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Hainania is the scientific name of two genera of organisms and may refer to:
Hainania (fish), a genus of fishes in the family Cyprinidae
Hainania (plant), a member of the subfamily Brownlowioideae | wiki |
Miss Spain 2017 may refer to these events:
Miss Universe Spain 2017, Miss Spain 2017 for Miss Universe 2017
Miss World Spain 2017, Miss Spain 2017 for Miss World 2017 | wiki |
In radar-related subjects and in JTIDS, a data mile is a unit of distance equal to 6000 feet (1.8288 kilometres or 0.987 nautical miles). An international mile is exactly 0.88 of a data mile.
The speed of light is 983571056 ft/s, or about one foot per nanosecond. If it were exactly one foot per nanosecond, and a target was one data mile away, then the radar return from that target would arrive 12 microseconds after the transmission. (Recall that radar was developed during World War II in America and England, while both were using English units. It was convenient for them to relate 1 data mile to 12 microseconds, whereas the modern tendency would be to approximate the speed of light as 300,000 km/s.)
References
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/DataMile.html
Radar | wiki |
LGBT billionaires refers to people who identify as LGBT and who are billionaires, in relation to the monetary fortune they control and their net worth.
, Italian fashion designer Giorgio Armani — who has a net worth of 8.1 billion — was the world's richest person who is openly part of the LGBT community (according to US LGBT-interest magazine The Advocate.)
History
In 1980, DreamWorks co-founder David Geffen came out as the first openly bisexual billionaire in the world. He had dated women before such as Cher, but finally came to terms with this sexuality in the early 1980s and had become one of the most important forces in the gay rights movement by 1992.
Giorgio Armani is known for being notoriously private and has remained relatively quiet about his own sexuality. The Sunday Times speculates he has remained quiet on the subject out of fear sales of Armani might decline in Asia if he officially came out. However, in 2000 he told Vanity Fair, "I have had women in my life. And sometimes men."
On 16 August 2013, Jennifer Pritzker made headlines by announcing that she identifies herself as a woman for all business and personal undertakings. This announcement made Pritzker the world's first openly transgender billionaire. In October 2015, Norway's second richest billionaire Stein Erik Hagen came out as bisexual on the Norwegian talk show Skavlan.
List
See also
Lists of billionaires
Black billionaires
List of countries by the number of billionaires
References
Lists of people by wealth
Billionaires
Lists of LGBT-related people | wiki |
This is a list of games for the PlayStation 4. The PlayStation 4 supports both physical and digital games. Physical games are sold on Blu-ray Disc and digital games can be purchased through the PlayStation Store. See Arcade Archives and Arcade Game Series for a list of emulated arcade games that have been released for the PlayStation 4, and List of PlayStation 2 games for PlayStation 4 for PlayStation 2 games running on PlayStation 4 with an emulator. See List of PlayStation VR games for a larger range of dedicated PlayStation VR games.
List
There are currently games on this list.
See also
List of best-selling PlayStation 4 video games
Notes
References
142. PlayStation Blog Road 96 release date PlayStation Blog. 12 April 2022. Retrieved May 8, 2022.
Games
4 games
Playstation 4 | wiki |
No smoking may refer to:
Smoking ban
No Smoking (1951 film), a Disney cartoon featuring Goofy
No Smoking (1955 film), a British comedy film
No Smoking (2007 film), an Indian psychological thriller directed by Anurag Kashyap and starring John Abraham
"No Smoking" (Cow and Chicken episode)
No Smoking, one segment of the 1993 film Smoking/No Smoking directed by Alain Resnais
See also
No symbol, which with a cigarette added becomes an international symbol for "no smoking"
Nosmo King (disambiguation), a name used by several entertainment personalities which is based on the term "No smoking" | wiki |
Selon le contexte, « console virtuelle » désigne :
un terminal informatique virtuel ;
la Console virtuelle de la console Wii ;
la Console virtuelle de la console Wii U ;
la Console virtuelle de la console Nintendo 3DS. | wiki |
Nick Watt may refer to:
Nick Watt (CNN reporter)
Nicholas Watt, British journalist | wiki |
Sex differences in medicine include sex-specific diseases or conditions which occur only in people of one sex due to underlying biological factors (for example, prostate cancer in males or uterine cancer in females); sex-related diseases, which are diseases that are more common to one sex (for example, breast cancer and systemic lupus erythematosus which occur predominantly in females); and diseases which occur at similar rates in males and females but manifest differently according to sex (for example, peripheral artery disease).
Sex differences should not be confused with gender differences. The US National Academy of Medicine recognizes sex differences as biological at the chromosomal and anatomical levels, whereas gender differences are based on self-representation and other factors including biology, environment and experience.
That said, both biological and behavioural differences influence human health, and may do so differentially. Such factors can be inter-related and difficult to separate. Evidence-based approaches to sex and gender medicine try to examine the effects of both sex and gender as factors when dealing with medical conditions that may affect populations differently.
, over 10,000 articles had been published addressing sex and gender differences in clinical medicine and related literature. Sex and gender affect cardiovascular,
pulmonary
and autoimmune systems,
gastroenterology,
hepatology,
nephrology,
endocrinology,
haematology,
neurology,
pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics.
Sexually transmitted diseases, which have a significant probability of transmission through sexual contact, can be contracted by either sex. Their occurrence may reflect economic and social as well as biological factors, leading to sex differences in the transmission, prevalence, and disease burden of STDs.
Historically, medical research has primarily been conducted using the male body as the basis for clinical studies. The findings of these studies have often been applied across the sexes, and healthcare providers have traditionally assumed a uniform approach in treating both male and female patients. More recently, medical research has started to understand the importance of taking sex into account as evidence increases that the symptoms and responses to medical treatment may be very different between sexes.
Background
Females and males exhibit many differences in terms of risk of developing disease, receiving an accurate diagnosis, and responding to treatments. A patient's sex has been increasingly recognized as one of the most important modulators of clinical decision making. Sex differences have been found across a broad range of disease areas, including many diseases which are sex-specific. The sex chromosome complement and sex hormone environment are known to be the primary constitutive difference between females and males. The imbalance of gene expression between the X and Y chromosomes is present within virtually all cells in the human body. Sex hormones are crucial in body development and function and also thought to contribute to sex differences in some diseases. It is suspected that many differences between the sexes are also influenced by social, environmental, and psychological factors which are difficult to tease apart from biological ones.
Causes
Sex-related illnesses have various causes:
Genetic sex differences start at conception depending on whether an ovum fuses with a sperm cell carrying an X or a Y chromosome. This leads to sex-based differences at the molecular level for all male and female cells.
In males, the X chromosome carries only maternal imprints, while in females X chromosomes are present with both maternal and paternal imprints. In female cells, random processes of X-inactivation "turn off" the extra X chromosome. As a result, females, but not males, are mosaics. Female cells may express higher levels of some genes.
Sex differences at the chromosome and molecular level exist in all human cells, and persist life-long, independent of sex hormones in the body.
Sex-linked genetic conditions that differ in males and females may reflect the effects of genetic damage on an X chromosome. In some cases, the presence of an "extra" X chromosome in female cells may lessen the impact of such damage. In severe cases, males may die during development and females may survive but display a sex-linked illness.
The reproductive system develops differently for each sex. Sex-specific parts of the male and female reproductive systems affect the rest of the body and also can be affected differently by diseases.
Socially constructed norms relate to gender roles, relationships, positional power, and a wide variety of behaviours. Norms affect people differentially depending on their sex and gender.
Different levels of prevention, reporting, diagnosis, and treatment have been observed based on sex and gender.
Examples of sex-related illnesses and disorders in humans
Females
Examples of sex-related illnesses and disorders in human females:
99% of breast cancer occurs in women.
Ovarian cancer, endometriosis and other diseases affect the female reproductive system.
Females are more likely to experience severe outcomes from viral respiratory tract infections during their reproductive years, compared to males of the same age. In response to treatment, females may develop greater immune responses but may also experience more adverse reactions than males.
Approximately four times more women have osteoporosis than men.
Autoimmune diseases, such as Sjögren's syndrome and scleroderma, are more prevalent in women. Roughly 70% of those living with autoimmune diseases are female. See Sex differences in autoimmunity.
While estimates vary widely, eating disorders are estimated to affect as high as 13% of women in some age groups and 3% of men in Western cultures, with anorexia nervosa affecting 10 women for each man and bulimia nervosa affecting 8 women for each man.
Alzheimer's disease has a higher incidence in females compared to males. There are also phenotypic differences, with females displaying more cognitive deficits. Females are also more likely to have neurofibrillary tangles present on autopsy.
Huntington's disease affects females and males differently. Females have faster disease progression, and display symptoms with fewer trinucleotide repeats.
About two times more women than men have unipolar clinical depression (although bipolar disorder appears to affect both sexes equally).
About three times more women than men are diagnosed with borderline or histrionic personality disorder.
Conditions such as chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)/myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and idiopathic hypersomnia, which have unclear causes, are more common in women, with sex ratios ranging from 2:1 in IBS, fibromyalgia, and idiopathic hypersomnia to 4:1 in CFS, and 5:1 in POTS.
Most people with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) (75%) are female.
Ataxic cerebral palsy is more common in women and girls.
Turner Syndrome only occurs in females.
Males
Examples of sex-related illnesses and disorders in male humans:
Prostate cancer, testicular cancer and other diseases of the male reproductive system occur in men.
Diseases of X-linked recessive inheritance, such as colour blindness, occur more frequently in men, and haemophilia A and B occur almost exclusively in men.
The presence of a single X chromosome in males (rather than two in females) may explain why males are more susceptible to genetic diseases linked to the X chromosome, including hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and Hunter syndrome.
Certain neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson's disease (2:1 ratio) and Lewy body dementia (4:1 ratio)) are more prevalent in males. Parkinson's also displays phenotypic differences: males are more likely to present with sleep disturbances and deficits in verbal fluency and facial expression.
Abdominal aortic aneurysms are six times more common in men, and thus some countries have introduced screening for males at risk of developing the condition.
Autism is approximately four times more prevalent in males than females. Males also have distinct autism phenotypes compared to females, including a higher prevalence of restrictive and repetitive behaviors.
Males have increased risk of dyskinetic cerebral palsy and spastic diplegia, as well as lower limb deformities.
Schizophrenia is about 1.4 times as common in males, and on average starts two years earlier and has more severe symptoms.
More than two times more men than women are affected by antisocial personality disorder and substance use disorder.
Several cancers, including stomach cancer (2:1), oesophageal cancer (3:1), liver cancer (2:1 to 4:1) and oral cancer (2:1 to 3:1), which have mostly lifestyle-based risk factors, are more common in men.
Males are more likely to experience severe outcomes from viral respiratory tract infections than females, at younger and older ages.
Tuberculosis is more common in men.
In cases of preterm birth, being male is associated with higher mortality and morbidity in terms of respiratory distress, cardiovascular disorders (specifically hypotension), neurodevelopmental disorders, and immune disorders.
Although both males and females can have eating disorders, males are less likely to be diagnosed and receive treatment.
Klinefelter syndrome (karyotype XXY) is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy (occurring in ~152/100,000 births, only in males). It is often subclinical, but can cause infertility, tall stature, gynecomastia (enlargement of the breast tissue), limited facial and body hair, and small firm testicles.
See also
Andrology
Gynaecology
Health equity
Men's health
Obstetrics and gynecology
Reproductive medicine
Sex differences in humans
Women's health
References
Human diseases and disorders
Medicine | wiki |
ABC Columbia can refer to:
KMIZ, the ABC television affiliate in Columbia, Missouri
WOLO-TV, the ABC television affiliate in Columbia, South Carolina | wiki |
7 series or 7-series may refer to:
AMD 700 chipset series
BMW 7 Series
Boeing 7x7 series
GeForce 7 Series
Volvo 700 Series
Windows Phone, formerly known as Windows Phone 7 Series
IRB Sevens World Series
7 Series (EP), an EP by Kid Ink
See also
1 series (disambiguation) | wiki |
A cupcone (the common US term), is a small cake generally proportioned to serve one person, specifically baked in a flat bottomed ice cream cone. As with larger cakes, frosting and other cake decorations, such as sprinkles, are common on cupcones. The consumable vessel design of a cupcone makes for a completely edible and self-contained snack food with no waste.
History
Although the origins of the recipe and the first use of the term are unclear, cupcones and cupcake cones have been a party favorite in recent history. The term cupcone is used to describe a cupcake product cooked in a flat bottomed ice cream cone instead of a paper cup in order to eliminate the waste paper after consumption.
The cupcone takes its name from the common recipe of a cake whose ingredients were measured by volume, using a standard cup, instead of being weighed. Recipes whose ingredients were measured using a standard-sized cup could also be baked in cups; however, they were more commonly baked in tins as layers or loaves. In later years, when the use of volume measurements was firmly established in home kitchens, these recipes became known as 1234 cakes or quarter cakes, so called because they are made up of four ingredients in equal ratios; butter, sugar, eggs and flour. They are plain yellow cakes, somewhat less rich and less expensive than pound cake, due to the reduced proportion of butter. The names of these two major classes of cakes were intended to signal the method to the baker; "cup cake" uses a volume measurement, and "pound cake" uses a weight measurement.
Cupcones can be used interchangeably with cupcakes that are often served during a celebration, such as children's birthday parties. Additionally, they can be served as an accompaniment to afternoon tea. Cupcones are a more convenient alternative to a full-sized cake as they don't require utensils or division into individual portions.
Notes and references
American cakes | wiki |
Yellow light may refer to:
Light in the visible color spectrum that is yellow(575~594 nm)
A yellow traffic light (also described as an "amber light")
"Yellow Light", a song by Pharrell Williams created for the 2017 film Despicable Me 3
"Yellow Light", a song by Icelandic indie folk band Of Monsters and Men on My Head Is an Animal
Manjal Veiyil (English: Yellow Light), a 2009 Tamil language film starring Prasanna and Sandhya in the lead roles
See also
"Yellow light of death" (YLOD), an issue reported with the PlayStation 3
Light yellow, a shade of yellow
Light Yellow, an X11 color name | wiki |
Severe cognitive impairment is a form of cognitive impairment that can be distinguished from the "mild" and "moderate" types of impairment. In the United States, the existence of severe cognitive impairment is a condition that triggers benefit payments under most long-term care insurance policies.
Definition
Under the United States' Federal Long Term Care Insurance Program, a severe cognitive impairment is defined as "a deterioration or loss in intellectual capacity that(a) places a person in jeopardy of harming him or herself or others and, therefore, the person requires substantial supervision by another person; and(b) is measured by clinical evidence and standardized tests which reliably measure impairment in:(1) short or long term memory;(2) orientation to people, places or time; and(3) deductive or abstract reasoning."
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offer the general explanation that a cognitive impairment exists when a person "has trouble remembering, learning new things, concentrating, or making decisions that affect their everyday life". It goes on the say that the impairment is severe when the person "[loses] the ability to understand the meaning or importance of something and the ability to talk or write". According to their explanation, people with severe cognitive impairment are unable to live independently.
Prevalence
A 2013–2014 study conducted at nursing homes in Sweden found that approximately one in seven residents had that condition.
See also
Mild cognitive impairment
References
Cognitive disorders | wiki |
m/s is the symbol for metre per second, a unit of both speed and velocity.
example: speed of sound=340 m/s.
M/S or m/s may also refer to:
Motor ship, also MS, MV, M/V, or motor vessel, a maritime prefix
M/S stereo coding (Mid/Side stereo encoding), in audio engineering
millier/second (BDSM)
Messrs., especially in India as a prefix to a firm or company name.
See also
m/s/s, Metre per second squared
m/s/s/s, Jerk (physics)
MS (disambiguation)
M&S (disambiguation) | wiki |
Tasiocera brevicornis är en tvåvingeart som beskrevs av Alexander 1929. Tasiocera brevicornis ingår i släktet Tasiocera och familjen småharkrankar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.
Källor
Småharkrankar
brevicornis | wiki |
Opere
Changing Fo (Who is Fo?!)
Let's Kick!
IN23H
Et Cetera (manga)
Raisei-den jupiter O.A.
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
Simeon () is a given name, from the Hebrew (Biblical Šimʿon, Tiberian Šimʿôn), usually transliterated as Shimon. In Greek it is written Συμεών, hence the Latinized spelling Symeon.
Meaning
The name is derived from Simeon, son of Jacob and Leah, patriarch of the Tribe of Simeon. The text of Genesis (29:33) argues that the name of Simeon refers to Leah's belief that God had heard that she was hated by Jacob, in the sense of not being as favoured as Rachel.
Implying a derivation from the Hebrew term shama on, meaning "he has heard"; this is a similar etymology as the Torah gives for the theophoric name Ishmael ("God has heard"; Genesis 16:11), on the basis of which it has been argued that the tribe of Simeon may originally have been an Ishmaelite group (Cheyne and Black, Encyclopaedia Biblica). Alternatively, Hitzig, W. R. Smith, Stade, and Kerber compared שִׁמְעוֹן Šīmə‘ōn to Arabic سِمع simˤ "the offspring of the hyena and the female wolf"; as supports, Smith points to Arabic tribal names Simˤ "a subdivision of the defenders (the Medinites)" and Samˤān "a subdivision of Tamim".
In classical rabbinical sources, the name is sometimes interpreted as meaning "he who listens [to the words of God]" (Genesis Rabbah 61:4), and at other times thought to derive from sham 'in, meaning "there is sin", which is argued to be a prophetic reference to Zimri's sexual miscegenation with a Midianite woman, a type of relationship which rabbinical sources regard as sinful (Jewish Encyclopedia).
In the Bible
Simeon (son of Jacob), in the Hebrew Bible
Tribe of Simeon, one of the twelve tribes of Israel
Simeon the Just (3rd century BC?) a Jewish High Priest, also called "Simeon the Righteous" (not the same as the New Testament figure, below)
Simeon (Gospel of Luke), figure in the New Testament who blessed Jesus and his parents in the Jerusalem temple
Simeon Niger, person in the Book of Acts
Persons with the given name
Up to 1700 AD
Ordered chronologically.
Simeon of Jerusalem (15–14 BC–c. 107 or 117), 2nd Bishop of Jerusalem, perhaps one of the Seventy Apostles sent out by Jesus
Simeon ben Gamliel, Nasi of the Sanhedrin in 50 AD
Simeon ben Gamliel II, Nasi of the Sanhedrin in c. 118 AD
Simeon Bar Kokhba, leader of the Bar Kokhba revolt
Simeon bar Yochai, rabbi of the Tannaim period, possibly the author of the Zohar
Simeon Stylites (c. 388–459 AD), Christian pillar-hermit from Sisan, Syria
Simeon Stylites III, 5th-century pillar-hermit
Simeon Stylites the Younger (521–597 AD), hermit and pillar-hermit from Antioch
Simeon, the name of one priest and one deacon martyred with Abda and Abdjesus
Simeon the Holy Fool, 6th-century Christian saint and hermit
Simeon I of Bulgaria (866–927), Bulgarian tsar
Symeon Metaphrastes (10th century?), Byzantine hagiographer
Symeon the New Theologian (949–1022), Eastern Orthodox saint
Simeon (abbot) (994–1094), Abbot of Ely Cathedral
Simeon Seth (fl. 1070), Jewish Byzantine physician, writer, and grand chamberlain from Antioch
Simeon of Mantua (died 1016), Armenian monk
Symeon of Durham (died after 1129), English chronicler and monk of Durham Priory
Stefan Nemanja (1113–1199), canonized as Saint Simeon, Serbian ruler and saint of the Serbian Orthodox Church
Simeon of Moscow, 14th-century Grand Prince of Moscow
Simeon Uroš, 14th-century ruler of Epirus and Thessaly
Simon of Trent, 15th-century boy supposedly killed by Jews, and formerly a martyr of the Catholic Church
Patriarch Symeon I of Constantinople, or Symeon of Trebizond, reigned three times: 1466, 1471–1475 and 1482–1486
Simeon Bekbulatovich, de jure Tsar of Russia (1575–1576)
Symeon of Polotsk (1629–1680), Russian poet, dramatist, churchman, and enlightener
Since 1700 AD
Ordered alphabetically by last name.
Semyon Belits-Geiman (born 1945), former Soviet Olympic freestyle swimmer
Semyon Budyonny (1883–1973), Soviet military commander
Simeon Coxe (usually known only as Simeon), American musician, singer and synth player of Silver Apples
Simeon Jocelyn (1799-1879), minister and abolitionist
Simeon Mangiuca (1831–1890), Austro-Hungarian Romanian folklorist
Simeon V. Marcelo (born 1953), Filipino lawyer and former Ombudsman and Solicitor-General of the Philippines
Simeon North (1765–1852), American gunmaker
Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840), French mathematician
Simeon Rice (born 1974), American football player
Simeon Woods Richardson (born 2000), American professional baseball player
Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (born 1937), Tsar of Bulgaria (1943–1946), prime minister of Bulgaria (2001–2005)
Semyon Sereda (1871–1933), Soviet politician
Simeon Thomas (born 1993), American football player
Simeon Tienpont (born 1982), Dutch sailor
Semyon Varlamov (born 1988), Russian ice hockey player
Simeon S. Willis (1879–1965), American lawyer, judge, and politician from Kentucky
See also
Shimun (disambiguation), also Shemon
Simeon (surname)
Simon (disambiguation)
Simone (disambiguation)
Chamoun, also Shimun
References
Russian masculine given names
Serbian masculine given names
Bulgarian masculine given names
Hebrew masculine given names | wiki |
Student television may refer to:
A student television station, one run by students
The National Student Television Association (NaSTA)
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Student Television | wiki |
Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits whose main preserving agent is sugar and sometimes acid, often stored in glass jars and used as a condiment or spread.
There are many varieties of fruit preserves globally, distinguished by the method of preparation, type of fruit used, and place in a meal. Sweet fruit preserves such as jams, jellies, and marmalades are often eaten at breakfast with bread or as an ingredient of a pastry or dessert, whereas more savory and acidic preserves made from "vegetable fruits" such as tomato, squash or zucchini, are eaten alongside savory foods such as cheese, cold meats, and curries.
Techniques
There are several techniques of making jam, with or without added water. One factor depends on the natural pectin content of the ingredients. When making jam with low pectin fruits like strawberries either high pectin fruit like orange can be added, or additional pectin in the form of pectin powder, citric acid or citrus peels. Often the fruit will be heated gently in a pan to release its juices (and pectin), sometimes with a little added water, before the sugar is added. Another method is to macerate the fruits in sugar overnight and cooking this down to a syrup.
Regional terminology
The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams even though preserves contain chunks or pieces of the fruit whereas jams in some regions do not. Closely related names include: chutney, confit, conserve, fruit butter, fruit curd, fruit spread, jelly, cheese and marmalade.
Some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit (or vegetable), which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English-speaking world, the two terms are more strictly differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is 'jam'.
The singular preserve or conserve is used as a collective noun for high fruit content jam, often for marketing purposes. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the regional variant of English being used.
Variations
Cheong
Cheong is a name for various sweetened foods in the form of syrups, marmalades, and fruit preserves in Korean cuisine. It is used as a tea base, as a honey-or-sugar substitute in cooking, and as a condiment.
There are liquid varieties such as maesil-cheong (plum syrup), jam-like varieties such as yuja-cheong (yuja marmalade), and conserve-like varieties such as mogwa-cheong (preserved quince).
Chutney
A chutney is a relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices and herbs. Although originally intended to be eaten soon after preparation, modern chutneys are often made to be sold, so require preservatives – often sugar and vinegar – to ensure they have a suitable shelf life. Mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar.
Confit
Confit, the past participle of the French verb confire, "to preserve", is applied both to preservation of meats, and to fruits or vegetables seasoned and cooked with honey or sugar till jam-like. Savory confits, such as those made with garlic or fennel, may call for an oil, such as virgin olive oil, as the preserving agent.
Konfyt (Afrikaans: "jam" or "fruit preserve") is a type of jam eaten in Southern Africa. It is made by boiling selected fruit or fruits (such as strawberries, apricots, oranges, lemons, watermelons, berries, peaches, prickly pears, or others) and sugar, and optionally adding a little ginger to enhance the flavor. The origin of the term is obscure, but it is theorized that it came from the French. The word is also based on the French term confiture via the Dutch confident (meaning candied fruit).
Conserve
A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a preserve made of fruit stewed in sugar. Traditional whole fruit preserves are particularly popular in Eastern Europe (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus) where they are called varenye, the Baltic region where they are known by a native name in each of the countries (, , , ), as well as in many regions of Western, Central and Southern Asia, where they are referred to as murabba. In Southeast Europe, another version called slatko is made. In Greece, such confections are called spoon sweets and are commonly offered to guests, along with a glass of water, as a gesture of hospitality. Outside of this geographical region, whole-fruit preserves are known in France as confitures.
The making of conserves can be trickier than making a standard jam; it requires cooking or sometimes steeping the fruit in the hot sugar mixture for just long enough to allow the flavor to be extracted from the fruit, and sugar to penetrate it, but not so long that the fruit breaks down and liquefies. This process can also be achieved by spreading the dry sugar over raw fruit in layers, and leaving for several hours to penetrate into the fruit and soak the water out, then heating the resulting mixture to bring it just to the set point. As a result of this minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves, because they require cooking for longer periods to avoid issues such as tough skins and spoiling. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits.
Because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and consequently conserves, particularly if home-cooked, will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams.
There is an alternative definition of a conserve: a preserve made from a mixture of fruits or vegetables. Conserves in this sense may also include dried fruit or nuts.
Fruit butter
Fruit butter, in this context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process.
Fruit butter are generally made from larger fruits, such as apples, plums, peaches, or grapes. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency. After sieving, cook the pulp ... add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring.… The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Nor should there be any free liquid.
—Berolzheimer, R. (ed,) et al. (1959)
Fruit curd
Fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are gently cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth, flavorful spread. Some recipes also include egg whites or butter.
Fruit spread
In the United States the FDA has Requirements for Specific Standardized Fruit Butters, Jellies, Preserves, and Related Products, "fruit spread" is not defined.
The term is sometimes used for a jam or preserve with no added sugar, but there are many foodstuffs described as "fruit spreads" by leading manufacturers that do contain added sugar.
Jam
Jam refers to a product made of whole fruit cut into pieces or crushed, then heated with water and sugar until it reaches "jelling" or "setting" point, which is achieved through the action of natural or added pectin. It is then sealed in containers.
Jam making became "a great new industry" in 19th century England, at which point English jam makers were jam makers for the world, thriving after the repeal of sugar duties in 1874.
Pectin is mainly D-galacturonic acid connected by α (1–4) glycosidic linkages. The side chains of pectin may contain small amounts of other sugars such as L-fructose, D-glucose, D-mannose, and D-xylose. In jams, pectin thickens the final product via cross-linking of the large polymer chains.
Recipes without added pectin use the natural pectin in the fruit to set. Tart apples, sour blackberries, cranberries, currants, gooseberries, Concord grapes, soft plums, and quinces work well in recipes without added pectin.
Other fruits, such as apricots, blueberries, cherries, peaches, pineapple, raspberries, rhubarb, and strawberries are low in pectin. In order to set, or gel, they must be combined with one of the higher pectin fruits or used with commercially produced or homemade pectin.<ref>[http://www.allotment-garden.org/food/pectin-jam.php Pectin for Jam, Jelly & Marmalade Making allotment garden.org (British site)] </ref> Use of added pectin decreases cooking time.Freezer jam is uncooked (or cooked less than 5 minutes), then stored frozen. It is popular in parts of North America for its very fresh taste.
Jelly
The category of fruit preserve referred to as a jelly (from the French gelée) is a clear or translucent fruit spread made by a process similar to that used for making jam, with the additional step of filtering out the fruit pulp after the initial cooking.
Good jelly is clear and sparkling and has a fresh flavor of the fruit from which it is made. It is tender enough to quiver when moved but holds angles when cut.Berolzheimer, pp. 826–829
The characteristic clarity and jellied consistency of a jelly are qualities it shares with the gelatin-based dessert also called jelly.
High pectin fruits such as quinces, apples or redcurrants are used for making jelly. In the United States, jellies made from strawberries or concord grapes are most preferred and are used for making peanut butter and jelly sandwiches. Fruit jellies may be used in a meal or dish in a similar way to jam. Some jellies, such as redcurrant, or mint, are classic accompaniments to roasted meats such as turkey, game, and lamb.
A traditional method for filtering the fruit from the liquid in a jelly is through the use of a muslin or stockinette "jelly bag", suspended by string from an upturned stool over a bowl to allow the straining to occur gently under the action of gravity. Jellies need to be strained very slowly and gently to ensure the clarity of the result, as forced straining by squeezing or pressing can lead to cloudiness in the jelly.
Pectin is essential to the formation of jelly because it acts as a gelling agent, meaning when the pectin chains combine, they create a network that results in a gel. The strength and effectiveness of the side chains and the bonds they form depend on the pH of the pectin, the optimal pH is between 2.8 and 3.2.
Marmalade
Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. It can be produced from lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamots and other citrus fruits, or any combination thereof. Marmalade is distinguished from jam by the inclusion of citrus peel, and the use of more water, in which respect it resembles a jelly. It is distinguished from a jelly by containing pieces of fruit peel.
The benchmark citrus fruit for marmalade production in Britain is the bitter Spanish Seville orange, Citrus aurantium var. aurantium'', prized for its high pectin content, which gives a good set. The peel has a distinctive bitter taste which it imparts to the preserve.
Uses
Fruit preserves are used in many food preparations and recipes; some examples include:
Spread on toast
Part of a peanut butter and jelly sandwich
The key ingredient for a jam sandwich
Used to fill sandwich biscuits
Used to sandwich two or more layers of a cake together, notably Victoria Sponge
Production
In general, jam is produced by taking mashed or chopped fruit or vegetable pulp and boiling it with sugar and water. The proportion of sugar and fruit varies according to the type of fruit and its ripeness, but a rough starting point is equal weights of each. When the mixture reaches a temperature of 104 °C (219 °F), the acid and the pectin in the fruit react with the sugar, and the jam will set on cooling. Most home cooks work by trial and error rather than temperature measurement, bringing the mixture to a "fast rolling boil", watching to see if the seething mass changes texture, and dropping small samples on a plate to see if they run or set.
Commercially produced jams are usually produced using one of two methods. The first is the open pan method, which is essentially a larger scale version of the method a home jam maker would use. This gives a traditional flavor, with some caramelization of the sugars. The second commercial process involves the use of a vacuum vessel, where the jam is placed under a vacuum, which has the effect of reducing its boiling temperature to anywhere between 65 and 80 °C depending on the recipe and the end result desired. The lower boiling temperature enables the water to be driven off as it would be when using the traditional open pan method, but with the added benefit of retaining more of the volatile flavor compounds from the fruit, preventing caramelization of the sugars, and of course reducing the overall energy required to make the product. However, once the desired amount of water has been driven off, the jam still needs to be heated briefly to for safety, to kill pathogens that would otherwise proliferate.
During commercial filling it is common to use a flame to sterilize the rim and lid of jars to destroy any yeasts and molds which could cause spoilage during storage. Steam is commonly injected immediately before lidding; when the steam condenses after lidding it creates a vacuum which both helps prevent spoilage and pulls down a tamper-evident "safety button" when used.
Packaging
The high sugar content makes jam keep for exceedingly long times before unsealing the packaging, and for a long time at room temperature after opening, as fruit preserves are typically of low water activity. Glass or plastic jars are often used to store jam that is not all to be used at once, as a replaceable tightly-fitting lid can be used. Other methods of packaging jam, especially for industrially produced products, include cans and plastic packets, especially used in the food service industry for individual servings.
Legal definitions
Canadian regulations
Under the Processed Products Regulations (C.R.C., c. 291), jams, jellies, citrus marmalade, and preserves are defined. Each must contain a minimum percentage of the named fruit and a minimum percentage of water-soluble solids. Jams "shall be the product made by boiling fruit, fruit pulp or canned fruit to a suitable consistency with water and a sweetening ingredient", jellies "shall be the product made by boiling fruit juice or concentrated fruit juice that is free from seeds and pulp with water and a sweetening ingredient until it acquires a gelatinous consistency."
In Canada, fruit jam is categorized into two types: fruit jam and fruit jam with pectin. Both types contain fruit, fruit pulp or canned fruit and are boiled with water and a sweetening ingredient. Both must have 66% water-soluble solids. Fruit jam and fruit jam with pectin may contain a class II preservative, a pH adjusting agent or an antifoaming agent. Both types cannot contain apple or rhubarb fruit.
Though both types of jam are very similar, there are some differences in fruit percent, added pectin, and added acidity. Fruit jam must have at least 45% fruit and may contain added pectin to compensate for the natural pectin level found in the fruit. Fruit jam with pectin need only contain 27% fruit and is allowed to contain added acidity to compensate for the natural acidity of the fruit.
In Canada, the Food and Drug Regulations of the Food and Drugs Act of Canada categorizes jelly into two types: jelly, and jelly with pectin. Jelly may be made from the fruit, the fruit juice, or a fruit juice concentrate, and must contain at least 62% water-soluble solids. Jelly may contain an acid ingredient that makes up for any lack in the natural acidity of the fruit, a chemical to adjust the pH, and/or an antifoaming agent. Jelly with pectin must be made with a minimum of 62% water-soluble solids and a minimum of 32% juice of the named fruit, and may contain an acid ingredient that compensates for the lack in the natural acidity of the fruit; the additional juice of another fruit; a gelling agent; food color; a Class II preservative (such as benzoates, sorbates, or nitrites); a chemical to adjust the pH; and/or an antifoaming agent.
European Union directives on jam
In the European Union, the jam directive (Council Directive 79/693/EEC, 24 July 1979) set minimum standards for the amount of "fruit" in jam, but the definition of fruit was expanded to take account of several unusual kinds of jam made in the EU. For this purpose, "fruit" is considered to include fruits that are not usually treated in a culinary sense as fruits, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and pumpkins; fruits that are not normally made into jams; and vegetables that are sometimes made into jams, such as rhubarb (the edible part of the stalks), carrots, and sweet potatoes. This definition continues to apply in the new directive, Council Directive 2001/113/EC of 20 December 2001 relating to fruit jams, jellies and marmalades and sweetened chestnut purée intended for human consumption.
Extra jam is subject to somewhat stricter rules that set higher standards for the minimum fruit content (45% instead of 35% as a general rule, but lower for some fruits such as redcurrants and blackcurrants), specifying the use of unconcentrated fruit pulp, and forbidding the mixture of certain fruits and vegetables with others.
Extra jelly similarly specifies that the proportion of fruit juice or aqueous extracts in the finished product must not be less than that laid down for the manufacture of extra jam.
US FDA definitions
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) published standards of identity in 21 CFR 150, and treats jam and preserves as synonymous, but distinguishes jelly from jams and preserves. All of these are cooked and pectin-gelled fruit products, but jellies are made from fruit juice, without seeds and pulp, while jams and preserves are gelled fruit that may include the seeds and pulp. The United States Department of Agriculture offers grading service based on these standards.
See also
Beer jam
Confiture
Lekvar
Lingonberry jam
List of spreads
List of strawberry dishes
Pepper jelly
Quince cheese
Spoon sweets
Tomato jam
References
External links
The principles of jelly-making, by N.E. Goldthwaite ... Goldthwaite, N. E. (Nellie Esther), ca. 1868–1946.
Making Jams and Jellies
Making Jams, Marmalades, Preserves, and Conserves
Jams and jellies
Food ingredients
Food preservation | wiki |
White birch is a common name for Betula papyrifera, a species of tree native to northern North America.
White birch may also refer to:
Trees
Betula pubescens (Betula alba), European white birch, downy birch
Betula pendula, silver birch, warty birch, European white birch
Other uses
White Birch, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
White Birch Village, a resort in Wisconsin
The White Birch (band), Norwegian recording artists
The White Birch (album), a 1994 album by Codeine
Shirakabaha (Japanese: 白樺派, literally "White Birch Society"), a Japanese literary group | wiki |
"Screaming Jelly Babies" (British English), also known as "Growling Gummy Bears" (American and Canadian English), is one classroom chemistry demonstration variants of which are practised in schools around the world. It is often used at open evenings to demonstrate the more light-hearted side of secondary school science.
The experiment shows the amount of energy there is in one piece of confectionery; jelly babies, or gummy bears, are often used for theatrics. Potassium chlorate, a strong oxidising agent rapidly oxidises the sugar in the candy causing it to burst into flames producing a "screaming" sound as rapidly expanding gases are emitted from the test tube. The aroma of candy floss (cotton candy) is also given off.
Researchers in Japan developed a new headset in December 2011 that triggers different sounds as wearers close their jaws when eating which included the "heart breaking" squeals of masticated jelly babies. Other carbohydrate or hydrocarbon containing substances can (also) be dropped into test tubes of molten chlorate, with similar results.
References
Further reading
External links
Jelly Babies - From The University of Nottingham's Periodic Table of Videos
Chemical reactions
Chemistry classroom experiments
Articles containing video clips
Gummi candies | wiki |
The 2010 Shreveport mayoral election resulted in the re-election of incumbent Democrat Cedric Glover who defeated Republican Bryan Wooley in the runoff to win a second term in office. The nonpartisan blanket primary was held on October 2, 2010, and as no candidate obtained the required majority, the general election followed on November 2, 2010.
Results
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References
Shreveport
Government of Shreveport, Louisiana
2010 Louisiana elections
November 2010 events in the United States | wiki |
Fairy Cave may refer to:
Fairy Cave (Jiangxi)
Fairy Cave (Colorado), part of the extensive cave system of Glenwood Caverns
Fairy Cave (Victoria), one of the Buchan Caves
Fairy Cave (Sarawak), one of the Caves of Malaysia
Fairy Cave (Bau)
Fairy Cave (Somerset), one of the Caves of the Mendip Hills
Dog Hole Cave, Storth, Cumbria, England, also known as Fairy Cave
Talking Rocks Cavern, Stone County, Missouri, previously known as Fairy Cave | wiki |
Salomo is a different name for Solomon, son of David, who was king of Israel around 970 to 931 BC.
It may also refer to:
Salomo of Makuria, ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria (1080–1089)
Salomo Glassius (May 20, 1593–July 27, 1656), German theologian and biblical critic
Johann Salomo Semler (December 18, 1725–March 14, 1791), German church historian and biblical commentator
Karl Salomo Zachariae von Lingenthal, (September 14, 1769–March 27, 1843), German jurist
Ernst Benjamin Salomo Raupach (May 21, 1784–March 18, 1852), German dramatist
Soma Morgenstern (May 3, 1890–April 17, 1976), Jewish-Austrian writer and journalist
Salomó, a village in the Catalan district of Tarragonès (Spain) | wiki |
In toss juggling, a claw (also called a snatch) is a trick where the hand throwing or catching a ball is turned upside down so that the palm of the hand faces the ground. The effect is that of the jugglers hand appearing to snatch the ball out of the air. A claw can be juggled as an isolated trick, or be incorporated into an already existing juggling pattern. For example, the Boston Mess can be juggled with each right hand throw as a claw. The resulting pattern in known as cherry picking.
Many other well known juggling patterns incorporate claw throws or catches. In most instances, both a throw and subsequent catch are performed as a claw. There are some exceptions to this rule however. For instance, in Burke's Barrage the two balls that are thrown as siteswap 4s in columns and caught with a claw, while none of the throws are clawed.
Further reading
Gillson, George. Beyond the Cascade: Step-By-Step Guides to 88 Classic 3-Ball Juggling Tricks. p6, Ugly Juggling Co: N.Y 1991.
Dancey, Charlie. Charlie Dancey's Encyclopædia of Ball Juggling p31, 147. Butterfingers: Bath, England 1994.
External links
Juggling patterns and tricks | wiki |
Ovarian apoplexy is a sudden rupture in the ovary, commonly at the site of a cyst, accompanied by hemorrhage in the ovarian tissue and/or intraperitoneal bleeding.
Symptoms and signs
Clinical symptoms of apoplexy associated with the basic mechanism of this disease:
Pain, which occurs primarily mid-cycle or after a minor delay in menstruation (at the time of the rupture of a corpus luteum cyst, for example). Pain is most often localized in the lower abdomen. Sometimes the pain may radiate to the rectum or to the lumbar or the umbilical region.
Bleeding into the abdominal cavity, which may be accompanied by:
low blood pressure
increase in heart rate
weakness and dizziness
syncope
chills
fever up to 38°C
vomiting
dry mouth
Sometimes there may be inter-menstrual bleeding or spotting after menstruation.
Quite often, ovarian apoplexy occurs after intercourse or training in the gym, when pressure in the abdomen has increased or ovarian tissue has experienced some stress. However, rupture of ovarian tissue can occur in conjunction with other diseases.
Pathogenesis
During a normal ovarian cycle (which accompanies the menstrual cycle) of a sexually mature woman, one or more follicles grow in the ovaries. The oocyte in the follicle matures to prepare for potential fertilisation. As the cycle progresses, a smaller number of dominant follicles (typically only one) begin to stand out, and reach a maximum size of about 20mm around the middle point of cycle. By this stage, the oocyte has finished maturing into an ovum (an egg), and ovulation occurs - the follicle ruptures and releases the ovum. A ruptured follicle forms a temporary cyst - a corpus luteum - which produces hormones to continue the cycle and mature the uterine lining.
In cases of dystrophic and sclerotic changes in ovarian tissue, acute and chronic inflammatory processes in the uterus, or in polycystic ovary syndrome and some other diseases, as well as the result of medication that stimulate ovulation, certain irregularities in ovulation process and corpus luteum formation occur. As a result, blood vessels in the ovary contract, become dilated, and increase intra-ovarian bleeding. A hemorrhage can then occur in the corpus luteum due to the fragility of blood vessels, causing a hematoma. This is accompanied by pain, weakness, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, pale skin, and/or fainting. If left untreated, internal bleeding may increase and become a threat to the individual's health and life. Other possible causes of ovarian rupture include abdominal trauma, excessive physical stress, vigorous sexual intercourse, horseback riding, etc.
Diagnosis
Typical complaints appear during the middle or second half of the menstrual cycle.
On examination, there is marked soreness of the affected ovary, and positive symptoms of irritation of the peritoneum.
In a general blood test, a marked decrease in hemoglobin levels can be seen (in the anemic and mixed forms of ovarian apoplexy).
Pelvic ultrasound reveals in the affected ovary a large corpus luteum cyst with signs of hemorrhage in it and/or free fluid (blood) in the abdominal cavity.
Because ovarian apoplexy is an acute surgical pathology, diagnosis must be confirmed rapidly, since delays between the event and surgical intervention increases the magnitude of blood loss and may be life-threatening.
Classification
Painful type – the primary symptom is pain, without signs of intraperitoneal bleeding.
Anemic type – the primary symptom is internal (abdominal) bleeding, without pain.
Mixed type – a combination of pain and intraperitoneal bleeding.
However, according to recent data, this classification is inadequate, because the ovary cannot rupture without bleeding.
Therefore, a new pathology has been devised in which the condition is divided according to severity: mild, moderate and severe (depending on the magnitude of blood loss).
Treatment
Treatment depends on the type of ovary apoplexy and the severity of intra-abdominal bleeding, but the condition must be treated in a hospital. In the case of pain without signs of intra-abdominal bleeding, conservative therapy may be initiated, which includes bed rest, antispasmodics, and physiotherapy. In the presence or suspected internal bleeding, surgery is indicated via laparoscopy or laparotomy. Other treatments may include efforts to stop the bleeding or resection of the affected portion of the ovary. However, in cases in which there is extensive damage to the ovary, it may be necessary to remove it. After being discharged from the hospital, it is important to take steps to prevent a recurrence in the future. Such steps include avoiding risk factors or beginning a regimen of oral contraceptives to control ovarian activity.
References
Gynaecologic disorders
Noninflammatory disorders of female genital tract | wiki |
Summer league may refer to several sports leagues.
Baseball
Dominican Summer League
Venezuelan Summer League
Collegiate summer baseball
Basketball
NBA Summer League
Summer Pro League
See also
:Category:Summer baseball leagues
:Category:Summer association football leagues | wiki |
Jerome A. Feldman is professor emeritus of electrical engineering and computer science at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science since 2005 and a fellow of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence since 1990.
Selected publications
From Molecule to Metaphor: A Neural Theory of Language. Bradford Books, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006.
References
External links
Jerry Feldman's Personal Home Page at ICSI
Living people
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
American computer scientists
Year of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
The architecture of Charleston, the largest city in the US state of South Carolina, has English and Barbadian influences.
Architectural styles
Charleston Single House
The Charleston single house is the city's most famous architectural style. The house is built with the longer side perpendicular to the street, and normally has a piazza on the south side to take advantage of the prevailing winds.
Tallest buildings
The zoning requirements of Charleston discourage tall buildings, and folklore states that no building can be taller than the tallest church steeple, which is that of St. Matthew's Lutheran Church. Therefore, Charleston has no skyscrapers by the modern definition, although the first building described as such was the eight-story People's Office Building, completed in 1911.
Bridges
Charleston has many bridges over the Ashley, Cooper, Stono, and Wando rivers due to the city's peninsular geography. Particularly noteworthy is the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge, which at the time of its construction was the longest cable-stayed bridge in the Western Hemisphere.
Street grid
Board of Architectural Review
The Board of Architectural Review is a part of the Charleston city government that was created in 1931 to oversee the preservation of buildings in the Charleston Historic District. The city architect oversees the Board. The current city architect is Tory Parish.
References
Charleston
Buildings and structures in Charleston, South Carolina | wiki |
Hair care is an overall term for hygiene and cosmetology involving the hair which grows from the human scalp, and to a lesser extent facial, pubic and other body hair. Hair care routines differ according to an individual's culture and the physical characteristics of one's hair. Hair may be colored, trimmed, shaved, plucked or otherwise removed with treatments such as waxing, sugaring and threading. Hair care services are offered in salons, barbershops and day spas, and products are available commercially for home use. Laser hair removal and electrolysis are also available, though these are provided (in the US) by licensed professionals in medical offices or speciality spas.
Hair cleaning and conditioning
Biological processes and hygiene
Care of the hair and care of the scalp skin may appear separate, but are actually intertwined because hair grows from beneath the skin. The living parts of hair (hair follicle, hair root, root sheath and sebaceous gland) are beneath the skin, while the actual hair shaft which emerges (the cuticle which covers the cortex and medulla) has no living processes. Damage or changes made to the visible hair shaft cannot be repaired by a biological process, though much can be done to manage hair and ensure that the cuticle remains intact.
Scalp skin, just like any other skin on the body, must be kept healthy to ensure a healthy body and healthy hair production. If the scalp is cleaned regularly by those who have rough hair or have a hair-fall problem, it can result in loss of hair. However, not all scalp disorders are a result of bacterial infections. Some arise inexplicably, and often only the symptoms can be treated for management of the condition (example: dandruff). There are also bacteria that can affect the hair itself. Head lice is probably the most common hair and scalp ailment worldwide. Head lice can be removed with great attention to detail, and studies show it is not necessarily associated with poor hygiene. More recent studies reveal that head lice actually thrive in clean hair. In this way, hair washing as a term may be a bit misleading, as what is necessary in healthy hair production and maintenance is often simply cleaning the surface of the scalp skin, the way the skin all over the body requires cleaning for good hygiene.
The sebaceous glands in human skin produce sebum, which is composed primarily of fatty acids. Sebum acts to protect hair and skin, and can inhibit the growth of microorganisms on the skin. Sebum contributes to the skin's slightly acidic natural pH somewhere between 5 and 6.8 on the pH spectrum. This oily substance gives hair moisture and shine as it travels naturally down the hair shaft, and serves as a protective substance by preventing the hair from drying out or absorbing excessive amounts of external substances. Even though sebum serves as a protective substance, too much of this oily substance can cause blockage around hair follicles. This blockage is usually from dandruff or even dead skin. As a result, "blocked or obstructed hair follicles" may prevent hair from producing. Sebum is also distributed down the hair shaft "mechanically" by brushing and combing. When sebum is present in excess, the roots of the hair can appear oily, greasy, and darker than normal, and the hair may stick together.
Hair cleaning
Washing hair removes excess sweat and oil, as well as unwanted products from the hair and scalp. Often hair is washed as part of a shower or bathing with shampoo, a specialized surfactant. Shampoos work by applying water and shampoo to the hair. The shampoo breaks the surface tension of the water, allowing the hair to become soaked. This is known as the wetting action. The wetting action is caused by the head of the shampoo molecule attracting the water to the hair shaft. Conversely, the tail of the shampoo molecule is attracted to the grease, dirt and oil on the hair shaft. The physical action of shampooing makes the grease and dirt become an emulsion that is then rinsed away with the water. This is known as the emulsifying action. Sulfate free shampoos are less harming on color treated hair than normal shampoos that contain sulfates. Sulfates strip away natural oils as well as hair dye. Sulfates are also responsible for the foaming effect of shampoos.
Shampoos have a pH of between 4 & 6. Acidic shampoos are the most common type used and maintain or improve the condition of the hair as they don't swell the hairshaft and don't strip the natural oils.
Hairstyling tools | wiki |
Falls Apart may refer to:
"Falls Apart" (Sugar Ray song), 1998
"Falls Apart" (Thousand Foot Krutch song), 2007
"Falls Apart", a 1996 song by Stabbing Westward, from the album Wither Blister Burn & Peel
"Falls Apart", a 2007 song by Hurt, from the album Vol. 1
See also
Everything Falls Apart, the second 1983 album by Hüsker Dü
"When It All Falls Apart", the third single from The Veronicas' debut 2006 album The Secret Life of...
Fall Apart (disambiguation) | wiki |
December 2021 tornado outbreak may refer to:
Tornado outbreak of December 10-11, 2021 - The deadliest tornado outbreak in December, included the 2021 Western Kentucky tornado
December 2021 Midwest derecho and tornado outbreak - The most prolific tornado in December, as well as the largest tornado outbreak in record for any day of the year in Iowa | wiki |
__БЕЗКН__
-{About}- се може односити на:
-{About.com}-, онлајн извор оригиналних информација и савета
-{abOUT}-, ЛГБТ магазин
-{About URI scheme}-, унутрашња -{URI}- шема
-{About box}-, приказује информације о рачунарском софтверу | wiki |
Room of One's Own may refer to:
A Room of One's Own, 1929 essay by Virginia Woolf
Room (magazine), formerly Room of One's Own, a Canadian quarterly literary journal
A Room of One's Own, a feminist bookstore in Madison, Wisconsin | wiki |
A hosted service provider (xSP) is a business that delivers a combination of traditional IT functions such as infrastructure, applications (software as a service), security, monitoring, storage, web development, website hosting and email, over the Internet or other wide area networks (WAN). An xSP combines the abilities of an application service provider (ASP) and an Internet service provider (ISP).
This approach enables customers to consolidate and outsource much of their IT needs for a predictable recurring fee. xSPs that integrate web publishing give customers a central repository to rapidly and efficiently distribute information and resources among employees, customers, partners and the general public.
Hosted Service Providers benefit from economies of scale and operate on a one-to-many business model, delivering the same software and services to many customers at once. Customers are charged on a subscription basis.
Services offered
As defined by analyst Ovum.
Repeatable business process-led services shared among several clients
Remotely delivered application services using shared resources
Infrastructure services (both remotely managed and/or hosted services spanning data centre services, managed servers and databases, performance monitoring, security services, storage services and business continuity)
Web hosting- the provision of infrastructure and application services to support the hosting of Web sites.
History
Hard Corps, Inc., formed in December 1999 claimed the moniker 'xSP' and began using it in commerce prior to others.
See also
Web servers
Managed services
References
Internet access | wiki |
Regular television broadcasts in the United Kingdom started in 1936 as a public service which was free of advertising, which followed the first demonstration of a transmitted moving image in 1926. Currently, the United Kingdom has a collection of free-to-air, free-to-view and subscription services over a variety of distribution media, through which there are over 480 channels for consumers as well as on-demand content. There are six main channel owners who are responsible for most material viewed.
There are 27,000 hours of domestic content produced a year, at a cost of £2.6 billion. Since 24 October 2012, all television broadcasts in the United Kingdom have been in a digital format, following the end of analogue transmissions in Northern Ireland. Digital content is delivered via terrestrial, satellite and cable, as well as over IP. As of 2003, 53.2% of households watch through terrestrial, 31.3% through satellite, and 15.6% through cable.
The Royal Television Society (RTS) is a British-based educational charity for the discussion and analysis of television in all its forms, past, present, and future. It is the oldest television society in the world.
Broadcast television providers
Free-to-air, free-to-view and subscription providers operate, with differences in the number of channels, capabilities such as the programme guide (EPG), video on demand (VOD), high-definition (HD), interactive television via the red button, and coverage across the UK. All providers make available the UK's five most-watched channels: BBC One, BBC Two, ITV1, Channel 4 and Channel 5.
Broadcast television is distributed as radio waves via terrestrial or satellite transmissions, or as electrical or light signals through ground-based cables. In the UK, these use the Digital Video Broadcasting standard. Most TVs sold in the UK (as well as much of the rest of Europe) come with a DVB-T (terrestrial) tuner. Following the financial failure of digital terrestrial pay TV service ITV Digital in 2002, UK digital terrestrial TV services were rebranded as Freeview and do not require a subscription. Set-top boxes are generally used to receive channels from other providers. Most services have integrated their broadcast TV services with additional video streams distributed via the Internet, or through their own Internet Protocol network.
The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board publish quarterly statistics of the number of UK households per broadcast TV platform. Aggregating the statistics for Q1 2020 show that 56% subscribe to one or more broadcast TV services, vs 44% who receive free TV.
Digital terrestrial television
The primary digital terrestrial TV service, Freeview, launched in 2002 and is free-of-charge to view. It replaced the subscription service named ONdigital or ITV Digital, which ran from 1997 to 2002. Digital terrestrial television was itself the replacement for analogue terrestrial TV, which ran from 1936 to 2012.
, Freeview provides over seventy TV and radio channels, which are received via an aerial. It is operated by DTV Services Ltd., a joint venture between the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Sky. The transmitter network is predominately operated by Arqiva.
The TV channels are transmitted in bundles, called multiplexes, and the available channels are dependent on how many multiplexes are transmitted in each area. The six national multiplexes are available to 90% of households from 92 transmitters; and three multiplexes are available to 9% of households from 1,067 transmitters. In Northern Ireland, a multiplex carrying channels from the Republic of Ireland can reach 71% of Northern Irish households from 3 transmitters. Local TV and radio is available to 54% of households from an additional multiplex via 44 transmitters, and an extra multiplex is available to 54% of households in Greater Manchester.
Multiple vendors sell hybrid set-top-boxes or smart TVs which combine terrestrial channels with streamed (Internet TV) content. Internet-based TV services such as BBC iPlayer, ITVX and All 4 are available via the broadband connection of Freeview Play, Netgem and YouView receivers. These also support optional subscription services such as Netflix and Prime Video. BT TV and TalkTalk TV offer additional subscription services for their respective broadband customers using Netgem or YouView devices. Netgem TV set-top-boxes combine Freeview Play with subscription channels, and are available directly or from several broadband suppliers.
Saorview, the terrestrial TV service in the Republic of Ireland which launched in 2011, can be received in parts of Northern Ireland via overspill transmissions.
Cable television
Many regional companies developed cable-television services in the late 1980s and 1990s as licences for cable television were awarded on a city-by-city basis. The mid-1990s saw the companies start to merge and the turn of the century only three big companies remained. In 2007 Telewest and NTL merged, resulting in the formation of Virgin Media, which is available to 55% of households. Cable TV is a subscription service normally bundled with a phone line and broadband.
Satellite television
There are two distinctly-marketed direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) services (also known as direct-to-home (DTH), to be distinguished from satellite signals intended for non-consumer reception).
Sky TV is a subscription service operated by Sky Ltd, owned by Comcast, which launched in 1998 as SkyDigital. Compared to the previous analogue service which had launched in 1989, it provided more channels, widescreen, interactive TV and a near video-on-demand service using staggered start times for pay-per-view content. Innovations since have included high definition, 3D TV, a digital video recorder, the ability to view recordings on other devices, remote operation via the Internet to add recordings, and on-demand content via the satellite-receiver's broadband connection of both Sky and third-party TV. The Sky subscription also includes access to Sky Go, which allows mobile devices and computers to access subscription content via the Internet.
Freesat is a free satellite-service developed jointly by the BBC and ITV. In contrast to Freesat from Sky, it does not need a viewing card. Like Sky, it provides high-definition content, digital recording and video-on-demand via the broadband connection. The on-screen programme guide lists the available channels, rather than encrypted channels which need a subscription to view.
Freesat and Sky TV transmit from SES Astra satellites at 28.2° east (Astra 2E/2F/2G). As the satellites are in geostationary orbit, they are positioned above the earth's equator () approximately 35,786 km above sea level; this places them above the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Internet video services
TV via the Internet can be streamed or downloaded, and consist of amateur or professionally produced content. In the UK, most broadcasters provide catch-up TV services which allow viewing of TV for a window after it was broadcast. Online video can be viewed via mobile devices, computers, TVs equipped with a built in Internet connection, or TVs connected to an external set-top-box, streaming stick or games console. Most of the broadcast TV providers have integrated their set-top-boxes with Internet video to provide a hybrid broadcast and online service.
Catch-up services
Since 2006, UK channel owners and content producers have been creating Internet services to access their programmes. Often, these are available for a window after the broadcast schedule. These services generally block users outside of the UK.
Online video services for professionally produced content
There are numerous online services targeting the UK, offering a combination of subscription, rental and purchase options for viewing online TV. Most are available via any Internet connection, however some require a specific broadband connection. Some services sell 3rd party services, such as Amazon's Prime Video.
BARB tracks the number of households subscribing to Netflix, Prime Video and Now, referred to as SVOD households. Their statistics for Q1 2020 show that 53% of households subscribe to at least one of these, and 24% to at least two. Netflix has 13.01 million subscribers, Prime Video (Amazon) has 7.86 million, and Now has 1.62 million, according to BARB's figures for Q1 2020. BARB's equivalent figures for broadcast TV show that 56% of households subscribe.
The table following summarises some of the available Internet TV services in the UK. For brevity, it does not include catch-up-only or amateur-only services, individual channels, distributors of illegal or adult content, services which solely redistribute free broadcast channels, portals, or services which don't target the UK. 'Free' refers to free at the point of consumption, not including fees for Internet connectivity or a TV licence.
Other international streaming services with pricing in GBP include: Acorn TV, Arrow, BKTV, Crunchyroll, Dekkoo, Demand Africa, Docsville, Funimation Now, GuideDoc, Hayu, Hoichoi, Hotstar, iQiyi, iWantTFC, Mubi, NewsPlayer+, Revry, Shudder, Starz, True Story, WOW Presents Plus and ZEE5.
Channels and channel owners
Viewing statistics
Most viewed channels
The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) measures television ratings in the UK. As of 2 January 2022, the average daily viewing time per home was 3 hours 8 minutes (of BARB-reported channels, includes broadcast and Internet viewings). 15 channels have a 4-week share of ≥ 1.0%.
Most viewed broadcaster groups
, there are 10 broadcaster groups with a four week share of ≥ 1.0% (although BARB reports sub-groups of BBC and Paramount individually, and it's unclear what the 'ITV' group refers to).
BBC and UKTV
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is the world's oldest and largest broadcaster, and is the country's principal public service broadcaster of radio and television. BBC Television is funded primarily by a television licence and from sales of its programming to overseas markets. It does not carry advertising. The licence fee is levied on all households that watch or record TV as it is broadcast and the fee is determined by periodic negotiation between the government and the BBC.
Its first analogue terrestrial channel was launched by the BBC Television Service in 1936. It rebranded to BBC1 in 1964 following the launch of BBC2, the UK's third analogue terrestrial channel after ITV. BBC News 24 launched as an analogue cable channel in 1997, later rebranding to BBC News in 2008. BBC Parliament, which was originally an analogue cable channel known as The Parliamentary Channel, was acquired by the BBC in 1998. From 1998 onwards the BBC started digital TV transmissions, launching new channels and broadcasting via satellite in addition to terrestrial and cable.
The BBC's Internet-based service iPlayer contains content from the BBC's TV channels, the Welsh-language public-service broadcaster S4C, as well as videos created from BBC radio programmes.
UKTV is a commercial broadcaster owned by BBC Studios, one of the BBC's commercial units. Originating in 1992 with UK Gold, UKTV expanded its channels from 1997 onwards, with the BBC taking full ownership in June 2019. Unlike the BBC's public service channels, the UKTV channels contain advertising.
ITV
ITV, branded as ITV1 or STV, is the network of fourteen regional and one national commercial television franchise, founded in 1955 to provide competition to the BBC. ITV was the country's first commercial television provider funded by advertisements. Each region was originally independent and used its own on-air identity. Through a series of mergers, takeovers and relaxation of regulation, thirteen of the franchises are now held by ITV plc, and the remaining two by STV Group. Since 2012, ITV plc produces the network nationally, with STV Group acting as an affiliate.
STV Group uses the channel name of STV for its two franchises in Scotland. ITV plc names the channel UTV in Northern Ireland, and ITV1 for the remaining regions, although UTV has used ITV or ITV1 branding since April 2020. The national breakfast-time franchise is held by ITV plc, which appears as an indistinguishable programming block across the network. Legally, the network has been known as Channel 3 since 1990, which is the name Ofcom uses.
Since 1998, ITV plc has operated additional free or subscription channels, starting with ITV2.
Channel 4
Launched in 1982, Channel 4 is a state-owned national broadcaster which is funded by its commercial activities (including advertising). Channel 4 has expanded greatly after gaining greater independence from the IBA, especially in the multi-channel digital world launching E4, Film4, More4, 4Music, 4seven and various timeshift services. Since 2005, it has been a member of the Freeview consortium, and operates one of the six digital terrestrial multiplexes with ITV as Digital 3&4. Since the advent of digital television, Channel 4 is now also broadcast in Wales across all digital platforms. Channel 4 was the first British channel not to carry regional variations for programming, however it does have six set advertising regions.
With Bauer Media Group, Channel 4 jointly owns a range of music channels under the Box Plus Network banner.
Sky
Sky is a European broadcaster owned by global American media conglomerate Comcast. Sky Television launched in 1989, with a 4-channel service received via satellite. The channels at launch were Sky Channel, Sky News, Sky Movies and Eurosport. They were initially free to receive, and Sky Movies was the first to move to a subscription early in 1990. Sky News was the UK's first dedicated news channel. The new service was the UK's first consumer satellite TV service, beating rival BSB, with which Sky would later merge to become BSkyB. Sky's satellite service grew to become a subscription platform through which Sky offer their own channels, pay-per-view services and channels from other broadcasters. Sky's digital platform launched in 1998, with the original analogue service closing in 2001. Sky was acquired by Comcast in 2018.
Since 2012, Sky operate Now, an Internet TV streaming service offering subscriptions without a fixed-term contract.
Sky's channel portfolio has grown greatly since the launch of digital TV. Sky make their channels available via rival cable and Internet services as well as their own satellite service and Now.
Paramount Global
Channel 5 was the fifth analogue terrestrial channel to launch, in March 1997. Due to constraints with the available UHF frequencies at the time, many households had to retune their video recorders, which shared the frequency on their RF output with the frequency used by Channel 5's new broadcasts. Channel 5 was the first terrestrial channel to also broadcast via satellite. From 2006 onwards, Channel 5 launched new digital channels and an Internet on-demand service. After changing ownership several times, in May 2014 Channel 5 and its sister channels were acquired by Viacom, an American media conglomerate, known as Paramount since 2022.
By the time it acquired Channel 5, Paramount already operated a large number of subscription channels in the UK, including the MTV, Nickelodeon and Comedy Central channels, which are available via Sky TV, Virgin Media and Now. In terms of viewing share, the combined viewing across Paramount's channels make the group the UK's fifth largest broadcaster, according to BARB's viewing figures for 1 March 2020.
Paramount additionally operates the Pluto TV and Paramount+ Internet streaming services.
Local and regional television
Local television
Since 2012, additional local TV channels are available via Freeview channel 7 or 8. The channels are licensed by Ofcom, with 34 local TV channels licensed as of 2 July 2020. Nineteen of the licenses are held by That's TV, and eight are held by Made Television. The remainder are held independently. Each license contains the amount of local TV programming required. As an example, the license for Scarborough, which is held by That's TV, requires seven hours of local programming per week (one hour per day on average). Thirteen additional licenses were originally intended, but Ofcom decided not to advertise these in June 2018.
The way Ofcom structured local television – being dependent on terrestrial transmission – was criticised in a Guardian article in 2015 for being "years behind in its thinking", as it does not account for the Internet. In the article, Ofcom responded that the licensing scheme was inherited from the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. In April 2018, BBC News reported that "many of the stations have been ridiculed for the poor quality of their output or have been reported to Ofcom for breaching broadcasting rules". The local TV companies receive a subsidy from the BBC of £147.50 per local news story, funded by the license fee, paid whether the BBC uses the content or not. A June 2018 article on BuzzFeed claimed that That's TV was created "primarily to extract money from the BBC whilst delivering little content of useful value".
Regional television
BBC One, BBC Two and the ITV network (comprising ITV1 and STV) are split into regions in which regional news and other programming is broadcast. ITV1/STV is split into fourteen geographic licencees, with several of these split into two or three sub-regions, resulting in a greater total number of regional news programmes. Ofcom sets a quota for the BBC and ITV on the amount of regional programming required.
Advertising on ITV1/STV and Channel 4 is regional. Channel 4 is split into 6 advertising regions, but has no regional programming.
Country-specific channels
BBC Scotland and the Gaelic-language channel BBC Alba target Scotland, and the Welsh-language channel S4C targets Wales. In Northern Ireland, channels originating in the Republic of Ireland are available, including RTÉ One, RTÉ2 and the Irish-language TG4.
Programming
British television differs from other countries, such as the United States, in as much that programmes produced in the United Kingdom do not generally have a long season run of around 20 weeks. Instead, they are produced in a series, a set of episodes varying in length, usually aired over a period of a few months. See List of British television series.
100 Greatest British Television Programmes
100 Greatest British Television Programmes was a list compiled in 2000 by the British Film Institute (BFI), chosen by a poll of industry professionals, to determine what were the greatest British television programmes of any genre ever to have been screened. Although not including any programmes made in 2000 or later, the list is useful as an indication of what were generally regarded as the most successful British programmes of the 20th century. The top 10 programmes are:
100 Greatest TV Moments
100 Greatest TV Moments was a list compiled by Channel 4 in 1999. The top 10 entries are:
List of most watched television broadcasts
The majority of special events attracting large audiences are often carried on more than one channel. The most-watched programme of all time on a single channel is the 1973 wedding ceremony of The Princess Anne, shown only on BBC1. The figures in these tables represent the average viewership achieved by each broadcast during its run-time and do not include peak viewership.
Post-1981 figures verified by the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB)
Pre-1981 figures supplied by the British Film Institute (BFI)
Notes:
The Wedding of Princess Margaret and Lord Snowdon (6 May 1960) was watched by an estimated 25 million viewers in Britain.
At least two Muhammad Ali boxing matches were reported to have been watched by at least 26million viewers in the United Kingdom: the Fight of the Century (Ali vs. Frazier) was reported to have been watched by 27.5million British viewers in 1971, and The Rumble in the Jungle (Ali vs. Foreman) was reported to have been watched by 26million viewers on BBC1 in 1974.
Live Aid is reported to have reached approximately 24.5million British viewers in July 1985.
The Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton (29 April 2011) received a total audience peak of 26 million viewers, but this is a combined figure aggregated from the ten different channels that broadcast the ceremony. The highest figures of these were 13.59 million on BBC1, with an extra 4.02 million watching on ITV.
Genre lists
100 Greatest Kids' TV shows
The 100 Greatest Kids' TV shows was a poll conducted by the British television channel Channel 4 in 2001. The top 5 UK-produced programmes are:
British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series
The British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series is one of the major categories of the British Academy Television Awards. The last 5 winners are:
2022: In My Skin – Expectation Entertainment / BBC Three
2021: Save Me Too – World Productions / Sky Atlantic
2020: The End of the F***ing World – Clerkenwell Films / Channel 4
2019: Killing Eve – Sid Gentle Films / BBC One
2018: Peaky Blinders – Tiger Aspect Productions / BBC Two
Terrestrial channel programming
Weekday
Weekday programming on terrestrial channels begins at 6 am with breakfast national news programmes (along with regional news updates) on BBC Breakfast on BBC One and Good Morning Britain on ITV, with Channel 5 showing children's programmes under the Milkshake! brand. Channel 4 predominately broadcasts comedy programmes such as Everybody Loves Raymond in its morning slot. The weekday breakfast news programme ends at 9:15am on BBC One and 9am on ITV.
Following this on BBC One, lifestyle programming is generally shown, including property, auction and home and gardening. BBC One continues this genre until after the lunchtime news, whereby afternoon has a soap called Doctors followed by dramas. BBC Two airs the BBC News updates and political programming between 9 am and 1 pm. Channel 4 often shows home-project and archaeology lifestyle programming in the early afternoon after a Channel 4 News summary. Channel 5 broadcasts chat show programmes in the morning including Jeremy Vine with regular news bulletins. In the afternoon, it shows dramas followed by an hour of Australian soaps such as Home and Away and Neighbours and films.
News bulletins are broadcast between 6 pm and 7 pm on both BBC One and ITV, with BBC One beginning with the national BBC News at Six and ITV with the flagship regional news programme. At around 6:30 pm, BBC One broadcasts the regional news programmes whilst ITV broadcasts the ITV Evening News. Channel 4 News starts at 7 pm and 5 News broadcasts for an hour at 5 pm.
Primetime programming is usually dominated by further soaps, including EastEnders on BBC One, Coronation Street and Emmerdale on ITV, and Hollyoaks on Channel 4. These soap operas or 'continuing dramas' as they are now called can vary throughout the year, however weekly dramas, such as Holby City, are also fixed to scheduling. BBC Two broadcasts factual programming, including lifestyle and documentaries. BBC Four begins programming at 7pm. The channel shows a wide variety of programmes including arts, documentaries, music, international film, comedy, original programmes, drama and current affairs. It is required by its licence to air at least 100 hours of new arts and music programmes, 110 hours of new factual programmes and to premiere 20 foreign films each year. BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 broadcast dramas and documentaries in the evenings. At 10pm with the flagship national news on BBC One in BBC News at Ten (followed by Newsnight on BBC Two) and on ITV on ITV News at Ten followed by the regional late night news. Because of this, the UK can often rely more heavily on TV guides, be it with the newspaper, online, via information services on the television such as the BBC Red Button service or the built in Electronic Programme Guides.
Weekend
Weekend daytime programming traditionally consists of more lifestyle programming plus films and live and recorded coverage of sporting events on most weekend afternoons. There are further battles for viewers in the weekend primetime slot, often featuring documentaries and game shows in the evening. Lunchtime, early evening and late evening news programmes continue on BBC One and ITV although the length of the bulletins are shorter than during the week. Sunday night schedules usually consist of dramas, light entertainment, documentaries, films, music concerts, festivals or sporting events.
Cultural impact
Christian morality
In 1963 Mary Whitehouse, incensed by the liberalising policies followed by Sir Hugh Greene, then director general of the BBC, began her letter writing campaign. She subsequently launched the Clean Up TV Campaign, and founded the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association in 1965. In 2008, Toby Young in an article for The Independent wrote: "On the wider question of whether sex and violence on TV has led to a general moral collapse in society at large, the jury is still out. No one doubts that Western civilization is teetering on the brink ... but it is unfair to lay the blame entirely at the feet of BBC2 and Channel 4."
In 2005, the BBC's broadcast of Jerry Springer: The Opera elicited 55,000 complaints, and provoked protests from Christian organisation Christian Voice, and a private prosecution against the BBC by the Christian Institute. A summons was not issued.
Awards
The British Academy Television Awards are the most prestigious awards given in the British television industry, analogous to the Emmy Awards in the United States. They have been awarded annually since 1954, and are only open to British programmes. After all the entries have been received, they are voted for online by all eligible members of the Academy. The winner is chosen from the four nominees by a special jury of nine academy members for each award, the members of each jury selected by the Academy's Television Committee.
The National Television Awards is a British television awards ceremony, sponsored by ITV and initiated in 1995. Although not widely held to be as prestigious as the BAFTAs, the National Television Awards are probably the most prominent ceremony for which the results are voted on by the general public. Unlike the BAFTAs, the National Television Awards allow foreign programmes to be nominated, providing they have been screened on a British channel during the eligible time period.
Regulation
Ofcom is the independent regulator and competition authority for the communication industries in the United Kingdom, including television. As the regulatory body for media broadcasts, Ofcom's duties include:
Specification of the Broadcast Code, which took effect on 25 July 2005, with the latest version being published October 2008. The Code itself is published on Ofcom's website, and provides a mandatory set of rules which broadcast programmes must comply with. The 10 main sections cover protection of under-eighteens, harm and offence, crime, religion, impartiality and accuracy, elections, fairness, privacy, sponsorship and commercial references. As stipulated in the Communications Act 2003, Ofcom enforces adherence to the Code. Failure for a broadcaster to comply with the Code results in warnings, fines, and potentially revokation of a broadcasting licence.
Rules on the amount and distribution of advertising, which also took effect July 2005
Examining specific complaints by viewers or other bodies about programmes and sponsorship. Ofcom issues Broadcast Bulletins on a fortnightly basis which are accessible via its web site. As an example, a bulletin from February 2009 has a complaint from the National Heart Forum over sponsorship of The Simpsons by Domino's Pizza on Sky One. Ofcom concluded this was in breach of the Broadcast Code, since it contravened an advertising restriction of food high in fat, salt or sugar. (Restrictions in food and drink advertising to children were introduced in November 2006.)
The management, regulation and assignment of the electromagnetic spectrum in the UK, and licensing of portions of the spectrum for television broadcasting
Public consultations on matters relating to TV broadcasting. The results of the consultations are published by Ofcom, and inform the policies that Ofcom creates and enforces.
In 2008, Ofcom issued fines to the total of £7.7m. This included £5.67m of fines to ITV companies, including a £3m fine to LWT over voting irregularities on Saturday Night Takeaway, and fines totalling £495,000 to the BBC. Ofcom said phone-in scandals had contributed significantly to the fine totals.
The Committee for Advertising Practice (CAP, or BCAP) is the body contracted by Ofcom to create and maintain the codes of practice governing television advertising. The Broadcast Advertising Codes (or the TV codes) are accessible on CAP's web site. The Codes cover advertising standards (the TV Code), guidance notes, scheduling rules, text services (the Teletext Code) and interactive television guidance. The main sections of the TV Code concern compliance, programmes and advertising, unacceptable products, political and controversial issues, misleading advertising, harm and offence, children, medicines, treatments, health claims and nutrition, finance and investments, and religion.
The Advertising Standards Authority is an independent body responsible for resolving complaints relating to the advertising industry within the UK. It is not government funded, but funded by a levy on the advertising industry. It ensures compliance with the Codes created by CAP. The ASA covers all forms of advertising, not just television advertisements. The ASA can refer problematic adverts to Ofcom, since the channels carrying the adverts are ultimately responsible for the advertising content, and are answerable to Ofcom. Ofcom can issue fines or revoke broadcast licences if necessary.
Licensing
In the United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies, a television licence is required to receive any publicly broadcast television service, or for using BBC iPlayer. This includes the commercial channels, cable and satellite transmissions, Internet-streamed channels, and applies regardless of the technology used to view. The money from the licence fee is used to provide radio, television and Internet content for the BBC, Welsh-language television programmes for S4C, monitoring of global mass media, nine orchestras and performing groups, technical research, and contributions to broadband roll out. The fee is classified as a hypothecated tax rather than a subscription. The BBC gives the following figures for expenditure of licence fee income per month in 2021/2022:
Production
As of 2002, 27,000 hours of original programming are produced year in the UK television industry, excluding news, at a cost of £2.6bn. Ofcom has determined that 56% (£1.5bn) of production is in-house by the channel owners, and the remainder by independent production companies. Ofcom is enforcing a 25% independent production quota for the channel operators, as stipulated in the Broadcasting Act 1990.
In-house production
ITV plc, the company which owns 12 of the 15 regional ITV franchises, has set its production arm ITV Studios a target of producing 75% of the ITV schedule, the maximum allowed by Ofcom. This would be a rise from 54% at present, as part of a strategy to make ITV content-led chiefly to double production revenues to £1.2bn by 2012. ITV Studios currently produces programmes such as Coronation Street, Emmerdale and Heartbeat.
In contrast, the BBC has implemented a Window of Creative Competition (WOCC), a 25% proportion over and above the 25% Ofcom quota in which the BBC's in-house production and independent producers can compete. The BBC produces shows such as All Creatures Great and Small and F***off I'm a Hairy Woman.
Channel 4 commissions all programmes from independent producers.
Independent production
As a consequence of the launch of Channel 4 in 1982, and the 25% independent quota from the Broadcasting Act 1990, an independent production sector has grown in the UK. Notable companies include Talkback Thames, Endemol UK, Hat Trick Productions, and Tiger Aspect Productions. A full list can be seen here: :Category:Television production companies of the United Kingdom
History
Timeline
Closed and aborted television providers
The following Internet TV services have closed:
The following services were aborted before launch:
Sky Picnic, a proposed subscription digital terrestrial service from Sky in 2007
'Project Kangaroo', an Internet TV service announced by the BBC, ITV and Channel 4 in 2007. Some of the technology was reused in SeeSaw. A similar concept later launched as BritBox.
Analogue terrestrial television
Analogue TV was transmitted via VHF (1936) and later UHF (1964) radio waves, with analogue broadcasts ending in 2012.
VHF transmissions started in 1936 and closed in 1985 (with a gap 1939–1946), carrying two channels. The launch channel was the BBC Television Service, known as BBC 1 since 1964. This was joined by Independent Television, a network of regional franchises launching between 1955 and 1962. The channels transmitted in monochrome using the 405-line television system at 25 frames per second, initially with an aspect ratio of 5:4, switching to 4:3 in 1950.
UHF transmissions started in 1964 and closed in 2012. The launch channel was BBC 2. This would be joined by BBC 1, the ITV network, Channel 4 or S4C in Wales, Channel 5 as well as a network of local TV channels. Transmissions started using the System I standard, a 625-line monochrome picture at 25 frames/second (576i) and a 4:3 aspect ratio. Technical advancements included colour (1967), teletext (1974), and stereo sound (1991). The drive to switch viewers from analogue to digital transmissions was a process called the digital switchover.
Whilst there are no longer any analogue broadcasts in the UK, a PAL signal may be present in closed RF distribution systems, e.g. a video feed from an intercom in a block of flats, or a security system.
Defunct channels
There are nearly 200 defunct British channels. For a list, see List of former TV channels in the UK or :Category:Defunct television channels in the United Kingdom.
Commentary
The rise of television in the UK
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was established in 1927 to develop radio broadcasting, and inevitably became involved in TV in 1936. The BBC is funded by income from a "Broadcast Receiving Licence" purchased by UK residents. The cost of this is set by agreement with the UK Government.
Television caught on in the United Kingdom in 1947, but its expansion was slow. By 1951, with only two transmitters, near London and Birmingham, only 9% of British homes owned a television set. The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to have a regular daily television schedule direct to homes, and it was the first to have technical professions to work on TVs.
Up until 1972, television broadcasting hours were tightly regulated by the British government, under the control of the Postmaster General. Before the launch of the commercial channel ITV in 1955, the BBC was restricted by law to just five hours maximum of television in a day. This was increased at the launch of the commercial channel ITV to a 7-hour broadcasting day for both channels. Gradually the number of hours were increased. Typically, during the late 1960s, the law regulated a 50-hour broadcasting week for all television channels in the UK. This that meant BBC1, BBC2 and ITV could only broadcast normal programming for 7 hours a day from Mondays to Fridays, and 7.5 hours a day on Saturdays and Sundays.
Until 1957, television in the United Kingdom could not air from 6.00pm to 7.00pm. This was called the "Toddlers' Truce", in which the idea was that parents could put their children to bed before primetime television would commence; this restriction was lifted in 1957. However, on Sundays, television remained off the air from 6.00pm to 7.00pm. This was in response to religious leaders' fears that television would interfere with people attending church services. In 1958, a compromise was reached, in which only religious programming could be aired during this time slot. The restriction was lifted in January 1972.
The Postmaster General allowed exemptions to the regulations. All schools programming, adult education, religious programming, state occasions, political broadcasts and Welsh language programming were totally exempt from the restrictions. Sport and outside broadcasting events were given a separate quota of broadcasting hours which could be used in a year, starting off at 200 hours a year in the mid 1950s, rising to a quota of 350 hours a year by the late 1960s. Broadcasting on Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Eve and New Year's Day was also exempt from the tightly controlled restrictions.
The election of a Conservative government in June 1970 brought in changes to the control of broadcasting hours. At first, the typical broadcasting day was extended to 8 hours a day, with an increase in exemptions over Christmas, and an increase in the sport/outside broadcasting quota. On 19 January 1972, the then Minister for Posts and Telecommunications, Christopher Chataway, announced to the British House of Commons that all restrictions on broadcasting hours on television would be lifted from that day, with the broadcasters allowed to set their own broadcasting hours from then on. By November 1972, a full daytime schedule had been launched on ITV from 9.30am each day, with the BBC also expanding their schedules to include more daytime programming.
The UK Government previously appointed people to the BBC's Board of Governors, a body responsible for the general direction of the organisation, and appointment of senior executives, but not its day-to-day management. From 2007, the BBC Trust replaced the Board of Governors. It is operationally independent of BBC management and external bodies, and aims to act in the best interests of licence fee payers.
Commercial television was first introduced in the United Kingdom in 1955. Unlike the US, there was a distinct split between advertisements and programming. Advertisers purely purchased spots within pre-defined breaks within programming, and had no connection to the programme content. The content and nature of adverts was strictly controlled by the ITA, the body controlling commercial television.
History of satellite television
The first commercial direct-broadcast satellite (DBS, also known as direct-to-home) service in the United Kingdom, Sky Television, was launched in 1989 and used the newly launched Astra satellite at 19.2° east, providing four analogue TV channels. The channels and subsequent VideoCrypt video encryption system used the existing PAL broadcast standard, unlike the winner of the UK state DBS licence, British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB).
In 1990, BSB launched, broadcasting five channels (Now, Galaxy, The Movie Channel, The Power Station and The Sports Channel) in D-MAC format and using the EuroCypher video encryption system which was derived from the General Instruments VideoCipher system used in the USA. One of the main selling points of the BSB offering was the Squarial, a flat plate antenna and low-noise block converter (LNB). Sky's system used conventional and cheaper dish and LNB technology.
The two companies competed over the UK rights to movies. Sky operated from an industrial park in Isleworth in West London, whereas BSB had newly built offices in London (Marco Polo House). The two services subsequently merged to form British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). BSB's D-MAC/EuroCypher system was gradually replaced with Sky's VideoCrypt video encryption system.
In 1994, 17% of the group was floated on the London Stock Exchange (with ADRs listed on the New York Stock Exchange), and Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation owns a 35% stake.
By 1998, following the launch of several more satellites to Astra's 19.2° east position, the number of channels had increased to around 60 and BSkyB launched the first subscription-based digital television platform in the UK, offering a range of 300 channels broadcast from Astra's new satellite, at 28.2° east position under the brand name Sky Digital. BSkyB's analogue service has now been discontinued, with all customers having been migrated to Sky Digital.
In May 2008, a free-to-air satellite service from the BBC and ITV was launched under the brand name Freesat, carrying a variety of channels from Astra 28.2°E, including some content in HD formats.
See also
Industry bodies
Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union (BECTU), National Union of Journalists (NUJ) and Equity, trade unions for members of the broadcasting industry
Clearcast, performs clearance of television advertising copy and the final advertisements. Replaced the Broadcast Advertising Clearance Centre (BACC) on 1 January 2008
Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee, a select committee of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, established in 1997, which oversees the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), the government department responsible for broadcasting in the UK
Digital TV Group (DTG), an industry association for digital television, formed in 1995
Digital UK, the body in charge of digital switchover of television in the UK
Producers Association for Cinema and Television
Royal Television Society (RTS), a society for the discussion, analysis and preservation of television in all its forms, past, present and future, which formed in 1927
United Kingdom Independent Broadcasting (UKIB), an affiliation of independent production companies and broadcasters, representing non-BBC interests in the European Broadcasting Union
Genres and programming
Ofcom Code on Sports and Other Listed and Designated Events, regulatory rules devised in 1997 which ensure particular sporting events are available for free via terrestrial television
Sports broadcasting contracts in the United Kingdom
British sitcom
Light entertainment
:Category:British television-related lists
List of American television series based on British television series
List of British television programmes based on American television series
List of films based on British television series
List of films based on British sitcoms
List of BBC Radio programmes adapted for television, and of television programmes adapted for radio
List of UK game shows
List of longest-running UK television series
Miscellaneous
Appreciation Index (AI), a score between 0 and 100 which measures the public's approval of a particular programme, which can be used to measure attitudes to programmes with small or niche audiences
Broadcast, a weekly trade magazine for the broadcast industry
Edinburgh International Television Festival, an annual industry gathering in Edinburgh
Public service broadcasting in the United Kingdom, broadcasting intended for public benefit rather than purely commercial concerns
Public information film, government commissioned short films usually shown during television advertising breaks
Listings and general television magazines Radio Times, Soaplife, TV & Satellite Week, TV easy, TV Quick, TVTimes, What's on TV
Notes
References
External links
The BFI TV 100 at the BFI website
BBC News coverage
British TV News
British television-related lists
Cultural history of the United Kingdom
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1936 | wiki |
Tellurite glasses contain tellurium oxide (TeO2) as the main component.
References
Glass compositions
Tellurium | wiki |
A prairie dog is a rodent native to North America. Prairie dog may also refer to:
Animals
Black-tailed prairie dog
Gunnison's prairie dog
Mexican prairie dog
Utah prairie dog
White-tailed prairie dog
Places
Prairie Dog State Park, a state park in Kansas
Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River, a branch of the Red River of Texas
Prairie Dog Township, Decatur County, Kansas
Prairie Dog Township, Harlan County, Nebraska
See also
Prairie Dog (album), an album by Duke Pearson
Prairie Dog Central Railway, a railway in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Animal common name disambiguation pages | wiki |
Gene Deitch, ilustrador, animador y director estadounidense, ganador de un premio Oscar
Kim Deitch, historietistista estadounidense | wiki |
The management of dehydration typically involves the use of oral rehydration solution (ORS). Standard home solutions such as salted rice water, salted yogurt drinks, vegetable and chicken soups with salt can be given. Home solutions such as water in which cereal has been cooked, unsalted soup, green coconut water, weak tea (unsweetened), and unsweetened fresh fruit juices can have from half a teaspoon to full teaspoon of salt (from one-and-a-half to three grams) added per liter. Clean plain water can also be one of several fluids given. There are commercial solutions such as Pedialyte, and relief agencies such as UNICEF widely distribute packets of salts and sugar. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes a homemade ORS with one liter water with one teaspoon salt (or 3 grams) and six teaspoons sugar (or 18 grams) added (approximately the "taste of tears"). The WHO; however, does not generally recommend homemade solutions as how to make them is easily forgotten. Rehydration Project recommends adding the same amount of sugar but only one-half a teaspoon of salt, stating that this more dilute approach is less risky with very little loss of effectiveness. Both agree that drinks with too much sugar or salt can make dehydration worse.
Medical uses
Medium dehydration
In what the World Health Organization (WHO) terms "some dehydration," the child or adult is restless and irritable, is thirsty, and will drink eagerly.
WHO recommends that if there is vomiting, don't stop, but do pause for 5–10 minutes and then restart at a slower pace. (Vomiting seldom prevents successful rehydration since most of the fluid is still absorbed. Plus, vomiting usually stops after the first one to four hours of rehydration.) With the older WHO solution, also give some clean water during rehydration. With the newer reduced-osmolarity, more dilute solution, this is not necessary.
Begin to offer food after the initial four-hour rehydration period with children and adults. With infants, continue to breastfeed even during rehydration as long as the infant will breastfeed. Begin zinc supplementation after initial four-hour rehydration to reduce severity and duration of episode. If available, zinc supplementation should be continued for 10 to 14 days. During the initial period of rehydration, the patient should be re-assessed at least every four hours.
The family should be provided with at least two days worth of ORS packets. WHO recommends, in addition to infants continued to be breastfed, that children older than six months be given some food before being sent home, which helps to emphasize to parents the importance of continuing to feed the child during diarrhea.
Severe dehydration
In severe dehydration, the person may be lethargic or unconscious, drinks poorly, or may not be able to drink.
In malnourished persons, rehydration should be performed relatively slowly by drinking or by nasogastric tube unless the person is also experiencing shock, in which case it should be performed quicker. Malnourished patients should receive a modified ORS which has less sodium, more potassium, and modestly more sugar. For patients not malnourished, rehydration should be performed relatively rapidly by means of intravenous (IV) solution. For infants under one year of age, WHO recommends giving, within the first hour, 30 milliliters of Ringer's Lactate Solution for each kilogram of body weight, and then, within the next five hours, 70 milliliters of Ringer's Lactate per kilogram of body weight. For children over one year and for adults, WHO recommends, within the first half hour, 30 milliliters of Ringer's Lactate per kilogram of body weight, and then, within the next two-and-a-half hours, 70 milliliters per kilogram. For example, if a child weighs fifteen kilograms (who is obviously over one year of age), he or she should receive 450 ml of Ringer's Lactate Solution within the first half hour, and then 1,050 ml of Ringer's Lactate within the next two-and-a-half hours. Patients who can drink, even poorly, should be given Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) by mouth until the IV drip is running. In addition, all patients should start to receive some ORS when they are able to drink without difficulty, which is usually three to four hours for infants and one to two hours for older persons. ORS provides additional base and potassium which may not be adequately supplied by IV fluid. Ideally, patients should be reassessed every fifteen to thirty minutes until a strong radial pulse is present, and thereafter, assessed at least hourly to confirm that hydration is improving. Hopefully, patients will graduate to the medium dehydration or "some" dehydration category and receive continued treatment as above.
Inadequate replacement of potassium losses during diarrhea can lead to potassium depletion and hypokalaemia (low serum potassium) especially in children with malnutrition. This can potentially cause muscle weakness, impaired kidney function, and cardiac arrhythmia. Hypokalaemia is worsened when base is given to treat acidosis without simultaneously providing potassium, as happens in standard IVs including Ringer's Lactate Solution. ORS can help correct potassium deficit, as can giving foods rich in potassium during diarrhea and after it has stopped.
As in above sections, for all patients, supplemental zinc can help to reduce the severity and duration of diarrhea. In addition, supplemental vitamin A is often recommended, particular for children who have diarrhea during or shortly after measles, or in children who are already malnourished, although ideally for all patients.
Contraindications
Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices, are not recommended as the main source of hydration, or for children under 5 years of age as they may increase diarrhea. Plain water may be used if more specific and effective ORT preparations of hydrational fluids are unavailable or are not palatable. A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted.
Preparation
Appropriate amounts of supplemental zinc and potassium should be added if available. But the availability of these should not delay rehydration. As WHO points out, the most important thing is to begin preventing dehydration as early as possible. In another example of prompt ORS hopefully preventing dehydration, CDC recommends for the treatment of cholera continuing to give Oral Rehydration Solution during travel to medical treatment.
The approximate amount of oral rehydration solution (ORS) to be given over four hours can be obtained by multiplying 75 milliliters of solution by the child's weight in kilograms. For example, a child who weighs 15 kilograms should be given approximately 1,125 ml of ORS over four hours. Of course, the exact amount depends on how dehydrated the child is. And in general, let the person drink as much as they wish. The person can drink a little faster at first and then relatively slowly. For babies, a dropper or syringe without the needle may be used. Toddlers under two should be offered a teaspoonful every 1–2 minutes. Older children and adults may take frequent sips.
Procedure
Vomiting often occurs during the first hour or two of treatment with ORS, especially if a child drinks the solution too quickly, but this seldom prevents successful rehydration since most of the fluid is still absorbed. WHO recommends that if a child vomits, to wait five or ten minutes and then start to give the solution again more slowly.
Children
WHO recommends a child with diarrhea continue to be fed. Continued feeding speeds the recovery of normal intestinal function. In contrast, children whose food is restricted, have diarrhea of longer duration and recover intestinal function more slowly. A child should also continue to be breastfed. And in the example of the treatment of cholera, CDC also recommends that persons continue to eat and children continue to be breastfed.
If IV treatment is not available at the facility, WHO recommends sending the child to a nearby facility if it can be reached within 30 minutes and providing the mother with ORS to administer to the child during the trip. If another facility is not available, ORS can be given by mouth as the child can drink and/or by nasogastric tube.
WHO states that knowing the levels of serum electrolytes rarely changes the recommended treatment of children with diarrhea and dehydration, and furthermore, that these values are often misinterpreted. Most electrolyte imbalances are adequately treated by ORS. For example, a child who has been given an excess of sugar or salt like that which is in commercial soft drinks, sugared fruit drinks, or over-concentrated infant formula, may develop hypernatraemic dehydration. This occurs when these over-concentrated solutions sit in the gut and draw water from the rest of the body, and the reduced fluids in the body's tissues then have a higher proportion of salt to fluid. Children with serum sodium greater 150 mmol/liter have thirst out of proportion to other signs of dehydration. There is a danger of convulsions which usually occur when serum sodium concentrations are greater than 165 mmol/liter. Less commonly, convulsions can also occur when serum sodium is less than 130 mmol/liter. Treatment with ORS can usually bring serum sodium concentrations back to normal within twenty-four hours.
Children with diarrhea who drink mostly water or overly dilute drinks with too little salt may develop hyponatraemia (serum sodium less than 130 mmol/liter). This is especially common in children with shigellosis and in severely malnourished children with edema. ORS is safe and effective for nearly all children with hyponatraemia, an exception being children with edema for whom ORS provides too much sodium.
References
Body water | wiki |
Acceptance angle may refer to:
Half of the angular aperture of an optical system
Acceptance angle (optical fiber), the angle in an optical fiber below which rays are guided rays
Acceptance angle (solar concentrator)
See also
Numerical aperture | wiki |
Jōkō-ji may refer to:
Jōkō-ji (Seto), Buddhist temple in Seto, Aichi Prefecture, Japan
Jōkō-ji (Yao), Buddhist temple in Yao, Osaka Prefecture, Japan
ja:常光寺 | wiki |
A video game with nonlinear gameplay presents players with challenges that can be completed in a number of different sequences. Each player may take on (or even encounter) only some of the challenges possible, and the same challenges may be played in a different order. Conversely, a video game with linear gameplay will confront a player with a fixed sequence of challenges: every player faces every challenge and has to overcome them in the same order.
A nonlinear game will allow greater player freedom than a linear game. For example, a nonlinear game may permit multiple sequences to finish the game, a choice between paths to victory, different types of victory, or optional side-quests and subplots. Some games feature both linear and nonlinear elements, and some games offer a sandbox mode that allows players to explore an open world game environment independently from the game's main objectives, if any objectives are provided at all.
A game that is significantly nonlinear is sometimes described as being open-ended or a sandbox, and is characterized by allowing players to measure progress through self-determined goals, independent of scripted game elements.
Level design
A game level or world can be linear, nonlinear or interactive. In a linear game, there is only one path that the player must take through the level, however, in games with nonlinear gameplay, players might have to revisit locations or choose from multiple paths to finish the level.
As with other game elements, linear level design is not absolute. While a nonlinear level can give the freedom to explore or backtrack, there can be a sequence of challenges that a player must solve to complete the level. If a player must confront the challenges in a fixed order nonlinear games will often give multiple approaches to achieve said objectives.
A more linear game requires a player to finish levels in a fixed sequence to win. The ability to skip, repeat, or choose between levels makes this type of game less linear. Super Mario Bros. is an early example of this, where the player had access to warp zones that skipped many levels of the game.
In some games, levels can change between linear design and free roaming depending on the objective of the stage. Super Mario 64 is an example where the main stages are free roam, while the levels where Bowser is encountered follow a straight path to the end.
Open worlds and sandbox modes
When a level is sufficiently large and open-ended, it may be described as an open world, or "sandbox game", though this term is often used incorrectly. Open-world game designs have existed in some form since the 1980s, such as the space trading game Elite, and often make use of procedurally generated environments.
In a game with a sandbox mode, a player may turn off or ignore game objectives, or have unlimited access to items. This can open up possibilities that were not intended by the game designer. A sandbox mode is an option in otherwise goal-oriented games and is distinguished from open-ended games that have no objectives, such as SimCity, and Garry's Mod.
Branching storylines
Games that employ linear stories are those where the player cannot change the story line or ending of the story. Many video games use a linear structure, thus making them more similar to other fiction. However, it is common for such games to use interactive narration in which a player needs to interact with something before the plot will advance, or nonlinear narratives in which events are portrayed in a non-chronological order. Many games have offered premature endings should the player fail to meet an objective, but these are usually just interruptions in a player's progress rather than actual endings. Even in games with a linear story, players interact with the game world by performing a variety of actions along the way.
More recently, some games have begun offering multiple endings to increase the dramatic effect of moral choices within the game, although early examples also exist. Still, some games have gone beyond small choices or special endings, offering a branching storyline (also known as an interactive narrative outside of a video game context), that players may control at critical points in the game. Sometimes the player is given a choice of which branch of the plot to follow, while sometimes the path will be based on the player's success or failure at a specific challenge. For example, Black Isle Studios' Fallout series of role-playing video games features numerous quests where player actions dictate the outcome of the story behind the objectives. Players can eliminate in-game characters permanently from the virtual world should they choose to do so, and by doing so may actually alter the number and type of quests that become available to them as the game progresses. The effects of such decisions may not be immediate. Branches of the story may merge or split at different points in the game, but seldom allow backtracking. Some games even allow for different starting points, and one way this is done is through a character selection screen.
Despite experimenting with several nonlinear storytelling mechanisms in the 1990s, the game industry has largely returned to the practice of linear storytelling. Linear stories cost less time and money to develop, since there is only one fixed sequence of events and no major decisions to keep track of. For example, several games from the Wing Commander series offered a branching storyline, but eventually they were abandoned as too expensive. Nonlinear stories increase the chances for bugs or absurdities if they are not tested properly, although they do provide greater player freedom. Some players have also responded negatively to branching stories because it is hard and tedious for them to experience the "full value" of all the game's content. As a compromise between linear and branching stories, there are also games where stories split into branches and then fold back into a single storyline. In these stories, the plot will branch, but then converge upon some inevitable event, giving the impression of a Nonlinear gameplay through the use of nonlinear narrative, without the use of interactive narratives. This is typically used in many graphic adventure games.
A truly nonlinear story would be written entirely by the actions of the player, and thus remains a difficult design challenge. As such, there is often little or no story in video games with a truly nonlinear gameplay. Facade, a video game often categorized as an interactive drama, features many branching paths that are dictated by the user's text input based on the current situation, but there is still a set number of outcomes as a result of the inherent limitations of programming, and as such, is non-linear, but not entirely so.
Visual novels
Branching storylines are a common trend in visual novels, a subgenre of interactive narrative and adventure games. Visual novels frequently use multiple branching storylines to achieve multiple different endings, allowing non-linear freedom of choice along the way. Decision points within a visual novel often present players with the option of altering the course of events during the game, leading to many different possible outcomes. Visual novels are popular in East Asia, especially in Japan where they account for nearly 70% of personal computer games released there. A recent acclaimed example is 999: Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors, where nearly every action and dialogue choice can lead to entirely new branching paths and endings. Each path only reveals certain aspects of the overall storyline and it is only after uncovering all the possible different paths and outcomes through multiple playthroughs that everything comes together to form a coherent well-written story.
It is not uncommon for visual novels to have morality systems. A well-known example is the 2005 title School Days, an animated visual novel that Kotaku describes as going well beyond the usual "black and white choice systems" (referring to video games such as Mass Effect, Fallout 3 and BioShock) where you "pick a side and stick with it" while leaving "the expansive middle area between unexplored." School Days instead encourages players to explore the grey, neutral middle-ground in order to view the more interesting, "bad" endings.
It is also not uncommon for visual novels to have multiple protagonists giving different perspectives on the story. C's Ware's EVE Burst Error (1995) introduced a unique twist to the system by allowing the player to switch between both protagonists at any time during the game, instead of finishing one protagonist's scenario before playing the other. EVE Burst Error often requires the player to have both protagonists co-operate with each other at various points during the game, with choices in one scenario affecting the other. Fate/stay night is another example that features multiple perspectives. Chunsoft sound novels such as Machi (1998) and 428: Shibuya Scramble (2008) develop this concept further, by allowing the player to alternate between the perspectives of several or more different characters, making choices with one character that have consequences for other characters. 428 in particular features up to 85 different possible endings.
Another approach to non-linear storytelling can be seen in Cosmology of Kyoto. The game lacks an overall plot, but it instead presents fragmented narratives and situations in a non-linear manner, as the player character encounters various non-player characters while wandering the city. These narratives are cross-referenced to an encyclopedia, providing background information as the narratives progress and as the player comes across various characters and locations, with various stories, situations and related information appearing at distinct locations. It provides enough freedom to allow for the player to experiment with the game, such as using it as a resource for their own role-playing game campaign, for example.
Role-playing games
Branching storylines are also often used in role-playing video games (RPGs) to an extent. An early example, published in 1999, is the fantasy role-playing game Might and Magic VII: For Blood and Honor, where players have to choose between Light and Dark. While the dark side wants to destroy the world of Enroth, the light side tries to save it. The choice determines which grandmaster levels the player characters can obtain and the quests they have to do in that part of the game. Earlier in the game, the player already has to choose sides in a border conflict between Elves and Humans, or remain neutral. This affects the flag in their Castle Harmondale and a few quests, but not the outcome.
A second example is Obsidian Entertainment's Fallout: New Vegas, where the player's decisions influence whether one of three different factions gain control of the area surrounding post-apocalyptic Las Vegas. These factions include Caesar's Legion, a group of Roman-esque slavers; the New California Republic (NCR), an expansionist military government; and Mr. House, the enigmatic de facto ruler of New Vegas, in command of an army of robots that patrols the city. Each of the three sides aim to control Hoover Dam, which is still operational and supplying the American Southwest with power and clean, non-irradiated water; thus, control of the dam means effective control of the region. A fourth option, siding with a robot named Yes Man and prevailing upon or eliminating the other faction leaders, enables the player to go solo and take over the Hoover Dam for themselves.
Another RPG example is tri-Ace's Star Ocean series, where the storyline is not affected by moral alignments like in other role-playing games but, inspired by dating sims, by friendship and relationship points between each of the characters. Star Ocean: The Second Story in particular offers as many as 86 different endings with hundreds of permutations, setting a benchmark for the number of possible outcomes of a video game. Another unique variation of this system is the Sakura Wars series, which features a real-time branching choice system where, during an event or conversation, the player must choose an action or dialogue choice within a time limit, or not to respond at all within that time; the player's choice, or lack thereof, affects the player character's relationship with other characters and in turn the direction and outcome of the storyline. Later games in the series added several variations, including an action gauge that can be raised up or down depending on the situation, and a gauge that the player can manipulate using the analog stick depending on the situation. A similar type of conversation system later appeared in a more recent action role-playing game also published by Sega, Alpha Protocol.
Another unique take on the concept is combining non-linear branching storytelling with the concepts of time travel and parallel universes. Early attempts at such an approach included Squaresoft's Chrono role-playing game series (1995–1999) and ELF's visual novel YU-NO: A girl who chants love at the bound of this world (1996). Radiant Historia takes it further by giving players the freedom to travel backwards and forwards through a timeline to alter the course of history, with each of their choices and actions significantly affect the timeline. The player can return to certain points in history and live through certain events again to make different choices and see different possible outcomes on the timeline. The player can also travel back and forth between two parallel timelines, and can obtain many possible parallel endings. The PSP version of Tactics Ogre featured a "World" system that allows players to revisit key plot points and make different choices to see how the story unfolds differently. Final Fantasy XIII-2 also features a similar non-linear time travel system to Radiant Historia.
Early examples
Early examples (pre-1983) of nonlinear gameplay include:
Colossal Cave Adventure (1976)
Zork (1977/1980)
MUD1 (1978)
Akalabeth (1979)
Star Raiders (1979)
Superman (1979)
Temple of Apshai (1979)
Computer Bismarck (1980)
Flight Simulator (1979/1980)
Mystery House (1980)
The Prisoner (1980)
Rogue (1980)
Adventure (1980)
005 (1981)
Bosconian (1981)
Castle Wolfenstein (1981)
Crush, Crumble and Chomp! (1981)
Ultima (1981)
Star Warrior (1981)
Venture (1981)
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982)
Haunted House (1982)
The Hobbit (1982)
Pitfall! (1982)
Raiders of the Lost Ark (1982)
Snipes (1982)
Time Pilot (1982)
Ultima II (1982)
See also
Massively multiplayer online games
Multiple endings
Open world
Metroidvania
References
Video game gameplay
Video game terminology
Emergent gameplay | wiki |
The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is the revenue service for the United States federal government, which is responsible for collecting U.S. federal taxes and administering the Internal Revenue Code, the main body of the federal statutory tax law. It is an agency of the Department of the Treasury and led by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who is appointed to a five-year term by the President of the United States. The duties of the IRS include providing tax assistance to taxpayers; pursuing and resolving instances of erroneous or fraudulent tax filings; and overseeing various benefits programs, including the Affordable Care Act.
The IRS originates from the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, a federal office created in 1862 to assess the nation's first income tax to fund the American Civil War. The temporary measure funded over a fifth of the Union's war expenses before being allowed to expire a decade later. In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified, authorizing Congress to impose a tax on income and leading to the creation of the Bureau of Internal Revenue. In 1953, the agency was renamed the Internal Revenue Service, and in subsequent decades underwent numerous reforms and reorganizations, most significantly in the 1990s.
Since its establishment, the IRS has been responsible for collecting most of the revenue needed to fund the federal government, albeit while facing periodic controversy and opposition over its methods, constitutionality, and the principle of taxation generally. In recent years the agency has struggled with budget cuts and reduced morale. As of 2018, it saw a 15 percent reduction in its workforce, including a decline of more than 25 percent of its enforcement staff. Nevertheless, during the 2017 fiscal year, the agency processed more than 245 million tax returns.
History
American Civil War (1861–65)
In July 1862, during the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln and Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1862, creating the office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue and enacting a temporary income tax to pay war expenses.
The Revenue Act of 1862 was passed as an emergency and temporary war-time tax. It copied a relatively new British system of income taxation, instead of trade and property taxation. The first income tax was passed in 1862:
The initial rate was 3% on income over $800, which exempted most wage-earners.
In 1862 the rate was 3% on income between $600 and $10,000, and 5% on income over $10,000.
By the end of the war, 10% of Union households had paid some form of income tax, and the Union raised 21% of its war revenue through income taxes.
Post Civil War, Reconstruction, and popular tax reform (1866–1913)
After the Civil War, Reconstruction, railroads, and transforming the North and South war machines towards peacetime required public funding. However, in 1872, seven years after the war, lawmakers allowed the temporary Civil War income tax to expire.
Income taxes evolved, but in 1894 the Supreme Court declared the Income Tax of 1894 unconstitutional in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., a decision that contradicted Hylton v. United States. The federal government scrambled to raise money.
In 1906, with the election of President Theodore Roosevelt, and later his successor William Howard Taft, the United States saw a populist movement for tax reform. This movement culminated during then-candidate Woodrow Wilson's election of 1912 and in February 1913, the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution:
This granted Congress the specific power to impose an income tax without regard to apportionment among the states by population. By February 1913, 36 states had ratified the change to the Constitution. It was further ratified by six more states by March. Of the 48 states at the time, 42 ratified it. Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Utah rejected the amendment; Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Florida did not take up the issue.
Post 16th Amendment (1913–present)
Though the constitutional amendment to allow the federal government to collect income taxes was proposed by President Taft in 1909, the 16th Amendment was not ratified until 1913, just before the start of the First World War. That same year, the first edition of the 1040 form was introduced. A copy of the 1913 form can be viewed on the IRS website and shows that only those with annual incomes of at least $3,000 () were instructed to file an income tax return.
In the first year after the ratification of the 16th Amendment, no taxes were collected. Instead, taxpayers simply completed the form and the IRS checked the form for accuracy. The IRS's workload jumped by ten-fold, triggering a massive restructuring. Professional tax collectors began to replace a system of "patronage" appointments. The IRS doubled its staff but was still processing 1917 returns in 1919.
Income tax raised much of the money required to finance the war effort; in 1918 a new Revenue Act established a top tax rate of 77%.
In 1919 the IRS was tasked with enforcement of laws relating to prohibition of alcohol sales and manufacture; this was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Department of Justice in 1930. After repeal in 1933, the IRS resumed collection of taxes on beverage alcohol. The alcohol, tobacco and firearms activities of the bureau were segregated into the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives in 1972.
A new tax act was passed in 1942 as the United States entered the Second World War. This act included a special wartime surcharge. The number of American citizens who paid income tax increased from about four million in 1939 to more than forty-two million by 1945.
In 1952, after a series of politically damaging incidents of tax evasion and bribery among its own employees, the Bureau of Internal Revenue was reorganized under a plan put forward by President Truman, with the approval of Congress. The reorganization decentralized many functions to new district offices which replaced the collector's offices. Civil service directors were appointed to replace the politically appointed collectors of the Bureau of Internal Revenue. Not long after, the bureau was renamed the Internal Revenue Service.
In 1954 the filing deadline was moved from March 15 to April 15.
The Tax Reform Act of 1969 created the Alternative Minimum Tax.
By 1986, limited electronic filing of tax returns was possible.
The Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998 ("RRA 98") changed the organization from geographically oriented to an organization based on four operating divisions. It added "10 deadly sins" that require immediate termination of IRS employees found to have committed certain misconduct.
Enforcement activities declined. The IRS Oversight Board noted that the decline in enforcement activities has "rais[ed] questions about tax compliance and fairness to the vast majority of citizens who pay all their taxes". In June 2012, the IRS Oversight Board recommended to Treasury a fiscal year 2014 budget of $13.074billion for the Internal Revenue Service.
On December 20, 2017, Congress passed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. It was signed into law by President Trump on December 22, 2017.
In the 2017 fiscal year, the IRS had 76,832 employees conducting its work, a decrease of 14.9 percent from 2012.
Presidential tax returns (1973)
From the 1950s through the 1970s, the IRS began using technology such as microfilm to keep and organize records. Access to this information proved controversial, when President Richard Nixon's tax returns were leaked to the public. His tax advisor, Edward L. Morgan, became the fourth law-enforcement official to be charged with a crime during Watergate.
John Requard, Jr., accused of leaking the Nixon tax returns, collected delinquent taxes in the slums of Washington. In his words: "We went after people for nickels and dimes, many of them poor and in many cases illiterate people who didn't know how to deal with a government agency." Requard admitted that he saw the returns, but denied that he leaked them.
Reporter Jack White of The Providence Journal won the Pulitzer Prize for reporting about Nixon's tax returns. Nixon, with a salary of $200,000, paid $792.81 in federal income tax in 1970 and $878.03 in 1971, with deductions of $571,000 for donating "vice-presidential papers". This was one of the reasons for his famous statement: "Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."
So controversial was this leak, that most later US presidents released their tax returns (though sometimes only partially). These returns can be found online at the Tax History Project.
Computerization (1959–present)
By the end of the Second World War, the IRS was handling sixty million tax returns each year, using a combination of mechanical desk calculators, accounting machines, and pencil and paper forms. In 1948 punch card equipment was used. The first trial of a computer system for income tax processing was in 1955, when an IBM 650 installed at Kansas City processed 1.1 million returns. The IRS was authorized to proceed with computerization in 1959, and purchased IBM 1401 and IBM 7070 systems for local and regional data processing centers. The Social Security number was used for taxpayer identification starting in 1965. By 1967, all returns were processed by computer and punched card data entry was phased out.
Information processing in the IRS systems of the late 1960s was in batch mode; microfilm records were updated weekly and distributed to regional centers for handling tax inquiries. A project to implement an interactive, realtime system, the "Tax Administration System", was launched, that would provide thousands of local interactive terminals at IRS offices. However, the General Accounting Office prepared a report critical of the lack of protection of privacy in TAS, and the project was abandoned in 1978.
In 1995, the IRS began to use the public Internet for electronic filing. Since the introduction of e-filing, self-paced online tax services have flourished, augmenting the work of tax accountants, who were sometimes replaced.
By 2002, more than a third of all tax returns were filed electronically. This led to a decline in the number of paper returns being processed each year. As a result, the IRS implemented a consolidation plan for its paper tax return processing centers, closing five of its ten processing centers between 2003 and 2011. The agency closed two more centers - one in 2019 and another in 2021 - as e-file use continued to expand. E-filed tax returns accounted for 90% of all returns submitted during the 2021 filing season.
In 2003, the IRS struck a deal with tax software vendors: The IRS would not develop online filing software and, in return, software vendors would provide free e-filing to most Americans. In 2009, 70% of filers qualified for free electronic filing of federal returns.
According to an inspector general's report, released in November 2013, identity theft in the United States is blamed for $4billion worth of fraudulent 2012 tax refunds by the IRS. Fraudulent claims were made with the use of stolen taxpayer identification and Social Security numbers, with returns sent to addresses both in the US and internationally. Following the release of the findings, the IRS stated that it resolved most of the identity theft cases of 2013 within 120 days, while the average time to resolve cases from the 2011/2012 tax period was 312 days.
In September 2014, IRS Commissioner John Koskinen expressed concern over the organization's ability to handle Obamacare and administer premium tax credits that help people pay for health plans from the health law's insurance exchanges. It will also enforce the law's individual mandate, which requires most Americans to hold health insurance. In January 2015, Fox News obtained an email which predicted a messy tax season on several fronts. The email was sent by IRS Commissioner Koskinen to workers. Koskinen predicted the IRS would shut down operations for two days later this year which would result in unpaid furloughs for employees and service cuts for taxpayers. Koskinen also said delays to IT investments of more than $200million may delay new taxpayer protections against identity theft. Also in January 2015, the editorial board of The New York Times called the IRS budget cuts penny-wise-and-pound-foolish, where for every dollar of cuts in the budget, six were lost in tax revenue.
A 2020 Treasury Department audit found the IRS had improved its identity verification system offerings for taxpayers, but was still behind in fully meeting digital identity requirements. The following year, the IRS announced a new login and ID verification process for several of its online tools, including general account access, Identity Protection (IP) PIN setup, and payment plan applications. As part of the agency's Identity, Credential, and Access Management (ICAM) initiative, the process included the use of third-party facial recognition technologies to confirm taxpayer identities. The facial recognition requirement was dropped in 2022, however, following privacy concerns from government officials and the public. Alternative ID verification options have since been introduced with the goal of making IRS online tools accessible to more people.
History of the IRS name
As early as the year 1918, the Bureau of Internal Revenue began using the name "Internal Revenue Service" on at least one tax form. In 1953, the name change to the "Internal Revenue Service" was formalized in Treasury Decision 6038.
Current organization
The 1980s saw a reorganization of the IRS. A bipartisan commission was created with several mandates, among them to increase customer service and improve collections. Congress later enacted the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998, which mandated that the agency replace its geographic regional divisions with units that serve particular categories of taxpayers.
As a result, the IRS now functions under four major operating divisions:
Large Business and International (LB&I)
Small Business/Self-Employed (SB/SE)
Wage and Investment (W&I)
Tax Exempt & Government Entities (TE/GE)
The Large Business & International (LB&I) division was known as the Large and Mid-Size Business division prior to a name change on October 1, 2010.
The IRS is headquartered in Washington, D.C., and does most of its computer programming in Maryland. It processes paper tax returns sent by mail and e-filed tax returns at three IRS center locations: Austin, Texas; Kansas City, Missouri; and Ogden, Utah.
The IRS also operates computer centers in three locations: Detroit, Michigan; Martinsburg, West Virginia; and Memphis, Tennessee.
Commissioner
The IRS is currently led by Daniel Werfel, who became Commissioner of Internal Revenue on March 13, 2023. He succeeded Douglas O'Donnell, who served as Acting Commissioner of Internal Revenue after Charles P. Rettig's term as Commissioner ended on November 12, 2022. There have been 50 commissioners of Internal Revenue and 28 acting commissioners since the agency's creation in 1862.
From May 22, 2013, to December 23, 2013, senior official at the Office of Management and Budget Daniel Werfel was acting Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Werfel, who attended law school at the University of North Carolina and attained a master's degree from Duke University, prepared the government for a potential shutdown in 2011 by determining which services that would remain in existence.
No IRS commissioner has served more than five years and one month since Guy Helvering, who served 10 years until 1943. The most recent commissioner to serve the longest term was Doug Shulman, who was appointed by President George W. Bush and served for five years.
Deputy commissioners
The Commissioner of Internal Revenue is assisted by two deputy commissioners.
The Deputy Commissioner for Operations Support reports directly to the Commissioner and oversees the IRS's integrated support functions, working to facilitate economy of scale efficiencies and better business practices. The Deputy also administers and provides executive leadership for customer service, processing, tax law enforcement and financial management operations. Additionally, the Deputy in this position assists and acts on behalf of the IRS Commissioner in directing, coordinating and controlling the policies, programs and activities of the IRS. This includes establishing tax administration policy and developing strategic issues and objectives for IRS strategic management.
The Deputy Commissioner for Services and Enforcement reports directly to the Commissioner and oversees the four primary operating divisions responsible for the major customer segments and other taxpayer-facing functions. The Deputy Commissioner for Services and Enforcement serves as the IRS Commissioner's essential assistant acting on behalf of the commissioner in establishing and enforcing tax administration policy and upholding IRS's mission to provide America's taxpayers top-quality service by helping them understand and meet their tax responsibilities.
Office of the Taxpayer Advocate
The Office of the Taxpayer Advocate, also called the Taxpayer Advocate Service, is an independent office within the IRS responsible for assisting taxpayers in resolving their problems with the IRS and identifying systemic problems that exist within the IRS. The current head of the organization, known as the United States Taxpayer Advocate, is Erin M. Collins.
Independent Office of Appeals
The Independent Office of Appeals is an independent organization within the IRS that helps taxpayers resolve their tax disputes through an informal, administrative process. Its mission is to resolve tax controversies fairly and impartially, without litigation. Resolution of a case in Appeals "could take anywhere from 90 days to a year". The current chief is Donna C. Hansberry.
Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR)
OPR investigates suspected misconduct by attorneys, CPAs and enrolled agents ("tax practitioners") involving practice before the IRS and has the power to impose various penalties. OPR can also take action against tax practitioners for conviction of a crime or failure to file their own tax returns. According to former OPR director Karen Hawkins, "The focus has been on roadkillthe easy cases of tax practitioners who are non-filers." The current acting director is Elizabeth Kastenberg.
Criminal Investigation (CI)
Internal Revenue Service, Criminal Investigation (IRS-CI) is responsible for investigating potential criminal violations of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code and related financial crimes, such as money laundering, currency violations, tax-related identity theft fraud, and terrorist financing that adversely affect tax administration. This division is headed by the Chief, Criminal Investigation appointed by the IRS Commissioner.
Programs
Volunteer Income Tax Assistance (VITA) and Tax Counseling for the Elderly (TCE) are volunteer programs that the IRS runs to train volunteers and provide tax assistance and counseling to taxpayers. Volunteers can study e-course material, take tests, and practice using tax-preparation software. Link & Learn Taxes (searchable by keyword on the IRS website), is the free e-learning portion of VITA/TCE program for training volunteers.
Structure
Commissioner of Internal Revenue
Deputy Commissioner for Services and Enforcement
Assistant Deputy Commissioner for Services and Enforcement
Large Business and International Divisionadministers tax laws governing businesses with assets greater than $10million
Small Business/Self-Employed Divisionadministers tax laws governing small businesses and self-employed taxpayers
Collection – collects delinquent taxes and secures filing of delinquent tax return
Examination – reviews returns to ensure taxpayers have complied with their tax responsibilities
Operations Support – centralized support services
Wage and Investment Divisionadministers tax laws governing individual wage earners
Customer Assistance, Relationships and Educationassist taxpayers in satisfying their tax responsibilities
Return Integrity and Compliance Servicesdetecting and preventing improper refunds
Customer Account Servicesprocessing taxpayer returns
Operations Support – internal management and support services
Tax Exempt and Government Entities Divisionadministers tax laws governing governmental and tax exempt entities
Government Entities/Shares Servicesmanages, directs, and executes nationwide activities for government entities as well as provides divisional operational support
Employee Plans. – administers pension plan tax laws
Exempt Organizations – determining tax exempt status for organizations and regulating the same through examination and compliance checks
Criminal Investigation Divisioninvestigates criminal violations of tax laws and other related financial crimes
International Operations – conducts international investigations of financial crimes and provides special agent attaches in strategic International locations
Operations, Policy, and Supportplans, develops, directs, and implements criminal investigations through regional field offices
Refund and Cyber Crimesidentifying criminal tax schemes and conducting cybercrime investigations
Strategy – internal support services
Technology Operations and Investigative Servicesmanagement of information technology
Office of Online Services
Return Preparer Office
Office of Professional Responsibility
Whistleblower Office
Deputy Commissioner for Operations Support
Assistant Deputy Commissioner for Operations Support
Chief, Facilities Management and Security Services
Chief Information Officer
Chief Privacy Officer
Chief Procurement Officer
Chief Financial Officer
IRS Human Capital Officer
Chief Risk Officer
Chief Diversity Officer
Chief Research and Analytics Officer
Chief of Staff
Chief, Communications and Liaison
National Taxpayer Advocate
Chief Counsel
Chief, IRS Independent Office of Appeals
Tax collection statistics
Summary of collections before refunds by type of return, fiscal year 2021:
For fiscal year 2009, the U.S. Congress appropriated spending of approximately $12.624billion of "discretionary budget authority" to operate the Department of the Treasury, of which $11.522billion was allocated to the IRS. The projected estimate of the budget for the IRS for fiscal year 2011 was $12.633billion. By contrast, during Fiscal Year (FY) 2006, the IRS collected more than $2.2trillion in tax (net of refunds), about 44 percent of which was attributable to the individual income tax. This is partially due to the nature of the individual income tax category, containing taxes collected from working class, small business, self-employed, and capital gains. The top 5% of income earners pay 38.284% of the federal tax collected.
As of 2007, the agency estimates that the United States Treasury is owed $354billion more than the amount the IRS collects. This is known as the tax gap.
The gross tax gap is the amount of true tax liability that is not paid voluntarily and timely. For years 2008–2010, the estimated gross tax gap was $458billion. The net tax gap is the gross tax gap less tax that will be subsequently collected, either paid voluntarily or as the result of IRS administrative and enforcement activities; it is the portion of the gross tax gap that will not be paid. It is estimated that $52billion of the gross tax gap was eventually collected resulting in a net tax gap of $406billion.
In 2011, 234 million tax returns were filed allowing the IRS to collect $2.4trillion out of which $384billion were attributed to mistake or fraud.
Outsourcing collection and tax-assistance
In September 2006, the IRS started to outsource the collection of taxpayers debts to private debt collection agencies. Opponents to this change note that the IRS will be handing over personal information to these debt collection agencies, who are being paid between 29% and 39% of the amount collected. Opponents are also worried about the agencies' being paid on percent collected, because it will encourage the collectors to use pressure tactics to collect the maximum amount. IRS spokesman Terry Lemons responds to these critics saying the new system "is a sound, balanced program that respects taxpayers' rights and taxpayer privacy". Other state and local agencies also use private collection agencies.
In March 2009, the IRS announced that it would no longer outsource the collection of taxpayers debts to private debt collection agencies. The IRS decided not to renew contracts to private debt collection agencies, and began a hiring program at its call sites and processing centers across the country to bring on more personnel to process collections internally from taxpayers. As of October 2009, the IRS has ceased using private debt collection agencies.
In September 2009, after undercover exposé videos of questionable activities by staff of one of the IRS's volunteer tax-assistance organizations were made public, the IRS removed ACORN from its volunteer tax-assistance program.
Administrative functions
The IRS publishes tax forms which taxpayers are required to choose from and use for calculating and reporting their federal tax obligations. The IRS also publishes a number of forms for its own internal operations, such as Forms 3471 and 4228 (which are used during the initial processing of income tax returns).
In addition to collection of revenue and pursuing tax cheaters, the IRS issues administrative rulings such as revenue rulings and private letter rulings. In addition, the Service publishes the Internal Revenue Bulletin containing the various IRS pronouncements. The controlling authority of regulations and revenue rulings allows taxpayers to rely on them. A letter ruling is good for the taxpayer to whom it is issued, and gives some explanation of the Service's position on a particular tax issue. Additionally, a letter ruling reasonably relied upon by a taxpayer allows for the waiver of penalties for underpayment of tax.
As is the case with all administrative pronouncements, taxpayers sometimes litigate the validity of the pronouncements, and courts sometimes determine a particular rule to be invalid where the agency has exceeded its authority. The IRS also issues formal pronouncements called Revenue Procedures. These guide taxpayers through different processes, such as correcting prior tax errors. The IRS's own internal operations manual is the Internal Revenue Manual, which describes the clerical procedures for processing and auditing tax returns for almost any circumstance. For example, the Internal Revenue Manual includes special procedures for processing tax returns from the President and Vice President of the United States.
In addition to the foregoing procedures, the IRS also engages in formal rulemaking in order to provide its own formal interpretation of a statute, or when the statute itself directs that the Secretary of the Treasury shall provide for such rulemaking. The IRS initiates the formal regulation process by publishing a notice of proposed rulemaking (NPRM) in the Federal Register which announces the proposed regulation, the date of the in-person hearing, and the process for interested parties to have their views heard either in person at the hearing in Washington, D.C., or by mail. Following the statutory period provided in the Administrative Procedure Act the Service decides on the final regulations "as is", or as reflecting changes, or sometimes withdraws the proposed regulations. Generally, taxpayers may rely on proposed regulations until final regulations become effective. For example, human resource professionals are relying on the October 4, 2005 Proposed Regulations (citation 70 F.R. 57930–57984) for the Section 409A on deferred compensation (the so-called Enron rules on deferred compensation to add teeth to the old rules) because regulations have not been finalized.
The IRS oversaw the Homebuyer Credit and First Time Homebuyer Credit programs instituted by the federal government from 2008 to 2010. Those programs provided United States citizens with money toward the purchase of homes, regardless of income tax filings.
Labor union
Most non-supervisory employees at the IRS are represented by a labor union. The exclusive labor union at the IRS is the National Treasury Employees Union (NTEU). Employees are not required to join the union or pay dues. The IRS and NTEU have a national collective bargaining agreement.
In pursuing administrative remedies against the IRS for certain unfair or illegal personnel actions, under federal law an IRS employee may choose only one of the three forums below:
NTEU, or
United States Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB), or
United States Office of Special Counsel (OSC).
Employees are also required to report certain misconduct to TIGTA. Federal law prohibits reprisal or retaliation against an employee who reports wrongdoing.
Controversies
The IRS has been accused of abusive behavior on multiple occasions. Testimony was given before a Senate subcommittee that focused on cases of overly aggressive IRS collection tactics in considering a need for legislation to give taxpayers greater protection in disputes with the agency.
Congress passed the Taxpayer Bill of Rights III on July 22, 1998, which shifted the burden of proof from the taxpayer to the IRS in certain limited situations. The IRS retains the legal authority to enforce liens and seize assets without obtaining judgment in court.
In 2002, the IRS accused James and Pamela Moran, as well as several others, of conspiracy, filing false tax returns and mail fraud as part of the Anderson Ark investment scheme. The Morans were eventually acquitted, and their attorney stated that the government should have realized that the couple was merely duped by those running the scheme.
In 2004, the law licenses of two former IRS lawyers were suspended after a federal court ruled that they defrauded the courts so the IRS could win a sum in tax shelter cases.
In 2013, the Internal Revenue Service became embroiled in a political scandal in which it was discovered that the agency subjected conservative or conservative-sounding groups filing for tax-exempt status to extra scrutiny.
On September 5, 2014, 16 months after the scandal first erupted, a Senate Subcommittee released a report that confirmed that Internal Revenue Service used inappropriate criteria to target Tea Party groups, but found no evidence of political bias. The chairman of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations confirmed that while the actions were "inappropriate, intrusive, and burdensome", the Democrats have often experienced similar treatment. Republicans noted that 83% of the groups being held up by the IRS were right-leaning; and the Subcommittee Minority staff, which did not join the Majority staff report, filed a dissenting report entitled, "IRS Targeting Tea Party Groups".
On May 25, 2015, the agency announced that over several months criminals had accessed the private tax information of more than 100,000 taxpayers and stolen about $50million in fraudulent returns. By providing Social Security numbers and other information obtained from prior computer crimes, the criminals were able to use the IRS's online "Get Transcript" function to have the IRS provide them with the tax returns and other private information of American tax filers. On August 17, 2015, IRS disclosed that the breach had compromised an additional 220,000 taxpayer records. On February 27, 2016, the IRS disclosed that more than 700,000 Social Security numbers and other sensitive information had been stolen.
The Internal Revenue Service has been the subject of frequent criticism by many elected officials and candidates for political office, including some who have called to abolish the IRS. Among them were Ted Cruz, Rand Paul, Ben Carson, Mike Huckabee, and Richard Lugar. In 1998, a Republican congressman introduced a bill to repeal the Internal Revenue Code by 2002. In 2016, The Republican Study Committee, which counts over two-thirds of House of Representatives Republicans as its members, called for "the complete elimination of the IRS", and Republican Representative Rob Woodall of Georgia has introduced a bill every year since he entered Congress in 2011 to eliminate income taxes and abolish the IRS.
In 2022 Representative Matt Gaetz of Florida introduced a bill to disarm the IRS after the agency had drawn public attention for a $700,000 purchase of ammunition.
The IRS has been criticized for its reliance on legacy software. Systems such as the Individual Master File are more than 50 years old and have been identified by the Government Accountability Office as "facing significant risks due to their reliance on legacy programming languages, outdated hardware, and a shortage of human resources with critical skills".
See also
HM Revenue and Customs, the UK equivalent
Income Tax Department, India
IRS penalties
Tax evasion in the United States
References
Further reading
External links
Internal Revenue Service Official website
Internal Revenue Service in the Federal Register
1862 establishments in the United States
Financial regulatory authorities of the United States
Government agencies established in 1953
Revenue services
Tax investigation
Tax terms
Taxation in the United States | wiki |
The Ye Olde Mitre is a Grade II listed public house at 1 Ely Court, Ely Place, Holborn, London EC1N 6SJ.
It is on the Campaign for Real Ale's National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors.
Historic England documents indicate that the pub was built about 1773, and remodelled internally in the early 20th century.
The pub's website reports the original build year as 1546 with building expansion occurring in 1782, and remodelled in the early 1930s. It is run by Fuller.
References
External links
Georgian architecture in the London Borough of Camden
Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden
Grade II listed pubs in London
Commercial buildings completed in 1773
National Inventory Pubs
Buildings and structures in Holborn
Pubs in the London Borough of Camden
1773 establishments in Great Britain
Fuller's pubs | wiki |
Peter McDonald (born 22 September 1978) is an Australian former professional road cyclist. He won the Australian National Road Race Championships in 2009.
McDonald grew up in Armidale in country NSW. Both of his parents were school teachers. He worked as a school teacher in Darwin for a couple of years before returning to NSW where he began work as a bicycle courier in Sydney. A fellow courier introduced him to racing at Randwick Botany Cycling Club located at Heffron Park in Sydney's south east. Eventually he began to ride full-time for a number of smaller local teams. Coached by Adam Hogan of Cheeky Transport Bike shop he won Australia's Grafton-Inverell race, and won first National Road series win in Victoria at Bright. This led to riding for the Drapac Porsche team.
Major results
2006
4th Road race, National Road Championships
2007
3rd Overall FBD Insurance Ras
2008
4th Overall Tour de Taiwan
1st Stage 3
7th Overall Tour de Hokkaido
1st Stage 5
2009
1st Overall UCI Oceania Tour
1st Road race, National Road Championships
1st Overall Tour of Wellington
1st Stage 2
2nd Overall Tour de Taiwan
10th Overall Ronde de l'Oise
2010
2nd Japan Cup Cycle Road Race
4th Overall Tour de Langkawi
1st Mountains classification
6th Overall Tour of Wellington
1st Stage 1
References
Australian male cyclists
Living people
1978 births
Cyclists from New South Wales | wiki |
The climate of New York (state) is generally humid continental, while the extreme southeastern portion of the state (New York City and Long Island area) lies in the warmer humid subtropical climate zone. Winter temperatures average below freezing during January and February in much of the state of New York, but several degrees above freezing along the Atlantic coastline, including New York City.
Seasonally, summer-like conditions prevail from June to early September statewide, while areas in far southern New York and New York City have summer conditions from late May through early-mid October. Cold-air damming east of the Appalachians leads to protracted periods of cloud cover and precipitation east of the range, primarily between the October and April months. Winter-like conditions prevail from November through April in northern New York, and from December through March in southern New York. On average, western New York is much cloudier than points south and east in New York, much of it generated from the Great Lakes. Greenhouse gas emission is low on a per-capita basis when compared to most other states due to the extensive use of mass transit, particularly across New York City. The significant urbanization within New York city has led to an urban heat island, which causes temperatures to be warmer overnight in all seasons.
Annual precipitation is fairly even throughout the year across the state of New York. The Great Lakes region of New York sees the highest annual rain and snow amounts in the state of New York, and heavy lake-effect snow is common in both western and central New York in winter. In the hotter months, large, long-lived complexes of thunderstorms can invade the state from Canada and the Great Lakes, while tropical cyclones can bring rains and winds from the southwest during the summer and fall. Hurricane impacts on the state occur once every 18–19 years, with major hurricane impacts every 70–74 years. An average of ten tornadoes touch down in New York annually. Governors Island, Manhattan, in New York Harbor, is planned to host a US$1 billion research and education center poised to make New York City the global leader in addressing the climate crisis.
Temperatures
The annual average temperature across the state ranges from around over the Adirondack Mountains to near across the Hudson Valley and Long Island, to around within New York City. Weather in New York is heavily influenced by two air masses: a warm, humid one from the southwest and a cold, dry one from the northwest. A cool, humid northeast airflow from the North Atlantic is much less common, and results in a persistent cloud deck with associated precipitation which linger across the region for prolonged periods of time. Temperature differences between the warmer coast and far northern inland sections can exceed 36 degrees Fahrenheit (20 degrees Celsius), with rain near the coast and frozen precipitation, such as sleet and freezing rain, falling inland. Two-thirds of such events occur between November and April. which moves from northeast to southwest.
Unlike the vast majority of the state, New York City features a humid subtropical climate (Koppen Cfa). New York City is an urban heat island, with temperatures 5–7 degrees Fahrenheit (3–4 degrees Celsius) warmer overnight than surrounding areas. In an effort to fight this warming, roofs of buildings are being painted white across the city in an effort to increase the reflection of solar energy, or albedo.
Summer
Summers in New York State significantly vary by region. The summer climate is cooler in the Adirondacks due to higher elevation. The Adirondacks typically experience pleasant dry weather in the summer, with temperatures in the range of 66 °F–73 °F (18–22 °C). Evenings in the Adirondacks are chilly, with temperatures ranging on average between 45 °F–54 °F (7–12 °C). Most of Western New York, Central New York, the mid-Hudson Valley and the Catskills have moderate temperatures but are usually humid, with temperatures ranging 80 °F–85 °F (26–29 °C).
Nights in central New York state are often muggy, between 61 °F–67 °F (16–19 °C). The New York City area and the Lower Hudson Valley in contrast feature more sultry and tropical summers with frequent bouts of high temperatures and high dew points. Temperatures in this area are usually between 86 °F–91 °F but slightly cooler by the ocean and south-facing shorelines of Long Island and the temperatures there are between 85–90 °F. Nights are warm and muggy, between 68–75 °F (20–23 °C). The record high for New York state is , set at Troy on July 22, 1926.
Heat waves
Heat waves are common in New York State which bring high heat and humidity. Heat waves occurs at least two times each summer and are an average of 3–5 days . Only the Adirondacks does not see oppressive temperatures during most heat waves in New York State. The Adirondacks have warm to hot temperatures with some humidity during a heat wave but it is typically cooler than the rest of the state during a heat wave.
Winter snowfall
Snowfall in New York State also significantly varies by region. Lake-effect snow takes place in Western New York and the Adirondacks with Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Lake-effect snow is very localized and areas may see feet of snow while others see only an inch or none at all. The Adirondacks see the most snowfall because of lake-effect snowfall and higher elevations which see between 100–200 inches per year and some may see more than 200 inches per year, especially western parts of the Adirondacks.
Western and Central New York see between 75–150 inches per year depending on your location and where the bands hit. The Catskills see an average snowfall, between 25–50 inches and most of it is from nor-easters which are almost always snow. New York City, Long Island, and the Hudson Valley see the least amount of snowfall because they see warmer temperatures from the warmer ocean temperatures and the nor-easters there are mixed with rain, between 10–25 inches.
Winter temperatures
Winter temps vary just like the summer temperatures. The Adirondacks are the coldest in New York and are almost always below freezing for almost 3 straight months. The temps are between 18–23 °F (−7 to −5 °C). Nights are cold and frigid, between −2 and 4 °F (−18 to −15 °C). Most of Central New York, Mid Hudson Valley, and the Catskills have moderate temperatures that are not very cold but not mild, Between 30–35 °F (−1 to 1 °C). Nights are cold but not frigid, between 18–23 °F (−7 to −5 °C).
New York City, Hudson Valley, and Long Island are the warmest in New York State because of warmer ocean temperatures which keep these area between 37–42 °F (2 to 5 °C), warmer than locations upstate. Downstate nights typically range between 27–31 °F. The record low for New York state is , set at Stillwater Reservoir on February 9, 1934 and at Old Forge on February 18, 1979. In February 2015, Rochester experienced its coldest month ever, with an average temperature of . Later, 2015 had a near-record warm November and a record-breaking December. December 2015 was about 12 degrees F warmer than average, and several degrees over the previous record.
Records
Plant hardiness growing zones
New York State growing seasons have significant variations depending on the region. The Adirondacks, which encompasses hardiness zones 3 to 4, have the shortest growing season. Central New York, Western New York, the Catskills, and Mid-Hudson Valley encompass growing zones 5 to 6 and have much longer growing seasons and therefore more agriculture. Lower Hudson Valley, New York City, and Long Island, in growing zones 6 to 7, have the longest growing season in the state, and some areas of New York City, encompass growing zone 8, with it being due to the impact of the Atlantic and the urban heat island effect.
Cloudiness
Southeastern sections of the state near New York City have an average annual cloud cover of 59-62%, while areas of western New York around Buffalo average 71–75% cloud cover annually.
Precipitation
Average precipitation across the region show maxima within the mountains of the Appalachians. Between and of precipitation falls annually across the Northeastern United States, and New York's averages are similar, with maxima of over falling across southwestern Lewis County, northern Oneida County, central and southern Hamilton County, as well as northwestern Ulster County. The lowest amounts occur near the northern borders with Vermont and Ontario, as well as much of southwestern sections of the state. Temporally, a maximum in precipitation is seen around three peak times: 3 a.m., 10 a.m., and 6 p.m. During the summer, the 6 p.m. peak is most pronounced.
Coastal extratropical cyclones, known as nor'easters, bring a bulk of the wintry precipitation to the region during the cold season as they track parallel to the coastline, forming along the natural temperature gradient of the Gulf Stream before moving up the coastline. The Appalachian Mountains largely shield New York City from picking up any lake-effect snow, which develops in the wake of extratropical cyclones downwind of the Great Lakes. The Finger Lakes of New York are long enough for lake-effect precipitation. Lake-effect snow from the Finger Lakes (like elsewhere) occurs in upstate New York until those lakes freeze over. Annual average lake-effect snows exceed downwind of Lake Erie and downwind of Lake Ontario.
During the summer and early fall, mesoscale convective systems can move into the area from Canada and the Great Lakes. Tropical cyclones and their remains occasionally move into the region from the south and southwest. The region has experienced a couple heavy rainfall events that exceeded the 50-year return period, during October 1996 and October 1998, which suggest an increase in heavy rainfall along the coast.
Records
Air pollution
In terms of emissions, New York ranks 46th among the 50 states in the amount of greenhouse gases generated per person. This efficiency is primarily due to the state's higher rate of mass transit use in and around New York City.
However, New York City (particularly Manhattan) has extremely high rates of air pollution, with high particle pollution and high cancer rates, which can be explained by extreme population density, despite low per-capita emissions rates.
Severe weather
New York experiences an average of ten tornadoes per year, with one tornado every five years considered strong or violent (EF2-EF5). The return period for hurricane impacts on the state is 18–19 years, with major hurricane return periods between 70–74 years. In 2016, much of New York experienced a severe drought, including the Finger Lakes region, where the drought was preceded by a very mild winter with minimal snow pack.
Climate data for select cities
See also
Climate change in New York (state)
List of New York hurricanes
References
Notes
New York
Environment of New York (state) | wiki |
Mustn't Grumble may refer to;
Mustn't Grumble, a 1981 album by Chas & Dave
Mustn't Grumble, a 1993 book by cartoonist Posy Simmonds
Mustn't Grumble: An Accidental Return to England, a 2006 travel book by Joe Bennett
Mustn't Grumble, a 2006 autobiography by Terry Wogan | wiki |
Pitch People (1999 film) is a 1999 American documentary film about advertising "pitchmen" and "pitch women". Written and directed by Stanley Jacobs, the film includes interviews with many of the sales industry's pitch people including Arnold Morris, Sandy Mason, Lester Morris, Wally Nash, Ed McMahon and Ron Popeil.
Pitch People screened at several festivals in 2000, including the Rhode Island International Film Festival, Mill Valley Film Festival (No. 23), Boston Film Festival and Palm Beach Film International Festival.
See also
Salesman (1969 film)
PitchMen (television reality series)
External links and Reviews
https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-jun-14-ca-10202-story.html
https://www.austinchronicle.com/events/film/2001-05-18/pitch-people/
References
1999 films
Infomercials
Documentary films about business
American documentary films
1999 documentary films
1990s American films | wiki |
Microsurgical lumbar laminoplasty is a minimally invasive technique for decompressing pinched nerves in the lumbar spine. Pinched or compressed nerves may result from herniated discs, lumbar spinal stenosis, or spondylolisthesis.
The traditional technique for decompression of lumbar nerves is laminectomy, a surgical procedure developed in the early 1900s. In laminectomy, the paraspinal muscles are dissected off the spine bilaterally, that is on the left and right sides of the spinal column. The lamina and spinous process are then removed to gain access to the nerves contained within the spinal canal. The structures that are compressing the nerves (usually ligamentum flavum and herniated disc) are then trimmed until the nerves are free from compression. Laminectomy is an effective procedure for relieving pressure on spinal nerves, but during the procedure, many spinal stabilizing structures are destroyed even though they are not directly compressing the nerves (lamina, spinous process, interspinous ligament, supraspinous ligament). The reason for that is that these structures are "in the way," that is they block the surgeon's access to the spinal canal. In some patients, excessive spinal destabilization and muscle damage from laminectomy results in "postlaminectomy syndrome." This medical condition is characterized by chronic back pain and weakness.
During the 1980s, spinal surgeons began to use operating microscopes in order to improve visualization of the spinal nerves during surgery. The use of the operating microscope in spinal surgery allows the procedure to be performed through a smaller incision and with greater safety because the surgeon's visualization of nerve tissue is improved. Around this time, Dr. John A. McCulloch developed a technique for decompressing spinal nerves while minimizing the amount of "collateral damage" to supporting spinal ligaments, bones, and muscles. In contrast to traditional laminectomy, the lamina, spinous process, inter- and supraspinous ligaments are preserved. Also, the spinal musculature is dissected away from the spinal bones only on one side, rather than on the left and right sides.
Despite the fact that microsurgical lumbar laminoplasty is an effective and less-invasive method for decompressing spinal nerves compared to traditional laminectomy, few surgeons have adopted it because the technique is more time-consuming and requires specialized training and equipment (operating microscope).
Practitioners of microsurgical lumbar laminoplasty include Dr. Nima Salari of Desert Institute for Spine Care (Phoenix, Arizona), Dr. Russel C. Huang of the Hospital for Special Surgery (New York, NY), Dr. K. Daniel Riew of Washington University in St. Louis, Dr. Bradley K. Weiner (Akron, OH), and Dr. David A. Wong of the Denver Spine Center (Denver, CO).
References
Minimally Invasive Unilateral Laminectomy for Bilateral Decompression
External links
Laminoplasty for treatment of lumbar spinal stenosis
מיקרוכירוגיה
Orthopedic surgical procedures | wiki |
Louis N. James (September 1882 – June 7, 1935) was an American amateur golfer.
1902 U.S. Amateur
James won the 1902 U.S. Amateur at Glen View Club, defeating Eben Byers in the final, 4 and 2. Heavy rain flooded part of the course, and the final four rounds, including the final, were played on the first nine, 36-hole matches requiring four circuits of the first nine. James, whose family lived on the grounds of Glen View, was the first teenager to win the U.S. Amateur, at age 19 years, 10 months.
Death
James died on June 7, 1935, aged 51, in Chicago, Illinois.
References
American male golfers
Amateur golfers
Golfers from Chicago
1882 births
1935 deaths | wiki |
Zunyi Maotai Airport is an airport in Renhuai city, which is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Zunyi in Guizhou Province, China. It is located in Yinshui Village, Gaodaping Town, from downtown Renhuai. The airport is named after the famous Maotai liquor produced in the nearby town of the same name. It is the second airport in Zunyi, after Zunyi Xinzhou Airport.
Construction
Preparation for building the airport began in 2000 and the site was chosen in 2003. Construction was originally scheduled to begin in 2006, but was delayed for five years until finally starting on December 25, 2011. Construction for the airport expressway also began on the same day. The airport cost 2.437 billion yuan to build. It was opened on 31 October 2017.
Facilities
The airport has a runway that is 2,600 meters long and 45 meters wide (class 4C), a 15,000 square-meter terminal building, and 4 aircraft parking aprons.
Airlines and destinations
See also
List of airports in China
List of the busiest airports in China
References
Airports in Guizhou
Airports established in 2017
Zunyi
2017 establishments in China | wiki |
Chroming can refer to:
chrome plating
the use of inhalants | wiki |
Anthracite, also known as hard coal, and black coal, is a hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic luster. It has the highest carbon content, the fewest impurities, and the highest energy density of all types of coal and is the highest ranking of coals.
Anthracite is the most metamorphosed type of coal (but still represents low-grade metamorphism), in which the carbon content is between 86% and 97%. The term is applied to those varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon vapours when heated below their point of ignition. Anthracite ignites with difficulty and burns with a short, blue, and smokeless flame.
Anthracite is categorized into standard grade, which is used mainly in power generation, high grade (HG) and ultra high grade (UHG), the principal uses of which are in the metallurgy sector. Anthracite accounts for about 1% of global coal reserves, and is mined in only a few countries around the world.
The Coal Region of northeastern Pennsylvania in the United States has the largest known deposits of anthracite coal in the world with an estimated reserve of seven billion short tons.<ref>Carpenito, Thomas (2019) "The State of Coal and Renewable Energy in Schuylkill County", https://medium.com/@thomascarpenito3/state-of-coal-and-renewable-energy-in-schuylkill-f8850fec3fa6</ref> China accounts for the majority of global production; other producers are Russia, Ukraine, North Korea, South Africa, Vietnam, the UK, Australia, Canada, and the United States. Total production in 2020 was 615 million tons.
Names
Anthracite derives from the Greek anthrakítēs (), literally "coal-like". Other terms which refer to anthracite are black coal, hard coal, stone coal, dark coal, coffee coal, blind coal (in Scotland), Kilkenny coal (in Ireland), crow coal or craw coal, and black diamond. "Blue Coal" is the term for a once-popular and trademarked brand of anthracite, mined by the Glen Alden Coal Company in Pennsylvania, and sprayed with a blue dye at the mine before shipping to its northeastern U.S. markets to distinguish it from its competitors.
Culm has different meanings in British and American English. In British English, "culm" is the imperfect anthracite of north Devon and Cornwall, which was used as a pigment. The term is also used to refer to some Carboniferous rock strata found in both Britain and in the Rhenish hill countries (the Culm Measures). Lastly, it may refer to coal exported from Britain during the 19th century. In American English, "culm" refers to the waste or slack from anthracite mining, mostly dust and small pieces not suitable for use in home furnaces.
Properties
Anthracite is similar in appearance to the mineraloid jet and is sometimes used as a jet imitation.
Anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by its greater hardness (2.75–3 on the Mohs scale), its higher relative density of 1.3–1.4, and luster, which is often semi-metallic with a mildly green reflection. It contains a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. It is also free from included soft or fibrous notches and does not soil the fingers when rubbed. Anthracitization is the transformation of bituminous coal into anthracite.
The moisture content of fresh-mined anthracite generally is less than 15 percent. The heat content of anthracite ranges from 26 to 33 MJ/kg (22 to 28 million Btu/short ton) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. The heat content of anthracite coal consumed in the United States averages 29 MJ/kg (25 million Btu/ton), on the as-received basis (i.e., containing both inherent moisture and mineral matter). Since the 1980s, anthracite refuse or mine waste has been used for coal power generation in a form of recycling. The practice known as reclamation is being applied to culm piles antedating laws requiring mine owners to restore lands to their approximate original condition.
Chemically, anthracite may be considered as a transition stage between ordinary bituminous coal and graphite, produced by the more or less complete elimination of the volatile constituents of the former, and it is found most abundantly in areas that have been subjected to considerable stresses and pressures, such as the flanks of great mountain ranges. Anthracite is associated with strongly deformed sedimentary rocks that were subjected to higher pressures and temperatures (but short of metamorphic conditions) just as bituminous coal is generally associated with less deformed or flat-lying sedimentary rocks. For example, the compressed layers of anthracite that are deep mined in the folded Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachian Mountains of the Coal Region of East-central Pennsylvania are extensions of the same layers of bituminous coal that are mined on the generally flat lying and undeformed sedimentary rocks further west on the Allegheny Plateau of Kentucky and West Virginia, Eastern Ohio, and Western Pennsylvania. In the same way the anthracite region of South Wales is confined to the contorted portion west of Swansea and Llanelli, the central and eastern portions producing steam coal, coking coal and domestic house coals.
Structurally, anthracite shows some alteration by the development of secondary divisional planes and fissures so that the original stratification lines are not always easily seen. The thermal conductivity is also higher; a lump of anthracite feels perceptibly colder when held in the warm hand than a similar lump of bituminous coal at the same temperature.
Anthracite has a history of use in blast furnaces for iron smelting; however, it lacked the pore space of metallurgical coke, which eventually replaced anthracite.
History of mining and use
In southwest Wales, anthracite has been burned as a domestic fuel since at least medieval times, when it was mined near Saundersfoot. More recently, large-scale mining of anthracite took place right across the western part of the South Wales Coalfield until the late 20th century. Mining continues but now on a smaller scale.
In the United States, anthracite coal history began in 1790 in Pottsville, Pennsylvania, with the discovery of coal made by the hunter Necho Allen in what is now known as the Coal Region. Legend has it that Allen fell asleep at the base of Broad Mountain and woke to the sight of a large fire because his campfire had ignited an outcrop of anthracite coal. By 1795, an anthracite-fired iron furnace had been built on the Schuylkill River.
Anthracite was first experimentally burned as a residential heating fuel in the US on 11 February 1808, by Judge Jesse Fell in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, on an open grate in a fireplace. Anthracite differs from wood in that it needs a draft from the bottom, and Judge Fell proved with his grate design that it was a viable heating fuel.
In spring 1808, John and Abijah Smith shipped the first commercially mined load of anthracite down the Susquehanna River from Plymouth, Pennsylvania, marking the birth of commercial anthracite mining in the United States. From that first mine, production rose to an all-time high of over 100 million tons in 1917.
Anthracite usage was inhibited by the difficulty of igniting it. This was a particular concern in smelting iron using a blast furnace. With the invention of hot blast in 1828, which used waste heat to preheat combustion air, anthracite became a preferred fuel, accounting for 45% of US pig iron production within 15 years. Anthracite for iron smelting was later displaced by coke.
From the late 19th century until the 1950s, anthracite was the most popular fuel for heating homes and other buildings in the northern US, until it was supplanted by oil-burning systems and more recently natural gas systems. Many large public buildings, such as schools, were heated with anthracite-burning furnaces through the 1980s.
During the American Civil War, Confederate blockade runners used anthracite as a smokeless fuel for their boilers to avoid giving away their position to the blockaders.
The invention of the Wootten firebox enabled locomotives to directly burn anthracite efficiently, particularly waste culm. In the early 20th century US, the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad started using only the more expensive anthracite coal in its passenger locomotives, dubbed themselves "The Road of Anthracite," and advertised widely that travelers on their line could make railway journeys without getting their clothing stained with soot. The advertisements featured a white-clad woman named Phoebe Snow and poems containing lines like "My gown stays white / From morn till night / Upon the road of Anthracite". Similarly, the Great Western Railway in the UK was able to use its access to anthracite (it dominated the anthracite region) to earn a reputation for efficiency and cleanliness unmatched by other UK companies.
Internal combustion motors driven by the so-called "mixed", "poor", "semi-water" or "Dowson gas" produced by the gasification of anthracite with air (and a small proportion of steam) were at one time the most economical method of obtaining power, requiring only , or less. Large quantities of anthracite for power purposes were formerly exported from South Wales to France, Switzerland and parts of Germany. , widespread commercial anthracite mining in Wales has now ceased, although a few large open cast sites remain, along with some relatively small drift mining operations.
Anthracite today
Anthracite generally costs two to three times as much as regular coal. In June 2008, the wholesale cost of anthracite was US$150/short ton.
The principal use of anthracite today is for a domestic fuel in either hand-fired stoves or automatic stoker furnaces. It delivers high energy per its weight and burns cleanly with little soot, making it ideal for this purpose. Its high value makes it prohibitively expensive for power plant use. Other uses include the fine particles used as filter media, and as an ingredient in charcoal briquettes. Anthracite was an authorised fuel in terms of the United Kingdom's Clean Air Act 1993, meaning that it could be used within a designated Smoke Control Area such as the central London boroughs.
Mining
China today mines by far the largest share of global anthracite production, accounting for more than three-quarters of global output. Most Chinese production is of standard-grade anthracite, which is used in power generation. Increased demand in China has made that country into a net importer of the fuel, mostly from Vietnam, another major producer of anthracite for power generation, although increasing domestic consumption in Vietnam means that exports may be scaled back.
Current U.S. anthracite production averages around five million tons per year. Of that, about 1.8 million tons were mined in the state of Pennsylvania. Mining of anthracite coal continues to this day in eastern Pennsylvania, and contributes up to 1% to the gross state product. More than 2,000 people were employed in the mining of anthracite coal in 1995. Most of the mining as of that date involved reclaiming coal from slag heaps (waste piles from past coal mining) at nearby closed mines. Some underground anthracite coal is also being mined.
Countries producing HG and UHG anthracite include Russia and South Africa. HG and UHG anthracite are used as a coke or coal substitute in various metallurgical coal applications (sintering, PCI, direct BF charge, pelletizing). It plays an important role in cost reduction in the steel making process and is also used in production of ferroalloys, silicomanganese, calcium carbide and silicon carbide. South Africa exports lower-quality, higher-ash anthracite to Brazil to be used in steel-making.
Sizing and grading
Anthracite is processed into different sizes by what is commonly referred to as a breaker. The large coal is raised from the mine and passed through breakers with toothed rolls to reduce the lumps to smaller pieces. The smaller pieces are separated into different sizes by a system of graduated sieves, placed in descending order. Sizing is necessary for different types of stoves and furnaces.
Anthracite is classified into three grades, depending on its carbon content. Standard grade is used as a domestic fuel and in industrial power-generation. The rarer higher grades of anthracite are purer – i.e., they have a higher carbon content – and are used in steel-making and other segments of the metallurgical industries. Technical characteristics of the various grades of anthracite are as follows:
Anthracite is divided by size mainly into applications that need lumps (typically larger than 10 mm) – various industrial processes where it replaces metallurgical coke, and domestic fuel – and those that need fines (less than 10 mm), such as sintering and pelletising.
The common American classification by size is as follows:
Lump, steamboat, egg and stove coals, the latter in two or three
sizes, all three being above in (38 mm) size on round-hole screens.
High grade
High grade (HG) and ultra high grade (UHG) anthracite are the highest grades of anthracite coal. They are the purest forms of coal, having the highest degree of coalification, the highest carbon count and energy content and the fewest impurities (moisture, ash and volatiles).
High grade and ultra high grade anthracite are harder than standard grade anthracite, and have a higher relative density. An example of a chemical formula for high-grade anthracite would be C240H90O4NS, representing 94% carbon. UHG anthracite typically has a minimum carbon content of 95%.
They also differ in usage from standard grade anthracite (used mainly for power generation), being employed mainly in metallurgy as a cost-efficient substitute for coke in processes such as sintering and pelletising, as well as pulverised coal injection (PCI) and direct injection into blast furnaces. They can also be used in water purification and domestically as a smokeless fuel.
HG and UHG anthracite account for a small percentage of the total anthracite market. The major producing countries are Russia, Ukraine, Vietnam, South Africa and the US.
The primary sizes used in the United States for domestic heating are Chestnut, Pea, Buckwheat and Rice, with Chestnut and Rice being the most popular. Chestnut and Pea are used in hand fired furnaces while the smaller Rice and Buckwheat are used in automatic stoker furnaces. Rice is currently the most sought-after size due to the ease of use and popularity of that type of furnace.
In South Wales, a less elaborate classification is adopted, but great care is exercised in hand-picking and cleaning the coal from particles of pyrites in the higher qualities known as best malting coals, which are used for kiln-drying malt.
Anthracite dust can be made into briquettes and is sold in the United Kingdom under trade names such as Phurnacite, Ancit and Taybrite.
Semianthracite
On the opposite end from high-grade anthracite coal, semianthracite coal is defined as a coal which is intermediate between anthracite coal and bituminous coal, and particularly a coal which approaches anthracite in nonvolatile character.
Underground fires
Historically from time to time, underground seams of coal have caught fire, often from careless or unfortunate mining activities. The pocket of ignited coal is fed oxygen by vent paths that have not yet been discovered. These can smolder for years. Commonly, exhaust vents in populated areas are soon sensed and are sealed while vents in uninhabited areas remain undiscovered. Occasionally, vents are discovered via fumes sensed by passers-by, often in forested areas. Attempts to extinguish those remaining have at times been futile, and several such combustion areas exist today. The existence of an underground combustion site can sometimes be identified in the winter where fallen snow is seen to be melted by the warmth conducted from below. Proposals for harnessing this heat as geothermal energy have not been successful.
A vein of anthracite that caught fire in Centralia, Pennsylvania, in 1962 has been burning ever since, turning the once-thriving borough into a ghost town.
Major reserves
Among current producers, Russia, China,Poland and Ukraine have the largest estimated recoverable reserves of anthracite. Other countries with substantial reserves include Vietnam and North Korea.
Geologically, the largest most concentrated anthracite deposit in the world is found in the Lackawanna Coal Mine in northeastern Pennsylvania, United States in and around Scranton, Pennsylvania. Locally called the Coal Region, the deposit contains of coal-bearing rock which originally held 22.8 billion short tons (20.68 billion tonnes) of anthracite. The geographic region is roughly 100 miles (161 km) in length and 30 miles (48 km) in width. Because of historical mining and development of the lands overlying the coal, it is estimated that 7 billion short tons (6.3 billion tonnes) of minable reserves remain. The United States also contains several smaller deposits of anthracite, such as those historically mined in Crested Butte, Colorado.
The Groundhog Anthracite Deposit, located in British Columbia, Canada, is the largest previously undeveloped anthracite deposit in the world. It is owned by Australian publicly listed company, Atrum Coal and has 1.57 billion tonnes of high grade anthracite.
Anthracites of newer Tertiary or Cretaceous age are found in the Crowsnest Pass part of the Rocky Mountains in Canada and at various places in the Andes in Peru.
See also
, named after a large supply of anthracite found there
, a softer coal
Explanatory notes
References
Attribution:
Further reading
– Useful overview of the industry in the 20th century; fair-minded with an operators perspective
Primary sources
Report of the United states coal commission.... (5 vol in 3; 1925) Official US government investigation. online vol 1-2
Tryon, Frederick Gale, and Joseph Henry Willits, eds. What the Coal Commission Found: An Authoritative Summary by the Staff (1925).
General policies committee of anthracite operators. The anthracite coal strike of 1922: A statement of its causes and underlying purposes'' (1923); Official statement by the operators. online
External links
HD Video close up of what Anthracite looks like
The Distribution of Pennsylvania Coals
History of anthracite coal mining
"A Jewel In the Crown of Old King Coal Eckley Miners' Village" by Tony Wesolowsky, Pennsylvania Heritage Magazine, Volume XXII, Number 1Winter 1996
The Eastern Pennsylvania Coalition for Abandoned Mine Reclamation
The Anthracite Heritage Museum.
Pennsylvania's Northern Coal Field
Coal
Metamorphic rocks
Organic minerals
Coal mining | wiki |
Tractul urinar reprezintă organele și căile care conduc urina de la nivelul formării ei în tubii renali spre meatul urinar prin care urina este excretată în exterior. Include tubii renali (Tubulus renalis), pelvisul renal (Pelvis renalis), ureterul (Ureter), vezica urinară (Vesica urinaria) și uretra (Urethra).
Bibliografie
Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. 2011.
Sistemul excretor | wiki |
Installation may refer to:
Installation (computer programs)
Installation, work of installation art
Installation, military base
Installation, into an office, especially a religious (Installation (Christianity)) or political one | wiki |
This is a list of important participants in Muslim feminism, originally sorted by surname within each period.
It may include, for instance, earlier authors who did not self-identify as feminists but have been claimed to have furthered "feminist consciousness" by a resistance of male dominance expressed in their works.
Early and mid 19th-century feminists
Born between 1801 and 1874.
Late 19th-century and early 20th-century feminists
Born between 1875 and 1939.
Mid to late 20th-century and notable 21st-century feminists
Born from 1940 to present
Muslim feminist movements
Gerwani
Musawah
Sister-hood
Sisters in Islam
Voice of Libyan Women
Women's Islamic Initiative in Spirituality and Equality
Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan
Women Living Under Muslim Laws
See also
Islamic feminism
Women in Islam
List of feminists
Liberalism and progressivism within Islam
Islamo-Leftism
Islamic socialism
References
External links
National Women's History Project
FemBio – Notable Women International
Muslim
Feminists
Feminists, Muslim | wiki |
The Joker of Seville is an epithet for Don Juan. It can refer to:
The Joker of Seville (Walcott), a 1974 play by Derek Walcott
The Joker of Seville and the Stone Guest, a work by Tirso de Molina | wiki |
Governor Cornwallis may refer to:
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis (1738–1805), Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William in 1805
Edward Cornwallis (1713–1776), Governor of Nova Scotia from 1749 to 1752 and Governor of Gibraltar from 1761 to 1776
Governor Cornwallis (ferry), a ferry that operated on the Halifax–Dartmouth Ferry Service
See also
Thomas Cornwallis (1605–1675), Commissioner of the Province of Maryland | wiki |
Poupou may refer to:
Raymond Poulidor, a French racing cyclist
Poupou (architecture), a wall carving in a Māori wharenui
Nicknames
Nicknames in cycling | wiki |
Liquid Metal may refer to:
A liquid metal, which has a relatively low melting point, such as mercury, tin or lead
Any metal in a liquid state
Liquid metallic hydrogen
Liquidmetal, a type of metallic glass
Liquid Metal (Sirius XM), a radio channel
See also
Liquid
Metal | wiki |
Pre-cancer of the breast is a precancerous condition of the breast. It may eventually develop into breast cancer. There are two types:
Ductal carcinoma in situ, the most common type of breast pre-cancer
Lobular carcinoma in situ, pre-cancer of the breast that is outside the milk ducts
Breast cancer
Breast | wiki |
Carruchan is a rural locality in the Cassowary Coast Region, Queensland, Australia. In the , Carruchan had a population of 259 people.
References
Cassowary Coast Region
Localities in Queensland | wiki |
Excel is a spreadsheet program by Microsoft Corporation.
Excel may also refer to:
Companies
Excel Airways
Excel Communications, a telephone company in Irving, Texas
Excel Entertainment Pvt. Ltd., a film studio based in Mumbai, India
Excel mobile phones
Excel Records, a record label
Excel, a division of Cargill Meat Solutions
Places
Excel, Alabama, a town in the United States
EXCEL High School, a public secondary school in Oakland, California
ExCeL London (Exhibition Centre London), England
Excel, Alberta, a locality in Canada
Excel No. 71, Saskatchewan, a rural municipality in Saskatchewan, Canada
Excel Township, Marshall County, Minnesota
Vehicles
Aircraft
Cessna Citation Excel, an American midsize business jet
Edel Excel, a South Korean paraglider design
Europe Sails Excel, an Austrian hang glider
Road vehicles
Excel (automobile), a 1914 American cyclecar
Hyundai Excel, a 1985–1999 South Korean subcompact car
Lotus Excel, a 1982–1992 British sports car
Optare Excel, a 1995–2004 British low-floor single-decker bus
Ships
USS Excel (AM-94), a minesweeper launched in 1942
USS Excel (AM-439), a minesweeper launched in 1953
Other uses
Excel (gum), a brand of chewing gum produced by Wrigley's
Excel (band), a thrash-punk band from Venice, California
Excel (Excel Saga), a character in Excel Saga
Excel, a 6-row malting barley variety
See also
Edexcel
Excell
Excellent (disambiguation)
Excelsior (disambiguation)
USS Excel, a list of ships of the U.S. Navy
Xcel Energy
XL (disambiguation) | wiki |
This is a list of the lists of encyclicals which have been promulgated by Popes of the Catholic Church.
List of encyclicals of Pope Benedict XIV
List of encyclicals of Pope Pius VI
List of encyclicals of Pope Pius VII
List of encyclicals of Pope Leo XII
List of encyclicals of Pope Pius VIII
List of encyclicals of Pope Gregory XVI
List of encyclicals of Pope Pius IX
List of encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII
List of encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII on the Rosary
List of encyclicals of Pope Pius X
List of encyclicals of Pope Benedict XV
List of encyclicals of Pope Pius XI
List of encyclicals of Pope Pius XII
List of encyclicals of Pope John XXIII
List of encyclicals of Pope Paul VI
List of encyclicals of Pope John Paul II
List of encyclicals of Pope Benedict XVI
List of encyclicals of Pope Francis | wiki |
Camfrog is a video chat and instant messaging client that was created by Camshare in October 2003. The app allows users to contact others worldwide and find or even create chat rooms to create communities that largely share similar interests.
Over 150K audio and video calls occur and 72 years of video is watched daily.
Updates:
Users have been able to send Virtual Gifts since Camfrog's 2008 update.
On October 19, 2010, it was announced that Paltalk acquired Camfrog.
In 2015, A new software called Ribbit was introduced, which allows users to meet others by swiping through live videos.
References
Online chat
Videotelephony
2003 software
Proprietary cross-platform software
Video software | wiki |
F Street or "F" Street is the sixth of a sequence of alphabetical streets in many cities.
It may refer to:
F Street (Washington, D.C.), including about F Street and 7th Street shopping districts
F Street and H Street Loop (Bakersfield and Kern Electric)
F Street Bridge (disambiguation), relating to F Streets of Salida, Colorado and of Palouse, Washington)
See also
F Street House, George Washington University's president's home, Washington, D.C. | wiki |
I Street or "I" Street is the ninth of a sequence of alphabetical streets in many cities.
It may refer to:
I Street (Washington, D.C.)
I Street Bridge, Sacramento, California
Sacramento Valley Station, on I Street in Sacramento, California, known also as I Street Station
iStreet Giving, an online shopping platform which supports UK charities | wiki |
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP or U.S. GAAP, pronounced like "gap") is the accounting standard adopted by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and is the default accounting standard used by companies based in the United States.
The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) publishes and maintains the Accounting Standards Codification (ASC), which is the single source of authoritative nongovernmental U.S. GAAP. The FASB published U.S. GAAP in Extensible Business Reporting Language (XBRL) beginning in 2008.
Sources of GAAP
The FASB Accounting Standards Codification is the source of authoritative GAAP recognized by the FASB to be applied by nongovernmental entities. Rules and interpretive releases of the SEC under authority of federal securities laws are also sources of authoritative GAAP for SEC registrants. In addition to the SEC's rules and interpretive releases, the SEC staff issues Staff Accounting Bulletins that represent practices followed by the staff in administering SEC disclosure requirements, and it utilizes SEC Staff Announcements and Observer comments made at Emerging Issues Task Force meetings to publicly announce its views on certain accounting issues for SEC registrants.
Examples of nonauthoritative accounting guidance and literature include the following:
Practices that are widely recognized and prevalent either generally or in the industry
FASB Concepts Statements
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) Issues Papers
International Financial Reporting Standards of the International Accounting Standards Board
Pronouncements of professional associations or regulatory agencies
Technical Information Service Inquiries and Replies included in AICPA Technical Practice Aids
Accounting textbooks, handbooks, and articles.
The FASB issues an Accounting Standards Update (Update or ASU) to communicate changes to the FASB Codification, including changes to non-authoritative SEC content. ASUs are not authoritative standards. Each ASU explains:
How the FASB has changed U.S. GAAP, including each specific amendment to the FASB Codification
Why the FASB decided to change U.S. GAAP and background information related to the change
When the changes will be effective and the transition method.
Basic concepts
To achieve basic objectives and implement fundamental qualities, GAAP has four basic assumptions, four basic principles, and four basic constraints.
Assumptions
Business Entity: assumes that the business is separate from its owners or other businesses. Revenue and expense should be kept separate from personal expenses.
Going Concern: assumes that the business will be in operation indefinitely. This validates the methods of asset capitalization, depreciation, and amortization. Only when liquidation is certain this assumption is not applicable. The business will continue to exist in the unforeseeable future.
Monetary Unit principle: assumes a stable currency is going to be the unit of record. The FASB accepts the nominal value of the US Dollar as the monetary unit of record unadjusted for inflation.
Time-period principle: implies that the economic activities of an enterprise can be divided into artificial time periods.
Principles
Historical cost principle: requires companies to account and report assets and liabilities acquisition costs rather than fair market value. This principle provides information that is reliable (removing opportunity to provide subjective and potentially biased market values), but not very relevant. Thus there is a trend to use fair values. Most debts and securities are now reported at market values.
Revenue recognition principle: holds that companies should record revenue when earned but not when received. The flow of cash does not have any bearing on the recognition of revenue. This is the essence of accrual basis accounting. Conversely, however, losses must be recognized when their occurrence becomes probable, whether or not it has actually occurred. This comports with the constraint of conservatism, yet brings it into conflict with the constraint of consistency, in that reflecting revenues/gains is inconsistent with the way in which losses are reflected.
Matching principle: expenses have to be matched with revenues as long as it is reasonable to do so. Expenses are recognized not when the work is performed, or when a product is produced, but when the work or the product actually makes its contribution to revenue. Only if no connection with revenue can be established, cost may be charged as expenses to the current period (e.g., office salaries and other administrative expenses). This principle allows greater evaluation of actual profitability and performance (shows how much was spent to earn revenue). Depreciation and Cost of Goods Sold are good examples of application of this principle.
Full disclosure principle: Amount and kinds of information disclosed should be decided based on trade-off analysis as a larger amount of information costs more to prepare and use. Information disclosed should be enough to make a judgment while keeping costs reasonable. Information is presented in the main body of financial statements, in the notes or as supplementary information
Constraints
Objectivity principle: The company financial statements provided by the accountants should be based on objective evidence.
Materiality principle: The significance of an item should be considered when it is reported. An item is considered significant when it would affect the decision of a reasonable individual.
Consistency principle: The company uses the same accounting principles and methods from period to period.
Conservatism principle: When choosing between two solutions, the one which has the less favorable outcome is the solution which should be chosen (see convention of conservatism)
Cost Constraint: The benefits of reporting financial information should justify and be greater than the costs imposed on supplying it.
Required departures from GAAP
Under the AICPA's Code of Professional Ethics under Rule 203 – Accounting Principles, a member must depart from GAAP if following it would lead to a material misstatement on the financial statements, or otherwise be misleading. In the departure, the member must disclose, if practical, the reasons why compliance with the accounting principle would result in a misleading financial statement. Under Rule 203-1 – Departures from Established Accounting Principles, the departures are rare, and usually take place when there is new legislation, the evolution of new forms of business transactions, an unusual degree of materiality, or the existence of conflicting industry practices.
History
Accounting standards are currently set by the Financial Accounting Standards Board and were historically set by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) subject to U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regulations. Auditors took the leading role in developing GAAP for business enterprises.
Standard Setting Prior to the Creation of the FASB
The United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was created as a result of the Great Depression. At that time there was no organization setting accounting standards. The SEC encouraged the establishment of private standard-setting bodies through the AICPA and later the FASB, believing that the private sector had the proper knowledge, resources, and talents. Currently, the SEC works closely with various private organizations setting GAAP, but does not set GAAP itself.
In 1939, urged by the SEC, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) appointed the Committee on Accounting Procedure (CAP). During 1939 to 1959 CAP issued 51 Accounting Research Bulletins that dealt with a variety of timely accounting problems. However, this problem-by-problem approach failed to develop the much needed structured body of accounting principles. Thus, in 1959, the AICPA created the Accounting Principles Board (APB), whose mission it was to develop an overall conceptual framework. It issued 31 opinions until it was dissolved in 1973.
Realizing the need to reform the APB, leaders in the accounting profession appointed a Study Group on the Establishment of Accounting Principles (commonly known as the Wheat Committee for its chairman Francis Wheat). This group determined that the APB must be dissolved and a new standard-setting structure created.
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)
In 1973, the APB was replaced by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) under the supervision of the Financial Accounting Foundation with the Financial Accounting Standards Advisory Council serving to advise and provide input on the accounting standards.
After the creation of the FASB, the AICPA established the Accounting Standards Executive Committee (AcSEC). It publishes:
Audit and Accounting Guidelines, which summarizes the accounting practices of specific industries (e.g. casinos, colleges, and airlines) and provides specific guidance on matters not addressed by FASB or GASB.
Statements of Position, which provides guidance on financial reporting topics until the FASB or GASB sets standards on the issue.
Practice Bulletins, which indicate the AcSEC's views on narrow financial reporting issues not considered by the FASB or the GASB.
In 1984, the FASB created the Emerging Issues Task Force (EITF). The mission of the EITF is to "assist the FASB in improving financial reporting through the timely identification, discussion, and resolution of financial accounting issues within the framework of the FASB Accounting Standards Codification."
The FASB currently publishes the following:
Accounting Standards Codification, the only source of authoritative nongovernmental U.S. GAAP. In 2009, the Codification superseded the FASB's Statements of Financial Accounting Standards. 168 standards had been issued before the Codification.
Concepts Statements, first issued in 1978. They are part of the FASB's conceptual framework project and set forth fundamental objectives and concepts that the FASB use in developing future standards. As they are not part of the Codification, they are not authoritative GAAP. There have been 8 concepts published to date, of which 5 have been superseded.
Technical Bulletins or Staff Positions, guidelines on applying standards, interpretations, and opinions. Usually solve some very specific accounting issue that will not have a significant, lasting effect or respond to questions from practitioners.
Accounting Standards Updates (ASU), where the FASB issues an ASU to communicate changes to the FASB Codification, including changes to non-authoritative SEC content.
Exposure Documents, where the FASB issues Exposure Documents to solicit an ASU to communicate changes to the FASB Codification, including changes to non-authoritative SEC content.
Codification in Accounting – FASB Accounting Standards Codification
Circa 2008, the FASB issued the FASB Accounting Standards Codification, which reorganized the thousands of U.S. GAAP pronouncements into roughly 90 accounting topics.
The Codification is effective for interim and annual periods ending after September 15, 2009. All existing accounting standards documents are superseded as described in FASB Statement No. 168, The FASB Accounting Standards Codification and the Hierarchy of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. All other accounting literature not included in the Codification is non-authoritative.
The Codification reorganizes the thousands of U.S. GAAP pronouncements into roughly 90 accounting topics and displays all topics using a consistent structure. It also includes relevant Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), guidance that follows the same topical structure in separate sections in the Codification.
To prepare users for the change, the AICPA has provided a number of tools and training resources.
While the Codification does not change GAAP, it introduces a new structure—one that is organized in an easily accessible, user-friendly online research system. The FASB expects that the new system will reduce the amount of time and effort required to research an accounting issue, mitigate the risk of noncompliance with standards through improved usability of the literature, provide accurate information with real-time updates as new standards are released, and assist the FASB with the research efforts required during the standard-setting process.
Other Organizations
Other organizations involved in determining United States accounting standards include:
Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB). Created in 1984, the GASB addresses state and local government reporting issues. Its structure is similar to that of the FASB's, and the FASB and GASB are located together and share resources.
Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB). Created in 1990, the FASAB addresses federal government financial reporting issues. The FASAB issues federal financial accounting standards and provides guidance to federal reporting entities.
Other influential organizations include the Government Finance Officer's Association (GFOA), American Accounting Association, Institute of Management Accountants, and Financial Executives Institute.
Convergence with International Financial Reporting Standards
In 2006, the FASB began working with the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) to reduce or eliminate the differences between U.S. GAAP and the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), known as the IASB-FASB convergence project. The scope of the overall IASB-FASB convergence project has evolved over time. The IASB and FASB issued converged standards for accounting topics including Business combinations (2008), Consolidation (2011), Fair value measurement (2011), and Revenue recognition (2014). Other convergence projects have been discontinued. As of 2022, the convergence project is coming to an end and no new projects will be added to the agenda.
In 2008, the Securities and Exchange Commission issued a preliminary "roadmap" that indicated it was considering whether to adopt or allow domestic issuers to use IFRS instead of U.S. GAAP. In 2010, the SEC expressed their aim to fully adopt International Financial Reporting Standards in the U.S. by 2014. However, standards under IFRS differ considerably from U.S. GAAP, so progress was slow and uncertain. More recently, the SEC has acknowledged that there is no longer a push to move more U.S companies to IFRS, so the two sets of standards will "continue to coexist" for the foreseeable future.
See also
Accounting standard
Fin 48
International Financial Reporting Standards
Other comprehensive basis of accounting
Philosophy of accounting
Statutory accounting principles for U.S. insurance companies
Notes
External links
SEC Accounting Bulletins – United States
SEC Division of Corporate Finance – United States
Financial Accounting Standards Board Website (FASB) – United States
Government Accounting Standards Board Website (GASB) – United States
US GAAP XBRL Taxonomy – United States
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
es:Principios de Contabilidad Generalmente Aceptados
he:עקרונות חשבונאיים מקובלים | wiki |
L Street or "L" Street is the twelfth of a sequence of alphabetical streets in many cities (or eleventh, if "I" or "J" is omitted).
It may refer to:
L Street (Washington, D.C.)
L Street (Barstow, California)
L Streets, Dallas, a neighborhood in Dallas, Texas
See also
L Street Bridge, bridge over Rock Creek in Washington, D.C.
L Street Brownies, polar bear club in Boston, Massachusetts
Carson Beach, South Boston, also known as L Street Beach | wiki |
Holy Brother Cycling Team was a Chinese UCI Continental cycling team established in 2010.
2017 Team roster
Major wins
2011
Stage 6a Tour of Singkarak, Yiming Zhao
National champions
2015
Road Race Champion, Fengnian Wang
References
UCI Continental Teams (Asia)
Cycling teams established in 2010
Cycling teams based in China | wiki |
Lithification (from the Ancient Greek word lithos meaning 'rock' and the Latin-derived suffix -ific) is the process in which sediments compact under pressure, expel connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock. Essentially, lithification is a process of porosity destruction through compaction and cementation. Lithification includes all the processes which convert unconsolidated sediments into sedimentary rocks. Petrifaction, though often used as a synonym, is more specifically used to describe the replacement of organic material by silica in the formation of fossils.
See also
References
Geological processes
Petrology
Sedimentary rocks | wiki |
LG Philips can refer to two partnerships between South Korea's LG Group and the Dutch firm Philips:
LG Philips Display
LG.Philips LCD | wiki |
A stadium is a large venue for hosting and viewing sports, concerts, and other events.
Stadium may also refer to:
Art and entertainment
Stadium (album), a 2018 album by Eli Keszler
Stadium (film), a 1934 Italian film
Stadium (rock opera), a 1985 composition by Alexander Gradsky
"The Stadium" (Black Summer), a television episode
Stadium (sports network), a streaming and broadcast service
Mathematics and technology
Stadium (geometry), a geometric shape
Stadium (software), an engineering application for determining the service life of concrete
Places
The Stadium (cirque), on Elephant Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica
Stadium MRT station, Singapore
Stadium (UTA station), Salt Lake City, US
Stadium High School, Tacoma, Washington, US
Stadium Road or 107 Avenue, Edmonton, Canada
See also
Stadia (disambiguation)
Stadion (disambiguation)
Stadium Arena (disambiguation)
Stadium station (disambiguation) | wiki |
This is a list of desserts from the French cuisine. In France, a chef who prepares desserts and pastries is called a pâtissier, who is part of a kitchen hierarchy termed brigade de cuisine (kitchen staff).
French desserts
Galette des Rois - Kings' cake. Traditionally served between January 6th-12th.
French pastries
(also called Chocolatine in the South part of France)
See also
Cuisine
List of desserts
List of French cheeses
List of French dishes – common desserts and pastries
Pâtisserie – a French or Belgian bakery that specializes in pastries and sweets. In both countries it is a legally controlled title that may only be used by bakeries that employ a licensed maître pâtissier (master pastry chef).
Feuilletine, an ingredient of French confectionery, made from crisped crêpes
References
External links
French
Desserts | wiki |
Street Skater 2 (Street Sk8er 2) est un jeu vidéo de simulation de skateboard, développé par Atelier Double et édité par Electronic Arts, sorti en 2000 sur PlayStation, PC (Windows), PlayStation Portable.
Système de jeu
Développement
Accueil
Références
Articles connexes
Street Skater
Skateboard
Trick
Jeu vidéo de skateboard
Jeu vidéo sorti en 2000
Jeu PlayStation
Jeu Windows
Jeu PlayStation Portable
Jeu vidéo développé au Japon
Jeu THQ
Jeu Atelier Double | wiki |
Лицо в окне ():
Ссылки
Список фильмов с названием «Лицо в окне» на сайте ''IMDB | wiki |
X23–Saroni Factory Team is a Czech UCI Continental cycling team established in 2015.
References
UCI Continental Teams (Europe)
Cycling teams established in 2015
Cycling teams based in the Czech Republic | wiki |
List of Suzuki vehicles cover vehicles produced by Suzuki in past and present.
Automobiles
Motorcycles
Suzuki | wiki |
In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movements. Large faults within Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with the largest forming the boundaries between the plates, such as the megathrust faults of subduction zones or transform faults. Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes. Faults may also displace slowly, by aseismic creep.
A fault plane is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault line is a place where the fault can be seen or mapped on the surface. A fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on geologic maps to represent a fault.
A fault zone is a cluster of parallel faults. However, the term is also used for the zone of crushed rock along a single fault. Prolonged motion along closely spaced faults can blur the distinction, as the rock between the faults is converted to fault-bound lenses of rock and then progressively crushed.
Mechanisms of faulting
Owing to friction and the rigidity of the constituent rocks, the two sides of a fault cannot always glide or flow past each other easily, and so occasionally all movement stops. The regions of higher friction along a fault plane, where it becomes locked, are called asperities. Stress builds up when a fault is locked, and when it reaches a level that exceeds the strength threshold, the fault ruptures and the accumulated strain energy is released in part as seismic waves, forming an earthquake.
Strain occurs accumulatively or instantaneously, depending on the liquid state of the rock; the ductile lower crust and mantle accumulate deformation gradually via shearing, whereas the brittle upper crust reacts by fracture – instantaneous stress release – resulting in motion along the fault. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when the strain rate is too great.
Slip, heave, throw
Slip is defined as the relative movement of geological features present on either side of a fault plane. A fault's sense of slip is defined as the relative motion of the rock on each side of the fault concerning the other side. In measuring the horizontal or vertical separation, the throw of the fault is the vertical component of the separation and the heave of the fault is the horizontal component, as in "Throw up and heave out".
The vector of slip can be qualitatively assessed by studying any drag folding of strata, which may be visible on either side of the fault. Drag folding is a zone of folding close to a fault that likely arises from frictional resistance to movement on the fault. The direction and magnitude of heave and throw can be measured only by finding common intersection points on either side of the fault (called a piercing point). In practice, it is usually only possible to find the slip direction of faults, and an approximation of the heave and throw vector.
Hanging wall and footwall
The two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall. The hanging wall occurs above the fault plane and the footwall occurs below it. This terminology comes from mining: when working a tabular ore body, the miner stood with the footwall under his feet and with the hanging wall above him. These terms are important for distinguishing different dip-slip fault types: reverse faults and normal faults. In a reverse fault, the hanging wall displaces upward, while in a normal fault the hanging wall displaces downward. Distinguishing between these two fault types is important for determining the stress regime of the fault movement.
Fault types
Faults are mainly classified in terms of the angle that the fault plane makes with the earth's surface, known as the dip, and the direction of slip along the fault plane.
Based on the direction of slip, faults can be categorized as:
strike-slip, where the offset is predominantly horizontal, parallel to the fault trace;
dip-slip, offset is predominantly vertical and/or perpendicular to the fault trace; or
oblique-slip, combining strike-slip and dip-slip.
Strike-slip faults
In a strike-slip fault (also known as a wrench fault, tear fault or transcurrent fault), the fault surface (plane) is usually near vertical, and the footwall moves laterally either left or right with very little vertical motion. Strike-slip faults with left-lateral motion are also known as sinistral faults and those with right-lateral motion as dextral faults. Each is defined by the direction of movement of the ground as would be seen by an observer on the opposite side of the fault.
A special class of strike-slip fault is the transform fault when it forms a plate boundary. This class is related to an offset in a spreading center, such as a mid-ocean ridge, or, less common, within continental lithosphere, such as the Dead Sea Transform in the Middle East or the Alpine Fault in New Zealand. Transform faults are also referred to as "conservative" plate boundaries since the lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed.
Dip-slip faults
Dip-slip faults can be either normal ("extensional") or reverse.
In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves downward, relative to the footwall. A downthrown block between two normal faults dipping towards each other is a graben. An upthrown block between two normal faults dipping away from each other is a horst. The dip of most normal faults is at least 60 degrees but some normal faults dip at less than 45 degrees. Low-angle normal faults with regional tectonic significance may be designated detachment faults.
A reverse fault is the opposite of a normal fault—the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall. Reverse faults indicate compressive shortening of the crust. The terminology of "normal" and "reverse" comes from coal mining in England, where normal faults are the most common.
A thrust fault has the same sense of motion as a reverse fault, but with the dip of the fault plane at less than 45°. Thrust faults typically form ramps, flats and fault-bend (hanging wall and footwall) folds.
Flat segments of thrust fault planes are known as flats, and inclined sections of the thrust are known as ramps. Typically, thrust faults move within formations by forming flats and climb up sections with ramps.
Fault-bend folds are formed by the movement of the hanging wall over a non-planar fault surface and are found associated with both extensional and thrust faults.
Faults may be reactivated at a later time with the movement in the opposite direction to the original movement (fault inversion). A normal fault may therefore become a reverse fault and vice versa.
Thrust faults form nappes and klippen in the large thrust belts. Subduction zones are a special class of thrusts that form the largest faults on Earth and give rise to the largest earthquakes.
Oblique-slip faults
A fault which has a component of dip-slip and a component of strike-slip is termed an oblique-slip fault. Nearly all faults have some component of both dip-slip and strike-slip; hence, defining a fault as oblique requires both dip and strike components to be measurable and significant. Some oblique faults occur within transtensional and transpressional regimes, and others occur where the direction of extension or shortening changes during the deformation but the earlier formed faults remain active.
The hade angle is defined as the complement of the dip angle; it is the angle between the fault plane and a vertical plane that strikes parallel to the fault.
Listric fault
Listric faults are similar to normal faults but the fault plane curves, the dip being steeper near the surface, then shallower with increased depth. The dip may flatten into a sub-horizontal décollement, resulting in a horizontal slip on a horizontal plane. The illustration shows slumping of the hanging wall along a listric fault. Where the hanging wall is absent (such as on a cliff) the footwall may slump in a manner that creates multiple listric faults.
Ring fault
Ring faults, also known as caldera faults, are faults that occur within collapsed volcanic calderas and the sites of bolide strikes, such as the Chesapeake Bay impact crater. Ring faults are the result of a series of overlapping normal faults, forming a circular outline. Fractures created by ring faults may be filled by ring dikes.
Synthetic and antithetic faults
Synthetic and antithetic are terms used to describe minor faults associated with a major fault. Synthetic faults dip in the same direction as the major fault while the antithetic faults dip in the opposite direction. These faults may be accompanied by rollover anticlines (e.g. the Niger Delta Structural Style).
Fault rock
All faults have a measurable thickness, made up of deformed rock characteristic of the level in the crust where the faulting happened, of the rock types affected by the fault and of the presence and nature of any mineralising fluids. Fault rocks are classified by their textures and the implied mechanism of deformation. A fault that passes through different levels of the lithosphere will have many different types of fault rock developed along its surface. Continued dip-slip displacement tends to juxtapose fault rocks characteristic of different crustal levels, with varying degrees of overprinting. This effect is particularly clear in the case of detachment faults and major thrust faults.
The main types of fault rock include:
Cataclasite – a fault rock which is cohesive with a poorly developed or absent planar fabric, or which is incohesive, characterised by generally angular clasts and rock fragments in a finer-grained matrix of similar composition.
Tectonic or fault breccia – a medium- to coarse-grained cataclasite containing >30% visible fragments.
Fault gouge – an incohesive, clay-rich fine- to ultrafine-grained cataclasite, which may possess a planar fabric and containing <30% visible fragments. Rock clasts may be present
Clay smear - clay-rich fault gouge formed in sedimentary sequences containing clay-rich layers which are strongly deformed and sheared into the fault gouge.
Mylonite – a fault rock which is cohesive and characterized by a well-developed planar fabric resulting from tectonic reduction of grain size, and commonly containing rounded porphyroclasts and rock fragments of similar composition to minerals in the matrix
Pseudotachylyte – ultrafine-grained glassy-looking material, usually black and flinty in appearance, occurring as thin planar veins, injection veins or as a matrix to pseudoconglomerates or breccias, which infills dilation fractures in the host rock. Pseudotachylyte likely only forms as the result of seismic slip rates and can act as a fault rate indicator on inactive faults.
Impacts on structures and people
In geotechnical engineering, a fault often forms a discontinuity that may have a large influence on the mechanical behavior (strength, deformation, etc.) of soil and rock masses in, for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction.
The level of a fault's activity can be critical for (1) locating buildings, tanks, and pipelines and (2) assessing the seismic shaking and tsunami hazard to infrastructure and people in the vicinity. In California, for example, new building construction has been prohibited directly on or near faults that have moved within the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years) of the Earth's geological history. Also, faults that have shown movement during the Holocene plus Pleistocene Epochs (the last 2.6 million years) may receive consideration, especially for critical structures such as power plants, dams, hospitals, and schools. Geologists assess a fault's age by studying soil features seen in shallow excavations and geomorphology seen in aerial photographs. Subsurface clues include shears and their relationships to carbonate nodules, eroded clay, and iron oxide mineralization, in the case of older soil, and lack of such signs in the case of younger soil. Radiocarbon dating of organic material buried next to or over a fault shear is often critical in distinguishing active from inactive faults. From such relationships, paleoseismologists can estimate the sizes of past earthquakes over the past several hundred years, and develop rough projections of future fault activity.
Faults and ore deposits
Many ore deposits lie on or are associated with faults. This is because the fractured rock associated with fault zones allow for magma ascent or the circulation of mineral-bearing fluids. Intersections of near-vertical faults are often locations of significant ore deposits.
An example of a fault hosting valuable porphyry copper deposits is northern Chile's Domeyko Fault with deposits at Chuquicamata, Collahuasi, El Abra, El Salvador, La Escondida and Potrerillos. Further south in Chile Los Bronces and El Teniente porphyry copper deposit lie each at the intersection of two fault systems.
Faults may not always act as conduits to surface. It has been proposed that deep-seated "misoriented" faults may instead be zones where magmas forming porphyry copper stagnate achieving the right time for—and type of—igneous differentiation. At a given time differentiated magmas would burst violently out of the fault-traps and head to shallower places in the crust where porphyry copper deposits would be formed.
Groundwater
As faults are zones of weakness, they facilitate the interaction of water with the surrounding rock and enhance chemical weathering. The enhanced chemical weathering increases the size of the weathered zone and hence creates more space for groundwater. Fault zones act as aquifers and also assist groundwater transport.
See also
List of fault zones
Anderson's Theory of Faulting
Aseismic creep
Paleostress inversion
Vertical displacement – Vertical movement of Earth's crust
References
Other reading
External links
Fault Motion Animations at IRIS Consortium
Aerial view of the San Andreas fault in the Carrizo Plain, Central California, from "How Earthquakes Happen" at USGS
LANDSAT image of the San Andreas Fault in southern California, from "What is a Fault?" at USGS
Structural geology
Stratigraphy
Tectonic landforms
Earth's crust | wiki |
A relay race is a racing competition where members of a team take turns completing parts of racecourse or performing a certain action. Relay races take the form of professional races and amateur games. Relay races are common in running, orienteering, swimming, cross-country skiing, biathlon, or ice skating (usually with a baton in the fist). In the Olympic Games, there are several types of relay races that are part of track and field. Relay race, also called Relay, a track-and-field sport consisting of a set number of stages (legs), usually four, each leg run by a different members of a team. The runner finishing one leg is usually required to pass the next runner a stick-like object known as a "baton" while both are running in a marked exchange zone. In most relays, team members cover equal distances: Olympic events for both men and women are the 400-metre (4 × 100-metre) and 1,600-metre (4 × 400-metre) relays. Some non-Olympic relays are held at distances of 800 m, 3,200 m, and 6,000 m. In the less frequently run medley relays, however, the athletes cover different distances in a prescribed order—as in a sprint medley of 200, 200, 400, 800 metres or a distance medley of 1,200, 400, 800, 1,600 metres.
Relays in swimming
A swimming relay of four swimmers usually follows this strategy: second-fastest, third-fastest, slowest, then fastest (anchor). However, it is not uncommon to see either the slowest swimmer racing in the second slot (creating an order of second-fastest, slowest, third-fastest, and then fastest), or an order from slowest to fastest (an order of slowest, third-fastest, second-fastest, fastest).
FINA rules require that a foot of the second, third or fourth swimmer must be contacting the platform while (and before) the incoming teammate is touching the wall; the starting swimmer may already be in motion, however, which saves 0.6–1.0 seconds compared to a regular start. Besides, many swimmers perform better in a relay than in an individual race owing to a team spirit atmosphere. As a result, relay times are typically 2–3 seconds faster than the sum of best times of individual swimmers.
In medley swimming, each swimmer uses a different stroke (in this order): backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, and freestyle, with the added limitation that the freestyle swimmer cannot use any of the first three strokes. At competitive levels, essentially all freestyle swimmers use the front crawl. Note that this order is different from that for the individual medley, in which a single swimmer swims butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and freestyle in a single race, in that order.
The three standard relays raced at the Olympics are the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, 4 × 200 m freestyle relay and 4 × 100 m medley relay.
Mixed-gendered relays were introduced at the 2014 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) (4 × 50 m freestyle and medley) and the 2015 World Aquatics Championships (4 × 100 m freestyle and medley). The event will debut at the 2020 Summer Olympics (4 × 100 m medley).
In open water swimming, mixed-gendered relays were introduced at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships (4 × 1250 m).
Relays in athletics
In athletics, the two standard relays are the 4 × 100 metres relay and the 4 × 400 metres relay. 4 × 200, 4 × 800, and 4 × 1500 m relays exist as well, but they are rarer. Mixed-gendered 4 × 400 metres relays were introduced at the 2017 IAAF World Relays, repeated at the 2018 Asian Games, the 2019 World Championships in Athletics and were added to the 2020 Summer Olympics. In addition, a 2 × 2 × 400 m and shuttle hurdles mixed relay races were introduced at the 2019 IAAF World Relays.
Traditionally, the 4 × 400 m relay finals are the last event of a track meet, and is often met with a very enthusiastic crowd, especially if the last leg is a close race. It is hard to measure exact splits in a 4 × 400 (or a 4 × 100) relay. For example, if a team ran a 3-minute 4 × 400, it does not mean every runner on the team has to run a 45-second open 400, because a person starts accelerating before they have the baton, therefore allowing for slightly slower overall open 400 times. A 4 × 400 relay generally starts in lanes for the first leg, including the handoff. The second leg then proceeds to run in lanes for the first 100 metres, after which point the runners are allowed to break into the first lane on the backstretch, as long as they do not interfere with other runners. A race organizer then puts the third-leg runners into a line depending on the order in which they are running (with the first place closest to the inside). The faster teams pass first, while the slower teams have to slide in to the inside lanes as they come available.
According to the IAAF rules, world records in relays can only be set if all team members have the same nationality. Several superior marks were established by teams from a mixture of countries and were thus never ratified.
Major USA Track and Field events, f.e. the Penn Relays, Drake Relays, Kansas Relays, Mt. SAC Relays, Modesto Relays, Texas Relays, West Coast Relays, include different types of relays.
Rules and strategy
Each runner must hand off the baton to the next runner within a certain zone, usually marked by triangles on the track. In sprint relays, runners typically use a "blind handoff", where the second runner stands on a spot predetermined in practice and starts running when the first runner hits a visual mark on the track (usually a smaller triangle). The second runner opens their hand behind them after a few strides, by which time the first runner should be caught up and able to hand off the baton. Usually a runner will give an auditory signal, such as "Stick!" repeated several times, for the recipient of the baton to put out his hand. In middle-distance relays or longer, runners begin by jogging while looking back at the incoming runner and holding out a hand for the baton.
A team may be disqualified from a relay for:
Losing the baton (dropping the baton shall not result in disqualification. See IAAF rule no. 170.6)
Making an improper baton pass, especially when not passing in the exchange zone
False starting (usually once but sometimes twice)
Improperly overtaking another competitor
Preventing another competitor from passing
Wilfully impeding, improperly crossing the course, or in any other way interfering with another competitor
Based on the speed of the runners, the generally accepted strategy used in setting up a four-person relay team is: second-fastest, third-fastest, slowest, then fastest (anchor); however some teams (usually middle school or young high school) use second-fastest, slowest, third-fastest, then the fastest (anchor). But if a runner is better in the starting blocks than the others, they may be moved to the first spot because it is the only spot that uses starting blocks.
Competitions
The largest relay event in the world is the Norwegian Holmenkollstafetten, 2,944 teams of 15 starting and ending at Bislett Stadium in Oslo which had a total of 44,160 relay-competitors on May 10, 2014.
Another large relay event is the Penn Relays, which attracts over 15,000 competitors annually on the high-school, collegiate and professional levels, and over its three days attracts upwards of 100,000 spectators. It is credited with popularizing relay racing in the sport of track & field.
Long-distance relays
Long-distance relays have become increasingly popular with runners of all skill levels. These relays typically have 5 to 36 legs, each usually between long, though sometimes as long as .
The IAAF World Road Relay Championships was held from 1986 to 1998, with six-member teams covering the classic marathon distance.
Races under are run in a day, with each runner covering one or two legs. Longer relays are run overnight, with each runner typically covering three legs.
The world's longest relay race was Japan's Prince Takamatsu Cup Nishinippon Round-Kyūshū Ekiden, which begins in Nagasaki and continues for .
Cross-country relays
For the 2017 IAAF World Cross Country Championships, a mixed relay race was added (4 × 2 km).
The Crusader Team Sprint Cross Country Relay Race is a fun and unique venue specifically designed to get runners familiar with distance running and excited for the rest of the cross country season. Teams will be pairs of runners. The team will run four loops of a 1-mile course. Runner “A” will run loop 1 and hand off to Runner “B.” Runner “B” will run the same loop and hand off back to Runner “A.” “A” runs one more loop, hands off to “B,” and “B” finishes. 3 race categories: boys, girls, and co-ed. Awards will be given in each of the three categories.
Shuttle hurdle relay
The Shuttle hurdle relay is a Men's and Women's competition that is part of Relay meetings like Drake Relays or Penn Relays. A mixed version was introduced at the 2019 IAAF World Relays, it consist of a race in which two men and two women on each team, are running a 110 m hurdles.
Medley relay
Medley relay events are also occasionally held in track meets, usually consisting of teams of four runners running progressively longer distances. The distance medley relay consists of four legs run at distances of 1200, 400, 800, and 1,600 metres, in that order. The sprint medley relay usually consists of four legs run at distances of 400, 200, 200, and 800 metres, though a more uncommon variant of 200, 100, 100 and 400 metres (sometimes called a short sprint medley) also exists. See also Swedish relay.
Relays on coinage
Relay race events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Relays commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. In the obverse of the coin three modern athletes run, holding their batons while in the background three ancient athletes are shown running a race known as the dolichos (a semi-endurance race of approximately 3,800 metres' distance).
Relays in skiing
Cross-country skiing
The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships features a relay race since 1933, and a women's race since 1954. Each team has four skiers, each of whom must complete 10 kilometres / 6.2 miles (men) or 5 kilometres / 3.1 miles (women).
Biathlon
In biathlon, the relay race features a mass start, with teams consist of four biathletes. Each competitor must complete 7.5 kilometres / 4.66 miles (men) or 6.0 kilometres / 3.73 miles (women). Each leg is held over three laps, with two shooting rounds; one prone, one standing.
A mixed biathlon relay race was first held at the Biathlon World Championships 2005 in Khanty-Mansiysk, and it was added to the 2014 Winter Olympics.
Relays in orienteering
There are two major relays in orienteering:
Tiomila in April/May in Sweden
Jukola and Venla relay in June in Finland
There are other relays in autumn with requirements about the age and gender distributions:
Halikko relay, near Salo, Finland
25-manna, near Stockholm, Sweden
Other relays
The World Triathlon Mixed Relay Championships is a mixed-gendered relay triathlon race held since 2009. Previously, the Triathlon Team World Championships were held in 2003, 2006 and 2007. Also, the triathlon at the Youth Olympic Games has a mixed relay race since 2010, and the event was introduced at the 2020 Summer Olympics. As in standard triathlons, each triathlon competitor must do a segment of swimming, cycling and running.
The madison is a track cycling event where two riders take turns to complete the race. Riders can alternate at any moment by touching the partner with the hand. The madison is featured at the UCI Track Cycling World Championships since 1995 and the Olympics since 2000. The format has been used in six-day racing. In road racing, the Duo Normand is a two-man time trial relay held annually in Normandy, France. In mountain biking, the UCI Mountain Bike World Championships has a mixed team relay race since 1999.
The game show Triple Threat had a bonus round called the "Triple Threat Relay Round" which was played like a relay race. The winning team had to take turns matching song titles to its corresponding musical artists.
See also
4 × 100 metres relay
4 × 400 metres relay
Anchor leg
Ekiden
Relay (disambiguation)
River to River Relay
Notes and references
External links
IAAF list of relay-records in XML | wiki |
Halva (also halvah, halwa, and other spellings, ) is a type of confectionery originating from Persia and widely spread throughout the Middle East and India. The name is used for a broad variety of recipes, generally a thick paste made from flour, butter, liquid oil, saffron, rosewater, milk, cocoa powder, and sweetened with sugar.
Halva is popular in Iran, India, the Middle East, and Greece.
Etymology
The word halva entered the English language between 1840 and 1850 from Romanian, which came from the , itself ultimately derived from the , a sweet confection. The root in , means "sweet".
History
Halva originated in Persia (modern day Iran).
A reference to halvah appeared in the 7th century, referring to a mixture of mashed dates with milk. By the 9th century, the term was applied to numerous kinds of sweets, including the now-familiar sweetened cooked semolina or flour paste.
Many of the earlier Persian recipes were documented in the 13th century Arabic book Kitab al-Tabikh (The Book of Dishes), as well as an anonymous cookbook from 13th-century Moorish Spain. Halva was adopted by the Ottoman Turks, including a sesame-based version, and spread throughout their empire.
Types
Most types of halva are relatively dense confections sweetened with sugar or honey. Their textures, however, vary. For example, semolina-based halva's texture can be like a very buttery, moist clumpy couscous to something gelatinous and translucent, while sesame-based halva is drier and more crumbly.
Grain-based halva
Grain-based halva is made by toasting flour or cornstarch in oil, mixing it into a roux, and then cooking it with a sugary syrup. Corn is rarely used.
Dishes made from wheat semolina include suji ka halwa (sooji sheera, rawa sheera) in India and in Turkey. The semolina is first toasted in fat, either oil or butter, to which water or milk, and sugar is added as desired to create the preferred taste and consistency.
Dairy-based rice flour halva, known as Pathein halawa, is considered a Burmese delicacy native to the city of Pathein.
Sesame
Sesame halva is popular in the Balkans, Poland, Middle East, and other areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The primary ingredients in this confection are sesame butter or paste (tahini), and sugar, glucose or honey. Soapwort (called ‘erq al halaweh in Arabic; in Turkish), egg white, or marshmallow root are added in some recipes to stabilize the oils in the mixture or create a distinctive texture for the resulting confection. Other ingredients and flavorings, such as pistachio nuts, cocoa powder, orange juice, vanilla, or chocolate are often added to the basic tahini and sugar base.
Sunflower
Sunflower halva is popular in the countries of the former Soviet Union as well as in Bulgaria and Romania. It is made of roasted ground sunflower seeds instead of sesame. It may include other ingredients, such as nuts, cocoa powder, or vanilla. In 1996 around 4–5 thousand tonnes of sunflower halva were being produced by Ukraine annually.
Peanuts
In Argentina, Greek immigrants at the beginning of the 20th century created a kind of halva called mantecol from peanut butter, currently marketed under the name of Mantecol and also Nucrem. Such a product is widely consumed in the country.
Other
Floss halva
Pişmaniye (Turkish) or floss halva is a traditional sweet, prepared in Kocaeli, Turkey, made by flossing thin strands of halva into a light confection. Made primarily of wheat flour and sugar, the strands are continuously wrapped into a ball shape and then compressed. The result is a halva with a light consistency, similar to cotton candy. Floss halva can be found in regular and pistachio flavors, and there are brands with halal or kosher certifications.
A similar chickpea-based, version of floss halva is popular in North India. It tends to be slightly denser and is often referred to as patisa or sohan papdi. In Chinese cuisine, a floss-like candy similar to pismaniye or pashmak halva, known as dragon beard candy, is eaten as a snack or dessert.
A raw version of halva also has become popular among proponents of raw food diets. In this version, a mixture of raw sesame tahini, raw almonds, raw agave nectar and salt are blended together and frozen to firm.
Cultural use
Halva can be a snack or served as part of a meal.
Azerbaijan
One regional variant is from Sheki where Şəki halvası halva refers to a layered bakhlava style pastry filled with spiced-nut mix and topped by crisscrossed patterns of a red syrup made from saffron, dried carrot and beetroot.
Greece
Halva is a traditional fasting food among Greek Orthodox who traditionally have food restrictions, especially from meat, on Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year, for all of Great Lent and other fasting periods.
India
India has many types of halva, some unique to particular regions of the country. It is one of the popular sweets of India usually made from semolina.
The town of Bhatkal in Coastal Karnataka is famous for its unique Banana Halwa which is infused with either whole cashews, pistachio or almonds. This type of authentic halwas are a specialty of the Muslims of this town.
It is speculated that Halva (or Halwa) is associated with Indian traditions and culture, written records of sweets from Mānasollāsa indicate that semolina halvas, the most popular form of halvas in India, were already known in India, for instance, it mentions a sweet called shali-anna which is a semolina based sweet today known as Kesari in South India.
Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu is known for its wheat halwa. Its preparation is a laborious process that "is slowly seeing this sweet disappear." Unlike other sweets, the extra ghee is not drained out but forms an outer layer. This increases the shelf life of the halwa. The unique taste of the halwa is attributed to the perennial Thamirabranai.
The history of Kozhikode Halwa in Kerala could trace back to Zamorin era. Zamorin invited chefs from Gujarat to prepare halwa for their royal feast. They were also granted places to stay beside royal kitchen. This settlement later evolved as sweet sellers street, nowadays known as SM (Sweet Meat) Street or Mittayitheruvu. Kozhikode halwa is made of pure coconut oil, not from ghee. Kozhikode halwa also builds religious harmony; Ayyappa devotees from neighboring states Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh buy halwa and chips like prasadam (sacred food). They distribute them among their neighbors and friends, who consume them with a religious zeal.
Iran
In Iran, halva () usually refers to a related confection made from wheat flour and butter and flavored with saffron and rose water. The final product has a yellow color or brown color or dark brown color. The halva is spread thin on a plate till it dries into a paste. Halva usually is served at wedding celebrations, religious ceremonies and funerals.
Halva Ardeh is the Iranian term for tahini-based halva, and may or may not include whole pistachios. Ardeh is processed sesame in the form of paste, usually sweetened with syrup.
Israel
Tahini halvah () is very popular in Israel and among Jewish people throughout the diaspora. Spelled "halvah" in English, it usually comes in slabs, nearly-cylindrical cakes (illustrated), or small packages, and is available in a wide variety of flavours, chocolate and vanilla being very common. The halvah is almost always parve. Israeli halvah will usually not contain wheat flour or semolina, but will contain sesame tahini, glucose, sugar, vanilla and Saponaria officinalis (soapwort) root extracts, which are not usually found in other recipes. It is often served as a breakfast component at Israeli hotels, though it is not usually part of an Israeli breakfast, and it is even used in specialty ice cream.
Myanmar (Burma)
In Myanmar (Burma), halawa () generally refers to Pathein halawa (), a Burmese confection or mont made with glutinous rice flour, rice flour, milk, and coconut shavings originating from the Irrawaddy delta town of Pathein. Another popular semolina-based confection, which is known as sooji halawa in India, is called sanwin makin in Myanmar.
United States
Halva can be found in ethnic Indian, Jewish, Arab, Persian, Greek, Balkan, and Turkish community stores and delicatessens. It is increasingly offered by upscale restaurants in some areas. Besides being imported, it is manufactured in the United States, with the largest producer being Brooklyn-originated Joyva.
Turkey
In Turkey halva is served for special occasions such as births, circumcisions, weddings and religious gatherings. The tradition is for semolina halva to be served at funerals, when someone leaves or returns from Hajj, and during Ramadan.
For this reason, flour (un) halva is also called in Turkish , meaning "halva of the dead". The expression "roasting halva for someone" suggests that the person referred to has died.
See also
List of desserts
Mahim halwa
Barfi
Aluwa
References
Confectionery
Desserts
Arab cuisine
Vegetarian cuisine
Arab desserts
Balkan cuisine
Burmese desserts and snacks
Iranian desserts
Israeli desserts
Israeli confectionery
Jewish desserts
Levantine cuisine
Ottoman cuisine
South Asian cuisine
Uzbekistani cuisine
Tajik cuisine
Turkish desserts
Halva
Bulgarian cuisine
Greek cuisine
Semolina dishes
Ancient dishes
Lenten foods
Breakfast
Albanian cuisine | wiki |
The Hunic superterrane is a terrane that is now attached to Europe and Asia. At the end of the Ordovician or beginning of the Silurian it separated from Gondwana and joined Laurasia at the beginning of the Carboniferous, at the time of the Variscan orogeny. Rather than being a single block, there were apparently two groups of blocks, the European Hunic terranes and the Asian Hunic terranes.
The collision with Laurasia (specifically, with the Kipchak Arc) formed what is now known as Kazakhstania according to one geological model of the ancient Earth.
The Hunic terranes are named after the Huns, since they are found in the areas that the Huns occupied.
See also
Paleo-Tethys Ocean
Rheic Ocean
References
Sources
Geology
Terranes
Tectonic landforms | wiki |
Arrowhead Springs – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Wyoming, w hrabstwie Sweetwater.
CDP w stanie Wyoming | wiki |
Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester, (Richard Alexander Walter George; born 26 August 1944) is a member of the British royal family. He is the second son of Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, and Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, and the youngest of the nine grandchildren of King George V and Queen Mary. He is currently 30th in the line of succession to the British throne, and the highest person on the list who is not a descendant of George VI, who was his uncle. At the time of his birth, he was 5th in line to the throne.
Prince Richard practised as an architect until the death of his elder brother, William, placed him in direct line to inherit his father's dukedom of Gloucester, which he assumed in 1974. He married Birgitte van Deurs Henriksen in July 1972. They have three children.
Early life
Prince Richard was born on 26 August 1944 at 12:15 pm at St Matthew's Nursing Home in Northampton, the second son of Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester. His father was the third son of King George V and Queen Mary. His mother was the third daughter of the 7th Duke of Buccleuch and Lady Margaret Bridgeman. At the time of his birth, he was second in line to his father's dukedom, behind his elder brother, Prince William of Gloucester, who died in 1972 before inheriting the title and having any children of his own. Richard was baptised at the Royal Chapel of All Saints in Windsor Great Park on 20 October 1944 by the retired Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Gordon Lang. When Richard was four months old, he accompanied his parents to Australia, where his father served as governor-general from 1945 to 1947. The family returned to Barnwell Manor in 1947, where Richard spent most of his childhood.
Education and career
Prince Richard's early education took place at home, under the instruction of Rosalind Ramirez, who had also tutored young King Faisal II of Iraq; later, he attended Wellesley House School at Broadstairs and Eton College. In 1963, he matriculated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he read architecture, graduating with the degree of Bachelor of Arts in June 1966. As is customary at Cambridge, this was promoted to MA (Cantab) in 1971.
In 1966, Prince Richard joined the Offices Development Group in the Ministry of Public Building and Works for a year of practical work. He returned to Cambridge in 1967, completing both parts of the Diploma in Architecture degree in June 1969. Upon passing his exams, he became a practising partner with Hunt Thompson Associates, Architects, in London.
Marriage and family
On 8 July 1972, Richard married the Danish-born Birgitte van Deurs Henriksen in St Andrew's Church at Barnwell, Northamptonshire; they have three children:
Alexander Patrick Gregers Richard Windsor, Earl of Ulster (born 24 October 1974 at St Mary's Hospital, London); he married Claire Booth in 2002. The couple have two children.
Lady Davina Elizabeth Alice Benedikte Windsor (born 19 November 1977 at St Mary's Hospital, London); she married Gary Lewis in 2004, and they divorced in 2018. They have two children.
Lady Rose Victoria Birgitte Louise Gilman (born 1 March 1980 at St Mary's Hospital, London); she married George Gilman in 2008. The couple have two children.
The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester's official residence is at Kensington Palace in London. They have leased their private home, Barnwell Manor, since 1994. In September 2022, the Duke put the manor up for sale for £4.75 million.
Activities
Richard ended his architectural career in 1972, after the death of his elder brother Prince William, who crashed his plane in a flying competition. Richard became heir apparent to his father's dukedom and had to take on additional family obligations and royal duties on behalf of the Queen. He became the second Duke of Gloucester (in the fifth creation of that title) upon the death of his father on 10 June 1974.
Richard was elected as a corporate member of the Royal Institute of British Architects (and FRIBA) in 1972. He is president of the Society of Architect Artists. He also serves as a commissioner of the Historic Building and Monuments Commission for England (English Heritage). He has been patron of construction charity Construction Youth Trust for many years. With his background in architecture, the Duke of Gloucester takes interest in the work of the trust and frequently visits their projects, in addition to giving his name to their long standing Duke of Gloucester Young Achiever's Scheme Awards. The Duke is also patron of the Architects Benevolent Society. The Duke is also vice president of Lepra, a UK based charity working towards a world free from prejudice and disability due to leprosy. As part of his active involvement in this role, he attends national and international events in support of the charity's work. He is royal patron of the UK branch of the charity Habitat for Humanity, royal patron of the St. George's Society of New York, and president of The London Society. A keen motorist, Prince Richard passed the Advanced Driving Test of the Institute of Advanced Motorists, of which he was president for more than 32 years. On his appointment in 1971, it was recorded that the new president was "currently [driving] an Austin 1300", reflecting the modest image with which he has always been identified. He stood down as president in January 2005.
The Duke of Gloucester, accompanied by the Duchess, represented his cousin Elizabeth II at the Solomon Islands independence celebrations on 7 July 1978. He served as a judge in Prince Edward's charity television special The Grand Knockout Tournament on 15 June 1987.
On 10 April 2008, the Duke of Gloucester was officially installed as inaugural Chancellor of the University of Worcester at a ceremony in Worcester Cathedral. In this role, the Prince officiates at degree ceremonies and major events, as well as promoting the university overseas. The Duke carried out the first of these duties on 5 and 6 November 2008 at the Graduation Award Ceremonies. The Duke is also patron of the Severn Valley Railway and the Pestalozzi International Village Trust. He is patron of the British Homeopathic Association, a charity dedicated to the study, research and promotion of homeopathy. He shares a name with another Duke of Gloucester, Richard III, and has been the patron of the Richard III Society since 1980. He is also a member of the international advisory board of the Royal United Services Institute. Since 1972, the Duke has been a corporate member of the Royal Institute of British Architects. He is also an honorary fellow of the Institution of Structural Engineers. He has long been patron of the Richard III Society, sharing that monarch's forename and pre-reign title.
During 2009, the Duke became patron of the De Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre in support of its bid to raise funds through private means and through a bid for Heritage Lottery Funding. Other patronages include: British Society of Soil Science, the International Council on Monuments and Sites, Action on Smoking and Health, British Association of Friends of Museums, British Mexican Society, St Bartholomew's Hospital, as well as numerous other organisations and charities. In July 2011, the Duke visited the Isle of Man to meet with the representative of Manx National Heritage and the Council of Cancer Charities. On 8 November 2011, he opened the new Law School Building at the University of Hertfordshire on the de Havilland campus site of the former de Havilland Aircraft factory. On 19 March 2013, the Duke represented Elizabeth II at the Vatican for the inauguration of Pope Francis.
On 11 March 2015, the Duke visited the Royal School Dungannon in Dungannon, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, to celebrate their 400th anniversary since the founding of the school; presenting a commemorative plaque and raising an anniversary flag on the grounds. On 22 and 26 March 2015, the Duke represented the Queen at the ceremonies marking the reburial and commemorations of King Richard III in Leicester Cathedral. Richard III had held the title Duke of Gloucester before his ascension to the English throne. In March 2018, the Duke travelled to Malawi to attend the Commonwealth Day celebrations, and visited projects related to health services, wildlife, and climate change. He missed the celebrations in March 2022 after testing positive for COVID-19.
On 14 September 2022, after the death of Queen Elizabeth II on 8 September, the Duke joined her children, grandsons, nephew, and son-in-law, in walking in the state cortege from Buckingham Palace to Westminster Hall, for her lying in state.
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles and styles
26 August 1944 – 10 June 1974: His Royal Highness Prince Richard of Gloucester
10 June 1974 – present: His Royal Highness The Duke of Gloucester
Honours
2 June 1953: Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal
1 January 1974: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)
1975: Grand Prior and Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St John (GCStJ)
6 February 1977: Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal
1978: Solomon Islands Independence Medal
1980: Vanuatu Independence Medal
1980: Badge of Honour, New Hebrides
1984: Service Medal of the Order of St John (with 5th bar (2 gold bars))
1997: Royal Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG)
6 February 2002: Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal
4 August 2008: Star of the Solomon Islands (SSI)
6 February 2012: Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal
6 February 2022: Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee Medal
Foreign
1973: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav
1 August 2008: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Crown of Tonga
2015: Sash of Special Category of the Order of the Aztec Eagle
1973: Sash of the Order of the Aztec Eagle
1975: Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star
1975: Member, 1st Class of the Order of Tri Shakti Patta
24 February 1975: Nepalese Coronation Medal
Honorary military appointments
Australia
Colonel-in-Chief, of the Royal Australian Army Education Corps
New Zealand
Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps
United Kingdom
Colonel-in-Chief, of the Royal Anglian Regiment
Colonel-in-Chief, of the Royal Army Medical Corps
Deputy Colonel-in-Chief, of the Royal Logistic Corps
Royal Colonel, of the 6th (V) Battalion, The Rifles
The Royal Honorary Colonel, of the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (Militia)
Honorary Air Commodore, of RAF Odiham
Honorary Air Commodore, of 501 (County of Gloucester) Squadron, Royal Auxiliary Air Force, 16 June 2001.
Honorary Air Marshal, Royal Air Force, 1 September 1996.
Arms
Issue
Ancestry
See also
British prince
Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem
References
External links
The Duke of Gloucester at the Royal Family website
1944 births
Living people
20th-century British architects
21st-century British people
Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge
Architects from London
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Barons Culloden
British Anglicans
British landowners
British princes
Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star
Dukes of Gloucester
Earls of Ulster (1928 creation)
Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Gloucester
Honorary air commodores
Richard, Duke of Gloucester
Knights of the Garter
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Tonga
Military personnel from Northamptonshire
People educated at Eton College
People from Northampton
Richard, Duke of Gloucester
Royal Air Force air marshals | wiki |
Old IRA may refer to:
Irish Republican Army (1919–1922), retronym "Old IRA" distinguishes it from later organisations using the name IRA
National Association of Old IRA, made up of veterans of the IRA from the revolutionary period.
See also
Irish Republican Army (disambiguation) other organisations of the name
Traditional IRA, the original form of individual retirement arrangement (IRA) established in the United States by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974
Ira (name), "old Ira" may be a pet name | wiki |
The Anthem of Aguascalientes (, ), officially , is the official anthem of the Mexican state of Aguascalientes. It was composed by Esteban Ávila Mier, former governor, and music by Miguel Meneses on 1867.
Lyrics
Short version:
See also
Aguascalientes
References
Aguascalientes
Spanish-language songs
1867 songs | wiki |
Mad as a hatter is a colloquial English phrase suggesting insanity.
Mad as a hatter may also refer to:
"Mad as a Hatter", an episode of Batman: The Animated Series
"Mad as a Hatter", an episode of The Real Housewives of Dallas (season 1)
"Mad as a Hatter", an episode of Ladies of London
Mad As A Hatter (EP), by Def Wish Cast, 1993, and a track on the EP
Mad as a Hatter, an album by Shadowland, 1996
"Mad as a hatter", part of mnemonic for features of anticholinergic syndrome
See also
Mad Hatter (disambiguation)
Hatter (disambiguation)
Erethism, or mad hatter disease
Mad as a March hare | wiki |
Mauzi may refer to
Robert Mauzi (1927-2006), French professor of literary history
Mauzi is the German name for the fictional Pokémon character, Meowth. | wiki |
Charles Schreiner may refer to:
Schreiner's, also known as Charles Schreiner & Company, a department store in Kerrville, Texas
Charles Schreiner (Texas rancher) (1838–1927), cattle and sheep rancher, merchant, banker, politician, and philanthropist
Charles Schreiner, III (1927–2001), his grandson, rancher and historian
Schreiner, Charles | wiki |
The United States Canoe Association (USCA) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization devoted to canoeing and paddle sports within the United States. Established in 1968, it is headquartered in Lafayette, Indiana.
History
USCA promotes and encourages the growth of paddling as a recognized competitive sport and beneficial recreational activity through educational and competitive programs.
Programs
The USCA sanctions programs and events to promote paddlesport competition including its two marquee annual events; USCA National Canoe & Kayak Championship and the USCA Stock Aluminum & K-1 Downriver/Touring Championship.
Youth Cup
The USCA sponsors a youth cup named after one of its members Greg Barton. Barton won four canoeing medals at the Summer Olympics, including golds in the K-1 1000 m and K-2 1000 m events at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. He also won several medals at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships.
Publications
The Association publishes a quarterly magazine, Canoe News, devoted to competition, recreational cruising and camping, water safety, construction and maintenance of equipment, and canoeing news in general. USCA also publishes a canoe safety brochure and a training safety video under the approval of the U.S. Coast Guard.
References
External links
Sports organizations established in 1968
Canoeing
Voluntown, Connecticut
Sports in Connecticut
Canoeing and kayaking organizations
1968 establishments in Connecticut
501(c)(3) organizations
Non-profit organizations based in Connecticut | wiki |
Columbus Public Library may refer to:
Columbus Public Library, a branch of the Chattahoochee Valley Libraries in Georgia
Columbus Public Carnegie Library, Columbus, Kansas, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Cherokee County, Kansas
Columbus Public Library (Columbus, Nebraska), current and historic Carnegie library
Columbus Metropolitan Library, Columbus, Ohio
Columbus Public Library (Columbus, Wisconsin), listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Columbia County, Wisconsin
Columbus Public Library (Columbus, Georgia), Chattahoochee Valley Libraries | wiki |
The double reverse spin is a ballroom dance move used in the waltz and the quickstep. It typically rotates a full turn in one measure of music, although it can rotate anywhere from to a full turn.
Footwork
The double reverse spin consists of a heel pivot to Viennese cross (the left foot crossing in front of the right foot) for the follower and a reverse turn to toe pivot for the leader.
Leader (man)
Follower (lady)
References
External links
Waltz dance moves | wiki |
Christy Smith may refer to:
Christy Smith (basketball) (born 1975), basketball player and coach
Christy Smith (politician) (born 1969), member of the California State Assembly
Christy Smith (Survivor contestant) (born 1978), television personality | wiki |
In South Africa, manually coded language is used in education, as a bridge between South African Sign Language (SASL) and the eleven official oral languages of the country. These codes apply the signs of SASL to the grammar of the oral languages, resulting in Signed English, Signed Afrikaans, Signed Xhosa, Signed Zulu, etc. They are not a natural form of communication among deaf people.
Manually coded language is commonly used instead of SASL for simultaneous translation from an oral language into sign, for example at the Deaf Forum that is held annually at different locations in the Western Cape. The result is that, while deaf people from different language communities can communicate with each other without difficulty in SASL, they cannot understand "sign language" interpreters unless they have been schooled in the particular manually coded language used by the interpreter. That is, while they share a common language in SASL, they differ in their understanding of Signed English, Signed Afrikaans, Signed Xhosa, etc., which are not a normal form of communication for anyone. This results is the common misconception among even deaf South Africans that there are various sign languages in the country, when in fact there is only one.
A very different form of manually coded language is cued speech, an aid to lipreading which has been developed for Afrikaans, South African English, and Setswana.
References
South Africa | wiki |
There are two types of Utah State Legislature districts.
Utah State Senate districts
The state is divided into 29 Senate districts, each representing approximately 100,000 people (estimated in 2018 from 2010 census).
State House districts
The House is divided into 75 House districts, each representing approximately 40,000 people.
See also
Utah's congressional districts (for districts at the national level)
Utah Legislature | wiki |
A clay drum is a variety of percussion instrument found in various parts of the world. It may refer to:
Idiophones
Ghatam, from India
Udu, from Nigeria
Membranophones
Alligator drum once used in Neolithic China, made from clay and alligator hides
Goblet drum, from the Middle East
Khol, from India
Kus, from Iran
Madal, from Nepal
Mrdanga, from India
Naqareh, from the Middle East, Central Asia, and India
Tassa, used by Indo-Caribbeans
Tumdak', from India
Drums | wiki |
New Harmony may refer to:
Places
New Harmony, Indiana
New Harmony, Mississippi
New Harmony, Missouri
New Harmony, Ohio
New Harmony, Tennessee
New Harmony, Texas
New Harmony, Utah
Organisation
New Harmony (Latvia), Latvian political party
See also
Ulmus americana 'New Harmony', cultivar of elm | wiki |
Aliso was a military and civilian colony in ancient Germany, built by the emperor Augustus near present-day Haltern am See, when he wanted to create the Roman province of Germania.
After the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, Aliso was the last point of resistance of the Roman troops in Germania.
Besieged by the Germans under Arminius, the garrison commanded by the prefect Lucius Caedicius put up a fierce resistance before managing to escape and regain the Roman lines.
Location
The location of Aliso is the subject of various hypotheses.
In 2010, the Archaeological Commission of Westphalia published a summary of excavations and discoveries near Haltern and concluded that the site corresponds to that described in ancient literature under the name of Aliso.
At the southern and eastern gates of the main Roman camp at Haltern, palisades to reinforce the enclosure were discovered as well as remains of defensive armament and a mass grave which could indicate that an attack was repulsed.
Necropolis
Over the years, more than 100 tombs have been unearthed that had contained or did contain a funeral urn in which the ashes of the deceased were found.
The Roman soldiers had been buried where they died.
Terra sigillata
This fortress is a "type site" for certain forms of terra sigillata ceramics of the Italian type, defined by the ceramologist Siegfried Loeschcke (son of Georg Loeschcke) and entered into the typological system of the sigillata under the name of "Haltern" or HA.".
The type name remained, although between 1966 and 1990 a chemical analysis of the pottery in question showed that 50% of this lot came from the workshop of La Muette in Lyon, 30% from Pisa and only 10% from Arezzo.
It is also the first time that matched sigillata services have been described, that is to say sets of dishes paired by their shapes and profiles.
S. Loeschcke identifies four types of service at Haltern, numbered I to IV - types III and IV being variants of the first two.
Notes
Sources
Roman towns and cities in Germany | wiki |
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