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My Town may refer to:
Mytown (organization) (Multicultural Youth Tour of What's Now), a youth organization in Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.
In music:
My Town (album), an album by Montgomery Gentry
"My Town" (Montgomery Gentry song), the title track
Mytown, an Irish boy band, a predecessor of the pop rock band The Script
Mytown (album), their self-titled album
"My Town", a song by Buck-O-Nine from Twenty-Eight Teeth
"My Town" (Glass Tiger song), a song by Glass Tiger from Simple Mission
"My Town" (Hollywood Undead song), a song from American Tragedy | wiki |
Ecuador Time (ECT), as named by the IANA time zone database, is the time observed in mainland Ecuador since 1931. Ecuador Time is at UTC-05:00 and has no daylight saving, except for a brief period in the 1990s during the government of president Sixto Durán Ballén.
This means Ecuador without Galápagos Province, which observed Ecuador Time until 1986, when it switched to Galápagos Time (GALT), at UTC-06:00.
References | wiki |
Released for Death is a 1938 crime thriller novel by the British writer Henry Wade. Wade was a writer of the Golden Age of Detective Fiction, best known for his series featuring Inspector Poole. This was one of a number of stand-alone novels he wrote. It has elements of an inverted detective story, rather than the traditional closed circle of suspects.
Synopsis
Two convicts at Hadstone prison are approaching the end of their sentences. Shortly after their release an ex-prison warder with whom they had clashed is murdered, with all the evidence pointing to one of the men. The investigating detective Constable Bragg begins to believe he may have been framed by his fellow convict.
References
Bibliography
Magill, Frank Northen . Critical Survey of Mystery and Detective Fiction: Authors, Volume 4. Salem Press, 1988.
Reilly, John M. Twentieth Century Crime & Mystery Writers. Springer, 2015.
1938 British novels
Novels by Henry Wade
British mystery novels
British crime novels
British detective novels
British thriller novels
Constable & Co. books
Novels set in England | wiki |
The Lancaster Amish affiliation is the largest affiliation among the Old Order Amish and as such a subgroup of Amish. Its origin and largest settlement is Lancaster County in Pennsylvania. The settlement in Lancaster County, founded in 1760 near Churchtown is the oldest Amish settlement that is still in existence.
Practice and belief
Even though the Lancaster affiliation is quite liberal concerning the use of technology compared to other Amish affiliations (see table below), it is an affiliation that practices strenge Meidung (strict shunning). Lancaster affiliation buggies have gray tops.
Settlements and districts
Lancaster affiliation had 141 church districts in 1991 and 286 in 2010. In 2011 it was present in eight states in 37 settlements with 291 church districts. It represents about 15 percent of the Old Order Amish population, that is about 45,000 out of about 300,000 in 2015.
References
Literature
Donald B. Kraybill, Karen M. Johnson-Weiner and Steven M. Nolt: The Amish, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore MD 2013.
Charles Hurst and David McConnell: An Amish Paradox. Diversity and Change in the World's Largest Amish Community, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore MD 2010
Steven Nolt and Thomas J. Meyers: Plain Diversity: Amish Cultures and Identities, Baltimore MD 2007.
Donald B. Kraybill: The Riddle of Amish Culture, Baltimore MD 2002.
Old Order Amish | wiki |
Susan Partridge may refer to:
Susan Partridge (athlete) (born 1980), British long-distance runner
Susan Partridge (tennis) (born 1930), British tennis player
Susan Partridge, a character played by Amanda Donohoe in the film Foreign Body | wiki |
An acoustic board is a board made from sound absorbing materials, designed to provide sound insulation. Between two outer walls sound absorbing material is inserted and the wall is porous. Thus, when sound passes through an acoustic board, the intensity of sound is decreased. The loss of sound energy is balanced by producing heat energy.
Uses
They are used in auditoriums, halls, seminar rooms, libraries, courts and wherever sound insulation is needed. Acoustic boards are also used in speaker boxes.
See also
Acoustics
Architectural acoustics
Room acoustics
Absorption (acoustics)
References
External links
Acoustic Board
Acoustics
Building engineering | wiki |
This is a list of public art in Coventry, in the West Midlands, England. This list applies only to works of public art accessible in an outdoor public space. For example, this does not include artwork visible inside a museum.
Central Coventry
Coventry Cathedral
Herbert Art Gallery and Museum
Millennium Place
Coventry Council House
Greyfriars Green
Broadgate and Hertford Street
Bull Yard
Coventry University
Belgrade Theatre
Other city centre areas
Coventry Ring Road
Coventry Canal
Foleshill
References
Coventry
Public art | wiki |
Choir Boys can refer to:
the plural of Choir boy, i.e. singers in a boys - or mixed choir (especially church - and/or school choirs)
Boy soprano
Choir Boys (SpongeBob SquarePants), an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants
The Choirboys (boyband)
The Choirboys, an Australian Hard rock band. | wiki |
Scrambler, qui signifie « brouilleur » en anglais, désigne plusieurs éléments :
Scrambler, un personnage de fiction issue de la série X-Men ;
Scrambler, le quad bleu dans Bob le bricoleur ;
Scrambler, une motocyclette ;
Scrambler, le nom d'un épisode de RoboCop ;
Scrambler, un type de manège développé par Eli Bridge Company ;
des modèles de motos, par exemple :
Triumph Scrambler,
Voxan Scrambler. | wiki |
Retroreflectors are devices which reflect light back to its source. Five were left at five sites on the Moon by three crews of the Apollo program and two remote landers of the Lunokhod program. Lunar reflectors have enabled precise measurement of the Earth–Moon distance since 1969 using lunar laser ranging.
Successfully placed reflectors
Attempted and planned reflectors
Gallery
See also
Lunar laser ranging
List of artificial objects on the Moon
List of missions to the Moon
References
Lunar science
Space lists | wiki |
Winter and Summer may refer to:
An episode of Barney and Friends
A Sumerian creation myth, the Debate between Winter and Summer | wiki |
Interruptus may refer to:
Bromus interruptus, commonly known as the interrupted brome, a plant in the true grass family
Calliostoma interruptus, a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Calliostomatidae
Devario interruptus, very similar to Devario shanensis
Eristalis interruptus, a European species of hoverfly
Melanochromis interruptus, a species of fish in the family Cichlidae
Nicrophorus interruptus, a burying beetle described by Stephens in 1830
Passalus interruptus, a beetle of the family Passalidae
Polypogon interruptus, commonly known as ditch beard grass, is a species of grass
Uraeotyphlus interruptus, a species of caecilian found in India
See also
Coitus interruptus, birth-control technique in which a man withdraws his penis from a woman prior to ejaculation during intercourse | wiki |
Stylidium mitrasacmoides is a taxonomic synonym that has been applied to the following species:
Stylidium nominatum - Stylidium mitrasacmoides is an illegitimate name applied to this species and was described in 1979, later being renamed to avoid the earlier usage.
Stylidium tenerrimum - Stylidium mitrasacmoides is a valid synonym of this species and was described by Ferdinand von Mueller in 1859.
Stylidium by synonymy | wiki |
Guilty: Liberal "Victims" and Their Assault on America is a book by American far-right author Ann Coulter, published in 2009. In the book, she argues that liberals are always playing the victim – when in fact, as she sees it, they are the victimizers. The book reached #2 on the New York Times best-sellers list and was her seventh book to appear on the list.
References
External links
After Words interview with Coulter on Guilty, March 14, 2009
OnTheIssues.org's book review and excerpts
2009 non-fiction books
Books about politics of the United States
Books by Ann Coulter
Books critical of modern liberalism in the United States
English-language books | wiki |
Pigmentation disorders are disturbances of human skin color. There may be a loss or reduction, which may be related to loss of melanocytes or the inability of melanocytes to produce melanin or transport melanosomes correctly.
Most pigmentation disorders involve the underproduction or overproduction of melanin.
References
External links | wiki |
Eugene Sering Acevedo is a Filipino business executive. He is the President and chief executive officer of Rizal Commercial Banking Corporation (RCBC),
Previous to this, he held senior leadership positions in three banks. He was president and CEO of Philippine National Bank, Chairman of CitySavings, and managing director with Citibank
He was born in Cebu City, was raised in Surigao del Sur, and studied at the De La Salle John Bosco College in Bislig, where he graduated high school valedictorian.
Before becoming a banker, Acevedo was a Physics Lecturer at the University of the Philippines - National Institute of Physics.
Acevedo took his master's degree in Business Management at Asian Institute of Management where he was the Javier Nepomuceno Scholar, and had the highest GPA in his class. He also completed the Advanced Management Program at the Harvard Business School.
He graduated BS Physics, magna cum laude, from the University of San Carlos where he was a DOST scholar, National Science and Technology Awardee for Academic Excellence, Student Council Chairman and, later, recipient of the Outstanding Alumnus Award.
Acevedo is keenly interested in banking innovation and transformation. He is also armed with a wide and deep understanding of digital technology and strategy, with certifications from leading global educational institutions. He completed the Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence Programs of MIT, the Oxford Fintech Programme, and the Berkeley Digital Transformation Course. He is a Digital Marketing Professional certified by The Wharton School, has User Experience accreditation from the British Computer Society Chartered Institute of IT and is a qualified Blockchain and Crypto-currency Expert with the Blockchain Council. He has also completed the Executive Data Science Certification of the Johns Hopkins University.
He is a Fellow of the Institute of Corporate Directors, Trustee of De La Salle John Bosco College, Chairman of the FINEX Financial Inclusion Committee, and starting 2019, an Executive-in-Residence at the Asian Institute of Management.
Current Directorships
Acevedo also serves as Chairman of Rizal Microbank and RCBC Forex Brokers Corporation, Vice Chairman of RCBC Leasing and Finance Corporation, Director of RCBC Rental Corporation, RCBC Capital Corporation, RCBC International Finance Limited and RCBC Investment Limited.
References
Living people
University of San Carlos alumni
Asian Institute of Management alumni
Filipino chief executives
Filipino chairpersons of corporations
Year of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
Carlo Maluta – ex calciatore e allenatore di calcio italiano
Michele Maluta – imprenditore e dirigente sportivo italiano
Rina Maluta – pittrice italiana
Sean Maluta – wrestler samoano naturalizzato statunitense | wiki |
IEEE 802.3u est une norme ratifiée en 1995 et appartenant au groupe de normes IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet). IEEE 802.3u est aussi un groupe de travail du sous-comité IEEE 802.3 aujourd'hui dissous. Cette norme, connue également sous le nom de Fast Ethernet, traite principalement de la mise en œuvre de liaisons filaires full duplex permettant des transferts de données jusqu'à un débit de 100 Mbit/s.
Notes et références
Articles connexes
100BASE-BX
100BASE-FX
100BASE-SX
100BASE-T
100BASE-TX
100BASE-T4
Fast Ethernet
IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.3
Nouveauté en 1995 | wiki |
James Hahn (born 1950) was the 40th mayor of Los Angeles, California. James Hahn or Jim Hahn may also refer to:
James F. Hahn (born 1935), American politician from Iowa
James Hahn (golfer) (born 1981), American professional golfer
James Hahn, United States Navy officer for whom Hahn Island, Antarctica, was named | wiki |
Pennsylvania Lines LLC was a limited liability company that owned railroad lines in the United States that are owned and operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway. The company was formed in 1998 to own Conrail lines assigned to Norfolk Southern in the split of Conrail between Norfolk Southern and CSX Transportation; operations were switched over on June 1, 1999. The company is named after the old Pennsylvania Railroad, whose old main line was a line of the new company. In November, 2003, the Surface Transportation Board approved a plan allowing Norfolk Southern to fully absorb Pennsylvania Lines LLC, which was done on August 27, 2004.
See also
New York Central Lines LLC
References
Surface Transportation Board, Docket FD_33388_0, CSX Corporation and CSX Transportation, Inc., Norfolk Southern Corporation and Norfolk Southern Railway Company--control and operating leases/agreements--Conrail Inc. and Consolidated Rail Corporation, July 23, 1998
Petition for Supplemental Order - detailing the absorption of Pennsylvania Lines, LLC by Norfolk Southern
Predecessors of the Norfolk Southern Railway
Pennsylvania Railroad
Conrail
Railway companies established in 1998
Railway companies disestablished in 2004 | wiki |
The following is a list of All-American Girls Professional Baseball League players who formed part of the circuit during its twelve years of existence.
See also
List of All-American Girls Professional Baseball League players (D–G)
List of All-American Girls Professional Baseball League players (H–L)
List of All-American Girls Professional Baseball League players (M–R)
List of All-American Girls Professional Baseball League players (S–Z)
A
B
C
* Callaghan also played under her married name of Helen Candaele.
References
A | wiki |
Carbon filament may refer to:
A carbon filament in an incandescent light bulb
Filaments in the synthesis of carbon fibre
See also
Filamentous carbon | wiki |
Anticonvulsants (also known as antiepileptic drugs or antiseizure drugs) are a diverse group of pharmacological agents used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers, and for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Anticonvulsants suppress the excessive rapid firing of neurons during seizures. Anticonvulsants also prevent the spread of the seizure within the brain.
Conventional antiepileptic drugs may block sodium channels or enhance γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) function. Several antiepileptic drugs have multiple or uncertain mechanisms of action. Next to the voltage-gated sodium channels and components of the GABA system, their targets include GABAA receptors, the GAT-1 GABA transporter, and GABA transaminase. Additional targets include voltage-gated calcium channels, SV2A, and α2δ. By blocking sodium or calcium channels, antiepileptic drugs reduce the release of excitatory glutamate, whose release is considered to be elevated in epilepsy, but also that of GABA. This is probably a side effect or even the actual mechanism of action for some antiepileptic drugs, since GABA can itself, directly or indirectly, act proconvulsively. Another potential target of antiepileptic drugs is the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha.
Some anticonvulsants have shown antiepileptogenic effects in animal models of epilepsy. That is, they either prevent the development of epilepsy or can halt or reverse the progression of epilepsy. However, no drug has been shown in human trials to prevent epileptogenesis (the development of epilepsy in an individual at risk, such as after a head injury).
Terminology
Anticonvulsants are more accurately called antiepileptic drugs (abbreviated "AEDs"), and are often referred to as antiseizure drugs because they provide symptomatic treatment only and have not been demonstrated to alter the course of epilepsy.
Approval
The usual method of achieving approval for a drug is to show it is effective when compared against placebo, or that it is more effective than an existing drug. In monotherapy (where only one drug is taken) it is considered unethical by most to conduct a trial with placebo on a new drug of uncertain efficacy. This is because untreated epilepsy leaves the patient at significant risk of death. Therefore, almost all new epilepsy drugs are initially approved only as adjunctive (add-on) therapies. Patients whose epilepsy is uncontrolled by their medication (i.e., it is refractory to treatment) are selected to see if supplementing the medication with the new drug leads to an improvement in seizure control. Any reduction in the frequency of seizures is compared against a placebo. The lack of superiority over existing treatment, combined with lacking placebo-controlled trials, means that few modern drugs have earned FDA approval as initial monotherapy. In contrast, Europe only requires equivalence to existing treatments and has approved many more. Despite their lack of FDA approval, the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society still recommend a number of these new drugs as initial monotherapy.
Drugs
In the following list, the dates in parentheses are the earliest approved use of the drug.
Aldehydes
Paraldehyde (1882). One of the earliest anticonvulsants. It is still used to treat status epilepticus, particularly where there are no resuscitation facilities.
Aromatic allylic alcohols
Stiripentol (2007). Indicated for the treatment of Dravet syndrome.
Barbiturates
Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia. The following are classified as anticonvulsants:
Phenobarbital (1912). See also the related drug primidone.
Methylphenobarbital (1935). Known as mephobarbital in the US. No longer marketed in the UK.
Barbexaclone (1982). Only available in some European countries.
Phenobarbital was the main anticonvulsant from 1912 until the development of phenytoin in 1938. Today, phenobarbital is rarely used to treat epilepsy in new patients since there are other effective drugs that are less sedating. Phenobarbital sodium injection can be used to stop acute convulsions or status epilepticus, but a benzodiazepine such as lorazepam, diazepam or midazolam is usually tried first. Other barbiturates only have an anticonvulsant effect at anaesthetic doses.
Benzodiazepines
The benzodiazepines are a class of drugs with hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsive, amnestic and muscle relaxant properties. Benzodiazepines act as a central nervous system depressant. The relative strength of each of these properties in any given benzodiazepine varies greatly and influences the indications for which it is prescribed. Long-term use can be problematic due to the development of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects and dependency. Of many drugs in this class, only a few are used to treat epilepsy:
Clobazam (1979). Notably, used on a short-term basis around menstruation in women with catamenial epilepsy.
Clonazepam (1974).
Clorazepate (1972).
The following benzodiazepines are used to treat status epilepticus:
Diazepam (1963). Can be given rectally by trained care-givers.
Midazolam (N/A). Increasingly being used as an alternative to diazepam. This water-soluble drug is squirted into the side of the mouth but not swallowed. It is rapidly absorbed by the buccal mucosa.
Lorazepam (1972). Given by injection in hospital.
Nitrazepam, temazepam, and especially nimetazepam are powerful anticonvulsant agents, however their use is rare due to an increased incidence of side effects and strong sedative and motor-impairing properties.
Bromides
Potassium bromide (1857). The earliest effective treatment for epilepsy. There would not be a better drug until phenobarbital in 1912. It is still used as an anticonvulsant for dogs and cats but is no longer used in humans.
Carbamates
Felbamate (1993). This effective anticonvulsant has had its usage severely restricted due to rare but life-threatening side effects.
Cenobamate (2019).
Carboxamides
The following are carboxamides:
Carbamazepine (1963). A popular anticonvulsant that is available in generic formulations.
Oxcarbazepine (1990). A derivative of carbamazepine that has similar efficacy and is better tolerated and is also available generically.
Eslicarbazepine acetate (2009).
Fatty acids
The following are fatty-acids:
The valproates — valproic acid, sodium valproate, and divalproex sodium (1967).
Vigabatrin (1989).
Progabide (1987).
Tiagabine (1996).
Vigabatrin and progabide are also analogs of GABA.
Fructose derivatives
Topiramate (1995).
Gabapentinoids
Gabapentinoids are used in, epilepsy, neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia, restless leg syndrome, opioid withdrawal and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Gabapentinoids block Voltage gated Calcium channels, mainly the N-Type, and P/Q type calcium channels. The following are Gabapentinoids:
Pregabalin (2004)
Mirogabalin (2019) (Japan only)
Gabapentin (1993)
Gabapentin Encarbil (2011).
Gabapentin Extended Release (Gralise) (1996).
Gabapentinoids are analogs of GABA, but they do not act on GABA. They have analgesic anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects.
Hydantoins
The following are hydantoins:
Ethotoin (1957).
Phenytoin (1938).
Mephenytoin.
Fosphenytoin (1996).
Oxazolidinediones
The following are oxazolidinediones:
Paramethadione.
Trimethadione (1946).
Ethadione.
Propionates
Beclamide.
Pyrimidinediones
Primidone (1952).
Pyrrolidines
Brivaracetam (2016).
Etiracetam.
Levetiracetam (1999).
Seletracetam.
Succinimides
The following are succinimides:
Ethosuximide (1955).
Phensuximide.
Mesuximide.
Sulfonamides
Acetazolamide (1953).
Sultiame.
Methazolamide.
Zonisamide (2000).
Triazines
Lamotrigine (1990).
Ureas
Pheneturide.
Phenacemide.
Valproylamides
Valpromide.
Valnoctamide.
Other
Perampanel.
Stiripentol.
Pyridoxine (1939).
Treatment guidelines
According to guidelines by the American Academy of Neurology and American Epilepsy Society, mainly based on a major article review in 2004, patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy who require treatment can be initiated on standard anticonvulsants such as carbamazepine, phenytoin, valproic acid/valproate semisodium, phenobarbital, or on the newer anticonvulsants gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine or topiramate. The choice of anticonvulsants depends on individual patient characteristics. Both newer and older drugs are generally equally effective in new onset epilepsy. The newer drugs tend to have fewer side effects. For newly diagnosed partial or mixed seizures, there is evidence for using gabapentin, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine or topiramate as monotherapy. Lamotrigine can be included in the options for children with newly diagnosed absence seizures.
History
The first anticonvulsant was bromide, suggested in 1857 by the British gynecologist Charles Locock who used it to treat women with "hysterical epilepsy" (probably catamenial epilepsy). Bromides are effective against epilepsy, and also cause impotence, which is not related to its anti-epileptic effects. Bromide also suffered from the way it affected behaviour, introducing the idea of the "epileptic personality" which was actually a result of medication. Phenobarbital was first used in 1912 for both its sedative and antiepileptic properties. By the 1930s, the development of animal models in epilepsy research led to the development of phenytoin by Tracy Putnam and H. Houston Merritt, which had the distinct advantage of treating epileptic seizures with less sedation. By the 1970s, a National Institutes of Health initiative, the Anticonvulsant Screening Program, headed by J. Kiffin Penry, served as a mechanism for drawing the interest and abilities of pharmaceutical companies in the development of new anticonvulsant medications.
Marketing approval history
The following table lists anticonvulsant drugs together with the date their marketing was approved in the US, UK and France. Data for the UK and France are incomplete. The European Medicines Agency approves drugs throughout the European Union. Some of the drugs are no longer marketed.
Pregnancy
During pregnancy, the metabolism of several anticonvulsants is affected. There may be an increase in the clearance and resultant decrease in the blood concentration of lamotrigine, phenytoin, and to a lesser extent carbamazepine, and possibly decreases the level of levetiracetam and the active oxcarbazepine metabolite, the monohydroxy derivative. Therefore, these drugs should be monitored during use in pregnancy.
Many of the common used medications, such as valproate, phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobarbitol, gabapentin have been reported to cause increased risk of birth defects. Among anticonvulsants, levetiracetam and lamotrigine seem to carry the lowest risk of causing birth defects. The risk of untreated epilepsy is believed to be greater than the risk of adverse effects caused by these medications, necessitating continuation of antiepileptic treatment.
Valproic acid, and its derivatives such as sodium valproate and divalproex sodium, causes cognitive deficit in the child, with an increased dose causing decreased intelligence quotient. On the other hand, evidence is conflicting for carbamazepine regarding any increased risk of congenital physical anomalies or neurodevelopmental disorders by intrauterine exposure. Similarly, children exposed lamotrigine or phenytoin in the womb do not seem to differ in their skills compared to those who were exposed to carbamazepine.
There is inadequate evidence to determine if newborns of women with epilepsy taking anticonvulsants have a substantially increased risk of hemorrhagic disease of the newborn.
Regarding breastfeeding, some anticonvulsants probably pass into breast milk in clinically significant amounts, including primidone and levetiracetam. On the other hand, valproate, phenobarbital, phenytoin, and carbamazepine probably are not transferred into breast milk in clinically important amounts.
Data from studies conducted on women taking antiepileptic drugs for non-epileptic reasons, including depression and bipolar disorder, show that if high doses of the drugs are taken during the first trimester of pregnancy then there is the potential of an increased risk of congenital malformations.
Pregnancy planning is being explored as a method that could decrease the risk of possible birth defects. Since the first trimester is the most susceptible period for fetal development, planning a routine antiepileptic drug dose that is safer for the first trimester could be beneficial to prevent pregnancy complications.
In animal models, several anticonvulsant drugs have been demonstrated to induce neuronal apoptosis in the developing brain.
References
Further reading
Anti epileptic activity of novel substituted fluorothiazole derivatives by Devid Chutia, RGUHS
External links
Drug Reference for FDA Approved Epilepsy Drugs
Epilepsy | wiki |
Korean fried chicken, usually called chikin (, from the English "chicken") in Korea, refers to a variety of fried chicken dishes created in South Korea, including the basic huraideu-chicken (, from the English "fried chicken") and spicy yangnyeom chicken (, "seasoned chicken"). In South Korea, fried chicken is consumed as a meal, an appetizer, anju (food that is served and eaten with drinks), or as an after-meal snack.
Korean fried chicken was described by Julia Moskin of The New York Times as a "thin, crackly and almost transparent crust". The chicken is usually seasoned with spices, sugar, and salt, prior to and after being fried. Korean fried chicken restaurants commonly use small- or medium-sized chickens; these younger chickens result in more tender meat. After frying, the chicken is usually hand-painted with sauce using a brush in order to evenly coat the chicken with a thin layer. Pickled radishes and beer (or carbonated drink) are often served with Korean fried chicken.
Terminology
The Korean word chikin () refers to fried chicken (and occasionally also to roasted chicken), while the name for the domesticated fowl is dak (). The word is shortened from peuraideu chikin (), which is a transliteration of the English phrase "fried chicken". According to the National Institute of Korean Language, the word chikin () refers to "a dish made by coating chopped chicken with flour, and frying or baking it". Fried chicken that is not chopped before frying is called tongdak (, "whole chicken"). Both chikin and tongdak are occasionally referred to as dak-twigim (, "chicken fritter").
The unshortened form peuraideu chikin, despite being the "correct" transliteration, is not as popular in Korea. The more commonly used form, huraideu-chikin (), may have been adopted in Korean owing to residual influence from the Japanese convention that persisted in Korea in the 1970s. (The Japanese forced occupation only ended in 1945.) The phrase huraideu-chikin is often shortened to huraideu () and refers to a fried chicken dish without the added seasonings post-frying. This is often used to differentiate it from yangnyeom-chikin (, "seasoned chicken"). The National Institute of Korean Language does not recognize huraideu-chikin as the conventional name, but insists on the transliteration (and transvocalization) peuraideu-chikin, which it also insists should be "refined" to dakgogi-twigim (, "chicken meat fritter").
History
The recipe for frying chicken was already a form of cooking in the 15th century, so it is presumed that it has been cooked since the Goryeo Dynasty. Fried chicken was cooked and served with a special seasoning made of vinegar and soy sauce under the name of "Pogye" (포계) in early Joseon dynasty.
The trend of eating chicken began in Korea during the late 1960s, when Myeongdong Yeongyang Center in Seoul began selling whole chicken roasted over an electric oven. It was not until the 1970s when cooking oil was widely available that the modern fried chicken started appearing in Korea. The first modern Korean fried chicken franchise, Lims Chicken, was established in 1977 in the basement of Shinsegae Department Store, Chungmu-ro, Seoul by Yu Seok-ho. Yu stated that his idea of selling smaller, individual pieces of fried chicken in Korea came along in 1975 when he went to go study abroad in the United States. He began frying chicken there, and received accolades for creating 'ginseng chicken'. He started his business in Korea with six pieces of fried chicken between ￦280 to ￦330, and sold around 900 pieces as his beginning career. It was "embraced as an excellent food pairing for draft beer"; the word for the pairing, "chimaek", is a portmanteau of "chicken" and "maekju", the Korean word for beer.
The well-known variety with spicy coatings, also known as yangnyeom-chikin, had its history begin in 1982 by Yun Jonggye, who was running a fried chicken restaurant (later Mexican Chicken) at Daegu. He noticed that customers in his restaurant were struggling to chew on the hard, crisp layers of the fried chicken, and led to inconveniences such as scraped palates. Yun decided to pull a twist on the traditional fried chicken to soften the hard shells of the chicken, and appease more Korean customers by marinating it sweet and spicy. Yang states that despite the spicy flavor, the very first yangnyeom-chikin did not include gochujang as one of their marinating ingredients.
Fried chicken was further popularized when Kentucky Fried Chicken opened stores in South Korea in 1984.
The Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s contributed to the number of restaurants selling fried chicken as laid off workers opened chicken restaurants. In recent years, owing to market saturation in Korea, many of Korea's major fried chicken chains, such as Mexicana Chicken, Genesis BBQ, Kyochon Chicken and Pelicana Chicken, have expanded to set up new presences in the United States, China, Canada, and Southeast Asia.
By 2013 there were more than 20,000 fried chicken restaurants in South Korea serving fried chicken and by 2017, 36,000. Almost a third of the chicken consumed in South Korea is fried; Smithsonian calls it a "ubiquitous staple".
During the COVID-19 pandemic, international chain Bonchon was one of few restaurant chains to continue to add stores.
Varieties
By seasoning
Huraideu-chikin (, "fried chicken") – often simply referred to as huraideu (), this is the basic fried chicken.
Yangnyeom-chikin (, "seasoned chicken") – fried chicken coated in gochujang-based sweet and spicy sauce.
Banban (, "half-half") – shortened from yangnyeom ban, huraideu ban (, "half yangnyeom, half huraideu") is often used to refer to chicken that is served half seasoned and half plain.
Ganjang-chikin (, "soy sauce chicken") – fried chicken coated in ganjang-based sweet and savoury sauce, which is often also garlicky.
Padak (, "scallion chicken") – fried chicken topped with or smothered with a large amount of thinly shredded scallions.
Honey-Chikin (허니 치킨, "honey sauce chicken") - It is based on soy sauce like soy sauce chicken, but it is characterized by sweeter and more sticky with honey.
By style
Tongdak (, "whole chicken") – also called yennal-tongdak (, "old-time whole chicken"), this is a 1970s-style whole chicken deep-fried in oil.
Sunsal-chikin (, "pure flesh chicken") – boneless chicken.
Korean brands
bb.q Chicken (an abbreviation for “best of the best quality”, not barbecue), which has featured in numerous Korean dramas like Guardian: The Lonely and Great God and Crash Landing on You
BHC
Bonchon Chicken (본촌치킨)
Buloman Sutbul Barbecue (불로만 숯불 바베큐)
Chungman Chicken (충만치킨)
Dasarang (다사랑)
Goobne Chicken (굽네치킨)
Jadam Chicken (자담치킨), the first and only Korean fried chicken brand that uses Animal welfare certified chicken since 2017
Kyochon (교촌)
Mexicana (멕시카나)
Nene Chicken (네네치킨)
Norang Tongdak (노랑통닭)
Puradak (푸라닭)
Gcova Chicken (지코바치킨)
Han's Chimaek (한스 치맥)
See also
Chimaek
References
Deep fried foods
South Korean chicken dishes
Fried chicken | wiki |
Galápagos Time (GALT) is the time observed since 1986 in the province of Galápagos, which is coterminous with the Región Insular (Insular Region) of western Ecuador. Galápagos Time is at UTC-06:00. The rest of Ecuador, the mainland, observes Ecuador Time.
Time zones
Galápagos Province | wiki |
Republic Day is the day when India marks and celebrates the date on which the Constitution of India came into effect on 26 January 1950. This replaced the Government of India Act 1935 as the governing document of India, thus turning the nation into a republic separate from British Raj. The constitution was adopted by the Indian Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950. 26 January was chosen as the date for Republic Day as it was on that day in 1930 when the Declaration of Indian Independence was proclaimed by the Indian National Congress.
History
India achieved independence from the British Raj on 15 August 1947 following the Indian independence movement. The independence came through the Indian Independence Act 1947 (10 & 11 Geo 6 c 30), an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth (later Commonwealth of Nations). India obtained its independence on 15 August 1947 as a constitutional monarchy with George VI as head of state and the Earl Mountbatten as governor-general. The country, though, did not yet have a permanent constitution; instead its laws were based on the modified colonial Government of India Act 1935. On 29 August 1947, a resolution was moved for the appointment of Drafting Committee, which was appointed to draft a permanent constitution, with Dr B R Ambedkar as chairman. While India's Independence Day celebrates its freedom from British Rule, the Republic Day celebrates the coming into force of its constitution. A draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Constituent Assembly on 4 November 1947. The Assembly met for 166 days in public sessions spanning two years, 11 months, and 17 days before adopting the Constitution. The 308 members of the Assembly signed two handwritten copies of the document (one in Hindi and one in English) on 24 January 1950, after much deliberation and some changes. Two days later which was on 26 January 1950, it came into effect throughout the whole nation. On that day, Dr. Rajendra Prasad's began his first term of office as President of the Indian Union. The Constituent Assembly became the Parliament of India under the transitional provisions of the new Constitution. On the eve of Republic Day, the President addresses the nation.
On November 25, 1949, in his final speech to the Constituent Assembly, Dr B R Ambedkar remarked about the potential and pitfalls of life after January 26, 1950,
Celebrations
The main Republic Day celebration is held in the national capital, New Delhi, at the Rajpath (officially named 'Kartavya Path'), before the President of India. On this day, ceremonious parades take place at the Kartvya path, which are performed as a tribute to India; its unity in diversity and rich cultural heritage.
Delhi Republic Day parade
The Delhi Republic Day parade is held in the capital, New Delhi and is organised by the Ministry of Defence. Commencing from the gates of the Rashtrapati Bhavan (the President's residence), Raisina Hill on Rajpath past the India Gate, this event is the main attraction of India's Republic Day Celebrations and lasts for three days. The parade showcases India's Defence Capability, Cultural and Social Heritage. Nine to twelve different regiments of the Indian Army in addition to the Navy, and Air Force with their bands march past in all their finery and official decorations. The President of India who is the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Armed Forces, takes the salute. Twelve contingents of various para-military forces of India and police forces also take part in this parade.
Beating Retreat
The Beating Retreat ceremony is held after officially denoting the end of Republic Day festivities. It is conducted on the evening of 29 January, the third day after the Republic Day. It is performed by the bands of the three wings of the military, the Indian Army, Indian Navy and Indian Air Force. The venue is Raisina Hill and an adjacent square, Vijay Chowk, flanked by the North and South block of the Rashtrapati Bhavan (President's Palace) towards the end of Rajpath.
The Chief Guest of the function is the President of India who arrives escorted by the President's Bodyguard (PBG), a cavalry unit. When the President arrives, the PBG commander asks the unit to give the National Salute, which is followed by the playing of the Indian National Anthem, Jana Gana Mana, by the Army. The Army develops the ceremony of display by the massed bands in which Military Bands, Pipe and Drum Bands, Buglers and Trumpeters from various Army Regiments besides bands from the Navy and Air Force take part which play popular tunes like Abide With Me, Mahatma Gandhi's favourite hymn, and Saare Jahan Se Achcha at the end.
Award distribution
On the eve of Republic Day, the President of India distributes Padma Awards to the civilians of India every year.These are the second highest civilian awards in India after Bharat Ratna. These awards are given in three categories, viz. Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri, in decreasing order of importance.
Padma Vibhushan for "exceptional and distinguished service". Padma Vibhushan is the second-highest civilian award in India.
Padma Bhushan for "distinguished service of a high order". Padma Bhushan is the third-highest civilian award in India.
Padma Shri for "distinguished service". Padma Shri is the fourth-highest civilian award in India.
While being national honours, the Padma awards do not include cash allowances, benefits, or special concessions in rail/air travel. Per a December 1995 judgment of the Supreme Court of India, no titles or honorifics are associated with the Bharat Ratna or any of the Padma awards; Honorees cannot use them or their initials as suffixes, prefixes or pre- and post-nominals attached to the awardee's name. This includes any such use on letterheads, invitation cards, posters, books etc. In the case of any misuse, the awardee will forfeit the award and cautioned against any such misuse upon receiving the honour.
The decoration comprises a sanad (Certificate) issued under the hand and seal of the President and a Medallion. The recipients are also given a replica of the medallion, which they can wear during any ceremonial/State functions etc., if they desire. A commemorative brochure giving out brief details in respect of each award winner is also released on the day of the investiture ceremony.
Gallery
See also
History of India
Constitution Day (India)
List of chief guests at Delhi Republic Day parade
References
External links
January observances
History of the Republic of India
India
Public holidays in India
Observances in India | wiki |
For exergonic and endergonic reactions, see the separate articles:
Endergonic reaction
Exergonic reaction
See also
Exergonic process
Endergonic
Exothermic process
Endothermic process | wiki |
Several non-standard dates are used in calendars. Some are used sarcastically, some for scientific or mathematical purposes, and some for exceptional or fictional calendars.
January 0
January 0 or 0 January is an alternative name for December 31.
In an ephemeris
January 0 is the day before January 1 in an annual ephemeris. It keeps the date in the year for which the ephemeris was published, thus avoiding any reference to the previous year, even though it is the same day as December 31 of the previous year.
January 0 also occurs in the epoch for the ephemeris second, "1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time". 1900 January 0 (at Greenwich Mean Noon) was also the epoch used by Newcomb's Tables of the Sun, which became the epoch for the Dublin Julian day.
In software
In Microsoft Excel, the epoch of the 1900 date format is January 0, 1900.
February 30
February 30 or 30 February is a date that does not occur on the Gregorian calendar, where the month of February contains only 28 days, or 29 days in a leap year. February 30 is usually used as a sarcastic date for referring to something that will never happen or will never be done. It also appears in some reform calendars.
Swedish calendar
February 30 was a day that happened in Sweden, 1712.
This occurred because, instead of changing from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar by omitting a block of consecutive days, as had been done in other countries, the Swedish Empire planned to change gradually by omitting all leap days from 1700 to 1740, inclusive. Although the leap day was omitted in February 1700, the Great Northern War began later that year, diverting the attention of the Swedes from their calendar so that they did not omit leap days on the next two occasions; 1704 and 1708 remained leap years.
To avoid confusion and further mistakes, the Julian calendar was restored in 1712 by adding an extra leap day, thus giving that year the only known actual use of February 30 in a calendar. That day corresponded to February 29 in the Julian calendar and to March 11 in the Gregorian calendar.
The Swedish conversion to the Gregorian calendar was finally accomplished in 1753, when February 17 was followed by March 1.
Artificial calendars
Artificial calendars may also have 30 days in February. For example, in a climate model the statistics may be simplified by having 12 months of 30 days. The Hadley Centre General Circulation Model is an example.
Fictional calendars
In the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, the Hobbits have developed the Shire Reckoning. According to Appendix D of The Lord of the Rings, this calendar has arranged the year in 12 months of 30 days each. The month the Hobbits call Solmath is rendered in the text as February, and therefore the date February 30 exists in the narrative.
February 30, 1951, is the last night of the world in Ray Bradbury's short story "Last Night of the World".
Myths
Soviet calendar
Although many sources state that 30-day months were used in the Soviet Union for part or all of the period from 1929 to 1940, the Soviet calendar with 5- and 6-day weeks was used only for assigning workdays and days of rest in factories. The Gregorian calendar (since 1918) remained for everyday use: surviving physical calendars from that period show only the irregular months of the Gregorian calendar, including a 28- or 29-day February, suggesting there was never a February 30 in the Soviet Union.
Early Julian calendar
The thirteenth-century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco claimed that in the Julian calendar February had 30 days in leap years from 45 BC until 8 BC, when Augustus allegedly shortened February by one day to give that day to the month of August named after him so that it had the same length as the month of July named after his adoptive father, Julius Caesar. However, all historical evidence refutes Sacrobosco, including dual dates with the Alexandrian calendar.
February 31
February 31 or 31 February is exceptionally used on gravestones when the date is unknown, or in at least one case out of, supposedly, superstition (more likely a typo).
It is also used (along with February 32 and February 33) for calculating weather data.
March 0
March 0 or 0 March is an alternative name for the last day of February (February 28, or February 29 in leap years). It is used most often in astronomy, software engineering, and Doomsday algorithm calculations.
May 35
May 35 or 35 May is used in mainland China to avoid censorship when referring to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, where the official names are strictly censored by the Communist Party, and the event is normally referred to as June 4. It is also used in the title of The 35th of May, or Conrad's Ride to the South Seas, a German children's novel published in 1931.
June 31
June 31 is a fictional date in the Soviet film 31 June.
It is also the date of a fictional RAF raid on Germany in Len Deighton's 1970 novel Bomber.
December 31.5 GMT
"December 31.5 GMT" in 1924 almanacs was an instant defined to solve the contrast between two different conventions in defining the civil time of referring to midnight as zero hours.
December 32
December 32 or 32 December is the date of Hogswatchnight in Hogfather by Terry Pratchett. It has also been used as a title for various works.
December 32, 1980
The LearAvia Lear Fan aircraft test flight had British government "funding that expired at the end of that year." After the cancellation of a planned test flight on December 31, 1980, due to technical issues, the first prototype made its maiden flight on January 1, 1981, but the date was officially recorded by sympathetic British government officials as "December 32, 1980".
Reform calendars
Because evening out the months is a part of the rationale for reforming the calendar, some reform calendars, such as the World Calendar and the Hanke–Henry Permanent Calendar, contain a 30-day February. The Symmetry454 calendar assigns 35 days to February, May, August, and November, as well as December in a leap year.
See also
Ides of March
List of calendars
System time
Tibb's Eve, a day said to occur neither before nor after Christmas
Undecimber
References
The Oxford Companion to the Year. Bonnie Blackburn & Leofranc Holford-Strevens. Oxford University Press 1999. . Pages 98–99.
External links
30 days in February 1712
Change of calendars - Sweden (in Swedish)
30 February on Tolkien Gateway
February
1712 in Sweden
English-language idioms
January 00
December
0 (number)
Dates | wiki |
Florida's 5th House District elects one member of the Florida House of Representatives. The district is represented by Brad Drake. This district is located in the Florida Panhandle, and encompasses part of the Emerald Coast. The district covers all of Walton County, Holmes County, Washington County, Jackson County, and part of northern Bay County. The largest city in the district is Marianna. As of the 2010 Census, the district's population is 159,198.
This district contains Chipola College, located in Marianna, and the Baptist College of Florida, located in Graceville.
Representatives from 1967 to the present
See also
Florida's 2nd Senate district
Florida's 1st congressional district
Florida's 2nd congressional district
References
05
Walton County, Florida
Holmes County, Florida
Washington County, Florida
Jackson County, Florida
Bay County, Florida | wiki |
Entertainment is an event, performance, or activity designed to give pleasure to an audience.
Entertainment or Entertain may also refer to:
Film and television
E!, formerly Entertainment Television
Entertainment (2014 film), a 2014 Bollywood film also known as It's Entertainment
Entertainment (2015 film), a 2015 American film
Entertainment Today
Entertainment Tonight
Entertainment Tonight Canada
RTL CBS Entertainment, a Southeast Asian TV channel simply known as "Entertainment" prior to the rebranding as Blue Ant Entertainment
Literature
Entertain Magazine, a 2007–10 British entertainment magazine
Entertainment Weekly, an American magazine (sometimes abbreviated as EW)
Music
Entertainment (Fischerspooner album), 2009
Entertainment (Waterparks album), 2018
Entertainment (band), a post-punk band formed in 2002
"Entertainment" (song), a 2013 song by the band Phoenix
Entertainment!, a 1979 Gang of Four album
"Entertainment", a track on Appeal to Reason, a 2008 album by Rise Against
"Entertain", a track on The Woods, a 2005 album by Sleater-Kinney
Other
entertainment.ie, an Irish entertainment website
Nintendo Entertainment System, a 1985 video game console by Nintendo.
See also
The Entertainer (disambiguation)
That's Entertainment (disambiguation)
Entertainment district
The Entertainment Quarter, Sydney, Australia
Amusement | wiki |
The American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine Application Service (AACOMAS) is a service run by the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine through which prospective osteopathic medical students can apply to osteopathic medical schools in the United States that grant the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree.
Medical schools in the United States that grant the Doctor of Medicine degree use either the American Medical College Application Service (AMCAS) or the Texas Medical & Dental Schools Application Service (TMDSAS). Sam Houston State University College of Osteopathic Medicine and the University of North Texas Health Science Center Texas College of Osteopathic Medicine are the only osteopathic medical schools that do not use AACOMAS.
Participating osteopathic medical schools
References
External links
Medical education in the United States | wiki |
No Escape (1994), actie/sciencefictionfilm uit 1994, geregisseerd door Martin Campbell.
No Escape (2015), actie-thriller uit 2015, geregisseerd door John Erick Dowdle
No Escape (band), Amerikaanse band | wiki |
Groundnut may refer to:
Seeds that ripen underground, of the following plants, all in the Faboideae subfamily of the legumes:
Arachis hypogaea, the peanut
Arachis villosulicarpa, a perennial peanut species
Vigna subterranea, the Bambara groundnut
Macrotyloma geocarpum, the Hausa groundnut
Roots and tubers:
Apios americana, the American groundnut or potato-bean
Conopodium majus, called the kippernut among many other names
Panax trifolius, or dwarf ginseng
See also
Ground nuts, nuts subjected to grinding
Earthnut (disambiguation)
Tanganyika groundnut scheme | wiki |
Poire belle Hélène (; ) is a dessert made from pears poached in sugar syrup and served with vanilla ice cream and chocolate syrup. It was created around 1864 by Auguste Escoffier and named after the operetta La belle Hélène by Jacques Offenbach. Simpler versions replace poached pears with canned pears and sliced almonds.
Popular culture
In the film Pappa ante Portas by Loriot, the main character and his wife keep arguing about the ingredients of a genuine Poire belle Hélène.
References
French desserts
Frozen desserts
Pear dishes
Vanilla ice cream | wiki |
Reins are items of horse tack, used to direct a horse or other animal used for riding. They are long straps that can be made of leather, nylon, metal, or other materials, and attach to a bridle via either its bit or its noseband.
Use for riding
Reins are used to give subtle commands or cues, also known as rein aids. Various commands may signal a turn, ask for a slower speed, request a halt or rein back. Rein aids are used along with leg aids, shifting of body weight, and sometimes voice commands.
Harness reins
On some types of harnesses there might be supporting rings or "terrets" used to carry the reins over the animal's back. When pairs of equines are used in drawing a wagon or coach it is usual for the outer side of each pair to be connected to the reins and for the inside of the bits to be connected between the pair of horses by a short bridging strap or rope. The driver carries "four-in-hand" or "six-in-hand" being the number of reins connecting to the pairs.
Other uses
A single rein or rope may be attached to a halter to lead or guide a horse or packhorse. A long rein called a longe line may be used to allow the horse to move in a circle for training purposes, or for the purpose of a clinical lameness evaluation by a veterinarian. On certain designs of headgear, a third rein may be added to the paired reins, used for leading, longeing, or other specialized or stylistic purposes. The best-known example of a third rein used in the USA is the leading rein of the mecate of the classic bosal hackamore.
Types
Types of reins include:
Closed reins, or loop reins: reins that are either a single piece or that buckle together at the ends. English riders usually use closed reins. Western riders in timed rodeo events use a single closed rein, as do those who use a romal. A closed rein helps prevent the rider from dropping the reins.
Double reins: The combined use of two pairs of reins, a curb rein and a snaffle rein. This is usually two single (buckled or sewn) reins, though sometimes split reins may be seen on western-style bridles. Double reins are used with a double bridle, with bits such as the Pelham bit and, less often, on some gag bits used for polo.
Draw reins and running reins: long reins, usually made of leather or nylon webbing, that attach to the saddle or the girth, run through the bit rings, and back to the rider. Several design variations, they add mechanical advantage to the rider's hands and may affect the horse's ability to raise or lower its head. Often used in conjunction with a snaffle rein by English riders, usually used alone by western riders.
Lead rein: A third rein used on bridles, not to be confused with the single lead rope of a halter nor the direct rein aid known as the "leading rein". In North America a third rein is most commonly seen as part of the mecate of a hackamore. In Mongolia it is integral to the bridle, and tied to either a bit ring or a chin strap.
Long reins, longlines, or driving lines: exceptionally long reins which allow the rider to control the horse from a cart, or from the ground, with the handler walking behind the horse.
Mecate: a style of rein seen on a bosal style hackamore made of a single piece of rope that encompasses both a closed rein and a leading rope.
Romal reins: a rein style from the vaquero tradition that incorporates a closed rein with a long quirt at the end.
Side reins: used when longeing a horse, attached from the bit to the saddle or surcingle, they are not meant to be held by the rider.
Split reins: a rein style seen in western riding where the reins are not attached to one another at the ends. They prevent a horse from tangling its feet in a looped rein, particularly when the rider is dismounted. They are considerably longer than closed reins.
Two reins—reins used on bridles with two reins:
Snaffle rein: Usually a laced rein that buckles at the center, used on the bradoon of a double bridle, or the upper ring of a pelham bit.
Curb rein: The rein used at the end of the shank of a curb bit or pelham. Modern curb reins usually buckle together at the ends, though reins of the classical curb were sewn together at the ends to create a single rein.
In popular expression
In popular culture, to rein in means to hold back, slow down, control or limit. Sometimes the eggcorn, reign in, is used. Usage of the opposing free rein dates back to Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400) and means to give or allow complete freedom, in action and decision, over something.
See also
Horse tack
Neck rein
Riding aids
References
External links
Reins
pt:Rédea
The Best Org In The World (Rein Clan) https://m.youtube.com/channel/UCmr2j5VxT1nO4bBiUHyM_6w | wiki |
The National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET) is an organization that was established in 1961 to create a recognized certification for engineering technicians and technologists within the United States.
A 1981 study by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), requested by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials' SubCommittee On Construction (AASHTO SCOC), prompted the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) to merge two certification bodies; the Institute for the Certification of Engineering Technicians (ICET) and the Engineering Technologist Certification Institute. The result is a nonprofit organization that provides a nationally recognized and accepted procedure for recognition of qualified engineering technicians and technologists.
NICET is a not for profit division of the NSPE.
The NICET registration process is separated into two class distinctions with subcategories and several specialized areas of focus. The titles of the "Certified Engineering Technician" and "Certified Engineering Technologist" are the primary designations. The subcategories are further specialized by focus. The titles chosen for these subcategories are known as Civil Engineering or Electrical/Mechanical Systems. Within the subcategories the disciplines are refined to address a selected area of expertise and are limited by categories that do not cover all areas of Technology.
The purpose of certification programs
NICET's nationally recognized certification programs lay out a path for career advancement from entry to senior level responsibilities. Designed by industry experts to provide engineering technology fields with a qualified workforce, programs are used by employers and specifiers to measure job skills and knowledge.
Technician certification
Technician certification requires testing (written, multiple choice) and documentation including a work history, recommendations, and, for most programs, supervisor verification of specific experience.
Technologist certification
Technologist certification requires a 4-year engineering technology degree (no testing required), and at the advanced level, documentation including a work history and endorsements.
Training certificates
NICET's professional certification is based on testing that covers a broad range of job knowledge, verification of job performance, and an evaluation of work experience. NICET certification represents a career level (i.e., not a course outcome). NICET's certification cannot be gained by attendance only.
Credibility
There are competing ideologies from societies with different perspectives on what represents the qualities of a Technologist. The Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE) has a different technologist certification criteria than either NICET or the National Association of Industrial Technologist. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) has a different approach from the other certification bodies for Technologist. It is therefore appropriate to determine that a unified definition for certification is not apparent.
The Technologist title from NICET does not require an examination for registration at the Technologist level. However, individuals sit for examination at the Technician levels. The Technologist registration requires that an individual will have graduated from a university that is ABET/TAC accredited and provide evidence of appropriate experience. The Technologist Certification level is not achievable by non-ABET graduates. Open knowledge based testing for graduates of applied science programs and non-ABET accredited education is currently not allowed. The NICET Engineering Technologist Certification is therefore a limited access membership.
Exclusions
NICET excludes Technologist registration for individuals who have graduated from applied science programs or those who obtained valid education from non-ABET/TAC universities recognized by CHEA or the US Department of Education. Open registration concepts that may rely on examinations and/or experiential qualifications would improve the acceptance of the NICET certifications.
Some program accreditations that are excluded from the NICET program are the Distance Education and Training Council (DETC), the National Association of Industrial Technology (NAIT), the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology (ACCSCT), or other non-ABET/TAC institutions that are exclusively regionally accredited such as the Thomas Edison Engineering Technology program, but they do accept ABET/TAC accredited programs from that University such as Electronic Systems Engineering Technology.
Job placement
A Technologist curriculum may focus on specialized issues such as technical management, service, processes, or production improvements. The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) acknowledges the different accreditations in technology and engineering as independent career paths which cannot be compared.
The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics had the following to say about technologist.
“Many 4-year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees in engineering technology, but graduates of these programs often are hired to work as technologists or applied engineers, not technicians." (BLS,2006)
Use of NICET certification varies according to needs determined by employers, specifiers, and local government. Specific certification requirements established throughout the United States vary by engineering technology fields in various states and localities. Some areas may require a NICET or similar certification as condition for employment. Often an engineering technology degree is used in lieu of a technician certification in areas where they deem a four year engineering technology degree to have more value than a technician certification earned through work history and testing requirements.
Unlike Professional Engineers who are licensed by the States, Technologists are not protected or licensed by States.
A government sponsored registration is opposed by the NCEES and NSPE.
References
2.)Thomas Edison State College. (2014). Online Degrees.
Retrieved from the Thomas Edison State College website on 05/27/14 at
http://www.tesc.edu/academics/online-degrees.cfm
Sources
NICET - Technologist Programs Application Forms and Procedures - retrieved on (7/7/06).
Wilder, P. (2000) Accreditation Reclassification: Expanding the Perspective - retrieved on August 28, 2006.
NSPE (2006) NSPE Issue Brief: Engineering Technology Publication #4049 - retrieved on Sept 4, 2006.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor - Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006-07 Edition, Engineering Technicians - visited August 7, 2006.
Engineering societies based in the United States
Professional titles and certifications
Organizations established in 1961 | wiki |
The reproductive system of gastropods (slugs and snails) varies greatly from one group to another within this very large and diverse taxonomic class of animals. Their reproductive strategies also vary greatly, see Mating of gastropods.
In many marine gastropods there are separate sexes (male and female); most terrestrial gastropods however are hermaphrodites.
Courtship is a part of the behaviour of mating gastropods. In some families of pulmonate land snails, one unusual feature of the reproductive system and reproductive behavior is the creation and utilization of love darts, the throwing of which has been identified as a form of sexual selection.
Gastropods are defined as snails and slugs, belonging to a larger group called Molluscs. Gastropods have unique reproductive systems, varying significantly from one taxonomic group to another. They can be separated into three categories: marine, freshwater, and land. Reproducing in marine or freshwater environments makes getting sperm to egg much easier for gastropods, while on land it is much more difficult to get sperm to egg. The majority of gastropods have internal fertilization, but there are some prosobranch species that have external fertilization. Gastropods are capable of being either male or female, or hermaphrodites, and this makes their reproduction system unique amongst many other invertebrates. Hermaphroditic gastropods possess both the egg and sperm gametes which gives them the opportunity to self-fertilize.
Reproductive system of marine gastropods
The reproductive system of marine gastropods such as those from class Opisthobranchia and order Archaeogastropoda from the class Prosobranchia, is a continuous cycle of alternating male and female reproductive role prevalence. Immediately after spawning in late summer, the predominance of the female reproductive functions are terminated and gametogenesis initiates immediately, with the start of the predominance of the male reproductive role. Gametes remain in the gonads throughout the winter and early spring. The female reproductive role takes over again in May with fertilization of the gametes to form zygotes. The cycle comes full circle in late summer once again, with spawning.
Separate sexes
In many taxonomic groups of marine gastropods, there are separate sexes (i.e. they are dioecious/gonochoric).
In some of the main gastropod clades the great majority of species have separate sexes. This is true in most of the Patellogastropoda, Vetigastropoda, Cocculiniformia, Neritimorpha, and Caenogastropoda.
Protandrous sequential hermaphrodites
Within the clade Littorinimorpha however, the superfamily Calyptraeoidea are protandrous sequential hermaphrodites. Protandry means that the individuals first become male, and then later on become female. See for example the genus Crepidula.
Simultaneous hermaphrodites
Within the main clade Heterobranchia, the informal group Opisthobranchia are simultaneous hermaphrodites (they have both sets of reproductive organs within one individual at the same time).
There are also a few marine pulmonates, and these are also hermaphroditic, for example, see the air-breathing sea slug family Onchidiidae, and the family of air-breathing marine "limpets" Siphonariidae.
Reproductive system of land gastropods
Separate sexes
Although most land snails are pulmonates and are hermaphrodites, in contrast, all of the sea-dwelling prosobranch snails are dioecious/gonochoric (in other words, they have separate sexes). This includes the snails in the families Pomatiidae, Aciculidae, Cyclophoridae, and others. These land snails have opercula, which helps identify them as "winkles gone ashore", in other words, snails within the clade Littorinimorpha and the informal group Architaenioglossa.
Members of the snail family Pulmonata, which includes carboniferous land sails and some freshwater snails of the order Basommatophora, are protandrous hermaphrodites, meaning they are born male and later in life become female. In this family of snails, the male phase ends in December, followed by an egg maturation phase, and ends with oviposition, the act of laying eggs during May of the following year. Phylogenetic evidence for this is present based on the overall condition of the gonads especially in the degree of development of the genital ducts.
Simultaneous hermaphrodites
Pulmonate land gastropods are simultaneous hermaphrodites and their reproductive system is complex. It is all completely internal, except for genital protrusion (eversion) during mating. The outer opening of the reproductive system is called the "genital pore"; it is positioned on the right-hand side, very close to the head of the animal. This opening is virtually invisible, however, unless it is actively in use.
The love-dart (if present) is produced and stored in the stylophore (often called dart sac) and shot by a forceful eversion of this organ. The mucus glands produce the mucus that is deposited on the dart before shooting. The penis is intromitted to transfer the spermatophore. The sperm container is formed in the epiphallus, while the spermatophore's tail is formed by the flagellum. When a bursa tract diverticulum is present, the spermatophore is received in this organ. Together with the bursa tract and bursa copulatrix these form the spermatophore-receiving organ, which digest sperm and spermatophores. Sperm swim out via the tail of the spermatophore to enter the female tract and reach the sperm storage organ (spermathecae) within the fertilization pouch-spermathecal complex.
Variability (polymorphism) of reproductive system in stylommatophorans is common feature. Such variability may include:
euphallics = male copulatory organs have developed as usual
hemiphallics = male copulatory organs are reduced
aphallics = no male copulatory organs develop
also
in Heterostoma paupercula the epiphallus and flagellum can be either present or absent
in Arion distinctus there is usually a bipartite oviduct, but there is sometimes a tripartite free oviduct
in Fruticicola fruticum there is a variable number of mucous gland lobes in the auxiliary copulatory organs
Examples of reproductive system of various land snails:
The structure of the reproductive system is strictly hermaphroditic. From the gonads, a hermaphrodite duct, a duct which is designed to transport both sperm and eggs, leads to a portion of the reproductive tract where the duct splits into a strictly male and strictly female portion.
The female portion includes a fertilization pouch and posterior and anterior mucus glands, which open up into a pallial cavity which leads to a small muscular vagina. The male portion of the reproductive tract includes both a short posterior vas deferens and a longer anterior vas deferens. The posterior vas deferens is followed by the prostate, and the anterior vas deferens flows through the haemocoele, an enlarged blastula filled with blood, of the head and opens into a muscular penis which is engulfed in a small portion of skin called the prepuce sac.
Reproductive system in freshwater gastropods
Separate sexes and hermaphrodites
Species in the freshwater gastropod family such as the Caenogastropoda from the class Prosobranchia, are largely self-fertilizing; however after many generations of selfing, a physiological barrier halts sperm generation in that organism, and only allows for the introduction of foreign sperm. Gametes form in the ovotesties, an organ which produces both ova and sperm, and pass down into the hermaphroditic duct to the albumen gland, the junction of where the common duct splits to either vas deferens or oviduct, where they are stored until they are needed for either mating or self-fertilization. It is believed that this junction acts as a regulatory mechanism via contracting muscles, to help direct sperm or eggs into the correct ducts.
Mating
The sperm passes into the male duct, or vas deferens, where is receives secretory additions in the form of mucus from the prostate. After getting modified, the sperm passes into the penis. During mating season, the glandular cells in the penis sheath and prepuce swell to facilitate eversion of the penis. The sperm gets pushed through the penis, where they are introduced into the tail end of its copulatory partner. Within the partner snail, after fertilization from the foreign sperm, the eggs pass into the albumen gland where they are coated in mucus which forms the egg capsule.
Selfing
Eggs are released immediately before oviposition. Unlike in land gastropod species where fertilization occurs in fertilization pockets, fertilization in freshwater species happens at the lower end of the hermaphroditic duct, near the junction. Sperm is deposited into the bursa copulatrix which opens up into the vagina. The ova then enter the albumen gland to get a nutrient dense mucus coating which serves to form the egg capsule.
Genital structures
Genital structures in Stylommatophora include (English name and Latin/Greek name is after the hyphen):
albumen gland - glandula albuginea
atrium - atrium / vestibulum
bursa copulatrix - bursa copulatrix
dart sac -
diverticulum - diverticulum
epiphallar caecum - epiphallus caecum
epiphallus - epiphallus
fertilisation pouch - camera fertilis
flagellum - flagellum
genital aperture - apertura genitalis
hermaphroditic duct - ductus hermaphroditicus
hermaphroditic gland - glandula hermaphroditica, ovotestis
love dart - spiculum amoris
mucous glands, digitiform glands - glandulae mucosae
pedunculus - pedunculus
penial appendix - appendix
penial caecum - caecum
penial papilla - penis papilla
penial sheath - penis capsula
penis - penis / phallus
retractor muscle of the appendix - musculus retractor appendicis
retractor muscle of the penis - musculus retractor penis
retractor muscle of the vagina - musculus retractor vaginae
spermatophore - spermatophora
spermoviduct - spermoviductus
prostate - pars prostetica = a gland related to male part of the reproductive system
uterus - pars uterica
stimulatory organ - appendicula
vagina - vagina
vas deferens - vas deferens / ductus deferens
Genital structures of males
The prostate is found in the mantle tubule and penis are both connected to the gonoduct; which are connected to the testis (produce sperm). During sex, the sperm travels along the mantle tube in which seminal fluid fills the mantle tube and exits the body via the penis and enters the females gonopore.
Additional reproductive structures include
Vas deferens: it is found attached to the penis and the prostate and aids in the movement of sperm from the prostate to the penis
Dart sac: manufactures the love dart. Not found in all gastropods.
Genital structures of females
Females have a gonopore that is connected to a seminal receptacle. The gonopore acts as an opening through which eggs are deposited. The opening leads into the mantle tubule, in which eggs flow from the oviduct and ovary. The mantle tubule produces three things, yolk; carries most of the nutrients needed to develop a healthy offspring, egg capsule formation, and sperm reception and storage; where fertilization occurs. After fertilization, eggs travel to the albumin glands to fill the yolk with protein, and lastly, the egg travels through the capsule glands, which coat the egg in a protective jelly.
Additional reproductive structures include:
Uterus: stores the fertilized eggs until the eggs are ready to be laid
Vagina: location where the eggs pass through to exit the gonopore
Genital structures of hermaphrodites
Hermaphrodites have both male and female reproductive parts. The male and female system act as separate units until the egg and sperm are ready to fuse together. The fusion of egg and sperm takes place in the uterus of the female system. Hermaphrodites also have a hermaphroditic duct, which helps change the sex of the gastropod during certain times of the year.
See also
Mating of gastropods
Apophallation
Reproductive system of mollusks
Reproductive system of cephalopods
References
This article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text (but not under GFDL) from the reference
External links
Illustrated summary of mating and egg-laying
Gastropod anatomy
Animal reproductive system | wiki |
A medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy (pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the medical field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement and on pharmacy for appropriate management.
Drugs are classified in multiple ways. One of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs (those that a pharmacist dispenses only on the order of a physician, physician assistant, or qualified nurse) from over-the-counter drugs (those that consumers can order for themselves). Another key distinction is between traditional small molecule drugs, usually derived from chemical synthesis, and biopharmaceuticals, which include recombinant proteins, vaccines, blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG), gene therapy, monoclonal antibodies and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies). Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, or therapeutic effects. An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines.
Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. As a result of this complex path from discovery to commercialization, partnering has become a standard practice for advancing drug candidates through development pipelines. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, and in some jurisdictions, drug pricing. Controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs.
Definition
Medication is a medicine or a chemical compound used to treat or cure illness. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, medication is "a substance used in treating a disease or relieving pain".
As defined by the National Cancer Institute, dosage forms of medication can include tablets, capsules, liquids, creams, and patches. Medications can be given in different ways, such as by mouth, by infusion into a vein, or by drops put into the ear or eye. A medication that does not contain an active ingredient and is used in research studies is called a placebo.
In Europe, the term is "medicinal product", and it is defined by EU law as:
"Any substance or combination of substances presented as having properties for treating or preventing disease in human beings; or"
"Any substance or combination of substances which may be used in or administered to human beings either with a view to restoring, correcting or modifying physiological functions by exerting a pharmacological, immunological or metabolic action or to making a medical diagnosis."
In the US, a "drug" is:
A substance (other than food) intended to affect the structure or any function of the body.
A substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part, or accessory of a device.
A substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease.
A substance recognized by an official pharmacopeia or formulary.
Biological products are included within this definition and are generally covered by the same laws and regulations, but differences exist regarding their manufacturing processes (chemical process versus biological process).
Usage
Drug use among elderly Americans has been studied; in a group of 2377 people with an average age of 71 surveyed between 2005 and 2006, 84% took at least one prescription drug, 44% took at least one over-the-counter (OTC) drug, and 52% took at least one dietary supplement; in a group of 2245 elderly Americans (average age of 71) surveyed over the period 2010 – 2011, those percentages were 88%, 38%, and 64%.
Classification
One of the key classifications is between traditional small molecule drugs; usually derived from chemical synthesis and biological medical products; which include recombinant proteins, vaccines, blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG), gene therapy, and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies).
Pharmaceuticals or drugs or medicines are classified into various other groups besides their origin on the basis of pharmacological properties like mode of action and their pharmacological action or activity, such as by chemical properties, mode or route of administration, biological system affected, or therapeutic effects. An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC system). The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines.
A sampling of classes of medicine includes:
Antipyretics: reducing fever (pyrexia/pyresis)
Analgesics: reducing pain (painkillers)
Antimalarial drugs: treating malaria
Antibiotics: inhibiting germ growth
Antiseptics: prevention of germ growth near burns, cuts,and wounds
Mood stabilizers: lithium and valproate
Hormone replacements: Premarin
Oral contraceptives: Enovid, "biphasic" pill, and "triphasic" pill
Stimulants: methylphenidate, amphetamine
Tranquilizers: meprobamate, chlorpromazine, reserpine, chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, and alprazolam
Statins: lovastatin, pravastatin, and simvastatin
Pharmaceuticals may also be described as "specialty", independent of other classifications, which is an ill-defined class of drugs that might be difficult to administer, require special handling during administration, require patient monitoring during and immediately after administration, have particular regulatory requirements restricting their use, and are generally expensive relative to other drugs.
Types of medicines
For the digestive system
Lower digestive tract: laxatives, antispasmodics, antidiarrhoeals, bile acid sequestrants, opioids.
Upper digestive tract: antacids, reflux suppressants, antiflatulents, antidopaminergics, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), H2-receptor antagonists, cytoprotectants, prostaglandin analogues.
For the cardiovascular system
Affecting blood pressure/(antihypertensive drugs): ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, beta-blockers, α blockers, calcium channel blockers, thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, aldosterone inhibitors.
Coagulation: anticoagulants, heparin, antiplatelet drugs, fibrinolytics, anti-hemophilic factors, haemostatic drugs.
General: β-receptor blockers ("beta blockers"), calcium channel blockers, diuretics, cardiac glycosides, antiarrhythmics, nitrate, antianginals, vasoconstrictors, vasodilators.
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for lowering LDL cholesterol inhibitors: hypolipidaemic agents.
For the central nervous system
Drugs affecting the central nervous system include psychedelics, hypnotics, anaesthetics, antipsychotics, eugeroics, antidepressants (including tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, lithium salts, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)), antiemetics, Anticonvulsants/antiepileptics, anxiolytics, barbiturates, movement disorder (e.g., Parkinson's disease) drugs, nootropics, stimulants (including amphetamines), benzodiazepines, cyclopyrrolones, dopamine antagonists, antihistamines, cholinergics, anticholinergics, emetics, cannabinoids, and 5-HT (serotonin) antagonists.
For pain
The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids, and local anesthetics.
For consciousness (anesthetic drugs)
Some anesthetics include benzodiazepines and barbiturates.
For musculoskeletal disorders
The main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are: NSAIDs (including COX-2 selective inhibitors), muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases.
For the eye
Anti-allergy: mast cell inhibitors.
Anti-fungal: imidazoles, polyenes.
Anti-glaucoma: adrenergic agonists, beta-blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors/hyperosmotics, cholinergics, miotics, parasympathomimetics, prostaglandin agonists/prostaglandin inhibitors, nitroglycerin.
Anti-inflammatory: NSAIDs, corticosteroids.
Antibacterial: antibiotics, topical antibiotics, sulfa drugs, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones.
Antiviral drugs.
Diagnostic: topical anesthetics, sympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, mydriatics, cycloplegics.
General: adrenergic neurone blocker, astringent.
For the ear, nose, and oropharynx
Antibiotics, sympathomimetics, antihistamines, anticholinergics, NSAIDs, corticosteroids, antiseptics, local anesthetics, antifungals, and cerumenolytics.
For the respiratory system
Bronchodilators, antitussives, mucolytics, decongestants, inhaled and systemic corticosteroids, beta2-adrenergic agonists, anticholinergics, mast cell stabilizers, leukotriene antagonists.
For endocrine problems
Androgens, antiandrogens, estrogens, gonadotropin, corticosteroids, human growth hormone, insulin, antidiabetics (sulfonylureas, biguanides/metformin, thiazolidinediones, insulin), thyroid hormones, antithyroid drugs, calcitonin, diphosphonate, vasopressin analogues.
For the reproductive system or urinary system
Antifungal, alkalinizing agents, quinolones, antibiotics, cholinergics, anticholinergics, antispasmodics, 5-alpha reductase inhibitor, selective alpha-1 blockers, sildenafils, fertility medications.
For contraception
Hormonal contraception.
Ormeloxifene.
Spermicide.
For obstetrics and gynecology
NSAIDs, anticholinergics, haemostatic drugs, antifibrinolytics, Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), bone regulators, beta-receptor agonists, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone, LHRH, gamolenic acid, gonadotropin release inhibitor, progestogen, dopamine agonists, oestrogen, prostaglandins, gonadorelin, clomiphene, tamoxifen, diethylstilbestrol.
For the skin
Emollients, anti-pruritics, antifungals, antiseptics, scabicides, pediculicides, tar products, vitamin A derivatives, vitamin D analogues, keratolytics, abrasives, systemic antibiotics, topical antibiotics, hormones, desloughing agents, exudate absorbents, fibrinolytics, proteolytics, sunscreens, antiperspirants, corticosteroids, immune modulators.
For infections and infestations
Antibiotics, antifungals, antileprotics, antituberculous drugs, antimalarials, anthelmintics, amoebicides, antivirals, antiprotozoals, probiotics, prebiotics, antitoxins, and antivenoms.
For the immune system
Vaccines, immunoglobulins, immunosuppressants, interferons, and monoclonal antibodies.
For allergic disorders
Anti-allergics, antihistamines, NSAIDs, corticosteroids.
For nutrition
Tonics, electrolytes and mineral preparations (including iron preparations and magnesium preparations), parenteral nutrition, vitamins, anti-obesity drugs, anabolic drugs, haematopoietic drugs, food product drugs.
For neoplastic disorders
Cytotoxic drugs, therapeutic antibodies, sex hormones, aromatase inhibitors, somatostatin inhibitors, recombinant interleukins, G-CSF, erythropoietin.
For diagnostics
Contrast media.
For euthanasia
A euthanaticum is used for euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in many countries, and consequently, medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries.
Administration
A single drug may contain single or multiple active ingredients.
The administration is the process by which a patient takes medicine. There are three major categories of drug administration: enteral (via the human gastrointestinal tract), injection into the body, and by other routes (dermal, nasal, ophthalmic, otologic, and urogenital).
Oral administration, the most common form of enteral administration, can be performed using various dosage forms including tablets or capsules and liquid such as syrup or suspension. Other ways to take the medication include buccally (placed inside the cheek), sublingually (placed underneath the tongue), eye and ear drops (dropped into the eye or ear), and transdermally (applied to the skin).
They can be administered in one dose, as a bolus. Administration frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as every 8 hours reading Q8H from Quaque VIII Hora. The drug frequencies are often expressed as the number of times a drug is used per day (e.g., four times a day). It may include event-related information (e.g., 1 hour before meals, in the morning, at bedtime), or complimentary to an interval, although equivalent expressions may have different implications (e.g., every 8 hours versus 3 times a day).
Drug discovery
In the fields of medicine, biotechnology, and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered.
Historically, drugs were discovered by identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later chemical libraries of synthetic small molecules, natural products, or extracts were screened in intact cells or whole organisms to identify substances that have a desirable therapeutic effect in a process known as classical pharmacology. Since sequencing of the human genome which allowed rapid cloning and synthesis of large quantities of purified proteins, it has become common practice to use high throughput screening of large compound libraries against isolated biological targets which are hypothesized to be disease-modifying in a process known as reverse pharmacology. Hits from these screens are then tested in cells and then in animals for efficacy. Even more recently, scientists have been able to understand the shape of biological molecules at the atomic level and to use that knowledge to design (see drug design) drug candidates.
Modern drug discovery involves the identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry, and optimization of those hits to increase the affinity, selectivity (to reduce the potential of side effects), efficacy/potency, metabolic stability (to increase the half-life), and oral bioavailability. Once a compound that fulfills all of these requirements has been identified, it will begin the process of drug development prior to clinical trials. One or more of these steps may, but not necessarily, involve computer-aided drug design.
Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery is still a lengthy, "expensive, difficult, and inefficient process" with a low rate of new therapeutic discovery. In 2010, the research and development cost of each new molecular entity (NME) was approximately US$1.8 billion. Drug discovery is done by pharmaceutical companies, sometimes with research assistance from universities. The "final product" of drug discovery is a patent on the potential drug. The drug requires very expensive Phase I, II, and III clinical trials, and most of them fail. Small companies have a critical role, often then selling the rights to larger companies that have the resources to run the clinical trials.
Drug discovery is different from Drug Development. Drug Discovery is often considered the process of identifying new medicine. At the same time, Drug development is delivering a new drug molecule into clinical practice. In its broad definition, this encompasses all steps from the basic research process of finding a suitable molecular target to supporting the drug's commercial launch.
Development
Drug development is the process of bringing a new drug to the market once a lead compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery. It includes pre-clinical research (microorganisms/animals) and clinical trials (on humans) and may include the step of obtaining regulatory approval to market the drug.
Drug Development Process
Discovery: The Drug Development process starts with Discovery, a process of identifying a new medicine.
Development: Chemicals extracted from natural products are used to make pills, capsules, or syrups for oral use. Injections for direct infusion into the blood drops for eyes or ears.
Preclinical research: Drugs go under laboratory or animal testing, to ensure that they can be used on Humans.
Clinical testing: The drug is used on people to confirm that it is safe to use.
FDA Review: drug is sent to FDA before launching the drug into the market.
FDA post-Market Review: The drug is reviewed and monitored by FDA for the safety once it is available to the public.
Regulation
The regulation of drugs varies by jurisdiction. In some countries, such as the United States, they are regulated at the national level by a single agency. In other jurisdictions, they are regulated at the state level, or at both state and national levels by various bodies, as is the case in Australia. The role of therapeutic goods regulation is designed mainly to protect the health and safety of the population. Regulation is aimed at ensuring the safety, quality, and efficacy of the therapeutic goods which are covered under the scope of the regulation. In most jurisdictions, therapeutic goods must be registered before they are allowed to be marketed. There is usually some degree of restriction on the availability of certain therapeutic goods depending on their risk to consumers.
Depending upon the jurisdiction, drugs may be divided into over-the-counter drugs (OTC) which may be available without special restrictions, and prescription drugs, which must be prescribed by a licensed medical practitioner in accordance with medical guidelines due to the risk of adverse effects and contraindications. The precise distinction between OTC and prescription depends on the legal jurisdiction. A third category, "behind-the-counter" drugs, is implemented in some jurisdictions. These do not require a prescription, but must be kept in the dispensary, not visible to the public, and be sold only by a pharmacist or pharmacy technician. Doctors may also prescribe prescription drugs for off-label use – purposes which the drugs were not originally approved for by the regulatory agency. The Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals helps guide the referral process between pharmacists and doctors.
The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations imposes a world law of prohibition of certain drugs. They publish a lengthy list of chemicals and plants whose trade and consumption (where applicable) are forbidden. OTC drugs are sold without restriction as they are considered safe enough that most people will not hurt themselves accidentally by taking it as instructed. Many countries, such as the United Kingdom have a third category of "pharmacy medicines", which can be sold only in registered pharmacies by or under the supervision of a pharmacist.
Medical errors include over-prescription and polypharmacy, mis-prescription, contraindication and lack of detail in dosage and administration instructions. In 2000 the definition of a prescription error was studied using a Delphi method conference; the conference was motivated by ambiguity in what a prescription error is and a need to use a uniform definition in studies.
Drug pricing
In many jurisdictions, drug prices are regulated.
United Kingdom
In the UK, the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme is intended to ensure that the National Health Service is able to purchase drugs at reasonable prices. The prices are negotiated between the Department of Health, acting with the authority of Northern Ireland and the UK Government, and the representatives of the Pharmaceutical industry brands, the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI). For 2017 this payment percentage set by the PPRS will be 4,75%.
Canada
In Canada, the Patented Medicine Prices Review Board examines drug pricing and determines if a price is excessive or not. In these circumstances, drug manufacturers must submit a proposed price to the appropriate regulatory agency. Furthermore, "the International Therapeutic Class Comparison Test is responsible for comparing the National Average Transaction Price of the patented drug product under review" different countries that the prices are being compared to are the following: France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States
Brazil
In Brazil, the prices are regulated through legislation under the name of Medicamento Genérico (generic drugs) since 1999.
India
In India, drug prices are regulated by the National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority.
United States
In the United States, drug costs are partially unregulated, but instead are the result of negotiations between drug companies and insurance companies.
High prices have been attributed to monopolies given to manufacturers by the government. New drug development costs continue to rise as well. Despite the enormous advances in science and technology, the number of new blockbuster drugs approved by the government per billion dollars spent has halved every 9 years since 1950.
Blockbuster drug
A blockbuster drug is a drug that generates more than $1 billion in revenue for a pharmaceutical company in a single year. Cimetidine was the first drug ever to reach more than $1 billion a year in sales, thus making it the first blockbuster drug.
History
Prescription drug history
Antibiotics first arrived on the medical scene in 1932 thanks to Gerhard Domagk; and were coined the "wonder drugs". The introduction of the sulfa drugs led to the mortality rate from pneumonia in the U.S. to drop from 0.2% each year to 0.05% by 1939. Antibiotics inhibit the growth or the metabolic activities of bacteria and other microorganisms by a chemical substance of microbial origin. Penicillin, introduced a few years later, provided a broader spectrum of activity compared to sulfa drugs and reduced side effects. Streptomycin, found in 1942, proved to be the first drug effective against the cause of tuberculosis and also came to be the best known of a long series of important antibiotics. A second generation of antibiotics was introduced in the 1940s: aureomycin and chloramphenicol. Aureomycin was the best known of the second generation.
Lithium was discovered in the 19th century for nervous disorders and its possible mood-stabilizing or prophylactic effect; it was cheap and easily produced. As lithium fell out of favor in France, valpromide came into play. This antibiotic was the origin of the drug that eventually created the mood stabilizer category. Valpromide had distinct psychotrophic effects that were of benefit in both the treatment of acute manic states and in the maintenance treatment of manic depression illness. Psychotropics can either be sedative or stimulant; sedatives aim at damping down the extremes of behavior. Stimulants aim at restoring normality by increasing tone. Soon arose the notion of a tranquilizer which was quite different from any sedative or stimulant. The term tranquilizer took over the notions of sedatives and became the dominant term in the West through the 1980s. In Japan, during this time, the term tranquilizer produced the notion of a psyche-stabilizer and the term mood stabilizer vanished.
Premarin (conjugated estrogens, introduced in 1942) and Prempro (a combination estrogen-progestin pill, introduced in 1995) dominated the hormone replacement therapy (HRT) during the 1990s. HRT is not a life-saving drug, nor does it cure any disease. HRT has been prescribed to improve one's quality of life. Doctors prescribe estrogen for their older female patients both to treat short-term menopausal symptoms and to prevent long-term diseases. In the 1960s and early 1970s, more and more physicians began to prescribe estrogen for their female patients. between 1991 and 1999, Premarin was listed as the most popular prescription and best-selling drug in America.
The first oral contraceptive, Enovid, was approved by FDA in 1960. Oral contraceptives inhibit ovulation and so prevent conception. Enovid was known to be much more effective than alternatives including the condom and the diaphragm. As early as 1960, oral contraceptives were available in several different strengths by every manufacturer. In the 1980s and 1990s, an increasing number of options arose including, most recently, a new delivery system for the oral contraceptive via a transdermal patch. In 1982, a new version of the Pill was introduced, known as the "biphasic" pill. By 1985, a new triphasic pill was approved. Physicians began to think of the Pill as an excellent means of birth control for young women.
Stimulants such as Ritalin (methylphenidate) came to be pervasive tools for behavior management and modification in young children. Ritalin was first marketed in 1955 for narcolepsy; its potential users were middle-aged and the elderly. It wasn't until some time in the 1980s along with hyperactivity in children that Ritalin came onto the market. Medical use of methlyphenidate is predominantly for symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Consumption of methylphenidate in the U.S. out-paced all other countries between 1991 and 1999. Significant growth in consumption was also evident in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Norway. Currently, 85% of the world's methylphenidate is consumed in America.
The first minor tranquilizer was Meprobamate. Only fourteen months after it was made available, meprobamate had become the country's largest-selling prescription drug. By 1957, meprobamate had become the fastest-growing drug in history. The popularity of meprobamate paved the way for Librium and Valium, two minor tranquilizers that belonged to a new chemical class of drugs called the benzodiazepines. These were drugs that worked chiefly as anti-anxiety agents and muscle relaxants. The first benzodiazepine was Librium. Three months after it was approved, Librium had become the most prescribed tranquilizer in the nation. Three years later, Valium hit the shelves and was ten times more effective as a muscle relaxant and anti-convulsant. Valium was the most versatile of the minor tranquilizers. Later came the widespread adoption of major tranquilizers such as chlorpromazine and the drug reserpine. In 1970, sales began to decline for Valium and Librium, but sales of new and improved tranquilizers, such as Xanax, introduced in 1981 for the newly created diagnosis of panic disorder, soared.
Mevacor (lovastatin) is the first and most influential statin in the American market. The 1991 launch of Pravachol (pravastatin), the second available in the United States, and the release of Zocor (simvastatin) made Mevacor no longer the only statin on the market.
In 1998, Viagra was released as a treatment for erectile dysfunction.
Ancient pharmacology
Using plants and plant substances to treat all kinds of diseases and medical conditions is believed to date back to prehistoric medicine.
The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, the oldest known medical text of any kind, dates to about 1800 BC and represents the first documented use of any kind of drug. It and other medical papyri describe Ancient Egyptian medical practices, such as using honey to treat infections and the legs of bee-eaters to treat neck pains.
Ancient Babylonian medicine demonstrated the use of medication in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Medicinal creams and pills were employed as treatments.
On the Indian subcontinent, the Atharvaveda, a sacred text of Hinduism whose core dates from the second millennium BC, although the hymns recorded in it are believed to be older, is the first Indic text dealing with medicine. It describes plant-based drugs to counter diseases. The earliest foundations of ayurveda were built on a synthesis of selected ancient herbal practices, together with a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating from about 400 BC onwards. The student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis.
The Hippocratic Oath for physicians, attributed to fifth century BC Greece, refers to the existence of "deadly drugs", and ancient Greek physicians imported drugs from Egypt and elsewhere. The pharmacopoeia De materia medica, written between 50 and 70 CE by the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides, was widely read for more than 1,500 years.
Medieval pharmacology
Al-Kindi's ninth century AD book, De Gradibus and Ibn Sina (Avicenna)'s The Canon of Medicine, covers a range of drugs known to the practice of medicine in the medieval Islamic world.
Medieval medicine of Western Europe saw advances in surgery compared to previously, but few truly effective drugs existed, beyond opium (found in such extremely popular drugs as the "Great Rest" of the Antidotarium Nicolai at the time) and quinine. Folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments. Theodoric Borgognoni, (1205–1296), one of the most significant surgeons of the medieval period, responsible for introducing and promoting important surgical advances including basic antiseptic practice and the use of anaesthetics. Garcia de Orta described some herbal treatments that were used.
Modern pharmacology
For most of the 19th century, drugs were not highly effective, leading Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. to famously comment in 1842 that "if all medicines in the world were thrown into the sea, it would be all the better for mankind and all the worse for the fishes".
During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an irrigation, Dakin's solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene.
In the inter-war period, the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics were developed. The Second World War saw the introduction of widespread and effective antimicrobial therapy with the development and mass production of penicillin antibiotics, made possible by the pressures of the war and the collaboration of British scientists with the American pharmaceutical industry.
Medicines commonly used by the late 1920s included aspirin, codeine, and morphine for pain; digitalis, nitroglycerin, and quinine for heart disorders, and insulin for diabetes. Other drugs included antitoxins, a few biological vaccines, and a few synthetic drugs. In the 1930s, antibiotics emerged: first sulfa drugs, then penicillin and other antibiotics. Drugs increasingly became "the center of medical practice". In the 1950s, other drugs emerged including corticosteroids for inflammation, rauvolfia alkaloids as tranquilizers and antihypertensives, antihistamines for nasal allergies, xanthines for asthma, and typical antipsychotics for psychosis. As of 2007, thousands of approved drugs have been developed. Increasingly, biotechnology is used to discover biopharmaceuticals. Recently, multi-disciplinary approaches have yielded a wealth of new data on the development of novel antibiotics and antibacterials and on the use of biological agents for antibacterial therapy.
In the 1950s, new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control.
Governments have been heavily involved in the regulation of drug development and drug sales. In the U.S., the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster led to the establishment of the Food and Drug Administration, and the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act required manufacturers to file new drugs with the FDA. The 1951 Humphrey-Durham Amendment required certain drugs to be sold by prescription. In 1962, a subsequent amendment required new drugs to be tested for efficacy and safety in clinical trials.
Until the 1970s, drug prices were not a major concern for doctors and patients. As more drugs became prescribed for chronic illnesses, however, costs became burdensome, and by the 1970s nearly every U.S. state required or encouraged the substitution of generic drugs for higher-priced brand names. This also led to the 2006 U.S. law, Medicare Part D, which offers Medicare coverage for drugs.
As of 2008, the United States is the leader in medical research, including pharmaceutical development. U.S. drug prices are among the highest in the world, and drug innovation is correspondingly high. In 2000, U.S.-based firms developed 29 of the 75 top-selling drugs; firms from the second-largest market, Japan, developed eight, and the United Kingdom contributed 10. France, which imposes price controls, developed three. Throughout the 1990s, outcomes were similar.
Controversies
Controversies concerning pharmaceutical drugs include patient access to drugs under development and not yet approved, pricing, and environmental issues.
Access to unapproved drugs
Governments worldwide have created provisions for granting access to drugs prior to approval for patients who have exhausted all alternative treatment options and do not match clinical trial entry criteria. Often grouped under the labels of compassionate use, expanded access, or named patient supply, these programs are governed by rules which vary by country defining access criteria, data collection, promotion, and control of drug distribution.
Within the United States, pre-approval demand is generally met through treatment IND (investigational new drug) applications (INDs), or single-patient INDs. These mechanisms, which fall under the label of expanded access programs, provide access to drugs for groups of patients or individuals residing in the US. Outside the US, Named Patient Programs provide controlled, pre-approval access to drugs in response to requests by physicians on behalf of specific, or "named", patients before those medicines are licensed in the patient's home country. Through these programs, patients are able to access drugs in late-stage clinical trials or approved in other countries for a genuine, unmet medical need, before those drugs have been licensed in the patient's home country.
Patients who have not been able to get access to drugs in development have organized and advocated for greater access. In the United States, ACT UP formed in the 1980s, and eventually formed its Treatment Action Group in part to pressure the US government to put more resources into discovering treatments for AIDS and then to speed release of drugs that were under development.
The Abigail Alliance was established in November 2001 by Frank Burroughs in memory of his daughter, Abigail. The Alliance seeks broader availability of investigational drugs on behalf of terminally ill patients.
In 2013, BioMarin Pharmaceutical was at the center of a high-profile debate regarding expanded access of cancer patients to experimental drugs.
Access to medicines and drug pricing
Essential medicines, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), are "those drugs that satisfy the health care needs of the majority of the population; they should therefore be available at all times in adequate amounts and in appropriate dosage forms, at a price the community can afford." Recent studies have found that most of the medicines on the WHO essential medicines list, outside of the field of HIV drugs, are not patented in the developing world, and that lack of widespread access to these medicines arise from issues fundamental to economic development – lack of infrastructure and poverty. Médecins Sans Frontières also runs a Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines campaign, which includes advocacy for greater resources to be devoted to currently untreatable diseases that primarily occur in the developing world. The Access to Medicine Index tracks how well pharmaceutical companies make their products available in the developing world.
World Trade Organization negotiations in the 1990s, including the TRIPS Agreement and the Doha Declaration, have centered on issues at the intersection of international trade in pharmaceuticals and intellectual property rights, with developed world nations seeking strong intellectual property rights to protect investments made to develop new drugs, and developing world nations seeking to promote their generic pharmaceuticals industries and their ability to make medicine available to their people via compulsory licenses.
Some have raised ethical objections specifically with respect to pharmaceutical patents and the high prices for drugs that they enable their proprietors to charge, which poor people around the world, cannot afford. Critics also question the rationale that exclusive patent rights and the resulting high prices are required for pharmaceutical companies to recoup the large investments needed for research and development. One study concluded that marketing expenditures for new drugs often doubled the amount that was allocated for research and development. Other critics claim that patent settlements would be costly for consumers, the health care system, and state and federal governments because it would result in delaying access to lower cost generic medicines.
Novartis fought a protracted battle with the government of India over the patenting of its drug, Gleevec, in India, which ended up in a Supreme Court in a case known as Novartis v. Union of India & Others. The Supreme Court ruled narrowly against Novartis, but opponents of patenting drugs claimed it as a major victory.
Environmental issues
The environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products is controversial. PPCPs are substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of livestock. PPCPs comprise a diverse collection of thousands of chemical substances, including prescription and over-the-counter therapeutic drugs, veterinary drugs, fragrances, and cosmetics. PPCPs have been detected in water bodies throughout the world and ones that persist in the environment are called Environmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants. The effects of these chemicals on humans and the environment are not yet known, but to date there is no scientific evidence that they affect human health.
See also
Adherence
Deprescribing
Drug nomenclature
List of drugs
List of pharmaceutical companies
Orphan drug
Overmedication
Pharmaceutical code
Pharmacy
References
External links
Drug Reference Site Directory | OpenMD
Drugs & Medications Directory | Curlie
European Medicines Agency
NHS Medicines A-Z
U.S. Food & Drug Administration: Drugs
WHO Model List of Essential Medicines
Chemicals in medicine
Pharmaceutical industry
Products of chemical industry | wiki |
Alas Smith and Jones - een Britse comedyserie (1982-'88)
Alias Smith and Jones - een Amerikaanse televisieserie (1971-'73) | wiki |
This is a list of episodes for the Disney Channel original series Shake It Up, which premiered on November 7, 2010 and ended on November 10, 2013. The series follows two best friends, CeCe Jones and Rocky Blue (portrayed by Bella Thorne and Zendaya respectively), who land their dream job as back-up dancers on the television show, Shake It Up, Chicago. The show follows their adventures in the show and features problems and issues such as their new social status, tests their friendships and rivals on the show. The show's third season premiered on October 14, 2012. In July 2013, Disney Channel announced that Shake It Up would end after its third season.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2010–11)
Season 2 (2011–12)
Season 3 (2012–13)
References
External links
Lists of American sitcom episodes
Lists of American children's television series episodes
Lists of Disney Channel television series episodes | wiki |
Arne Olsson är ett vanligt namn:
För jazzmusikern, se Arne Olsson (musiker)
För biskopen, se Arne Olsson (biskop)
För folkmusikern, se Arne Olsson (spelman) | wiki |
10 Things You Don't Know About is an American history/biography television series on H2. It was initially presented by historian David Eisenbach for one season. Eisenbach was succeeded as host by musician Henry Rollins for the next two seasons. Each episode of the show presents ten facts about a particular historical figure, group, event, or aspect that are not widely known among the general public. Each fact is accompanied by relevant clips and, during Rollins's tenure, interviews with experts, as well as man-on-the-street interviews. The first season also featured results of an online poll surrounding the ten facts.
The episodes originally ran for 30 minutes (with commercial breaks) each during Eisenbach's tenure; the episodes became twice as long when Rollins took over hosting duties.
The show's first season, which featured Eisenbach, aired on February 27, 2012, running through May 7, 2012. The second season, featuring Rollins, began airing on November 2, 2013. The third season, also hosted by Rollins started on August 16, 2014.
A&E Home Video released the first season of the series on DVD on August 28, 2012.
Episodes
Season 1
Season 2
Season 3
References
External links
10 things to know about Vietnam
2012 American television series debuts
History (American TV channel) original programming
English-language television shows
2014 American television series endings | wiki |
Sweetleaf may refer to:
Sauropus androgynus, a plant of the family Phyllanthaceae whose leaves may be used as a potherb
Stevia, a genus of plants in the family Asteraceae whose leaves may be used for sweetening
"Sweet Leaf", a song by Black Sabbath
Sweet Leaf Tea Company, US manufacturer of prepared tea drinks
Symplocos tinctoria, an evergreen shrub or small tree in the southeastern United States
Monarda fistulosa, a medicinal and ornamental herb
Slang term for Cannabis | wiki |
A snipe hunt is a type of practical joke or fool's errand, in existence in North America as early as the 1840s, in which an unsuspecting newcomer is duped into trying to catch an elusive (fictitious for the purposes of the prank), nonexistent animal called a snipe. Although snipe are an actual family of birds, a snipe hunt is a quest for an imaginary creature whose description varies.
The target of the prank is led to an outdoor spot and given instructions for catching the snipe; these often include waiting in the dark and holding an empty bag or making noises to attract the creature. The others involved in the prank then leave the newcomer alone in the woods to discover the joke. As an American rite of passage, snipe hunting is often associated with summer camps and groups such as the Boy Scouts. In France, a similar joke is called "hunting the dahut".
In North America
Although snipe are a real family of birds, the snipe hunt is a practical joke, often associated with summer camps and other types of outdoor camping, in which the victim is tricked into engaging in a hunt for an imaginary creature.
Snipe hunters are typically led to an outdoor spot at night and given a bag or pillowcase along with instructions that can include either waiting quietly or making odd noises to attract the creatures. The other group members leave, promising to chase the snipe toward the newcomer; instead, they return home or to camp, leaving the victims of the prank alone in the dark to discover that they have been duped and left "holding the bag".
The snipe hunt is a kind of fool's errand or wild-goose chase, meaning a fruitless errand or expedition, attested as early as the 1840s in the United States. It was the most common hazing ritual for boys in American summer camps during the early 20th century, and is a rite of passage often associated with groups such as the Boy Scouts. In camp life and children's folklore, the snipe hunt provides an opportunity to make fun of newcomers while also accepting them into the group.
Setting the stage for the prank is often done with imaginative descriptions of the snipe, similar to tall tales. For instance, the snipe is said to resemble a cross between a jackrabbit and a squirrel; a squirrel-like bird with one red and one green eye; a small, black, furry bird-like animal that only comes out during a full moon, and so on. According to American Folklore: An Encyclopedia:
In another variation, a bag supposedly containing a captured snipe is theatrically brought to the campsite after a group hunt; the snipe quickly "escapes" unseen when the bag is opened.
Variations
A similar practical joke in France is known as "hunting the dahut". While the description of the prey differs from the North American snipe hunt, the nature of the joke is the same.
In Spain, a similar joke is called ('hunting gamusinos'). The is an imaginary animal creature with no defined description.
In popular culture
A snipe hunt features prominently in the plot and title of an episode of Cheers. The men of the bar send Frasier Crane on a snipe hunt in the Season 3 episode "The Heart is a Lonely Snipe Hunter."
See also
Drop bear
Elwetritsch
Fearsome critters
Jackalope
List of practical joke topics
Oozlum bird
Squonk
Wild haggis
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
"Snipe Hunting" – University of Southern California Digital Folklore Archives
"Snipe Hunt" – James T. Callow Folklore Archive
Practical jokes
In-jokes
American legendary creatures
Fearsome critters
Scouting
Tall tales
fr:Canulars dans la technique | wiki |
Phyllis Dietrichson (Phyllis Nirdlinger, in the book) is a fictional character in the book and two film adaptations of James M. Cain's novella Double Indemnity. For the 1944 film of the same name, Barbara Stanwyck was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. The character is considered one of the best femme fatale roles in film noir history. The character was ranked as the #8 film villain of the first 100 years of American cinema by the American Film Institute in the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains.
Character biography
In both the novella and films, she meets her husband's insurance agent, Walter Neff (Fred MacMurray) to help her murder her husband. They first trick her husband, Mr. Dietrichson, into signing a life insurance policy without his knowledge. The policy has a double indemnity clause whereby the company agrees to pay double the face amount in the contract in cases of accidental death. They later murder her husband and try to make it seem like an accident on a train in an attempt to invoke the policy's double indemnity clause. Although they succeed, Phyllis soon runs into problems in trying to invoke the clause and collect the money.
The next day, much to her dismay, Phyllis finds out that the company has refused to pay the double indemnity clause for they did not know about Mr. Dietrichson's broken leg before his death. Their suspicions catch the attention of Neff's boss, Barton Keyes, who encourages them to investigate, making both her and Neff nervous. Phyllis realizes too late that Dietrichson eventually found out about her plan to murder him and changed his will to spite her. He left the inheritance to his daughter (her stepdaughter), Lola and thus leaving her with nothing. Phyllis knows her stepdaughter is a threat to her because Lola suspects her of murdering her father in a similar manner to her mother, and tries to get Neff to kill Lola (which fails after he befriends Lola and learns more about her family's tragic past). Phyllis must also contend with the inquisitive Keyes, who suspects she was involved in the murder of Mr. Dietrichson; he believes her accomplice was Nino, whom she was secretly meeting. She tries to kill Neff to clean up any loose ends, but can't fire the last shot because she has fallen in love with him. Neff does not believe Phyllis, calling her a rotten, manipulative woman, and kills her in the ensuing struggle. After killing her, Neff meets Nino outside and convinces him not to go inside the house, but to the woman who truly loves him.
After doing so, a wounded Neff returns to his place of work and confesses to his wrongdoing in his office, via Dictaphone. Keyes comes in and overhears his confession that he murdered both Mr. Dietrichson and Phyllis. He informs Neff that the police are coming over to arrest him for the murders. As he tries to escape, planning to live out his life in Mexico rather than face the death penalty, Neff collapses to the floor near the elevator. Keyes offers him a cigarette, as they wait for the police to arrest Neff for killing the couple.
Casting
Phyllis was so iniquitous that Stanwyck, Billy Wilder's first choice for the role in the 1944 film, was reluctant to take it. Wilder was persistent, however, and Stanwyck eventually relented; she said thereafter it was one of the best roles she had ever played.
Novel vs film
In James M. Cain's original novella, the character is named Phyllis Nirdlinger (Wilder changed the name for the film adaptation, as he thought it sounded too comical). In the novella, Phyllis is a former nurse who was suspected of killing several children in her care; the case was dropped for lack of evidence. Also, in the novel's climax, she escapes with Neff (here called Huff) and goes away with him on an ocean liner; there, she kills him, too. It is implied at the end of the novel she will be arrested.
Details
The character was based upon real-life murderer Ruth Snyder. The photo of Snyder's execution in the Sing Sing electric chair, run on the cover of the January 13, 1928 New York Daily News with the one-word headline DEAD!, has been called the most famous newsphoto of the 1920s.
Among top-ranked villains on screen
In addition to being ranked in 2005 the #8 film villain of the first 100 years of American cinema by the American Film Institute, Phyllis can be found on other such lists of evil characters. Richard Corliss, the former editor-in-chief of Film Comment and a notable film critic for Time magazine, ranked Stanwyck's portrayal of Phyllis #5 on his 2007 list of the "Top 25 Greatest Villains" in cinema history, placing her just ahead of Ann Savage's character Vera in the cross-country crime drama Detour (1945). As part of his assessment of Phyllis, Corliss pities poor Walter and marvels at his blindness to pure evil:
In other media
Samantha Eggar portrayed Dietrichson in a 1973 made-for-television remake.
References
Fictional serial killers
Thriller film characters
Characters in American novels of the 20th century
Literary characters introduced in 1943
Female literary villains
Female film villains
Fictional characters based on real people
Fictional murderers of children
Fictional murdered people | wiki |
The Trust (1915), filme de Lon Chaney
Trust (1990), filme de Hal Hartley
Trust (2010), filme com Clive Owen
The Trust (2016), filme com Nicolas Cage
"Trust" (canção de Megadeth)
"Trust" (canção de Ayumi Hamasaki)
"Trust" (canção de Keyshia e Monica)
Desambiguações de cinema
Desambiguações de música | wiki |
Term may refer to:
Terminology, or term, a noun or compound word used in a specific context, in particular:
Technical term, part of the specialized vocabulary of a particular field, specifically:
Scientific terminology, terms used by scientists
Law
Contractual term, a legally binding provision
Payment (or credit) terms, a part of an invoice; when you'll have to pay and what discount you'll get by paying early. Like "2/10 net 30".
Lengths of time
Academic term, a division of the academic year in which classes are held. For English-speaking university academic terms, see:
Easter term
Hilary term
Lent term
Michaelmas term
Summer term
Trinity term
Term of office, the length of time a person serves in a particular office
Term of patent, the maximum period during which a patent can be maintained in force
Term of a pregnancy
Prison sentence, or term, a time served in a prison
Mathematics and physics
Term (logic), a component of a logical or mathematical expression (not to be confused with term logic, or Aristotelian logic)
Ground term, a term with no variables
Addend, or term, an operand to the addition operator
Term of a summation, a polynomial, or a series, a special case of a summand
Term algebra, a freely generated algebraic structure
Term logic, an approach to logic that began with Aristotle and that was dominant until the advent of modern predicate logic
Term symbol, a concept in quantum mechanics
Other uses
Term (architecture) or terminal form, a human head and bust that continues as a square tapering pillar-like form
Term (argumentation), a concept in argumentation theory
Term (computers) or terminal emulator, a program that emulates a video terminal
Term, Iran, a village in Mazandaran Province, Iran
Term life insurance
Telecom Enforcement Resource and Monitoring, an agency of the Indian Department of Telecommunications
See also
Maxterms and minterms, in Boolean algebra
Terme (disambiguation)
Termeh, a type of textile
Tern (disambiguation) | wiki |
Moana () is a 1926 American silent documentary film, or more strictly a work of docufiction, which was directed by Robert J. Flaherty, creator of Nanook of the North (1922).
Description
Moana was filmed in Samoa (then under the Western Samoa Trust Territory) in the villages of Safune district on the island of Savai'i. The name of the lead male character, Moana, means 'deep sea, deep water' in the Samoan language. In making the film, Flaherty lived with his wife and collaborator Frances H. Flaherty and their three daughters in Samoa for more than a year. They arrived in Samoa in April 1923 and stayed until December 1924, with the film being completed in December 1925.
Hoping that Flaherty could repeat the success of Nanook, Paramount Pictures sent him to Samoa to capture the traditional life of the Polynesians on film. Flaherty reportedly arrived with 16 tons of filmmaking equipment. This included both a regular movie camera and a Prizma color camera, as Flaherty hoped to film some footage in that color process, but the Prizmacolor camera malfunctioned.
Moana is thought to be the first feature film made with panchromatic black-and-white film rather than the orthochromatic film commonly used at the time in Hollywood feature films. Flaherty developed his film as he went along, in a cave on Savai'i. In the process, he inadvertently poisoned himself and required treatment after he drank water from the cave that contained silver nitrate, which washed off the film stock. The silver nitrate also caused spots to form on the negative.
As in the earlier Nanook (and his later film, Man of Aran), Flaherty went well beyond recording the life of the people of Samoa as it happened. He followed his usual procedure of "casting" locals whom he considered potentially photogenic performers into "roles", including creating fictitious family relationships.
He also, as in the other films, on occasion set up scenes in which exotic earlier practices were re-enacted as if still current. In Nanook and Man of Aran, it included setting up anachronistic hunting sequences. In Moana, at a time when Samoans were typically wearing modern Western-style clothing under the influence of Christian missionaries, Flaherty persuaded his performers to don traditional tapa cloth costumes (made from the bark of the paper mulberry tree, in a process shown in some detail in the film); the "maidens" went topless.
He also staged a coming-into-manhood ritual in which the young male lead underwent a painful traditional Samoan tattoo, for which the young man required a generous compensation. Those devices have led to Flaherty's films sometimes being categorized as "docufiction".
Still, it emerged that living off the land and the ocean in Samoa was comparatively easy, leaving limited scope for Flaherty to draw on his favored theme of "Man against Nature" as he had in Nanook and was to again in Man of Aran. Thus, although the film was visually stunning and drew critical praise at the time, it lacked the raw drama of Nanook, which may have contributed to its failure at the box office. (Bruce Posner, the film's restorer, commented: "God knows what Paramount expected. It was just poorly released. They tried to shift it into a love story of the South Seas, which it is, but not a conventional one.")
The word documentary was first applied in a cinematic context in a review of this movie written by "The Moviegoer", a pen name for John Grierson, in the New York Sun on February 8, 1926.
Restoration
The youngest of the children Robert and Frances Flaherty brought with them to Samoa was their then-three-year-old daughter Monica. In 1975, Monica Flaherty returned to Savai'i to create a soundtrack for her parents' hitherto-silent film, including recording ambient sounds of village life, dubbed Samoan dialogue and traditional singing. The resulting "Moana with Sound" was completed in 1980, with help from filmmakers Jean Renoir and Richard Leacock, and first shown publicly in Paris in 1981. At that stage, however, with the original negative no longer in existence, the visual quality of Monica Flaherty's 16 mm print (a copy of a copy of her father's original 35 mm nitrate film) left much to be desired, and it was to suffer further degradation with time. The 1981 version was not distributed, partly because of its visual flaws and partly because Monica Flaherty did not reach an agreement with Paramount over the proceeds.
More recently, preservationist and curator Bruce Posner and Finnish filmmaker Sami van Ingen, a great-grandson of the Flahertys, drew on the best surviving 35 mm copies of the film to prepare, with the assistance of restorer Thomas Bakels, a digitally restored print. This was matched by sound expert Lee Dichter to Monica Flaherty’s soundtrack. The restored "Moana with Sound" was shown at the New York Film Festival on September 30, 2014, and has also appeared, among other showings, at the National Archives in Washington DC (January 2015). The program for the New York Film Festival describes the restored version as "absolutely wondrous".
See also
Docufiction
List of docufiction films
References
External links
Moana, Broadway newspaper advertisement for a 1926 screening of the film (Wayback Machine)
Why 'Moana,' the First Docufiction in History, Deserves a New Life - article by Laya Maheshwari at Indiewire, July 3, 2014
Southseascinema.org; Shows, J thru R
Film still at fineartamerica.com
1926 documentary films
1926 films
American black-and-white films
American documentary films
American silent feature films
Anthropology documentary films
Black-and-white documentary films
Documentary films about Oceania
Ethnofiction films
Films directed by Robert Flaherty
Films set in Samoa
Films shot in Samoa
Paramount Pictures films
Samoan words and phrases
American docufiction films
1920s American films
Silent American drama films
Articles containing video clips | wiki |
Boondocks are remote, usually brushy areas.
Boondocks may also refer to:
The Boondocks (band), an Estonian rock band
The Boondocks (comic strip), a comic strip by Aaron McGruder
The Boondocks (2005 TV series), the television series based on the aforementioned comic strip
The Boondocks (cancelled TV series), a cancelled reboot of the aforementioned television series
"Boondocks" (song), a 2005 song by Little Big Town
Boondocks Road, a road in Texas
The Boondock Saints, a 1999 action crime drama film
"Down in the Boondocks" (song), a 1965 song by Billy Joe Royal
Boondock, a fictional settlement in the Lazarus Long novel series by Robert A. Heinlein; see
See also
Boondox (born 1985), rapper | wiki |
Fear Itself puede referirse a:
Fear, Itself episodio de Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1999).
Miedo absoluto película dirigida por Ruby Zack de (2006).
Fear Itself serie de televisión creada por Mick Garris en (2008).
Fear Itself cómic de Marvel Comics (2011). | wiki |
The Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center (TSLC) also known as Base 25 (), is a People's Republic of China space and defense launch facility (spaceport). It is situated in Kelan County, Xinzhou, Shanxi Province and is the second of four launch sites having been founded in March 1966 and coming into full operation in 1968. Taiyuan sits at an altitude of 1500 meters and its dry climate makes it an ideal launch site. The site is primarily used to launch meteorological satellites, Earth resource satellites and scientific satellites on Long March launch vehicles into Sun-synchronous orbits. TSLC is also a major launch site for intercontinental ballistic missiles and overland submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) tests.
The site has a sophisticated Technical Center and Mission Command and Control Center. It is served by two feeder railways that connect with the Ningwu–Kelan railway.
Launch pads
Launch Site 7: CZ-1D, CZ-2C/SD, CZ-4A, CZ-4B and CZ-4C vehicles.
Launch Site 9: CZ-2C, CZ-2D, CZ-4B and CZ-4C. First use on 25 October 2008.
Launch Site 16: CZ-6 and Kuaizhou-1A.
Launch Site 9A: CZ-6A.
Recent launches
Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center was to launch a satellite coded as the 03 Group of the Shijian-6 serial research satellites sometime on 24 October 2008. The rocket carrier was to be a Long March 4B, said the official, noting both the satellite and the rocket were in good condition and all the preparations for the launch had been completed.
See also
Space program of China
Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center
Xichang Satellite Launch Center
Wenchang Satellite Launch Center
References
Buildings and structures in Shanxi
Chinese space program facilities
Spaceports in China | wiki |
Annie Get Your Gun may refer to:
Annie Get Your Gun (musical), a 1946 musical play
Annie Get Your Gun (film), a 1950 film version of the 1946 musical
Annie Get Your Gun (Doris Day-Robert Goulet album), 1963, with Doris Day and Robert Goulet
Annie Get Your Gun – 1986 London Cast, an album from the musical's UK tour and London revival, with Suzi Quatro and Eric Flynn
"Annie Get Your Gun" (song), by the band Squeeze | wiki |
A kilowatt-hour (unit symbol: kW⋅h or kW h; commonly written as kWh) is a non-SI unit of energy: one kilowatt of power for one hour. It is equivalent to 3.6 megajoules (MJ) in SI units. Kilowatt-hours are a common billing unit for electrical energy supplied by electric utilities. Metric prefixes are used for multiples and submultiples of the basic unit, the watt-hour.
Definition
The kilowatt-hour is a composite unit of energy equal to one kilowatt (kW) sustained for (multiplied by) one hour. Expressed in the standard unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI), the joule (symbol J), it is equal to 3,600 kilojoules or 3.6 MJ.
Unit representations
A widely used representation of the kilowatt-hour is "kWh", derived from its component units, kilowatt and hour. It is commonly used in billing for delivered energy to consumers by electric utility companies, and in commercial, educational, and scientific publications, and in the media. It is also the usual unit representation in electrical power engineering. This common representation, however, does not comply with the style guide of the International System of Units (SI).
Other representations of the unit may be encountered:
"kW⋅h" and "kW h" are less commonly used, but they are consistent with the SI. The SI brochure states that in forming a compound unit symbol, "Multiplication must be indicated by a space or a half-high (centred) dot (⋅), since otherwise some prefixes could be misinterpreted as a unit symbol." This is supported by a voluntary standard issued jointly by an international (IEEE) and national (ASTM) organization, and by a major style guide. However, the IEEE/ASTM standard allows "kWh" (but does not mention other multiples of the watt-hour). One guide published by NIST specifically recommends against "kWh" "to avoid possible confusion".
The United States official fuel-economy window sticker for electric vehicles uses the abbreviation "kW-hrs".
Variations in capitalization are sometimes encountered: KWh, KWH, kwh, etc., which are inconsistent with the International System of Units.
The notation "kW/h" for the kilowatt-hour is incorrect, as it denotes kilowatt per hour.
The hour is a unit of time listed among the non-SI units accepted by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures for use with the SI. Its combination with the kilowatt, a standard SI unit, is therefore permitted within the standard.
An electric heater consuming 1,000 watts (1 kilowatt), and operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour of energy. A television consuming 100 watts operating continuously for 10 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. A 40-watt electric appliance operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour.
Electricity sales
Electrical energy is typically sold to consumers in kilowatt-hours. The cost of running an electrical device is calculated by multiplying the device's power consumption in kilowatts by the operating time in hours, and by the price per kilowatt-hour. The unit price of electricity charged by utility companies may depend on the customer's consumption profile over time. Prices vary considerably by locality. In the United States prices in different states can vary by a factor of three.
While smaller customer loads are usually billed only for energy, transmission services, and the rated capacity, larger consumers also pay for peak power consumption, the greatest power recorded in a fairly short time, such as 15 minutes. This compensates the power company for maintaining the infrastructure needed to provide peak power. These charges are billed as demand changes. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to the power factor of their load.
Major energy production or consumption is often expressed as terawatt-hours (TWh) for a given period that is often a calendar year or financial year. A 365-day year equals 8,760 hours, so over a period of one year, power of one gigawatt equates to 8.76 terawatt-hours of energy. Conversely, one terawatt-hour is equal to a sustained power of about 114 megawatts for a period of one year.
Examples
In 2020, the average household in the United States consumed 893 kWh per month.
In terms of human power, a healthy adult male manual laborer performs work equal to about half a kilowatt-hour over an eight-hour day.
Conversions
To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the left column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row and column intersect.
Watt-hour multiples
All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt-hour: a kilowatt-hour is 1,000 Wh (kWh); a megawatt-hour is 1 million Wh (MWh); a milliwatt-hour is 1/1,000 Wh (mWh) and so on.
The kilowatt-hour is commonly used by electrical energy providers for purposes of billing, since the monthly energy consumption of a typical residential customer ranges from a few hundred to a few thousand kilowatt-hours. Megawatt-hours (MWh), gigawatt-hours (GWh), and terawatt-hours (TWh) are often used for metering larger amounts of electrical energy to industrial customers and in power generation. The terawatt-hour and petawatt-hour (PWh) units are large enough to conveniently express the annual electricity generation for whole countries and the world energy consumption.
Distinction between kWh (energy) and kW (power)
Sometimes there is confusion between the kilowatt and the kilowatt-hour (not kilowatt per hour, as sometimes misused).
Work is the amount of energy transferred to a system; power is the rate of delivery of energy.
Energy is measured in joules, or watt-seconds. Power is measured in watts, or joules per second.
For example, a battery stores energy. When the battery delivers its energy, it does so at a certain power, that is, the rate of delivery of the energy. The higher the power, the quicker the battery's stored energy is delivered. A higher power output will cause the battery's stored energy to be depleted in a shorter time period.
Annualized power
Electric energy production and consumption are sometimes reported on a yearly basis, in units such as megawatt-hours per year (MWh/yr) gigawatt-hours/year (GWh/yr) or terawatt-hours per year (TWh/yr). These units have dimensions of energy divided by time and thus are units of power. They can be converted to SI power units by dividing by the number of hours in a year, about .
Thus, 1 GWh/yr = 1 GWh/8766 h ≈ .
Misuse of watts per hour
Many compound units for various kinds of rates explicitly mention units of time to indicate a change over time. For example: miles per hour, kilometres per hour, dollars per hour. Power units, such as kW, already measure the rate of energy per unit time (kW=kJ/s). Kilowatt-hours are a product of power and time, not a rate of change of power with time.
Watts per hour (W/h) is a unit of a change of power per hour, i.e. an acceleration in the delivery of energy. It is used to measure the daily variation of demand (e.g. the slope of the duck curve), or ramp-up behavior of power plants. For example, a power plant that reaches a power output of from in 15 minutes has a ramp-up rate of .
Other uses of terms such as watts per hour are likely to be errors.
Other related energy units
Several other units related to kilowatt-hour are commonly used to indicate power or energy capacity or use in specific application areas.
Average annual energy production or consumption can be expressed in kilowatt-hours per year. This is used with loads or output that vary during the year but whose annual totals are similar from one year to the next. For example, it is useful to compare the energy efficiency of household appliances whose power consumption varies with time or the season of the year. Another use is to measure the energy produced by a distributed power source. One kilowatt-hour per year equals about 114.08 milliwatts applied constantly during one year.
The energy content of a battery is usually expressed indirectly by its capacity in ampere-hours; to convert ampere-hour (Ah) to watt-hours (Wh), the ampere-hour value must be multiplied by the voltage of the power source. This value is approximate, since the battery voltage is not constant during its discharge, and because higher discharge rates reduce the total amount of energy that the battery can provide. In the case of devices that output a different voltage than the battery, it is the battery voltage (typically 3.7 V for Li-ion) that must be used to calculate rather than the device output (for example, usually 5.0 V for USB portable chargers). This results in a 500 mA USB device running for about 3.7 hours on a 2,500 mAh battery, not five hours.
The Board of Trade unit (B.T.U.) is an obsolete UK synonym for kilowatt-hour. The term derives from the name of the Board of Trade which regulated the electricity industry until 1942 when the Ministry of Power took over. This should not be confused with a British Thermal Unit (BTU) which is 1055 J.
In India, the kilowatt-hour is often simply called a Unit of energy. A million units, designated MU, is a gigawatt-hour and a BU (billion units) is a terawatt-hour.
See also
Ampere-hour
Electric vehicle battery
Electric energy consumption
IEEE Std 260.1-2004
Orders of magnitude (energy)
References
Units of energy
Electric power
Non-SI metric units | wiki |
Flags on the Battlements () is a novella by Anton Makarenko, written in 1938 and published the same year in Krasnaya Nov magazine (issues 6-8). In 1939 the book came out as a separate edition through Khudozhestvennaya Literatura. This later version was considerably revised: it featured the new chapter "Unbelievable!" (Не может быть!), while one of the final chapters of the magazine-published version ("For the Rest of Our Lives", На всю жизнь) has been removed. The book was translated into English under the title Learning to Live.
Flags on the Battlements could be seen as a sequel to the 1932 novella March of the 30th Year and continues the story of the Dzerzhinsky Colony. The action in it takes place in 1931-1932.
References
Soviet novels
1938 novels | wiki |
Caryophyllia octonaria est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Caryophylliidae.
Description et caractéristiques
Habitat et répartition
Menaces
Liens externes
Notes et références
Caryophylliidae | wiki |
Caryophyllia octopali est une espèce de coraux appartenant à la famille des Caryophylliidae.
Description et caractéristiques
Habitat et répartition
Menaces
Liens externes
Notes et références
Caryophylliidae | wiki |
So Many Ways is a 1996 album by The Braxtons.
So Many Ways may also refer to:
"So Many Ways" (Brook Benton song), 1959
"So Many Ways" (The Braxtons song), 1996
"So Many Ways" (Ellie Campbell song), 1999
See also
So Many Ways/If the Whole World Stopped Lovin', a 1973 album by Eddy Arnold | wiki |
"If Ole Hank Could Only See Us Now" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Waylon Jennings. It was released in January 1988 as the second single from the album A Man Called Hoss. The song reached number 16 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. The song was written by Jennings and Roger Murrah. Jennings would perform the song live in a cameo appearance during episode 2 of Tanner '88.
Chart performance
References
1988 singles
1987 songs
Waylon Jennings songs
Songs written by Waylon Jennings
Songs written by Roger Murrah
Song recordings produced by Jimmy Bowen
MCA Records singles
Songs about Hank Williams | wiki |
Judge Himes (1900 – after 1908) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse that was foaled in Kentucky and was the winner of the 1903 Kentucky Derby. He was a chestnut colt sired by imported Esher out of the mare Lullaby (by the great racer Longfellow). He was bred at Hartland Stud in Kentucky and was bought by Charles Ellison in September 1901 for $1,700.
Judge Himes also won the Chicago Hawthorne Handicap, Whirlpool Stakes, and Oak Park Handicap and raced until he was five years old. He was sold in New Orleans to turfman Phill Chin in March 1906 for use as a breeding stallion. Judge Himes was listed in a 1908 advertisement for the Heartland Stud Farm. He was auctioned on March 23, 1908, at Callahan's Stables in Warrenton, Virginia, and sired a few half-bred foals for the farm.
Pedigree
References
1900 racehorse births
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States
Kentucky Derby winners
Thoroughbred family A36 | wiki |
The Fifth Season may refer to:
The Fifth Season (Quidam album), a 2009 live album by Quidam
The Fifth Season (film), a 2012 Belgian film
The Fifth Season (novel), a 2015 novel by N. K. Jemisin
The Fifth Season (Oh My Girl album), a 2019 album by Oh My Girl
The Fifth Season (Lafawndah album), a 2020 album by Lafawndah
Fifth Season, a production company majority-owned by CJ ENM
Fifth season may also mean the period of spring floods in the Soomaa National Park in Estonia. | wiki |
The ounce () is any of several different units of mass, weight or volume and is derived almost unchanged from the , an Ancient Roman unit of measurement.
The avoirdupois ounce (exactly ) is avoirdupois pound; this is the United States customary and British imperial ounce. It is primarily used in the United States to measure packaged foods and food portions, postal items, areal density of fabric and paper, boxing gloves, and so on, but it is sometimes also used elsewhere in the Anglosphere.
Although the avoirdupois ounce is the mass measure used for most purposes, the 'troy ounce' of exactly is used instead for the mass of precious metals such as gold, silver, platinum, palladium, rhodium, etc.
The term 'ounce' is also used in other contexts:
The ounce-force is a measure of force (see below).
The fluid ounce is a measure of volume.
Historically, a variety of different ounces measuring mass or volume were used in different jurisdictions by different trades and at different times in history.
Etymology
Ounce derives from the Ancient Roman , a unit in the Ancient Roman units of measurement weighing about 27.35 grams or 0.967 of an Avoirdupois ounce, that was one-twelfth () of the Roman pound (). This in turn comes from Latin ('one'), and thus originally meant simply 'unit'. The term uncia was borrowed twice: first into Old English as or from an unattested Vulgar Latin form with ts for c before i (palatalization), which survives in modern English as inch, and a second time into Middle English through Anglo-Norman and Middle French (), yielding English ounce. The abbreviation oz came later from the Italian cognate , pronounced (now , pronounced ).
Definitions
Historically, in different parts of the world, at different points in time, and for different applications, the ounce (or its translation) has referred to broadly similar but still slightly different standards of mass.
Currently in use
International avoirdupois ounce
The international avoirdupois ounce (abbreviated oz) is defined as exactly 28.349523125 g under the international yard and pound agreement of 1959, signed by the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the avoirdupois system, sixteen ounces make up an avoirdupois pound, and the avoirdupois pound is defined as 7000 grains; one avoirdupois ounce is therefore equal to 437.5 grains.
The ounce is still a standard unit in the United States. In the United Kingdom it ceased to be an independent unit of measure in 2000, but may still be seen as an (imprecise) indicator of portion sizes in burger and steak restaurants.
International troy ounce
A troy ounce (abbreviated oz t) is equal to 480 grains. Consequently, the international troy ounce is equal to exactly 31.1034768 grams. There are 12 troy ounces in the now obsolete troy pound.
Today, the troy ounce is used only to express the mass of precious metals such as gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium or silver. Bullion coins are the most common products produced and marketed in troy ounces, but precious metal bars also exist in gram and kilogram (kg) sizes. (A kilogram bullion bar contains .)
For historical measurement of gold,
a fine ounce is a troy ounce of pure gold content in a gold bar, computed as fineness multiplied by gross weight
a standard ounce is a troy ounce of 22 carat gold, 91.66% pure (an 11 to 1 proportion of gold to alloy material)
Metric ounces
Some countries have redefined their ounces in the metric system. For example, the German apothecaries' ounce of 30 grams, is very close to the previously widespread Nuremberg ounce, but the divisions and multiples come out in metric.
In 1820, the Dutch redefined their ounce (in Dutch, ons) as 100 grams. In 1937 the IJkwet of the Netherlands officially abolished the term, but it is still commonly used.
Dutch amendments to the metric system, such as an ons or 100 grams, has been inherited, adopted, and taught in Indonesia beginning in elementary school. It is also listed as standard usage in Indonesia's national dictionary, the Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, and the government's official elementary-school curriculum.
Historical
Apothecaries' ounce
The apothecaries' ounce (abbreviated ℥) equivalent to the troy ounce, was formerly used by apothecaries, and is thus obsolete.
Maria Theresa ounce
"Maria Theresa ounce" was once introduced in Ethiopia and some European countries, which was equal to the weight of one Maria Theresa thaler, or 28.0668 g. Both the weight and the value are the definition of one birr, still in use in present-day Ethiopia and formerly in Eritrea.
Spanish ounce
The Spanish pound (Spanish libra) was 460 g. The Spanish ounce (Spanish onza) was of a pound, i.e. 28.75 g.
Tower ounce
The Tower ounce of was a fraction of the tower pound used in the English mints, the principal one being in the Tower of London. It dates back to the Anglo-Saxon coinage weight standard. It was abolished in favour of the Troy ounce by Henry VIII in 1527.
Ounce-force
An ounce-force is of a pound-force, or about . It is defined as the force exerted by a mass of one avoirdupous ounce under standard gravity (at the surface of the earth, its weight).
The "ounce" in "ounce-force" is equivalent to an avoirdupois ounce; ounce-force is a measurement of force using avoirdupois ounces. It is customarily not identified or differentiated. The term has limited use in engineering calculations to simplify unit conversions between mass, force, and acceleration systems of calculations.
Fluid ounce
A fluid ounce (abbreviated fl oz, fl. oz. or oz. fl.) is one of three units of volume. An imperial fluid ounce is defined as 28.4130625 mL, a US customary fluid ounce is 29.57353 mL, and a US food labelling fluid ounce is 30 mL. The fluid ounce is sometimes referred to simply as an "ounce" in applications where its use is implicit, such as bartending.
Other uses
Fabric weight
Ounces are also used to express the "weight", or more accurately the areal density, of a textile fabric in North America, Asia, or the UK, as in "16 oz denim". The number refers to the weight in ounces of a given amount of fabric, either a yard of a given width, or a square yard, where the depth of the fabric is a fabric-specific constant.
Copper layer thickness of a printed circuit board
The most common unit of measure for the copper thickness on a printed circuit board (PCB) is ounces (oz), as in mass. It is the resulting thickness when the mass of copper is pressed flat and spread evenly over a one-square-foot area. 1 oz will roughly equal 34.7 µm.
Notes and references
External links
Dictionary of Units: Ounce
Customary units of measurement in the United States
Imperial units
Units of mass | wiki |
The calendar of saints is the traditional Christian method of organizing a liturgical year by associating each day with one or more saints and referring to the day as the feast day or feast of said saint. The word "feast" in this context does not mean "a large meal, typically a celebratory one", but instead "an annual religious celebration, a day dedicated to a particular saint".
The system arose from the early Christian custom of commemorating each martyr annually on the date of their death, or birth into heaven, a date therefore referred to in Latin as the martyr's dies natalis ('day of birth'). In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a calendar of saints is called a Menologion. "Menologion" may also mean a set of icons on which saints are depicted in the order of the dates of their feasts, often made in two panels.
History
As the number of recognized saints increased during Late Antiquity and the first half of the Middle Ages, eventually every day of the year had at least one saint who was commemorated on that date. To deal with this increase, some saints were moved to alternate days in some traditions or completely removed, with the result that some saints have different feast days in different calendars. For example, saints Perpetua and Felicity died on 7 March, but this date was later assigned to St. Thomas Aquinas, allowing them only a commemoration (see Tridentine Calendar), so in 1908 they were moved one day earlier. When the 1969 reform of the Catholic calendar moved him to 28 January, they were moved back to 7 March (see General Roman Calendar). Both days can thus be said to be their feast day, in different traditions. The General Roman Calendar, which list those saints celebrated in the entire church, contains only a selection of the saints for each of its days. A fuller list is found in the Roman Martyrology, and some of the saints there may be celebrated locally.
The earliest feast days of saints were those of martyrs, venerated as having shown for Christ the greatest form of love, in accordance with the teaching: "Greater love has no one than this, that someone lay down his life for his friends." Saint Martin of Tours is said to be the first or at least one of the first non-martyrs to be venerated as a saint. The title "confessor" was used for such saints, who had confessed their faith in Christ by their lives rather than by their deaths. Martyrs are regarded as dying in the service of the Lord, and confessors are people who died natural deaths. A broader range of titles was used later, such as: Virgin, Pastor, Bishop, Monk, Priest, Founder, Abbot, Apostle, Doctor of the Church.
The Tridentine Missal has common formulæ for Masses of Martyrs, Confessors who were bishops, Doctors of the Church, Confessors who were not Bishops, Abbots, Virgins, Non-Virgins, Dedication of Churches, and Feast Days of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Pope Pius XII added a common formula for Popes. The 1962 Roman Missal of Pope John XXIII omitted the common of Apostles, assigning a proper Mass to every feast day of an Apostle. The present Roman Missal has common formulas for the Dedication of Churches, the Blessed Virgin Mary, Martyrs (with special formulas for missionary martyrs and virgin martyrs), pastors (subdivided into bishops, generic pastors, founders of churches, and missionaries), Doctors of the Church, Virgins, and (generic) Saints (with special formulas for abbots, monks, nuns, religious, those noted for works of mercy, educators, and [generically] women saints).
This calendar system, when combined with major church festivals and movable and immovable feasts, constructs a very human and personalised yet often localized way of organizing the year and identifying dates. Some Christians continue the tradition of dating by saints' days: their works may appear "dated" as "The Feast of Saint Martin". Poets such as John Keats commemorate the importance of The Eve of Saint Agnes.
As different Christian jurisdictions parted ways theologically, differing lists of saints began to develop. This happened because the same individual may be considered differently by one church; in extreme examples, one church's saint may be another church's heretic, as in the cases of Nestorius, Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria, or Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople.
Ranking of feast days
In the Catholic Church feast days are ranked in accordance with their importance. In the post-Vatican II form of the Roman Rite, feast days are ranked (in descending order of importance) as solemnities, feasts or memorials (obligatory or optional). Pope John XXIII's 1960 Code of Rubrics, whose use remains authorized by the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, divides liturgical days into I, II, III, and IV class days. Those who use even earlier forms of the Roman Rite rank feast days as doubles (of three or four kinds), Semidoubles, and Simples. See Ranking of liturgical days in the Roman Rite.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church the ranking of feasts varies from church to church. In the Russian Orthodox Church they are: Great Feasts, middle, and minor feasts. Each portion of such feasts may also be called feasts as follows: All-Night Vigils, Polyeleos, Great Doxology, Sextuple ("sixfold", having six stichera at Vespers and six troparia at the Canon of Matins). There are also distinctions between Simple feasts and double (i.e., two simple feasts celebrated together). In Double Feasts, the order of hymns and readings for each feast are rigidly instructed in Typikon, the liturgy book.
The Lutheran Churches celebrate Festivals, Lesser Festivals, Days of Devotion, and Commemorations.
In the Church of England, mother Church of the Anglican Communion, there are Principal Feasts and Principal Holy Days, Festivals, Lesser Festivals, and Commemorations.
Connection to tropical cyclones
Before the advent of standardized naming of tropical storms and hurricanes in the North Atlantic basin, tropical storms and hurricanes that affected the island of Puerto Rico were informally named after the Catholic saints corresponding to the feast days when the cyclones either made landfall or started to seriously affect the island. Examples are: the 1780 San Calixto hurricane (more widely known as the Great Hurricane of 1780) (the deadliest in the North Atlantic basin's recorded history; named after Pope Callixtus I (Saint Callixtus), whose feast day is October 14), the 1867 San Narciso hurricane (named after Saint Narcissus of Jerusalem, feast day October 29), the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane (the deadliest in the island's recorded history; Saint Cyriacus, August 8), the 1928 San Felipe hurricane (the strongest in terms of measured wind speed; Saint Philip, father of Saint Eugenia of Rome, September 13), and the 1932 San Ciprian hurricane (Saint Cyprian, September 26).
This practice continued until quite some time after the United States Weather Bureau (now called the National Weather Service) started publishing and using official female human names (initially; male names were added starting in 1979 after the NWS relinquished control over naming to the World Meteorological Organization). The last two usages of this informal naming scheme in P.R. were in 1956 (Hurricane Betsy, locally nicknamed Santa Clara after Saint Clare of Assisi, feast day August 12 back then; her feast day was advanced one day in 1970) and 1960 (Hurricane Donna, nicknamed San Lorenzo after Saint Lawrence Justinian, September 5 back then; feast day now observed January 8 by Canons regular of St. Augustine).
See also
Calendar of saints (Church of England)
Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)
Calendar of saints (Anglican Church of Southern Africa)
Calendar of saints (Lutheran)
Coptic Orthodox calendar of saints
Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar
General Roman Calendar
Diario Romano
Patronal feast day
Gŵyl Mabsant, Welsh saints' days.
List of saints
References
External links
Today's Saints on the Calendar (Catholic Church)
Greek Catholic Saints' Calendar (Greek Catholic Church)
Calendar of Saints (Orthodox Church in America)
Butler's Lives of the Saints Bartleby.com
Specific calendars
Christian saints
Saints days
Canonization | wiki |
Samhwa Networks () is a Korean drama production company. Founded in 1980 by Shin Hyun-taek as a home video distributor, it later became well-known because of its drama productions.
As of 2019, Shin's family (including his eldest son and son-in-law, who are the co-CEO's of the company) owns 38.71% of its stocks. The rest are owned by the public.
List of works
Notes
References
External links
Mass media companies established in 1980
Television production companies of South Korea
Companies based in Seoul
Companies listed on KOSDAQ
South Korean companies established in 1980 | wiki |
20th Century Fox is the former name of 20th Century Studios, an American film production studio owned by Disney.
20th Century Fox or Twentieth Century Fox may refer to:
"Twentieth Century Fox" (song), a 1967 song by the American band The Doors
Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp. v. iCraveTV, a U.S. copyright-infringement court case
"Twentieth Century Fox," a song by 38 Special from their 1983 album Tour de Force
See also
21st Century Fox, former parent company of 20th Century Fox
21st Century Fox (disambiguation) | wiki |
Loans to sons in potestate were subject to various kinds of fraud, and the senatus consultum Macedonianum, passed during the time of Vespasian, prevented creditors from suing on most such loans.
Note potestate means power in Latin.
See also
Roman law
List of Roman laws
References
Roman law | wiki |
Mark Knowles and Daniel Nestor were the defending champions, but Knowles chose not to participate, and only Nestor competed that year.
Nestor partnered with Nenad Zimonjić, and won in the final 6–4, 7–6(7–3), against Marcelo Melo and André Sá.
Seeds
All seeds receive a bye into the second round.
Draw
Finals
Top half
Bottom half
External links
Draw
Doubles | wiki |
Practice management software may refer to software used for the management of a professional office:
Law practice management software
Medical practice management software
Veterinary practice management software
There are also practice management software for accounting, architecture, veterinary, dental, optometry and other practices. | wiki |
In finance, an exchange rate is the rate at which one currency will be exchanged for another currency. Currencies are most commonly national currencies, but may be sub-national as in the case of Hong Kong or supra-national as in the case of the euro.
The exchange rate is also regarded as the value of one country's currency in relation to another currency. For example, an interbank exchange rate of 129 Japanese yen to the United States dollar means that ¥129 will be exchanged for or that will be exchanged for ¥129. In this case it is said that the price of a dollar in relation to yen is ¥129, or equivalently that the price of a yen in relation to dollars is $1/129.
Each country determines the exchange rate regime that will apply to its currency. For example, a currency may be floating, pegged (fixed), or a hybrid. Governments can impose certain limits and controls on exchange rates. Countries can also have a strong or weak currency. There is no agreement in the economic literature on the optimal national exchange rate (unlike on the subject of trade where free trade is considered optimal). Rather, national exchange rate regimes reflect political considerations.
In floating exchange rate regimes, exchange rates are determined in the foreign exchange market, which is open to a wide range of different types of buyers and sellers, and where currency trading is continuous: 24 hours a day except weekends (i.e. trading from 20:15 GMT on Sunday until 22:00 GMT Friday). The spot exchange rate is the current exchange rate, while the forward exchange rate is an exchange rate that is quoted and traded today but for delivery and payment on a specific future date.
In the retail currency exchange market, different buying and selling rates will be quoted by money dealers. Most trades are to or from the local currency. The buying rate is the rate at which money dealers will buy foreign currency, and the selling rate is the rate at which they will sell that currency. The quoted rates will incorporate an allowance for a dealer's margin (or profit) in trading, or else the margin may be recovered in the form of a commission or in some other way. Different rates may also be quoted for cash, a documentary transaction or for electronic transfers. The higher rate on documentary transactions has been justified as compensating for the additional time and cost of clearing the document. On the other hand, cash is available for resale immediately, but incurs security, storage, and transportation costs, and the cost of tying up capital in a stock of banknotes (bills).
The retail exchange market
Currency for international travel and cross-border payments is predominantly purchased from banks, foreign exchange brokerages and various forms of bureaux de change. These retail outlets source currency from the interbank markets, which are valued by the Bank for International Settlements at US$5.3 trillion per day. The purchase is made at the spot contract rate. Retail customers will be charged, in the form of commission or otherwise, to cover the provider's costs and generate a profit. One form of charge is the use of an exchange rate that is less favourable than the wholesale spot rate. The difference between retail buying and selling prices is referred to as the bid–ask spread.
Quotations
There is a market convention that rules the notation used to communicate the fixed and variable currencies in a quotation. For example, in a conversion from EUR to AUD, EUR is the fixed currency, AUD is the variable currency and the exchange rate indicates how many Australian dollars would be paid or received for 1 euro.
In some areas of Europe and in the retail market in the United Kingdom, EUR and GBP are reversed so that GBP is quoted as the fixed currency to the euro. In order to determine which is the fixed currency when neither currency is on the above list (i.e. both are "other"), market convention is to use the fixed currency which gives an exchange rate greater than 1.000. This reduces rounding issues and the need to use excessive numbers of decimal places. There are some exceptions to this rule: for example, the Japanese often quote their currency as the base to other currencies.
Quotation using a country's home currency as the price currency is known as direct quotation or price quotation (from that country's perspective)
For example, = in the Eurozone and is used in most countries.
Quotation using a country's home currency as the unit currency (for example, = in the Eurozone) is known as indirect quotation or quantity quotation and is used in British newspapers; it is also common in Australia, New Zealand and the Eurozone.
Using direct quotation, if the home currency is strengthening (that is, appreciating, or becoming more valuable) then the exchange rate number decreases. Conversely, if the foreign currency is strengthening and the home currency is depreciating, the exchange rate number increases.
Market convention from the early 1980s to 2006 was that most currency pairs were quoted to four decimal places for spot transactions and up to six decimal places for forward outrights or swaps. (The fourth decimal place is usually referred to as a "pip"). An exception to this was exchange rates with a value of less than 1.000 which were usually quoted to five or six decimal places. Although there is no fixed rule, exchange rates numerically greater than around 20 were usually quoted to three decimal places and exchange rates greater than 80 were quoted to two decimal places. Currencies over 5000 were usually quoted with no decimal places (for example, the former Turkish Lira). e.g. (GBPOMR : 0.765432 - : 1.4436 - EURJPY : 165.29). In other words, quotes are given with five digits. Where rates are below 1, quotes frequently include five decimal places.
In 2005, Barclays Capital broke with convention by quoting spot exchange rates with five or six decimal places on their electronic dealing platform. The contraction of spreads (the difference between the bid and ask rates) arguably necessitated finer pricing and gave the banks the ability to try to win transactions on multibank trading platforms where all banks may otherwise have been quoting the same price. A number of other banks have since followed this system.
Exchange rate regime
Countries are free to choose which type of exchange rate regime they will apply to their currency. The main types of exchange rate regimes are: free-floating, pegged (fixed), or a hybrid.
In free-floating regimes, exchange rates are allowed to vary against each other according to the market forces of supply and demand. Exchange rates for such currencies are likely to change almost constantly as quoted on financial markets, mainly by banks, around the world.
A movable or adjustable peg system is a system of fixed exchange rates, but with a provision for the revaluation (usually devaluation) of a currency. For example, between 1994 and 2005, the Chinese yuan renminbi (RMB) was pegged to the United States dollar at RMB 8.2768 to $1. China was not the only country to do this; from the end of World War II until 1967, Western European countries all maintained fixed exchange rates with the US dollar based on the Bretton Woods system. But that system had to be abandoned in favor of floating, market-based regimes due to market pressures and speculation, according to President Richard M. Nixon in a speech on August 15, 1971, in what is known as the Nixon Shock.
Still, some governments strive to keep their currency within a narrow range. As a result, currencies become over-valued or under-valued, leading to excessive trade deficits or surpluses.
Exchange rate classification
From the perspective of bank foreign exchange trading
Buying rate: Also known as the purchase price, it is the price used by the foreign exchange bank to buy foreign currency from the customer. In general, the exchange rate where the foreign currency is converted to a smaller number of domestic currencies is the buying rate, which indicates how much the country's currency is required to buy a certain amount of foreign exchange.
Selling rate: Also known as the foreign exchange selling price, it refers to the exchange rate used by the bank to sell foreign exchange to customers. It indicates how much the country's currency needs to be recovered if the bank sells a certain amount of foreign exchange.
Middle rate: The average of the bid price and the ask price. Commonly used in newspapers, magazines or economic analysis.
According to the length of delivery after foreign exchange transactions
Spot exchange rate: Refers to the exchange rate of spot foreign exchange transactions. That is, after the foreign exchange transaction is completed, the exchange rate in Delivery within two working days. The exchange rate that is generally listed on the foreign exchange market is generally referred to as the spot exchange rate unless it specifically indicates the forward exchange rate.
Forward exchange rate: To be delivered in a certain period of time in the future, but beforehand, the buyer and the seller will enter into a contract to reach an agreement. When the delivery date is reached, both parties to the agreement will deliver the transaction at the exchange rate and amount of the reservation. Forward foreign exchange trading is an appointment-based transaction, which is due to the different time the foreign exchange purchaser needs for foreign exchange funds and the introduction of foreign exchange risk. The forward exchange rate is based on the spot exchange rate, which is represented by the "premium", "discount", and "parity" of the spot exchange rate.
According to the method of setting the exchange rate
Basic rate: Usually choose a key convertible currency that is the most commonly used in international economic transactions and accounts for the largest proportion of foreign exchange reserves. Compare it with the currency of the country and set the exchange rate. This exchange rate is the basic exchange rate. The key currency generally refers to a world currency, which is widely used for pricing, settlement, reserve currency, freely convertible, and internationally accepted currency.
Cross rate: After the basic exchange rate is worked out, the exchange rate of the local currency against other foreign currencies can be calculated through the basic exchange rate. The resulting exchange rate is the cross exchange rate.
Other classifications
According to the payment method in foreign exchange transactions
Telegraphic exchange rate
Mail transfer rate
Demand draft rate
According to the level of foreign exchange controls
Official rate: The official exchange rate is the rate of exchange announced by a country's foreign exchange administration. Usually used by countries with strict foreign exchange controls.
Market rate: The market exchange rate refers to the real exchange rate for trading foreign exchange in the free market. It fluctuates with changes in foreign exchange supply and demand conditions.
According to the international exchange rate regime
Fixed exchange rate: It means that the exchange rate between a country's currency and another country's currency is basically fixed, and the fluctuation of exchange rate is very small.
Floating exchange rate: It means that the monetary authorities of a country do not stipulate the official exchange rate of the country's currency against other currencies, nor does it have any upper or lower limit of exchange rate fluctuations. The local currency is determined by the supply and demand relationship of the foreign exchange market, and it is free to rise and fall.
Whether inflation is included
Nominal exchange rate: an exchange rate that is officially announced or marketed which does not consider inflation.
Real exchange rate: The nominal exchange rate eliminating inflation
Factors affecting the change of exchange rate
Balance of payments: When a country has a large international balance of payments deficit or trade deficit, it means that its foreign exchange earnings are less than foreign exchange expenditures and its demand for foreign exchange exceeds its supply, so its foreign exchange rate rises, and its currency depreciates.
Interest rate level: Interest rates are the cost and profit of borrowing capital. When a country raises its interest rate or its domestic interest rate is higher than the foreign interest rate, it will cause capital inflow, thereby increasing the demand for domestic currency, allowing the currency to appreciate and the foreign exchange depreciate.
Inflation factor: The inflation rate of a country rises, the purchasing power of money declines, the paper currency depreciates internally, and then the foreign currency appreciates. If both countries have inflation, the currencies of countries with high inflation will depreciate against those with low inflation. The latter is a relative revaluation of the former.
Fiscal and monetary policy: Although the influence of monetary policy on the exchange rate changes of a country's government is indirect, it is also very important. In general, the huge fiscal revenue and expenditure deficit caused by expansionary fiscal and monetary policies and inflation will devalue the domestic currency. The tightening fiscal and monetary policies will reduce fiscal expenditures, stabilize the currency, and increase the value of the domestic currency.
Speculation: If speculators expect a certain currency to appreciate, they will buy a large amount of that currency, which will cause the exchange rate of that currency to rise. Conversely, if speculators expect a certain currency to depreciate, they will sell off a large amount of the currency, resulting in speculation. The currency exchange rate immediately fall. Speculation is an important factor in the short-term fluctuations in the exchange rate of the foreign exchange market.
Government market intervention: When exchange rate fluctuations in the foreign exchange market adversely affect a country's economy, trade, or the government needs to achieve certain policy goals through exchange rate adjustments, monetary authorities can participate in currency trading, buying or selling local or foreign currencies in large quantities in the market. The foreign exchange supply and demand has caused the exchange rate to change.
Economic strength of a country: In general, high economic growth rates are not conducive to the local currency's performance in the foreign exchange market in the short term, but in the long run, they strongly support the strong momentum of the local currency.
Emerging markets
Research on target zones has mainly concentrated on the benefit of stability of exchange rates for industrial countries, but some studies have argued that volatile bilateral exchange rates between industrial countries are in part responsible for financial crisis in emerging markets. According to this view the ability of emerging market economies to compete is weakened because many of the currencies are tied to the US dollar in various fashions either implicitly or explicitly, so fluctuations such as the appreciation of the US dollar to the yen or deutsche Mark have contributed to destabilizing shocks. Most of these countries are net debtors whose debt is denominated in one of the G3 currencies.
In September 2019 Argentina restricted the ability to buy US dollars. Mauricio Macri in 2015 campaigned on a promise to lift restrictions put in place by the left-wing government including the capital controls which have been used in Argentina to manage economic instability. When inflation rose above 20 percent transactions denominated in dollars became commonplace as Argentinians moved away from using the peso. In 2011 the government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner restricted the purchase of dollars leading to a rise in black market dollar purchases. The controls were rolled back after Macri took office and Argentina issued dollar denominated bonds, but when various factors led to a loss in the value of the peso relative to the dollar leading to the restoration of capital controls to prevent additional depreciation amidst peso selloffs.
Fluctuations in exchange rates
A market-based exchange rate will change whenever the values of either of the two component currencies change. A currency becomes more valuable whenever demand for it is greater than the available supply. It will become less valuable whenever demand is less than available supply (this does not mean people no longer want money, it just means they prefer holding their wealth in some other form, possibly another currency).
Increased demand for a currency can be due to either an increased transaction demand for money or an increased speculative demand for money. The transaction demand is highly correlated to a country's level of business activity, gross domestic product (GDP), and employment levels. The more people that are unemployed, the less the public as a whole will spend on goods and services. Central banks typically have little difficulty adjusting the available money supply to accommodate changes in the demand for money due to business transactions.
Speculative demand is much harder for central banks to accommodate, which they influence by adjusting interest rates. A speculator may buy a currency if the return (that is the interest rate) is high enough. In general, the higher a country's interest rates, the greater will be the demand for that currency. It has been argued that such speculation can undermine real economic growth, in particular since large currency speculators may deliberately create downward pressure on a currency by shorting in order to force that central bank to buy their own currency to keep it stable. (When that happens, the speculator can buy the currency back after it depreciates, close out their position, and thereby make a profit.)
For carrier companies shipping goods from one nation to another, exchange rates can often impact them severely. Therefore, most carriers have a CAF charge to account for these fluctuations.
Purchasing power of currency
The real exchange rate (RER) is the purchasing power of a currency relative to another at current exchange rates and prices. It is the ratio of the number of units of a given country's currency necessary to buy a market basket of goods in the other country, after acquiring the other country's currency in the foreign exchange market, to the number of units of the given country's currency that would be necessary to buy that market basket directly in the given country. There are various ways to measure RER.
Thus the real exchange rate is the exchange rate times the relative prices of a market basket of goods in the two countries. For example, the purchasing power of the US dollar relative to that of the euro is the dollar price of a euro (dollars per euro) times the euro price of one unit of the market basket (euros/goods unit) divided by the dollar price of the market basket (dollars per goods unit), and hence is dimensionless. This is the exchange rate (expressed as dollars per euro) times the relative price of the two currencies in terms of their ability to purchase units of the market basket (euros per goods unit divided by dollars per goods unit). If all goods were freely tradable, and foreign and domestic residents purchased identical baskets of goods, purchasing power parity (PPP) would hold for the exchange rate and GDP deflators (price levels) of the two countries, and the real exchange rate would always equal 1.
The rate of change of the real exchange rate over time for the euro versus the dollar equals the rate of appreciation of the euro (the positive or negative percentage rate of change of the dollars-per-euro exchange rate) plus the inflation rate of the euro minus the inflation rate of the dollar.
Real exchange rate equilibrium and misalignment
The Real Exchange Rate (RER) represents the nominal exchange rate adjusted by the relative price of domestic and foreign goods and services, thus reflecting the competitiveness of a country with respect to the rest of the world. More in detail, an appreciation of the currency or a high level of domestic inflation reduces the RER, thus reducing the country's competitiveness and lowering the Current Account (CA). On the other hand, a currency depreciation generates an opposite effect, improving the country's CA.
There is evidence that the RER generally reaches a steady level in the long-term, and that this process is faster in small open economies characterized by fixed exchange rates. Any substantial and persistent RER deviation from its long-run equilibrium level, the so-called RER misalignment, has shown to produce negative impacts on a country's balance of payments. An overvalued RER means that the current RER is above its equilibrium value, whereas an undervalued RER indicates the contrary. Specifically, a prolonged RER overvaluation is widely considered as an early sign of an upcoming crisis, due to the fact that the country becomes vulnerable to both speculative attacks and currency crisis, as happened in Thailand during the 1997 Asian financial crisis. On the other side, a protracted RER undervaluation usually generates pressure on domestic prices, changing the consumers’ consumption incentives and, so, misallocating resources between tradable and non-tradable sectors.
Given that RER misalignment and, in particular overvaluation, can undermine the country's export-oriented development strategy, the equilibrium RER measurement is crucial for policymakers. Unfortunately, this variable cannot be observed. The most common method in order to estimate the equilibrium RER is the universally accepted Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) theory, according to which the RER equilibrium level is assumed to remain constant over time. Nevertheless, the equilibrium RER is not a fixed value as it follows the trend of key economic fundamentals, such as different monetary and fiscal policies or asymmetrical shocks between the home country and abroad. Consequently, the PPP doctrine has been largely debated during the years, given that it may signal a natural RER movement towards its new equilibrium as a RER misalignment.
Starting from the 1980s, in order to overcome the limitations of this approach, many researchers tried to find some alternative equilibrium RER measures. Two of the most popular approaches in the economic literature are the Fundamental Equilibrium Exchange Rate (FEER), developed by Williamson (1994), and the Behavioural Equilibrium Exchange Rate (BEER), initially estimated by Clark and MacDonald (1998).
The FEER focuses on long-run determinants of the RER, rather than on short-term cyclical and speculative forces. It represents a RER consistent with macroeconomic balance, characterized by the achievement of internal and external balances at the same time. Internal balance is reached when the level of output is in line with both full employment of all available factors of production, and a low and stable rate of inflation. On the other hand, external balance holds when actual and future CA balances are compatible with long-term sustainable net capital flows. Nevertheless, the FEER is viewed as a normative measure of the RER since it is based on some "ideal" economic conditions related to internal and external balances. Particularly, since the sustainable CA position is defined as an exogenous value, this approach has been broadly questioned over time.
By contrast, the BEER entails an econometric analysis of the RER behaviour, considering significant RER deviations from its PPP equilibrium level as a consequence of changes in key economic fundamentals. According to this method, the BEER is the RER that results when all the economic fundamentals are at their equilibrium values. Therefore, the total RER misalignment is given by the extent to which economic fundamentals differ from their long-run sustainable levels. In short, the BEER is a more general approach than the FEER, since it is not limited to the long-term perspective, being able to explain RER cyclical movements.
Bilateral vs. effective exchange rate
Bilateral exchange rate involves a currency pair, while an effective exchange rate is a weighted average of a basket of foreign currencies, and it can be viewed as an overall measure of the country's external competitiveness. A nominal effective exchange rate (NEER) is weighted with the inverse of the asymptotic trade weights. A real effective exchange rate (REER) adjusts NEER by appropriate foreign price level and deflates by the home country price level. Compared to NEER, a GDP weighted effective exchange rate might be more appropriate considering the global investment phenomenon.
Parallel exchange rate
In many countries there is a distinction between the official exchange rate for permitted transactions within the country, and a parallel exchange rate (or black market, grey, unregulated, unofficial, etc. exchange rate) that responds to excess demand for foreign currency at the official exchange rate. The degree by which the parallel exchange rate exceeds the official exchange rate is known as the parallel premium. Unofficial transactions of this nature may be illegal.
Economic models
Uncovered interest rate parity model
Uncovered interest rate parity (UIRP) states that an appreciation or depreciation of one currency against another currency might be neutralized by a change in the interest rate differential. If US interest rates increase while Japanese interest rates remain unchanged then the US dollar should depreciate against the Japanese yen by an amount that prevents arbitrage (in reality the opposite, appreciation, quite frequently happens in the short-term, as explained below). The future exchange rate is reflected into the forward exchange rate stated today. In our example, the forward exchange rate of the dollar is said to be at a discount because it buys fewer Japanese yen in the forward rate than it does in the spot rate. The yen is said to be at a premium.
UIRP showed no proof of working after the 1990s. Contrary to the theory, currencies with high interest rates characteristically appreciated rather than depreciated on the reward of the containment of inflation and a higher-yielding currency.
Balance of payments model
The balance of payments model holds that foreign exchange rates are at an equilibrium level if they produce a stable Current account (balance of payments)current account balance. A nation with a trade deficit will experience a reduction in its foreign exchange reserves, which ultimately lowers (depreciates) the value of its currency. A cheaper (undervalued) currency renders the nation's goods (exports) more affordable in the global market while making imports more expensive. After an intermediate period, imports will be forced down and exports to rise, thus stabilizing the trade balance and bring the currency towards equilibrium.
Like purchasing power parity, the balance of payments model focuses largely on tradeable goods and services, ignoring the increasing role of global capital flows. In other words, money is not only chasing goods and services, but to a larger extent, financial assets such as stocks and bonds. Their flows go into the capital account item of the balance of payments, thus balancing the deficit in the current account. The increase in capital flows has given rise to the asset market model effectively.
Asset market model
The increasing volume of trading of financial assets (stocks and bonds) has required a rethink of its impact on exchange rates. Economic variables such as economic growth, inflation and productivity are no longer the only drivers of currency movements. The proportion of foreign exchange transactions stemming from cross border-trading of financial assets has dwarfed the extent of currency transactions generated from trading in goods and services.
The asset market approach views currencies as asset prices traded in an efficient financial market. Consequently, currencies are increasingly demonstrating a strong correlation with other markets, particularly equities.
Like the stock exchange, money can be made (or lost) on trading by investors and speculators in the foreign exchange market. Currencies can be traded at spot and foreign exchange options markets. The spot market represents current exchange rates, whereas options are derivatives of exchange rates.
Manipulation of exchange rates
A country may gain an advantage in international trade if it controls the market for its currency to keep its value low, typically by the national central bank engaging in open market operations in the foreign exchange market, or through preventing the exchange of foreign currency for domestic notes. The People's Republic of China has been periodically accused of exchange rate manipulation, notably by Donald Trump during his successful campaign for the US presidency.
Other nations, including Iceland, Japan, Brazil, and so on have had a policy of maintaining a low value of their currencies in the hope of reducing the cost of exports and thus bolstering their economies. A lower exchange rate lowers the price of a country's goods for consumers in other countries, but raises the price of imported goods and services for consumers in the low value currency country.
In general, exporters of goods and services will prefer a lower value for their currencies, while importers will prefer a higher value.
See also
Black Wednesday
Bureau de change
Current account
Currency strength
Dynamic currency conversion
Effective exchange rate
Euro calculator
Foreign exchange fraud
Foreign exchange market
Financial centre
Functional currency
Tables of historical exchange rates to the USD
Telegraphic transfer
USD Index
References
External links
Currency
Foreign exchange market
International macroeconomics
Rates
Purchasing power
Foreign exchange reserves | wiki |
An Irish passport () is the passport issued to citizens of Ireland. An Irish passport enables the bearer to travel internationally and serves as evidence of Irish nationality and citizenship of the European Union. It also facilitates the access to consular assistance from both Irish embassies and any embassy from other European Union member states while abroad.
Irish passports are issued by the Passport Office, a division of the Department of Foreign Affairs. All Irish passports have been biometric since 2006. In 2015, the Irish government introduced the Passport Card, which enables Irish citizens who already possess a passport to travel throughout the European Economic Area (EEA) and Switzerland. An Irish Passport Card is intended for travel and identification purposes and functions similarly to an EEA national identity card.
Both Irish passports and Irish passport cards allow Irish citizens to travel, live, and work without restriction in any country within the EEA, Switzerland and the Common Travel Area. Irish citizens have visa-free or visa on arrival access to 188 countries and territories; the international access available to Irish citizens ranks sixth in the world according to the 2023 Visa Restrictions Index.
, Irish citizens are the only nationality in the world with the automatic right to live and work in both the European Union and the United Kingdom.
History
The Irish Free State was created in 1922 as a dominion of the British Commonwealth, modelled explicitly on the Dominion of Canada. At the time, dominion status was a limited form of independence and while the Free State Constitution referred to "citizens of the Irish Free State", the rights and obligations of such citizens were expressed to apply only "within the limits of the jurisdiction of the Irish Free State".
The Irish Free State first notified the UK Government that it proposed to issue its own passports in 1923. The Irish government initially proposed that the description they would give citizens in their passports would be "Citizen of the Irish Free State". According to a report from The Irish Times the first time that Irish passports were used was by the Irish delegation to the League of Nations in August 1923. The British Government objected to this. It insisted that the appropriate description was "British subject", because, inter alia, the Irish Free State was part of the British Commonwealth. The Irish government considered the British viewpoint. The Governor-General subsequently informed the British government that the description that would generally be used (with some exceptions) would be "Citizen of the Irish Free State and of the British Commonwealth of Nations". Without reaching agreement with the UK, the Irish government issued its first passports to the general public on 3 April 1924, using this description.
The British Government was not satisfied with this compromise. It instructed its consular and passport officers everywhere that Irish Free State passports were not to be recognised if the holder was not described in the passport as a "British subject". This led to considerable practical difficulty for Irish Free State citizens abroad, with many having to obtain British passports in addition to their Irish Free State passports. The British consular officers would also confiscate the Irish Free State passports, a practice the Irish authorities regarded as "very humiliating".
The stalemate as regards Irish passports continued until January 1930 when the Irish authorities reluctantly accepted a compromise formula originally suggested by the Irish Minister for External Affairs, Desmond Fitzgerald, in 1926. The Irish authorities issued a circular letter to British consular and passport authorities agreeing that Irish passports would be changed so that they were issued by the Minister for External Affairs in the name of the king using the king's full title; would describe the bearer as "one of His Majesty's subjects of the Irish Free State"; and if passports were issued to persons other than subjects of His Majesty, that fact would be stated. This formula settled the thorny issue.
In 1939, two years after the adoption of the Constitution of 1937, which formally renamed the state "Ireland", the Irish government decided to make significant changes to the form of Irish passports. As a courtesy, the Irish authorities notified the British authorities. In a memorandum dated 1 March 1939 entitled "The Form of Eire Passports", the British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, Thomas W. H. Inskip, informed his government of developments which had recently taken place "regarding the form of passports issued by the Government of Eire".
In the memorandum, the Secretary of State reported that "hitherto [the passports] (which have not, I understand, been amended since 1936) have borne two indications of relationship to the British Commonwealth of Nations". These, the memorandum noted, were the reference to the king including his full title in the "request" page; and a front page, where underneath the words "Irish Free State" (in Irish, English and French) appear the words "British Commonwealth of Nations". The proposals notified by the Irish authorities included replacing the reference to "Irish Free State" with "Ireland"; amending the "request" page to drop reference to the king; and dropping the reference to the "British Commonwealth of Nations". The Secretary of State proposed that he reply to the Irish authorities in terms that "His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom greatly regrets the proposed elimination of the king's name from Éire passports; that in their view, the omission, when it comes to be known, is bound to create a bad impression in the UK and to widen the separation which Mr de Valera deplores between Éire and Northern Ireland".
The Secretary of State noted in his memorandum that to "say more than this might raise questions [relating to whether or not Ireland was still in the Commonwealth] which it was the object of the statement of the 30th December 1937, to avoid". This was a reference to the communique published by Downing Street noting the adoption of the Irish Constitution, stating that in their view Ireland continued to be part of the Commonwealth and affirming the position of Northern Ireland as part of the United Kingdom.
Ultimately, the Irish proceeded with their plans including that the term "Citizen of the Irish Free State and of the British Commonwealth of Nations" would be replaced with "Citizen of Ireland". This has remained the description up to present time, with current Irish passports describing the holder as a "citizen of Ireland" on the request page and giving the holder's nationality as "Éireannach/Irish" on the information page.
The evolution of the physical description of the passport utilised by Irish citizens from 3 April 1924 to 1 January 1985 (when the new European passports were introduced) was one of change. Prior to the first usage of an Irish passport in 1924, Irish citizens were issued with a 32-page British Passport, which had a navy blue hardcover with an embossed British coat of arms. Above the coat of arms the identifier "British Passport" was printed, while below the coat of arms the inscription "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" was printed. It also contained two cut-outs in the cover, which allowed the bearer's name and the passport number to be displayed. The first Irish passport, issued to the general public from 3 April 1924, contained a green hardcover with the Irish coat of arms, the harp, embossed in the centre. The passport was bilingual in Irish and English whereby, encircling the harp was the national inscription of and "Irish Free State", while above the coat of arms the identifier "Pas" and "Passport" was printed. It also contained a cut-out for the bearer's name.
Following the enactment of the Irish constitution, the physical appearance of the Irish passport changed again. While it retained the green colour and the embossed harp at the centre, the number of languages on the cover changed to three, with French joining Irish and English. To the left of the harp, the national inscription "Éire", "Ireland", and "Irlande" was printed in a row, while to the right of the harp, the identifier "Pas", "Passport", and "Passeport" was printed. The 1970s saw a slight change to the document: while the national inscription was made bigger in the three languages, and moved to the top right corner, the identifier "passport" was also enlarged, and moved to the bottom left corner of the cover. On 23 June 1981, during the council meeting of the member states of the European Communities (now the European Union), a resolution was agreed to make all member state passports more uniform. This change, which included changing the colour of all member states passports to burgundy was to see the first European passports from 1 January 1985. However, only three member states (Denmark, Ireland, and Italy) had implemented this change on the specified date, with all other member states complying later. Irish citizens in possession of the old green Irish passports could still make use of their passports until they expired.
"Sale" of passports in 1988–1998
A 1988 scheme was designed to draw foreign investment into Ireland, described in a 1998 Seanad debate as the "Passports for investment scheme" Each had to invest $1,000,000 and live in Ireland for varying periods. The scheme was scrapped in 1998. Before long it was being described as the "sale" of passports in the media, but only 143 passports were passed on under the scheme. Notable applicants included some of the Getty family, Sheikh Khalid bin Mahfouz and Khalid Sabih Masri. Masri had lent IR£1,100,000 to the pet food company of Taoiseach Albert Reynolds.
Another was Norman Turner from Manchester, whose proposed investment was to build a casino in Dublin's Phoenix Park. Turner had entertained Bertie Ahern and had paid £10,000 in cash to his party, and received his passport later in 1994. The matter was revealed during the Mahon Tribunal hearings in 2008; Mr Ahern commented that Mr Turner had an Irish mother, and that in 2007 some 7,000 other passport applications were assisted in some way by politicians.
The 2006 Moriarty Tribunal report covered the grant of passports to a Mr Fustok and some of his friends. Mr Fustok had previously bought a yearling horse from Taoiseach Charles Haughey for IR£50,000. The tribunal considered that "The explanation advanced for the payment, namely that it was in consideration for the purchase of a yearling, is highly unconvincing and improbable".
Passport-granting officials have also sold passports illegally, notably Kevin McDonald while working in London, who had sold "hundreds" of passports to criminals for up to £15,000 each in the 1980s, grossing $400,000. McDonald was prosecuted in 1989 and was sentenced to 21 months in jail.
Increased demand following Brexit
After the UK's Brexit referendum on 23 June 2016, tens of thousands of Britons as well as many residents in Northern Ireland, applied for an Irish Passport.
Senator Neale Richmond, chairman of the Brexit Committee in the Seanad, described in October 2018 the fast growth in the number of Irish passport applications received from the United Kingdom since the Brexit vote. There were 46,229 applications in 2015, the year before the referendum, "consistent with the annual average up to then". In 2016, the year of the Brexit vote, 63,453 applications were received, and there were 80,752 applications in 2017. In first half of 2018, the number was already at 44,962 applications. Richmond stated that "Embassy officials predict that based on this, 2018 will be the busiest year so far for Irish passport applications in the UK".
98,544 applications for Irish passports were received from Great Britain in 2018, an increase of 22% on the previous year. The number of applications from Northern Ireland increased by 2% to 84,855.
Passport booklet
Physical appearance
Irish passport booklets use the standard European Union design, with a machine-readable identity page and 32 or 66 visa pages. The cover bears the harp, the national symbol of Ireland. The words on the cover are in both of Ireland's official languages, Irish and English. The top of the cover page reads and the equivalent in English, European Union. Just above the harp are the words and its equivalent in English, Ireland. The identity page on older Irish passport booklets was on the back cover of the booklet. Newly issued passport booklets have been redesigned with additional security features. The identity page is now a plastic card attached between the front cover and the first paper page (the "Observations" page).
The ePassport or biometric passport, was launched on 16 October 2006 with the first ePassports presented that day by the minister for foreign affairs.
Photo of passport holder, printed in greyscale.
Type (P)
Country (IRL)
Passport number
1. Surname
2. Forename(s)
3. Nationality (/Irish)
4. Date of Birth
5. Sex
6. Place of birth (county of birth if born on the island of Ireland (all 32 counties), 3 letter country code of country of birth if born elsewhere.)
7. Date of issue
8. Date of expiry
9. Authority
10. Signature
The information page ends with the machine readable zone starting with P<IRL.
Request page
Irish passport booklets contain a note on the inside cover which states:
In Irish:
In English:
The Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland requests all whom it may concern to allow the bearer, a citizen of Ireland, to pass freely and without hindrance and to afford the bearer all necessary assistance and protection.
Formerly, the request was also made in French, but this has been discontinued as newer versions of the passport were introduced.
Languages
The data page/information page is printed in Irish, English and French. Each detail includes a reference number (e.g. "1 SLOINNE/SURNAME/NOM"). This reference number can be used to look up translations into any other EU language, as all EU passports share a standard text layout.
Security features
The latest Irish passport booklets have security features designed to make them difficult to forge or be mistaken as forgeries. They have also been optimised for machine reading.
The identity page of the passport booklet has been moved to the front of the passport and is now printed on a plastic card. This allows easier machine reading of the passport, as the official has to spend less time finding the identity page in the passport. The top-right corner of the passport booklet contains the biometric chip, which contains a copy of the information contained on the identity page, and a facial scan of the holder. To prevent unauthorised parties remotely accessing the information stored in the RFID biometric chip, the machine readable zone of the identity page must be scanned to unlock it. This safeguard is known as Basic Access Control.
The title of the identity page "/Ireland/" "/Passport/" is printed in colour-changing ink, which varies from light green to gold-red, depending on the angle of the light shining on it. The background of the identity page is a complex celtic design, with the words "Éire Ireland" occasionally woven into the design.
The identity picture is now greyscale, and is digitally printed onto the surface of the page, rather than the actual photos sent by the applicant being pasted onto the page. The Irish harp is superimposed as a hologram onto the bottom right corner of the photograph. The words " Ireland" are embossed several times into either side of the identity page. This embossing partially covers the photograph as an added security measure. A likeness of the photograph of the applicant is pin-punched into the surface of the identity page, and can be viewed when the identity page is held to light.
Under UV light, fluorescing fibres are visible on every page except the data page. The first sentence of Article 2 of the Irish constitution is visible under UV light and is printed in both Irish and English on alternate pages. The 2013 version of the passport also reveal a topographical map of Ireland on the observations page. Later pages include such landmarks as the Cliffs of Moher, the Samuel Beckett Bridge and the Aviva Stadium; there are excerpts from poems in Irish (by Nuala Ni Dhomhnaill), English (by William Butler Yeats) and Ulster Scots (by James Orr) and from the score of the national anthem, .
Passport Card
A credit card-sized Passport Card was introduced on 5 October 2015. It was originally announced as being available in mid-July 2015 but was subsequently delayed. It conforms to international standards for biometric and machine readable travel documents promulgated by ICAO.
Unlike the United States Passport Card, which cannot be used for international air travel or for land and sea travel outside North America, the Irish passport card can be used for air travel and throughout the European Economic Area and Switzerland and some non-EEA countries such as Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, Montenegro, Kosovo, Montserrat (max. 14 days in transit to a third country), Serbia, and the United Kingdom. However, at introduction, it was only publicised as having been approved for entry and exit by countries in the EEA. A few days afterwards it was confirmed that Switzerland had given its approval.
The Irish Passport Card is a passport in card format and is intended to be usable as a travel document in most European countries, in a similar way to national identity cards elsewhere in the EEA or the Russian internal passport with respect to travel to some countries and autonomous territories within the former USSR. It is largely treated in the same way as an identity card in several other EU countries, since that is what their laws call such cards. However, the IATA Timatic database used by airlines to find out document requirements lists the passport card as a separate document type. The card uses the designation "IP" in its machine readable zone (MRZ) (the "I" means identity card and the "P" is without meaning in the MRZ standard). Although ICAO began preparatory work on machine readable passport cards as early as 1968, Ireland was the first country to issue one for air travel and the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, Charles Flanagan, highlighted the novelty and utility of Ireland's Passport Card at its 2015 introduction.
The card costs €35, with a €10 discount if applied for at the same time as a passport book, and is valid for five years or the validity of the bearer's passport booklet, whichever is less. From November 2018, Passport Cards are available to Irish Citizens of all ages.
Unlike national identity cards issued in other parts of the EU, an Irish passport card cannot be issued unless the bearer already has a valid passport booklet but, because of its convenient size and durable format compared to the Irish passport booklet, it will also serve purposes similar to that of national identity cards in other parts of the EU: identity and age verification, and intra-EU travel.
Although they can be used at electronic passport control gates at Dublin Airport, it was not possible, in 2018, to use this card at many electronic border gates/e-gates in continental Europe.
Regulation (EU) 2019/1157, which requires EEA national identity cards issued since 2 August 2021 to contain fingerprints, does not apply to the passport card issued by Ireland, as confirmed by Recital 14 in the preamble. However, the passport card directly follows ICAO document 9303, which gives other biometric requirements on which Regulation (EU) 2019/1157 is based.
Security features
Irish passport cards have security features designed to make them difficult to forge or be mistaken as forgeries. They have also been optimised for machine reading. The top-left corner of the passport card contains the biometric chip, which contains a copy of the information printed on the card, and a facial scan of the holder. To prevent unauthorised parties remotely accessing the information stored in the RFID biometric chip, the machine readable zone of the identity page must be scanned to unlock it. This safeguard is known as Basic Access Control.
The designation of the document "/Ireland/" "/Passport/" is printed in colour-changing ink, which varies from light green to gold-red, depending on the angle of the light shining on it. The background for the front of the passport card is a complex Celtic design, with the words for Ireland appearing in the official languages of the EU as part of the design.
The identity picture is greyscale, and is digitally printed onto the surface of the special security polycarbonate. The Irish harp is superimposed as a hologram onto the bottom right corner of the photograph. A likeness of the applicant in a hologram photo on a strip on the back:. According to Charles Flanagan, the then Foreign Affairs Minister, this is the first time such a security feature was going to be used on travel documents.
Ireland's passport card was joint winner of the 'Best Regional ID Document' at the High Security Printing Europe Conference in Bucharest, Romania in March 2016.
Northern Ireland
Irish passports may only be issued to individuals holding Irish citizenship. Irish nationality law is extended to include Northern Ireland.
Visa free travel
Visa requirements for Irish citizens are travel restrictions placed upon citizens of Ireland by the authorities of other states. As of 28 September 2022, Irish citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 187 countries and territories, ranking the Irish passport 6th worldwide (tied with the French, Portuguese, and British passports) according to the Henley Passport Index.
Notable cases of purported fraudulent use
An Irish passport, legitimate or fraudulent, is viewed by many – including intelligence services and journalists – as a highly valuable and 'safe' document due to Ireland's policy of neutrality.
Oliver North (using the name "John Clancy") a United States Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel and a central figure in the Iran-Contra scandal, carried a false Irish passport while visiting Iran in 1986, as did his fellow covert operatives. This was part of a series of events that became known as the Iran–Contra affair.
In December 2005, Ireland's Minister for Justice Michael McDowell accused journalist Frank Connolly of having travelled to Colombia in 2001 on a falsely obtained Irish passport in connection with the group known as the Colombia Three. Connolly, who worked at the Centre for Public Inquiry, (intended as a public watch-dog organisation), vigorously denied the allegation and in turn accused the Minister of abusing his position.
On 19 January 2010, Mahmoud al-Mabhouh, a senior Hamas military commander, was assassinated in Dubai by a team involving at least 11 Israeli individuals, three of whom were initially reported as using counterfeit Irish passports. The number of forged Irish passports used in the killing was later revised upwards to eight following a Garda and Department of Foreign Affairs investigation. The Irish government responded by expelling a staff member of the Israeli Embassy in Dublin. It stated it considered "an Israeli government agency was responsible for the misuse and, most likely, the manufacture of the forged Irish passports associated with the murder of Mr. Mabhouh."
In June 2010 it was alleged that one of ten covert sleeper agents of the Russian government under non-official cover in the United States as part of the "Illegals Program" used a forged Irish passport issued in the name of "Eunan Gerard Doherty" to "Richard Murphy." The Russian embassy in Dublin reportedly declined to comment on the allegations that its officials had used a counterfeit Irish passport. "Richard Murphy," who later identified himself as Russian national Vladimir Guryev, was repatriated to Russia, along with the other nine members of the Illegals Program, as part of a prisoner exchange. It later emerged that the passports of up to six Irish citizens may have been compromised by the Russian agents. This led to the expulsion of a Dublin-based Russian diplomat in February 2011.
Eligibility for an Irish passport
All Irish citizens have the constitutional right to hold a passport, although the Irish state may limit this right for purposes of national security. Irish courts also have the power to confiscate passports of defendants. Adult passport booklets are generally valid for 10 years and child passport booklets valid for 5 years. The validity of passport booklets can be limited by the Passport Office for certain individuals, especially those who have lost two or more passports. Passport cards are valid for 5 years or the validity of the corresponding passport booklet, whichever is the lesser period.
There was a surge in applications for Irish passports following the UK's Brexit referendum, breaking previous records with over 700,000 passports issued by the end of November 2016.
Gallery of historic images
See also
Driving licence in the Republic of Ireland
Irish nationality law
Passports of the European Union
Visa requirements for Irish citizens
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Department of Foreign Affairs – Passports
Ireland
Department of Foreign Affairs (Ireland)
Ireland and the Commonwealth of Nations
Irish nationality law
European Union passports | wiki |
Devonshire Meadows is an unincorporated community in Alberta, Canada within Parkland County that is recognized as a designated place by Statistics Canada. It is located on the north side of Township Road 511, west of Highway 60.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Devonshire Meadows had a population of 137 living in 52 of its 52 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 136. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
As a designated place in the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Devonshire Meadows had a population of 136 living in 48 of its 50 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 147. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016.
See also
List of communities in Alberta
List of designated places in Alberta
References
Designated places in Alberta
Localities in Parkland County | wiki |
Mary Day may refer to:
Mary Day (dance teacher) (1910–2006), founder of The Washington Ballet
Mary Anna Day (1852–1924), American botanist and librarian
Mary L. Day (1836–?), American memoirist
Mary Gage Day (1857–1935), American physician and medical writer
Mary Louise Day (1968–2017), teenage girl who mysteriously disappeared from her home | wiki |
Aplidium albicans is a toxic sea squirt native to the Mediterranean Sea.
Range
Native to the Mediterranean Sea. Population density is sparse in its native range.
Toxins
A. albicans contains aplidine (aplidin, plitidepsin), found by Steiner et al 2015 and Borjan et al 2015 to be a cytotoxin (due to its apoptotic effect) and antiangiogenic. The toxin is structurally and functionally almost identical to toxins produced by the genus Tistrella of marine bacteria.
Aquaculture
Aquaculture of A. albicans has not been economically feasible .
References
Enterogona
Poisonous animals | wiki |
A scholarship is a form of financial aid awarded to students for further education. Generally, scholarships are awarded based on a set of criteria such as academic merit, diversity and inclusion, athletic skill, and financial need.
Scholarship criteria usually reflect the values and goals of the donor of the award, and while scholarship recipients are not required to repay scholarships, the awards may require that the recipient continue to meet certain requirements during their period of support, such maintaining a minimum grade point average or engaging in a certain activity (e.g., playing on a school sports team for athletic scholarship holders).
Scholarships also range in generosity; some range from covering partial tuition ranging all the way to a 'full-ride', covering all tuition, accommodation, housing and others.
Some prestigious, highly competitive scholarships are well-known even outside the academic community, such as Fulbright Scholarship and the Rhodes Scholarships at the graduate level, and the Robertson, Morehead-Cain and Jefferson Scholarships at the undergraduate level.
Scholarships vs. grants
While the terms scholarship and grant are frequently used interchangeably, they are distinctly different. Where grants are offered based exclusively on financial need, scholarships may have a financial need component but rely on other criteria as well.
Academic scholarships typically use a minimum grade-point average or standardized test score such as the ACT or SAT to narrow down awardees.
Athletic scholarships are generally based on athletic performance of a student and used as a tool to recruit high-performing athletes for their school's athletic teams.
Merit scholarships can be based on a number of criteria, including performance in a particular school subject or club participation or community service.
A federal Pell Grant can be awarded to someone planning to receive their undergraduate degree and is solely based on their financial needs.
Types
The most common scholarships may be classified as:
Merit-based: These awards are based on a student's academic, artistic, athletic, or other abilities, and often a factor in an applicant's extracurricular activities and community service record. Most such merit-based scholarships are paid directly by the institution the student attends, rather than issued directly to the student.
Need-based: Some private need-based awards are confusingly called scholarships, and require the results of a FAFSA (the family's expected family contribution). However, scholarships are often merit-based, while grants tend to be need-based.
Student-specific: These are scholarships for which applicants must initially qualify based upon gender, race, religion, family, and medical history, or many other student-specific factors. Minority scholarships are the most common awards in this category. For example, students in Canada may qualify for a number of Indigenous scholarships, whether they study at home or abroad. The Gates Millennium Scholars Program is another minority scholarship funded by Bill and Melinda Gates for excellent African American, American Indian, Asian Pacific Islander American, and Latino students who enroll in college.
Career-specific: These are scholarships a college or university awards to students who plan to pursue a specific field of study. Often, the most generous awards go to students who pursue careers in high-need areas, such as education or nursing. Many schools in the United States give future nurses full scholarships to enter the field, especially if the student intends to work in a high-need community.
College-specific: College-specific scholarships are offered by individual colleges and universities to highly qualified applicants. These scholarships are given on the basis of academic and personal achievement. Some scholarships have a "bond" requirement. Recipients may be required to work for a particular employer for a specified period of time or to work in rural or remote areas; otherwise, they may be required to repay the value of the support they received from the scholarship. This is particularly the case with education and nursing scholarships for people prepared to work in rural and remote areas. The programs offered by the uniformed services of the United States (Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Coast Guard, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps, and Public Health Service Commissioned Corps) sometimes resemble such scholarships.
Athletic: Awarded to students with exceptional skill in a sport. Often this is so that the student will be available to attend the school or college and play the sport on their team, although in some countries government funded sports scholarships are available, allowing scholarship holders to train for international representation. School-based athletics scholarships can be controversial, as some believe that awarding scholarship money for athletic rather than academic or intellectual purposes is not in the institution's best interest.
Brand: These scholarships are sponsored by a corporation that is trying to gain attention to their brand, or a cause. Sometimes these scholarships are referred to as branded scholarships. The Miss America beauty pageant is a famous example of a brand scholarship.
Creative contest: These scholarships are awarded to students based on a creative submission. Contest scholarships are also called mini project-based scholarships, where students can submit entries based on unique and innovative ideas.
"Last dollar": can be provided by private and government-based institutions, and are intended to cover the remaining fees charged to a student after the various grants are taken into account. To prohibit institutions from taking last dollar scholarships into account, and thereby removing other sources of funding, these scholarships are not offered until after financial aid has been offered in the form of a letter. Furthermore, last dollar scholarships may require families to have filed taxes for the most recent year, received their other sources of financial aid, and not yet received loans.
Notable scholarships
Name of scholarship with institution and/or sponsoring organisation
Chevening Scholarship: Foreign & Commonwealth Office (UK)
China Scholarship Council Scholarship: Government of China
Commonwealth Scholarship: Commonwealth governments
Coca-Cola Scholarship: the Coca-Cola Company
Endeavour Awards: Government of Australia
Erasmus Mundus: European Union
Fulbright Scholarship
Gates Cambridge Scholarship: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; University of Cambridge
Jardine Scholarship: Jardine Matheson; Universities of Oxford and Cambridge
Marshall Scholarship: UK universities
Mitchell Scholarship: US-Ireland Alliance
Morehead-Cain Scholarship: University of North Carolina
Foundation Scholarship: Trinity College Dublin
Rhodes Scholarship: University of Oxford
Schwarzman Scholars: Tsinghua University
See also
Bursary
Free education
Exhibition
Fellowship (financial)
Right to education
Scholarships in Korea
Scholarships in the United States
Scholarships in Taiwan
School voucher
References
Further reading
DiFiore, Laura, et al. "Tips on Finding Scholarships." FreSch! Free Scholarship Search. 2013.
Martin, Michel. "Scholarships: Who Gets Them and Why?" Tell me More 17
Academia
Education finance
+ | wiki |
McCafferty :
Dan McCafferty (1946-2022), musicien britannique ;
Tom McCafferty (19?-), acteur américain. | wiki |
The women's canoe sprint K-1 200 metres at the 2012 Olympic Games in London took place between 10 and 11 August at Eton Dorney.
Competition format
The competition comprised heats, semifinals, and a final round.
Schedule
All times are British Summer Time (UTC+01:00)
Results
Heats
The six best placed boats in each heat advance to the semifinals.
Heat 1
Heat 2
Heat 3
Heat 4
Semifinals
The fastest two canoeists in each semifinal qualify for the 'A' final alongside the two fastest third placed boats. The last third placed boat alongside, the fourth and fifth placed boats and the fastest sixth placed boat qualify for the 'B' final.
Semifinal 1
Semifinal 2
Semifinal 3
Finals
Final B
Final A
References
Canoeing at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olyp
Women's events at the 2012 Summer Olympics | wiki |
Las Hermanas may refer to:
Las Hermanas (organization), feminist Catholic organization for Spanish speaking women
Las Hermanas (ballet), 1971 ballet
Las hermanas Gilda, Spanish fictional comic characters
Las Hermanas Montoya, American Latin music singing group
Las Hermanas (TV series), Philippine TV series | wiki |
A partially disclosed principal is one whose agent reveals that he has a principal, but does not reveal the principal's identity. This concept has important implications in liability law. It is in contrast to a disclosed principal and undisclosed principal.
Notes
References
The legal, ethical, and international environment of business By Herbert M. Bohlman, Mary Jane Dundas
Agency law | wiki |
The women's canoe sprint K-4 500 metres competition at the 2012 Olympic Games in London took place between 6 and 8 August at Eton Dorney.
Gabriella Szabó, Danuta Kozák, Katalin Kovács and Krisztina Fazekas Zur, representing Hungary, won the gold medal. Germany's team won silver and Belarus took the bronze.
Competition format
The competition comprised three heats, a semi-finals, and a final. The first boat and second-best in each heat qualified for the final, with the remainder going to the semi-final where the top five boats then qualified for the final.
Schedule
All times are British Summer Time (UTC+01:00)
Results
Heats
The first boat from each heat and the fastest runner-up qualified for the final, with the remainder going to the semi-finals.
Heat 1
Heat 2
Semifinal
The top five boats qualified for the final.
Final
References
Canoeing at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olyp
Women's events at the 2012 Summer Olympics | wiki |
Javanese traditional house () refers to the traditional vernacular houses of Javanese people in the island of Java, Indonesia.
See also
Indonesian architecture
Rumah adat
Kraton (Indonesia)
List of mosques in Indonesia
Dutch Indies country houses
Kotagede
References
Works cited
Rumah adat
Javanese culture
House types | wiki |
Television in the Republic of Ireland is available through a variety of platforms. The digital terrestrial television service is known as Saorview and is the primary source of broadcast television since analogue transmissions ended on 24 October 2012. Digital satellite (from Sky Ireland, Saorsat and other European satellite service providers are available) and digital cable (from Virgin Media Ireland) are also widely used.
The Irish satellite fill-in service (Saorsat) is via Ka-Sat using the Irish KA band spot and has been available since June 2011.
While many people receive their television via Saorview, which is broadcast by 2RN, more than half subscribe to multichannel television networks. The biggest single multichannel television network in Ireland is Sky Ireland, which broadcasts digital satellite television services. Virgin Media Ireland, Vodafone TV and Eir among others, provide similar digital television services to Irish viewers.
History
Television was first received in Ireland in 1949, following the opening of high power BBC transmitters at Sutton Coldfield near Birmingham, England and later Holme Moss in West Yorkshire, England, giving marginal reception along parts of the East coast. The first transmissions on the island of Ireland began with the launch of BBC in Northern Ireland (BBC Northern Ireland) when it began broadcasting television programmes in 1953, followed in 1959 by the launch of Ulster Television (now known as UTV).
Throughout the 1950s the governments of Ireland were worried about the influences of British television and the popularity of the medium. By the end of the 1950s, 60% of the population could receive the UK's BBC1 and ITV from spillover from Northern Ireland, Wales and the west of England. Throughout the 1950s the Irish government discussed the provision of an Irish television service; this was headed up by Leon O'Broin, the secretary of the Department of Post and Telegraphs. The Department of Post and Telegraphs had responsibility for Radio Éireann, Ireland's radio service. In 1950 O'Broin established his own committee on Irish television and bought a television set to receive broadcasts from the BBC. The Department of Finance at this time were worried about the cost of setting up a new television service and dismissed the possibility on several occasions during the 1950s. By March 1951 O'Broin would press for the inevitable establishment of an Irish television service in the state. In a memorandum to government, the department set out four possibilities for the ownership and control of a new service:
Owned by the state directly
Owned by a public corporation (similar to that of the then Radio Éireann)
Owned by private enterprise
Having a combination where transmitters would be owned by the state and content would be provided by private enterprises
The Department of Finance was incensed with this and asked the government to tell O'Broin to resubmit the proposals through the Department of Finance according to the formal procedures of the Civil Service. John A. Costello, the Taoiseach, did so and returned the memo to the Department of Post and Telegraphs. The Minister for Finance refused to look at TV, calling it a "luxury service". Through this O'Broin was able to get funding for the research he had asked for.
The public service broadcaster, Telefís Éireann, opened in 1961, followed by an additional channel RTÉ2 in November 1978. TG4 launched on 31 October 1996 as a free-to-air public service broadcaster that targets Irish language viewers.
The earliest colour broadcasts in Ireland took place in 1968. However, a full-time colour service was only introduced in 1973, with The Late Late Show remaining in monochrome until 1976.
On 20 September 1998, TV3 launched as the first independent commercial broadcaster in Ireland. In the 2000s television in Ireland expanded with the launch of Eir Sport 1, Bubble Hits (now defunct) and 3e (originally C6 on Cable, later added to Sky), which are available through PayTV cable and satellite services. TV3 purchased C6 and rebranded it 3e. Only with the launch of Saorview (FTA DTT) was 3e available Free to Air.
Ireland commenced its switch over to its free-to-air digital terrestrial television (DTT) in October 2010. This provided viewers with greater viewing opportunities with an increase in public service channels, i.e. of commercial services with the possibility of more public service channels from existing public service broadcaster and possibly two new channels, the Houses of the Oireachtas Channel and the Irish Film Channel, subject to finance from the government for the last two. The then Minister for Communications Pat Rabbitte aspired to have a complete DTT service rolled out by 31 December 2011.
Regulation
In Ireland, the Commission for Communications Regulation regulates radio wave spectrum licensing, and since 1 October 2009 the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland regulates both public service broadcasters such as RTÉ, TG4 and commercial broadcasters.
Digital terrestrial television
On 17 March 2011 a public advertising campaign was launched to highlight the integration of digital terrestrial television within Ireland. Saorview, Ireland's national free-to-air digital terrestrial television (DTT) service, launched officially to the public in May 2011. The service initially aired services provided only by RTÉ, TG4 and TV3. Additional services such as a commercial DTT service were deferred until a later date. The BAI have since ended negotiations to find a suitable service provider for such content.
Previously, service providers for the commercial DTT varied between 2008 and 2010. Negotiations between the three key players which included Boxer, OneVision (DTT), and Easy TV were deemed unsuccessful. Both Boxer and Onevision failed to sign-off an agreement between BAI and RTÉNL. Easy TV considered its position on the license offer put to it on 29 April 2010. The Easy TV consortium informed the BAI on 12 May 2010 that it was declining their offer to pursue negotiations regarding the Commercial DTT Multiplex Licence.
Public service channels are carried by 2RN (Under the Saorview brand), with this service operational to 90% of the country by 31 October 2010 and complete by 31 December 2011 (98%). However, publicly accessible tests of this system were available across large swathes of the country since December 2009 with further expansion since 29 October 2010 with a soft launch in Spring 2011 culminating in a hard launch before 31 December 2011 when the ASO phase began.
The Irish system, being used by both RTÉNL and any subsequent commercial DTT provider is a MPEG-4 DVB-T service with an MHEG-5 interactive layer.
RTÉ Television were awarded a licence to operate a single multiplex, with a second multiplex which followed once analogue broadcasting ceased on 24 October 2012. Other services to launch on the second multiplex include additional services from TV3 such as TV3HD, TV3+1, 3Kids and 3Classics and additional channels from RTÉ such as an arts channel and music channel.
The Broadcasting Act 2009 provided provision for the launch of two additional public services. These include an Oireachtas Channel and an Irish Film Channel. The Oireachtas TV service currently broadcasts on Saorview channel 22. The Irish Film Board will oversee operation for the Irish Film Channel.
By 2012, SAORVIEW offered 98% coverage for all channels. This was a significant improvement in free-to-air television coverage. Similar services such as Saorview available in the United Kingdom (i.e. Freeview) and other parts of Europe are not compatible with Ireland's DTT service. RTÉ recommends that consumers wishing to avail of the SAORVIEW service only purchase receivers that carry the SAORVIEW approved logo. In practice, most MPEG-4 DVB-T compatible equipment, such as that conforming to the UK's Freeview HD standard, is capable of receiving SAORVIEW transmissions, albeit with some limitations to the EPG function. As the Freeview HD system is based on the newer DVB-T2 standard, SAORVIEW reception is dependent on the backward-compatibility of such devices.
Historical testing
DVB-T was repeatedly tested from 2RN's Three Rock Mountain transmitter, with relatively long tests in 1998 and 2001, and shorter tests in 2004, with a single multiplex carrying the four Irish analogue terrestrial channels, and Tara Television while it was in existence, on both UHF (channel 26) and VHF (channel D). These were under temporary licences for testing, which are regularly awarded. RTÉast Networks also broadcast test DVB-T with analogue TV and radio channels from the Clermont Carn transmitter in the Cooley Mountains, County Louth with some signal bleed into Northern Ireland.
A contract to run a nationwide system, with six multiplexes from main sites, and four from relay sites was awarded in 2001 to ITS Digital Limited, led by former RTÉ executive, Mr Peter Branagan and trading as "It's TV", who intended to launch a pay TV and broadband service. ITS wanted to offer broadband internet access using the DVB-RCT standard (which while high bandwidth at up to 30 Mbit/s, is not fast enough with 20,000 people on one mast). They had no broadband licence and no viable business plan without selling broadband, and due to lack of funding withdrew its application in October 2002.
The government also planned to privatise RTÉ's transmission network at this time but this too failed in October 2002 following the withdrawal of ITS Digital Limited DTT licence application and a number of other factors.
Disability organisations and the switchover
TV Access, a coalition of organisations that promote issues surrounding individuals with disabilities and senior citizens, began a campaign to highlight the switchover from analogue to digital television (DTT) broadcast services in its contribution to the Oireachtas Communications Committee heard on Wednesday, 1 April 2009.
TV Access aimed to make the wider public aware of the needs of aging and disabled viewers; they also launched a website.
Promotion for DTT roll-out began on 17 March 2011.
Multiplex licensing process
The establishment of a commercial multiplex for Digital Television Terrestrial within Ireland was punctuated with many delays. The BAI (then the Broadcasting Commission of Ireland) engaged in two phases of targeted consultation to assist in the development of its DTT Multiplex Licensing Policy. These consultations ran from May to December 2007 and involved the production of a comprehensive consultation document outlining policy proposals in relation to DTT licensing and the commissioning of independent research on DTT. It was initially proposed that RTÉ Television would operate the free-to-air public service multiplex, RTÉNL would provide the relevant broadcasting technologies and a third party would provide the pay or subscription service. These third parties included Easy TV, One Vision (DTT) and Boxer. Initially, Boxer Ireland was given the licence to operate the pay DTT service. Boxer's failure to negotiate with RTÉNL and the economic downturn in Ireland resulted in Boxer no longer holding interest in pursuing its business in Ireland. On 20 April 2009, the BAI announced that Boxer had ended negotiations on the DTT contract without a successful outcome. Following this the consortium that made up One Vision were issued the licence. Once again, One Vision failed to negotiate with RTÉNL, hence negotiations were unsuccessful. On 29 April 2010 it was announced that Onevision had pulled out of negotiations. Finally, The Broadcasting Authority of Ireland began negotiating with Easy TV (a consortium made up of RTÉ and UPC Ireland). RTÉ publicly confirmed on 14 May 2010 Easy TV was "declining their offer to pursue negotiations" on the DTT contract. The BAI officially confirmed Easy TV's withdrawal and the conclusion of the current DTT licensing process on 18 May 2010.
In July 2010, the then Minister for Communications Eamon Ryan announced that RTÉ would provide a basic free-to-air service without a pay DTT element. The free-to-air service would provide up to seven to ten channels and would roll out between 31 October 2010 to 31 December 2012. The new service would provide viewers with existing Irish channels, while also providing opportunities to expand existing channel portfolios. This service would be provided by Saorview and Saorsat the latter to be used in areas were availability to access the Saorview is limited due to geographics.
Cross-border partnership
On 1 February 2010 Ireland's then-Minister for Communications Eamon Ryan signed an agreement with the UK's Ben Bradshaw. This agreement was designed to ensure viewers within Northern Ireland could watch RTÉ One, RTÉ2 and TG4 on a free-to-air basis after the digital switchover. While initial reports suggested that BBC services would equally be made available free-to-air in the Republic of Ireland at the same time, this was not to be the case. Instead BBC One Northern Ireland and BBC Two Northern Ireland were to be made available on a paid-for basis. In practice all BBC satellite channels can be received freely in the Republic of Ireland, due to overspill from the United Kingdom.
Following a broad range of technical work, the two governments agreed an effective way to provide for the continuing provision of TG4 by building a new, low power TV multiplex in Northern Ireland. In addition to carrying TG4, this multiplex, which is part of the UK DTT system, also carries RTÉ 1 and RTÉ 2. This increased the coverage of these channels in Northern Ireland, to 90% of the population in Northern Ireland to receive their services on a free-to-air basis, either through overspill as before or via the new multiplex.
The former analogue signals were switched off on a co-ordinated basis in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland on 24 October 2012.
Foreseen as part of the agreement between both governments was the establishment of a joint venture (as a not-for-profit company) between RTÉ and TG4 to run the multiplex which is licensed under the UK's Wireless Telegraphy Act 2006 by Ofcom at the request of the UK government. In addition, the licensee has put out to competitive tender all the elements of the multiplex operation which are contestable and the multiplex is operated on an open book basis.
Mobile terrestrial television
Mobile Terrestrial Television is TV on mobile phone handsets, which does not have contention problems compared to 3G networks.
The Commission for Communications Regulation issued its response to Consultation 08/44 about interest in multi-city mobile TV licenses that could cover up to 40% of the population that would lead to the Award of available UHF spectrum in the urban areas of Cork, Dublin, Galway, Limerick and Waterford. That response to consultation was issued on Tuesday 28 July 2009. Having provided options to stakeholders in terms of 2 options outlined in Consultation 08/44 of Mobile Telegraphy Licence or a technology neutral Wireless Telegraphy Licence, and minded by the 7 responses it received, the Mobile Telegraphy Licence was seen as the best use of spectrum, given the nature of the spectrum of 8 MHz of UHF band in between 470 and 750 MHz in the five main urban areas due to the limited spectrum arising from DTT introduction and use of 4 multiplexes as the spectrum priority prior to analogue switchover (ASO).
ComReg proposed launch of the wholesale mobile TV network following licence award be rolled out within 24 months before penalty or licence withdrawal from the winner of the contest. The contest was done by comparative beauty contest instead of auction, given the nature of Mobile TV as a newish area and the risks in terms of investment inherenet in it. Given the limited spectrum a wholesale model as noted by the EU Commission reference 2 in such situation is chosen. This results in third parties having access through agreements with the wholesale mobile network operator as Other Mobile TV Service Providers (OMTSPs) in a timely, reasonable, non-discriminatory and transparent manner to the network to provide their own services and electronic programme guide from up to 20 channels maximum space.
The licence would be for 10 years and not automatically renewed. Those services are encrypted by the service provider to the subscriber. Contributors to the consultation 08/44 were given time to reflect on the terms suggested for the comparative beauty contest before 11 September 2009 and following that feedback and ComReg's further reflection on that, the comparative contest guidelines were issued and an application date set by the end of the year. The winner of that contest would have 2 years to build the network and agree terms with Other Mobile TV Service Providers. The Broadcasting Act 2009 was also referred to in Comreg Publication 09/64.
By April 2010, following on from the response to its consultation at end of 2009 the communications regulator ComReg issued an Information Notice on the future award of a mobile television license, ComReg 10/26 Mobile TV Wireless Telegraphy Licence Award on Tuesday, 30 March 2010.
The Information Notice provided in ComReg's plans to issue one 8 MHz frequency channel in the UHF band in the areas of Cork, Dublin, Galway, Limerick, and Waterford and invited candidates to tender for the licence in the fourth quarter of the year of 2010 and announce the licence results by the end of 2010. It weighed elements of business plans when it began the comparative process in Q4 2010. Offer of licence would have been 2011 but this was then cancelled by ComReg. International frequency co-ordination would also be ongoing during the period primarily with the UK.
Comments to ComReg's mobile television licence proposal were taken until 30 April 2010.
By November 2010, only two responders responded to ComReg's Television licence proposals consultation. These were RTÉNL and Vodafone Ireland. Points regarding wholesale access commitments considered critical for the successful provision of wholesale Mobile TV service and the provision of Mobile TV services for the benefits of consumers more generally were discussed. The two responders addressed points regarding automatic additional spectrum and ComReg outlined that it was minded to consider later award of mobile TV license when a national network for same would be possible of for other uses. The main concern was to whether there is demand for broadcast mobile TV, given experiences elsewhere or whether the award be made post ASO when international spectrum co-ordination is clearer. ComReg welcomed views regarding these issues from interested
parties by no later than 5.00 p.m. on 9 December 2010. It will make its decision going forward on the licence proposal following consideration of responses to this.
Cable
Prior to Sky Digital, cable television was the most common system for distributing multi-channel television in Ireland. With more than 40 years of history and extensive networks of both wired and "wireless" cable, Ireland is amongst the most cabled countries in Europe. Forty percent of Irish homes received cable television in September 2006. The figure dropped slightly in the early years of the 21st century due to the increased popularity of satellite reception, notably Sky, but has stabilised recently.
In Ireland, Virgin Media Ireland, which formerly traded under the brand names Chorus NTL and UPC Ireland, is by far the largest cable operator, almost all of the state's cable TV operators and formerly all of the state's MMDS licences. Virgin Media offers digital cable television services in cities and towns throughout the country (with the exception of Cork, where the network is digital-only). It offered MMDS services in rural areas until the MDS licences were withdrawn in 2016. Other than Virgin Media, the only other operators providing digital cable systems are Crossan CableComm which operates in Longford, Smyths Cablevision, which operates in Cavan, and Casey Cablevision which operates in Dungarvan, County Waterford.
Satellite
Direct broadcast satellite service has been available since the late 1980s with the arrival of free-to-air satellite Astra and subscription service Sky Television.
In 1988 a pan-European satellite service was launched through SES. The service provided viewers with pan-European channels which targeted the entire continent. On 5 February 1989, when Sky Television launched, British Satellite Broadcasting, which was also available in Ireland, launched in 1990 and the two merged to form British Sky Broadcasting in 1990. For most of the 1990s however, Sky's DBS customer base in Ireland was dwarfed by the large numbers receiving its channels via cable. Sky Digital, Ireland's first digital television service, launched in October 1998. However, in the absence of any subsidy for the Sky Digibox in Ireland – viewers in the UK could avail of both a Sky subsidy and one from British Interactive Broadcasting – the cost to initially acquire Sky Digital equipment was very expensive (IEP 450) and subscriber numbers did not rise until both these subsidies were introduced into Ireland in 2000. In 2001, UK and Irish terrestrial channels became available to Irish Sky customers for the first time.
While Sky is the biggest satellite service in Ireland, it is by no means the only satellite broadcast available. Most free to air broadcasts available in Europe are available in Ireland via the right receiver (set top box) and a dish pointed at the correct satellite. In 2008, Sat4free, an adapted version of the UK Freesat equipment, began selling in Ireland. It is a fixed NI postcode version of a Freesat receiver. Some retailers in Ireland sell actual Freesat setboxes. Both Freesat and Sat4free are superior to generic satellite receivers for the reception of UK television, only old stock of Sat4Free is now available and new purchases should be "Freesat HD" even if the TV set is not HDTV. Imported "Grey market" (as the contract the operator has doesn't permit direct sales outside the intended Geographic area) satellite receivers are sometimes used to watch both FTA and subscription channels from visitors home countries (e.g., Cyfrowy Polsat)
Following the failure of the commercial DTT process in May 2010 RTÉ submitted a revised DTT plan including an FTA satellite option to the Dept of Communications in mid-June 2010 for approval. RTÉ publicly announced at an Oireachtas Joint Committee on Communications discussion in mid-July 2010 that a free-to-air satellite service, called Saorsat, would be offered to complement the terrestrial DTT service. Saorsat will enable Irish public service channels to be made available free to air and unencrypted, for the first time, as a means of covering the last 2% of the population who will be unable to receive the Saorview terrestrial service.
RTÉ said the combined offering was designed to be the most cost-effective solution for viewers and broadcasters; to offer for the first time 100% coverage of free-to-air public service television services in Ireland, and to provide full national backup coverage on satellite in the event of an emergency or catastrophic failure of the DTT system.
Approval for the revised National DTT plan and the new Saorsat satellite service was announced by the Minister for Communications at the end of July 2010.
The Saorsat satellite service has been available publicly since 3 May 2012 as tests had commenced at the end of May 2011.
Streaming
With over one quarter of the population viewing programming on streaming platforms, many public service broadcasters and international streaming services serve the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland some of the most popular include:
Netflix
Amazon Prime
Apple TV+
Walter Presents
Disney+
Volta
Free to access:
Republic of Ireland
RTÉ Player
Virgin Media Player
TG4 Player
Arte
All 4 (selection of on demand content only. Live TV not available)
BBC iPlayer (Ireland version, on Sky Glass only)
Northern Ireland
RTÉ Player International
BBC iPlayer
All 4
ITVX
My5
Other technologies
DVB-H
O2 Ireland and 3 Ireland undertook trials of DVB-H. However delays in licensing broadcast spectrum to the mobile sector in Ireland forced telecoms providers such as O2 to proceed with 3G/HSDPA Mobile TV. Vodafone Ireland and 3 Ireland already have significant digital video content distributed over their 3G and 3.5G (HSDPA) networks
Virgin Media Ireland provided a wireless cable service over an all digital MMDS network reaching over 80% of the country. This network operated at 2.5 GHz to 2.7 GHz until the 18 April 2016.
The now defunct SCTV Digital provided an advanced digital television service to Cork City and parts of County Cork. It is licensed to operate all over Munster. Operating at 11.7 GHz to 12.5 GHz (MVDDS) it delivered approximately 75 digital television channels and video on demand services from "Sky By Wire".
Digital satellite is the only form of subscriber satellite transmission available in the country and is provided by Sky (and Sky+ HD). The Freesat a UK service is also available in the country, as are FTA satellite channels from several other European countries.
One company provides digital television via IPTV; Magnet Entertainment.
Magnet Networks offers viewers in Ireland the chance to view RTÉ One, RTÉ2, TV3, TG4, 3e and Dáil & Seanad TV channels via the internet.
Deflectors (UHF television programme retransmission)
In rural areas where neither cable or direct terrestrial overspill was available, UHF television programme retransmission systems or deflectors picked up the UK terrestrial channels (either from Northern Ireland or Wales), and retransmitted them on local UHF signals along with other channels.
These operators faced legal action in the late 1990s from MMDS operators, as they did not pay royalties to the relevant broadcasters, and were not licensed. When the deflectors were shut down, there was such an outcry in those areas that an independent election candidate in County Donegal, Tom Gildea, was elected as a TD on a platform of supporting legalisation, which occurred in 1999.
Deflectors were first licensed in 1999 by the then spectrum regulator, the ODTR.
The Wireless Telegraphy (UHF Television Programme Retransmission) Regulations, 2009 were the last for deflectors, as all deflector licences expired in December 2012 due to the transition to DTT.There are few (if any) such systems still operating in Ireland.
Television licence
In Ireland, a television licence is required for any address at which there is a television set or device not exempted under Staturory Instrument 319 of 2009 see. In 2008, the annual licence fee is €160. Revenue is collected by An Post, the Irish postal service. The bulk of the fee is used to fund Raidió Teilifís Éireann, the state broadcaster. The licence must be paid for any premises that has any equipment that can potentially decode TV signals, even those that are not RTÉ's. The licence is free to senior citizens (to anyone over the age of 70, some over 66), some Social Welfare recipients, and individuals who are blind. The fee for the licences of such beneficiaries is paid for by the state.
Most-viewed channels (IRL)
The channels with the largest AGB Nielsen viewing share from 2002 – 2012 are outlined in the table below:
In 2013 in the Republic of Ireland 45% of TV Viewers watch free-to-air Irish services from RTÉ, TV3 and TG4, while 10% of viewers watch the traditional Northern Irish channels UTV, BBC 1 NI, BBC 2 NI and Channel 4.
This compares to 2002 figures which show that 47% of viewers watched services from RTÉ, TV3 and TG4, while 31% watched traditional Northern Irish channels.
Irish services had an audience peak of 56% in 2006, while traditional Northern Irish services saw their audience share slide down to 19% in the same year.
Since 2002 the number of channels competing for advertising revenue has risen from 11 in 2002 to 38 in 2013. Advertising on UK services account for about 17% of all advertising revenue in Ireland. Of the 38 channels competing for advertising only 6 are Irish based.
See also
List of television channels available in the Republic of Ireland
Television in Northern Ireland
Television in the United Kingdom
List of Ireland game shows
1960s in Irish television
Timeline of RTÉ Television
Timeline of commercial television in the Republic of Ireland
References
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
External links
Broadcasting Commission of Ireland
MAVISE – TV market in Ireland
Broadcasting Complaints Commission
Polytron Technology Ireland
Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources – Broadcasting | wiki |
Alna es uno de los 15 distritos de la ciudad de Oslo, Noruega.
El distrito tiene los siguientes barrios:
Alnabru
Hellerud
Ellingsrud
Tveita
Furuset
Haugerud
Trosterud
Lindeberg
Distritos de Oslo | wiki |
Please Don't Eat the Babies (also known as Island Fury) is a 1983 American horror and thriller film directed by Bruce Geller. This film has been music composed by Larry Wolff. The film starring Robyn Leigh Hadem Elizabeth Monet, Tanya Louise, Michael Wayne, Mike Jacobs, Joe Lombardo and Ross Hamilton in the lead roles.
Cast
Elizabeth Monet
Tanya Louise
Michael Wayne
Mike Jacobs
Joe Lombardo
Ross Hamilton
Hank Worden
Ed McClarty
Robin Haden
References
External links
1983 films
Films shot in Los Angeles
1983 horror films
1980s erotic films
American erotic horror films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films | wiki |
Нім:
Нім — місто у Франції.
Нім — дерево.
Нім (футбольний клуб) | wiki |
Bernardo O'Higgins — militar e estadista chileno
Ambrosio O'Higgins — militar irlandês
O'Higgins — comuna do sul do Chile
O'Higgins (departamento) — departamento da Argentina
O'Higgins (região) — regiões administrativa do Chile, também conhecida como Sexta Região
Base General Bernardo O'Higgins — base chilena na Antártida
O'Higgins Fútbol Club — clube de futebol do Chile
Desambiguações de topônimos
Desambiguações de história
Desambiguações de esporte | wiki |
McDermott is an unincorporated community in Alberta, Canada within the Lethbridge County that is recognized as a designated place by Statistics Canada. It is located on the west side of Range Road 224, south of Highway 3.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, McDermott had a population of 54 living in 19 of its 21 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 72. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
As a designated place in the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, McDermott had a population of 72 living in 22 of its 22 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 68. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016.
See also
List of communities in Alberta
List of designated places in Alberta
References
Designated places in Alberta
Localities in Lethbridge County | wiki |
This is the inaugural season for X-League Indoor Football.
Standings
z-Indicates best regular season record
x-Indicates clinched playoff berth
Schedule
*All Game times are Eastern Standard Time
Playoffs
External links
2014 XLIF Schedule | wiki |
Niue is an island in the Southern Pacific, mostly inhabited by Polynesians. The plantations are mostly filled with manioc, taro and breadfruit, but banana trees can be found. The wide range of exotic plants in Niue includes taros, pawpaw, coconuts, bananas, yams, cassavas and breadfruits: All are intensively used in the local cuisine.
The most significant ingredient when discussing the Niue's recipes are the fish and the vegetables. The staple ingredient is fish. Fish is consumed roasted, grilled, raw, and in soups or stews. There is a wide spectrum of edible and enjoyable fish species: tuna (ahi), dolphinfish (mahi mahi), parrot fish (pakati), barracuda (ono), coconut crabs and crayfish. In less populated areas, people prefer to eat vegetable meals, like taro roots or manioc.
Dishes
Nane Pia – A translucent porridge made from arrowroot and coconut, and has a thick slimy texture. The taste can be described as somewhat bland with a hint of coconut.
'Ota 'ika – A raw fish dish marinated in citrus juice and served in coconut milk.
'otai – A drink made from the meat and milk of a coconut. Unlike the well-known Tongan version. The Niuean version replaces fruit with the cooked root of the Ti plant.
Pitako Pia – A traditional bread made from arrowroot and coconut milk.
Takihi – A pudding made from layered pieces with taro and papaya and coconut cream.
Vaihalo – A porridge made from arrowroot and coconut.
Popular cuisine in Niue
An important event is the annual village show days, where people from the 14 villages gather to show their local cooking and culinary culture, for a great exchange of regional cuisines. A big umu (earth oven) is set for the tourists, who can try the delicacies from all of Niue's cuisines.
In the central town, Alofi, local markets take place two times every week. All the local fruits, vegetables, fish and seafood can be found there. Among the most popular items from the market are uga, taro, yams, cassava and breadfruit. Even though these tropical plants can be found all over the region, there are a few differences between the central town Alofi and the villages.
In Alofi, Polynesian and European food can be found in the restaurants, besides the traditional Niue ones. In the villages, people usually consume only the local plants and fish; the food is mostly homemade, using the earth ovens.
Preparation methods for Niuean cooking
The visual attractiveness of the dish is important, and a balance between colours and proportion differentiates. Each traditional dish has a special cooking method, which is more or less general in all of Niue's regions. Meat is one of the main elements of most Niue dishes, and cured and smoked hams are often included. Niue cuisine uses elements from cooking traditions borrowed from their neighbours and developed from their own traditional dishes.
References | wiki |
Cone Glacier Volcano is a cinder cone in the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains in northwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is part of the Iskut-Unuk River Cones group and last erupted during the Holocene period. Cone Glacier contains two arms that surround the volcano.
See also
List of volcanoes in Canada
List of Northern Cordilleran volcanoes
Volcanic history of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province
Volcanism of Canada
Volcanism of Western Canada
References
Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province
Cinder cones of British Columbia | wiki |
Shallow frying is a hot oil-based cooking technique. It is typically used to prepare portion-sized cuts of meat, fish, potatoes and patties such as fritters. Shallow frying can also be used to cook vegetables.
Technique
It is a medium-high to high heat cooking process. Temperatures between are typical, but shallow frying may be performed at temperatures as low as for a longer period of time. The high heat promotes protein denaturation-browning and, in some cases, a Maillard reaction. Deep-frying usually takes place at temperatures between so shallow-frying can oftentimes be considered a less intense cooking technique. Foods to be shallow fried are commonly pre-portioned into single servings before being placed in oil. Since the food is only partly submerged, it must be turned over partway through the cooking process. Some cooks recommend cooking the "presentation" side of the food first.
Dishes
Both deep-fried and shallow-fried foods are often battered, breaded or floured (usually with wheat flour or corn starch) prior to being cooked; this step is sometimes referred to as breading, crumbing, velveting or dredging depending on the ingredients being used. The structure of these starchy coatings become rigid and porous when heated in oil; this is due to their high amylose content. Rigid coatings increase the palatability of fried food by inhibiting moisture loss and creating the desirable ‘crispiness’ trait. Resultantly, foods fried with starch are sometimes called “crisp-fried.”
Health
The healthfulness of shallow frying has been scrutinized in literature. The results of a study on fish fry found that shallow frying fish provoked higher thermo-oxidation than cooking in a microwave. Studies have shown that margarine, virgin olive oil and similar cooking oils oxidize and destabilize substantially when they are shallow-fried, especially when compared to oils used during baking. In turn, a large amount of heat-sensitive nutrients may degrade, and antioxidant properties are lost. In this regard, shallow frying food may be a healthier alternative to long-term deep-frying processes. The fat soluble vitamins and fatty acids in cooking oils show comparatively reasonable stability when they are used for shallow frying rather than deep frying.
Despite being a less intense frying method, the adverse effects of shallow frying are equitable to the ones associated with deep frying in some regards. The oil absorption rates of shallow fried foods are similar to that of foods that have been deep-fried at proper temperatures; consequently, shallow-frying is not a better alternative for calorie control or weight management. Some research shows shallow frying and deep frying highly increased the acrylamide content in foods like potatoes and grains to a similar degree. Roasting the same potatoes kept acrylamide production comparatively low in spite of being cooked at a higher temperature setting. It is controversial whether dietary acrylamide poses a substantial danger, but since the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives concluded that acrylamide is a human health concern there have been efforts to discover methods of decreasing its formation. It has been observed that blanching, pre-soaking food in either distilled water or acidulated water and lowering frying temperature can all partially attenuate acrylamide formation.
Fried foods have been linked with an increased relative risk of chronic disease. Prehypertension & hypertension has been associated with frequently consuming any kind of food that has been shallow fried or deep fried. In 2021 the journal Heart published a meta-analysis of observational studies; results indicated fried-food increases the relative risk of developing cardiovascular diseases in a linear dose–response relation. Compared to participants with low-intake, those who ate the most fried food had a 37% increased risk of heart failure, 28% increased risk of major cardiovascular events and a 22% increased risk of coronary heart disease. Risk of stroke, heart failure and heart attack modestly increased for each weekly serving of fried food. Researchers theorized the main reasons behind these associations are due to fried food having trans fats, many calories, and a pro-inflammatory nature. It was also noted that eating hyperpalatable crisp-fried foods may be enticing individuals to engage in routine overeating.
See also
Pan frying
Sautéing
Sweating
References
Cooking techniques
Culinary terminology
Fried foods | wiki |
Crocothemis saxicolor is een libellensoort uit de familie van de korenbouten (Libellulidae), onderorde echte libellen (Anisoptera).
De soort staat op de Rode Lijst van de IUCN als niet bedreigd, beoordelingsjaar 2009.
De wetenschappelijke naam Crocothemis saxicolor is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1921 door Ris.
Korenbouten
IUCN-status niet bedreigd | wiki |
Dog pox is an infection of canines which may be caused by the canine herpes virus, and can result in symptoms ranging from no symptoms to inflammation of the respiratory or digestive tract to skin inflammation and lesions. Over 60% of adult male dogs exhibit lesions as a result of this infection. It can result in reduction of epithelial function in the intestine.
References
Dog diseases | wiki |
Ambassador Apartments may refer to:
Ambassador Apartments (Hartford, Connecticut)
Ambassador Apartments (Springfield, Missouri)
President and Ambassador Apartments, Lincoln, Nebraska
Ambassador Apartments (Portland, Oregon)
See also
Ambassador Hotel (disambiguation) | wiki |
Signed French (français signé) is any of at least three manually coded forms of French that apply the words (signs) of a national sign language to French word order or grammar. In France, Signed French uses the signs of French Sign Language; the Belgium system uses the signs of French Belgian Sign Language, and in Canada the signs of Quebec Sign Language. Signed French is used in education and for simultaneous translation, not as a natural form of communication among deaf people.
French
French language | wiki |
Lithuania competed at the Winter Olympic Games for the first time at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland. Lithuania was represented by a single athlete, Kęstutis Bulota.
Speed skating
References
Olympic Winter Games 1928, full results by sports-reference.com
Nations at the 1928 Winter Olympics
1928
Olympics, Winter | wiki |
, or Signed Swedish, is an obsolete manually coded form of Swedish that used signs of Swedish Sign Language for lexical words, supplemented by additional signs for grammatical words and inflectional endings. It was developed in the 1970s in the hopes of making Swedish more accessible to the deaf, but was later abandoned for being slow and inefficient. It was never a natural form of communication among deaf people.
External links
Linus Glansholm (1993) Teckenspråket och de dövas situation, förr och nu
Swedish
Swedish language
Languages attested from the 1970s | wiki |
Commercial Street Historic District may refer to:
Commercial Street Historic District (Springfield, Missouri), listed on the NRHP in Missouri
Commercial Street Historic District (Mingo Junction, Ohio), listed on the NRHP in Ohio
See also
Commercial Historic District (disambiguation) | wiki |
"Who Do You Love, I Hope?" is a popular song by Irving Berlin. It was published in 1946 and introduced in the musical Annie Get Your Gun when it was sung on opening night by Kenny Bowers & Betty Anne Nyman. In the 1946 cast recording, the song was sung by Robert Lenn & Kathleen Carnes.
The song is a duet between two of the lead characters in the musical, Tommy Keeler and Winnie Tate.
The song was used in the Annie Get Your Gun album in 1963 when it was sung by Kelly Brown & Renée Winters.
References
Songs from Annie Get Your Gun
Songs written by Irving Berlin
1946 songs
Male–female vocal duets | wiki |
The origin of the Vijayanagara Empire is a controversial topic in South Indian history, with regard to the linguistic affiliation of the founding dynasty, the Sangama family. The Vijayanagara Empire rose to power in southern India in the 14th century CE. Over the past decades historians have expressed differing opinions on whether the empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka I (two of four sons of Sangama), were of Kannada people or Telugu origin. There are various opinions about role of the Vidyaranya, the Hindu saint and guru of Harihara I and Bukka I in the founding of the Vijayanagara empire.
Kannadiga origin theory
Scholars such as Rothermund, B.L Rice, P.B. Desai, Saletore, Henry Heras, Suryanatha Kamath, A. P. Karmarkar S.K. Aiyangar, William Coelho and M. H. Rama Sharma claim that the founders of the Vijayanagara Empire were Kannadigas and related to the Hoysala dynasty. E. W. West opines the founders were officers in the army of Veera Ballala III, the last Hoysala king. Though controversies over the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the empire exist, it is well accepted that he was an important individual at the powerful Shringeri monastic order, though he became the head of the order around 1380, a few decades after the founding of the empire.
According to these historians, modern epigraphic research and interpretation of these inscriptions (not available to earlier historians) support the theory that the founders of the empire were local princes under the service of the last of the Hoysala king. According to them, inscriptions prove that Harihara I and Bukka Raya I were in the Hoysala service a decade before their arrival at Kampili (in modern Bellary district). Not only did the widow of Hoysala Veera Ballala III participate in the coronation of Harihara I in 1346, her name appears before that of the founding King Harihara I in a 1349 inscription, indicating he gained legitimacy for being a devoted heir of the Hoysala legacy. Further, according to William Coelho and Heras, it is known that the original founding of the capital Vijayanagara was in 1320 by Veera Ballala III, the city then being known as Vijayavirupaksha Hosapattana. According to Eaton, By 1344, the transfer of power from the Hoysala Empire to the emerging Vijayanagara Empire seems to have been gradual and without bloodshed, as ex-Hoysala officers melted away from a crumbling Hoysala power to support the Sangama cause. Historian Kamath argues that in 1346, Harihara I made a grant to Bharati Tirtha, the Shringeri pontiff in the presence of Krishnayitayi, queen of the slain Hoysala king Veera Ballala III (who herself made a grant on the same day). Harihara I was a commander in the Hoysala Kingdom and had been appointed by Veera Ballala III with autonomous powers after the fall of the Seuna (Yadava dynasty) and Kampili kingdoms, to administer the northern territories. Also, the very first fortification that Harihara I built was at Barakuru in coastal Karnataka in 1336. He was a Hoysala commander in charge of its northern territories from his seat in Gutti (modern Ananthapur district of Andhra Pradesh), at that time a Hoysala territory. He assumed the Kannada titles Purvapaschima Samudradhishvara (lit, "Master of eastern and western and oceans"), Arirayavibhada (lit, "fire to the enemy kings") and Bhashegetappuvarayaraganda (lit, "punisher of the ruler who failed to keep a promise"). According to Kamath, when Veera Ballala III died fighting the Sultan of Madurai, Harihara I seems to have gained sovereign powers over the entire Hoysala territory.
The historian Saletore pointed out that even famous Telugu scholars such as Vallabharaya and Srinatha called the Sangama brothers Karnata Kshitinatha in their writings, indicating they were a Kannada family. An early inscription of Harihara II called him "Lion to the scent elephant of the Andhra king", demonstrating their anti-Telugu propensity. According to the epigraphist and historian P.B. Desai, the Persian author Ferishta of the Vijayanagara days wrote of the emperors "Roies of Karnataka". According to Kamath, the Kannada writings of that time such as Chikkadevaraya Vamshavali and Keladinripa Vijayam claim that the Sangama brothers were Kannadigas by linguistic affinity, making them people of Karnataka Regarding the earliest modern work written on the history of the Vijayanagara Empire by Robert Sewell (A Forgotten Empire, 1901) Kamath claims that Sewell had not used all sources but had copiously used travelogues and other works written by only European travelers to forward his theories.
Kamath points out that almost half of the Vijayanagara Empire inscriptions, out of a total of 7,000 available to us, are in Kannada. The Kings used titles such as Bhashegetappuva rayara ganda, Moorurayaraganda and Arirayadatta which are pure Kannada language titles. Their remaining inscriptions are in Sanskrit, Telugu, and Tamil. According to Appadurai, The "Karnataka Empire" or Vijayanagara Empire was originally of the Karnataka region and it drew its inspirations from the Hoysala Empire and the Western Ganga Dynasty of the Karnataka and the Chola and Pandya of the Tamil country. According to Henry Heras, inscriptional evidence shows that Ballappa Dandanayaka, a nephew of Hoysala Veera Ballala III was married to a daughter of Harihara I, the founding king of the empire. This is claimed proof enough of the association Sangama brothers had with the Hoysala family.
According to the historians Saletore, P.B. Desai and Henry Heras, the theory of capture of Harihara I and Bukka Raya I by the Sultan of Delhi and conversion to Islam is false and that the testimony of epigraphs proves that the area around Hampi constituted their homeland. The empire never had a Telugu origin. The patron saint of the early kings was saint Vidyaranya, the 12th Shankaracharya of Sringeri in Karnataka, and this is proof enough of their unquestionable identity with the Kannada country. About the Muslim records that claim a Telugu origin of Harihara I and Bukka Raya, these historians feel, the records are neither unanimous nor reliable in their claims. In those days of religious rigidity, it is too far-fetched to accept a theory of conversion to Islam and re-conversion to Hinduism while still managing to win the trust and loyalty of Hindu subjects in an hour of impending invasions. According to Kamath, the great devotion the founders of the empire had in Lord Chennakeshava of Belur and Lord Virupaksha of Hampi testifies to their origin from Kannada country, though in political and administrative matters, the Vijayanagara kings followed the Hoysala, Kakatiya, Chola framework in the various provincial regions of the empire. The Sangama brothers even signed their Sanskrit records in Kannada (as Srivirupaksha) and used their Kannada titles even in their Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit records. No Telugu titles were used by them. A popular chieftain and patriot of those times, prince Kumara Rama of Kummata Durga or simply Kummata Durga (capital of the tiny Kampli kingdom in Bellary District) may have been related to Sangama, father of Harihar I. This evidence exists in a literary piece by poet Nanjunda (Kumara Rama Charita). According to Kamath, the early Vijayanagara kings raised memorials at Sandur, Chitradurga and Dharwad to sing the glory of Kumara Rama's valor and show their continued efforts to build an empire in his legacy. All this proves the matrimonial relations the Sangama family had with the Kummata family.
According to R. C. Dhere, founders of the Vijayanagara Empire were from present-day Karnataka. They claimed Yadava lineage and were of Kuruba origin. Their family deity (Kuladevata) was Virupaksha, who is a form of Shiva, and became the principal deity of the state during their reign. Virupaksha is derived from Virupa which means strange looking or ugly (indicating three eyes of Shiva) and aksha in Sanskrit means eyes. Virappa, also known as Birappa, is a honorific version of Virupa where the suffix "-appa" indicates fatherhood in Kannada and Virappa is an exclusive deity of Kurubas. Sangamas worshiped Virupaksha together with other pastoralist god Vitthal and worship of Vitthal is consistent with other pastoralist Deccan dynasties, of Kannadiga origin, that claimed Yadava lineage (Hoysalas and Seunas). Inscriptions on the temples constructed by Vijayanagara Emperors in Lepakshi indicate that Vitthal and Virupaksha were originally worshiped as Vitthal and Birappa. Kurubas consider Vitthal and Birappa as brothers and worship them as inseparable companions. Dhere further looks at the sculptures on the various temples constructed by the Sangamas, where all the sculptures of human beings are dressed as Kurubas, indicating the family that built those temples.
Aiyangar opines that since the Kakatiya dynasty collapsed about 20 years before the demise of Veera Ballala III of Hoysala Empire in 1342 CE, and Hosapattana was established as a second capital by Veera Ballala III (which eventually became the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire) it would be impossible for Harihara, the founder of fledgling empire to attain such a high position in a short time without having close ties to Hoysala Empire.
The Vijayanagara kings make their first appearance as Mahamandalesvaras from the year A. D. 1336 under Hoysalas, to believe that they were the feudatories of Ballala. As stated before Balappa-dannayaka, the nephew ot Ballala was the son-in-law ot Harihara 1. It is therefore probable that Ballala brought about this connection and instituted the Vijayanagara chiefs In the fort of Vijayanagara, for the defence of the northern frontiers. Ballala, having given over the protection of his northern territories into the hands of Harihara and his brother, he directed his attention to the south, Ferishta says, a new fort was raised in the northern frontiers of Ballala's dominions carried by the name of Beejanuggur (Vijayanagara) after his son Beeja. Ballala had a son by the name of Vira Virupaksha Ballala Deva. One inscription in the Yedatore Taiuk informs us that Ballala had a son named Hampe-Vodeyar. Hampe is still the name of the site of Vijayanagara. Hampe-Vodeyar may be the same as VIra-Virupaksha Ballala. Ballala was residing at a new residence called Viru-pakshapattana or Virupaksha-Hosadurga; evidently a derivation of his son's name. As mentioned ; , eviousiy Rice has identified this latter place with Hosadurga in Chitradroog District. Fr. Heras has, however, identified it with the city of Vijayanagara, the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. Ferishta probably heard that the city was named after Ballala's son and hence deduced his name “Beeja" from the then current name of the city. An inscription of A. D. 1380 gives the name of Virupaksha to the city of Vijayanagara. The temple of Virupaksha in that city indicates the original name. Virupaksha was also known as Hosadurga. Vijaya was not a new name to the Hoysalas. Ballala II is said to have made a fort called Vijayagir and once he was residing at Vijayapura or Hallavur. In A. D. 1354 Bukka I is said to have been residing at Hosapattana. All this epigraphical evidence may easily lead one to identify Virupaksha or Hosadurga with Vijayanagara. An inscription dated A. D. 1378 gives the description of the new town Hosapattana, which is the same as that of Vijayanagara "There, with the Tuhgabhadra as his foot-stool, and Hemakuta as his throne, he (Bukka) was seated like Virupaksha for the protection of the people of the earth” Vijayanagara is on the Tuhgabhadra, Hemakuta a hill in it, and Virupaksha its god. Thus the Vijayanagara empire was founded by the Hoysala and its chieftains.
Telugu origin theory
Historians such as Robert Sewell, Dallapiccola, M.H. Ramasarma, Y. Subbarayalu, N. Venkataramanayya and B. Suryanarain Rao have attested the Telugu origin of Vijayanagara empire. According to British traveler Francis Buchanan (1801), while on a visit to Beidur in Mysore (Karnataka), he was shown a Sanskrit book called Vidyaranya Sikka by a person called Ramappa Varmika. The book mentioned that the founders of Vijayanagara were Harihara and Bukka, and that they were guards of the treasury of the Kakatiya King Prataparudra of Warangal. The brothers met a spiritual teacher called Vidyaranya, the sage of Sringeri monastery, who guided them to establish the Kingdom of Vijayanagara to safeguard the Hindu religion. This was in 1336 and Harihara was made first king of the fledgling empire. Robert Sewell considered various such theories and concluded that Harihara and Bukka were treasury officers of Kuruba caste, in the court of Warangal, the capital of the (Kakatiya dynasty). Mansel Longworth Dames, a scholar of Portuguese language, in the translation of the Book of Duarte Barbosa attests that Sangama dynasty was of Kuruba origin. The Delhi Sultan who captured and converted the brothers to Islam, sent them back to put down the rebellion of Hoysala king. They succeeded in suppressing the rebellion but laid foundation of an independent kingdom at the behest of Vidyaranya.
Historians Venkataramanayya and Ramasarma supported the conclusions of Sewell based on his research and the information provided by the Sanskrit and Kannada treatises such as Vidyaranya Kalajnana (in Sanskrit), Vidyaranya Vrittanta, Rajakalanirnaya, Piramahasamhiti and Sivatatva Ratnakara (all in Kannada). According to the scholar Suryanarain Rao, who described seven traditional accounts of the origin of Harihara and Bukka, five were inclined towards a Telugu origin of the founding kings. According to Sreenivasa Rao, the Telugu identity of Hakka and Bukka and their devotion to the goddess Bhuvaneswari is also established. According to Subbarayalu, indirect evidences such as the employment of predominantly Telugu Nayaks (Kamma, Balija, Velama and Reddy people) for revenue collection throughout the empire also supported their Telugu affinity.
According to Gribble, Muslim scholars of the time, such as Ziauddin Barani, Isarni and Ferishta and foreign visitors such as Ibn Batuta and Nuniz also recorded that the Sangama brothers were serving King Prataparudra and were taken captive after the fall of Warangal. According to B.R. Gopal, who based his research on evidence gleaned from inscriptions such as the Gozalavidu record, the founders of Vijayanagara were at first in the service of the last Kakatiya king Prataparudra of Warangal. When that monarch was defeated by Muhammad bin Tughluq and taken prisoner, they fled to Kampili and took refuge in the court of Kampilideva. Venkataramanayya states that on the outbreak of a rebellion in Kampili the brothers were sent by Tughlaq with an army to Kampili to reconquer it from the rebels and rule the province as his deputies. According to M. Somesekhara Sarma, they successfully suppressed the rebellion, but under the influence of Vidyaranya renounced Islam and threw in their lot with the Andhra nationalists led by Musunuri Nayaks who had just then succeeded under the leadership of Kaapaya Nayaka in expelling the Muslims and re-establish the national independence. Professor Nilakanta Shastri claims that Harihara and Bukka then reverted to their ancient faith and having declared independence, assumed the leadership of the Hindus of Kampili in their fight against the Muslims.
According to Venkataramanaya, Kaapaya and Bukka had actively collaborated with each other to ward off the Muslim threat, probably because of their close association in the court of Warangal. He surmised that the establishment of Vijayanagara kingdom drew inspiration from the successful exploits of Musunuri Kapaya Nayak.
Other theories of origin
A popular account says that the Hampi region was part of a Kampili kingdom in the 14th century when large parts of north India was under Muslim rule. In 1326 AD Muhammad bin Tughluq defeated and killed the king of Kampili. Among those taken prisoner were sons of Sangama, Hakka (Harihara I) and Bukka (Bukka Raya), both treasury officers of Kampili who were forced to convert to Islam. Some years later the brothers were sent back to govern Kampili. In 1336, The brothers laid the foundation of an independent kingdom, denying any subordination to the Tughluqs and became Hindu again.
Notes
References
William Coelho, The Hoysala Vamsa, Digital Library India, (Reprinted 1949)
M.H. Rama Sharma The History Of The Vijayanagara Empire (Reprinted 1917)
Suryanath U. Kamat, A Concise History of Karnataka from Pre-historic Times to the Present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagara, 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002),
N. Venkataramanayya, The Early Muslim expansion in south India.
Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras Till 1565 A.D., P. G. Publishers, Guntur
Hampi, A Travel Guide, Department of Tourism, India, Good Earth publication, New Delhi 2003
Karmarkar, A.P. (1947), Cultural History of Karnataka: Ancient and Medieval, Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha, Dharwad OCLC 8221605
Richard M. Eaton, The New Cambridge History of India – A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761, Cambridge University Press, 2006,
Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, fourth edition, Routledge, 2004,
West, E.W. (1877), History of Bombay Karnataka, Musalman and Maratha A.D. 1300–1818, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras (Reprinted 1989),
External links
History of Karnataka, Mr. Arthikaje
A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagara): a contribution to the history of India (Translation of the "Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga" written by Domingos Paes and Fernão Nunes about 1520 and 1535, respectively, with a historical introduction by Robert Sewell).Free Download from Project Gutenberg
Vijayanagara Empire
14th century in India | wiki |
The 1876 United States presidential election in Nebraska took place on November 7, 1876 as part of the 1876 United States presidential election. Voters chose three representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.
Nebraska voted for the Republican nominee, Ohio Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, over the Democratic nominee, New York Governor Samuel J. Tilden by a margin of 29.4%.
With 64.70% of the popular vote, Nebraska would be Hayes' second strongest victory in terms of percentage in the popular vote after Vermont.
Results
See also
United States presidential elections in Nebraska
References
Nebraska
1876
1876 Nebraska elections | wiki |
Czechoslovakia competed at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland.
Rudolf Burkert won the first Czechoslovak medal from the Winter Olympics. Libuše Veselá was the first Czechoslovak woman to take part in the Winter Olympics.
Medalists
Cross-country skiing
Figure skating
Ice hockey
The top team (highlighted) advanced to the medal round.
Nordic combined
Ski jumping
Military patrol (demonstration event)
Team Race
Czechoslovakia - 4:15:07 (6th place)
Otakar Německý
Jan Bedřich
Josef Klouček
Robert Möhwald
References
Nations at the 1928 Winter Olympics
1928
Olympics, Winter | wiki |
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