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In journalism, a staff writer byline indicates that the author of the article is an employee of the periodical, as opposed to being an independent freelance writer. In Britain, staff writers may work in the office instead of traveling to cover a beat.
In an advertising agency, copywriting is the main responsibility of staff writers.
In television, a staff writer is the probationary, entry-level position in the "writers room"; that is, the team that creates a television series.
References
See also
The Writers' Room TV series
Journalism occupations
Newspaper terminology
Writing occupations | wiki |
Camera resectioning is the process of estimating the parameters of a pinhole camera model approximating the camera that produced a given photograph or video; it determines which incoming light ray is associated with each pixel on the resulting image. Basically, the process determines the pose of the pinhole camera.
Usually, the camera parameters are represented in a 3 × 4 projection matrix called the camera matrix.
The extrinsic parameters define the camera pose (position and orientation) while the intrinsic parameters specify the camera image format (focal length, pixel size, and image origin).
This process is often called geometric camera calibration or simply camera calibration, although that term may also refer to photometric camera calibration or be restricted for the estimation of the intrinsic parameters only. Exterior orientation and interior orientation refer to the determination of only the extrinsic and intrinsic parameters, respectively.
The classic camera calibration requires special objects in the scene, which is not required in camera auto-calibration.
Camera resectioning is often used in the application of stereo vision where the camera projection matrices of two cameras are used to calculate the 3D world coordinates of a point viewed by both cameras.
Formulation
The camera projection matrix is derived from the intrinsic and extrinsic parameters of the camera, and is often represented by the series of transformations; e.g., a matrix of camera intrinsic parameters, a 3 × 3 rotation matrix, and a translation vector. The camera projection matrix can be used to associate points in a camera's image space with locations in 3D world space.
Homogeneous coordinates
In this context, we use to represent a 2D point position in pixel coordinates and is used to represent a 3D point position in world coordinates. In both cases, they are represented in homogeneous coordinates (i.e. they have an additional last component, which is initially, by convention, a 1), which is the most common notation in robotics and rigid body transforms.
Projection
Referring to the pinhole camera model, a camera matrix is used to denote a projective mapping from world coordinates to pixel coordinates.
where . by convention are the x and y coordinates of the pixel in the camera, is the intrinsic matrix as described below, and form the extrinsic matrix as described below. are the coordinates of the source of the light ray which hits the camera sensor in world coordinates, relative to the origin of the world. By dividing the matrix product by , the z-coordinate of the camera relative to the world origin, the theoretical value for the pixel coordinates can be found.
Intrinsic parameters
The contains 5 intrinsic parameters of the specific camera model. These parameters encompass focal length, image sensor format, and camera principal point.
The parameters and represent focal length in terms of pixels, where and are the inverses of the width and height of a pixel on the projection plane and is the focal length in terms of distance.
represents the skew coefficient between the x and the y axis, and is often 0.
and represent the principal point, which would be ideally in the center of the image.
Nonlinear intrinsic parameters such as lens distortion are also important although they cannot be included in the linear camera model described by the intrinsic parameter matrix. Many modern camera calibration algorithms estimate these intrinsic parameters as well in the form of non-linear optimisation techniques. This is done in the form of optimising the camera and distortion parameters in the form of what is generally known as bundle adjustment.
Extrinsic parameters
are the extrinsic parameters which denote the coordinate system transformations from 3D world coordinates to 3D camera coordinates. Equivalently, the extrinsic parameters define the position of the camera center and the camera's heading in world coordinates. is the position of the origin of the world coordinate system expressed in coordinates of the camera-centered coordinate system. is often mistakenly considered the position of the camera. The position, , of the camera expressed in world coordinates is (since is a rotation matrix).
Camera calibration is often used as an early stage in computer vision.
When a camera is used, light from the environment is focused on an image plane and captured. This process reduces the dimensions of the data taken in by the camera from three to two (light from a 3D scene is stored on a 2D image). Each pixel on the image plane therefore corresponds to a shaft of light from the original scene.
Algorithms
There are many different approaches to calculate the intrinsic and extrinsic parameters for a specific camera setup. The most common ones are:
Direct linear transformation (DLT) method
Zhang's method
Tsai's method
Selby's method (for X-ray cameras)
Zhang's method
Zhang model is a camera calibration method that uses traditional calibration techniques (known calibration points) and self-calibration techniques (correspondence between the calibration points when they are in different positions). To perform a full calibration by the Zhang method at least three different images of the calibration target/gauge are required, either by moving the gauge or the camera itself. If some of the intrinsic parameters are given as data (orthogonality of the image or optical center coordinates) the number of images required can be reduced to two.
In a first step, an approximation of the estimated projection matrix between the calibration target and the image plane is determined using DLT method. Subsequently, applying self-calibration techniques to obtained the image of the absolute conic matrix [Link]. The main contribution of Zhang method is how to extract a constrained instrinsic and numbers of and calibration parameters from pose of the calibration target.
Derivation
Assume we have a homography that maps points on a "probe plane" to points on the image.
The circular points lie on both our probe plane and on the absolute conic . Lying on of course means they are also projected onto the image of the absolute conic (IAC) , thus and . The circular points project as
.
We can actually ignore while substituting our new expression for as follows:
Tsai's Algorithm
It is a 2-stage algorithm, calculating the pose (3D Orientation, and x-axis and y-axis translation) in first stage. In second stage it computes the focal length, distortion coefficients and the z-axis translation.
Selby's method (for X-ray cameras)
Selby's camera calibration method addresses the auto-calibration of X-ray camera systems.
X-ray camera systems, consisting of the X-ray generating tube and a solid state detector can be modelled as pinhole camera systems, comprising 9 intrinsic and extrinsic camera parameters.
Intensity based registration based on an arbitrary X-ray image and a reference model (as a tomographic dataset) can then be used to determine the relative camera parameters without the need of a special calibration body or any ground-truth data.
See also
3D pose estimation
Augmented reality
Augmented virtuality
Eight-point algorithm
Mixed reality
Pinhole camera model
Perspective-n-Point
Rational polynomial coefficient
References
External links
Zhang's Camera Calibration and Tsai's Calibration Software on LGPL licence
Zhang's Camera Calibration Method with Software
C++ Camera Calibration Toolbox with source code
Camera Calibration Toolbox for Matlab
The DLR CalDe and DLR CalLab Camera Calibration Toolbox
Camera Calibration - Augmented reality lecture at TU Muenchen, Germany
Camera calibration (using ARToolKit)
A Four-step Camera Calibration Procedure with Implicit Image Correction
mrcal: a high-fidelity calibration toolkit with thorough uncertainty propagation
Geometry in computer vision
Mixed reality
Stereophotogrammetry | wiki |
A sondage is an archaeological process to clarify stratigraphic sequences during preliminary investigations of the terrain prior to an archaeological dig. In a narrower sense it is a "deep trial trench for inspecting stratigraphy".
In doing so, several approximately 1 m² test excavations are carried out over the area, as far as possible down to the 'natural soil' level. Clearly recognizable layers (possibly created by hiatuses or fire horizons) allow an initial overview, and individual finds made in the process can be assigned to a specific layer in suitable cases. In the case of a probe, technical work steps such as the precise measurement of the cut are particularly important.
In a figurative sense, a survey procedure is also called a sondage.
References
Methods in archaeology | wiki |
The Big Book of Mischief (TBBOM) is a book by David Richards. This manual describes the process of creating and detonating a wide variety of explosives. The end products include dry ice bombs and nitroglycerin. Construction of the devices described in the book is generally illegal, in addition to being highly dangerous.
According to the file's revision information, a version of TBBOM, then known as The Terrorist's Handbook (by The Jolly Roger), was compiled between 1987 and 1989. The more familiar version, built on the Handbook and other underground BBS text resources, was first posted in the early morning of August 8, 1990 as The Complete Terrorist Today. It assumed its final title with the March 31, 1991 revision.
The most common edition of TBBOM is the 1.5 release (1993).
See also
The Anarchist Cookbook
E for Ecstasy
Books about terrorism
1991 non-fiction books | wiki |
Pay it forward is an expression for describing the beneficiary of a good deed repaying the deed to others instead of to the original benefactor.
Pay It Forward may also refer to:
Pay It Forward (financial aid policy), a US model for financing higher education
Pay It Forward (novel), a 1999 novel by Catherine Ryan Hyde
Pay It Forward (film), a 2000 film based on the novel
Paying It Forward may refer to:
"Paying It Forward", a 2003 short story by Michael A. Burstein
Paying it Forward, a 2017 GoFundMe campaign centered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, ultimately revealed to be a scam
See also
Pay It (disambiguation) | wiki |
Wall lizard may refer to:
Any lizard in the family Lacertidae
More specifically, any lizard in the genus Podarcis
More specifically than that, the species Podarcis muralis
Animal common name disambiguation pages | wiki |
PlayTV is an add-on unit for the PlayStation 3 video game console that allows the PS3 to act as an HDTV or DTV receiver, as well as a digital video recorder. It was used for recording television programmes to the hard drive for later viewing. A twin-channel DVB-T turner was released in some territories with active DVB-T broadcasts.
Features
LiveTV
The Live TV feature of PlayTV provides access to free-to-air (unencrypted) channels through the widely available DVB-T network. While using this feature, users are able to pause, rewind, and fast forward through any recently viewed material, as well as record and toggle subtitles and audio descriptions. Additionally, the screen size can be adjusted. PlayTV allows users to watch one program while recording another. The Live TV feature also includes a now and next bar that enables users to scroll through live TV and see what is on other channels and what will be coming up next. The live programming is cached as it is displayed.
Guide (Electronic Programme Guide)
All recorded content is stored in the PlayTV Library, which offers a list or thumbnail view and is sortable by date, channel, or name. Content in the library can be exported to the PlayStation 3's main menu and stored alongside the user's other video files. During playback of recorded content, users have the ability to pause, fast forward, rewind, skip, and turn subtitles and audio descriptions on or off. The screen size can also be adjusted.
Library
The PlayTV Library is where all of the recorded content is stored. Content can be viewed in a listview or a thumbnail view. It is also fully sortable by date, channel, and name. Content in the library can also be exported to the PlayStation 3's main menu and stored with the rest of the user's video files.
Schedule
The schedule feature allows users to edit their future recordings. It is fully searchable.
Find and Record
The find and record feature allows users to search the next 7 days worth of TV programmes by searching with a keyword in the title of the programmes and/or the description of the program. Find and record also lets users set manual recordings using the channel, date, and time that they wish to record.
Mobile TV with PSP
Wi-Fi connectivity with a PlayStation Portable allows for portable viewing of live or recorded television programming. By using the Remote Play feature of the PlayStation 3, owners can use a PlayStation Portable to access their PlayStation 3 console from anywhere in the world via the Internet. The Remote Play feature also has the ability to 'wake up' the PlayStation 3 from standby mode.
The Sony Ericsson Aino mobile phone can link up to a PlayStation 3 and uses Remote Play which allows users to watch PlayTV on their phone.
Manuals
PlayTV can display an on-screen manual. The manual can be used as a quick reference to the various functions of a controller, Blu-ray remote control, and Remote Play using a PlayStation Portable.
Settings and other features
Turn Subtitles on and off
Turn Audio Description on and off
Set whether you would like live TV to always be recorded or only when paused for trick mode.
Screen Size settings
Gameplay recordings on and off (See below)
Parental Lock
HDD Size: PlayTV can only record to the PlayStation 3's own internal hard drive. Recorded videos can then be transferred to an external storage device in some regions.
Codecs: PlayTV supports MPEG2 SD. AVC/MPEG4 is available with the latest PS3 firmware update. (UK manual only states MPEG2 in the supported codecs under technical specs)
Twin DVB-T tuners (one dedicated to recording, the other to live viewing). Tuners are HDTV capable in areas with HD DVB-T broadcasts.
PlayTV can be controlled using a PlayStation controller or Blu-ray remote control.
Antenna input only. No antenna output.
Sony previously stated that PlayTV would be able to record TV while playing PS3 and PS1 games, the code for the function has already been incorporated in the version 2.41 firmware update. To use the product however a 5GB install is required from the disc provided with the PlayTV device.
Sony has stated that PlayTV is incompatible with the UK Freeview HD, as it uses the DVB-T2 standard.
Release
On 12 September 2008, Sony released an interactive demo of PlayTV on the PlayStation Store in Europe. The device was launched in the UK, Germany, Italy, Spain and France on 19 September 2008 with other regions in Europe following. First week shipments of PlayTV in the UK were reportedly 85,000 units, apparently with "specialist and national press giving thumbs up to the device."
Australia and New Zealand
were originally to receive the PlayTV accessory 2 months after Europe but it was delayed until 26 November 2009 in Australia along with an HD software update. In New Zealand the device was pushed back further to a release date of 25 November 2010.
The update underwent testing in both countries due to the wide availability of HD channels and use of common broadcast codecs (MPEG 2/MPEG 4).
PlayTV is only capable of tuning DVB-T broadcasts, so is not available in regions which do not use DVB-T. A similar accessory known as Torne was made available in March 2010 in Japan, for use with their ISDB-T broadcast system. There were seemingly never plans to release PlayTV or a similar device for use with North American NTSC/ATSC broadcasts, though the PlayStation Vue OTT streaming service was available through PS3 consoles prior to its shutdown in January 2020, and carried local channels in certain areas.
Software updates
Software updates are available via the About section in Settings using the "Game Update Check" Functionality (when using the original PlayTV software). In recent versions of PlayTV software, a Software Update function is available directly from the main PlayTV menu. A further update was announced on 2 April 2009 that will include new volume and search controls, upscaling of standard definition (SD) content and faster access to TV shows from the XMB menu system.
In February 2009 another update was released, which provided improvements to standard definition upscaling.
On 23 August 2010, details of a new update (version 2.01) were revealed. While part of the update is free, an unlock key must be purchased from the PlayStation Store in order to access some of the features (listed below). The update was released on 17 November 2010.
The following premium services are offered with the 2.01 update:
Series Link Allows recording of an entire series. (UK Only)
Chat TV Allows texting with other users while watching.
Recommendations Allows recommendation of shows to other users via Facebook.
Community favourites Lets you see what your friends and the PSN Community are watching and enjoying. (Not available in Australia)
Premium 7-day EPG Electronic Programme Guide. (Standard PlayTV programme guide only in Australia)
Search by actor, director and genre.
On 6 December 2010, another update, version 2.02, was released. Many users complained that since the update the PlayTV software became unstable, with the most commonly reported symptom being the software hanging on the PlayTV launch screen and not proceeding any further.
On 3 March 2011, bugfix update 2.03 was released.
On 23 May 2013, version 2.04 was released.
Torne
(CECH-ZD1J) is an ISDB-T tuner peripheral for the Japanese market which, like PlayTV, comes with DVR software. It was first announced on 14 January 2010 for release on 18 March of the same year.
Like PlayTV, it is capable of recording and playing back live TV, even while in a game or playing other media (e.g. a DVD or Blu-ray Disc) and can be accessed on PSP via remote play.
Unlike PlayTV, Torne features PS3 trophy support.
In June 2010 Sony released Torne software version 2.00, which enables MPEG-4 AVC compression, allowing recordings to be compressed down to a third of their original size as captured MPEG-2 streams. It will also add the ability to watch, fast-forward and rewind programs while they are still recording and to update the user's PSN status.
Linux and Windows
The device can be used in Linux since 2.6.30. It also can be used in Windows by patching the USB IDs in the driver of a card with the same dibcom hardware (such as the Pinnacle PCTV Dual DVB-T Diversity Stick). It can be used in both 32- and 64-bit versions of Windows using this method. There are believed to be two hardware variants of the device, using the ULI chipset.
In Linux or Windows, PlayTV can handle AVC/MPEG4 HD broadcasts which are used in Ireland and continental Europe. The UK has adopted DVB-T2 for terrestrial high-definition TV broadcasts, so the PlayTV will not give PS3 owners access to those TV channels.
An unofficial Windows application (in Spanish language only) allows users to edit the file channel_ps3.bin and customize the order of channels in the PlayTV software (a function not normally available). A PlayStation Jailbreak device is required in order to transfer the file from PS3 to PC.
References
External links
Official PlayTV website
Products introduced in 2008
PlayStation 3
Digital video recorders
Digital television
PlayStation 3 accessories
Set-top box | wiki |
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport , sometimes referred to colloquially as National Airport, Washington National, Reagan National, DCA, Reagan, or simply National, is an airport in Arlington County, Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C. It is the smaller of two airports operated by the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) that serve the Washington metropolitan area around Washington, D.C.; the larger is Dulles International Airport about to the west in Fairfax and Loudoun counties. The airport is from downtown Washington, D.C., and the city is visible from the airport.
The airport opened in 1941 and was originally named Washington National Airport. Part of the original terminal is still in use as Terminal 1. A larger second terminal, now known as Terminal 2, opened in 1997. In 1998, Congress passed, and President Bill Clinton signed, a bill renaming it Ronald Reagan National Airport in honor of President Ronald Reagan. MWAA operates the airport with close oversight by the federal government due to its proximity to the national capital.
Long distance flights to and from the airport are limited by a perimeter rule which generally prohibits flights longer than in any direction nonstop, in an effort to send coast-to-coast and overseas traffic to Dulles International Airport, though there are 40 slot exemptions to this rule. Planes are required to take unusually complicated paths to avoid restricted and prohibited airspace above sensitive landmarks, government buildings, and military installations in and around Washington, D.C., and comply with some of the tightest noise restrictions in the country.
Reagan National currently serves 91 nonstop destinations and is a hub for American Airlines. Although technically an international airport, it has no immigration and customs facilities. Therefore, it is used predominantly for domestic flights with the only internationals being to and from those with U.S. Customs and Border Protection preclearance facilities, including major airports in Canada and some destinations in the Caribbean. International passenger flights to and from the Washington metropolitan area typically utilize Washington Dulles International Airport or Baltimore/Washington International Airport.
The airport served 23.5 million passengers in 2018. In 2019, DCA served 23,945,527 passengers, an increase of 1.8% over 2018 and a new passenger record for the airport.
History
20th century
The first airport in the area was Arlington's Hoover Field, which opened in 1926. Near the present site of The Pentagon, its single runway was crossed by a street; guards had to stop automobile traffic during takeoffs and landings. The following year, in 1927, Washington Airport, another privately operated field, began service next door. In 1930, the Great Depression led the two terminals to merge to form Washington-Hoover Airport. Bordered on the east by U.S. Route 1, with its accompanying high-tension electrical wires, and obstructed by a high smokestack on one approach and a dump nearby, the field was inadequate.
The need for a better airport was acknowledged in 37 studies conducted between 1926 and 1938, but a statute prohibited federal development of airports. When Congress lifted the prohibition in 1938, President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a recess appropriation of $15 million to build National Airport by reallocating funds from other purposes. Construction of Washington National Airport began in 1940–1941 by a company led by John McShain. Congress challenged the legality of FDR's recess appropriation, but construction of the new airport continued.
The airport is located southwest of Washington, D.C. in the Crystal City section of Arlington County, Virginia. The western part of the airport was once within a large Virginia plantation, a remnant of which is now inside a historic site near the airport's Metrorail station. The eastern part of the airport was built in the District of Columbia on and near mudflats in the tidal Potomac River near Gravelly Point, about from the United States Capitol, using landfill dredged from the Potomac River.
The airport opened June 16, 1941, just before U.S. entry into World War II. The public was entertained by displays of wartime equipment including a captured Japanese Zero war prize flown in with U.S. Navy colors. In 1945 Congress passed a law that established the airport was legally within Virginia, mainly for liquor sales taxation purposes, but under the jurisdiction of the federal government. On July 1 of that year the airport's weather station became the official point for D.C. weather observations and records by the National Weather Service, in Washington, D.C.
Until 1946, nonstop airline flights did not reach beyond New York City, Detroit, Cincinnati, Memphis, Atlanta, and Jacksonville. In 1946, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, and Miami were added; nonstops reached Denver in 1951 and Los Angeles in 1954. The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 316 weekday departures: 95 Eastern (plus six per week to/from South America), 77 American, 61 Capital, 23 National, 17 TWA, 10 United, 10 Delta, 6 Allegheny, 6 Braniff, 5 Piedmont, 3 Northeast and 3 Northwest. Jet flights began in April 1966 (727-200s were not allowed until 1970). In 1974 the airport's key carriers were Eastern (20 destinations), United (14 destinations after subsuming Capital) and Allegheny (11 destinations).
The grooving of runway 18–36 to improve traction when wet, in March 1967, was the first at a civil airport in the United States.
Service to the airport's Metro station began in 1977.
The Washington National Airport Terminal and South Hangar Line were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.
Expansion and restrictions
The runway layout has changed little since the 1956 closure of the east–west runway at the south end of the field. Changes to the terminal complex over the years include:
Extension of the original Main Terminal (today's Terminal 1) to the south in 1950
The construction of a North Terminal supplemented the original terminal in 1958; construction connected the two terminals in 1961.
A United Airlines holdroom complex was built in 1965, a facility for American Airlines was completed in 1968, and a facility for Northwest Airlines and TWA (still in use today as the Terminal A concourse), along with a commuter terminal in 1970.
The Metrorail station serving the Airport opened in 1977.
A major terminal expansion including a new air traffic control tower, officially called Terminals B/C, opened in 1997 giving the terminal its current configuration.
Runways 18/36 and 3/21 were renumbered as 1/19 and 4/22 in 1999 as earth's magnetic field drifted.
In March 2012 the main 1/19 runway was lengthened to add FAA compliant runway safety runoff areas.
Despite the expansions, efforts have been made to restrict the growth of the airport. The advent of jets and traffic growth led Congress to pass the Washington Airport Act of 1950, which led to the opening of Dulles International Airport in 1962. To reduce congestion and drive traffic to alternative airports, the FAA imposed perimeter restrictions on National when jets arrived in 1966, and landing slot at DCA and four other high-density airports in 1969.
The airport originally had no perimeter rule; from 1954 to 1960, piston-engine airliners flew nonstop to California. Scheduled jet airliners were not allowed until April 1966, and concerns about aviation noise led to noise restrictions even before jet service began in 1966.
The perimeter rule was implemented in January 1966 as a voluntary agreement by airlines, to get permission to use short-haul jets at National. Dulles was to continue to serve the long haul markets, limiting traffic and noise at National; the FAA assumed that ground level noise would be reduced because planes would take off light on fuel and be up and away quickly. The agreement limited jet flights to , with 7 grandfathered exceptions under . The spirit of the agreement was regularly violated as flights left National to an airport within the perimeter and then immediately took off for a destination beyond it. Within a year there was a proposal to reduce the perimeter to , but it was widely opposed and never implemented. Overcrowding at National was later managed by the 1969 High Density Rule, thereby removing one of the justifications for the perimeter agreement.
In the 1960s and 1970s, several attempts were made to codify the perimeter rule, but it was not until Dulles was endangered that it actually become a strict rule. In 1970 the FAA lifted the ban at National of the stretched Boeing 727-200, which resulted in a lawsuit by Virginians for Dulles who argued that the airport's jet traffic was a nuisance. That suit resulted in a Court of Appeals order to create an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). In addition to the court order, there were economic problems at Dulles. Following the extension of Metrorail to National in 1977, and airline deregulation in 1978, traffic at Dulles began to plummet while it increased at National. As part of a slate of efforts to protect Dulles, including removing landing fees and mobile lounge user charges, the FAA proposed regulations as part of the EIS to limit traffic at National and maintain Dulles's role as the area's airport for long-haul destinations. In 1980, the FAA proposed codifying the perimeter rule as part of a larger rulemaking effort. When the rule was announced, airlines challenged it in court; the Metropolitan Washington Airports Policy of 1981 codified the perimeter rule on an interim basis "to maintain the long-haul nonstop service at Dulles and BWI which otherwise would preempt shorter haul service at National." At the same time, the perimeter was extended to miles to remove the unfairness of having seven grandfathered cities. The perimeter rule was upheld by the Court of Appeals in 1982. In 1986, as part of the Metropolitan Washington Airports Act, which handed control of National over to the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority, the perimeter was extended to to allow nonstop flights to Houston with Dallas also being permitted to be served nonstop.
Slots at the airport have been traded in several instances. In 2011 US Airways acquired a number of Delta's slots at National in exchange for Delta receiving a number of US Airways slots at LaGuardia Airport in New York. JetBlue paid $40 million to acquire eight slot pairs at auction in the same year. JetBlue and Southwest acquired 12 and 27 US Airways slot pairs, respectively, in 2014 as part of a government-mandated divestiture following the merger of US Airways and American.
Flights normally use Runway 1/19 (7169' x 150' / 2185 m x 46 m), as the shorter Runways 15/33 and 4/22 can accommodate them only under very windy conditions.
Transfer of control and renaming
In 1984, the Secretary of Transportation Elizabeth Dole appointed a commission to study transferring National and Dulles Airports from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to a local entity, which could use airport revenues to finance improvements. The commission recommended that one multi-state agency administer both Dulles and National, over the alternative of having Virginia control Dulles and the District of Columbia control National. In 1987 Congress, through legislation, transferred control of the airport from the FAA to the new Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority with the Authority's decisions being subject to a Congressional review panel. The constitutionality of the review panel was later challenged in the Supreme Court and the Court has twice declared the oversight panel unconstitutional. Even after this decision, however, Congress has continued to intervene in the management of the airports.
On February 6, 1998, President Bill Clinton signed legislation changing the airport's name from Washington National Airport to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, to honor the former president on his 87th birthday. The legislation was drafted against the wishes of MWAA officials and political leaders in Northern Virginia and Washington, D.C. Opponents of the renaming argued that a large federal office building had already been named for Reagan, the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center, and that the airport was already named for George Washington, the first United States president.
The bill stated that it did not require the expenditure of any funds to accomplish the name change; however, state, regional, and federal authorities were later required to change highway and transit signs at their own additional expense as new signs were made.
21st century
In 2015, The Express conducted an online survey asking people what they call “the airport in Northern Virginia that’s not Dulles." The results found that only 31% of people referred to the airport as "Reagan" and only 12% as "Reagan National", compared to 57% dropping the former president from the name. Political preference was shown to have a direct correlation with how people called the airport, with 72% of Republicans referring to the airport using "Reagan," while 64% of Democrats call it "National" or "DCA." Given that Washington, D.C., is one of the most Democratic cities in the United States, the dominant name does not feature the name "Reagan".
Construction of current terminal buildings
With the addition of more flights and limited space in the aging main terminal, the airport began an extensive renovation and expansion in the 1990s. Hangar 11 on the northern end of the airport was converted into The USAir Interim Terminal, designed by Joseph C. Giuliani, FAIA. Soon after an addition for Delta Air Lines was added in 1989 and was later converted to Authority offices. These projects allowed for the relocation of several gates in the main terminal until the new $450 million terminal complex became operational. On July 27, 1997, the new terminal complex, Terminal 2, and two parking garages, opened. Argentine architect César Pelli designed the new terminals of the airport. The Interim Terminal closed immediately after its opening and was converted back into a hangar. One pier of the main terminal (now widely known as Terminal A), which mainly housed American Airlines and Pan Am, was demolished; the other pier, originally designed by Giuliani Associates Architects for Northwest and TWA remains operational today as gates A1–A9.
Operations
Perimeter restrictions
Reagan National Airport is subject to a federally mandated perimeter limitation to keep it a "short-haul" airport and to keep most "long-haul" air traffic to Dulles International Airport. The rule was implemented in 1966 and originally limited nonstop service to , with some exceptions for previously existing service. Congress extended the limit in the 1980s to and then again to . Congress and the United States Department of Transportation have created many "beyond-perimeter" exceptions that have weakened the rule.
Members of Congress repeatedly have sought to extend the limit and permit exceptions in order to allow nonstop service from National Airport to their home states and districts. In 1999, Senator John McCain of Arizona introduced legislation to remove the restriction. In the end the restriction was not lifted, but in 2000 the FAA was permitted to add 24 exemptions, which went to Alaska Airlines for flights to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. America West later obtained exemptions for non-stop flights to Phoenix in 2004. In May 2012, the DOT granted new exemptions for Alaska to serve Portland, JetBlue to serve San Juan, Southwest to serve Austin and Virgin America to serve San Francisco. American, Delta, United and US Airways were also each allowed to exchange a pair of in-perimeter slots for an equal number of beyond-perimeter slots.
Approach patterns
Reagan National Airport has some of the strictest noise restrictions in the country. In addition, due to security concerns, the areas surrounding the National Mall and U.S. Naval Observatory in central Washington are prohibited airspace up to . Due to these restrictions, pilots approaching from the north are generally required to follow the path of the Potomac River and turn just before landing. This approach is known as the River Visual. Similarly, flights taking off to the north are required to climb quickly and turn left.
The River Visual airport approach is only possible with a ceiling of at least and visibility of or more. There are lights on the Key Bridge, Theodore Roosevelt Bridge, Arlington Memorial Bridge and the George Mason Memorial Bridge to aid pilots following the river. Aircraft using the approach can be observed from various parks on the river's west bank. Passengers on the left side of an airplane can see the Capitol, the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson Memorial, the World War II Memorial, Georgetown University, the National Mall, portions of Downtown Washington, D.C. (including the roof of Capital One Arena), and the White House. Passengers on the right side can see CIA headquarters, Arlington National Cemetery, the Pentagon, eastern Arlington, including portions of Rosslyn, Clarendon, Ballston, Crystal City, and the United States Air Force Memorial.
When the River Visual is not available due to visibility or winds, aircraft may fly an offset localizer or GPS approach to Runway 19 along a similar course (flying a direct approach course on instruments as far as Rosslyn, and then turning to align with the runway visually moments before touchdown). Most airliners are also capable of performing a VOR or GPS approach to the shorter Runway 15/33. Northbound visual and ILS approaches to Runway 1 are also sometimes used; these approaches follow the Potomac River from the south and overfly the Woodrow Wilson Bridge.
Special security measures
In 1938, Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order No. 7910, creating the first restricted airspace around the District of Columbia. This would be superseded by a number of executive orders clarifying the boundaries of the airspace until 1966, when it was codified into Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations, part 73. Title 14 created Prohibited Airspace 56 A and B (P-56A and P-56B). P-56A restricted flight around the National Mall, White House, and United States Capitol Building, while P-56B restricted flight in a half-mile radius from the center of the U.S. Naval Observatory. Only aircraft supporting the United States Secret Service, Office of the President, or some government agencies are permitted within the prohibited airspace.
In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks, a Flight-Restricted Zone (FRZ) was put into effect. Extending 15 approximately nautical miles (or roughly 17 miles) around the airport, only scheduled commercial flights and governmental flights are allowed into the zone without a waiver from the Federal Aviation Administration. Charter flights for the U.S. government are permitted to land at the airport and Joint Base Andrews under certain conditions.
After the September 11 attacks, the airport was closed for several weeks, and security was tightened when it reopened. Increased security measures included:
A ban on aircraft with more than 156 seats (lifted in April 2002)
A ban on the "River Visual" approach (lifted in April 2002)
A requirement that, 30 minutes prior to landing or following takeoff, passengers were required to remain seated; if anyone stood up, the aircraft was to be diverted to Washington Dulles International Airport under military escort and the person standing would be detained and questioned by federal law enforcement officials (lifted in July 2005)
A ban on general aviation (lifted in October 2005, subject to the restrictions below)
On October 18, 2005, National Airport was reopened to general aviation on a limited basis (48 operations per day) and under restrictions: passenger and crew manifests must be submitted to the Transportation Security Administration 24 hours in advance, and all planes must pass through one of roughly 70 "gateway airports" where re-inspections of aircraft, passengers, and baggage take place. An armed security officer must be on board before departing a gateway airport. On March 23, 2011, the air traffic control supervisor on duty reportedly fell asleep during the night shift. Two aircraft on approach to the airport were unable to contact anyone in the control tower and landed unassisted.
Terminals and facilities
DCA has 59 gates with jetways: 9 gates in Terminal 1 and 51 gates in Terminal 2 (13 gates in Concourse B, 12 in Concourse C, 11 in Concourse D and 14 in the new Concourse E). The two terminals are not connected to each other post-security.
A new terminal and gate numbering scheme was implemented in 2022. Previously Terminal 1 was Terminal A, and Terminal 2 was Terminal B/C, as it is one building. All gates also now have a letter, A through E for each of the five concourses. Therefore, Gate 33 became Gate C33. Other changes include B Parking and C Parking, becoming Parking 2 South and Parking 2 North.
Terminal 1
Designed by architect Charles M. Goodman, terminal 1 opened in 1941 and was expanded in 1955 to accommodate more passengers and airlines. The exterior of this terminal has had its original architecture restored, with the airside façade restored in 2004 and the landside façade restored in 2008. The terminal underwent a $37 million renovation that modernized the airport's look by bringing in brighter lighting, more windows, and new flooring. The project was completed in 2014 along with a new expanded TSA security checkpoint. In 2014, additional renovations were announced including new upgraded concessions and further structural improvements, the project was completed in 2015. Terminal 1 contains gates A1–A9 and houses operations from Air Canada Express, Frontier, and Southwest, with Southwest having the largest presence in Terminal 1.
Terminal 2
Terminal 2 is the airport's newest and largest terminal; the terminal opened in 1997 and replaced a collection of airline-specific terminals built during the 1960s. The new terminal (Concourses B-D) was designed by architect Cesar Pelli and house 35 gates. The terminal is directly connected to the WMATA airport station via indoor pedestrian bridges. Concourse E, which expanded Terminal 2, opened in 2021 as a replacement for Gate 35X, which was a bus gate.
Terminals 2 has four concourses. Concourse B (gates B10–B22) houses Alaska Airlines, Delta, and United. Concourse C (gates C23–C34) houses American and JetBlue. Concourse D (gates D35–D45) is exclusive to American for their hub at DCA along with Concourse E (gates E46–E59). The corridor/hall connecting the four concourses of Terminal 2 is known as National Hall. Concourse B houses a Delta Sky Club and United Club, and there are three American Admirals Clubs in Terminal 2. The Delta Sky Club was renovated in summer 2018.
Lounges
There are currently six airport lounges at the airport in all the Terminals. There are three American Airlines Admirals Clubs: one near gate C24 in concourse C, one in concourse D near gate D36, and one in Concourse E near gate E47. In concourse B there is a Delta Sky Club near gate B15, and a United Club near gate B10. In Terminal 1 there is a USO lounge for retired and active military members pre-security. Originally scheduled for 2022, an American Express Centurion Lounge is scheduled to open in terminal 2 in 2023 by door 1 on the ticketing level. A Capital One lounge is also scheduled to open in 2023.
Project Journey
MWAA began construction of a new concourse north of Terminal 2 in February 2018 to accommodate 14 new regional jet gates with jetways, bringing the total number of gates at DCA to 60. This replaced "Gate 35X," a bus gate formerly used to bring passengers to and from American Eagle flights that used parking spots on the ramp. Officially called Project Journey, construction was completed on April 20, 2021.
In addition, the individual security checkpoints for the four concourses in Terminal 2 were replaced with higher-capacity security checkpoints in two new buildings to the west of National Hall, located next to the two Metro station pedestrian bridges, and in between the two existing arrivals and departures roadways, placing all of National Hall within the secured area of the airport and allowing passengers to walk between concourses without re-clearing security. The new checkpoints were opened on November 9, 2021.
Ground transportation
The Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport station on the Washington Metro, served by the Yellow and Blue lines, is located on an elevated outdoor platform station adjacent to Terminal 2. Two elevated pedestrian walkways connect the station directly to the concourse levels of Terminal 2. An underground pedestrian walkway and shuttle services provide access to Terminal 1.
Metrobus provides service on weekend mornings before the Metro station opens or during any disruptions to regular Metro service.
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is located on the George Washington Memorial Parkway, and connected to U.S. Route 1 by the Airport Viaduct (State Route 233). Interstate 395 is just north of the airport, and is also accessible by the G.W. Parkway and U.S. Route 1. Airport-operated parking garage facilities as well as economy lots are available adjacent to or near the various airport terminals.
The airport is accessible by bicycle and foot from the Mount Vernon Trail, as well as the sidewalk along the Airport Viaduct (State Route 233), which connects the airport grounds to U.S. Route 1. A total of 48 bike parking spots are available across six separate bike racks. The airport has a Capital Bikeshare station, making this the first major airport in the United States to have a dock-based bikeshare station.
Airlines and destinations
Statistics
Top destinations
Airline market share
Annual traffic
Abingdon plantation historical site
A part of the airport is located on the former site of the 18th and 19th century Abingdon plantation, which was associated with the prominent Alexander, Custis, Stuart, and Hunter families. In 1998, MWAA opened a historical display around the restored remnants of two Abingdon buildings and placed artifacts collected from the site in an exhibit hall in Terminal A. The Abingdon site is located on a knoll between parking Garage A and Garage B/C, near the south end of the Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport Metrorail station.
Accidents and incidents
Page Airways
On April 27, 1945, a Page Airways Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar (flight # unknown) bound for New York, (airport unknown) crashed into a deep ditch at the end of runway 33 after aborting a takeoff due to engine failure. There were strong gusts and ground turbulence at the time. Out of the 13 passengers and crew on board, six passengers were killed.
Eastern Air Lines Flight 537
On November 1, 1949, a mid-air collision between an Eastern Air Lines passenger aircraft and a P-38 Lightning military plane took the lives of 55 passengers. The sole survivor was the Bolivian ace pilot of the fighter plane, Erick Rios Bridoux.
Bridoux's plane had taken off from National just 10 minutes earlier and was in contact with the tower during a brief test flight. The Eastern Air Lines DC-4 was on approach from the south when the nimble and much faster P-38 banked and plunged right into the passenger plane. Both aircraft dropped into the Potomac River.
Capital Airlines Flight 500
On December 12, 1949, Capital Airlines Flight 500, a Douglas DC-3, stalled and crashed into the Potomac River while on approach to Washington National. Six of the 23 passengers and crew on board were killed.
Air Florida Flight 90
On the afternoon of January 13, 1982, following a period of exceptionally cold weather and a morning of blizzard conditions, Air Florida Flight 90 crashed after waiting forty-nine minutes on a taxiway and taking off with ice and snow on the wings. The Boeing 737 aircraft failed to gain altitude. Less than from the end of the runway, the airplane struck the 14th Street Bridge complex, shearing the tops off vehicles stuck in traffic before plunging through the ice covering the Potomac River. Rescue responses were greatly hampered by the weather and traffic. Due to action on the part of motorists, a United States Park Service police helicopter crew, and one of the plane's passengers who later died, five occupants of the downed plane survived. The other 74 people who were aboard died, as well as four occupants of vehicles on the bridge. President Reagan cited motorist Lenny Skutnik in his State of the Union Address a few weeks later.
References
External links
Airport Map Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority. June 2011
Historic American Engineering Record documentation:
KDCA - Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport at airnav.com
1941 establishments in Virginia
Aircraft hangars on the National Register of Historic Places
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command in North America
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Virginia
Airports established in 1941
Airports in Virginia
Airports on the National Register of Historic Places
Historic American Engineering Record in Virginia
Monuments and memorials to Ronald Reagan
Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority
National Register of Historic Places in Arlington County, Virginia
Transportation buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
Transportation in Arlington County, Virginia
Airports in the Washington metropolitan area | wiki |
A shadetree mechanic is a person who performs automotive repairs with minimal equipment and supplies in an irregular setting, often a residential garage or driveway, sometimes by jerry rigging.
A shadetree mechanic may identify as a retired or off-duty mechanic, a paraprofessional with limited or specialized skills, a self-employed individual, or a handyman who enjoys working on automobiles in their spare time. Services performed by a shadetree mechanic may include basic maintenance, DIY upgrades, and other repairs.
See also
Bush mechanic
Mechanics (trade) | wiki |
The jian (pronunciation （劍）, English approximation: ) is a double-edged straight sword used during the last 2,500 years in China. The first Chinese sources that mention the jian date to the 7th century BCE, during the Spring and Autumn period; one of the earliest specimens being the Sword of Goujian. Historical one-handed versions have blades varying from in length. The weight of an average sword of blade-length would be in a range of approximately 700 to 900 grams (1.5 to 2 pounds). There are also larger two-handed versions used for training by many styles of Chinese martial arts.
Professional jian practitioners are referred to as jianke ( or "swordsmen"; a term dating from the Han dynasty).
In Chinese folklore, it is known as "The Gentleman of Weapons" and is considered one of the four major weapons, along with the gun (staff), qiang (spear), and the dao (sabre). These swords are also sometimes referred to as taijijian or "tai chi swords", reflecting their current use as training weapons for taijiquan practitioners, though there were no historical jian types created specifically for taijiquan.
Parts of the jian
A guard or hilt protects the hand from an opposing blade. Guard shapes varied, but often had short wings or lobes pointing either forward or backward, the latter sometimes having an "ace of spades" appearance. Early jian often had very small, simple guards. From the Song and Ming periods onward guards could feature zoomorphic shapes, or have crossbars and quillons. A minority of jian featured the disc-shaped guards associated with dao.
The jian's hilt can accommodate the grip of both hands or one hand plus two or three fingers of the other hand. Two-handed jiàn of up to in length, known as shuangshou jian, existed but were not as common as the one-handed version. The longer two-handed handle could be used as a lever to lock the opponent's arm if necessary. Grips are usually of fluted wood or covered in rayskin, with a minority being wrapped with cord.
The end of the handle was finished with a pommel for balance, to prevent the handle from sliding through the hand if the hand's grip should be loosened, and for striking or trapping the opponent as opportunity required—such as in "withdrawing" techniques. The pommel was historically peened onto the tang of the blade; thereby holding together as one solid unit the blade, guard, handle, and pommel. Most jian of the last century or so are assembled with a threaded tang onto which the pommel or pommel-nut is screwed.
Sometimes a tassel is attached to the hilt. During the Ming Dynasty these were usually passed through an openwork pommel, and in the Qing through a hole in the grip itself; modern swords usually attach the tassel to the end of the pommel. Historically these were likely used as lanyards, allowing the wielder to retain the sword in combat. There are some sword forms which utilize the tassel as an integral part of their swordsmanship style (sometimes offensively), while other schools dispense with sword tassels entirely. The movement of the tassel may have served to distract opponents, and some schools further claim that metal wires or thin silk cords were once worked into the tassels for impairing vision and causing bleeding when swept across the face. The tassel's use now is primarily decorative.
The blade itself is customarily divided into three sections for leverage in different offensive and defensive techniques. The tip of the blade is the jiànfeng, meant for stabbing, slashing, and quick percussive cuts. The jiànfeng typically curves smoothly to a point, though in the Ming period sharply angled points were common. Some antiques have rounded points, though these are likely the result of wear. The middle section is the zhongren or middle edge, and is used for a variety of offensive and defensive actions: cleaving cuts, draw cuts, and deflections. The section of blade closest to the guard is called the jiàngen or root, and is mainly used for defensive actions; on some late period jian, the base of the blade was made into a ricasso. These sections are not necessarily of the same length, with the jiànfeng being only three or four inches long.
Jian blades generally feature subtle profile taper (decreasing width), but often have considerable distal taper (decreasing thickness), with blade thickness near the tip being only half the thickness of the root's base. Jiàn may also feature differential sharpening, where the blade is made progressively sharper towards the tip, usually corresponding to the three sections of the blade. The cross-section of the blade is typically lenticular (eye-shaped) or a flattened diamond, with a visible central ridge; ancient bronze jian sometimes have a hexagonal cross-section.
Materials
Jian were originally made from bronze, then steel as metal technology advanced. There are some, perhaps ceremonial, jian which are carved from a single solid piece of jade.
Traditional jian blades are usually of sanmei (three plate) construction, which involved sandwiching a core of hard steel between two plates of softer steel. The central plate protrudes slightly from its surrounding pieces, allowing for a sharp edge, while the softer spine protects the brittle core. Some blades had wumei or five plate construction, with two more soft plates being used at the central ridge. Bronze jian were often made in a somewhat similar manner: in this case an alloy with a high copper content would be used to make a resilient core and spine, while the edge would be made from a high-tin-content alloy for sharpness and welded onto the rest of the blade.
The sword smiths of China are often credited with the forging technologies that traveled to Vietnam, Japan and Korea to allow sword smiths there to create such weapons as the katana. These technologies include folding, inserted alloys, and differential hardening of the edge. While the Japanese would be more influenced by the Chinese dāo (single-edged swords of various forms), the early Japanese swords known as ken are often based on jian. The Korean version of the jian is known as the geom or gum, and these swords often preserve features found in Ming-era jian, such as openwork pommels and sharply angled tips.
In martial art schools wooden swords are used for training, so most martial arts students' first experience with a jian in modern times is with one of those weapons. Before schools were a formal way of passing on sword knowledge, students may begin with a simple wooden stick when training with their teacher. In some religious Taoist sects, those wooden practice swords have come to have an esoteric ritual purpose. Some claim that these wooden swords metaphorically represent the discipline of an accomplished student.
Contemporary jian versions are often forged (shaped with heat and hammer) and assembled by mostly traditional methods for training of practitioners of Chinese martial arts around the world. These jian vary greatly in quality and historical accuracy.
Contemporary jian are also sometimes forgeries (artificially aged and misrepresented as original antiques), for sale to tourists and collectors who cannot distinguish them from true antiques.
Historical use
Originally similar to bronze double-edged daggers in varying lengths, jian reached modern lengths by roughly 500 BC. Though there is significant variation in length, balance, and weight of the jian from different periods, within any given period the general purpose of the jian is to be a multipurpose cut and thrust weapon capable of stabbing, as well as making both precise cuts and slashes, as opposed to specializing in one form of use. Although the many forms and schools of swordsmanship with the jian vary as well, the general purpose and use is still not lost.
During the Qin and Han dynasties, the first two dynasties which united China, jian from the by then defunct Chu dynasty were very highly regarded. Chu became particularly famous for its swords after conquering the state of Yue, who had previously been famous for their swords, and who credited their sword techniques to a southern woman of unknown ancestry referred to as Yuenü.
Among the Terracotta warriors in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, figures representing officers were originally armed with jian made from an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including nickel, magnesium, and cobalt. Several double-edged bronze swords have been recovered by modern archaeologists, but most were stolen centuries ago along with the polearms and bows of the enlisted men.
Historical jian wielders would engage in test cutting called shizhan, practicing their skills on targets known as caoren, or "grass men". Such targets were made from bamboo, rice straw, or saplings. Though similar to the Japanese art of tameshigiri, shizhan was never formalized to the extent that the latter art was.
Today many Chinese martial arts such as taijiquan and their martial artists still train extensively with jian and expertise in its techniques is said by many of them to be the highest physical expression of their kung fu. Famous jian forms include Sancai Jian (), Kunwu Jian (), Wudang Xuanmen Jian (), and Taijijian (). Most jian today are flexible tai-chi or wushu jian used mainly for ceremonial or performance purposes and not for actual combat. These swords have extremely thin blades or a high degree of flexibility compared to historical battlefield quality jian, properties intended to add auditory and visual appeal to a wushu performance. These same properties render them unsuitable for historically accurate combat.
Military use
Since 2008, officers in the Chinese navy are issued with ceremonial swords resembling the traditional jian. Each sword has the owner's name engraved on the blade after graduation from the military academy.
Tai Chi Sword and Sword Drill
At present, the Tai Chi Sword forms are normally practiced for exercises purposes just like Tai Chi Quan. The trainings are less on the physical form of the weapon and more on gaining greater balance and co-ordination through performing the slow movements. So the Tai Chi swords for everyday exercises are normally different from the swords mentioned above. Generally speaking, they are not dangerous, round edged without sharp blade, retractable for the convenience in use.
Mythology and legacy
There are several Taoist immortals who are associated with the jian. One example is Lü Dongbin. The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī (Ch: Wénshū) is often depicted holding a jian, which is then referred to as the "sword of wisdom".
Jian frequently appear in wuxia fiction and films. The swords or the techniques used to wield them may be effectively or explicitly supernatural, and the quest for such swords or techniques may be a major plot element.
In popular culture
In Heroes of the East, a jian sword was one of many weapons used by the hero Ho Tao.
In Cardcaptor Sakura, a jian sword is the signature weapon of Syaoran Li.
In Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, a similar jian sword is used by one of Syaoran's alternative versions, Tsubasa.
In Mulan (1998), the title character, the Chinese army, and Shan Yu use jian swords.
In Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, Shu Lien uses a jian sword while teaching Princess Jen.
In the 2000 film Dragonheart: A New Beginning, Master Kwan briefly wielded a jian sword.
Inuyasha the Movie: Affections Touching Across Time features Menomaru wielding a jian sword.
In Lupin III: Stolen Lupin, Hakuryuu wields a jian sword.
In Avatar: The Last Airbender, Sokka discovers a meteorite that he used to forged and learned to use a jian sword under the mentorship of Piandao.
In Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, Elizabeth Swann used a jian sword.
In Deadliest Warrior, Sun Tzu uses a jian sword versus Vlad the Impaler.
In the 2014 Netflix series Marco Polo, Kublai Khan uses a jian sword.
Dynasty Warriors features Liu Bei wielding a jian sword.
See also
Chinese swords
Dao (Chinese sword)
Jiǎn
Kung Fu
Taijijian
Khanda
Tsurugi (Japanese sword)
World Jianshu League
Wudang Mountains
Wushu (sport)
Zhang Sanfeng
Shuangshou jian
Notes
References
External links
Late master Ma Yueliang Wu style Taijiquan 108 posture jian form video
Late master Zhou Jingxuan explaining the mechanics of Jian practice and fighting in the Shaolin Jingang Bashi system
Chinese swords
Tai chi
Events in wushu | wiki |
In aviation, a control area (CTA) is the volume of controlled airspace that exists in the vicinity of an airport. It has a specified lower level and a specified upper level. It usually is situated on top of a control zone and provides protection to aircraft climbing out from the airport by joining the low-level control zone to the nearest airways. In the UK they are generally class A, D or E.
Control areas are particularly useful where there are busy airports located close together. In this case a single CTA will sit over all of the individual airports' CTRs. In larger-scale cases, this is known as a terminal manoeuvring area (TMA).
See also
Airway (aviation)
Flight information region
Air traffic control | wiki |
Megafauna refers to living or extinct large or giant animals.
Megafauna may also refer to:
Megafauna (band), an American rock band
Megafauna (mythology), giant animals in mythological contexts
Macrobenthos, naked-eye visible bottom-dwelling animals
See also
Megafaun, an American psychedelic folk band | wiki |
Top Gear Hyper-Bike is a racing video game developed by Snowblind Studios and released for the Nintendo 64 in 2000.
Gameplay
Top Gear Hyper-Bike is a motorcycle racing video game that features three gameplay modes and six track layouts. A track editor where players can create their own tracks is also included in the game.
Development
As a follow-up to Top Gear Overdrive, Top Gear Hyper-Bike was developed by Snowblind Studios and runs on an enhanced version of its engine. To make the motorcycle handling and animations more realistic, the game's polygonal racers were segmented into six independent parts. The sound effects of the motorcycle engines were recorded from real bikes in a dealership. The game was presented at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 1999.
Reception
Top Gear Hyper Bike received "mixed" reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings.
References
External links
2000 video games
Kemco games
Motorcycle video games
Nintendo 64 games
Nintendo 64-only games
Top Gear (video game series)
Video games developed in the United States
Snowblind Studios games | wiki |
Youth is a category of athletics in which athletes compete under the age of 18 years. Countries all around the world compete in athletics. World Youth Athletics Competitions are held every 2 years which contain the best Youth competitors in the world.
Description and development
The principle behind the category is to introduce young people into athletics. Participators in the competitions in this class may be athletes who have not completed their eighteenth year on 31 December of the year the competition occurs.
Competitions
Championships
IAAF World U18 Championships, organized by the IAAF every 2 years
European Athletics Youth Championships, organized by the EAA every 2 years
African Youth Athletics Championships
Asian Youth Athletics Championships
Central American and Caribbean Youth Championships in Athletics
Pan American Youth Athletics Championships
Oceania Youth Athletics Championships, organized by the OAA every 2 years
Games
Youth Olympic Games
African Youth Games
See also
List of world youth bests in athletics
International Association of Athletics Federations
European Athletic Association
Under-20 athletics
Under-23 athletics
References
External links
IWAS World Youth Games - IWASF
Age categories in athletics | wiki |
In observational astronomy, culmination is the passage of a celestial object (such as the Sun, the Moon, a planet, a star, constellation or a deep-sky object) across the observer's local meridian. These events were also known as meridian transits, used in timekeeping and navigation, and measured precisely using a transit telescope.
During each day, every celestial object appears to move along a circular path on the celestial sphere due to the Earth's rotation creating two moments when it crosses the meridian. Except at the geographic poles, any celestial object passing through the meridian has an upper culmination, when it reaches its highest point (the moment when it is nearest to the Zenith), and nearly twelve hours later, is followed by a lower culmination, when it reaches its lowest point (nearest to the Nadir). The time of culmination (when the object culminates) is often used to mean upper culmination.
An object's altitude (A) in degrees at its upper culmination is equal to 90 minus the observer's latitude (L) plus the object's declination (δ): .
Cases
Three cases are dependent on the observer's latitude (L) and the declination (δ) of the celestial object:
The object is above the horizon even at its lower culmination; i.e. if (i.e. if in absolute value the declination is more than the colatitude, in the corresponding hemisphere)
The object is below the horizon even at its upper culmination; i.e. if (i.e. if in absolute value the declination is more than the colatitude, in the opposite hemisphere)
The upper culmination is above and the lower below the horizon, so the body is observed to rise and set daily; in the other cases (i.e. if in absolute value the declination is less than the colatitude)
The third case applies for objects in a part of the full sky equal to the cosine of the latitude (at the equator it applies for all objects, because the sky turns around the horizontal north–south line; at the poles it applies for none, because the sky turns around the vertical line). The first and second case each apply for half of the remaining sky.
Period of time
The period between one upper culmination and the next is about 24 hours, while the period between an upper one and a lower one is almost 12 hours. The orbital motion, Earth's rotation and proper motion of Earth affect the period between successive upper culminations. Due to the proper and improper motions of the Sun, one solar day (the interval between like culminations of the Sun) is slightly longer than one sidereal day (the interval between like culminations of any reference star). The mean difference is , since Earth takes 365.24219 days to complete one orbit around the Sun.
The Sun
From the tropics and middle latitudes, the Sun is visible in the sky at its upper culmination (at solar noon) and invisible (below the horizon) at its lower culmination (at solar midnight). When viewed from the region within either polar circle around the winter solstice of that hemisphere (the December solstice in the Arctic and the June solstice in the Antarctic), the Sun is below the horizon at both of its culminations.
Supposing that the declination of the Sun is +20° when it crosses the local meridian, then the complementary angle of 70° (from the Sun to the pole) is added to and subtracted from the observer's latitude to find the solar altitudes at upper and lower culminations, respectively.
From 52° north, the upper culmination is at 58° above the horizon due south, while the lower is at 18° below the horizon due north. This is calculated as 52° + 70° = 122° (the supplementary angle being 58°) for the upper, and 52° − 70° = −18° for the lower.
From 80° north, the upper culmination is at 30° above the horizon due south, while the lower is at 10° above the horizon (midnight sun) due north.
Circumpolar stars
From most of the Northern Hemisphere, Polaris (the North Star) and the other stars of the constellation Ursa Minor circles counterclockwise around the north celestial pole and remain visible at both culminations (as long as the sky is clear and dark enough). In the Southern Hemisphere there is no bright pole star, but the constellation Octans circles clockwise around the south celestial pole and remains visible at both culminations.
Any astronomical objects that always remain above the local horizon, as viewed from the observer's latitude, are described as circumpolar.
See also
Celestial sphere
Meridian (astronomy)
Nadir
Satellite pass
Zenith
References
Celestial mechanics
Spherical astronomy | wiki |
Arkansas Peace Society was a Unionist organization in the state of Arkansas during the American Civil War.
Most Arkansans supported secession, but some, especially in the northern part of the state, remained loyal to the United States. They founded the Arkansas Peace Society in order to protect themselves from forced enlistment and impressment. The organization was destroyed by state troops, but the resistance against the Confederacy remained strong during the whole war. In spite of the state having the third smallest white population in the Confederacy, more white Arkansans enlisted in the Union Army than in any other seceded state, except Tennessee.
References
Further reading
Worley, Ted R. (1958). "The Arkansas Peace Society of 1861: A Study in Mountain Unionism." The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 445-456.
See also
Red Strings
External links
The Arkansas Peace Society 1861
Brother Against Brother, The Arkansas Peace Society and the Yellar Rag Boys YouTube
Arkansas in the American Civil War
Southern Unionists in the American Civil War | wiki |
One Last Time may refer to:
Songs
"One Last Time" (Agnes song), 2012
"One Last Time" (Ariana Grande song), 2014
"One Last Time" (Dusty Drake song), 2003
"One Last Time" (Hamilton song), from Hamilton: An American Musical, 2015
"(Let's Get Together) One Last Time", by Tammy Wynette, 1977
"All of Me" (John Legend song), briefly retitled "One Last Time", 2013
"One Last Time", by Arjun
"One Last Time", by Bonnie Pink from One
"One Last Time", by Dream Theater from Metropolis Pt. 2: Scenes from a Memory
"One Last Time", by Edie Brickell & New Bohemians from Stranger Things
"One Last Time", by Elise Estrada from Elise Estrada
"One Last Time", by Girls' Generation from Holiday Night
"One Last Time", by Glen Campbell from Glen Travis Campbell
"One Last Time", by Gromee
"One Last Time", by HIM from Razorblade Romance
"One Last Time", by K-Ci & JoJo from X
"One Last Time", by Kellie Pickler from Kellie Pickler
"One Last Time", by Mumzy Stranger and Stevie Hoang
"One Last Time", by Simon Webbe from Smile
"One Last Time", by Westlife from Spectrum
Television episodes
"One Last Thing" (Homeland) or "One Last Time", a 2013 episode of Homeland
"One Last Time", a 2019 episode of Good Girls
See also
One Last Time Live in Concert, a 2001 documentary featuring Tina Turner
Live – One Last Time, a 2007 album by The Clark Sisters
"Just One Last Time", a song by David Guetta
One Last Time: An Evening with Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga, a 2021 television special starring American singers Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga | wiki |
Bakewell è un paese di abitanti della contea del Derbyshire, in Inghilterra, famoso per i suoi dolci che prendono il nome di Bakewell pudding e Bakewell tart.
Voci correlate
Bakewell tart
Altri progetti
Parrocchie civili del Derbyshire | wiki |
In Luxembourg, a grade system from 01 to 60 is used in secondary schools. A grade of at least 30 is required to pass. An insufficient mark (01-29) is called a Datz in Luxembourgish. The grades are distributed in the following way:
Grading at the University of Luxembourg instead operates with a French-style 20-point scale, with a minimum score of 10/20 required to pass.
Luxembourg
Grading
Grading | wiki |
In telecommunication, Open fiber control is a protocol to ensure that both ends of a fiber optic cable are connected before laser signals are transmitted in order to protect people from eye damage. When a device is turned on, it sends out low powered light. If it does not receive light back, it assumes that the fiber is not connected. When it receives light, it assumes that both ends of the fiber are connected and it switches the laser to full power. If one of the devices stops receiving light, it will revert to the low power mode.
References
Fiber optics | wiki |
Stagecoach Express may refer to:
Stagecoach Express (film)
Stagecoach Group | wiki |
Dao (pronunciation: , English approximation: , Chinese: 刀; pinyin: dāo) are single-edged Chinese swords, primarily used for slashing and chopping. They can be straight or curved. The most common form is also known as the Chinese sabre, although those with wider blades are sometimes referred to as Chinese broadswords. In China, the dao is considered one of the four traditional weapons, along with the gun (stick or staff), qiang (spear), and the jian (double-edged sword), called in this group "The General of Weapons".
Name
In Chinese, the word can be applied to any weapon with a single-edged blade and usually refers to knives. Because of this, the term is sometimes translated as knife or Nonetheless, within Chinese martial arts and in military contexts, the larger "sword" versions of the dao are usually intended.
General characteristics
While dao have varied greatly over the centuries, most single-handed dao of the Ming period and later and the modern swords based on them share several characteristics. Dao blades are moderately curved and single-edged, though often with a few inches of the back edge sharpened; the moderate curve allows them to be reasonably effective in the thrust. Hilts are sometimes canted, curving in the opposite direction of the blade, which improves handling in some forms of cuts and thrusts. The cord is usually wrapped over the wood of the handle. Hilts may also be pierced like those of jian (straight-bladed Chinese sword) for the addition of lanyards. However, modern swords for performances will often have tassels or scarves instead. Guards are typically disc-shaped and often cupped. This was to prevent rainwater from getting into the sheath and blood dripping down to the handle, making it more difficult to grip. Sometimes guards are thinner pieces of metal with an s-curve, the lower limb of the curve protecting the user's knuckles; very rarely, they may have guards like those of the jian.
Other variations to the basic pattern include the large bagua dao and the long handled pudao.
Early history
The earliest dao date from the Shang Dynasty in China's Bronze Age, and are known as zhibeidao (直背刀) – straight-backed knives. As the name implies, these were straight-bladed or slightly curved weapons with a single edge. Originally bronze, these weapons were made of iron or steel by the time of the late Warring States period as metallurgical knowledge became sufficiently advanced to control the carbon content. Originally less common as a military weapon than the jian – the straight, double-edged blade of China – the dao became popular with cavalry during the Han dynasty due to its sturdiness, superiority as a chopping weapon, and relative ease of use – it was generally said that it takes a week to attain competence with a dao/saber, a month to attain competence with a qiang/spear, and a year to attain competence with a jian/straight sword. Soon after dao began to be issued to infantry, beginning the replacement of the jian as a standard-issue weapon. Late Han dynasty dao had round grips and ring-shaped pommels, and ranged between 85 and 114 centimeters in length. These weapons were used alongside rectangular shields.
By the end of the Three Kingdoms period, the single-edged dao had almost completely replaced the jian on the battlefield. The jian subsequently became known as a weapon of self-defense for the scholarly aristocratic class, worn as part of court dress.
Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties
As in the preceding dynasties, Tang dynasty dao were straight along the entire length of the blade. Single-handed ("belt dao") were the most common sidearm in the Tang dynasty. These were also known as hengdao ("horizontal dao" or "cross dao") in the preceding Sui dynasty. Two-handed changdao ("long dao") or were also used in the Tang, with some units specializing in their use.
During the Song dynasty, one form of infantry dao was the shoudao, a chopping weapon with a clip point. While some illustrations show them as straight, the 11th century Song military encyclopedia the Wujing Zongyao depicts them with curved blades – possibly an influence from the steppe tribes of Central Asia, who would conquer parts of China during the Song period. Also dating from the Song are the falchion-like dadao, the long, two-handed zhanmadao, and the long-handled, similarly two-handed buzhandao (步戰刀).
Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties
With the Mongol invasion of China in the early 13th century and the formation of the Yuan dynasty, the curved steppe saber became a greater influence on Chinese sword designs. Sabers had been used by Turkic, Tungusic, and other steppe peoples of Central Asia since at least the 8th century CE. It was a favored weapon among the Mongol aristocracy. Its effectiveness for mounted warfare and popularity among soldiers throughout the Mongol empire had lasting effects.
In China, Mongol influence lasted long after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty at the hands of the Ming, continuing through both the Ming and the Qing dynasties, furthering the popularity of the dao and spawning a variety of new blades. Blades with greater curvature became popular, and these new styles are collectively referred to as (佩刀). During the mid-Ming, these new sabers would completely replace the jian as a military-issue weapon. The four main types of are:
Yanmaodao
The yanmaodao or "goose-quill saber" is largely straight like the earlier zhibeidao, with a curve appearing at the center of percussion near the blade's tip. This allows for thrusting attacks and overall handling similar to that of the jian while preserving much of the dao's strengths in cutting and slashing.
Liuyedao
The liuyedao or "willow leaf saber" is the most common form of Chinese saber. It first appeared during the Ming dynasty and features a moderate curve along the length of the blade. This weapon became the standard sidearm for cavalry and infantry, replacing the yanmaodao, and is the sort of saber used by many schools of Chinese martial arts.
Piandao
The piandao or "slashing saber" is a deeply curved dao meant for slashing and draw-cutting. This weapon bears a strong resemblance to the shamshir and scimitar. Skirmishers generally used it in conjunction with a shield.
Niuweidao
The niuweidao or "oxtail saber" is a heavy-bladed weapon with a characteristic flaring tip. It is the archetypal "Chinese broadsword" of kung fu movies today. It was first recorded in the early 19th century (the latter half of the Qing dynasty) and only as a civilian weapon: there is no record of it being issued to troops, and it does not appear in any listing of official weaponry. Its appearance in movies and modern literature is thus often anachronistic.
Besides these four major types of dao, the duandao or "short dao" was also used, this being a compact weapon generally in the shape of a liuyedao. The dadao saw continued use, and during the Ming dynasty the large two-handed changdao and were used both against the cavalry of the northern steppes and the wokou (pirates) of the southeast coast; these latter weapons (sometimes under different names) would continue to see limited use during the Qing period. Also, during the Qing, there appeared weapons such as the nandao, regional variants in the name or shape of some of the above dao, and more obscure variants such as the "nine ringed broadsword", these last likely invented for street demonstrations and theatrical performances rather than for use as weapons. The word dao is also used in the names of several polearms that feature a single-edged blade, such as the pudao and .
The Chinese spear and dao (liuyedao and yanmaodao) were commonly issued to infantry due to the expense of and relatively greater amount of training required for the effective use of the Chinese straight sword, or jian. Dao can often be depicted in period artwork worn by officers and infantry.
During the Yuan dynasty and after, some aesthetic features of Persian, Indian, and Turkish swords would appear on dao. These could include intricate carvings on the blade and "rolling pearls": small metal balls that would roll along fuller-like grooves in the blade.
Recent history
The dadao was used by some Chinese militia units against Japanese invaders in the Second Sino-Japanese War, occasioning "The Sword March". The miaodao, a descendant of the changdao, also saw use. These were used during planned ambushes on Japanese troops because the Chinese military and patriotic resistance groups often had a shortage of firearms.
Most Chinese martial arts schools still train extensively with the dao, seeing it as a powerful conditioning tool and a versatile weapon, with self-defense techniques transferable to similarly sized objects more commonly found in the modern world, such as canes, baseball or cricket bats, for example. Some schools teach double sword 雙刀, forms and fencing, one dao for each hand.
One measure of the proper length of the sword should be from the hilt in your hand, the tip of the blade at the brow, and, in some schools, the shoulder height. Alternatively, the sword's length should be from the middle of the throat along the size of the outstretched arm. There are also significantly larger versions of dao used for training in some Baguazhang and Taijiquan schools.
Nandao
The nandao or "southern broadsword" is a modern innovation used for contemporary wushu practice.
In contemporary wushu
Daoshu refers to the competitive event in modern wushu taolu where athletes utilize a dao in a routine. It was one of the four main weapon events implemented at the 1st World Wushu Championships due to its popularity. The dao itself, consists of a thin blade that makes noise when stabbing or cutting techniques are used. Over time, the edge has become more flimsy to create more noise, the sword has become lighter to allow for faster handling, and the flag of the broadsword has become smaller to become less of a distraction. The IWUF has also created three standardized routines for competition and an elementary practice. The first compulsory routine was produced and recorded by Zhao Changjun in 1989.
Daoshu routines in international competitions require certain sword techniques, including:
Chán Tóu (Broadsword Twining)
Guǒ Nǎo,(Wrapping with the Broadsword)
Pī Dāo (Broadsword Chop)
Zhā Dāo (Broadsword Thrust)
Zhǎn Dāo (Broadsword Hack)
Guà Dāo (Broadsword Hooking Parry)
Yún Dāo (Broadsword Cloud Waving)
Bèi Huā Dāo (Broadsword Wrist Figure 8 Behind the Back).
Only the Chán Tóu and Guǒ Nǎo techniques have deduction content (code 62) where the back of the blade has to be kept close to the body. Daoshu routines have been judged with the degree of difficulty criteria at the World Wushu Championships since 2005.
In media
Michelle Yeoh uses dao swords when playing Yu Shu Lien on Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon and its sequel Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: Sword of Destiny.
Zuko, a major character on the Nickelodeon animated series Avatar: The Last Airbender used two daos.
Power Rangers: Jungle Fury features the Shark Sabres, based on daos.
The Doctor's thirteenth incarnation, Yasmin Khan, the Chinese pirate queen Zheng Yi Sao, and Sin Ji-Hun used daos to fight Sea Devils on the Doctor Who episode Legend of the Sea Devils.
Chow Yun-fat wields a dao sword when playing Sao Feng, the pirate lord of the South China Sea on Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End.
Shang Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings features daos of Chinese dragon scales used by the warriors of Ta Lo.
A dao was one of many weapons used by Ho Tao on Heroes of the East.
Dynasty Warriors features a dadao used by Dian Wei.
In Dragonheart: A New Beginning, Lian briefly wielded a dao.
Power Rangers: Ninja Storm features General Trayf, a pig-themed alien warrior, using a dao.
Inuyasha the Movie: Affections Touching Across Time features Hari using two daos.
Deadliest Warrior'' features warriors of the Ming Dynasty using daos during a fight with musketeers.
See also
Chinese swords
Dha (sword)
Sabre
Jian
References
Note List
Bibliography
External links
Sword with Scabbard - 17th century example - Metropolitan Museum of Art
Saber (Peidao) with Scabbard – 18th or 19th-century example – Metropolitan Museum of Art
Chinese inventions
Chinese swords
Single-edged swords
Events in wushu
World War II infantry weapons of China | wiki |
Mysteries at the Castle (formerly Castle Secrets & Legends) is an American reality television series that premiered on January 19, 2014, on the Travel Channel. The series features the secrets and legends "behind the gates and walls" of castles, mansions and manor houses around the world. The first-season episodes aired on Sundays at 10:00pm, while the second and third-season episodes were moved to Fridays at 9:00pm EST. It was then moved to Thursdays at 9:00pm EST in the middle of the third season.
Note: In season 2, which premiered on January 2, 2015, the series name was changed to Mysteries at the Castle.
Premise
Each episode includes dramatic recreations featuring actors re-telling the most mysterious, secret and strange stories and legends from a castle's history. These stories have occurred either inside the fortifications or near the many famous and even infamous castles in Europe and America.
Series Overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2014)
Season 2 (2015)
Note: Episodes in this season aired under the changed title name Mysteries at the Castle.
Season 3 (2016)
References
External links
2014 American television series debuts
2010s American documentary television series
Travel Channel original programming
Television series featuring reenactments
2016 American television series endings | wiki |
The Children's Code or Age Appropriate Design Code is a code of practice and set of standards for electronic information services, requiring that they treat children and their data in an appropriate way. It was published by the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO), taking effect from September 2021. Even though the ICO is a UK regulatory agency, the code applies across the Internet and so major global providers such as Facebook, Google and TikTok are complying as they are subject to audit and investigation.
Penalties
Penalties for non-compliance are similar to those of the General Data Protection Regulation and so include fines of up to 4% of global turnover.
See also
Advertising to children
Children's Online Privacy Protection Act
Online Safety Bill
References
Child welfare
Information governance | wiki |
The women's rhythmic group all-around competition at the 2012 Summer Olympics was held at the Wembley Arena from 9–12 August.
Competition format
The competition consisted of a qualification round and a final round. The top eight teams in the qualification round advanced to the final. In each round, the teams performed two routines (one with balls, one with ribbons and hoops), with the scores added to give a total.
Qualification results
Final results
References
Gymnastics at the 2012 Summer Olympics
2012
2012 in women's gymnastics
Women's events at the 2012 Summer Olympics | wiki |
The women's rhythmic individual all-around competition at the 2012 Summer Olympics was held at the Wembley Arena from 9–11 August.
Competition format
The competition consisted of a qualification round and a final round. The top ten gymnasts in the qualification round advanced to the final. In each round, the gymnasts performed four routines (ball, hoop, clubs, and ribbon), with the scores added to give a total.
Six gymnasts returned from the 2008 Olympics, and five of them made it to the final. Among them was Evgeniya Kanaeva of Russia, who became the first gymnast to successfully defend her Olympic title in the event.
Qualification results
Final results
References
Gymnastics at the 2012 Summer Olympics
2012
2012 in women's gymnastics
Women's events at the 2012 Summer Olympics | wiki |
Louisiana Lottery can refer to:
Louisiana State Lottery Company, a private lottery operated in the mid-19th century
Louisiana Lottery Corporation, the current lottery operated by the government of Louisiana | wiki |
Pommel may refer to:
Coco Pommel, a character in My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic
Pommel (saddle), the raised area at the front of an equestrian saddle
Pommel (sword), the cap at the end of the hilt of a European sword
See also
Pommel horse, an artistic gymnastics apparatus
Pummel (disambiguation) | wiki |
The men's trampoline competition at the 2012 Summer Olympics was held at the North Greenwich Arena on 3 August.
Competition format
In the qualification round, each gymnast performed two routines: compulsory and voluntary. Scores for the two were summed, and the top eight competitors moved on to the final. In the final, each gymnast performed a single routine, with qualification scores not carrying over.
Qualification results
Final results
References
Trampoline, Men's
2012 Men's
Men's events at the 2012 Summer Olympics | wiki |
H. A. Lorentz may refer to:
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853–1928), Dutch physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in 1902
Hendrikus Albertus Lorentz (1871–1944), Dutch explorer and diplomat | wiki |
The women's trampoline competition at the 2012 Summer Olympics took place at the North Greenwich Arena on 4 August.
Competition format
In the qualification round, each gymnast performed two routines: compulsory and voluntary. Scores for the two were summed, and the top eight competitors moved on to the final. In the final, each gymnast performed a single routine, with qualification scores not carrying over.
Results
Qualification
Final
References
Trampoline, Women's
2012 Women's
2012 in women's gymnastics
Women's events at the 2012 Summer Olympics | wiki |
An ankle-tap or tap-tackle is a form of tackle used in rugby league, rugby union and gridiron football.
It is used when the player carrying the ball is running at speed and a defending player is approaching from behind. Even if the defender is not able to get close enough to the ball-carrier to wrap his arms around him in a conventional tackle, he may still be able to dive at the other player's feet and, with an outstretched arm, deliver a tap or hook to the player's foot (or feet) causing the player to stumble. At speed, this will often be sufficient to bring the ball-carrier down.
See also
References
Rugby league terminology
Rugby union terminology | wiki |
Gambo may refer to:
Places
Gambo, Central African Republic, a town in the Central African Republic
Gambo, Newfoundland and Labrador, a town in northeastern Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Ships
USS West Gambo (ID-3220), a United States Navy cargo ship commission from 1918 to 1919
Other uses
Gambo (rapper), a Ghanaian rapper | wiki |
The 1906–07 NYU Violets men's basketball team represented New York University during the 1906–07 collegiate men's basketball season. The team finished with an overall record of 5–2.
Schedule
|-
References
NYU Violets men's basketball seasons
NYU
NYU
NYU | wiki |
Baton may refer to:
Stick-like objects
Baton, a type of club
Baton (law enforcement)
Baston (weapon), a type of baton used in Arnis and Filipino Martial Arts
Baton charge, a coordinated tactic for dispersing crowds of people
Baton (conducting), a short thin stick used for directing a musical performance
Baton (military), a symbolic attribute of military or other office
Baton (running), an object transferred by runners in a relay race
Baton sinister, a mark of cadency in heraldry
Baton twirling, a light metal rod used for keeping time, twirling in competitions, etc.
Baton, a smaller version of a baguette
Baton, in stick juggling, the central stick, which is manipulated with the side-sticks (control sticks)
Baton, another word for a batonette, a culinary knife cut
Batons, in the keyboard of a carillon, the stick-like keys used to play the bells
Batons (suit), one of the four suits of playing card in the standard Latin deck
Suit of wands, Batons in the tarot card
Other uses
BATON, a Type 1 block cipher, used by the United States to secure all types of classified information
Baton Bob, a costumed street performer currently based in Atlanta, Georgia
Baton Broadcasting, a Canadian broadcaster, now owned by CTVglobemedia
Baton Broadcasting System, a defunct television system owned by Baton Broadcasting Inc.
Baton Bunny, a Bugs Bunny cartoon of the Looney Tunes series produced in 1958
BATON Overlay or Balanced Tree Over-lay Network, a distributed tree structure for Peer-to-Peer (P2P) systems
Baton Records, a record label
Baton River, a river in the Tasman District of New Zealand
See also
Baton Rouge (disambiguation)
Batton, a surname
Batten (disambiguation)
Batong (disambiguation)
Batoni (disambiguation) | wiki |
Gael Murphy, a resident of Washington, D.C., is an anti-war activist with Code Pink who has planned or participated in many of its high-profile protests and activities against the Iraq War.
Murphy worked in the Peace Corps and later as a public health officer in Zaire and Central America. She also was a foreign service officer and an aid contractor, gaining first hand experience of the mishandling of America's public policy.
In 2002 she helped coordinate Code Pink's Women's Peace Vigil held across from the White House. She heads up the group's D.C. office. She is also a member of its executive committee. A Salon writer who interviewed Murphy in 2008 described her as a "warmly robust, welcoming and intelligent presence with a firm handshake" who was tough enough for hard questioning.
In 2004 Murphy was the lead protester speaking out at a Senate hearing featuring then United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld.
In 2004 she was arrested with fellow Code Pink founder Medea Benjamin inside The Republican National Convention. She also participated in protests against the 2008 Republican convention.
At an antiwar protest rally during United States President Barack Obama's Inauguration where protesters threw shoes at a balloon replica of George W. Bush, Murphy told protesters "Hold on to your shoes. The struggle is not over."
Murphy is among the activists featured in an anti-war documentary film, Finding Our Voices.
References
External links
Gael Murphy biography at Code Pink web site
Gael Murphy interview from "Finding Our Voices."
Living people
American anti-war activists
Year of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
In algebraic geometry, a Coble curve is an irreducible degree-6 planar curve with 10 double points (some of them may be infinitely near points).
They were studied by .
See also
Coble surface
References
Sextic curves | wiki |
The 1907–08 NYU Violets men's basketball team represented New York University during the 1907–08 college men's basketball season. The team finished with an overall record of 7–5.
Schedule
|-
References
NYU Violets men's basketball seasons
NYU
NYU
NYU | wiki |
A combination stair is an architectural element found in traditional houses in North America where two sets of stairs merge into one at a landing.
Background
Large, traditional houses were frequently designed with two stairs: a formal front stairway for use by the family and guests and a utilitarian back stair for use by household staff. The combination stair is a T-shaped compromise design popular in the nineteenth century that was found in some moderate-sized houses. In this design, both the formal front stair and the utilitarian back stair ran to a common intermediate landing. One common stair then extended from this intermediate landing to the second floor of the house.
Current usage
The combination stair became less common in the 20th century. As houses became less formal and household staff became less common, the need for both front and back stairs declined. Many houses were designed with a single stair for common use. However, since the 1980s, house sizes have increased significantly and designs have become more elaborate and more complex. Multiple stairs are becoming more common once again. Combination stairs are occasionally seen in new house designs.
References
Stairs
Stairways
Architectural elements | wiki |
The Philidor position is an endgame position in chess where one side with only a rook defends against an opponent with a rook and a pawn.
Philidor position may also refer to:
Philidor position, a rook and bishop versus rook endgame position
Philidor position, a queen versus rook endgame position
Philidor's mate, a checkmating pattern | wiki |
Losing Control is a 2011 American romantic comedy film.
Losing Control may refer to:
Film and TV
Losing Control, 1998 erotic film with Kira Reed Lorsch
Losing Control (TV series), Nigerian TV series
Music
Losing Control, album by Barney Bentall and the Legendary Hearts 1982
"Losing Control", song by Amii Stewart from Try Love
"Losing Control", song by Audio Adrenaline from Until My Heart Caves In, 2005
"Losing Control", song by Boy George from U Can Never B2 Straight 2002
"Losing Control", song by Ak'Sent
"Losing Control", song by Escape the Fate from Ungrateful
"Losing Control", song by Broken Bones
"Loosen' Control", song by Snoop Dogg 2001
"Losin Control", song by American rapper Russ 2015
See also
Lose Control (disambiguation) | wiki |
Auto alley may refer to:
Auto row, a local cluster of automobile retailers
Auto Alley, an area of more concentrated automobile manufacturing mostly in Ontario, the midwestern United States, and central Mexico | wiki |
The philosophical aspects of the abortion debate are logical arguments that can be made either in support of or in opposition to abortion.
Overview
The philosophical arguments in the abortion debate are deontological or rights-based. The view that all or almost all abortion should be illegal generally rests on the claims: (1) that the existence and moral right to life of human beings (human organisms) begins at or near conception-fertilization; (2) that induced abortion is the deliberate and unjust killing of the embryo in violation of its right to life; and (3) that the law should prohibit unjust violations of the right to life. The view that abortion should in most or all circumstances be legal generally rests on the claims: (1) that women have a right to control what happens in and to their own bodies; (2) that abortion is a just exercise of this right; and (3) that the law should not criminalize just exercises of the right to control one's own body and its life-support functions.
Although both sides are likely to see the rights-based considerations as paramount, some popular arguments appeal to consequentialist or utilitarian considerations. For example, pro-life groups (see the list below) sometimes claim the existence of post-abortion syndrome or a link between abortion and breast cancer, alleged medical and psychological risks of abortion. On the other side, pro-choice groups (see the list below) say that criminalizing abortion will lead to the deaths of many women through "back-alley abortions"; that unwanted children have a negative social impact (or conversely that abortion lowers the crime rate); and that reproductive rights are necessary to achieve the full and equal participation of women in society and the workforce. Consequentialist arguments on both sides tend to be vigorously disputed, though are not widely discussed in the philosophical literature.
Philosophical argumentation on the moral issue
Contemporary philosophical literature contains two kinds of arguments concerning the morality of abortion. One family of arguments (see the following three sections) relates to the moral status of the embryo—whether or not the embryo has a right to life; in other words is the embryo a "person" in a moral sense. An affirmative answer would support claim (1) in the central anti-abortion argument, while a negative answer would support claim (2) in the central pro-choice argument.
Another family of arguments (see the section on Thomson, below) relates to bodily rights—the question of whether the woman's bodily rights justify abortion even if the embryo has a right to life. A negative answer would support claim (2) in the central anti-abortion argument, while an affirmative answer would support claim (2) in the central pro-choice argument.
Arguments based on criteria for personhood
Since the zygote is genetically identical to the embryo, the fully formed fetus, and the baby, questioning the beginning of personhood could lead to an instance of the sorites paradox, also known as the paradox of the heap.
Mary Anne Warren, in her article arguing for the permissibility of abortion, holds that moral opposition to abortion is based on the following argument:
It is wrong to kill innocent human beings.
The embryo is an innocent human being.
Hence it is wrong to kill the embryo.
Warren, however, thinks that "human being" is used in different senses in (1) and (2). In (1), "human being" is used in a moral sense to mean a "person", a "full-fledged member of the moral community". In (2), "human being" means "biological human". That the embryo is a biologically human organism or animal is uncontroversial, Warren holds. But it does not follow that the embryo is a person, and it is persons that have rights, such as the right to life.
To help make a distinction between "person" and "biological human", Warren notes that we should respect the lives of highly intelligent aliens, even if they are not biological humans. She thinks there is a cluster of properties that characterize persons:
consciousness (of objects and events external and/or internal to the being), and in particular the capacity to feel pain
reasoning (the developed capacity to solve new and relatively complex problems)
self-motivated activity (activity which is relatively independent of either genetic or direct external control)
the capacity to communicate, by whatever means, messages of an indefinite variety of types, that is, not just with an indefinite number of possible contents, but on indefinitely many possible topics
the presence of self-concepts, and self-awareness, either individual or racial, or both
A person does not have to have each of these, but if something has all five then it definitely is a person whether it is biologically human or not, while if it has none or perhaps only one then it is not a person, again whether it is biologically human or not. The fetus has at most one, consciousness (and this only after it becomes susceptible to pain—the timing of which is disputed), and hence is not a person.
Other writers apply similar criteria, concluding that the embryo lacks a right to life because it lacks self-consciousness, or rationality and self-consciousness, or "certain higher psychological capacities" including "autonomy".
Others conclude that personhood should be based on "brain birth" concept, which is in essence the reversal of the brain death used as a modern definition of medical death. Under this proposal, presence of brain waves would be enough to grant personhood, even with other features lacking. Based on whether brain activity in the brain stem, or just in the cerebral cortex, is relevant for personhood, two concepts of "brain birth" emerge:
at the first appearance of brain waves in lower brain (brain stem) - 6–8 weeks of gestation (paralleling "whole brain death")
at the first appearance of brain waves in higher brain (cerebral cortex) - 19–20 weeks of gestation (paralleling "higher brain death")
These writers disagree on precisely which features confer a right to life, but agree those features must be certain developed psychological or physiological features which the embryo lacks.
Warren's arguments face two main objections. The comatose patient objection claims that as patients in a reversible coma do not satisfy Warren's (or some other) criteria—they are not conscious, do not communicate, and so on—therefore they would lack a right to life on her view. One response is that "although the reversibly comatose lack any conscious mental states, they do retain all their unconscious [or dispositional] mental states, since the appropriate neurological configurations are preserved in the brain." This may allow them to satisfy some of Warren's criteria. The comatose also still possess brain activity (brain waves), so this objection does not apply to "brain birth" theories. Finally, there are some post-natal humans who are unable to feel pain due to genetic disorders and thus do not satisfy all of Warren's criteria.
The infanticide objection points out that infants (indeed up to about one year of age, since it is only around then that they begin to outstrip the abilities of non-human animals) have only one of Warren's characteristics—consciousness—and hence would have to be accounted non-persons on her view; thus her view would permit not only abortion but infanticide. Warren agrees that infants are non-persons (and so killing them is not strictly murder), but denies that infanticide is generally permissible. For, Warren claims, once a human being is born, there is no longer a conflict between it and the woman's rights, since the human being can be given up for adoption. Killing such a human being would be wrong, not because it is a person, but because it would go against the desires of people willing to adopt the infant and to pay to keep the infant alive. Although, this clarification has critics of its own: beef cattle, chickens, or any other livestock raised for meat—or indeed even some plants—have supporters who would pay to keep them alive. However, a response to these supports might be that, while livestock, plants, and infants are all not morally persons, the infant is the only life that can be designated a human being. Thus, Warren's argument does suggest an inherent value for the life of human beings that are not persons over lives that do not have the potential for becoming a person.
Nonetheless, Warren grants that her argument entails that infanticide would be morally acceptable under some circumstances, such as those of a desert island. Philosopher Peter Singer similarly concludes that infanticide, particularly of severely disabled infants, is justifiable under certain conditions. And Jeff McMahan grants that under very limited circumstances it may be permissible to kill one infant to save the lives of several others. Opponents may see these concessions as a reductio ad absurdum of these writers' views; while supporters may see them merely as examples of unpleasant acts being justified in unusual cases.
Since brain waves appear in the lower brain (brain stem) in 6–8 weeks of gestation, and in the higher brain (cerebral cortex) in 19–20 weeks of gestation, both "whole brain" and "higher brain" brain birth personhood concepts based on the presence of brain waves do not permit infanticide.
The natural capacities view
Some opponents of Warren's view believe that what matters morally is not that one be actually exhibiting complex mental qualities of the sort she identifies, but rather that one have in oneself a self-directed genetic propensity or natural capacity to develop such qualities. In other words, what is crucial is that one be the kind of entity or substance that, under the right conditions, actively develops itself to the point of exhibiting Warren's qualities at some point in its life, even if it does not actually exhibit them because of not having developed them yet (embryo, infant) or having lost them (severe Alzheimer's). Because human beings do have this natural capacity—and indeed have it essentially—therefore (on this view) they essentially have a right to life: they could not possibly fail to have a right to life. Further, since modern embryology shows that the embryo begins to exist at conception and has a natural capacity for complex mental qualities, therefore the right to life begins at conception.
Grounding the right to life in essential natural capacities rather than accidental developed capacities is said to have several advantages. As developed capacities are on a continuum, admitting of greater and lesser degrees—some, for example, are more rational and self-conscious than others—therefore: (1) the "developed capacities" view must arbitrarily select some particular degree of development as the cut-off point for the right to life—whereas the "natural capacities" view is non-arbitrary; (2) those whose capacities are more developed would have more of a right to life on the "developed capacities" view—whereas the "natural capacities" view entails we all have an equal right to life; and (3) the continuum of developed capacities makes the exact point at which personhood ensues vague, and human beings around that point, say between one and two years of age, will have a shadowy or indeterminate moral status—whereas there is no such indeterminacy on the "natural capacities" view.
Some defenders of Warren-style arguments grant that these problems have not yet been fully solved, but reply that the "natural capacities" view fares no better. It is argued, for example, that as human beings vary significantly in their natural cognitive capacities (some are naturally more intelligent than others), and as one can imagine a series or spectrum of species with gradually diminishing natural capacities (for example, a series from humans down to amoebae with only the slightest differences in natural capacities between each successive species), therefore the problems of arbitrariness and inequality will apply equally to the "natural capacities" view. In other words, there is a continuum not only of developed but of natural capacities, and so the "natural capacities" view will inevitably face these problems as well.
Some critics reject the "natural capacities" view on the basis that it takes mere species membership or genetic potential as a basis for respect (in essence a charge of speciesism), or because it entails that anencephalic infants and the irreversibly comatose have a full right to life. Moreover, as with Marquis's argument (see below), some theories of personal identity would support the view that the embryo will never itself develop complex mental qualities (rather, it will simply give rise to a distinct substance or entity that will have these qualities), in which case the "natural capacities" argument would fail. Respondents to this criticism argue that the noted human cases in fact would not be classified as persons as they do not have a natural capacity to develop any psychological features.
The deprivation argument
A seminal essay by Don Marquis argues that abortion is wrong because it deprives the embryo of a valuable future. Marquis begins by arguing that what makes it wrong to kill a normal adult human being is the fact that the killing inflicts a terrible harm on the victim. The harm consists in the fact that "when I die, I am deprived of all of the value of my future": I am deprived of all the valuable "experiences, activities, projects, and enjoyments" that I would otherwise have had. Thus, if a being has a highly valuable future ahead of it—a "future like ours"—then killing that being would be seriously harmful and hence seriously wrong. But then, as a standard embryo does have a highly valuable future, killing it is seriously wrong. And so "the overwhelming majority of deliberate abortions are seriously immoral", "in the same moral category as killing an innocent adult human being".
A consequence of this argument is that abortion is wrong in all the cases where killing a child or adult with the same sort of future as the embryo would be wrong. So for example, if involuntary euthanasia of patients with a future filled with intense physical pain is morally acceptable, aborting embryos whose future is filled with intense physical pain will also be morally acceptable. But it would not do, for example, to invoke the fact that some embryo's future would involve such things as being raised by an unloving family, since we do not take it to be acceptable to kill a five-year-old just because her future involves being raised by an unloving family. Similarly, killing a child or adult may be permissible in exceptional circumstances such as self-defense or (perhaps) capital punishment; but these are irrelevant to standard abortions.
Marquis's argument has prompted several objections. The contraception objection claims that if Marquis's argument is correct, then, since sperm and ova (or perhaps a sperm and ovum jointly) have a future like ours, contraception would be as wrong as murder; but as this conclusion is (it is said) absurd—even those who believe contraception is wrong do not believe it is as wrong as murder—the argument must be unsound. One response is that neither the sperm, nor the egg, nor any particular sperm-egg combination, will ever itself live out a valuable future: what will later have valuable experiences, activities, projects, and enjoyments is a new entity, a new organism, that will come into existence at or near conception; and it is this entity, not the sperm or egg or any sperm-egg combination, that has a future like ours.
As this response makes clear, Marquis's argument requires that what will later have valuable experiences and activities is the same entity, the same biological organism, as the embryo. The identity objection rejects this assumption. On certain theories of personal identity (generally motivated by thought experiments involving brain or cerebrum transplants), each of us is not a biological organism but rather an embodied mind or a person (in
John Locke's sense) that comes into existence when the brain gives rise to certain developed psychological capacities. If either of these views is correct, Marquis's argument will fail; for the embryo (even the early fetus, lacking the relevant psychological capacities) would not itself have a future of value, but would merely have the potential to give rise to a different entity, an embodied mind or a person, that would have a future of value. The success of Marquis's argument thus depends on one's favored account of personal identity.
The interests objection claims that what makes murder wrong is not just the deprivation of a valuable future, but the deprivation of a future that one has an interest in. The embryo has no conscious interest in its future, and so (the objection concludes) to kill it is not wrong. The defender of Marquis-style arguments may, however, give the counterexample of the suicidal teenager who takes no interest in their future, but killing whom is nonetheless wrong and murder. If the opponent responds that one can have an interest in one's future without taking an interest in it, then the defender of the Marquis-style argument can claim that this applies to the embryo. Similarly, if an opponent claims that what is crucial is having a valuable future which one would, under ideal conditions, desire to preserve (whether or not one does in fact desire to preserve it), then the defender may ask why the embryo would not, under ideal conditions, desire to preserve its future.
The equality objection claims that Marquis's argument leads to unacceptable inequalities. If, as Marquis claims, killing is wrong because it deprives the victim of a valuable future, then, since some futures appear to contain much more value than others—a 9-year-old has a much longer future than a 90-year-old, a middle class person's future has much less gratuitous pain and suffering than someone in extreme poverty—some killings would turn out to be much more wrong than others. But as this is strongly counterintuitive (most people believe all killings are equally wrong, other things being equal), Marquis's argument must be mistaken. Some writers have concluded that the wrongness of killing arises not from the harm it causes the victim (since this varies greatly among killings), but from the killing's violation of the intrinsic worth or personhood of the victim. However, such accounts may themselves face problems of equality, and so the equality objection may not be decisive against Marquis's argument.
The psychological connectedness objection claims that a being can be seriously harmed by being deprived of a valuable future only if there are sufficient psychological connections—sufficient correlations or continuations of memory, belief, desire and the like—between the being as it is now and the being as it will be when it lives out the valuable future. As there are few psychological connections between the embryo and its later self, it is concluded that depriving it of its future does not seriously harm it (and hence is not seriously wrong). A defense of this objection is likely to rest, as with certain views of personal identity, on thought experiments involving brain or cerebrum swaps; and this may render it implausible to some readers.
The bodily rights argument
In her well-known article "A Defense of Abortion", Judith Jarvis Thomson argues that abortion is in some circumstances permissible even if the embryo is a person and has a right to life, because the embryo's right to life is overtrumped by the woman's right to control her body and its life-support functions; in short, Thomson's argument is that the right to life does not include or entail the right to use someone else's body. Her central argument involves a thought experiment. Thomson asks us to imagine that an individual (call Bob) wakes up in bed next to a famous violinist. He is unconscious with a fatal kidney ailment; and because only Bob happens to have the right blood type to help, the Society of Music Lovers has kidnapped Bob and plugged his circulatory system into the violinist's so that Bob's kidneys can filter poisons from his blood as well as his own. If the violinist is disconnected from Bob now, he will die; but in nine months he will recover and can be safely disconnected. Thomson takes it that one may permissibly unplug oneself from the violinist even though this will kill him. The right to life, Thomson says, does not entail the right to use another person's body, and so in disconnecting the violinist one does not violate his right to life but merely deprives him of something—the use of another person's body—to which he has no right. Similarly, even if the fetus has a right to life, it does not have a right to use the pregnant woman's body and life-support functions against her will; and so aborting the pregnancy is permissible in at least some circumstances. However, Thomson notes that the woman's right to abortion does not include the right to directly insist upon the death of the child, should the fetus happen to be viable, that is, capable of surviving outside the womb.
Critics of this argument generally agree that unplugging the violinist is permissible, but claim there are morally relevant disanalogies between the violinist scenario and typical cases of abortion. The most common objection is that the violinist scenario, involving a kidnapping, is analogous only to abortion after rape. In most cases of abortion, the pregnant woman was not raped but had intercourse voluntarily, and thus has either tacitly consented to allowing the embryo to use her body (the tacit consent objection), or else has a duty to sustain the embryo because the woman herself caused it to stand in need of her body (the responsibility objection). Other common objections turn on the claim that the embryo is the pregnant woman's child whereas the violinist is a stranger (the stranger versus offspring objection); that abortion kills the embryo whereas unplugging the violinist merely lets him die (the killing versus letting die objection); or, similarly, that abortion intentionally causes the embryo's death whereas unplugging the violinist merely causes death as a foreseen but unintended side-effect (the intending versus foreseeing objection; cf the doctrine of double effect).
Defenders of Thomson's argument—most notably David Boonin—reply that the alleged disanalogies between the violinist scenario and typical cases of abortion do not hold, either because the factors that critics appeal to are not genuinely morally relevant, or because those factors are morally relevant but do not apply to abortion in the way that critics have claimed. Critics have in turn responded to Boonin's arguments.
Alternative scenarios have been put forth as more accurate and realistic representations of the moral issues present in abortion. John Noonan proposes the scenario of a family who was found to be liable for frostbite finger loss suffered by a dinner guest whom they refused to allow to stay overnight, although it was very cold outside and the guest showed signs of being sick. It is argued that just as it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation for the guest to protect them from physical harm, it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation of a fetus.
Other critics claim that there is a difference between artificial and extraordinary means of preservation, such as medical treatment, kidney dialysis, and blood transfusions, and normal and natural means of preservation, such as gestation, childbirth, and breastfeeding. They argue that if a baby was born into an environment in which there was no replacement available for her mother's breast milk, and the baby would either breastfeed or starve, the mother would have to allow the baby to breastfeed. But the mother would never have to give the baby a blood transfusion, no matter what the circumstances were. The difference between breastfeeding in that scenario and blood transfusions is the difference between gestation and childbirth on the one hand, and using one's body as a kidney dialysis machine on the other.
Respect for human life
One argument against the right to abortion appeals to the (secular) value of a human life. The thought is that all forms of human life, including the fetus, are inherently valuable because they are connected to our thoughts on family and parenthood, among other natural aspects of humanity. Thus, abortion can express the wrong attitudes towards humanity in a way that manifest vicious character. This view is represented by some forms of Humanism and by moral philosopher Rosalind Hursthouse in her widely anthologized article "Virtue Theory and Abortion". Thinking about abortion in this way, according to Hursthouse, shows the unimportance of rights because one can act viciously in exercising a moral right. For example, she says, "Love and friendship do not survive their parties' constantly insisting on their rights, nor do people live well when they think that getting what they have a right to is of preeminent importance; they harm others, and they harm themselves." Hursthouse argues that the ending of a human life is always a serious matter and that abortion, when it is wrong, is wrong because it violates a respect for human life.
See also
Abortion debate
Beginning of human personhood
Human rights
Fetal pain
Fetal rights
Unborn Victims of Violence Act
Libertarian perspectives on abortion
Paternal rights and abortion
Person - for a discussion of personhood
Religion and abortion
Societal attitudes towards abortion
Notes
References
In .
In .
In .
Steinbock, B. 1992. Life Before Birth: The Moral and Legal Status of Embryos and Fetuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press, at 78.
In .
Reprinted in .
Reprinted in . (The "postscript" is with regards to cited above.)
Abortion debate
Philosophical problems | wiki |
Ralph Lauren Corporation is an American publicly traded fashion company that was founded in 1967 by American fashion designer Ralph Lauren. The company is headquartered in New York City, producing products ranging from the mid-range to the luxury segments. They are known for marketing and distributing products in four categories: apparel, home, accessories, and fragrances. The company's brands include the mid-range Chaps brand, to the sub-premium Lauren Ralph Lauren brand, to the premium Polo Ralph Lauren, Double RL, Ralph Lauren Childrenswear, and Denim & Supply Ralph Lauren brands, up to the full luxury Ralph Lauren Purple Label and Ralph Lauren Collection brands. Ralph Lauren licenses its name and branding to Luxottica for eyewear; L'Oréal for fragrances and cosmetics; Hanesbrands for underwear and sleepwear; Kohl's and Hollander Sleep Products for bedding; Designers Guild for fabric and wallpaper; and EJ Victor for home furniture.
History
Ralph Lauren was one of several design leaders raised in the Jewish community in the Bronx, along with Calvin Klein and Robert Denning.
Lauren started The Ralph Lauren Corporation in 1967 with men's ties. At 28 years-old, Lauren worked for the tie manufacturer Beau Brummell. He persuaded the company's president to let him start his own line. Drawing on his interests in sports, Lauren named his first full line of menswear "Polo" in 1968. He worked out of a single "drawer" from a showroom in the Empire State Building and made deliveries to stores himself.
By 1969, the Manhattan department store Bloomingdale's sold Lauren's men line exclusively. It was the first time that Bloomingdale's had given a designer his own in-store shop. In 1971, Ralph Lauren Corporation launched a line of tailored shirts for women, introducing the Polo player emblem on the shirt cuff. The first full women's collection was launched the following year.
1972 marked the opening of Ralph Lauren's store on Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills, California, his first freestanding store. In 1972, Lauren released a short-sleeve cotton shirt in 24 colors. This design, emblazoned with the company's famed logo—that of a polo player, became the brand's signature look. In 1977 Ralph Lauren Corporation introduced a signature cotton mesh polo shirt in various colours, featuring the polo player logo on the chest.
In 1974, Ralph Lauren outfitted the male cast of The Great Gatsby in costumes chosen from his Polo line - a 1920s-style series of men's suits and sweaters, except for the pink suit which Lauren designed especially for Robert Redford’s Jay Gatsby. In 1977, Diane Keaton and Woody Allen wore Lauren's clothes in the Oscar-winning film, Annie Hall.
In 1978, the first Ralph Lauren fragrances, produced by Warner-Lauren, Ltd were launched at Bloomingdale's. Lauren for women, and Polo the men's cologne. This was the first time that a designer introduced two fragrances – one for men and one for women – simultaneously.
The company entered the European market and went international in 1981 with the opening of the first freestanding store in New Bond Street in the West End of London, England. Lauren opened his first flagship in the Rhinelander mansion on Madison Avenue and 72nd Street in New York City in 1986. On June 12, 1997, the company becomes a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange.
The 98-seat restaurant, RL, opened in March 1999 in Chicago adjacent to its largest and world flagship Ralph Lauren store at the corner of Chicago and Michigan Avenues on the Magnificent Mile. It was followed by the opening of two additional restaurants – Ralph's at 173 Boulevard Saint Germain Paris store in 2010 and The Polo Bar at Polo's store in New York in 2015.
The company launched its website and online shop in 2000 as polo.com by RL Media (a cooperation between Ralph Lauren and NBC). In 2007, Ralph Lauren Corporation acquired the NBC share of RL Media and the website was relaunched as ralphlauren.com. In September 2015, it was announced that Stefan Larsson would replace the company's founder, Ralph Lauren, as CEO in November. Lauren stayed on as executive chairman and chief creative officer.
In February 2017, it was announced that Larsson had agreed to leave his position as CEO effective May 1, 2017 due to differences with Lauren. On May 17, 2017, Ralph Lauren named Patrice Louvet President and Chief Executive Officer. Louvet most recently served as Group President, Global Beauty at Procter & Gamble (P&G). He took over on July 17, 2017.
In October 2020, Ralph Lauren Corporation announced that it would transition its Chaps brand to a fully licensed business model to focus on its core brands, reduce its direct exposure to the North American department store channel, and setting up the Chaps brand to be nurtured with an experienced partner. Also in October, Ralph Lauren Corporation has appointed former Obama administration consultant Valerie Jarrett to the board of directors.
In May 2021, Ralph Lauren Corporation announced it would sell its Club Monaco brand to private equity firm Regent LP.
Brands
Ralph Lauren Women's Collection and Ralph Lauren Purple Label: Ralph Lauren Collection for women, launched in 1971, ranges from handmade evening gowns to sportswear. Launched in 1994, Ralph Lauren Purple Label for men offers suiting, custom tailored made-to-measure suits and sportswear, as well as benchmade footwear and made-to-order dress furnishings, accessories, and luggage.
Ralph Lauren Watches and Fine Jewelry: In 2009 Ralph Lauren, together with luxury group Compagnie Financière Richemont SA, launched a collection of timepieces through the Ralph Lauren Watch & Jewelry Co. In 2010, the Ralph Lauren Watch & Jewelry Co. also introduced collections of jewelry.
Ralph by Ralph Lauren: Launched in 1994, Ralph by Ralph Lauren offers suit separates, sport coats, vests, and topcoats.
Polo Ralph Lauren: Men's Polo, Ralph Lauren's first complete line of sportswear and tailored clothing launched in 1967. In 2014, Women's Polo was launched.
Polo Sport: Polo Sport launched in 1992, a line of activewear for sports and fitness. In 2014, Ralph Lauren debuted the PoloTech Shirt, which featured smart fabric technology that supposedly "captures robust biometrics from the wearer".
Double RL: Founded in 1993 and named after Ralph Lauren and his wife Ricky's “RRL” ranch in Colorado, RRL offers men a mix of selvage denim, vintage apparel, sportswear and accessories, with roots in workwear and military gear.
Lauren Ralph Lauren: Lauren for Women launched in 1996, offering sportswear, denim, dresses, activewear, and accessories and footwear at a cheaper price point. Lauren for Men offers men's tailored clothing, including suits, sport coats, dress shirts, dress pants, tuxedos, topcoats, and ties at a cheaper price point. This brand generally slots above Chaps in price, but below Polo Ralph Lauren.
Polo Golf and RLX Golf: Polo Golf launched in 1990 and RLX Golf launched in 1998.
Pink Pony: Established in 2000, a percentage of sales from all Pink Pony products benefit the Pink Pony Fund and other major cancer charities around the world. Pink Pony primarily consists of women's sportswear and accessories. All Pink Pony items feature a pink Polo Player.
Polo Ralph Lauren Children: Items include polo knit shirts and cashmere cable sweaters.
Denim & Supply Ralph Lauren: The Denim & Supply Ralph Lauren line launched in 2011, inspired by the warehouse and artist communities of Brooklyn, New York, and authentic style found in the music festival scene. Denim & Supply was discontinued in September 2016.
Chaps: A mid-range brand featuring men's casual sportswear. The brand previously also offered women's clothing until it was discontinued in early 2022. The Chaps brand is available primarily at Belk, Boscov's, Hudson's Bay and Meijer stores (and until the end of 2021, Kohl's stores), and is priced to compete with Authentic Brands Group's/Centric Brands' Izod brand. The brand can also occasionally be found at several off-price stores such as Ross, T.J. Maxx, Macy's Backstage, and Nordstrom Rack. Since Fall 2021 the brand has also been available at Walmart. The brand is currently licensed to O5 Apparel.
American Living: Ralph Lauren launched American Living for men and women in 2008, a mid-range lifestyle brand created exclusively for JCPenney. This line was comparable to the Chaps line, but was marketed as a more exclusive line, unlike Chaps which is sold at multiple retailers. This line was discontinued in 2012 due to poor sales. A second American Living line was sold at Macy's; this American Living line only included women's clothing and was discontinued in 2019.
Ralph Lauren Home and Paint: Ralph Lauren Home, the first complete home collection from an American clothing designer, makes its debut in 1983 with home furnishings and accessories. Ralph Lauren Home includes furniture, bed and bath linens, china, crystal, silver, decorative accessories and gifts, as well as lighting, fabric, wall covering, and floor covering. Ralph Lauren launched Paint in 1995, now with over 400 palettes.
Fragrance: In 1978, Ralph Lauren launched his first fragrances: Lauren for women and Polo for men. Originally produced by Warner-Lauren, Ltd, L’Oréal now produces the Ralph Lauren Fragrances for men and women, including World of Polo (Polo, Polo Blue, Polo Black, Polo Red), Ralph Lauren Romance, Midnight Romance and the Big Pony Collections For Women and For Men.
Ralph Lauren Restaurants: RL Restaurant Chicago opened in 1999, adjacent to its largest Ralph Lauren flagship store in the world on Michigan Avenue along the Magnificent Mile. In 2010, Ralph's was opened in the courtyard and converted stables at 173 Boulevard Saint Germain Paris flagship store. In August 2014, Ralph's Coffee opened on the second floor of the Polo Flagship store in New York City. The Polo Bar, adjacent to the New York City Polo Flagship store, opened in January 2015.
Stores
The Company ended Fiscal 2016 with 493 directly operated stores: 144 Ralph Lauren stores, 77 Club Monaco stores and 272 Polo factory stores. The company also operated 583 concession shop locations worldwide at the end of the year.
In addition to Company-operated locations, international licensing partners operated 93 Ralph Lauren stores and 42 dedicated shops, as well as 133 Club Monaco stores and shops at the end of Fiscal 2016.
Ralph Lauren operates its representative flagship stores in New York City on Madison Avenue – for menswear in the former Rhinelander Mansion, and for womenswear and home in another structure, across the street, which opened in 2010. The company also manages flagships, for retailing Ralph Lauren collections, in Chicago, Manhasset, Greenwich (USA), London, Milan, Tokyo, Moscow, Kyiv and Paris.
Sports sponsorships
USTA
In 2005, The United States Tennis Association selects Ralph Lauren Corporation as the official apparel sponsor for the U.S. Open. As part of the partnership, all on-court ball persons and officials were dressed in specially-designed Ralph Lauren apparel. This was Polo's first tennis sponsorship.
Wimbledon
In 2006, Ralph Lauren Corporation became the official outfitter of Wimbledon. Lauren is the first designer in the tennis tournament's history to be chosen to create uniforms for all on-court officials.
Australian Open
In 2020, Ralph Lauren Corporation became the official outfitter of the Australian Open.
U.S. Olympic Team
Ralph Lauren Corporation is the exclusive Official Parade Outfitter for the U.S. Olympic and Paralympic Teams, with the right to manufacture, distribute, advertise, promote, and sell products in the U.S. which replicate the Parade Outfits and associated leisure wear. The company has established a partnership with athletes serving as brand ambassadors and as the faces of the advertising, marketing, and public relations campaigns.
Ralph Lauren Corporation partners with the United States Olympic Committee to become an Official Outfitter of the U.S. Olympic Team, for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, 2012 Summer Olympics in London, 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi and 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio.
Ralph Lauren designs the official Opening Ceremony and Closing Ceremony parade outfits for the U.S. teams in addition to an assortment of village-wear apparel and accessories.
Previously, the corporation received negative press when it was found to have sourced the clothing it supplied to the 2012 athletes from China, so it vowed to source everything it produced for the 2014 Olympics from the US. Kraemer Textiles Inc. spun around 6,000 pounds of Merino wool yarn from Imperial Stock Ranch in Oregon, which was then sent to Longview Yarns in North Carolina to be dyed. The clothing assembly was completed by Ball of Cotton in California. Ultimately, 40 American vendors were involved with production.
Leadership
Executive Chairman: Ralph Lauren (since 1967)
Chief Executive Officer: Patrice Louvet (since 2017)
Former chief executives
Ralph Lauren (1967–2015)
Stefan Larsson (2015–2017)
Philanthropy
In 1989, it co-founded the Nina Hyde Center for Breast Cancer Research at Georgetown University Hospital in Washington D.C. in memory of the late Post fashion correspondent.
In 1994, Ralph Lauren acted as chairman and creates the name and symbol for Fashion Targets Breast Cancer, a charitable initiative of the CFDA that marshals the goodwill and services of the fashion industry to raise public awareness and funds for breast cancer internationally.
In 2000, Ralph Lauren Corporation launched its Volunteer Program, which energises employees and creates meaningful connections with the communities in which they work.
On September 15, 2000, Ralph Lauren Corporation launched the Pink Pony Campaign, a national initiative to reduce disparities in cancer care by raising awareness as well as enhancing prevention, screening, and treatment in poor and underserved communities.
In 2001, the Polo Ralph Lauren Foundation established the American Heroes Fund following September 11 to allow Polo's 10,000 employees worldwide, as well as their customers, the opportunity to participate in the relief effort.
In 2003, Ralph Lauren established the Ralph Lauren Center for Cancer Care and Prevention in Harlem. The center is a collaboration between Ralph Lauren, Memorial Sloan-Kettering, and North General Hospital in Harlem, New York City.
In 2004, the Polo Fashion School was established, in which company executives work with inner-city youth to offer insights into the fashion business.
Established in 2006, the Polo Jeans G.I.V.E. (Get Involved Volunteer Exceed) campaign was created to inspire and encourage community service through volunteerism by supporting the efforts of dedicated volunteers and their causes.
In 2008, the Star-Spangled Banner, the original 1813 flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write the National Anthem, was preserved by a $10 million contribution to Save America's Treasures from Polo Ralph Lauren in 1998. The flag was then unveiled on Wednesday, November 19, 2008, in a new gallery at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History, in Washington D.C.
In July 2013, Ralph Lauren Corporation announced its commitment to restore the elite École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, one of the most influential art schools in France.
In 2014, Ralph Lauren Corporation partnered with The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, the largest and most comprehensive cancer center in Europe, to develop a world-class breast cancer research facility. In 2016, Ralph Lauren Corporation opened the Royal Marsden Ralph Lauren Center for Breast Cancer Research.
In March 2020, Ralph Lauren Corporation donated $10m and started making isolation gowns and medical masks to support the COVID-19 fight.
In May 2022, The Ralph Lauren Foundation announced $25 million worth of commitments to fund, expand or establish five Ralph Lauren cancer centers. The commitment will benefit institutions with a National Cancer institute (NCI) designation, including Georgetown Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, the Memorial Sloan Kettering (MSK) ralph Lauren Center and three additional locations.
Controversy
Levi Strauss lawsuit
Levi Strauss & Co. filed a lawsuit against Abercrombie & Fitch and the RL Corporation in July 2007 for trademark infringement. It alleged that the separate retailers used Levi's trademarked pocket design of connected arches in the design of some of their respective products.
South African Polo trademark issues
The Polo brand sold in South Africa is not affiliated with the Ralph Lauren brand. An independent South African company trademarked the Polo name and logo in South Africa.
Filippa Hamilton photo controversy
In 2009, Ralph Lauren apologized for digitally retouching a photograph of model Filippa Hamilton to make her look thinner. Hamilton also claims that she was fired by the company a few days later.
Accusations of intellectual property violation by Cowichan Tribes
After branding the sale of sweaters online as "Cowichan", it was reported that Cowichan Tribes would take "steps to communicate with Ralph Lauren and ensure that our product and name is protected". A petition through Change.org was set up to encourage Ralph Lauren to take action. This resulted in the product line being taken out of circulation and all mention of the name was removed from the Ralph Lauren website; there have been no further complaints from the Cowichan Tribe since.
Howard Smith
In March 2022, Howard Smith, Ralph Lauren Corp.'s chief commercial officer, resigned after a board investigation found that his actions had breached the company's code of conduct. The apparel said it “learned of concerns about Mr. Smith's personal behavior recently”, and the board of directors' audit committee initiated an independent investigation with the help of outside counsel. The firm didn't go into detail about the claims but said the inquiry found that Mr. Smith's actions broke the company's code of conduct and ethics and that his resignation was required.
See also
Tom Ford
Perry Ellis
Geoffrey Beene
Bill Blass
Billy Reid
Joseph Abboud
References
External links
Ralph Lauren – consumer website
Ralph Lauren – corporate website
Clothing brands of the United States
Clothing retailers of the United States
Design companies of the United States
High fashion brands
Shoe companies of the United States
Suit makers
Swimwear brands
American companies established in 1967
Clothing companies established in 1967
Design companies established in 1967
1967 establishments in New York City
L'Oréal
Lauren family
Shops in New York City
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
1970s fashion
1980s fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
Publicly traded companies based in New York City
Commercial buildings in Manhattan
Eyewear brands of the United States
1997 initial public offerings | wiki |
Road signs in Israel are decided by the Ministry of Transportation in the Division of Transportation Planning, most recently set forth in June 2011.
They generally use the same pattern of colors, shapes, and symbols as set out in the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, used also in most countries of Europe and the Middle East.
Language
Signs employ three scripts – Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin – and are written in Hebrew and Arabic, the two official languages of the country, and in English.
The stop sign, however, instead of displaying words in three languages, or even just in English as required by the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, conveys its meaning through the depiction of a raised hand.
Font
Israeli road sign regulations provide for the following fonts to be used: Tamrurim for Hebrew script, Medina for Arabic script, and Triumvirat (a Helvetica derivative) for Latin script as well as numbers. However, these rules are not consistently followed; some signs use Highway Gothic (used for all road signs in the United States) for the Latin script.
Signs giving warnings
Signs warning of hazardous conditions or dangerous situations (e.g. "Intersection" or "Steep incline ahead" bear a black-on-white symbol inside a red-bordered triangle (point uppermost).
Signs giving orders
With the exception of the special shapes used for "Stop" and "Yield" signs (respectively, an octagon and a downward-pointing triangle), signs giving orders are circular and are of two kinds:
Mandatory signs (e.g. "Turn right only") bear a white symbol on a blue disk.
Prohibitory signs (e.g. "No left turn") take the form of a black-on-white symbol inside a red-bordered circle, sometimes with the addition of a red slash through the symbol.
Signs giving information
Signs giving information are generally rectangular (sometimes pointed at one end in the case of direction signage).
Highways in Israel are classified as:
National (single-digit number)
Inter-city (two digits)
Regional (three digits)
Local (four digits)
Route-marker signs are also color-coded:
Freeways (Blue)
Expressways (Red)
Regional routes (Green)
Local roads (Black, formerly Brown)
Most directional signs to towns and cities are:
white-on-blue (freeways)
white-on-green (other main roads)
black-on-white (local destinations)
white-on-brown (tourist destinations: landmarks, historical sites, nature reserves, etc.).
The sign for permitted parking features a white-on-blue "P" for "parking" enclosed by the Hebrew letter Het ("ח") for "hanaya" (), which also means "parking").
The sign informing users that they are on a priority road is a white-edged yellow "diamond" (i.e. a square turned through 45°).
References
External links
Israel
Road transport in Israel | wiki |
Grip(s) or The Grip may refer to:
Common uses
Grip (job), a job in the film industry
Grip strength, a measure of hand strength
Music
Grip (percussion), a method for holding a drum stick or mallet
The Grip, a 1977 album by Arthur Blythe
Grip, a 1996 album by Husking Bee
The Grip, a 2011 EP by Cerebral Ballzy
"Grip" (song), by Seeb and Bastille, 208
"(Get A) Grip (On Yourself)", a 1977 song by the Stranglers
"Grip!", a 2003 song by Every Little Thing from Many Pieces
Organizations
Grip Ltd., a Toronto, Canada, design firm, originally founded to publish Grip magazine
Grip (magazine), an 1873–1894 satirical magazine
Grip Digital, a Czech video game developer and publisher
German Research Institute for Public Administration, Speyer, Rhineland Palatinate, Germany
National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, Minato, Tokyo, Japan
People
Grip (rapper) (born 1989), rapper
Jouko Grip (born 1949), Finnish Paralympic athlete
Håvard Fjær Grip, Norwegian cybernetics engineer
Places
Grip, Norway, an archipelago and deserted fishing village in Møre og Romsdal county
Grip (municipality), an 1897–1964 municipality that included the archipelago
Grip Lighthouse
Grips-Theater, a youth theater in Berlin, Germany
Science and technology
Grip (software), a CD-ripping software program
Grip, a part of a scrollbar
Battery grip, a camera accessory
Cable grip, a component of cable car systems
Pistol grip, the handle of a firearm, or a similar handle on a tool
Glutamate receptor-interacting protein
Greenland ice core project
Sports
Grip (auto racing), the cornering performance of a race car
Grip (badminton), how a badminton racket is held
Grip (cricket bowling), how a cricket ball is held by a bowler
Grip (gymnastics), a device worn on the hands of gymnasts
Grip (sport fencing), the hilt of a fencing weapon
Grip (sword), part of the hilt of a blade weapon
Grip (tennis), how a tennis racket is held
Other uses
Grip: Combat Racing, a racing video game
Grip (raven), talking raven kept as a pet by Charles Dickens
"Grip", a raven character in Charles Dickens' Barnaby Rudge
The Grip (TV series), a 1994–1998 Irish children's sports programme
Coordinated Regional Incident Management (Netherlands), an emergency management procedure in the Netherlands
Governance for Railway Investment Projects, a system used by Network Rail to manage railway infrastructure projects
See also
Grippe (influenza)
Grippe (disambiguation) | wiki |
Guard or guards may refer to:
Professional occupations
Bodyguard, who protects an individual from personal assault
Crossing guard, who stops traffic so pedestrians can cross the street
Lifeguard, who rescues people from drowning
Prison guard, who supervises prisoners in a prison or jail
Security guard, who protects property, assets, or people
Conductor (rail) § Train guard, in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and India
Computing and telecommunications
Guard (computer science), in programming language, an expression that directs program execution
Guard (information security), a device for controlling communication between computer networks
Guard interval, intervals in transmission, used in telecommunications
Aircraft emergency frequency, commonly referred to as "guard"
Governmental and military
Border guard, a state security agency
Coast guard, responsible for coastal defence and offshore rescue
Colour guard, a detachment of soldiers assigned to the protection of regimental colors
Commander-in-Chief's Guard, a unit of the Continental Army that protected General George Washington
Foot guards, a senior infantry unit in some armies, often with ceremonial duties
Garda Síochána, Irish police force informally known as Guards
Guard of honour, primarily ceremonial
Guards (Russia), elite military in pre-revolutionary Russia
Guards unit, a title earned by distinguished units in the former Soviet Union and in some contemporary ex-Soviet states
Police in medieval contexts
Royal Guard, military bodyguards, soldiers or armed retainers responsible for the protection of a royal person, often an elite unit of the regular armed forces.
Sports
Guard (gridiron football), a player between the center and the tackles on the offensive line
Guard (basketball)
Point guard, or "playmaker"
Shooting guard, or "off guard"
Combo guard, combining both point and shooting guard
Guard (grappling), a position in martial arts
Color guard (flag spinning), people who toss flags, spin a rifle and a saber at performances with a marching band
Winter guard, people who spin and toss flags, rifles, and/or sabers at indoor performances on a tarp
Other uses
Guard (surname)
Guards (band), an American rock band
Guards (steamboat)
Guard (weapon), part of the handle of a sword designed to stop the user's hand from slipping onto the blade
Guard dogs, guard llamas and guard geese, animals employed to watch for unwanted or unexpected animals or people
Abdominal guarding, in medicine, the tensing of the abdominal wall muscles to guard inflamed organs
Mate guarding, guarding of a potential or former mate from other individuals
Mouthguard, a protective device for the mouth
Wächter (Anatol) (Guards), several monumental sculptures by Anatol Herzfeld
See also
Civil Guard (disambiguation)
The Guard (disambiguation)
National Guard (disambiguation)
Sentry (disambiguation)
Sentinel (disambiguation) | wiki |
Collective Soul is an American rock band.
Collective Soul is also the name of:
Collective Soul (1995 album), a self-titled album by Collective Soul, also known as The Blue Album
Collective Soul (2009 album), a self-titled album by Collective Soul, also known as Rabbit
See also
Collective Soul discography
Collective Soul | wiki |
The police never tried to find a fire extinguisher. There is video that was published on Saint Louis Fox 2 News.
February 2014
See also
References
02
February 2014 events in the United States | wiki |
A dashcam (or dashboard camera) is an onboard video camera that continuously records the view through a vehicle's front windscreen and sometimes rear or other windows
Dashcam may also refer to:
Dashcam (horror film), 2021 film set in the United Kingdom
Dashcam (thriller film), 2021 film set in the United States | wiki |
Joseph N. Callahan was a record winning endurance swimmer from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1907 he set the record for swimming the 12 miles of Manila Bay in 4.5 hours.
References
Male long-distance swimmers
Sportspeople from Pittsburgh
Year of death missing
Year of birth missing | wiki |
The Academy Honorary Award – instituted in 1950 for the 23rd Academy Awards (previously called the Special Award, which was first presented at the 1st Academy Awards in 1929) – is given annually by the Board of Governors of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). Since 2009, it has been presented at the separate annual Governors Awards rather than at the regular Academy Awards ceremony. The Honorary Award celebrates motion picture achievements that are not covered by existing Academy Awards, although prior winners of competitive Academy Awards are not excluded from receiving the Honorary Award.
Unless otherwise specified, Honorary Award recipients receive the same gold Oscar statuettes received by winners of the competitive Academy Awards. Unlike the Special Achievement Award instituted in 1972, those on whom the Academy confers its Honorary Award do not have to meet "the Academy's eligibility year and deadline requirements".
Like the Special Achievement Award, the Special Award and Honorary Award have been used to reward significant achievements of the year that did not fit in existing categories, subsequently leading the Academy to establish several new categories, and to honor exceptional career achievements, contributions to the motion picture industry, and service to the Academy.
Recipients
Years for which the Special Award and Honorary Award recipients received their awards and the annual Academy Awards ceremonies at which they received them provided within parentheses throughout (as pertinent) follow this information for recipients listed in the Official Academy Award Database and Web-based official AMPAS documents.
Bob Hope was honored on four separate occasions.
1920s
1930s
1940s
1950s
1960s
1970s
* (Posthumous)
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Notes
See also
Academy Juvenile Award
Governors Awards
Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award
References
"Academy Award Statistics". Official Academy Awards Database. Accessed July 28, 2008.
"Honorary Award". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, oscars.org (official website). Accessed July 28, 2008. (2 pages.)
"Honorary Awards: Special Awards and Honorary Awards". Searchable Awards Database. Official Academy Awards Database. Accessed July 28, 2008.
External links
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences – Official Website.
The Official Academy Awards Database.
Honorary Award
Lifetime achievement awards | wiki |
Umm as Sabaan () is an islet in Bahrain. It lies off the north western corner of Bahrain Island, near Budaiya village, and east of Jidda Island, located in the Persian Gulf. It lies west of the capital, Manama, on Bahrain Island.
History
The island was privately owned by Sheikh Mohammed bin Salman Al Khalifa, uncle of the present King, Hamad bin Isa al Khalifa, and brother of Prime Minister Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa. Sheikh Mohammed renamed the island after himself as Al Mohammediya ().
In the 1930s, the ruler of Bahrain lent the island as a gift to Max Thornburg, an American oil executive from Caltex. He cultivated the northern part of the island and lived with his wife there many months every year. In 1958, the Thornburgs returned the island.
Administration
The island belongs to Northern Governorate.
Image gallery
References
Islands And Maritime Boundaries Of The Gulf 1798–1960, Archive Editions
Personal diary of Charles D. Belgrave, British Advisor to the ruler of Bahrain, 1926 - 1957
Article about politics of the islands, Abbas al Murshid
Islands of Bahrain
Private islands of Asia
Islands of the Persian Gulf
Populated places in the Northern Governorate, Bahrain | wiki |
Men is the plural of man, for an adult male human being.
Men or MEN may also refer to:
People
Human, a species of ape
Men (name), list of people so named
Ordinary soldiers, as distinct from Officer (armed forces) grades
Arts and entertainment
Films
Men (1924 film), a silent drama starring Pola Negri
Men (2022 film), a folk horror starring Jessie Buckley and Rory Kinnear
Men..., a 1985 West German comedy directed by Doris Dörrie
Music
MEN (band)
"Men" (song), a 1991 single by The Forester Sisters
Periodicals
Manchester Evening News, a regional daily newspaper in North West England
Men (magazine), a gay pornographic magazine
Other media
Man (Middle-earth), the fictional race of mortals in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth books
Men (kendo), one of the five strikes in kendo
Men (TV series), a 1989 American television series
Men.com, a gay pornographic website
Astronomy
Mensa (constellation), a constellation in the southern sky (by IAU abbreviation)
Chinese for the star Alpha Lupi
Religion
Men (deity), an ancient Phrygian god
Menachot, part of the Kodashim
Other uses
Menheniot railway station, Cornwall, England (GBR code: MEN)
Ministry of National Education (Madagascar), Le Ministre de l’Éducation Nationale
Ministry of National Education (Poland)
Multiple endocrine neoplasia, a medical condition with tumors of endocrine glands
Men (Armenian letter), part of the Armenian alphabet
See also
Man (disambiguation)
Mans (disambiguation)
The Men (disambiguation) | wiki |
Because inclusion in the Major League Baseball postseason is based upon the teams' regular-season records, procedures exist to break ties between teams.
This page described tie-breaking procedures in effect from 1995 through 2011. For current procedures, see Major League Baseball tie-breaking procedures.
Ties between two teams
Two-way tie for the division or wildcard
One game tie-breakers are played between teams tied for a division championship or wild-card berth on the day after the season was scheduled to end.
Two teams that are tied for a division championship play a tie-breaker if said game would eliminate the loser from the playoffs entirely. This was the case in 2009 when the Minnesota Twins and the Detroit Tigers were tied at the end of the regular season for the American League Central division title. Since the 2009 season, home advantage has been determined by comparing the teams involved in the tie by a set of performance criteria, with the first tiebreaker being head-to-head record. Accordingly, the first one-game playoff under the new rules, the AL Central playoff between the Minnesota Twins and Detroit Tigers, was hosted by the Twins, who won the scheduled season series 11–7. The Twins won that game and advanced to the Division Series, where they were swept by the eventual World Series winners, the New York Yankees.
Two teams that are tied for the wild-card berth (such that both teams have a worse record than their division champion, whether in the same division or not), always play a tiebreaker game. Home-field advantage in this scenario is given according to tie-breakers outlined in the next section.
Prior to 2009, home-field advantage in the game was determined by a series of coin tosses that occurred a few weeks before the end of the season between teams that were close enough to each other in the standings where a tie becomes a significant possibility. If new situations occurred (i.e. a team quickly rises in the standings making another tie possible) more coin tosses occurred. Contrary to what some believe, home-field advantage was not determined by head-to-head record in the regular season until . For example, in 1995, the Seattle Mariners and California Angels played a one-game playoff to determine the AL West championship. The Mariners hosted (and won) the one game playoff but lost the season series 5–7 in games (excluding the one game playoff).
If postseason berths are not in dispute
No game is played if both teams are guaranteed to go to the playoffs. This happened in 2001 Major League Baseball season when the Houston Astros (9–7 against STL) and St. Louis Cardinals (7–9 against HOU) tied for first in the National League Central with records of 93–69. In 2005, the New York Yankees (10–9 against BOS) and Boston Red Sox (9–10 against NYY) each finished 95–67 in the American League East. In 2006 when the Los Angeles Dodgers (5–13 against SD) and the San Diego Padres (13–5 against LAD) were tied for the National League West division title and the Wild Card. In this case, the rules below are used to determine the division winner.
Two-way intradivision tie-breaker, with both teams already guaranteed a playoff spot with one as the division champion and the other as a wildcard. The division title is awarded in the following priority:
The team with the best record in head-to-head play.
The team with the best overall record ignoring interleague play.
The team with the best record in the final 81 games of the season, ignoring interleague play.
The team with the best record in the final 82 games of the season, continue one game back until the tie is broken (since teams in the same division play each other as many as 19 times, this step is guaranteed to break the tie. Interleague games are skipped and ignored in this process.)
The loser of this tie-breaker goes to the playoffs as the wild card team.
Ties between two division winners
If two champions from separate divisions have the same record, a tiebreaker is needed to determine seeding. With the current set-up of Major League Baseball divisions, there are three possible scenarios.
The top two teams have the same record, and one of the teams is in the division with the wild-card. In this case, the team from the division that also contains the wild card berth winner becomes the second seed and the other team becomes the first seed. This is a convenience based on the rule that two teams from the same division cannot play each other in the first round of the playoffs, the Division Series round.
if these teams meet again in the League Championship Series, they would be re-seeded based upon the two way intra-division tie-breaker.
The top two teams have the same record, but neither team is in the division with the wild-card. Here, the intra-division tiebreaker at the bottom of the previous section is used. This determines the first and second seed.
There is a clear winner of the first seed, but the remaining two division winners have the same record. Again, the intra-division tiebreaker at the bottom of the previous section is used. This determines the second and third seed.
Ties between three teams
Three-way tie for the division or wildcard
If the three teams have identical records against each other in the regular season, the office of the commissioner conducts a draw with the teams designated as teams A, B, and C. First, Team A hosts Team B. The following day, the winner of that game plays and hosts Team C. The winner of the game on the second day advances to the playoffs. The team designations are determined as follows:
If the teams do not have identical records against one another, and one team has a best record against both other teams, and another team has a winning record against the final team, the first team shall get the first pick of their team designation, the second team gets the second pick, and the last team is assigned the remaining designation.
If one team has a better record against both of the other teams, and the two other teams have the same record against each other, then the first team would get the first pick for team designation, and the other teams would draw lots. The winner of the draw would get the second pick, and the loser of the draw would be assigned the remaining designation.
If two teams have the same record against each other, and both have a better record than the last team, then the first two teams draw lots, with the winner choosing their designation first, the loser of the draw picking their designation second and the final team being assigned the remaining designation.
If each team has a winning record against one other team in the three team group, and a losing record against the other team in the three team group, the priority for choosing designations shall be chosen based on overall winning percentage within the three team group, any ties in winning percentage within the three team group will be broken by drawing lots.
"Mixed" three-way tie
The situation may arise that two teams from the same division are tied for the division championship, but they are also tied with another team from a different division, with that team not having the best record in their division, but having a better record than all of the other non-division winners.
In this case the two teams in the same division play a one-game playoff, with the winner declared the division champion. The next day, the loser of the first game, and the other team from the other division play each other, with the winner declared the wild card.
Three-way ties between division winners
If there is a three-way tie among all division champions, the team with the best record against both of the other division champion is given the top seed with the remaining teams seeded as follows:
Best record in games against own division.
Best overall record in the regular season ignoring interleague play.
The team with the best record in the final 81 games of the season, ignoring interleague play.
The team with the best record in the final 82 games of the season, extending backward until the tie is broken (since teams in the same division play each other as much as 19 times, this step is guaranteed to break the tie, with interleague games skipped and ignored in this process.)
If neither team has a better record against the other teams, immediately go to above tiebreaker.
Ties between four teams
The four teams draw lots, as teams A, B, C, and D. On the first day, Team B plays at Team A, and Team D plays at Team C. The next day, the winners of these games play each other at the ballpark of the winner between Team A and B.
References
Major League Baseball rules | wiki |
Major League Baseball tie-breaking procedures are used by Major League Baseball (MLB) to break ties between teams for qualification and seeding into the MLB postseason. The procedures in use since , when a third wild card team and resulting Wild Card Series were added for both the American League and National League, are outlined below.
Ties between two teams
Two-way tie for the division or wild-card
One-game tiebreakers were played between teams tied for a division championship or a league's second wild-card berth. These games were played the day after the season was scheduled to end. Home-field advantage was determined using the rules listed below ("Breaking Ties Without Playoff Games").
From the implementation of the wild-card in 1994 to the end of the 2011 season, a different rule was in place. Two teams tied for a division did not play a tiebreaker if their records were better than all non-division winners in their league. Instead, said tie was broken using the rules listed below ("Breaking Ties Without Playoff Games"). This scenario happened in the 2001 when the Houston Astros and St. Louis Cardinals tied for first in the National League Central with 93–69, in 2005, the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox each finished 95–67 in the American League East, and in 2006, the San Diego Padres and Los Angeles Dodgers finished tied with 88–74 in the National League West. The team that had the better head-to-head record the 2001 Astros, 2005 Yankees, and 2006 Padres) was the division champion, thus receiving a better seed in the postseason. The other team (the 2001 Cardinals, 2005 Red Sox, and 2006 Dodgers) was seeded as the wild card.
From 2012 to 2021, when a second wild-card berth was adopted, thus requiring the establishment of the Wild Card Game, the non-division winner with the best record in the league faced possible elimination on the first day of the postseason. Consequently, the tie-breaking rules were changed so that two teams tied for a division championship had to play a tiebreaking game even if both teams had already qualified for the postseason. The team losing the tie-breaking game qualified for a wild-card berth only if its regular-season record was among the league's two best records for non-division-winners. If that team were tied for the second wild-card spot, a second tie-breaking game would have been played.
If, on the other hand, two teams had been tied for the first wild-card spot, no tie-breaking game would have been played. Rather, the two teams simply played against each other in the Wild Card game, with home-field advantage awarded using tie-breaking rules described in the next section.
Beginning with the 2022 season, a third wild-card berth per league was adopted. Thus, the tiebreaker game format was eliminated, to compensate for the expanded (12-team) postseason.
Breaking ties without playoff games
Coin tosses or drawing of lots will be used if all criteria below fail.
The team with the better head-to-head winning percentage during the regular season.
The team with the best overall record in intradivision games.*
The team with the best overall record in intraleague games.
The team with the best record in the final 81 intraleague games of the season.
The team with the best record in the final 82 intraleague games of the season (provided the game added is not between the tied teams), continue one game back until the tie is broken (Interleague games are skipped and ignored in this process.)
*all current references in mlb.com website indicate that this rule applies even for teams that are not in the same division.
Ties between two division winners
If two champions from separate divisions have the same record, the tiebreaking procedure listed above is used to determine postseason seeding. No additional games are played.
Ties among multiple teams
Playoff games for multiple-way ties
Tied teams are designated as A, B, C, and D. Choice for one of these designations is first given to the team winning the tie-breakers (listed below). While A is usually the "best" designation, there are some scenarios where C has a different path to the postseason. If a division title is up for grabs, then those divisional teams will select from the first designations (A, B,...).
On Day 1, A will host B and C will host D (if there is no fourth team, C will be considered to have won this game). Games on Day 2 may occur as follows:
If the teams are all competing for 1 playoff spot, then the A/B winner will host the C/D winner for that spot.
If 3 teams, not all tied for the same division lead, are competing for 2 playoff spots, C will host the A/B loser for the second spot.
If 4 teams were competing for 3 playoff spots, and two teams are competing for the division championship, then the A/B loser will play the C/D loser for the final wild-card spot. Home field will be determined by the rules for two way tiebreakers.
If 4 teams were competing for 3 playoff spots, and three teams are competing for the division championship, if D wins, then the A/B winner wins the division and Club D is a wild card, with the A/B loser then hosting C for the other wild card. If D loses, then the A/B winner hosts team C for the division, and the loser is a wild card, and the A/B loser hosts team D for the other wild card.
If 3 or 4 teams, tied for the same division's lead, both win on Day 1, then the A/B winner will host the C/D winner to determine the division title. The loser of this Day 2 game will earn a wild card spot. If four teams are competing for three spots, the A/B loser hosts the C/D loser for the a wild card.
Determining team designations
The order in which teams pick their designations (A, B, C, D) will be determined by the following 5-step tie-breaking system. If there is a tie for both wild card and division title spots, then the first designations will match teams competing for their division title.
Winning/Losing season series against each of the other tied teams (only if a 3 way tie)
Winning percentage among all tied teams
Winning percentage in intradivision games
Winning percentage in the last half of intraleague play
If still tied, the next most recent intraleague game is added into this winning percentage (skipping games between tied teams) until not all teams are tied.
If at any given step some, but not all, teams remain tied, then those teams that are still tied revert to Step 1.
See also
List of Major League Baseball tie-breakers
Sources
References
External links
2015 MLB tiebreaker rules from MLB.com
2014 MLB tiebreaker rules from MLB.com
2013 MLB tiebreaker rules from MLB.com
2012 MLB tiebreaker rules from the Internet Archive Wayback Machine (archived from MLB.com)
Major League Baseball rules | wiki |
The Boarding School may refer to:
The Boarding School; or, Lessons of a Preceptress to Her Pupils, 1798 American novel
The Boarding School (film), 1969 Spanish psychological suspense/horror film
See also
Boarding School (disambiguation)
Boarding school, educational institution | wiki |
American Masters is a PBS television series which produces biographies on enduring writers, musicians, visual and performing artists, dramatists, filmmakers, and those who have left an indelible impression on the cultural landscape of the United States. It is produced by WNET in New York City. The show debuted on PBS in 1986.
Series overview
Season 1 (1986)
Season 2 (1987)
Season 3 (1988-89)
Season 4 (1989)
Season 5 (1990)
Season 6 (1991-92)
Season 7 (1993)
Season 8 (1993-94)
Season 9 (1994-95)
Season 10 (1995-96)
Season 11 (1996-97)
Season 12 (1997-98)
Season 13 (1998-99)
Season 14 (1999-2000)
Season 15 (2000-01)
Season 16 (2001-02)
Season 17 (2002-03)
Season 18 (2003-04)
Season 19 (2005)
Season 20 (2006-07)
Season 21 (2007)
Season 22 (2007-08)
Season 23 (2008-09)
Season 24 (2009-2010)
Season 25 (2010-11)
Season 26 (2011-12)
Season 27 (2012-13)
Season 28 (2013-14)
Season 29 (2014-15)
Season 30 (2015-16)
Season 31 (2016-17)
Season 32 (2017-18)
Season 33 (2018-19)
Season 34 (2019-2020)
Season 35 (2020-21)
Season 36 (2021-22)
References
Lists of television episodes | wiki |
Chemo is a prefix meaning chemical and commonly used as an abbreviation for chemotherapy.
Chemo may also refer to:
People
Chemo (musician), an English musician now known as Forest DLG
Chemo Soto, a Puerto Rican politician
José del Solar, nicknamed "Chemo", a Peruvian retired footballer who played as a defensive midfielder, and a current coach
Arts, entertainment, and media
Chemo (album), or The Chemo, an album working title used by Busta Rhymes
Chemo (character), a supervillain comics character
Blondell Wayne Tatum, a recurring character in novels by Carl Hiaasen, nicknamed "Chemo" for his grotesque appearance
Chemo Hero, a song by Dolly Parton
See also
Chem (disambiguation) | wiki |
Human factors are the physical or cognitive properties of individuals, or social behavior which is specific to humans, and influence functioning of technological systems as well as human-environment equilibria. The safety of underwater diving operations can be improved by reducing the frequency of human error and the consequences when it does occur. Human error can be defined as an individual's deviation from acceptable or desirable practice which culminates in undesirable or unexpected results.
Dive safety is primarily a function of four factors: the environment, equipment, individual diver performance and dive team performance. The water is a harsh and alien environment which can impose severe physical and psychological stress on a diver. The remaining factors must be controlled and coordinated so the diver can overcome the stresses imposed by the underwater environment and work safely. Diving equipment is crucial because it provides life support to the diver, but the majority of dive accidents are caused by individual diver panic and an associated degradation of the individual diver's performance. - M.A. Blumenberg, 1996
Human error is inevitable and most errors are minor and do not cause significant harm, but others can have catastrophic consequences. Examples of human error leading to accidents are available in vast numbers, as it is the direct cause of 60% to 80% of all accidents.
In a high risk environment, as is the case in diving, human error is more likely to have catastrophic consequences. A study by William P. Morgan indicates that over half of all divers in the survey had experienced panic underwater at some time during their diving career. These findings were independently corroborated by a survey that suggested 65% of recreational divers have panicked under water. Panic frequently leads to errors in a diver's judgment or performance, and may result in an accident. Human error and panic are considered to be the leading causes of dive accidents and fatalities.
Only 4.46% of the recreational diving fatalities in a 1997 study were attributable to a single contributory cause. The remaining fatalities probably arose as a result of a progressive sequence of events involving two or more procedural errors or equipment failures, and since procedural errors are generally avoidable by a well-trained, intelligent and alert diver, working in an organised structure, and not under excessive stress, it was concluded that the low accident rate in commercial Scuba diving is due to this factor. The study also concluded that it would be impossible to eliminate absolutely all minor contraindications of Scuba diving, as this would result in overwhelming bureaucracy and would bring all diving to a halt.
Factors influencing the performance of a diving team
A dive team may be considered as a system which is influenced by the following factors:
equipment
procedures
organization
environment
individuals
interactions
There are considerations associated with each of these factors relating specifically to diving.
Human factors
Humans function underwater by virtue of technology, as our physiology is poorly adapted to the environment. Human factors are significant in diving because of this harsh and alien environment, and because diver life support systems and other equipment that may be required to perform specific tasks depend on technology that is designed, operated and maintained by humans, and because human factors are cited as significant contributors to diving accidents in most accident investigations
Professional diving is a means to accomplish a wide range of activities underwater in a normally inaccessible and potentially hazardous environment. While working underwater, divers are subjected to high levels of physical and psychological stress due to environmental conditions and the limitations of the life support systems, as well as the rigours of the task at hand.
Unmanned remotely operated vehicles (ROV's) allow performance of a variety of tasks at almost any depths for extended periods, but there are still many essential underwater tasks which can only be performed or are most effectively performed by a diver. A diver is still the most versatile underwater tool, but also the most unpredictable, and his own behaviour may threaten his safety.
Recreational, or sport divers, including technical divers, dive for entertainment, and are usually motivated by a desire to explore and witness, though there is no distinct division between the underwater activities of recreational and professional divers. The primary distinction is that legal obligations and protection are significantly different, and this is reflected in organisational structure and procedures.
Recreational diving has been rated more risky than snow skiing, but less risky than other adventure sports such as rock climbing, bungee jumping, motorcycle racing and sky diving. Improvements in training standards and equipment design and configuration, and increased awareness of the risks of diving, have not eliminated fatal incidents, which occur every year in what is generally a reasonably safe recreational activity.
Both categories of diver are usually trained and certified, but recreational diving equipment is typically limited to self contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba), whereas professional divers may be trained to use a greater variety of diving systems, from scuba to surface supplied mixed gas and saturation systems. A recreational diver may use some ancillary equipment to enhance the diving experience, but the professional will almost always use tools to perform a specific task.
Since the goal of recreational diving is personal enjoyment, a decision to abort a dive, for whatever reason, normally only affects the diver and his companions. A working diver faced with the same decision, must disappoint a client who needs and expects the diver's services, often with significant financial consequences. Therefore, the working diver often faces greater pressure to provide the service at the cost of reduced personal safety. An understanding of the human factors associated with diving may help the diving team to strike an appropriate balance between service delivery and safety.
Human factors are the influences on human behavior, and the resulting effects of human performance on a process or system. Safety can be improved by reducing the frequency of human error and the consequences when it does occur. Human error can be defined as an individual's deviation from acceptable or desirable practice which culminates in undesirable or unexpected results.
Categories of error
Reason categorizes how errors occur by analysing what causes a plan to fail.
If a plan is good, but poorly executed, then failure is due to slips, lapses, trips or fumbles.
If the plan itself is faulty, then failure is due to a mistake.
If established or approved procedures or regulations are intentionally ignored, then a mistake can be categorised as a violation.
Levels of performance
These error categories relate to three levels of human performance:
Skill-based: Routine, practiced tasks performed in a largely automatic fashion, with occasional conscious progress checks.
Rule-based: If the automatic responses are unsuitable, a switch of level can be made where memorized performance patterns or rules are applied. These are structured on an If (situation), then do (actions) pattern, often similar to one from previous experience, and perceptions of the current situation are used to select an appropriate solution from memory. Potential solutions are developed through education, training, and experience, and are selected automatically from memory, but verified that they are appropriate by conscious thought.
Knowledge-based: When solutions from memory do not suit the current situation, the fall back is to knowledge-based solutions, where the current situation must be analysed and a solution developed in real time. Performance is relatively slow and laborious and the process is subject to errors resulting from constraints of information, time, understanding, intelligence and distractions. During emergencies, well-reasoned responses are often substituted by inappropriate and unsuccessful reactions.
Error mechanisms
Three error mechanisms can be defined which correlate the error categories with human performance levels:
Skill-based slips, lapses, and fumbles, where the plan is good but execution is not, due to inattention, distraction, confusion, or simply inadequate ability.
Rule-based mistakes, where a good rule is misapplied, a bad rule applied, or there is a failure to apply a good rule.
Knowledge-based mistakes, where a cognitive error is made in an attempt to analyse an unfamiliar problem.
Violations
Violations are a special category of mistakes where someone intentionally fails to apply a good rule, or deviates from acceptable or desirable practice.
Four categories of violations may be identified:
Routine violations, which involve cutting corners, or taking short cuts, increasing risk for convenience or profit.
Violations 'for kicks', where rules are broken to prove machismo or to alleviate boredom.
Necessary violations, where the rules prevent people from performing a necessary task.
Exceptional violations, which usually are the result of extreme emotions.
Age and gender are factors in the tendency to violate rules: Young men are more likely to violate rules than most older women, but men and women of all ages are similarly prone to error.
These error mechanisms explain the psychological basis for errors, but the
mechanisms are not readily observable.
Stress
Stress has been defined as "the result of an imbalance between the demands placed upon an individual and the capacity of that individual to respond to the demands".
A person will respond to stress by taking actions to change the situation to reduce the stress. When the actions are successful the result is described as 'coping', when unsuccessful the level of stress will increase and may lead to panic.
The person exposed to a stressful situation (beyond skill based response), cognitively appraises the situation and compares it to previous experience using rule based or knowledge based assessment. The perception of stress is an individual reaction based on learned behaviour and available information and can vary dramatically between subjects. Perceived stress levels can in many cases be reduced by a reduction in uncertainty, which may result from education, training and experience, and a stressor which is perceived by one person as a threat, may be regarded as a challenge by someone else, or an inconvenience by a third person. These perceptions all evoke a response, but they indicate a very different level of tolerance and ability to cope with the situation.
Once stress is perceived, the person must decide how to respond to the stressor. The situation must be assessed, memory interrogated, options evaluated, and an appropriate response chosen.Ability to perform the chosen response may be affected by the stress situation, and once the response has been attempted, the subject will review how the response has affected the situation, and judge whether the response has been effective. Depending on the perceived residual stress, the process may be stopped or repeated indefinitely until the situation has been resolved, or the stress level increases until the subject is no longer able to cope.
Performance under stress
The level of perceived stress can affect performance. When there is little stress there is a tendency toward carelessness that may result in poor performance, but sufficiently high stress can overwhelm capacity and cause degraded performance due to inability to cope. Optimum performance occurs when the stress levels are less than the person's ability to respond, but sufficient to keep them alert. This varies with the individual and the situation, and can not be maintained continuously, but performance can be improved through personnel selection and training.
Training
The benefits of training may include an increase in performance at a given stress level and improvement of coping skills by developing response reactions to given stress situations. These are patterns of action which have been learned by experience, and can be applied to similar situations when the person operates on Reason's rule-based performance level, and reduce the need for a long and error prone
cognitive process, thereby saving time, reducing stress and improving the ability to cope.
The objective of training should be to improve ability to continue the normal coping process when presented with unforeseen circumstances. A possible danger of training is over-reliance on learned procedures, as each stress situation is in some way unique and therefore no learned procedure will be a perfect match. The individual must retain the ability to assess whether the learned procedure is appropriate and adapt it to the specific situation. Therefore, training should include situational assessment and decision making under stress.
Coping
Appropriate stress response, or coping, is a cognitive process which evaluates a stress situation and the available options, then selects an appropriate course of action to respond. A diver needs to retain the ability to process information and make decisions while under stress, especially when confronted with unforeseen events. A sense of control and competence while under stress is crucial. An over-stressed person will tend to lose control and truncate the coping process, and become indecisive, losing the ability to analyze and act. As the situation overcomes the individual's ability to cope, panic sets in and creates a barrier in the stress response that blocks the decision process. A lack of action or continuation of an inappropriate action may lead to errors and accidents.
The diver's maxim, "stop, breathe, think, act", is a widely taught method for working through unexpected events underwater. The intention is to calm the diver and maintain an ability to cognitively appraise a stress situation.
Stop any action which may have created or is exacerbating the stress situation. This is intended to stabilise the situation sufficiently for the subsequent steps to be effective.
Focus on breathing effectively, concentrating on breathing rate and depth, and relaxing as much as possible. Experience shows that the majority of diver fatalities are due to drowning even though ample air was still available to the diver. This step should calm the diver's rising anxiety by showing that adequate life support is on hand, and counteract any carbon dioxide buildup that may be contributing to anxiety.
Think about the problem. Assess the situation and evaluate the options for resolving the imposed stress. At this stage the diver is probably operating in Reason's knowledge-based performance level where training and education can provide tools to help solve the problem.
Select a preferred option and act. This completes the stress response process. If the response has the desired effect, the situation should resolve, otherwise further thought and another response will be needed.
The dive maxim, "stop, breathe, think, act" is generally a good response, but it is not appropriate for all diving emergencies. This response
assumes that both time and an adequate supply of breathing gas are available, and though this is often true, some situations require immediate learned responses which must be habituated by education, training and repetitive practice to overcome inappropriate instinctive and natural reflexive responses. For example, a diver should exhale whenever ascending to prevent lung overexpansion injuries, and if the diver is subject to a collision or sudden upwelling underwater, the natural reaction may be to tense up and hold his breath, particularly if the breathing gas supply is interrupted at the same time. This reaction could prove fatal if the diver is lifted sufficiently to cause lung overexpansion. Only through education training and practice, and perhaps proper selection, will the diver reflexively exhale as a response to a pressure reduction.
Other factors suggested by Bachrach to prevent panic are listed below:
Physical fitness: having a reserve capacity.
Training which emphasizes in-water skills and comfort
Medical examinations to ensure no hidden contraindications to diving
Fatigue prevention or avoidance
Age limits
Panic
The most frequently cited cause of diver injury or death is panic, or a loss of control Analysis of the human factors associated with diving can identify the primary influences which lead to panic, and suggest methods to promote safety.
Dive safety is primarily controlled by the individual diver and their ability to cope with stress underwater. The development of a diving accident may begin with a diver in a normal psychological and physiological state. The presence of a stressor may alter the diver's psychological and physiological state, and if the stress becomes excessive the diver's skills will diminish. Stressors may arise from human factors, the environment, equipment, procedures, organizational factors, or interactions between any of these, and these stress effects are cumulative.
A diver is normally able to cope with applied stressors and perform the dive safely, and while the diver has sufficient capacity for coping, the stress is relieved or controlled and the operation can continue, but it f the stress exceeds the diver's capacity, then the stressor is beyond the diver's control and an accident may result.
Underwater it is possible to see direct evidence of stress. A diver breathing rapidly produces more bubbles at closer intervals than a relaxed diver. If a diver's breathing is erratic, their ability to control their position in the water is often compromised, and their depth control may be reduced so that they move up and down and flail their limbs, or drift away from their appropriate depth without adjusting buoyancy to compensate.
Panic tends to occur when three elements are present: The diver is unprepared for the triggering situation, has difficulty with emotional regulation and a stressor occurs. This model has been suggested as potentially useful for encouraging divers to identify and stay within the limits of their competence and to learn,, practice, and refine the skills likely to be necessary for the dives they plan to undertake as a strategy to reduce the risk of panic in the event of any reasonably foreseeable contingency.
From errors to accidents
An accident is an event leading to injury, occupational illness, death, or material loss or damage. A "near accident" is an event which had the potential to cause injury, occupational illness, death, or material loss or damage, but did not due to some corrective action.
Three critical stages can be identified in the development of an error into an accident:
contributing events and conditions, which create the situation in which the error is possible, or increase the probability of it occurring.
a direct cause: The action or lack of action which precedes and precipitates the error, and is an essential contribution to the commission of the error.
compounding events and conditions, which alter the consequences of the error once it has occurred.
Equipment, procedures, organization, environment, individual factors and interactions between them are the sources of contributing and compounding events and conditions. Analysis of near accidents can be of great value to identify sources of error and allow planning to reduce or eliminate contributing and compounding conditions.
A safety study estimated about a million shortcuts taken per fatal accident.
The fatality is the peak of the accident pyramid. The base of the pyramid is the shortcuts, and in between are escalating levels of near-accidents which could (but too often do not) serve as lessons learned. Blumenberg, 1996.
Accident investigations typically focus on the end event, and attempt to erect barriers to similar accidents, such as personal protection equipment, backup equipment or alarm systems. These are intended to prevent the recurrence of similar accidents, and are often effective in this limited goal.
Accidents continue to occur because the majority of the contributing and compounding factors are not addressed. Human behavior and the systems in which people work are too complex to analyse all possible interactions. A more effective route to accident prevention is to reduce or mitigate the occurrence of human error by focusing on the contributing and compounding human factors that create an environment in which accidents are likely to occur.
Crisis management
Accidents frequently appear to happen unexpectedly because people failed to recognize the indications of developing crisis which resulted in the accident. A crisis can be defined as a rapidly developing sequence of events in which the risks associated with the system rapidly increase to a hazardous state. The interaction of system factors is complex and often unpredictable, and hazard can accumulate at a rate which varies depending on the system, until corrective action is taken, the hazard dissipates without intervention, or an accident occurs.
Although the individual operator is most often responsible for committing errors that cause accidents, it is also often the individual operator who is best placed to recognize the development of a dangerous situation and take corrective action, and this usually happens before the situation escalates into an accident.
The ability of the operator to recognize potentially dangerous situations can be improved by incorporating warning mechanisms into systems, and training can significantly improve their ability to recognize the development of a hazardous situation and take appropriate corrective action in time to return the system to an acceptable level of safety.
Equipment
Diving equipment can be grouped into four general categories:
Life support equipment - the system that provides breathing gas to the diver.
Safety and protective equipment.
Equipment that helps the diver adapt to the underwater environment.
Specialized tools for performing underwater work.
Manufacturers are continuously improving diving equipment to allow deeper, longer and safer diving operations, but the equipment still has ergonomic limitations and can exert significant stress on the diver:
Regulators require increased breathing effort .
Protective suits restrict mobility.
Fins work muscles differently to walking or running, which are more natural activities for humans.
Tools are often bulky, heavy, and physically difficult to move and operate underwater.
Proper ergonomic engineering can reduce the physical demands on the diver due to the equipment, but it also important for equipment design to consider psychological aspects. Research by Morgan and others has shown that anxiety states may be a response to disordered breathing caused by use of breathing apparatus, and that some people experience respiratory distress or panic behaviour while doing physical exercise wearing scuba. Morgan has also recommended that more research be done on psychological aspects of human-respirator interface.
Procedures
Diving procedures are promulgated in many forms, including:
Navy Diving Manuals
Training and instructor reference manuals of the recreational diver certification agencies
Government health and safety regulations
Codes of practice published by government departments, IMCA and other associations of diving contractors, NOAA and other Scientific diving institutions, Cave diving groups etc.
Operations manuals of individual diving contractors.
Among the organisations publishing diving procedures, the US Navy , British Health and Safety Executive and NOAA are notable for funding published scientific research on diving safety.
Separate diving procedures are developed for each mode of diving, such as air and mixed gas diving, inshore and offshore diving, or recreational and professional diving. Decompression tables, programs and algorithms that prescribe depth and time limitations are also a subset of procedures, and highlight the unique nature of the hyperbaric work environment.
Environment
The underwater work environment exposes divers to physical, psychological and pathological stresses. No other industrial working environment alters normal worker physiology more than diving. Blumenberg, 1996.
Environmental influences include pressure, cold, currents, surge, and limited visibility, and underwater conditions can change rapidly, often without warning. Dive teams must anticipate environmental conditions and their effects, and plan accordingly. The diving environment cannot be controlled, but the diving team can control when and how the diver enters the underwater environment.
Individual
The dominant factor controlling diver safety is the individual diver's physical and mental fitness to dive, and physical and psychological evaluation of divers can improve dive safety.
Not everyone has the physical and mental capacity to dive safely. Professional diving can be physically demanding work, and some diving tasks require considerable strength and stamina, and a sufficient reserve of physical and psychological strength to cope with unexpected situations.
The requirements for recreational diving may be less rigorous, but any diver, whether professional or recreational, should have some minimum capabilities in order to dive safely. Physical screening standards which take into account anticipated work demands are commonly used by commercial and military divers, and detailed lists of physical contraindications to diving have been published. These standards can vary widely, but the need for physical screening is generally accepted.
Behavioral problems may be more important than physical problems because 'no amount of physical screening can protect a diver from his own stupidity' and 'the majority of diving accidents are caused by poor judgment or inattention to the basic rules of diving safety... '
Mental fitness may be at least as important as physical fitness for divers. and maturity and responsibility should be evaluated as carefully as physical health and fitness.
Selection of divers should match the individual's mental and physical abilities to job demands, but although research has successfully developed a unique psychological profile for divers, psychological screening is seldom applied. According to Morgan, divers are "characterized by low scores for measures of anxiety, and high scores for measures of aggression, assertiveness, confidence and sensation-seeking; they also tend to possess an internal locus of control." Morgan has also successfully used Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory to predict with 88% accuracy which divers amongst a class of new recreational divers would experience panic.
Organization
The organizational factor is the dominant controllable factor affecting behavior of the individual diver. The organization can be analysed at several levels ranging from a two-man buddy team through the dive team, the whole organization and up to the whole diving industry, and all organizational levels influence the individual diver's behavior and performance.
Interactions
Interactions between the other factors is the most unpredictable factor. Some interactions are linear and relatively easily predicted, but others are complex. Unanticipated interactions between factors can be critical when a diver is working in an isolated hyperbaric environment. Thorough planning and preparation can help to minimize unanticipated interactions, and
effective coping skills may be necessary to control interactions when they occur.
Why accidents happen
The simplistic statement that most diving accidents are due to diver error does not address the underlying reasons for the diver making the mistake. Errors are inherent in human nature, and it is more useful to consider all levels of influence on the behaviour of the diver as this may throw light on the reasons why the same errors are repeated so often.
Analyses of aviation accidents show that 60 to 80% of aviation accidents are at least partly due to human error. The techniques of Human Factor Error Analysis can be applied to diving at all levels of the industry and sport, and can provide insight into why incidents occur and divers die. Industrial accident analysis indicates a ratio of around 1 in 600 of fatalities to reportable accidents, and the British Hyperbaric Association indicates that approximately 3.5 times the number of divers are recompressed as are reported through the BSAC incident reporting system.
Failure of accident filters
A four layered model for defense against human error has been described, which attributes error to three levels of latent failure and one of active failure, and posits that in general an accident is due to failure of all four levels of defence. These levels are:
Influence of the organisation: Which should provide a culture of safety.
Supervision: Which should provide a system of oversight and checks, and backup for contingencies.
Preconditions: The state of the diver and equipment, including levels of health, fitness, skill and training, condition and suitability of equipment, planning and communications.
Actions of the diver: Situational awareness, response to contingencies.
The failures associated with these levels are labelled:
Organisational influences - a level of latent failures: In professional diving, the employer, diving contractor, health and safety authority etc. In recreational diving, the organisational culture of the training and certification agencies and dive schools, resorts and employers of instructors and divemasters.
Unsafe supervision - a level of latent failures: In recreational diving this level includes the other members of a dive team, such as the buddy, dive leaders (divemasters) and skippers, who are to some degree responsible for safety.
Preconditions for unsafe acts - a level of latent failures: These are preconditions in the diver and his equipment which aggravate the risk of diver error occurring.
Unsafe acts - the active failures: The actions which lead directly to the accident, the actual "Diver error", usually blamed in isolation for the accident.
Unsafe actions
Unsafe actions can be categorised as errors or violations.
Errors
Errors are events where the outcome is not that which was intended or hoped for, or expected, and the precipitating action is unintentional.
Errors of skill
Skill based errors refer to skills learned during training. These should generally be sufficiently well learned to be done without much conscious thought, as an almost automatic reaction to the circumstances. This makes them more reliable in a stressful situation, but also makes them more susceptible to performance loss with retention interval (when not practiced often enough). The rate of performance degradation depends on degree of overlearning, skill type and personal differences.
Other skill based errors involve incorrect technique. This can be a result of incorrect training or inadequate assessment and feedback during training, or learning bad habits after training.
Skill based errors are prevented by practicing skills and ensuring that they are effective.
Skill based errors include:
Incorrect equipment assembly and checking
Inadequate performance of standard and emergency procedures
Poor finning technique, causing silting out, inefficient propulsion.
Poor buoyancy control, causing violations of decompression obligation, barotraumas.
Omitted step in a procedure where order is critical
Incorrect gas planning and monitoring
Errors of decision
These are errors where the actions proceed according to intention, but prove to be inappropriate.
Procedural errors
Inappropriate response to an emergency.
Failing to recognise an emergency in time to take corrective action.
Failure to communicate a problem to the team.
Misunderstanding a communication from another diver in difficulty.
Applying the wrong procedure when the situation is correctly identified.
These errors occur when a situation is either not recognised, or misdiagnosed, or the diver has forgotten the correct reaction. These are all more probable if the stress level is already high unless the procedures have been well entrenched in memory by regular training and practice. Regular training with multiple scenarios and honest debriefings are recommended as mitigation for this class of error.
Poor choice
Poor decision on whether or not to terminate a dive.
Continuing a dive after equipment failure eliminates bailout options.
Continuing dive after buddy separation.
Continuing dive in inappropriate environmental conditions.
Continuing dive after gas critical pressures are reached.
Continuing dive after agreed time or decompression limits reached.
Wrong gas chosen for the depth.
Inadequate thermal protection chosen.
Diving without appropriate bailout equipment.
Problem solving errors
When a problem is not fully understood and learned procedures do not fit the situation the diver is more likely to make errors in problem solving.
The suitability of the process for making decisions depends to a large extent on the time available. Immediately life-threatening problems must be dealt with immediately, but other problems allow some time for considering the situation before reacting. As available time increases, the applicability of knowledge based processes and analytical processes also increases.
Errors of decision can be mitigated by ensuring that the diver has experienced a wide variety of reasonably probable scenarios, preferably as live simulations, or if this is not practicable, as mental exercises. Having considered the scenario and worked on problem solving provides a pattern of thought which can assist in solving similar problems in real incidents, and the diver is more likely to work on problem solving and less likely to panic. Instructors with varied, relevant and current diving experience are more likely to provide this sort of training experience.
Errors of perception
Misjudgement of environmental conditions.
Misreading of instruments.
Misjudgement of gas consumption and requirement
Disorientation. Misinterpretation of landmarks and loss of way.
Misperception of ascent or descent rate.
Depth and visual perception errors are easily made underwater as we are not optimised for the environment, and lack of recent experience can aggravate the problem. This can easily lead to disorientation. Nitrogen narcosis can compound this effect and make reasoned judgements considerably more difficult below 30m, but this can be reduced by the use of helium. Colour discrimination is also diminished with depth and darkness, and colour-coding becomes an unreliable method of identifying equipment at the times when it is most critical and an error can be fatal.
Human error is often linked to design details. Some errors are more likely to be made because the design of a control or display can be mistaken for a different control or display under conditions of stress or poor visibility, or the operation of a control is sufficiently complicated to make an error without noticing (as in some dive computer button sequences).
Violations
Violations are events where the consequences are foreseeable, and the action is taken with knowledge of the possible consequences, and knowledge that the risk is not generally considered acceptable within the organisational environment of the agent.
Routine violations occur when policy violations are made due to a history of "getting away with it", so the perception develops that the risk is lower than it really is and the violation can become the norm. Accident analysis suggests that most accidents are caused by violations of teaching or agency recommendations.
Exceptional violations occur when the procedures or policies are intentionally violated without need or good cause.
Situational violations occur when the consequences of the violation are understood, but the violation is honestly assessed to be the best course of action available under the circumstances.
Some examples of violations:
Failure to follow dive plan.
Exceeding range of training or competence.
Diving without appropriate equipment for the expected circumstances.
Neglecting to prepare equipment properly
Exerting pressure on other divers to exceed their range of competence.
Exceeding MOD of breathing gas.
Ignoring warning alarms and information on instruments and safety systems.
going into unplanned decompression
continuing the dive beyond critical pressures for turnaround or ascent
continuing the dive after equipment failure has degraded emergency recovery capabilities.
Preconditions for unsafe actions
Substandard practices
Communication and team skills
Good communication and team or buddy skills are necessary to limit the risk of a recoverable incident deteriorating into an accident. A good team has more capacity to deal with an emergency than a solo diver in most circumstances, but in the absence of adequate team or buddy skills, a solo diver may be safer
Team and communications skills are relevant at the planning and preparation stages as well as in the water. A team must be familiar with each other's equipment, and the gas planning of all members must be compatible. Constructive debriefing after the dive can help the team members make the most of the learning opportunities of the dive.
Planning failures
Inadequate risk assessment
Inadequate contingency planning
Inadequate dive planning: Gas and decompression planning
Failure to use available and appropriate resources
Communications failures
Inadequate briefing
Misinterpretation of signals
Failure to log in and out with backup personnel
Unfamiliarity with buddy or team's equipment.
Personal readiness
There are a large range of circumstances, some within the control of the dier, some not, which can temporarily degrade the ability of the diver to dive safely. Some of these are purely physical, others have a psychological influence. Many are to some extent self-inflicted.
Examples:
Accepting the responsibilities of a buddy diver before the dive and then not paying due attention to staying within appropriate distance of the buddy.
Taking on responsibilities of a buddy diver knowing that one is not capable of carrying them out in an emergency.
Accepting appointment as standby diver while knowing that one is unfit or not competent to perform a rescue under the apparent circumstances.
Self medication with unsuitable medications
Use of alcohol or recreational drugs.
Inadequate rest
Dehydration
Time stress due to running late
Overheated or chilled
Poor preparation of personal equipment
Poor condition of personal equipment
Denial of existing medical problem
Divers should not be deterred by peer pressure from declining a dive when they are ill-prepared, and they should not allow themselves to be pressured by service providers such as boat skippers and divemasters into accepting responsibility for the safety of another diver if they do not feel confident that both they and the other diver can deal adequately with any reasonably foreseeable problem that may occur during the dive.
Substandard conditions of operators
Adverse mental states
Divers need to be aware of their surroundings as they operate in an alien environment and inattention can result in missing a critical cue which could have allowed early response to a problem. Any mental state which is likely to reduce the situational awareness of the diver will increase risk.
Examples:
Task fixation.
Complacency.
Distraction.
Fatigue.
Undue haste.
Lack of situational awareness, inattention.
Misplaced motivation.
Excessive task loading.
Pre-existing stress.
Adverse physiological states
Diving while in a sub-optimal physical condition reduces the reserves available for dealing with a problem. Clearly not all divers are equal in their physical strength and fitness, but people learn to compensate for personal differences, and become accustomed to dealing with situations from their ground state. Any reduction in capacity from the normal status is likely to present unfamiliar challenges in a crisis, and may precipitate an unrecoverable chain of events, as normally adequate reactions are found to be insufficient, and fail to rectify the situation as expected.
Furthermore, some conditions such as injuries, dehydration or illness may physiologically predispose the diver to other conditions such as decompression sickness, hypothermia or barotraumas.
Examples:
Impaired physiological condition, illness.
Physiological incapacitation,
seasickness,
hypothermia,
exhaustion,
dehydration etc,
Physical and mental limitations
Personal strength and fitness vary amongst people. Furthermore, they vary with time for the same person, and although the underwater environment reduces the effects of gravity, there are other factors which can make activity more strenuous, such as viscous drag, increased work of breathing and adverse water movements.
Mental abilities also affect a diver's capacity to deal with unexpected situations. Two common factors influencing a diver's accurate and objective assessment of situations and their ability to cope with conditions are ignorance of the realities, and the tendency to overestimate personal competence which is most notable in those with the least ability to make an accurate judgement. Both of these factors can be mitigated by continued study and training. In effect, the best way to learn how to accurately judge competence in a skill set, is to be competent at those skills. In the absence of personal competence, the person must rely on the objective judgement and accurate feedback of instructors, supervisors and other persons in perceived positions of authority. Failure to provide this feedback is not a kindness, it is a dereliction of responsibility, as it may lead to potentially dangerous misjudgements of ability to deal with the rigour of the underwater environment, particularly where the specific circumstances are outside the experience of the diver.
The influence of experience on the accurate self-assessment of competence is not so clear cut. Some incompetent people are able to go through a wide range and depth of experience without discovering their incompetence or improving their skills.
Kruger and Dunning suggest that those with limited knowledge in a field suffer a double burden: "Not only do they reach mistaken conclusions and make regrettable errors, but their incompetence robs them of the ability to realize it."
Examples:
Physical inability to manage the conditions.
Inadequate strength or fitness to perform emergency procedures.
Ignorance of skill limitations.
Denial of skill limitations.
Unsafe supervision
Causal factors go beyond the operator, and extend to supervision.
In the context of recreational diving, supervision refers to dive leaders, dive guides, instructors, topside dive marshals and dive boat skippers, and in the club environment, also to the diving officer or training officer and experienced divers acting as mentors to less experienced divers. In the professional context, it refers to the dive supervisor and other on-site management personnel.
Supervisors have a moral duty to their charges, and may have a legal duty as well. These duties may include giving guidance, providing training or learning opportunities, leadership by example and direction, information and motivation.
The duty to act as a good role model is important as although the supervisor may advise or instruct charges to do things in an appropriate way, it is what the role model actually does that often has the most lasting impression.
Poor technique and incorrect information passed on by a person in a supervisory position may perpetuate the use of unsafe or inefficient procedures. Failure to correct poor technique or skills has a similar effect, whether it is due to indifference or ignorance on the part of the supervisor.
A further manifestation of poor supervision may occur when the supervisor does not have the experience appropriate to the current environment.
Unsafe supervision can be split into four categories?
Inadequate supervision
Examples:
Failure to provide guidance
Failure to comply with agency policies or operations manuals
Failure to provide oversight
Failure to provide training
Failure to provide feedback
Allocation of unsuitable buddies
Failure to correct a known problem
Examples:
Failure to correct documentation errors
Failure to identify a diver at risk
Failure to initiate corrective action
Failure to report unsafe tendencies or behaviour
Failure to report reportable incidents
Use of equipment or support facilities known to be unreliable or defective
Inappropriately planned operations
Examples:
Failure to provide sufficient briefing time
Failure to allow sufficient time for preparation and checking of equipment and kitting up
Planning or authorising operations in conflict with authorised procedures, codes of practice, operations manuals, regulations etc.
Failure to check emergency equipment
Failure to conduct adequate risk assessment
Failure to monitor diving operations according to agreed protocol
Failure to modify dive plans to compensate for changing conditions
Failure to record next of kin and contact details
Supervisory violations
Examples:
Promoting or tolerating in-group peer pressure.
Sanctioning unnecessary risk
Failure to enforce regulatory requirements, organizational rules and requirements.
Sanctioning inappropriate transgression of qualification, experience or known competence.
Organisational influences
The influence of an organisation are less immediately obvious, and may be difficult to quantify. Many latent unsafe conditions originate with decision makers who are at a distance from the dive site and may be unaware of the full consequences of their directives. They may be biased by economic or political pressures and outdated knowledge and experience. Often decisions are made without full consideration of the possible consequences, not necessarily intentionally, and some unsafe policy decisions can not be avoided, so there should be measures to identify them and mitigate them before they have adverse consequences.
Resource management
Examples:
Human resources
Selection
Staffing
Training
Financial resources
Excessive cost cutting
Lack of funding
Equipment and facilities
Poor design
Acquisition of unsuitable equipment
Inadequate maintenance
Organisational philosophy
Examples:
Structure
Chain of command
Delegation of authority
Communication
Accountability
Policies
Job security
Promotion
Dealing with violations
Culture
Norms
Values
Fairness
A just culture and psychological safety within an organisation encourages reporting and analysis of both incidents and near misses, which facilitates the development of preventative improvements, rather than allocating blame and hiding near misses which tends to stifle and delay improvements to procedure and design until something goes badly wrong and the issues can no longer be avoided.
Organisational process
Examples:
Operations
Time pressure, schedules and deadlines
Work quotas, measures of success
Schedules and planning
Procedures
Standards
Clarity of objectives
Documentation
Instructions
Oversight
Risk management
Safety programs
Conditions conducive to errors
In the operational environment:
Interruptions and distractions during tasks that require accurate work, a specific order of actions or a number of critical actions, such as pre-dive checks, assembly of life-support equipment, specially if a written checklist is not in use.
Late changes of plan and departures from routine.
Displays which are not clear, controls which can be confused under stress, input and processes which are complex.
Procedures used to work around a problem using unproven or unfamiliar methods.
Unfamiliar equipment or unexpected equipment status or condition.
Circadian rhythm issues.
Information overload.
In the capacity of the individual:
Lack of familiarity with the task, lack of proficiency or experience in a skill or procedure.
Lack of knowledge or information, poor or incorrect understanding of information.
Poor communication skills, or incompatible communication skills
Overconfidence in abilities, misconception of personal competence.
Physical or psychological unfitness, general or temporary, fatigue or weariness.
Unawareness of relevant contextual matters.
In task loading and requirements:
High task loading
High exertion
Multiple simultaneous tasks
High task complexity
Time pressure
Monotonous repetitive tasks
Unclear goals or standards
Unclear work allocation, roles, or responsibilities
Irrecoverable actions.
In general human nature:
Assumptions
Attitude
Complacency
Communication shortcuts - inaccurate or incomplete communication
Habits
Inaccurate perception of risk
Stress
Improving dive safety
Improving individual performance under stress
Implementing human factors improvements into dive teams
Identifying problems within the organisation
Training program development
Evaluate training
Reinforcing human factors skills
Accident investigations
An investigation of some kind usually follows a fatal diving accident, or one in which litigation is expected. There may be several investigations with different agendas. If police are involved, they generally look for evidence of a crime. In the US the Coastguard will usually investigate if there is a death when diving from a vessel in coastal waters. Health and safety administration officials may investigate when the diver was injured or killed at work. When a death occurs during an organised recreational activity, the certification agency's insurers will usually send an investigator to look into possible liability issues. The investigation may occur almost immediately to some considerable time after the event. In most cases the body will have been recovered and resuscitation attempted, and in this process equipment is usually removed and may be damaged or lost, or the evidence compromised by inappropriate handling. Witnesses may have dispersed, and equipment is often mishandled by the investigating authorities who are often unfamiliar with the equipment and may store it improperly, which can destroy evidence and compromise findings.
Recreational diving accidents are usually relatively uncomplicated, but accidents involving an extended range environment of specialised equipment may require expertise beyond the experience of any one investigator. This is a particular issue when rebreather equipment is involved.
For every incident in which someone is injured of killed, it has been estimated that a relatively large number of "near miss" incidents occur, which the diver manages well enough to avoid harm. Ideally these will be recorded, analysed for cause, reported, and the results made public, so that similar incidents can be avoided in the future.
Professional diving accidents are usually investigated when a reportable injury occurs in terms of occupational health and safety legislation. The purpose is generally to allow avoidance of recurrences of the circumstances leading to the incident if practicable, and where relevant, to establish whether there was fault attributable to any involved party, which could lead to criminal or civil charges.
Accident investigation may help to identify the cause of a specific accident. If a pattern can be identified this may inform procedures and legislation to reduce the risk of the same pattern of accident recurring in the future. An investigation may identify shortcomings in training or procedures, or problems with equipment. Fatalities are often investigated as potential crimes until the cause of death has been identified. Insurance claims may rely on information from an investigation to establish whether the accident is covered by a policy. Occupational health and safety inspectors may investigate an occupational diving incident to identify whether regulations have been violated. Civil litigation for claimed damages can be more equitably decided when the circumstances leading to the injury have been identified. The ability to provide documentary evidence showing that correct procedure was followed can simplify the investigation and may lead to more accurate and reliable findings.
Equipment, procedures, organization, environment, individual factors and interactions between them are the sources of contributing and compounding events and conditions. Analysis of near accidents can be of great value to identify sources of error and allow planning to reduce or eliminate contributing and compounding conditions. A safety study estimated about a million shortcuts taken per fatal accident.
Accident investigations typically focus on the end event, and attempt to erect barriers to similar accidents, such as personal protection equipment, backup equipment or alarm systems. These are intended to prevent the recurrence of similar accidents, and are often effective in this limited goal. Accidents continue to occur because the majority of the contributing and compounding factors are not addressed. Human behavior and the systems in which people work are too complex to analyse all possible interactions. A more effective route to accident prevention is to reduce or mitigate the occurrence of human error by focusing on the contributing and compounding human factors that create an environment in which accidents are likely to occur.
Uncertainty of risk
Risk in diving is seldom known with any accuracy. The large amount of uncertainty regarding the probability of most forms of failure make it necessary for the diver or diving supervisor to estimate risk based on experience and what little data is available, often not much more than personal experience. Decisions based on these estimates tend to be affected by bias and circumstances. A dive that has required a major outlay in time and monetary cost, or which affects reputation, if cancelled, represents a definite loss, which when balanced against a possible loss of unknown probability, may induce the team to take a greater risk than if the perceived loss due to cancellation were less, even when the likely consequences of the low probability consequences are relatively dire. There is a tendency for losses to have a bigger subjective value than gains, which pushes people to risk more to avoid a definite loss.
Various cognitive biases may influence decisions whether or not to cancel a dive on site:
Plan continuation bias and the sunk cost fallacy
Availability bias
Hindsight bias
Overconfidence
Dunning–Kruger effect. When one doesn't know what one doesn't know, incompetent decisions may be made without being aware of it. When training and education are reduced to the minimum which appears to provide competence to manage the situations which are likely to occur within the restricted scope of operations associated with a certification, the person cannot effectively extrapolate into the adjacent reality of circumstances which may occur in practice when the operation goes beyond the limits of the defined scope, whether intentionally or due to unforeseen circumstances. Informed acceptance of risk is limited by knowledge and understanding of the hazards, consequences and probabilities involved.
Practical drift, the tendency for actual procedure and performance to diverge from the designed, trained, or recommended procedural baseline due to conflicts with perceived reality, and Normalisation of deviance, the tendency to accept practices that do not comply with standards after experiencing a continued lack of catastrophic consequences while following the non-compliant practices. The reasons for initial non-compliance vary, and may include operational or time pressures, or a procedure being judged inadequate, inefficient, or unnecessary. This will frequently continue until an accident occurs. Both of these effects are encouraged by excessively stringent or unnecessary constraints claimed to be in the pursuit of safety, but perceived to be obstructive to operational efficiency. These effects may be combined with an expectation of compliance by other parties, which may be unrealistic.
Peer pressure
One of the strategies available for reducing these tendencies is setting the goals for the dive. In professional diving this is a requirement. Professional divers dive for a specific purpose, so it is easier to be more objective in making decisions based on the situation on-site. Recreational divers tend to have less clearly defined goals, which makes decision making more susceptible to cognitive bias. For this purpose, it helps to have well defined goals, which are measurable, specific and meaningful to the dive team, for which the criteria for success are clear, and for which the reward is worth the risk.
Any plan may fail: in high consequence situations, it is important that when failure occurs, it is safe failure, and that when any further single point of failure may have unacceptable consequences, the dive is called off. Good contingency planning makes the dive plan more robust.
A mechanism for adaptation of procedures to better fit the demands of the work is desirable, and this may involve adapting the work to allow sufficient flexibility of practice, so that alternative procedures can be developed. A large allowable range of procedural variation facilitates effective learning.
See also
References
Underwater diving safety | wiki |
Stuff Stephanie in the Incinerator (originally titled In Deadly Heat) is a 1989 horror-comedy written and directed by Don Nardo and distributed by Troma Entertainment.
Premise
A wealthy couple and their friend enter a world of sadistic fantasy games of the rich, but as they travel deeper, it becomes difficult to establish exactly what is a game and what is not.
Tagline
Don't throw your love away. Burn it.
References
External links
1989 films
American independent films
Troma Entertainment films
1989 horror films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films | wiki |
Norwegian Air International
jodek sodu (NaI) | wiki |
A pig is a mammal of the genus Sus.
Pig, PIG, Pigs or PIGS may also refer to:
Animals
Domestic pig, Sus scrofa domestica or Sus domestica
Wild boar (wild pig or Eurasian wild boar), Sus scrofa, the species from which the domestic pig was bred
Sus, a genus within the pig family, including Sus scrofa and closely related southeast Asian species
Suinae, a pig subfamily, including Sus and other genera from Africa and southeast Asia
Suidae, a family of animals, including Suinae and other extinct Old World subfamilies
Suina, a suborder of mammals including Suidae, and the Tayssuidae (peccaries or "New World pigs")
Guinea pig, a domestic species of rodent that is popular as a pet
Hell pigs or terminator pigs, the Entelodonts, a family of extinct mammals
Places
Pig, Kentucky, US
Pine Island Glacier, a glacier of Antarctica
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
Pigs (1973 film), a horror film
Pigs (1992 film) or Psy, a film by Wladyslaw Pasikowski
Pig (1998 film), a 1998 film written by and starring Rozz Williams
Pigs (2007 film), a film by Karl DiPelino
Grisen (Danish "The Pig"), 2008 Danish short film with Jesper Asholt
Pig (2010 film), a horror film by Adam Mason
Pig (2011 film), a film written by Henry Barrial
Pig (2018 film), an Iranian film
Pig (2021 film), an American drama film starring Nicolas Cage
Games
Pig (dice game), a dice game
P-I-G, a variation of the basketball game H-O-R-S-E
Pig, a variation of the card game Spoons
Literature
Pig (novel), by Andrew Cowan
"Pig" (short story), by Roald Dahl
Music
Albums and projects
Pig (musical project), musical project by Raymond Watts
Pigs (Asphalt Ballet album), 1993
Songs
"Pig" (song), a 1998 song by the Dave Matthews Band
"Pig", a song by Seether from Disclaimer II
"PIG", an early demo version of "Mr. Jack" by System of a Down
"Pig", a bonus song from Weezer Deluxe Edition
"Pigs (Three Different Ones)", a 1977 song by Pink Floyd
"Pigs", a track on Cypress Hill, Cypress Hill's first album
"Pigs", a song by Eyehategod from In the Name of Suffering
"Pigs", a song by Tyler, the Creator from Wolf
Military
Humber Pig, a British military vehicle
General Dynamics F-111C, Royal Australian Air Force variant of the F-111 bomber nicknamed the pig
M60 machine gun, nicknamed "the pig"
Maiale (pig), a low speed human torpedo; see Midget submarine#Italy
Science and technology
Apache Pig, a MapReduce programming tool used on Hadoop, language Pig Latin
Pig, another term for ingot
Pipeline inspection gauge, a form of pipeline maintenance used in pigging
Pig, a small sandbag used for flood control inside a building
PIGS (gene), a human gene
Distillation pig, a piece of glassware that allows fractions to be collected without breaking vacuum
Lead pig, a container made of lead shielding for storing and transporting radioactive materials
The Pig (tool), a firefighting tool
Other uses
Pig, a derogatory term for a police officer
Pig (zodiac), a sign of the Chinese zodiac
Pisabo language (ISO 639-3 code: pig)
PIGS (economics), the economies of Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain, and sometimes Ireland
New Zealand DX class locomotive (DXR 8007 nicknamed "the pig")
See also
Boar (disambiguation)
Hog (disambiguation)
Pigg (disambiguation)
Piggy (disambiguation)
Piglet (disambiguation)
Swine (disambiguation)
Animal common name disambiguation pages | wiki |
David Cox – costumista statunitense
David Cox – pittore britannico
David Cox – statistico
David Cox – montatore | wiki |
A Character Large OBject (or CLOB) is part of the SQL:1999 standard data types. It is a collection of character data in a database management system, usually stored in a separate location that is referenced in the table itself. Oracle and IBM Db2 provide a construct explicitly named CLOB, and the majority of other database systems support some form of the concept, often labeled as text, memo or long character fields.
CLOBs usually have very high size-limits, of the order of gigabytes. The tradeoff for the capacity is usually limited access methods. In particular, some database systems limit certain SQL clauses and/or functions, such as LIKE or SUBSTRING from being used on CLOBs. Those that permit such operations may perform them very slowly.
Alternative methods of accessing the data are often provided, including means of extracting or inserting ranges of data from the CLOB.
Database systems vary in their storage patterns for CLOBs. Some systems always store CLOBs as a reference to out-of-table data, while others store small CLOBs in-table, changing their storage patterns when the size of the data grows beyond a threshold. Other systems are configurable in their behavior.
Implementations
PostgreSQL 15.0: unsupported but it can be easily defined as a synonym to the text type with: create domain CLOB as TEXT;
MariaDB 10.8: supported
MySQL 8.0: support unknown. There used to be a CLOB mentioned in the manual but the data type is no longer mentioned in later manuals.
See also
Binary large object
Binary blob
References
Data types | wiki |
The following lists events that happened during 1970 in Greece.
Incumbents
Monarch: Constantine II
Regent: Georgios Zoitakis
Prime Minister: Georgios Papadopoulos
Events
Deaths
15 February – Dimitrios Loundras, gymnast (born 1885)
References
Years of the 20th century in Greece
Greece
Greece
1970s in Greece | wiki |
Driving in the United Kingdom is governed by various legal powers and in some cases is subject to the passing of a driving test. The government produces a Highway Code that details the requirements for all road users, including drivers. Unlike most other countries in the world, UK traffic drives on the left.
Speed limits
British roads are limited for most vehicles by the National Speed Limit. Road signs in the UK use imperial units, so speed limits are posted in miles per hour. Speed limits are the maximum speed at which certain drivers may legally drive on a road rather than a defined appropriate speed, and in some cases the nature of a road may dictate that one should drive significantly more slowly than the speed limit may allow. This restricts some to a default speed limit of 30 mph on lit roads, and some light vehicles to 60 mph on single carriageways and 70 mph on dual carriageways and motorways, with some large vehicles or some of those towing trailers subject to reduced limits on some roads depending on the class of both road and vehicle. Sections of road subject to the national or in-town speed limit only require limit marker signs at the start of a section, without repeaters, provided street lights are or are not present as appropriate. Lower Speed limits of 20 mph, 30 mph, 40 mph, 50 mph and 60 mph can also used on roads in the UK where it is deemed that the national or 30 mph urban speed limit is inappropriate, with repeater signs posted at regular intervals.
Lane discipline
Drivers on multilane roads are legally required to use the left-most lane unless overtaking other vehicles on the road, unless signs or road markings indicate that the left-most lane(s) is only for traffic leaving at the next junction. Drivers who wish to overtake a slower vehicle are thus expected to move out from their lane (having used the indicator lights to warn other road-users of their intention to do so), pass the slower vehicle and return to the left-most lane. This enables faster traffic to overtake unhindered if it wishes to do so. On the UK's busiest roads, where there may be four or more lanes in each direction, there is often a situation where overtaking becomes continual as each successive lane moves at a slightly faster speed than that to its left.
On some motorways a lane is provided on the left hand side referred to as the 'hard shoulder', which should only be used when a vehicle has broken down. It is illegal to drive in this lane unless indicated otherwise, for example Dynamic Hard Shoulder Running (DHSR) Smart Motorways allow motorists to use the hard shoulder at peak times.
The action of undertaking, where the driver moves to the left of a slower moving vehicle to get past it is, although not illegal, discouraged on motorways under Highway Code 268. This rule allows for undertaking to occur in conditions that cause the left-hand lane to move faster than the right-hand lane and for traffic to keep up with the flow of the lane.
Pedestrian crossings
There are two broad categories of pedestrian crossing to aid the safe passage across major roads by those travelling on foot. There are no laws against jaywalking in the UK.
Traffic Light Controlled Crossings: Traffic is controlled by traffic light signals.
Uncontrolled Crossings: Zebra and Parallel crossings give Pedestrians & cyclists in addition at Parallel crossings priority over traffic. These are marked using Black and white stripes are painted on the road and flashing amber Belisha beacons are on each side of the road. Drivers must give way to pedestrians & cyclists on the crossing.
Driving licence
Driving licences may be obtained by any UK resident over the age of 17, subject to certain conditions. Initially, a provisional licence is issued, which restricts the holder to driving whilst accompanied by a driver who is at least 21 years old, who has held a full licence in the category of vehicle they are supervising the learner driver in for at least three years, and does not allow the provisional licence holder to drive on motorways. The provisional licence may be exchanged for a full licence after the holder has passed the practical driving test. Upon reaching the age of 70, drivers may apply to have their licences renewed with their doctors' permission.
Many foreign driving licences permit one to drive in the UK, but must be exchanged for British licences after a year. Drivers from the USA, however, must take a British test if they wish to drive in the UK for more than a year after arriving in the country. This is because US driver licensing is carried out by individual states, but the US Constitution does not permit individual states to enter bilateral treaties with other sovereign governments. However driving licences from the European Union, Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Switzerland are valid in the United Kingdom.
Enforcement
Some of the rules of the road should be enforced by the police, others are enforced by council wardens. Speed cameras are common. Red-light and bus lane cameras are also used. Motorists convicted of certain traffic, and certain non-traffic offences may have "points" added to their licences: some traffic offences such as exceeding the speed limit by a small amount, typically warrant three points, and motorists with twelve points face a driving ban, although this is six points for new drivers. Normally the points for a speeding offence, driving through a red light or in a bus lane will be punished with points from 3-6 whilst driving using a mobile phone is 6.
See also
Highway Code
Motorways
Roundabouts
Driving Standards Agency
European Driving Licence
References
Road transport in the United Kingdom | wiki |
Meadow Acres – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Wyoming, w hrabstwie Natrona.
CDP w stanie Wyoming | wiki |
Ice2sea was a program of scientific research funded by the European Union's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level. The ice2sea project, a collaborative of 24 research institutions, which was headed by Prof David Vaughan, aimed to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to European, especially as large areas of coastal Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level.
The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report highlighted ice sheets as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise. Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was “too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise”.
Improved scientific results from ice2sea fed into the fifth IPCC report (2013) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections.
The initiative funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany, which was published in Nature in 2012, which predicts the disappearance of the vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone.
See also
Sea-level rise
Antarctic ice sheet
Greenland ice sheet
Glaciers
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
European Union Framework Programme 7
British Antarctic Survey
External links
References
International climate change organizations | wiki |
In schools, the science technician is the person who prepares the practical equipment and makes up the solutions used in school science labs. The role also includes instructing and assisting teachers with practical skills, including class demonstrations, for advanced techniques across all disciplines. Many are very well qualified and have degrees, such as a Bachelor's degree (B.A. or B.Sc), Master's degree (M.Sc.) or even a Doctorate (Dr) and/or other professional qualifications such as the HNC, HND and NVQ.
Their main duties include:
Care of living organisms
Making up solutions
School science experiments and demonstrations
Inventory
Budget and Accounts
Repairing and constructing laboratory equipment
In December 2002 CLEAPSS commissioned a survey into the Specific Job roles of Science Technicians. The pdf Document G228 - Technicians and their jobs which can be freely downloaded was released and later updated in 2009. The guide was written to help promote a professional technician service in schools and colleges.
See also
Science education
References
External links
CLEAPSS - The School Science Advisory Service providing practical advice & help on safety in Science
ASE - Professional Organisation for Teachers and Technicians
Education and training occupations
Science occupations | wiki |
Radio frequency power transmission is the transmission of the output power of a transmitter to an antenna. When the antenna is not situated close to the transmitter, special transmission lines are required.
The most common type of transmission line for this purpose is large-diameter coaxial cable. At high-power transmitters, cage lines are used. Cage lines are a kind of overhead line similar in construction to coaxial cables. The interior conductor is held by insulators mounted on a circular device in the middle. On the circular device, there are wires for the other pole of the line.
Cage lines are used at high-power transmitters in Europe, like longwave transmitter Topolna, longwave-transmitter Solec Kujawski and some other high-power transmitters for long-, medium- and shortwave.
For UHF and VHF, Goubau lines are sometimes used. They consist of an insulated single wire mounted on insulators. On a Goubau line, the wave travels as longitudinal currents surrounded by transverse EM fields. For microwaves, waveguides are used.
External links
Cage lines of Solec Kujawski transmitter
Cage lines of longwave transmitter Topolna (second image) (third image)
Cables
Power cables
Radio technology | wiki |
A union organizer (or union organiser in Commonwealth spelling) is a specific type of trade union member (often elected) or an appointed union official. A majority of unions appoint rather than elect their organizers.
In some unions, the organizer's role is to recruit groups of workers under the organizing model. In other unions, the organizer's role is largely that of servicing members and enforcing work rules, similar to the role of a shop steward. In some unions, organizers may also take on industrial/legal roles such as making representations before Fair Work Australia, tribunals, or courts.
In North America, a union organizer is a union representative who "organizes" or unionizes non-union companies or worksites. Organizers primarily exist to assist non-union workers in forming chapters of locals, usually by leading them in their efforts.
Methodology
Organizers employ various methods to secure recognition by the employer as being a legitimate union, the ultimate goal being a collective bargaining agreement. The methods can be classified as being either top-down organizing or bottom-up organizing.
Top-down organizing focuses on persuading management through salesmanship or pressure tactics. The salesmanship may include offering access to resources such as to a well-trained and skilled supply of labor or access to union cartels. Pressure tactics may include picketing with the intention of embarrassing management or disrupting business, as well as assisting the government in investigating employment law and labor law violations. A strict enforcement of these laws might result in fines and might serve to hurt the violator's chances in a competitive bidding process. Top-down organizing is generally considered easier than bottom-up and is practiced more in the construction industry.
Bottom-up organizing focuses on the workers and usually involves a certification process, normally overseen by a labor relations board such as the NLRB in the U.S. The process entails either a secret ballot election or, in some cases, a card-signing effort (called card check). In either case, should a majority of the employees agree to union representation, the results bind the company to recognize and negotiate with the union. Normally, both sides are given a chance to campaign for or against unionization, though management has a decided advantage due to their greater access to the employees, as well as management's inherent ability to discipline or terminate employees. It is in this electioneering model where the organizer really organizes: arranging meetings, devising strategy, and developing an internal structure known as an organizing committee. It is from the pool of activists recruited to the organizing committee that the union typically later draws its shop stewards. Though some mistake organizing as strictly being a recruitment effort, numerous obstacles emerge which require more than simple enlistment and promotion of the union. During organizing, management has greater means to reward or punish workers, far overshadowing methods available to the union. For this reason, in most countries, laws such as the U.S. National Labor Relations Act, guarantee the rights of workers to seek union membership and forbid management's use of undue influence such as bribes or threats. Nonetheless, such charges are hard to prove and the labor movement believes the entire process to be slanted against them in enforcement and interpretation of labor laws. Sometimes, organizing involves legal wrangling over issues such as voter eligibility. In such cases, issues are often settled by appeal to the Labor Board who serves, essentially, as a referee during the process. Intrigue during heated campaigns is not uncommon. In various cases, one or both sides have used spying and information-gathering techniques tantamount to industrial espionage.
Personality
Organizers must be determined, charismatic, and persuasive individuals able to sway groups to action under trying circumstances when jobs are on the line. Organizers must be strong enough to stand up to constant confrontation and must be willing to take big risks. Since failure rates of organizing campaigns are high, "burn-out" among organizers is prevalent. Organizers frequently work under the constraints of limited resources (see sections on organizing as cause and controversies).
Cause within a cause
Within the labor movement, organizing is the cause within the cause. In most industrialized nations, there has been a steady decline in union membership and in the influence of organized labor since the 1950s. A response to this decline has been a renewed organizing effort. The heads of unions are well aware of the problem. In the U.S., many labor activists have blamed John Sweeney, the former (1995–2009) President of the AFL–CIO, for not doing enough to organize. In fact, this has been cited as the genesis of the split within the American labor movement that led to the formation of the Change to Win Federation (a rival umbrella organization of North American unions set up as an alternative to the AFL–CIO in 2005), by Change to Win advocates at least. Many unions see organizing as a way to ensure the future of their organization. Unions who emphasize organizing and are expansionist are said to have the "organizing model." By contrast, other unions are said to have the "servicing model," spending most of their resources on providing services to the existing membership (i.e., non-expansionist).
Controversies
Within the labor movement, there is some resistance to organizing, though more in deed than in word. Organizing can be seen as a drain on scarce resources with insignificant returns and with results tenuous. Most unions in the U.S. adopt a service model and eschew organizing. In transient industries such as construction, an increase in the supply of labor from newly organized shops may cause the supply of jobs to dwindle below what an increased membership can absorb.
Most disputes between unions are jurisdictional (territorial). Union jurisdiction is based on geographic scope, craft, industry, historical claim, and compromise. Unions have overlapping jurisdictions. Critics within the labor movement have blamed the movement itself for the fractious effects of union-on-union competition and perceived issues of raiding. Expansionism and the scramble for members in organizing programs bring to light these border issues.
Opponents of organizing, mainly in management and business, argue that unionization divides employees against their employer and results in increased costs. Such accusations are not entirely without foundation: Indeed, a successful organizing campaign usually demonstrably benefits the labor at the expense of management. Critics will often circulate horror stories about plant closures and retaliatory firings to discourage union activity and uptake among the workers. Real or imagined, such horror stories are taken as warnings and have a chilling effect on voting. Though illegal, retaliatory terminations remain a problem for organizers to overcome. Fear is the leading obstacle to organizing.
Counter organizing
In bottom-up organizing, management and labor are pitted against each other and management often schedules retaliatory, aggressive tactics in an effort to break the chapter, called "union-busting." The intention of such union-busting may be to "nip it in the bud" before getting locked into a costly collective bargaining agreement. Management may feel that the organizing campaign encourages and capitalizes upon worker disobedience and perceived disloyalty. For this reason, management may hire anti-union consultants or lawyers known as "union-busters" or "union avoidance consultants." With the goal of thwarting organizing, union-busters typically have a two-pronged approach: firstly, management will cut deals with individual workers to betray the union and secondly, to exploit loopholes in labor law in an effort to derail or sandbag the election process. The emergence of union-busting as an industry is a relatively new phenomenon and is described in Martin Levitt's book Confessions of A Union Buster. Prior to the emergence of the union-avoidance industry, practitioners were mainly "goon squads" also used for strike-breaking. In the U.S., the largest and most well-known "goon squad" for hire was the Pinkerton Detective Agency, still active today, though in a different capacity. William W. Delaney's "My Father Was Killed By Pinkerton Men" is a song about the violence that often surrounded early American labor strife.
Organizing in popular culture
The most famous movie about organizing is the 1979 factually based film Norma Rae, the story of a Jewish organizer from New York City who came to the American South to organize a textile mill. He recruits Norma Rae, played by Sally Field. Norma becomes a key union activist who defies management at great personal risk.
The 1987 production of Matewan is another factually based story of an organizer who visits a small mining town in West Virginia and who is able to unite rival ethnic groups against a common enemy: the company.
Both of these stories feature outsiders entering rural company towns and stirring workers up against exploitative management. This is a common theme in organizing. The workers are cast as simple commoners being oppressed by powerful managers cast in the role of villains. The organizer is portrayed as a liberator. There is some truth in these stories since companies did, in fact, historically hire armed thugs to break up organizing drives through unethical and oppressive means. Modern unions work within the existing system, rather than against it, through sophisticated political action programs. Most unions have reinvented themselves as streamlined, professional machines.
10,000 Black Men Named George, released in 2002, is a movie based on the true story of A. Philip Randolph, the famous black organizer who organized the railroad company's largely black Pullman Porters.
The film Bread and Roses (2001) depicts the Service Employees International Union's "Justice for Janitors" campaign to organize cleaners. The story is also a love story between an idealistic young organizer and a female Hispanic immigrant among those he is organizing.
Both of these stories incorporate pro-union messages with ethnic determination. In the case of the Pullman Porters, Randolph is remembered as a civil rights hero. The Justice for Janitors campaign is about immigrants' rights, as many of the organized janitors are from Spanish speaking or Slavic countries. The status of the characters as minorities paints a picture of them as being outside of, or on the margins of, the American Dream, thus further casting workers and activists as underdogs. The underdog theme is an inspirational archetype in myth.
In the 2005 action movie Four Brothers, one of the characters is a former union activist who turns the bad guy's henchmen against him by informally organizing them against their boss based on the common organizing themes of a greater share in the profits and respect on the job.
In the 1997 action movie Grosse Pointe Blank, Dan Aykroyd's villainous character pursues fellow assassin John Cusack in order to include him in a ridiculous assassins' union.
These latter two movies use organizing as a plot device, though they involve black market businesses and are far-fetched for this reason. Nonetheless, they demonstrate how, absent a union's presence, the same issues arise in any vocation. Also, both of the movies take place in the Detroit, Michigan area, a city which has produced some great organizers.
The 1992 production Hoffa, starring Jack Nicholson as famed labor leader Jimmy Hoffa of the Teamsters, begins the story where Hoffa's career began: organizing truck drivers and warehouse workers in and around Detroit. Jimmy Hoffa went on to become one of the most powerful labor leaders in U.S. history.
The 1978 movie F.I.S.T, tells the same story of Hoffa's beginnings as an organizer and of his rise to power, albeit with more liberties taken. Sylvester Stallone plays Hoffa as a man with good intentions, dogged on both sides, by both sides of the law.
Both Hoffa stories feature Hoffa as a tough "man of the people" and chronicle how his organizing swelled the ranks of the Teamsters. Hoffa was notorious for taking an "ends justifies the means" approach to organizing. Hoffa's legacy remains: his son, James P. Hoffa, is the current general president of the Teamsters.
In an episode of the popular American sit-com The Office, the characters hold an organizing meeting that ends with a manager threatening to fire everyone involved. The character played by comedian Patrice O'Neal tells the boss, "This isn't over."
The Fred Savage sitcom Working had an episode where the main character organizes his fellow workers into a union and tells management it is because he really cares about the well-being of his coworkers, exhibiting solidarity.
The song "Solidarity Forever" by Ralph Chaplin has become the anthem of large parts of the labor movement such as those in North America.
See also
Battle of the Overpass
Collective bargaining
Employee Free Choice Act
Labor history
Labor rights
Labor spies
Labor Unions in the United States
NLRB election procedures
Newsies
Right to assemble
Strike action
Union violence
Union violence in the United States
People
Luigi Antonini
Harry Van Arsdale, Jr.
Leon E. Bates
John Brophy
Cesar Chavez
Patrick Crowley
Samuel Gompers
Joe Hill
Sidney Hillman
James Hoffa
Mary Harris "Mother" Jones
John L. Lewis
A. Philip Randolph
Walter P. Reuther
Fannie Sellins
Crystal Lee Sutton ("Norma Rae")
R. J. Thomas
Lucille Thornburgh
Leonard Woodcock
Notes
References
Bai, Matt. "The New Boss." New York Times Magazine. January 30, 2005.
Breslin, Mark. Organize or Die: Marketing and Communications Strategies for Labor Leaders, Agents and Organizers. Castro Valley, Calif.: McAlly International Press, 2003.
DeFreitas, Gregory. "Anxious Anniversary: Is Recession Stalking the 5-Year-Old Recovery?" Regional Labor Review. Fall 2006.
DeFreitas, Gregory. "Can Construction Unions Organize New Immigrants? A Conversation with the Carpenters' Tony Martinez." Regional Labor Review. 9 (Fall 2006).
Diamond, Virginia R. Labor Law Handbook for Organizing Unions Under the National Labor Relations Act. Silver Spring, Mary.: George Meany Center for Labor Studies, 1991.
Diamond, Virginia R. and Sneiderman, Marilyn, eds. Organizing Guide for Local Unions. Silver Spring, Mary.: George Meany Center for Labor Studies, 1992.
Kelber, Harry. My 70 Years in the Labor Movement. New York: Labor Educator, 2006.
La Botz, Dan. A Troublemaker's Handbook. New York: Labor Notes, 1991.
Levitt, Martin J. and Toczynski, Terry C. Confessions of A Union Buster. New York: Crown Publishing Group, 1993.
Murolo, Priscilla and Chitty, A.B. From The Folks Who Brought You The Weekend: A Short, Illustrated History of the United States. Paperback ed. New York: The New Press, 2006.
Office of General Counsel. National Labor Relations Board. A Guide to Basic Labor Law and Procedures Under the National Labor Relations Act. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2007.
Pleasure, Robert J. and Cohen, David. Construction Organizing: An Organizing and Contract Enforcement Guide. Silver Spring, Mary.: Labor's Heritage Press, 1997.
Rundle, Michael. "Starbucks Union Battle Goes Before Labor Board." Metro New York. July 10, 2007.
Von Drehle, David. Triangle: The Fire That Changed America New York: Grove/Atlantic, Inc., 2003.
Fitch, Robert. Solidarity for Sale New York: PublicAffairs, 2006. ,
United States. Congress. House of Representative. The Future of Union Organizing: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Health, Employment, Labor and Pensions, Committee on Education and the Workforce, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, Hearing held in Washington, DC, September 19, 2013. Washington, D.C.: G.P.O., 2014.
External links
National Labor Relations Board
AFL-CIO Organizing
National Labor College
What is the Employee Free Choice Act? | wiki |
A student television station is a television station run by university, high or middle school students that primarily airs school/university news and in many cases, student-produced soap operas, entertainment shows, and other programming.
At the high school level and below, working for a school's television station is often an extracurricular activity but often included in a journalism class taught at the school, in which students learn about the journalistic profession and produce school news reports. Student television stations at this level almost always broadcast through the school's closed circuit television system. Working for a middle or high school student television station can often be an alternative to students interested in journalism, who choose not to work at a school newspaper. Studio and production space is often provided by a community or local public-access television stations.
At the university level, student television stations can either take the form of a student organization or be a broadcast journalism laboratory. Often, the station produces more original programming than would be seen at the high school level. A student television station at a university may either be supported in full or part by the university, or self-sufficient, receiving its operating budget from advertising broadcast on the channel.
See also
Journalism
Texas Student Television
British Student Television
WNYF-TV
RMITV
Student television station | wiki |
Lakewood Playhouse is a theatre in Lakewood, Washington.
History
Lakewood Playhouse was founded in 1938. They currently have a 180-seat theatre in the Tacoma area, at the Lakewood Towne Center.
External links
Official Website
References
Buildings and structures in Pierce County, Washington
Theatre companies in Washington (state)
Theatres in Washington (state)
Lakewood, Washington | wiki |
The Erice statement is a statement written by Paul Dirac, Piotr Kapitza, and Antonino Zichichi asking for freedom of expression for scientists as well as for nuclear disarmament. It has been signed by over 90,000 scientists as well as numerous world leaders including Mikhail Gorbachev, Ronald Reagan and Deng Xiaoping.
References
Scientific documents | wiki |
Tamade may refer to:
Tamade Station, the name of two train stations in Japan.
Tamade Station (Nara) (玉手駅)
Tamade Station (Osaka) (玉出駅)
Tamade (玉出), a supermarket chain in Japan
"Tāmāde" (他媽的), a commonly used vulgar word in Chinese. | wiki |
Death by Dialogue is a 1988 horror film co-written and directed by Thomas Dewier and distributed by Troma Entertainment.
Plot
The plot centers on a group of college students who go up to a typically creepy mansion for spring break. Unfortunately for all, they stumble upon a possessed horror novel, whose story suddenly starts happening in the real world...with deadly results.
External links
1988 films
1988 horror films
American independent films
Troma Entertainment films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films | wiki |
The Expert or The Experts may refer to:
Film and television
The Expert (TV series), a 1968 British TV series
The Expert (1932 film), a 1932 American film
The Expert (1995 film), a 1995 film starring James Brolin
The Experts (1973 film), a 1973 German film
The Experts (1989 film), a 1989 American film
Other uses
The Expert (album), a 2005 album by Taiwanese Mandopop artist Wilber Pan
The Expert, a member of the Irish rapper-producer duo Messiah J and the Expert
The Experts (painting), an 1837 painting by Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps
See also
Expert (disambiguation) | wiki |
In the West, persian Gulf War generally refers to the August 1990 – February 1991 war against Iraq by a U.S.-led coalition, following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.
persian Gulf War or Persian Gulf War may also refer to a number of other wars or conflicts, including:
1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict (April 1974 to March 1975), began when Iran began supporting Kurdish rebels in the north against the Iraqi government
Iran–Iraq War (September 1980 to August 1988), began when Iraq invaded Iran leading to a stalemate, and ended on 20 August 1988, when Iran accepted the UN-brokered ceasefire. Until 1991 this was most commonly referred to as the Persian Gulf War.
1991 Iraqi uprisings (March 1991 to April 1991), a series of popular rebellions in northern and southern Iraq in March and April 1991 following a ceasefire in the Persian Gulf War
Iraq War (March 2003 to December 2011), a two-phase conflict comprising an initial invasion of Iraq led by United States and United Kingdom forces and a longer, seven-year phase of occupation and fighting with Sunni and Shia insurgents
See also
Iraq War (disambiguation)
History of the Persian Gulf | wiki |
Drank may refer to:
Drank (soft drink), a grape flavored 'anti-energy' drink
Purple drank, a recreational drug
"Drank", a song by Girlicious from the 2010 album Rebuilt
See also
Drink
Drunk | wiki |
Ron Dominguez (August 10, 1935 – January 1, 2021) was an American businessman who served as vice-president of Disneyland from 1974 until 1990, and of Walt Disney Attractions from 1990 until his retirement in 1994.
He and his family lived on the land in Anaheim where Disneyland was to be built. Disney purchased his family's land and a neighboring family's land and moved the two families' houses in between Main Street, U.S.A. and Tomorrowland and combined them into the first Disneyland administration building.
References
External links
Disney Legends Profile
1935 births
2021 deaths
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts people
Disney executives
People from Anaheim, California | wiki |
Percentage solution may refer to:
Mass fraction (or "% w/w" or "wt.%"), for percent mass
Volume fraction (or "% v/v" or "vol.%"), volume concentration, for percent volume
"Mass/volume percentage" (or "% m/v") in biology, for mass per unit volume; incorrectly used to denote mass concentration (chemistry). See usage in biology | wiki |
Titan-Centaur refers to the combination of a Titan rocket with a Centaur upper stage. Specifically, it may refer to:
Titan IIIE
Titan IV | wiki |
Events from the year 1715 in Canada.
Incumbents
French monarch: Louis XIV (died September 1), Louis XV (starting September 1)
British and Irish monarch: George I
Governors
Governor General of New France: Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil
Colonial Governor of Louisiana: Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac
Governor of Nova Scotia: Francis Nicholson then Samuel Vetch then Thomas Caulfeild
Governor of Placentia: John Moody
Births
Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, superintendent of northern Indians (died 1774)
Canada
15
1710s in Canada | wiki |
Searching Ruins on Broadway, Galveston, for Dead Bodies is a 1900 black-and-white silent film depicting the destruction caused by the Galveston hurricane on September 8, 1900. The film was produced by Edison Studios. It depicts laborers clearing debris searching for dead bodies. A body was found during the search.
See also
List of American films of 1900
Galveston hurricane of 1900
External links
www.noaa.gov Galveston hurricane of 1900
1900 films
1900s English-language films
American silent short films
American black-and-white films
Galveston, Texas
Galveston Hurricane of 1900
1900s short documentary films
Black-and-white documentary films
Articles containing video clips
Documentary films about disasters
American short documentary films
1900s American films | wiki |
Latin Mass may refer to:
Liturgical use of Latin
Mass of Paul VI in Latin
Tridentine Mass
As part of the use of preconciliar rites after the Second Vatican Council
Some liturgies of the Pre-Tridentine Mass
See also
Latin Mass Magazine
Latin Mass Society (disambiguation)
Latin Church
Latin liturgical rites
Traditionalist Catholicism | wiki |
In the context of meteorology, a solenoid is a tube-shaped region in the atmosphere where isobaric (constant pressure) and isopycnal (constant density) surfaces intersect, causing vertical circulation. They are so-named because they are driven by the solenoid term of the vorticity equation. Examples of solenoids include the sea breeze circulation and the mountain–plains solenoid.
References
Atmospheric dynamics | wiki |
A non sequitur ( , ; "[it] does not follow") is a conversational literary device, often used for comedic purposes. It is something said that, because of its apparent lack of meaning relative to what preceded it, seems absurd to the point of being humorous or confusing. This use of the term is distinct from the non sequitur in logic, where it is a fallacy.
Etymology
The expression is Latin for "[it] does not follow". It comes from the words non meaning "not" and the verb sequi meaning "to follow".
Usage
A non sequitur can denote an abrupt, illogical, or unexpected turn in plot or dialogue by including a relatively inappropriate change in manner. A non sequitur joke sincerely has no explanation, but it reflects the idiosyncrasies, mental frames and alternative world of the particular comic persona.
Comic artist Gary Larson's The Far Side cartoons are known for what Larson calls "...absurd, almost non sequitur animal" characters, such as talking cows, which he uses to create a "...weird, zany, ...bizarre, odd, strange" effect; in one strip, "two cows in a field gaze toward burning Chicago, saying 'It seems that agent 6373 had accomplished her mission.'"
See also
Anacoluthon
Anti-humor
Dada
Derailment (thought disorder)
"Good day, fellow!" "Axe handle!"
Gibberish
Roger Irrelevant
Surreal humour
More readings
The Koan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism. United Kingdom, Oxford University Press, 2000.
Shabo, Magedah. Rhetoric, Logic, and Argumentation: A Guide for Student Writers. United States, Prestwick House, 2010.
References
External links
Getting It: Human Event-Related Brain Response to Jokes in Good and Poor Comprehenders - "When asked to pick the punch-line of a joke from an array of choices, including straightforward endings, non sequitur endings, and the correct punch-line, RHD patients erred by picking non sequitur endings, indicating that they know surprise is necessary"
Humour
Latin literary phrases
Narratology
Jokes | wiki |
A nut butter is a spreadable foodstuff made by grinding nuts into a paste. The result has a high fat content and can be spread like true butter, but is otherwise unrelated. Nut butters include:
Acorn butter
Almond butter
Cashew butter
Hazelnut butter
Macadamia nut butter
Peanut butter
Pecan butter
Pistachio butter
Walnut butter
The almond, cashew, macadamia, peanut, pecan, pistachio and walnut are not true nuts in a botanical sense. However, because they are considered nuts in a culinary sense, their crushed spreads are called nut butters. Similar spreads can also be made from seeds not considered nuts in a culinary sense:
Pumpkin seed butter
Sesame seed butter (usually called tahini)
Soybean butter – made from soynuts (roasted soybeans)
Sunflower seed butter
Hummus or chickpea spread
Nut and seed butters have a high content of protein, fiber, and essential fatty acids, and can be used to replace butter or margarine on bread or toast. Nut butters can also be used as dipping sauces for apples and bananas, toppings for oatmeal or smoothie bowls, and ingredients in Asian sauces.
The grinding of nuts into a paste has a long history. Almond paste or marzipan was highly prized by the caliphs of Baghdad. The Kitab al-Tabikh or Book of Recipes was a collection of recipes from the court of ninth-century Baghdad. The most esteemed sweet was lauziinaq, an almond paste much like marzipan." Hazelnut butter was mixed with chocolate to overcome shortages during the Napoleonic wars and WWII, which led to the invention of gianduja chocolate spreads (e.g. Nutella).
Nutritional properties
The following table gives some approximate nutritional properties (for a reference serving of 1 tablespoon or approximately 15 grams) of some nut and seed butters. Many of these contain additional oils or other ingredients that may alter the nut butter's nutritional content.
See also
List of spreads
Shea butter
References
Food paste
Spreads (food)
pl:Masło orzechowe | wiki |
Bull's-Eye Barbecue Sauce is a barbecue sauce created and distributed by Kraft Heinz in the United States and Canada. It is also the official BBQ sauce of the Calgary Stampede.
History
Bulls-Eye was introduced in 1985 with the tag line The Big, Bold Taste of Bulls-Eye can`t be beat. In 2009, Bull's-Eye launched a marketing campaign entitled the Bull's-Eye Brotherhood with a comedic series of web videos featuring Canadian comedian Gerry Dee.
Burger King
Bulls-Eye was used at Burger King fast food restaurants on their Bulls-Eye BBQ burger, and Rodeo Cheeseburger. It was replaced in 2007 with Sweet Baby Ray's brand sauce.
References
External links
Products introduced in 1985
Barbecue sauces
Brand name condiments
Kraft Foods brands
Heinz | wiki |
Fruitcake is a traditional cake made with chopped fruits and nuts.
Fruitcake may also refer to:
Fruitcake (film), an upcoming film by director John Waters
Fruitcake (album), a 1996 album by Filipino band Eraserheads and its title track
Fruitcake (EP), an EP by Eraserheads
Fruitcakes (album), a 1994 album by Jimmy Buffett
"Fruitcake", a song by Stone Sour from Come What(ever) May
Fruitcake (song), by The Superions from Destination... Christmas!
Fruitcake, progressive rock band from Norway, active in the 90s-00s
Fruitcake, a person alleged to suffer from insanity
Fruit (slang), a gay man or LGBT person
See also
Christmas cake, a type of fruitcake served at Christmas time in the UK, Ireland, Japan, Philippines and many Commonwealth countries | wiki |
Prästost este o varietate de brânză ce provine din Suedia. Spre deosebire de metodele mai vechi de fabricație, astăzi această varietate se fabrică din lapte de vacă pasteurizat. | wiki |
The ANZAC centenary advisory board was established by Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of Australia to organise the centenary commemorations of the Australian and jointly New Zealand contribution to the First World War.
Board members
References
External links
100 Years of ANZAC - Australian Government
Anzac Educational Portal
2014 in Australia
2015 in Australia
2016 in Australia
2017 in Australia
2018 in Australia
Intergovernmental organizations
Commonwealth Family
ANZAC | wiki |
Non sequitur may refer to:
Non sequitur (fallacy), an invalid argument whose conclusion is not supported by its premises
Non sequitur (literary device), an irrelevant, often humorous comment to a preceding topic or statement
Non Sequitur (comic strip), a comic strip by Wiley Miller
"Non Sequitur" (Star Trek: Voyager), an episode of Star Trek: Voyager
See also
Sequitur algorithm, a recursive algorithm
Latin logical phrases
Latin philosophical phrases
Latin words and phrases | wiki |
A hydrogen carrier is an organic macromolecule that transports atoms of hydrogen from one place to another inside a cell or from cell to cell for use in various metabolical processes. Examples include NADPH, NADH, and FADH. The main role of these is to transport hydrogen atom to electron transport chain which will change ADP to ATP by adding one phosphate during metabolic processes (e.g. photosynthesis and respiration). Hydrogen carrier participates in an oxidation-reduction reaction by getting reduced due to the acceptance of a Hydrogen. The enzyme used in Glycolysis, Dehydrogenase is used to attach the hydrogen to one of the hydrogen carrier.
See also
Electron carrier
Light reactions
Photosynthesis
Cellular respiration
References
External links
http://www.biology-online.org/1/3_respiration.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20100727214925/http://student.ccbcmd.edu/~gkaiser/biotutorials/energy/oxphos.html
Hydrogen biology | wiki |
Bon Bon Buddy (The Chocolate Drop) is a popular song, first published in 1907, with lyrics by Alex Rogers and music by Will Marion Cook. It was introduced in the 1908 musical Bandanna Land. Today the best-known versions of the largely forgotten song are by Billy Murray, who recorded versions in 1908 on both Victor Records and Indestructible Records.
See also
1907 in music
1908 in music
External links
Recorded version by Billy Murray at the Internet Archive
1907 songs
Billy Murray (singer) songs | wiki |
Photoplay music is incidental music, soundtrack music, and themes written specifically for the accompaniment of silent films.
Early years
Early films (c. 1890-1910) merely relied on classical and popular repertory, mixed usually with improvisation by whatever accompanist was playing (usually a pianist).
Around 1910, folios of photoplay music began being published by companies such as Sam Fox Music and Academic Music. These were only a minute or so long and could not sustain an entire feature, but were used to fill in scenes where music was not popularly written (such as "misteriosos" for scenes of mystery, etc.). One example of such a piece is Mysterioso Pizzicato, which appeared in a 1914 photoplay music collection compiled by J. Bodewalt Lampe and whose main motif has endured as a cliche for stealth and villainy in a wide selection of music and films thereafter. A version of this theme is contrasted with a hero's theme (). Composers noted for their photoplay music include John Stepan Zamecnik and Gaston Borch.
Types of scores
When it comes to producing a film score for a silent film, there were three types: improvised, compiled, and original.
Improvisational
Improvised scores were solely played on organ or piano. The musical conductor played whatever he felt necessary to set the mood for the scene.
Compiled
According to Richard Koszarski's book "An Evening's Entertainment", a survey was sent out in the mid-1920s to 10,000 out of about 15,000 theaters in America. Of those that responded to the survey, approximately 50% used theater organs, 25% used piano only, and 25% used orchestras (two or more players).
For those using orchestras, improvisation was difficult and a compiled score was preferred. The studio would hire a company to produce a cue sheet; generally three to four pages of listings of photoplay music, classical or popular standards from their library. This concept of a "compilation score" was invented around 1910. The Edison Film Company was among the first to use this method of scoring film.
The cue sheet would list the title and author of a song, when to play it, roughly how long to play it for, and the publisher of the piece. Quite often, further notes were given of sound effects, tempo, and so on, so that every important factor of the film could be supervised. The musical director of a theater then went through the theater's music collection (generally listed by tempo) and picked out the appropriate cue. If he did not have that particular cue, he could replace it with another suitable piece, or order it through the company that created the cue sheet. A typical theater's music library could consist of a couple thousand to tens of thousands of pieces, depending on the budget of the theater.
In 1923, the Cameo Thematic Music Co. was established by M.J. Mintz, and by the end of the decade, was responsible for about 90% of cue sheets. Ernst Luz and James C. Bradford were the most prolific compilers for Cameo. Other music companies, such as Belwin Inc., also printed cue sheets. Belwin's cue sheets were generally compiled by Max Winkler.
Some conductors compiled their own scores rather than use cue sheets; some followed the cue sheet, but used their own choices of music; many followed the cue sheet with what little time they had to produce an opera's worth of music. Much of the time, musicians came in and sight-read their parts, with little to no time to rehearse.
Original
Original scores were the minority. Scores published were generally the premiere score that was played in the New York theaters. These were often compiled scores with some original material, such as Joseph Carl Breil's score for The Birth of a Nation, the William Axt/David Mendoza scores for the 1925 film Ben Hur or the 1926 film The Big Parade. Even fewer were all-original scores, the most notable being Gottfried Huppertz's scores for Fritz Lang's Nibelungen films and Metropolis, and composer Mortimer Wilson's for Douglas Fairbanks's The Thief of Baghdad. With the little time available between the completion of the picture and when it was to be released, all-original scores were uneconomical and had themes that were generally written in advance.
Later years
The last days of photoplay music were of the era of 1927-1930, when sound films became popular. Silent films already made were generally released with orchestral soundtracks compiled of photoplay music and sound effects. Some photoplay music was used as incidental music in early sound films as well. Most theaters, however, threw out entire libraries of music. Publishers junked overstock or used it as scrap paper.
In recent years, photoplay music has been revitalized through home videos and live performances of silent films. Many videos of silent films have premiere or cue sheet scores recorded for posterity.
See also
Photoplayer, a machine that played photoplay music automatically in theaters
Theatre organ, a type of organ typically used to create soundtracks for silent films in theaters.
External links
Photoplay Music FAQ - introduction, references and resources
Music in motion-picture theaters - reproductions of three articles from the era
References
Film scores
Silent film music | wiki |
Elastic is a word often used to describe or identify certain types of elastomer, elastic used in garments or stretchable fabrics.
Elastic may also refer to:
Alternative name
Rubber band, ring-shaped band of rubber used to hold objects together
Bungee cord, a cord composed of an elastic core covered in a sheath
Chinese jump rope, a children's game resembling hopscotch and jump rope
As a proper name
Elastic (album), a 2002 album by jazz saxophonist Joshua Redman
Elastic NV, the company that releases the Elasticsearch search engine
Elasticsearch, a search engine based on Apache Lucene
Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2), a web service that provides secure, resizable compute capacity in a cloud format
Elastics (orthodontics), rubber bands used in orthodontics
See also
Elastic collision, a collision where kinetic energy is conserved
Elastic deformation, reversible deformation of a material
Elasticity (disambiguation)
Flex (disambiguation)
Stretch (disambiguation) | wiki |
Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. Orbital mechanics is a core discipline within space-mission design and control.
Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems under the influence of gravity, including both spacecraft and natural astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets. Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbital plane changes, and interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers.
General relativity is a more exact theory than Newton's laws for calculating orbits, and it is sometimes necessary to use it for greater accuracy or in high-gravity situations (e.g. orbits near the Sun).
History
Until the rise of space travel in the twentieth century, there was little distinction between orbital and celestial mechanics. At the time of Sputnik, the field was termed 'space dynamics'. The fundamental techniques, such as those used to solve the Keplerian problem (determining position as a function of time), are therefore the same in both fields. Furthermore, the history of the fields is almost entirely shared.
Johannes Kepler was the first to successfully model planetary orbits to a high degree of accuracy, publishing his laws in 1605. Isaac Newton published more general laws of celestial motion in the first edition of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), which gave a method for finding the orbit of a body following a parabolic path from three observations. This was used by Edmund Halley to establish the orbits of various comets, including that which bears his name. Newton's method of successive approximation was formalised into an analytic method by Leonhard Euler in 1744, whose work was in turn generalised to elliptical and hyperbolic orbits by Johann Lambert in 1761–1777.
Another milestone in orbit determination was Carl Friedrich Gauss's assistance in the "recovery" of the dwarf planet Ceres in 1801. Gauss's method was able to use just three observations (in the form of pairs of right ascension and declination), to find the six orbital elements that completely describe an orbit. The theory of orbit determination has subsequently been developed to the point where today it is applied in GPS receivers as well as the tracking and cataloguing of newly observed minor planets. Modern orbit determination and prediction are used to operate all types of satellites and space probes, as it is necessary to know their future positions to a high degree of accuracy.
Astrodynamics was developed by astronomer Samuel Herrick beginning in the 1930s. He consulted the rocket scientist Robert Goddard and was encouraged to continue his work on space navigation techniques, as Goddard believed they would be needed in the future. Numerical techniques of astrodynamics were coupled with new powerful computers in the 1960s, and humans were ready to travel to the Moon and return.
Practical techniques
Rules of thumb
The following rules of thumb are useful for situations approximated by classical mechanics under the standard assumptions of astrodynamics outlined below. The specific example discussed is of a satellite orbiting a planet, but the rules of thumb could also apply to other situations, such as orbits of small bodies around a star such as the Sun.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion:
Orbits are elliptical, with the heavier body at one focus of the ellipse. A special case of this is a circular orbit (a circle is a special case of ellipse) with the planet at the center.
A line drawn from the planet to the satellite sweeps out equal areas in equal times no matter which portion of the orbit is measured.
The square of a satellite's orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the planet.
Without applying force (such as firing a rocket engine), the period and shape of the satellite's orbit will not change.
A satellite in a low orbit (or a low part of an elliptical orbit) moves more quickly with respect to the surface of the planet than a satellite in a higher orbit (or a high part of an elliptical orbit), due to the stronger gravitational attraction closer to the planet.
If thrust is applied at only one point in the satellite's orbit, it will return to that same point on each subsequent orbit, though the rest of its path will change. Thus one cannot move from one circular orbit to another with only one brief application of thrust.
From a circular orbit, thrust applied in a direction opposite to the satellite's motion changes the orbit to an elliptical one; the satellite will descend and reach the lowest orbital point (the periapse) at 180 degrees away from the firing point; then it will ascend back. Thrust applied in the direction of the satellite's motion creates an elliptical orbit with its highest point (apoapse) 180 degrees away from the firing point.
The consequences of the rules of orbital mechanics are sometimes counter-intuitive. For example, if two spacecraft are in the same circular orbit and wish to dock, unless they are very close, the trailing craft cannot simply fire its engines to go faster. This will change the shape of its orbit, causing it to gain altitude and actually slow down relative to the leading craft, missing the target. The space rendezvous before docking normally takes multiple precisely calculated engine firings in multiple orbital periods, requiring hours or even days to complete.
To the extent that the standard assumptions of astrodynamics do not hold, actual trajectories will vary from those calculated. For example, simple atmospheric drag is another complicating factor for objects in low Earth orbit.
These rules of thumb are decidedly inaccurate when describing two or more bodies of similar mass, such as a binary star system (see n-body problem). Celestial mechanics uses more general rules applicable to a wider variety of situations. Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws, hold strictly only in describing the motion of two gravitating bodies in the absence of non-gravitational forces; they also describe parabolic and hyperbolic trajectories. In the close proximity of large objects like stars the differences between classical mechanics and general relativity also become important.
Laws of astrodynamics
The fundamental laws of astrodynamics are Newton's law of universal gravitation and Newton's laws of motion, while the fundamental mathematical tool is differential calculus.
Every orbit and trajectory outside atmospheres is in principle reversible, i.e., in the space-time function the time is reversed. The velocities are reversed and the accelerations are the same, including those due to rocket bursts. Thus if a rocket burst is in the direction of the velocity, in the reversed case it is opposite to the velocity. Of course in the case of rocket bursts there is no full reversal of events, both ways the same delta-v is used and the same mass ratio applies.
Standard assumptions in astrodynamics include non-interference from outside bodies, negligible mass for one of the bodies, and negligible other forces (such as from the solar wind, atmospheric drag, etc.). More accurate calculations can be made without these simplifying assumptions, but they are more complicated. The increased accuracy often does not make enough of a difference in the calculation to be worthwhile.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion may be derived from Newton's laws, when it is assumed that the orbiting body is subject only to the gravitational force of the central attractor. When an engine thrust or propulsive force is present, Newton's laws still apply, but Kepler's laws are invalidated. When the thrust stops, the resulting orbit will be different but will once again be described by Kepler's laws which have been set out above. The three laws are:
The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the foci.
A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
The squares of the orbital periods of planets are directly proportional to the cubes of the semi-major axis of the orbits.
Escape velocity
The formula for an escape velocity is derived as follows. The specific energy (energy per unit mass) of any space vehicle is composed of two components, the specific potential energy and the specific kinetic energy. The specific potential energy associated with a planet of mass M is given by
where G is the gravitational constant and r is the distance between the two bodies;
while the specific kinetic energy of an object is given by
where v is its speed;
and so the total specific orbital energy is
Since energy is conserved, cannot depend on the distance, , from the center of the central body to the space vehicle in question, i.e. v must vary with r to keep the specific orbital energy constant. Therefore, the object can reach infinite only if this quantity is nonnegative, which implies
The escape velocity from the Earth's surface is about 11 km/s, but that is insufficient to send the body an infinite distance because of the gravitational pull of the Sun. To escape the Solar System from a location at a distance from the Sun equal to the distance Sun–Earth, but not close to the Earth, requires around 42 km/s velocity, but there will be "partial credit" for the Earth's orbital velocity for spacecraft launched from Earth, if their further acceleration (due to the propulsion system) carries them in the same direction as Earth travels in its orbit.
Formulae for free orbits
Orbits are conic sections, so the formula for the distance of a body for a given angle corresponds to the formula for that curve in polar coordinates, which is:
is called the gravitational parameter. and are the masses of objects 1 and 2, and is the specific angular momentum of object 2 with respect to object 1. The parameter is known as the true anomaly, is the semi-latus rectum, while is the orbital eccentricity, all obtainable from the various forms of the six independent orbital elements.
Circular orbits
All bounded orbits where the gravity of a central body dominates are elliptical in nature. A special case of this is the circular orbit, which is an ellipse of zero eccentricity. The formula for the velocity of a body in a circular orbit at distance r from the center of gravity of mass M can be derived as follows:
Centrifugal acceleration matches the acceleration due to gravity.
So,
Therefore,
where is the gravitational constant, equal to
6.6743 × 10−11 m3/(kg·s2)
To properly use this formula, the units must be consistent; for example, must be in kilograms, and must be in meters. The answer will be in meters per second.
The quantity is often termed the standard gravitational parameter, which has a different value for every planet or moon in the Solar System.
Once the circular orbital velocity is known, the escape velocity is easily found by multiplying by :
To escape from gravity, the kinetic energy must at least match the negative potential energy. Therefore,
Elliptical orbits
If , then the denominator of the equation of free orbits varies with the true anomaly , but remains positive, never becoming zero. Therefore, the relative position vector remains bounded, having its smallest magnitude at periapsis , which is given by:
The maximum value is reached when . This point is called the apoapsis, and its radial coordinate, denoted , is
Let be the distance measured along the apse line from periapsis to apoapsis , as illustrated in the equation below:
Substituting the equations above, we get:
a is the semimajor axis of the ellipse. Solving for , and substituting the result in the conic section curve formula above, we get:
Orbital period
Under standard assumptions the orbital period () of a body traveling along an elliptic orbit can be computed as:
where:
is standard gravitational parameter,
is length of semi-major axis.
Conclusions:
The orbital period is equal to that for a circular orbit with the orbit radius equal to the semi-major axis (),
For a given semi-major axis the orbital period does not depend on the eccentricity (See also: Kepler's third law).
Velocity
Under standard assumptions the orbital speed () of a body traveling along an elliptic orbit can be computed from the Vis-viva equation as:
where:
is the standard gravitational parameter,
is the distance between the orbiting bodies.
is the length of the semi-major axis.
The velocity equation for a hyperbolic trajectory is .
Energy
Under standard assumptions, specific orbital energy () of elliptic orbit is negative and the orbital energy conservation equation (the Vis-viva equation) for this orbit can take the form:
where:
is the speed of the orbiting body,
is the distance of the orbiting body from the center of mass of the central body,
is the semi-major axis,
is the standard gravitational parameter.
Conclusions:
For a given semi-major axis the specific orbital energy is independent of the eccentricity.
Using the virial theorem we find:
the time-average of the specific potential energy is equal to
the time-average of is
the time-average of the specific kinetic energy is equal to
Parabolic orbits
If the eccentricity equals 1, then the orbit equation becomes:
where:
is the radial distance of the orbiting body from the mass center of the central body,
is specific angular momentum of the orbiting body,
is the true anomaly of the orbiting body,
is the standard gravitational parameter.
As the true anomaly θ approaches 180°, the denominator approaches zero, so that r tends towards infinity. Hence, the energy of the trajectory for which e=1 is zero, and is given by:
where:
is the speed of the orbiting body.
In other words, the speed anywhere on a parabolic path is:
Hyperbolic orbits
If , the orbit formula,
describes the geometry of the hyperbolic orbit. The system consists of two symmetric curves. The orbiting body occupies one of them; the other one is its empty mathematical image. Clearly, the denominator of the equation above goes to zero when . we denote this value of true anomaly
since the radial distance approaches infinity as the true anomaly approaches , known as the true anomaly of the asymptote. Observe that lies between 90° and 180°. From the trigonometric identity it follows that:
Energy
Under standard assumptions, specific orbital energy () of a hyperbolic trajectory is greater than zero and the orbital energy conservation equation for this kind of trajectory takes form:
where:
is the orbital velocity of orbiting body,
is the radial distance of orbiting body from central body,
is the negative semi-major axis of the orbit's hyperbola,
is standard gravitational parameter.
Hyperbolic excess velocity
Under standard assumptions the body traveling along a hyperbolic trajectory will attain at infinity an orbital velocity called hyperbolic excess velocity () that can be computed as:
where:
is standard gravitational parameter,
is the negative semi-major axis of orbit's hyperbola.
The hyperbolic excess velocity is related to the specific orbital energy or characteristic energy by
Calculating trajectories
Kepler's equation
One approach to calculating orbits (mainly used historically) is to use Kepler's equation:
.
where M is the mean anomaly, E is the eccentric anomaly, and is the eccentricity.
With Kepler's formula, finding the time-of-flight to reach an angle (true anomaly) of from periapsis is broken into two steps:
Compute the eccentric anomaly from true anomaly
Compute the time-of-flight from the eccentric anomaly
Finding the eccentric anomaly at a given time (the inverse problem) is more difficult. Kepler's equation is transcendental in , meaning it cannot be solved for algebraically. Kepler's equation can be solved for analytically by inversion.
A solution of Kepler's equation, valid for all real values of is:
Evaluating this yields:
Alternatively, Kepler's Equation can be solved numerically. First one must guess a value of and solve for time-of-flight; then adjust as necessary to bring the computed time-of-flight closer to the desired value until the required precision is achieved. Usually, Newton's method is used to achieve relatively fast convergence.
The main difficulty with this approach is that it can take prohibitively long to converge for the extreme elliptical orbits. For near-parabolic orbits, eccentricity is nearly 1, and substituting into the formula for mean anomaly, , we find ourselves subtracting two nearly-equal values, and accuracy suffers. For near-circular orbits, it is hard to find the periapsis in the first place (and truly circular orbits have no periapsis at all). Furthermore, the equation was derived on the assumption of an elliptical orbit, and so it does not hold for parabolic or hyperbolic orbits. These difficulties are what led to the development of the universal variable formulation, described below.
Conic orbits
For simple procedures, such as computing the delta-v for coplanar transfer ellipses, traditional approaches are fairly effective. Others, such as time-of-flight are far more complicated, especially for near-circular and hyperbolic orbits.
The patched conic approximation
The Hohmann transfer orbit alone is a poor approximation for interplanetary trajectories because it neglects the planets' own gravity. Planetary gravity dominates the behavior of the spacecraft in the vicinity of a planet and in most cases Hohmann severely overestimates delta-v, and produces highly inaccurate prescriptions for burn timings. A relatively simple way to get a first-order approximation of delta-v is based on the 'Patched Conic Approximation' technique. One must choose the one dominant gravitating body in each region of space through which the trajectory will pass, and to model only that body's effects in that region. For instance, on a trajectory from the Earth to Mars, one would begin by considering only the Earth's gravity until the trajectory reaches a distance where the Earth's gravity no longer dominates that of the Sun. The spacecraft would be given escape velocity to send it on its way to interplanetary space. Next, one would consider only the Sun's gravity until the trajectory reaches the neighborhood of Mars. During this stage, the transfer orbit model is appropriate. Finally, only Mars's gravity is considered during the final portion of the trajectory where Mars's gravity dominates the spacecraft's behavior. The spacecraft would approach Mars on a hyperbolic orbit, and a final retrograde burn would slow the spacecraft enough to be captured by Mars. Friedrich Zander was one of the first to apply the patched-conics approach for astrodynamics purposes, when proposing the use of intermediary bodies' gravity for interplanetary travels, in what is known today as a gravity assist.
The size of the "neighborhoods" (or spheres of influence) vary with radius :
where is the semimajor axis of the planet's orbit relative to the Sun; and are the masses of the planet and Sun, respectively.
This simplification is sufficient to compute rough estimates of fuel requirements, and rough time-of-flight estimates, but it is not generally accurate enough to guide a spacecraft to its destination. For that, numerical methods are required.
The universal variable formulation
To address computational shortcomings of traditional approaches for solving the 2-body problem, the universal variable formulation was developed. It works equally well for the circular, elliptical, parabolic, and hyperbolic cases, the differential equations converging well when integrated for any orbit. It also generalizes well to problems incorporating perturbation theory.
Perturbations
The universal variable formulation works well with the variation of parameters technique, except now, instead of the six Keplerian orbital elements, we use a different set of orbital elements: namely, the satellite's initial position and velocity vectors and at a given epoch . In a two-body simulation, these elements are sufficient to compute the satellite's position and velocity at any time in the future, using the universal variable formulation. Conversely, at any moment in the satellite's orbit, we can measure its position and velocity, and then use the universal variable approach to determine what its initial position and velocity would have been at the epoch. In perfect two-body motion, these orbital elements would be invariant (just like the Keplerian elements would be).
However, perturbations cause the orbital elements to change over time. Hence, we write the position element as and the velocity element as , indicating that they vary with time. The technique to compute the effect of perturbations becomes one of finding expressions, either exact or approximate, for the functions and .
The following are some effects which make real orbits differ from the simple models based on a spherical earth. Most of them can be handled on short timescales (perhaps less than a few thousand orbits) by perturbation theory because they are small relative to the corresponding two-body effects.
Equatorial bulges cause precession of the node and the perigee
Tesseral harmonics of the gravity field introduce additional perturbations
Lunar and solar gravity perturbations alter the orbits
Atmospheric drag reduces the semi-major axis unless make-up thrust is used
Over very long timescales (perhaps millions of orbits), even small perturbations can dominate, and the behavior can become chaotic. On the other hand, the various perturbations can be orchestrated by clever astrodynamicists to assist with orbit maintenance tasks, such as station-keeping, ground track maintenance or adjustment, or phasing of perigee to cover selected targets at low altitude.
Orbital maneuver
In spaceflight, an orbital maneuver is the use of propulsion systems to change the orbit of a spacecraft. For spacecraft far from Earth—for example those in orbits around the Sun—an orbital maneuver is called a deep-space maneuver (DSM).
Orbital transfer
Transfer orbits are usually elliptical orbits that allow spacecraft to move from one (usually substantially circular) orbit to another. Usually they require a burn at the start, a burn at the end, and sometimes one or more burns in the middle.
The Hohmann transfer orbit requires a minimal delta-v.
A bi-elliptic transfer can require less energy than the Hohmann transfer, if the ratio of orbits is 11.94 or greater, but comes at the cost of increased trip time over the Hohmann transfer.
Faster transfers may use any orbit that intersects both the original and destination orbits, at the cost of higher delta-v.
Using low thrust engines (such as electrical propulsion), if the initial orbit is supersynchronous to the final desired circular orbit then the optimal transfer orbit is achieved by thrusting continuously in the direction of the velocity at apogee. This method however takes much longer due to the low thrust.
For the case of orbital transfer between non-coplanar orbits, the change-of-plane thrust must be made at the point where the orbital planes intersect (the "node"). As the objective is to change the direction of the velocity vector by an angle equal to the angle between the planes, almost all of this thrust should be made when the spacecraft is at the node near the apoapse, when the magnitude of the velocity vector is at its lowest. However, a small fraction of the orbital inclination change can be made at the node near the periapse, by slightly angling the transfer orbit injection thrust in the direction of the desired inclination change. This works because the cosine of a small angle is very nearly one, resulting in the small plane change being effectively "free" despite the high velocity of the spacecraft near periapse, as the Oberth Effect due to the increased, slightly angled thrust exceeds the cost of the thrust in the orbit-normal axis.
Gravity assist and the Oberth effect
In a gravity assist, a spacecraft swings by a planet and leaves in a different direction, at a different speed. This is useful to speed or slow a spacecraft instead of carrying more fuel.
This maneuver can be approximated by an elastic collision at large distances, though the flyby does not involve any physical contact. Due to Newton's Third Law (equal and opposite reaction), any momentum gained by a spacecraft must be lost by the planet, or vice versa. However, because the planet is much, much more massive than the spacecraft, the effect on the planet's orbit is negligible.
The Oberth effect can be employed, particularly during a gravity assist operation. This effect is that use of a propulsion system works better at high speeds, and hence course changes are best done when close to a gravitating body; this can multiply the effective delta-v.
Interplanetary Transport Network and fuzzy orbits
It is now possible to use computers to search for routes using the nonlinearities in the gravity of the planets and moons of the Solar System. For example, it is possible to plot an orbit from high earth orbit to Mars, passing close to one of the Earth's Trojan points. Collectively referred to as the Interplanetary Transport Network, these highly perturbative, even chaotic, orbital trajectories in principle need no fuel beyond that needed to reach the Lagrange point (in practice keeping to the trajectory requires some course corrections). The biggest problem with them is they can be exceedingly slow, taking many years. In addition launch windows can be very far apart.
They have, however, been employed on projects such as Genesis. This spacecraft visited the Earth-Sun point and returned using very little propellant.
See also
Aerodynamics
Aerospace engineering
Astrophysics
Canonical units
Celestial mechanics
Chaos theory
Kepler orbit
Lagrange point
Mechanical engineering
N-body problem
Orbit
Orders of magnitude (speed)
Roche limit
Spacecraft propulsion
Tsiolkovsky rocket equation
Universal variable formulation
References
Further reading
Many of the options, procedures, and supporting theory are covered in standard works such as:
External links
ORBITAL MECHANICS (Rocket and Space Technology)
Java Astrodynamics Toolkit
Astrodynamics-based Space Traffic and Event Knowledge Graph | wiki |
Cornus florida, the flowering dogwood, is a species of flowering tree in the family Cornaceae native to eastern North America and northern Mexico. An endemic population once spanned from southernmost coastal Maine south to northern Florida and west to the Mississippi River. The tree is commonly planted as an ornamental in residential and public areas because of its showy bracts and interesting bark structure.
Classification
The flowering dogwood is usually included in the dogwood genus Cornus as Cornus florida L., although it is sometimes treated in a separate genus as Benthamidia florida (L.) Spach. Less common names for C. florida include American dogwood, Florida dogwood, Indian arrowwood, Cornelian tree, white cornel, white dogwood, false box, and false boxwood.
Two subspecies are generally recognized:
Description
Flowering dogwood is a small deciduous tree growing to high, often wider than it is tall when mature, with a trunk diameter of up to . A 10-year-old tree will stand about tall. The leaves are opposite, simple, ovate, long and broad, with an apparently entire margin (actually very finely toothed, under a lens); they turn a rich red-brown in fall.
Flowering dogwood attains its greatest size and growth potential in the Upper South, sometimes up to 40 feet in height. At the northern end of its range, heights of 30–33 feet are more typical. Hot, humid summer weather is necessary for new growth to harden off in the fall.
The maximum lifespan of C. florida is about 80 years.
The flowers are individually small, inconspicuous, and a hermaphrodite, with four, greenish-yellow petals (not bracts) long. Around 20 flowers are produced in a dense, rounded, umbel-shaped inflorescence, or flower-head, in diameter. The flower-head is surrounded by four conspicuous large white, pink or red bracts (not petals), each bract long and broad, rounded, and often with a distinct notch at the apex.
When in the wild they can typically be found at the forest edge and frequently on dry ridges. While most of the wild trees have white bracts, some selected cultivars of this tree also have pink bracts, some even almost a true red. They typically flower in early April in the southern part of their range, to late April or early May in northern and high altitude areas. The similar Kousa dogwood (Cornus kousa), native to Asia, flowers about a month later.
The fruit is a cluster of two to ten separate drupes, (fused in Cornus kousa), each long and about wide, which ripen in the late summer and the early fall to a bright red, or occasionally yellow with a rosy blush. They are an important food source for dozens of species of birds, which then distribute the seeds. They are also a larval host plant for several moth varieties, including Eudeilinia herminiata, the dogwood thyatirid moth, Antispila cornifoliella, the stinging rose moth, the grand arches moth, the pecan bark borer, the dogwood borer, the rosaceaous leaf roller, the diamondback epinotia moth, spring azures, cecropia moths, and the Io moth. While not poisonous to humans, the fruit is extremely sour and unpleasant-tasting. Flowering dogwood is monoecious, meaning the tree has both male and female flowers, and all trees will produce fruit.
Cultivation
Flowering dogwood does best horticulturally in moist, acidic soil in a site with some afternoon shade, but good morning sun. It does not do well when exposed to intense heat sources such as adjacent parking lots or air conditioning compressors. It also has a low salinity tolerance. The hardiness zone is 5–9 and the preferred pH is between 6.0 and 7.0. In urban and suburban settings, care should be taken not to inflict mower damage on the trunk or roots, as this increases the tree's susceptibility to disease and pest pressure. The common flowering dogwood has been placed on the endangered species list in Ontario. Sites should be selected for reasonably well-drained, fertile soils; full sun is recommended in high-hazard areas (such as stream or pond banks). New plantings should be mulched to a depth of , avoiding the stem. Dead wood and leaves should be pruned and completely removed and destroyed yearly. Plants should be watered weekly during droughts, with watering done in the morning, avoiding wetting the foliage. Registered fungicides can be applied when necessary, according to manufacturers instructions and advice of local Extension Service.
Flowering dogwood is grown widely throughout the temperate world.
Selected cultivars
'Amerika Touch-O-Pink' – large bracts, tinged pink; large leaves; good disease resistance.
'Appalachian Spring' – large white bracts; red fall foliage; resistant to dogwood anthracnose.
'Autumn Gold' – white bracts; yellow fall color.
'Barton' – large white bracts; blooms at early age; resistant to stem canker and powdery mildew.
'Bay Beauty' – double white bracts; resists heat and drought; good for Deep South.
'Cherokee Daybreak' – white bract; vigorous grower with variegated leaves.
'Cherokee Chief' – red bracts; red new growth.
'Cherokee Brave' – Even redder than 'Cherokee Chief', smaller bracts but dark red color; consistently resistant to powdery mildew.
'Cherokee Princess' – vigorous white bracts, industry standard for white flowers.
'Cherokee Sunset' – purplish-red bracts; variegated foliage.
'Gulf Coast Pink' – best pink flowering dogwood in Florida – northern part only.
'Hohman's Gold' – white bracts; variegated foliage.
'Jean's Appalachian Snow' – large, overlapping white bracts w/ green flowers; very resistant to powdery mildew.
'Karen's Appalachian Blush' – delicate white bracts edged in pink; some powdery mildew resistance.
'Kay's Appalachian Mist' – stiff, creamy white bracts; red fall foliage; good resistance to powdery mildew.
'Plena' – double white bracts; spot anthracnose-resistant.
'Purple Glory' – red bracts; purple foliage; spot anthracnose-resistant but susceptible to stem canker.
'Weaver White' – large white blooms; large leaves; candelabra shape; good in north-central Florida.
Propagation
Cornus florida is easily propagated by seeds, which are sown in the fall into prepared rows of sawdust or sand, and emerge in the spring. Germination rates for good clean seed should be near 100% if seed dormancy is first overcome by cold stratification treatments for 90 to 120 days at .
Flowering dogwood demonstrates gametophytic self-incompatibility, meaning that the plants can't self-fertilize. This is important for breeding programs as it means that it is not necessary to emasculate (remove the anthers from) C. florida flowers before making controlled cross-pollinations. These pollinations should be repeated every other day, as the flowers must be cross-pollinated within one or two days of opening for pollinations to be effective.
Softwood cuttings taken in late spring or early summer from new growth can be rooted under mist if treated with 8,000 to 10,000 ppm indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). In cold climates, potted cuttings must be kept in heated cold frames or polyhouses the following winter to maintain temperatures between . Although rooting success can be as high as 50–85%, this technique is not commonly used by commercial growers. Rather, selected cultivars are generally propagated by T-budding in late summer or by whip grafting in the greenhouse in winter onto seedling rootstock.
Micropropagation of flowering dogwood is now used in breeding programs aiming to incorporate resistance to dogwood anthracnose and powdery mildew into horticulturally and economically important cultivars. Nodal (axillary bud) sections are established in a culture of Woody Plant Medium (WPM) amended with 4.4 μmol/L 6-Benzyladenine (BA) to promote shoot growth. Rooting of up to 83% can be obtained when 5–7 week-old microshoots are then transferred to WPM amended with 4.9 μmol/L IBA.
Diseases
Dogwood anthracnose caused by the fungi Discula destructiva has caused severe mortality of dogwoods. In regions where dogwood anthracnose is a problem, homeowners and public land managers are encouraged to know the symptoms and inspect trees frequently. The selection of healthy, disease-free planting stock is essential and transplanting trees from the forest should be avoided. Species of Phytophthora cause Root Rot.
Historical uses
Native Americans used the bark and roots in a remedy for malaria; a red dye was also extracted from the roots.
The species has been used in the production of inks, scarlet dyes, and as a quinine substitute. The hard, dense wood has been used for products such as golf club heads, mallets, wooden rake teeth, tool handles, jeweler's boxes and butcher's blocks. Cornus florida is the state tree and flower of Virginia, the state tree of Missouri, and state flower of North Carolina. It was used to treat dogs with mange, which may be how it got its name. The red berries are not edible, despite some rumors otherwise.
In 1915, 40 dogwood saplings were donated by the U.S. to Japan in the 1912-15 exchange of flowers between Tokyo and Washington, D.C. While the cherry blossom trees survived the ensuing sour relations of these two countries and are the main feature of the National Cherry Blossom Festival, all dogwood trees in Tokyo died except the one that had been planted in an agriculture high school. In 2012, the United States sent 3,000 dogwood saplings to Japan to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Washington, D.C., cherry trees given as a gift to the U.S. by Japan in 1912.
References
External links
Bioimages: Cornus florida
Flora of Pennsylvania
Floridata: Cornus florida
Missouriplants: Cornus florida
University of Connecticut Plant Database: Cornus florida
United States Department of Agriculture, National Forest Service: Cornus florida
University of California @ Davis, Integrated Pest Management Online: Dogwood pest management
Cornell University, Integrated Pest Management, Dogwood Borer
United States Department of Agriculture, National Forest Service, St. Paul Field Office, How to Identify and Control Dogwood Anthracnose
Virginia State University Cooperative Extension, Foliar Diseases of Dogwood
flowering dogwood - Interactive Native Range Distribution Map of Cornus florida
florida
Trees of North America
Hardwood forest plants
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Ornamental trees
Medicinal plants of North America
Symbols of North Carolina
Symbols of Virginia
Cloud forest flora of Mexico | wiki |
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