike the other systems the force unit is not equal to the mass unit multiplied by the acceleration unit—the use of Newton's second law, , requires another factor, gc, usually taken to be 32.174049 (lb⋅ft)/(lbf⋅s2).
"Absolute" systems are coherent systems of units: by using the slug as the unit of mass, the "gravitational" FPS system (left column) avoids the need for such a constant. The SI is an "absolute" metric system with kilogram and meter as base units.
Pound of thrust
The term pound of thrust is an alternative name for pound-force in specific contexts. It is frequently seen in US sources on jet engines and rocketry, some of which continue to use the FPS notation. For example, the thrust produced by each of the Space Shuttle's two Solid Rocket Boosters was , together .
See also
Foot-pound (energy)
Ton-force
Kip (unit)
Mass in general relativity
Mass in special relativity
Mass versus weight for the difference between the two physical properties
Newton
Poundal
Pounds per square inch, a unit of pressure
Notes and references
General sources
Obert, Edward F. (1948). Thermodynamics. New York: D. J. Leggett Book Company. Chapter I "Survey of Dimensions and Units", pp. 1-24.
Customary units of measurement in the United States
Imperial units
Units of force | wiki |
A cable length or length of cable is a nautical unit of measure equal to one tenth of a nautical mile or approximately 100 fathoms. Owing to anachronisms and varying techniques of measurement, a cable length can be anywhere from 169 to 220 metres, depending on the standard used. The unit is named after the length of a ship's anchor cable in the Age of Sail.
The definition varies:
International: 185.2 m, equivalent to nautical mile
Imperial (Admiralty): 185.32 m, or nautical mile, about 101 fathoms
The traditional British fathom varied from in the Merchant Navy, making the "historical" cable 169 m to 215.5 m.
US customary (US Navy): 219.5 metres, 120 fathoms (720 feet)
See also
Conversion of units
References
. Also "fathom", from the same work (pp. 88–89, retrieved 12 January 2017).
.
Nautical terminology
Units of length
Customary units of measurement in the United States | wiki |
The light-second is a unit of length useful in astronomy, telecommunications and relativistic physics. It is defined as the distance that light travels in free space in one second, and is equal to exactly 299 792 458 metres (approximately 983 571 055 ft).
Just as the second forms the basis for other units of time, the light-second can form the basis for other units of length, ranging from the light-nanosecond ( or just under one international foot) to the light-minute, light-hour and light-day, which are sometimes used in popular science publications. The more commonly used light-year is also currently defined to be equal to precisely , since the definition of a year is based on a Julian year (not the Gregorian year) of exactly 365.25 days, each of exactly SI seconds.
Use in telecommunications
Communications signals on Earth rarely travel at precisely the speed of light in free space. Distances in fractions of a light-second are useful for planning telecommunications networks.
One light-nanosecond is almost 300 millimetres (299.8 mm, 5 mm less than one foot), which limits the speed of data transfer between different parts of a large computer.
One light-microsecond is about 300 metres.
The mean distance, over land, between opposite sides of the Earth is 66.8 light-milliseconds.
Communications satellites are typically 1.337 light-milliseconds (low Earth orbit) to 119.4 light-milliseconds (geostationary orbit) from the surface of the Earth. Hence there will always be a delay of at least a quarter of a second in a communication via geostationary satellite (119.4 ms times 2); this delay is just perceptible in a transoceanic telephone conversation routed by satellite. The answer will also be delayed with a quarter of a second and this is clearly noticeable during interviews or discussions on TV when sent over satellite.
Use in astronomy
The light-second is a convenient unit for measuring distances in the inner Solar System, since it corresponds very closely to the radiometric data used to determine them. (The match is not exact for an Earth-based observer because of a very small correction for the effects of relativity.) The value of the astronomical unit (roughly the distance between Earth and the Sun) in light-seconds is a fundamental measurement for the calculation of modern ephemerides (tables of planetary positions). It is usually quoted as "light-time for unit distance" in tables of astronomical constants, and its currently accepted value is s.
The mean diameter of Earth is about 0.0425 light-seconds.
The average distance between Earth and the Moon (the lunar distance) is about 1.282 light-seconds.
The diameter of the Sun is about 4.643 light-seconds.
The average distance between Earth and the Sun (the astronomical unit) is 499.0 light-seconds.
Multiples of the light-second can be defined, although apart from the light-year, they are more used in popular science publications than in research works. For example:
A light-minute is 60 light-seconds, and so the average distance between Earth and the Sun is 8.317 light-minutes.
The average distance between Pluto and the Sun (34.72 AU) is 4.81 light-hours.
Humanity's most distant artificial object, Voyager 1, has an interstellar velocity of 3.57 AU/year, or 29.7 light-minutes/year. As of 2023 the probe, launched in 1977, is over 22 light-hours from Earth and the Sun, and is expected to reach a distance of one light-day around November 2026 - February 2027.
See also
100 megametres
Geometrized unit system
Light-year
References
Units of length
Units of measurement in astronomy | wiki |
A major branch of classical mythology, Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the world, the lives and activities of deities, heroes, and mythological creatures, and the origins and significance of the ancient Greeks' own cult and ritual practices. Modern scholars study the myths to shed light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece, and to better understand the nature of myth-making itself.
The Greek myths were initially propagated in an oral-poetic tradition most likely by Minoan and Mycenaean singers starting in the 18th century BC; eventually the myths of the heroes of the Trojan War and its aftermath became part of the oral tradition of Homer's epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias.
Aside from this narrative deposit in ancient Greek literature, pictorial representations of gods, heroes, and mythic episodes featured prominently in ancient vase paintings and the decoration of votive gifts and many other artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Epic Cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.
Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes.
Sources
Greek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from to onward. In fact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict; however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots.
Literary sources
Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends. Apollodorus of Athens lived from to and wrote on many of these topics. His writings may have formed the basis for the collection; however, the "Library" discusses events that occurred long after his death, hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus.
Among the earliest literary sources are Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other poets completed the Epic Cycle, but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name, the Homeric Hymns have no direct connection with Homer. The oldest are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age. Hesiod, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in his Theogony (Origin of the Gods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world, the origin of the gods, Titans, and Giants, as well as elaborate genealogies, folktales, and aetiological myths. Hesiod's Works and Days, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the Five Ages. The poet advises on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by its gods.
Lyrical poets often took their subjects from myth, but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, including Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides, and bucolic poets such as Theocritus and Bion, relate individual mythological incidents. Additionally, myth was central to classical Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides took most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Many of the great tragic stories (e.g. Agamemnon and his children, Oedipus, Jason, Medea, etc.) took on their classic form in these tragedies. The comic playwright Aristophanes also used myths, in The Birds and The Frogs.
Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geographers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supplied numerous local myths and legends, often giving little-known alternative versions. Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions he encountered and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East. Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts.
The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise. Nevertheless, it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of:
The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Seneca and Virgil with Servius's commentary.
The Greek poets of the Late Antique period: Nonnus, Antoninus Liberalis, and Quintus Smyrnaeus.
The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period: Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes, and Parthenius.
Prose writers from the same periods who make reference to myths include Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus, and Heliodorus. Two other important non-poetical sources are the Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled as Pseudo-Hyginus, the Imagines of Philostratus the Elder and Philostratus the Younger, and the Descriptions of Callistratus.
Finally, several Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth, much derived from earlier now lost Greek works. These preservers of myth include Arnobius, Hesychius, the author of the Suda, John Tzetzes, and Eustathius. They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective.
Archaeological sources
The discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century, and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Arthur Evans in the twentieth century, helped to explain many existing questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece) was used mainly to record inventories, although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified.
Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth-century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles. These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources: of the twelve labors of Heracles, for example, only the Cerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literary text. Secondly, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry, by several centuries. In the Archaic (), Classical (–323 BC), and Hellenistic (323–146 BC) periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.
Survey of mythic history
Greek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture, of which mythology, both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an index of the changes. In Greek mythology's surviving literary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes, it is inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson (1975) has argued.
The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who, using animism, assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods. When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon of gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance.
After the middle of the Archaic period, myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty (), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC. By the end of the fifth-century BC, poets had assigned at least one eromenos, an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion, to every important god except Ares and many legendary figures. Previously existing myths, such as those of Achilles and Patroclus, also then were cast in a pederastic light. Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often re-adapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion.
The achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans. While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The resulting mythological "history of the world" may be divided into three or four broader periods:
The myths of origin or age of gods (Theogonies, "births of gods"): myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.
The age when gods and mortals mingled freely: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals.
The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of the Trojan War and after (which is regarded by some researchers as a separate, fourth period).
While the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes, establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained. For example, the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the "hero cult" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (heroes), of the Chthonic from the Olympian. In the Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos, the subsequent races to the creation of Zeus. The presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora, when all of the best of human capabilities, save hope, had been spilled out of her overturned jar. In Metamorphoses, Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages.
Origins of the world and the gods
"Myths of origin" or "creation myths" represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language. The most widely accepted version at the time, although a philosophical account of the beginning of things, is reported by Hesiod, in his Theogony. He begins with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of the void emerged Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus. Without male assistance, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilized her. From that union were born first the Titans—six males: Coeus, Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Oceanus; and six females: Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, and Tethys. After Cronus was born, Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born. They were followed by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handed Ones, who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus. This made Gaia furious. Cronus ("the wily, youngest and most terrible of Gaia's children"), was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He did this and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife, Rhea, as his consort, and the other Titans became his court.
A motif of father-against-son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Because Cronus had betrayed his father, he feared that his offspring would do the same, and so each time Rhea gave birth, he snatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby's blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was full-grown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit, throwing up Rhea's other children, including Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Demeter, and Hera, and the stone, which had been sitting in Cronus's stomach all this time. Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes (whom Zeus freed from Tartarus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus.
Zeus was plagued by the same concern, and after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife, Metis, would give birth to a god "greater than he", Zeus swallowed her. She was already pregnant with Athena, however, and she burst forth from his head—fully-grown and dressed for war.
The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre—the prototypical mythos—and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, also was the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius' Argonautica, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods. Hesiod's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses. Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris, and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites. There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony. A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held. After they ceased to become religious beliefs, few would have known the rites and rituals. Allusions often existed, however, to aspects that were quite public.
Images existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely, misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps. One of these scraps, the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fifth-century BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence.
The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead. Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes.
Greek pantheon
According to Classical-era mythology, after the overthrow of the Titans, the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed. Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians, residing on Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea.) Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside, the satyr-god Pan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs). Gregory Nagy (1992) regards "the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes (compared with Theogony), each of which invokes one god."
The gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that "the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts." Regardless of their underlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins.
Each god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer, or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g., Apollo Musagetes is "Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses"). Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece.
Most gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the ruler of the underworld, and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage. Some gods, such as Apollo and Dionysus, revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such as Hestia (literally "hearth") and Helios (literally "sun"), were little more than personifications. The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demigods) supplemented that of the gods.
Age of gods and mortals
Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together. These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid's Metamorphoses and they are often divided into two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment.
Tales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings. In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas.
The second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods, when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo. Ian Morris considers Prometheus' adventures as "a place between the history of the gods and that of man." An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century, vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the king of Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife. The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy. In another tragedy, Euripides' The Bacchae, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads, the female worshippers of the god.
In another story, based on an old folktale-motif, and echoing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for her daughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make his son Demophon a god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual.
Heroic age
The age in which the heroes lived is known as the Heroic age. The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According to Ken Dowden (1992), "there is even a saga effect: We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations."
After the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them. Burkert (2002) notes that "the roster of heroes, again in contrast to the gods, is never given fixed and final form. Great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead." Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity.
The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events: the Argonautic expedition, the Theban Cycle, and the Trojan War.
Heracles and the Heracleidae
Some scholars believe that behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac. Others point to earlier myths from other cultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established. Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, granddaughter of Perseus. His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many folk-tale themes, provided much material for popular legend. According to Burkert (2002), "He is portrayed as a sacrificer, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy.
While his tragic end provided much material for tragedy—Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as "a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas." In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times.
Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation "mehercule" became as familiar to the Romans as "Herakleis" was to the Greeks. In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.
Heracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings. This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese. Hyllus, the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus—other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a right to rule them through their ancestor. Their rise to dominance is frequently called the "Dorian invasion". The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae.
Other members of this earliest generation of heroes such as Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale, as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa. Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon.
Argonauts
The only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of the Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis. In the Argonautica, Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece. This generation also included Theseus, who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female heroine, and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the Iliad and Odyssey. Pindar, Apollonius and the Bibliotheca endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts.
Although Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it). In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization. It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets.
House of Atreus and Theban Cycle
In between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae.
The Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus, the city's founder, and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of stories that lead to the war of the Seven against Thebes and the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Epigoni. (It is not known whether the Seven figured in early epic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother, and subsequently marrying a second wife who becomes the mother of his children—markedly different from the tale known to us through tragedy (e.g. Sophocles' Oedipus Rex) and later mythological accounts.
Trojan War and aftermath
Greek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between Greece and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homer's works, such as the Iliad, the chief stories have already taken shape and substance, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War also elicited great interest in the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, as recounted in Virgil's Aeneid (Book II of Virgil's Aeneid contains the best-known account of the sack of Troy). Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius.
The Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to the war: Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abduction of Helen, the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis. To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus's brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos, or Mycenae, but the Trojans refused to return Helen. The Iliad, which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' beloved comrade Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos. Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow in the heel. Achilles' heel was the only part of his body which was not invulnerable to damage by human weaponry. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium). Finally, with Athena's help, they built the Trojan Horse. Despite the warnings of Priam's daughter Cassandra, the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas (the Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (the lost Nostoi) and Homer's Odyssey. The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e.g., Orestes and Telemachus).
The Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists (e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the Ancient Greek civilization. The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. Twelfth-century authors, such as Benoît de Sainte-Maure (Roman de Troie [Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) and Joseph of Exeter (De Bello Troiano [On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares. They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new.
Some of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusion in the Trojan War were:
On the Trojan side:
Aeneas
Hector
Paris
On the Greek side:
Ajax (there were two Ajaxes)
Achilles
King Agamemnon
Menelaus
Odysseus
Greek and Roman conceptions of myth
Mythology was at the heart of everyday life in Ancient Greece. Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities, and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one's leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey. According to Victor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, political essayist, and former classics professor, and John Heath, a classics professor, the profound knowledge of the Homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Homer was the "education of Greece" (), and his poetry "the Book".
Philosophy and myth
After the rise of philosophy, history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th century BC, the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history). While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them.
By the sixth century BC, a few radical philosophers were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies: Xenophanes of Colophon complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods "all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another." This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato's Republic and Laws. Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts, and adulteries as immoral, and objected to their central role in literature. Plato's criticism was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition, referring to the myths as "old wives' chatter." For his part Aristotle criticized the pre-Socratic quasi-mythical philosophical approach and underscored that "Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us ... But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them."
Nevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher:
Hanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization. The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture.
More sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates: the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crassly anthropomorphic.
Hellenistic and Roman rationalism
During the Hellenistic period, mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced. Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events. Although his original work (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius.
Rationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the Euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. At the same time, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies. Through his Epicurean message, Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens. Livy, too, is skeptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae). The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. In his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has not survived, but Augustine's City of God indicates its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents. According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers. The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's.
Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy. Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended. Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures, but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people. De Natura Deorum is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's line of thought.
Syncretizing trends
In Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods. This occurred because the Romans had little mythology of their own, and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents. The gods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mythological overlap. In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations. For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The Asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes. Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity.
The surviving 2nd-century collection of Orphic Hymns (second century AD) and the Saturnalia of Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (fifth century) are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology. The stated purpose of the Saturnalia is to transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the Euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists.
Modern interpretations
The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against "the traditional attitude of Christian animosity", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a "lie" or fable had been retained. In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere.
Comparative and psychoanalytic approaches
The development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative. Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer, and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology. In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion. Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell. Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship. Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions. Claude Lévi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world.
Sigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochement between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought. Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the "collective unconscious" and the archetypes (inherited "archaic" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it. According to Jung, "myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche." Comparing Jung's methodology with Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal (1990) concludes that "to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the Odyssey, for example, would show how Odysseus's life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth." Karl Kerényi, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth.
Origin theories
Max Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Indo-European (or, in Müller's time, "Aryan") "original" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that "the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century concerning the ancient history of mankind ... was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar = Greek Zeus = Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr". The question of Greek mythology's place in Indo-European studies has generated much scholarship since Müller's time. For example, philologist Georges Dumézil draws a comparison between the Greek Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna, although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected. In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the case of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythology.
It appears that the Mycenaean religion was the mother of the Greek religion and its pantheon already included many divinities that can be found in classical Greece. However, Greek mythology is generally seen as having heavy influence of Pre-Greek and Near Eastern cultures, and as such contains few important elements for the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European religion. Consequently, Greek mythology received minimal scholarly attention in the context of Indo-European comparative mythology until the mid 2000s.
Archaeology and mythography have revealed influence from Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart—more clearly in cult than in myth—of a Near Eastern "dying god". Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite's iconography may spring from Semitic goddesses. There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish. According to Meyer Reinhold, "near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way…into Greek mythology."
In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the indigenous pre-Greek societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Orchomenus. Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connected with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus and Europa, Pasiphaë who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur, etc.). Martin P. Nilsson asserts, based on the representations and general function of the gods, that a lot of Minoan gods and religious conceptions were fused in the Mycenaean religion. and concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaean centres and anchored in prehistoric times. Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories.
Motifs in Western art and literature
The widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in the Renaissance, the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists. From the early years of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the Pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes. Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante in Italy.
In Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature. The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century. Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths. Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's and Mozart's operas.
By the end of the 18th century, Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such as Alfred Tennyson, Keats, Byron and Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma-Tadema). Christoph Gluck, Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music. American authors of the 19th century, such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne, held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature. In more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as James Joyce and André Gide.
References
Notes
Citations
Primary sources (Greek and Roman)
Aeschylus, The Persians. See original text in Perseus program .
Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound. See original text in Perseus program .
Apollodorus, Library and Epitome. See original text in Perseus program .
Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, Book I. See original text in Sacred Texts .
Cicero, De Divinatione. See original text in the Latin Library .
Cicero, Tusculanae resons. See original text in the Latin Library .
Herodotus, The Histories, I. See original text in the Sacred Texts .
Hesiod, Works and Days. Translated into English by Hugh G. Evelyn-White.
Homer, Iliad. See original text in Perseus program .
Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. Translated into English by Gregory Nagy.
Homeric Hymn to Demeter. See original text in Perseus project .
Homeric Hymn to Hermes. See the English translation in the Medieval and Classical Literature Library .
Ovid, Metamorphoses. See original text in the Latin Library .
Pausanias, Description of Greece See original text in Perseus program .
Pindar, Pythian Odes, Pythian 4: For Arcesilas of Cyrene Chariot Race 462 BC. See original text in the Perseus program .
Plato, Apology. See original text in Perseus program .
Plato, Theaetetus. See original text in Perseus program .
Secondary sources
Further reading
Smith, William (1870), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
External links
Library of Classical Mythology Texts translations of works of classical literature
LIMC-France provides databases dedicated to Graeco-Roman mythology and its iconography.
Martin P. Nilsson, The Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology, on Google books
Greek mythology, the age of gods, myths and heroes, Hellenism.Net | wiki |
Wura may refer to:
Wura, Queensland, a locality in the Rockhampton Region, Australia
WURA, a Tejano broadcast radio station licensed to Quantico, Virginia, serving Metro Washington | wiki |
Tomb of Horemheb may refer to either of two tombs made for the Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh Horemheb:
Tomb of Horemheb in Saqqara, made before Horemheb became pharaoh
KV57 in the Valley of the Kings, where Horemheb was buried | wiki |
Steer wrestling, also known as bulldogging, is a rodeo event in which a horse-mounted rider chases a steer, drops from the horse to the steer, then wrestles the steer to the ground by grabbing its horns and pulling it off-balance so that it falls to the ground. The event carries a high risk of injury to the cowboy. Some concerns from the animal-rights community express that the competition may include practices that constitute cruelty to animals, but the injury rate to animals is less than 0.05%. A later PRCA survey of 60,971 animal performances at 198 rodeo performances and 73 sections of "slack" indicated 27 animals were injured, again around 0.05%.
Origins
Historically, steer wrestling was not a part of ranch life. The event originated in the 1890s, and is claimed to have been started by an individual named Bill Pickett, a wild-west show performer said to have caught a runaway steer by wrestling it to the ground. The several versions of the story have some claiming that he developed the idea after he observed how cattle dogs worked with unruly animals.
Modern event
The event features a steer and two mounted cowboys, along with a number of supporting characters. The steers are moved through narrow pathways leading to a chute with spring-loaded doors. A barrier rope is fastened around the steer's neck, which is used to ensure that the steer gets a head start. The rope length is determined by arena length. On one side of the chute is the "hazer", whose job is to ride parallel with the steer once it begins running and ensure it runs in a straight line, on the other side of the chute the "steer wrestler" or "bulldogger" waits behind a taut rope fastened with an easily broken string fastened to the rope on the steer.
When the steer wrestler is ready, he "calls" for the steer by nodding his head and the chute man trips a lever opening the doors. The suddenly freed steer breaks out running, shadowed by the hazer. When the steer reaches the end of his rope, it pops off and simultaneously releases the barrier for the steer wrestler. The steer wrestler attempts to catch up to the running steer, lean over the side of the horse which is running flat out, and grab the horns of the running steer. The steer wrestler then is pulled off his horse by the slowing steer and plants his heels into the dirt, further slowing the steer and himself. He then takes one hand off the horns, reaches down and grabs the nose of the steer pulling the steer off balance and ultimately "throwing" the steer to the ground. Once all four legs are off the ground, an official waves a flag marking the official end and a time is taken. The steer is released and trots off.
Technique
The original method of wrestling the steer to the ground is to lean from the galloping horse running beside the steer, giving the weight of the upper body to the neck to the steer with one hand on the near horn of the steer and the far horn grasped in the crook of the other elbow. One then lets the horse carry his feet by the steer until his feet naturally fall out of the stirrups. The steer wrestler then slides with his feet turned slightly to the left, twisting the head of the steer toward one by pushing down with the near hand and pulling up and in with the far elbow. Finally, the steer wrestler lets go of the near horn, and puts the steer's nose in the crook of his left elbow and throws his weight backwards, causing the steer to become unbalanced and fall to the ground.
Rules
Rules of steer wrestling include:
The bulldogger's horse must not break the rope barrier in front of it at the beginning of a run, but must wait for the animal escaping from the adjacent chute to release the rope. Breaking the rope barrier early adds a 10-second penalty to the bulldogger's time.
If the steer stumbles or falls before the bulldogger brings it down, he must either wait for it to rise or help it up before wrestling it to the ground. *If the bulldogger completely misses the steer on his way down, he will receive a "no time".
Typical professional times are in the range of 3.0 to 10 seconds from the gates opening to the waving of the flag. The steers used today are generally corriente cattle or longhorns, which weigh between 450 and 650 pounds, and the human steer wrestlers typically weigh 180 to 300 pounds. While steer wrestlers have a lower injury rate than bull riders or bronc riders, their injury rate is higher than those of the speed events.
Animal-welfare concerns
Like all other rodeo events, steer wrestling is under fire by animal-rights advocates. Modern rodeos in the United States are closely regulated and have responded to accusations of animal cruelty by instituting a number of rules to guide how rodeo animals are to be managed. In 1994, a survey of 28 sanctioned rodeos was conducted by on-site independent veterinarians. Reviewing 33,991 animal runs, the injury rate was documented at 16 animals or 0.047%, less than one in 2000 animals. A study of rodeo animals in Australia found a similar injury rate. Basic injuries occurred at a rate of 0.072%, or one in 1405, with injuries requiring veterinary attention at 0.036%, or one injury in every 2810 times the animal was used, and transport, yarding, and competition were all included in the study. A later PRCA survey of 60,971 animal performances at 198 rodeo performances and 73 sections of "slack" indicated 27 animals were injured, again around 0.05%.
However, accusations of cruelty in the USA persist. The PRCA acknowledges that they only sanction about 30% of all rodeos, while another 50% are sanctioned by other organizations and 20% are completely unsanctioned. Several animal-rights organizations keep records of accidents and incidents of possible animal abuse. They cite various specific incidents of injury to support their statements, and also point to examples of long-term breakdown, as well as reporting on injuries and deaths suffered by animals in nonrodeo events staged on the periphery of professional rodeo such as chuckwagon races and "suicide runs". In terms of actual statistics on animal injury rate, no more recent independent studies are apparent on animal injury in rodeo than the 1994 study. Groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), though, periodically record incidents of animal injury. According to the ASPCA, practice sessions are often the scene of more severe abuses than competitions.
See also
101 Ranch Wild West Show
Chute dogging
National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum
Bill Pickett
Rodeo
Wild West show
References
External links
Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association
International Professional Rodeo Association
National Little Britches Rodeo Association
National High School Rodeo Association
National Intercollegiate Rodeo Association
Bullfighting
Wrestling
Rodeo events | wiki |
A crossbow is a projectile-shooting weapon.
Crossbow may also refer to:
Business
Crossbow Technology, a California-based electronics company
Media and entertainment
Crossbow (TV series), based on William Tell
Crossbow (video game)
Crossbow (short film), an Australian coming-of-age drama
Crossbow (journal), a UK conservative publication
Military
Operation Crossbow, a World War II campaign
Operation Crossbow (film), based on the above operation
, a destroyer in Britain's Royal Navy
Technology
Crossbow, the project name for OpenSolaris Network Virtualization and Resource Control
Crossbow, the code name for Windows Mobile 6.0
Transportation
Crossbow (proa), an early 1970s asymmetrical catamaran
Crossbow II (proa), a late 1970s successor craft
KTM X-Bow (read as "Crossbow"), a sports car | wiki |
ErP, energy-related products, are products that use energy, or that do not use energy but have an indirect impact on energy consumption, such as water using devices, building insulation products, windows, etc. Compared to ErP, energy-using products (EuP) are products which are dependent on energy input (electricity etc.).
All ErP and EuP are subject to energy efficiency requirements.
ErP Directive
In November 2009, the Eco-Design Directive EuP was replaced with the new energy-related products directive (ErP) 2009/125/EC. The old directive for energy using products only covered products that used energy, such as washing machines or computers. The new ErP-Directive covers products under the old EuP Directive as well as products that are energy-related and do not directly use energy such as water-saving taps and showerheads. With this directive, the European Union regulator laid the groundwork for specific implementing measures affecting a broad range of EuP and ErP. The goal is the reduction of energy along the supply chain: from the design stage throughout production, transport, packaging and so on. Products that comply with this directive are easily recognized by carrying the CE marking. In this case, the CE mark covers product safety and energy efficiency requirements.
See also
European Ecodesign Directive
References
External links
Webinar - Introduction to the ErP Directive
ErP Directive - TÜV SÜD Product Service
Essential links for CE Marking in the UK
Energy conservation | wiki |
In Roman mythology, Vallonia was the goddess of valleys (cf. Latin vallis "valley"). Her name is known from St. Augustine's work The City of God, and is not attested otherwise.
References
Roman goddesses
Nature goddesses | wiki |
Autoimmune skin disease in dogs are a group of diseases that occur in dogs that are caused by the body's immune system, where the body's white blood cells or body's antibodies attack its own tissues or extracellular protein of the skin.
Overview
The immune system has the ability to differentiate between the body's own cells and foreign cells. However, in the dogs affected by auto-immune disease, the immune system loses the ability to distinguish between body's own cells and foreign cells, causing their immune system to attack the body's own cells. Autoimmune diseases in the base layer of the epidermis are characterized by damage to the connective tissue and vesicle formation located below the epidermis layer and the dermis layer below it.
Clinical symptoms
Dogs suffering from autoimmune diseases of the skin may experience a variety of symptoms, including persistent itching and scratching, lesions, wounds, blisters, and other skin damage, as well as loss of skin pigment. Two cases of autoimmune diseases that are often found include Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE) and Pemphigus. DLE can develop into Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE).
The initial stage of DLE is marked by a loss of skin pigment. The skin becomes red and sores appear on the nose. The palate can undergo erosion, ulceration, and injury to the nasal palate, as well as damage to the nostrils and the tissue around the eyes and ears. In chronic and severe cases, visual scar tissue often occurs.
In infections caused by Pemphigus vulgaris, lesions are usually evident in the oral cavity. Sometimes symptoms are characterized by lymphadenopathy, which is characterized by loss of appetite, weakness, fever, and in rare cases, sepsis. Pemphigus foliaceus usually affects areas of the ears and face. Early symptoms are characterized by depigmentation of the nasal palate, dorsal cleft in the mouth, the ear, and the periocular area around the eye. Itching, pain, and weakness of the body have been observed in some cases.
Disease incidence process
There are two mechanisms of tolerance found in the immune system. The first mechanism is positive selection by the thymus, where only T cells are selected. T cells recognize peptides in the Histocompatibility Complex (MHC). The second mechanism is negative selection, where T cells that recognize self-antigens with too high an affinity are removed through the process of apoptosis and are not allowed to enter the body's circulation.
See also
Dog skin disorders
References
Autoimmune diseases
Dog diseases
Cutaneous conditions | wiki |
In railroad operations, reciprocal switching occurs when a customer served exclusively by one railroad company arranges for a different, nearby railroad company to handle their railroad service. Reciprocal switching is used to avoid the phenomenon of being a captive shipper; that is, a shipper which only has access to one railroad company, which therefore effectively has a local monopoly. While shippers and government regulators may promote reciprocal switching to increase competition, the practice may also increase the time it takes for railroad cars to travel to their destinations.
References
Rail transport operations | wiki |
Salt-and-pepper noise, also known as impulse noise, is a form of noise sometimes seen on digital images. This noise can be caused by sharp and sudden disturbances in the image signal. It presents itself as sparsely occurring white and black pixels.
An effective noise reduction method for this type of noise is a median filter or a morphological filter. For reducing either salt noise or pepper noise, but not both, a contraharmonic mean filter can be effective.
See also
Defective pixel
References
Noise (graphics)
Digital photography
Image noise reduction techniques | wiki |
Transfusion medicine (or transfusiology) is the branch of medicine that encompasses all aspects of the transfusion of blood and blood components including aspects related to hemovigilance. It includes issues of blood donation, immunohematology and other laboratory testing for transfusion-transmitted diseases, management and monitoring of clinical transfusion practices, patient blood management, therapeutic apheresis, stem cell collections, cellular therapy, and coagulation. Laboratory management and understanding of state and federal regulations related to blood products are also a large part of the field.
Overview
In most countries, immunohematology and transfusion medicine specialists provide expert opinion on massive transfusions, difficult/incompatible transfusions and rational use of specialised blood product therapy like irradiated blood/ leukodepleted/washed blood products.
The blood donor center is the facility that collects blood components from screened blood donors, either whole blood or separate components such as plasma or platelets only via apheresis. These blood components are then transported to a central location for processing such as fractionation, testing and redistribution. The testing includes determining blood type and testing for infectious diseases. Whole blood is fractionated into red blood cells, platelets and plasma whilst plasma can be further refined into separate components such as albumin, clotting factor concentrates and immunoglobulin.
The blood bank is the section of the clinical laboratory where laboratory scientists store and distribute blood components. Both areas are typically overseen by a specialist in transfusion medicine. Transfusion medicine was earlier a branch of clinical pathology, however the field has now expanded into a clinical, hospital-based specialty. The practice of transfusion medicine involves both laboratory and clinical aspects of transfusion as communication between blood bank and patients, treating specialists and other medical staff is vital in situations such as massive transfusions or transfusion reactions.
To ensure the safety of blood components, regimented procedures and quality assurance systems must be in place covering all aspects of the transfusion chain, from donation to transfusion outcomes. Within hospitals, transfusion committees are established to ensure safe hospital transfusion practice such as compliance with standards and guidelines, reviewing transfusion reactions and management of blood supply. These multidisciplinary committees are composed of transfusion medicine specialists, transfusion nurses, laboratory scientists, clinicians and staff from hospital management and the quality team.
History
In 1628, English physician William Harvey discovered that blood circulates around the body. Soon thereafter, the first blood transfusion was attempted. In 1665 another English doctor Richard Lower successfully used blood transfusion between dogs to keep them alive.
Karl Landsteiner is recognized as the father of transfusion medicine. Landsteiner is credited with the first classification of human blood into the four types (A, B, AB, O) of the ABO blood group system.
National differences and how to specialise
Australia
In Australia, transfusion medicine is a sub-specialty of haematology. Training in transfusion medicine is covered by the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia (RCPA).
Australia has national blood services operated by the Australian Red Cross Blood Service. There are a series of guidelines and standards relevant to the laboratory released by the National Association of Testing Authorities, Australia (NATA), Australian and New Zealand Society of Blood Transfusion (ANZSBT) and RCPA. Similarly, there are a series of clinical practice, patient blood management guidelines by the National Blood Authority.
In Australia, the Serious Transfusion Incident Reporting (STIR) system is in place to capture serious transfusion incidents and near-miss incidents.
Denmark
In Denmark, the subject is covered by the specialty, "Clinical Immunology".
Germany
In Germany, transfusion medicine is an independent specialty. Physicians complete a three-year residency in transfusion medicine and two years in another relevant clinical settings like internal medicine or surgery.
India
In India, Immunohematology and Transfusion Medicine is a medical post graduate specialty (MD) recognized by Medical Council of India since 2009.
Malaysia
Physicians completing their internship may pursue a four-year Master of Medicine (Transfusion Medicine) programme to specialize in transfusion medicine in Malaysia. They are eligible for registration with National Specialist Registry as transfusion medicine specialists after completion of gazettement upon graduation. Transfusion medicine specialists in Malaysia may further their sub-specialty training in the field of immunohaematology, cord blood, patient blood management, cellular therapy, and regenerative medicine.
Norway
In Norway, the subject is covered by the specialty, "Immunology and Transfusion medicine"
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, transfusion medicine is a sub-speciality of hematology.
Serious Hazards of Transfusion (SHOT) collects and analyses reports of adverse events related to transfusion, aiming to improve patient safety. Its reports have led to wider training for medical staff in the UK and a central reporting scheme to allow errors to be reported.
There is the Better Blood Continuing Education Programme, which is organised by the EUB which is part of the SNBTS. The EUB consists of many specialist healthcare professionals. The programme's aim is to improve transfusion medicine practise. The programme is reviewed each annually in January.
In the UK, there are restrictions in place to decrease the risk of the transmission of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.
United States
Physicians from a wide range of backgrounds, including pathology, internal medicine, anesthesiology and pediatrics, are eligible for board certification in Transfusion Medicine following a 1–2 year fellowship. It is a board-certified sub-specialty recognized by the American Board of Pathology. These specialists are often considered consultants for physicians who require expert advice on the subjects listed above. Transfusiology is not a recognized term in the US.
See also
Blood transfusion
List of blood donation agencies
Notes and references
External links
Professional Organization: International Society of Blood Transfusion
Professional Organization: AABB | wiki |
Daing, tuyô, or bilad (literally "sun-dried" or "sun-baked") are dried fish from the Philippines. Fish prepared as daing are usually split open (though they may be left whole), gutted, salted liberally, and then sun and air-dried. There are also "boneless" versions which fillets the fish before the drying process. It was originally a preservation technique, as salt inhibits the growth of bacteria, allowing fish to be stored for long periods of time.
Daing is fried or grilled before consumption, though it can also be wrapped in foil and baked in an oven. It is usually dipped in vinegar and eaten with white rice for breakfast. Notably, it is traditionally paired with champorado (traditional Filipino chocolate rice gruel). It can also be used as an ingredient in other dishes.
Daing is considered poverty food due to its relative cheapness, but has gained significance in Philippine culture as comfort food.
Preparation
Virtually any fish can be prepared as daing. The species of fish used is usually identified by name when sold in markets. For example, in Cebu, the local specialty which uses rabbitfish (Siganus spp., locally known as danggit), is called buwad danggit. Other fish species used include threadfin breams (Nemipteridae, locally known as bisugo); grey mullets (Mugilidae, locally known as banak); and sardines (Sardinella spp. and Dussumieria acuta, locally known as tunsoy or tamban). Daing made from sardines are usually dried whole, though exported daing may be gutted to comply with food laws in other countries. Cuttlefish and squid may also be prepared this way (Tagalog: daing na pusit; Cebuano: bulad pusit).
In Central and Southern Philippines, daing is known as bulad or buwad in Cebuano. The types of daing which use sliced and gutted fish are known as pinikas (literally "halved" referring to the halves of the fish). Northern regions usually do not distinguish between the two, though some may use daing to refer exclusively to the halved and gutted types, while tuyô is used for all types of daing.
Variants
A variant of daing known as labtingaw uses less salt and is dried for a much shorter period (only a few hours). The resulting daing is still slightly moist and meatier than the fully dried variant. Another variant of daing known as lamayo, does away with the drying process altogether. Instead, after the fish is cleaned, it is simply marinated in vinegar, garlic and other spices before frying.
See also
Tinapa
Burong isda
Clipfish
Cuisine of the Philippines
Kipper
Stockfish
References
Philippine cuisine
Fish dishes
Dried fish | wiki |
Benzer Pharmacy, formerly known as Rx Care Pharmacy, is an independent pharmacy chain in the United States with 85 owned stores and 38 franchised stores. Headquartered in Tampa, Florida, the retail pharmacy ranked in position 1500 in the 2015 Inc. 5000 for the fastest-growing private company in America and position 39 out of 100 in the 2015 Florida Fast 100 for the fastest-growing private companies in Florida.
Benzer Pharmacy sells prescription drugs and over-the-counter drugs. The pharmacy also serves patients and physicians in all 50 states through its online refill services. It specializes in compounding, and also focuses on medication management programs for people with complex chronic diseases, including hepatitis, HIV, Multiple sclerosis (MS), Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), Hepatitis C, Dermatology and Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG).
Locations
The first Benzer Pharmacy was opened in 2009 in Michigan. There are locations in Florida, Virginia, North Carolina, California, Arkansas, Alabama, Iowa, Oklahoma, Nevada, Tennessee, Texas, Colorado, Ohio Georgia, Nevada, and Louisiana.
References
Specialty drugs
Pharmacies of the United States
Companies based in Tampa, Florida
Retail companies established in 2009
2009 establishments in Michigan
Health care companies based in Florida | wiki |
A Federal Reserve Bank is a regional bank of the Federal Reserve System, the central banking system of the United States. There are twelve in total, one for each of the twelve Federal Reserve Districts that were created by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. The banks are jointly responsible for implementing the monetary policy set forth by the Federal Open Market Committee, and are divided as follows:
Some banks also possess branches, with the whole system being headquartered at the Eccles Building in Washington, D.C.
History
The Federal Reserve Banks are the most recent institutions that the United States government has created to provide functions of a central bank. Prior institutions have included the First (1791–1811) and Second (1818–1824) Banks of the United States, the Independent Treasury (1846–1920) and the National Banking System (1863–1935). Several policy questions have arisen with these institutions, including the degree of influence by private interests, the balancing of regional economic concerns, the prevention of financial panics, and the type of reserves used to back currency.
A financial crisis known as the Panic of 1907 threatened several New York banks with failure, an outcome avoided through loans arranged by banker J. P. Morgan. Morgan succeeded in restoring confidence to the New York banking community, but the panic revealed weaknesses in the U.S. financial system, such that a private banker could dictate the terms of a bank's survival. In other parts of the country, clearing houses briefly issued their own money notes to carry on business. In response, Congress formed the National Monetary Commission to investigate options for providing currency and credit in future panics. Based on the Commission's findings and other proposals, Congress established the Federal Reserve System in which several Federal Reserve Banks would provide liquidity to banks in different regions of the country. The Federal Reserve Banks opened for business in November 1914.
Legal status
The Reserve Banks are organized as self-financing corporations and empowered by Congress to distribute currency and regulate its value under policies set by the Federal Open Market Committee and the Board of Governors. Their corporate structure reflects the concurrent interests of the government and the member banks, but neither of these interests amounts to outright ownership.
Legal cases involving the Federal Reserve Banks have concluded that they are "private", but can be held or deemed as "governmental" depending on the particular law at issue. In United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation v. Western Union Telegraph Co., the U.S. Supreme Court stated, "Instrumentalities like the national banks or the federal reserve banks, in which there are private interests, are not departments of the government. They are private corporations in which the government has an interest." The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In Lewis v. United States, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: "The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations." The opinion went on to say, however, that: "The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes," such as anti-bribery law. Another relevant decision is Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.
The original Federal Reserve Act provided starting capital for the Reserve Banks by requiring the participating banks to purchase stock in a Reserve Bank in proportion to their assets. This stock pays a dividend out of the Reserve Bank's earnings but otherwise is quite different from common stock in a private corporation. It may not be traded, transferred or borrowed against, and it grants no ownership of the Reserve Bank's surplus. A bank's stock ownership does not give it proportional voting power to choose the Reserve Bank's directors; instead, each member bank receives three ranked votes for six of the Reserve Bank's nine directors, who are subject to qualifications defined in the Federal Reserve Act. If a Reserve Bank were ever dissolved or liquidated, the Act states that members would be eligible to redeem their stock up to its purchase value, while any remaining surplus would belong to the federal government.
Regarding the structural relationship between the twelve Federal Reserve banks and the commercial (member) banks, political science professor Michael D. Reagan explains that,
Function
The Federal Reserve Banks offer various services to the federal government and the private sector:
Acting as depositories for bank reserves
Lending to banks to cover short-term fund deficits, seasonal business cycles, or extraordinary liquidity demands (i.e. runs)
Collecting and clearing payments between banks
Issuing banknotes for general circulation as currency
Administering the deposit accounts of the federal government
Conducting auctions and buybacks of federal debt
Purchasing obligations of non-bank entities via emergency credit facilities authorized by the Board of Governors
Historically the Reserve Banks compensated member banks for keeping reserves on deposit (and therefore unavailable for lending) by paying them a dividend from earnings, limited by law to 6 percent. The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act (EESA) of 2008 additionally authorized the Reserve Banks to pay interest on member bank reserves, while the FAST Act of 2015 imposed an additional dividend limit equal to the yield determined in the most recent 10-year Treasury Note auction.
Although all Reserve Banks have the legal authority to conduct open-market operations, in practice only the Reserve Bank of New York does so. It manages the System Open Market Account (SOMA), a portfolio of government-issued or government-guaranteed securities that is shared among all of the Reserve Banks.
Finances
The Federal Reserve Banks fund their own operations, primarily by distributing the earnings from the System Open Market Account. Expenses and dividends paid are typically a small fraction of a Federal Reserve Bank's revenue each year. The banks may retain part of their earnings in their own surplus funds that are limited to $7.5 billion, system-wide. The rest must be transferred via the Board of Governors to the Secretary of the Treasury, who then deposits it to the Treasury's general fund. When a Reserve Bank's earnings are insufficient to cover its expenses and dividends, it introduces a deferred asset on its books to be realized from future earnings.
The Reserve Banks were historically capitalized through deposits of gold, and in 1933 all privately held monetary gold was transferred to them under Executive Order 6102. This gold was in turn transferred to the Treasury under the Gold Reserve Act of 1934 in exchange for gold certificates that may not be redeemed under current law. The Reserve Banks continue to report these certificates as assets, but they do not represent direct gold ownership and the Board of Governors has stated that "the Federal Reserve does not own gold."
Although the Reserve Banks operate as distinct financial entities, they participate each April in an interdistrict settlement process that has three purposes: settling the payment balances that the Reserve Banks owe each other; allocating ownership of the SOMA portfolio; and establishing uniform gold certificate backing for Federal Reserve Notes. This process connects the Reserve Banks' different functions — monetary policy, payment clearing and currency issue — as an integrated system.
The Federal Reserve Banks conduct ongoing internal audits of their operations to ensure that their accounts are accurate and comply with the Federal Reserve System's accounting principles. The banks are also subject to two types of external auditing. Since 1978 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) has conducted regular audits of the banks' operations. The GAO audits are reported to the public, but they may not review a bank's monetary policy decisions or disclose them to the public. Since 1999 each bank has also been required to submit to an annual audit by an external accounting firm, which produces a confidential report to the bank and a summary statement for the bank's annual report. Some members of Congress continue to advocate a more public and intrusive GAO audit of the Federal Reserve System, but Federal Reserve representatives support the existing restrictions to prevent political influence over long-range economic decisions.
Banks
The Federal Reserve officially identifies Districts by number and Reserve Bank city.
1st District (A): Federal Reserve Bank of Boston
2nd District (B): Federal Reserve Bank of New York
3rd District (C): Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia
4th District (D): Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, with branches in Cincinnati, Ohio and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
5th District (E): Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, with branches in Baltimore, Maryland and Charlotte, North Carolina
6th District (F): Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, with branches in Birmingham, Alabama; Jacksonville, Florida; Miami, Florida; Nashville, Tennessee; and New Orleans, Louisiana
7th District (G): Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, with a branch in Detroit, Michigan.
8th District (H): Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, with branches in Little Rock, Arkansas; Louisville, Kentucky; and Memphis, Tennessee
9th District (I): Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, with a branch in Helena, Montana
10th District (J): Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, with branches in Denver, Colorado; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; and Omaha, Nebraska
11th District (K): Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, with branches in El Paso, Texas; Houston, Texas; and San Antonio, Texas
12th District (L): Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, with branches in Los Angeles, California; Portland, Oregon; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Seattle, Washington
The New York Federal Reserve district is the largest by asset value. San Francisco, followed by Kansas City and Minneapolis, represent the largest geographical districts. Missouri is the only state to have two Federal Reserve Banks (Kansas City and St. Louis). California, Florida, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Texas are the only states which have two or more Federal Reserve Bank branches seated within their states, with Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee having branches of two different districts within the same state. In the 12th District, the Seattle Branch serves Alaska, and the San Francisco Bank serves Hawaii. New York, Richmond, and San Francisco are the only banks that oversee non-U.S. state territories. The System serves these territories as follows: the New York Bank serves the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands; the Richmond Bank serves the District of Columbia; the San Francisco Bank serves American Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The Board of Governors last revised the branch boundaries of the System in February 1996.
Assets
List of current presidents and CEOs of Federal Reserve Banks
See also
Chair of the Federal Reserve
Criticism of the Federal Reserve
Federal funds rate
Federal Reserve Act
List of Federal Reserve branches
List of regions of the United States#Federal Reserve Banks
Citations
General and cited sources
External links
The Twelve Federal Reserve Districts
Federal Reserve Board Annual Reports
Federal Reserve System
de:Federal Reserve Bank | wiki |
When a patient has multiple abnormalities (multiple anomaly, multiple deformity), they have a congenital abnormality that can not be primarily identified with a single system of the body or single disease process. Most medical conditions can have systemic sequelae, but multiple abnormalities occur when the effects on multiple systems is immediately obvious.
References
External links
Congenital disorders | wiki |
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