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The following is a list of churches in Exeter.
Active churches
The city has an estimated 64 churches for 129,800 inhabitants, a ratio of one church to every 2,028 people.
Defunct churches
External links
Map of medieval churches
Histories of individual churches
Further reading
Orme, Nicholas (2014) The Churches of Medieval Exeter, Impress Books, ISBN 9781907605512.
References
Exeter
Churches | wiki |
Austria competed at the 1932 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, United States, February 4 to February 15. The team was composed of 7 athletes, consisting of 6 men and 1 women.
Medalists
Bobsleigh
Cross-country skiing
Men
Figure skating
Men
Women
Nordic combined
Events:
18 km cross-country skiing
normal hill ski jumping
The cross-country skiing part of this event was combined with the main medal event of cross-country skiing. Those results can be found above in this article in the cross-country skiing section. Some athletes (but not all) entered in both the cross-country skiing and Nordic combined event, their time on the 18 km was used for both events.
The ski jumping (normal hill) event was held separate from the main medal event of ski jumping, results can be found in the table below.
Ski jumping
References
Olympic Winter Games 1932, full results by sports-reference.com
Nations at the 1932 Winter Olympics
1932
Olympics, Winter | wiki |
The Texas dip is a form of elaborate curtsey and prostration performed in Texas during debutante balls. It involves the woman extending her arms completely to either side and lowering herself fully so that one knee touches the floor while simultaneously bowing her head to the side so that her left ear touches her lap. The Texas dip is believed to have originated in about 1909.
See also
Drum major backbend
Kowtow
debutante
References
External links
video of a woman performing a Texas dip during the introduction of debutantes in Laredo, Texas
Gestures of respect
Bowing
Texas culture | wiki |
Blennorrhea is mucous discharge, especially from the urethra or vagina (that is, mucus vaginal discharge). Blennorrhagia is an excess of such discharge, often specifically referring to that seen in gonorrhea. In fact, blennorrhagia is also a German name of gonorrhea that was previously in use, but now no longer in technical use. Still, blennorrhagia is a major symptom of gonorrhea.
References
Symptoms and signs: Skin and subcutaneous tissue
Gonorrhea | wiki |
A sausage roll is a savoury pastry meal, popular in current and former Commonwealth nations, consisting of sausage meat wrapped in puff pastry. Sausage rolls are sold at retail outlets and are also available from bakeries as a take-away food. A miniature version can be served as buffet or party food.
Composition
The basic composition of a sausage roll is sheets of puff pastry formed into tubes around sausage meat and glazed with egg or milk before being baked. They can be served either hot or cold. In the 19th century, they were made using shortcrust pastry instead of puff pastry.
A vegetarian or vegan approximation of a sausage roll can be made in the same manner, using a meat substitute.
Sales
In the UK, the bakery chain Greggs sells around 2.5 million sausage rolls per week, or around 140 million per year.
History
The wrapping of meat or other foodstuffs into dough can be traced back to the Classical Greek or Roman eras. Sausage rolls in the modern sense of meat surrounded by rolled pastry appear to have been conceived at the beginning of the 19th century in France. From the beginning, use was made of flaky pastry, which in turn originated with the Austrian croissant of the late 17th century. Early versions of the roll with pork as a filling proved popular in London during the Napoleonic Wars and it became identified as an English dish.
On 20 September 1809, the Bury and Norwich Post mentions T. Ling, aged 75, (an industrious vendor of saloop, buns, and sausage rolls). The Times first mentions the food item in 1864 when William Johnstone, "wholesale pork pie manufacturer and sausage roll maker", was fined £15 (£ in 2021), under the Nuisances Removal Act (Amendment) Act 1863, for having on his premises a large quantity of meat unsound, unwholesome and unfit for food. In 1894, a theft case provided further insights into the Victorian sausage roll production whereby the accused apprentice was taught to soak brown bread in red ochre, salt, and pepper to give the appearance of beef sausage for the filling.
National variants
Similar meat and pastry recipes include the Czech klobásník, the Belgian worstenbroodje, the Dutch saucijzenbroodje, the German Münsterländer Wurstbrötchen and sausage bread in the United States.
Hong Kong has developed its own style of sausage roll. Instead of having sausage meat wrapped in puff pastry like the traditional western style, the Hong Kong style "sausage bun" (Chinese: 腸仔包) consists of a sausage wrapped inside a soft milk bread style bun.
In popular culture
The 1896 Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Grand Duke features sausage rolls as a plot device, where conspirators recognise one another by eating sausage rolls.
LadBaby has had four number one Christmas singles in the British charts with sausage-roll-themed novelty cover versions of the songs "We Built This City", "I Love Rock 'n' Roll", "Don't Stop Believing" and "Merry Christmas".
See also
List of sausage dishes
List of stuffed dishes
Pigs in a blanket
Jambon
References
External links
Sausage Roll recipe - BBC Food website
Sausage Roll recipe - taste.com.au
British snack foods
Fast food
Sausage dishes
Street food
Australian cuisine
British cuisine
Dutch cuisine
French cuisine
German cuisine
New Zealand cuisine | wiki |
A pawtograph is a print of an animal's paw, regarded in some contexts as equivalent to a human signature. This term is used in particular for the practice of collecting pawtographs of celebrity animals. The hobby of collecting pawtographs is known as pawtography.
A pawtograph is made by one of two methods:
directly stamping a paw on a stamp pad, then stamping the item to be autographed.
creating a rubber stamp from the paw impression and stamping the item using the stamp.
References
Biometrics
Zoology | wiki |
Карлин може бити:
Карлин (Ходоњин), насељено мјесто у округу Ходоњин, Јужноморавски крај, Чешка Република
Карлин (Праг), градска четврт Прага, Чешка Република | wiki |
Tidewater, olajipari vállalat
Amerikai Egyesült Államok
Tidewater, település Floridában
Tidewater, település Oregonban | wiki |
Postal codes in Vietnam have five digits.
The exact postal code designated for local government areas, local post offices, government offices or embassies and consulates can be searched on National Postal Code Website.
References
External links
VNpost - Post Office & Postal Code Location Service
Communications in Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam geography-related lists | wiki |
ASW peut faire référence à :
Anti-submarine warfare (en français, guerre anti-sousmarine) ;
;
Amphibian Species of the World, le site web sur les amphibiens de l'American Museum of Natural History ;
aSmallWorld ;
Asynchronous Space Warp. | wiki |
Program analysis may refer to:
, the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs
Program evaluation, a disciplined way of assessing the merit, value, and worth of projects and programs
Software performance analysis, the gathering of computer program performance characteristics at run time | wiki |
Intellectual need is a specific form of intrinsic motivation; it is a desire to learn something. It has been recognized as critical in effective education and learning. Intellectual need arises when someone poses a question to themselves or others, either out of curiosity or to solve a specific problem.
Intellectual need is often greatest when there is a hole in an otherwise well-connected web of knowledge. Merely understanding a question and being unable to answer it is not sufficient to create intellectual need—intellectual need arises when a person believes the question to be interesting or important, and usually this involves fitting the question into a framework of well-understood ideas.
A common critique of certain educational systems is that students are expected to learn facts and ideas in the absence of any intellectual need. As a result, the teachers and educational system must provide extrinsic motivation for the students in the form of tests, grades, or other incentives. This gives rise to a whole series of problems, ranging from boredom to academic dishonesty.
Examples
A student who asks a question is displaying an intellectual need for the question to be answered.
A birdwatcher who cannot identify a certain bird will often have a strong intellectual need to identify that bird because it represents a hole in his or her knowledge; however, others might have no intellectual need, even though they also cannot identify the bird.
One can cultivate intellectual need by giving students a problem they can easily understand but cannot solve, or a question they can understand but cannot answer, before introducing a technique that can be used to solve the problem or information that answers the question.
If a student cannot understand a question or problem, it cannot provide intellectual need for a solution.
Giving students a new technique to solve a problem will not be effective if the students are already able to solve the problem through other easier or more enjoyable techniques, because they will have no intellectual need for the new technique.
See also
Autodidacticism
Curiosity
Latent inhibition
References
Learning | wiki |
Mae West (1893–1980) was an American actress, playwright, and screenwriter.
Mae West may also refer to:
Mae West (film), a 1982 telefilm
Mae West (life preserver)
Mae West (sculpture), a sculpture in Munich
MAE-West, an Internet exchange point in California, United States
M2A2 tank or Mae West, a pre–World War II M2 light tank variant
Lady May or Mae West, American rapper
Debi Mae West (born 1963), American voice actor
See also
Mae West Lips Sofa, a 1937 a surrealist sofa by Salvador Dalí
May West, dessert cake
West, Mae | wiki |
Shadow of Love may refer to:
"The Shadow of Love", a song by The Damned (1985)
"Shadow of Love", a song by Quiet Riot from Guilty Pleasures (2001)
"Shadow of Love", a song by Celine Dion from Taking Chances (2007) | wiki |
Time Traveler(s) or Time Traveller(s) may refer to:
Time traveler, a person who engages in time travel
Film and television
The Time Travelers (1964 film), a science fiction film by Ib Melchior
Time Travelers (1976 film), a telefilm starring Sam Groom
Time Traveller: The Girl Who Leapt Through Time, a 2010 Japanese film
The Lovers (2013 film) or Time Traveller
"The Time Travelers" (How I Met Your Mother), an episode of How I Met Your Mother
Time Traveler, a 1972 Japanese television series based on The Girl Who Leapt Through Time
The Time Traveler, a 1993 TV documentary by Norman Lewis
Time Traveler, a 2001 compilation of three episodes of Where on Earth Is Carmen Sandiego?
Literature
The Time Travellers, a 2005 novel by Simon Guerrier
The Time Traveller (fanzine), a science fiction fanzine started in 1932
Time Travelers Quartet, a series of young adult books by Caroline B. Cooney
Gideon the Cutpurse or The Time Travelers, a 2006 children's novel by Linda Buckley-Archer
"The Time Traveller" (short story), a 1990 short story by Isaac Asimov
To Say Nothing of the Dog, Time Travelling Historians trying to locate the Bishop's bird stump
Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality, a 2006 book by Ronald Mallett
Time Travelers, Ghosts, and Other Visitors, a 2003 collection of short stories by Nina Kiriki Hoffman
"The Time-Traveler", a story by Spider Robinson in Callahan's Crosstime Saloon
The Time Traveller, the protagonist of The Time Machine by H. G. Wells
Music
Time Traveller (Keith LeBlanc album) (1992)
Time Traveller (The Moody Blues album) (1994)
Time Traveller, a 2011 album by Chris Norman
Time Travellers, a 1992 album by O Terço
Time Traveler, a 2006 album by Rahul Sharma
Time Traveller, a 1980 album by Billy Thorpe
"Time Traveler", a 1997 song by Angelo from Planet Gemini
Video games
Time Travelers (video game), a 2012 video game developed by Level-5
Time Traveler (1980 video game), an adventure game
Time Traveler (video game), a 1991 arcade game
Other uses
Time Traveler (roller coaster), a roller coaster at Silver Dollar City
Time Traveler, a 1999 trick puzzle by Stave Puzzles
See also
Chrononaut (disambiguation)
Time Machine (disambiguation)
Time travel (disambiguation) | wiki |
A chaplain is, traditionally, a cleric (such as a minister, priest, pastor, rabbi, purohit, or imam), or a lay representative of a religious tradition, attached to a secular institution (such as a hospital, prison, military unit, intelligence agency, embassy, school, labor union, business, police department, fire department, university, sports club), or a private chapel.
Though originally the word chaplain referred to representatives of the Christian faith, it is now also applied to people of other religions or philosophical traditions, as in the case of chaplains serving with military forces and an increasing number of chaplaincies at U.S. universities. In recent times, many lay people have received professional training in chaplaincy and are now appointed as chaplains in schools, hospitals, companies, universities, prisons and elsewhere to work alongside, or instead of, official members of the clergy. The concepts of a multi-faith team, secular, generic or humanist chaplaincy are also gaining increasing use, particularly within healthcare and educational settings.
Types of chaplaincies
Education
School chaplains are a fixture in religious and, more recently, secular schools. In religious schools the role of the chaplain tends to be educational and liturgical. In secular schools the role of the chaplain tends to be that of a mentor and a provider of pastoral care services. Chaplains provide care for students by supporting them during times of crisis or need. Many chaplains run programs to promote the welfare of students, staff and parents including programs to help students deal with grief, anger or depression. Chaplains also build relationships with students by participating in extracurricular activities such as breakfast programs, lunchtime groups and sports groups. School chaplains can also liaise with external organizations providing support services for the school. Many schools now have pupil support departments with several mentors whose jobs are to look out for the pupils and always be there to help but they give no religious or spiritual guidance because of multiculturalism and diverse opinions on religion and beliefs. Chaplains have also been referred to as spiritual animators (also faith animators or pastoral animators) based on the French concept of animation spirituelle or spiritual care.
In Australia chaplains in state schools have, controversially, been funded by the federal government and local communities since 2007. Australian chaplains assist school communities to support the spiritual, social, and emotional well-being of their students. Chaplaincy services are provided by non denominational companies. there are 2339 chaplains working in Australian secular schools, along with 512 student welfare workers. Australian schools will lose the option of appointing secular social workers under the national school chaplaincy program, for which the Abbott government has found an extra $245m in the 2014 budget funding.
Similarly, in Scotland the focus of school chaplaincy is on welfare and building positive relationships joining students on excursions and sharing meals. Chaplains are also non-denominational and act as a link between the school community and society. Like Australian chaplains it is expected that they will not proselytise.
In Ireland chaplaincy takes a very different approach in which chaplains are expected to teach up to four hours of class instruction per week and are usually Catholic themselves. Chaplaincy duties include visiting homes, religious services, retreats and celebrations, as well as counseling.
Higher education
For higher education, chaplains are appointed by many colleges and universities, sometimes working directly for the institution, and sometimes as representatives of separate organizations that specifically work to support students, such as Hillel International for Jews or the Newman Centers for Catholics. In the United States, the National Association of College and University Chaplains works to support the efforts of many of these chaplains, helping chaplains minister to the individual faith of students, faculty, and staff, while promoting inter-religious understanding. Chaplains often also oversee programs on campus that foster spiritual, ethical, religious, and political and cultural exchange, and the promotion of service.
Industrial chaplains
Law and police
Law enforcement or police chaplains work with and as part of local, regional, county, state, and national or federal law enforcement and provide a variety of services within the law enforcement community. They should not be confused with prison chaplains, whose primary ministry is to those who are incarcerated either awaiting trial or after conviction. The role of the law enforcement chaplain deals primarily with law enforcement personnel and agencies. The chaplain responds to these unique needs and challenges with religious guidance, reassuring and trustworthy presence, resources and counseling services. The law enforcement chaplain offers support to law enforcement officers, administrators, support staff, victims and their families, and occasionally even the families of accused or convicted offenders. Law enforcement chaplaincy is a ministry of presence and must have the proper training if they are working with law enforcement officers. Some ministries such as Chaplain Fellowship Ministries requires LEO chaplains to be certified in Public Safety Chaplaincy before becoming certified as a LEO chaplain. Most chaplains are uniformed and some may have a rank. They will always wear distinguishing insignia or markings to denote their chaplain rather than lawman status.
Fire departments
Chaplains working with fire departments provide the same kind of support as do chaplains working with law enforcement agencies, and sometimes face even greater danger working with the wounded in often very dangerous surroundings.
At the scene of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City, for example, New York City Fire Department chaplain Mychal Judge was killed by flying debris from the South Tower when he re-entered the lobby of the North Tower of the World Trade Center, shortly after administering last rites to a wounded firefighter.
Labor
Many workplace chaplains (commonly called industrial chaplains) are sponsored by labor unions, including in some cases chaplains for police and firefighters. The United Auto Workers Union (UAW) sponsors a chaplaincy program for all of its local unions. In New York City, the Electricians Union (IBEW Local 3) has affiliated Catholic, Episcopalian, Greek Orthodox and Masonic organizations with chaplains.
Union chaplains are often viewed as advantageous as they are accountable to the employees and not corporate management.
Corporate
Some businesses, large or small, employ chaplains for their staff or clientele. Services provided may include employee assistance and counseling services; wellness seminars; conflict management and mediation; leadership and management development; and trauma/serious incident response. In 2007, 4,000 corporate chaplains were reported to be working in the U.S., with the majority being employees of specialist chaplaincy companies such as Marketplace Chaplains USA and Corporate Chaplains of America. In 2014, Marketplace Chaplains USA reported employing over 2,800 chaplains in 44 states and over 960 cities. The organization added an international arm in 2006; Marketplace Chaplains International serves Canada, the U.K., Mexico and Puerto Rico. Capellania Empresarial provides corporate chaplaincy services in Paraguay. Chaplains without Borders has been providing corporate and other chaplaincy services in Australia since 2005.
Military
Military chaplains provide pastoral, spiritual and emotional support for service personnel, including the conduct of religious services at sea, on bases or in the field. Military chaplains have a long history; the first English military-oriented chaplains, for instance, were priests on board proto-naval vessels during the 8th century. Land-based chaplains appeared during the reign of King Edward I. The current form of military chaplain dates from the era of the First World War.
Chaplains are nominated, appointed, or commissioned in different ways in different countries. A military chaplain can be an army-trained soldier with additional theological training or an ordained person nominated to the army by religious authorities. In the United Kingdom the Ministry of Defence employs chaplains but their authority comes from their sending church. Royal Navy chaplains undertake a 16-week bespoke induction and training course including a short course at Britannia Royal Naval College and specialist fleet time at sea alongside a more experienced chaplain. Naval chaplains called to service with the Royal Marines undertake a grueling five-month-long Commando Course and, if successful, wear the commandos' Green Beret. British Army chaplains undertake seven weeks training at the Armed Forces Chaplaincy Centre Amport House and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. Royal Air Force chaplains must complete a 12-week Specialist Entrant course at the RAF College Cranwell followed by the Chaplains' Induction Course at the Armed Forces Chaplaincy Centre Amport House of a further two weeks. The United States Navy will often give chaplain training to cadets seeking a theological route in the military. Additionally, they are granted instant employment as a Navy chaplain once ordained. Additionally, in the United States military, chaplains must be endorsed by their religious affiliation in order to serve in any facet of the military. In some cases, like that of the U.S. Navy, a Religious Program Specialist may be appointed to help alleviate some of the duties bestowed upon Naval chaplains.
Military chaplains are normally accorded officer status, although Sierra Leone had a Naval Lance Corporal chaplain in 2001. In most navies, their badges and insignia do not differentiate their levels of responsibility and status. By contrast, in air forces and armies, they typically carry ranks and are differentiated by crosses or other equivalent religious insignia. However, United States military chaplains in every branch carry both rank and Chaplain Corps insignia.
Though the Geneva Conventions does not state whether chaplains may bear arms, they specify (Protocol I, June 8, 1977, Art 43.2) that chaplains are non-combatants. In recent times both the UK and US have required chaplains, but not medical personnel, to be unarmed. Other nations, notably Norway, Denmark and Sweden, make it an issue of individual conscience. Captured chaplains are not considered Prisoners of War (Third Convention, August 12, 1949, Chapter IV Art 33) and must be returned to their home nation unless retained to minister to prisoners of war.
Inevitably, a significant number of serving chaplains have died in action. 100 chaplains of the U.S. Army and the U.S. Marine Corps were killed in action during World War II: a casualty rate greater "than any other branch of the services except the infantry and the Army Air Corps" (Crosby, 1994, pxxiii). Many have been decorated for bravery in action (five have won Britain's highest award for gallantry, the Victoria Cross). The Chaplain's Medal for Heroism is a special U.S. military decoration given to military chaplains who have been killed in the line of duty, although it has to date only been awarded to the famous Four Chaplains, all of whom died in the sinking in 1943 after giving up their lifejackets to others. In addition to these, five other U.S. chaplains have been awarded the Medal of Honor: Chaplain (LCDR) Joseph T. O'Callahan, USN (World War II); Chaplain (CPT) Emil Kapaun, USA (Posthumous, Korean War); Chaplain (LT) Vincent Capodanno, USN (Posthumous, Vietnam War); Chaplain (MAJ) Charles J. Watters, USA (Posthumous, Vietnam War); and Chaplain (CPT) Angelo J. Liteky, USA (Vietnam). (Later in life, Liteky changed his name to Charles, left the Catholic priesthood, became an anti-war activist, and renounced his Medal of Honor). Chaplain Fellowship Ministries military chaplains are nondenominational. To be considered for appointment to serve as a military chaplain, candidates must first be ordained and have an ecclesiastical endorsement by a valid religious faith group recognized by the Department of Defense. Candidates must meet all DOD requirements. The Chaplain Fellowship had military chaplains serving in Iraq and now in Afghanistan.
In 2006, training materials obtained by U.S. intelligence showed that insurgent snipers fighting in Iraq were urged to single out and attack engineers, medics, and chaplains on the theory that those casualties would demoralize entire enemy units. The United States European Command has co-sponsored an annual International Military Chiefs of Chaplains Conference every year since 1991 to consider the various issues affecting chaplaincy ministry and other military personnel. At times, the existence of military chaplains has been challenged in countries that have a separation of Church and State. However one of the major issues affecting chaplaincy and military personnel is that of moral injury arising as a result of international conflicts and terrorism.
Music
Some chaplains use live music as a therapeutic tool. Music can aid in healing, access core faith and emotions, and help to build rapport in the chaplaincy relationship.
Parliamentary
Some nations, including the United States and the United Kingdom, have chaplains appointed to work with parliamentary bodies, such as the Chaplain of the United States Senate, the Chaplain of the United States House of Representatives, and Chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons. In addition to opening proceedings with prayer, these chaplains provide pastoral counseling to congressional members, their staffs, and their families; coordinate the scheduling of guest chaplains, who offer opening prayers; arrange and sometimes conduct marriages, memorial services, and funeral services for congress, staff, and their families; and conduct or coordinate religious services, study groups, prayer meetings, holiday programs, and religious education programs, as well.
Royalty and nobility
Monarchs have held private religious services as a long-standing right along with a privilege of appointing their own chaplains to serve them and their families.
Since the late medieval period, Dukes and lesser ranking nobles have had a capacity to name a number of Chaplains. The question of who has authority to qualify chaplains was the heart of the Investiture Controversy in medieval Germany.
Prison
Prison chaplains can be a "safety valve, through listening and pro-social intervention" in potentially explosive situations. They also reduce recidivism by linking offenders to positive community resources, and in the work they do to help offenders change their hearts, minds and directions.
Rabbi Philip R. Alstat (1891–1976), who—in addition to work as a chaplain in New York hospitals and senior citizen facilities—served for three decades as the Jewish chaplain for "The Tombs", the Manhattan Detention Facility, once described his service as follows: "My goals are the same as those of the prison authorities—to make better human beings. The only difference is that their means are discipline, security, and iron bars.
Mine are the spiritual ministrations that operate with the mind and the heart."
In Canada in 2013, a $2-million contract for chaplaincy services for federal prisons was awarded to Kairos Pneuma Chaplaincy Inc., a company newly formed by five current and former federal prison chaplains. About "2,500 volunteers, many of them of minority faiths, would also continue providing services." There has however, been very little research looking at the role of chaplains and volunteers working within correctional facilities.
Sports
Chaplains to sports communities have existed since the middle of the 20th century and have significantly grown in the past 20 years. The United States, United Kingdom and Australia have well established Christian sports chaplaincy ministries.
Sports chaplains consist of people from many different walks of life. Most commonly, the chaplains are ministers or full-time Christian workers but occasionally, chaplaincy work is done without charge or any financial remuneration. Often, sports chaplains to a particular sport are former participants of that sport. This helps the chaplain to not only provide spiritual support and guidance to a player, but also to give them the ability to empathize and relate to some of the challenges facing the participant with whom they are ministering.
Animal
Veterinary chaplains serve people and their animals, ministering with regards to the spirituality associated with animals and their connections with humans. A major function is grief support and prayer. Other services include hospice support while animals are cared for near the end of their lives; support in animal health crises, including at the veterinary hospital; conducting services for animal blessings, naming/adopting ceremonies, and end of life celebration ceremonies. Veterinary chaplains may also offer sermons and spiritual guidance on the human/animal bond and our responsibilities toward animals; and some may visit nursing homes and hospitals with therapeutic animal assistants. Other veterinary chaplains may provide blessings for animal care workers; assist with human/animal communication; and offer alternative healing for animals such as animal Reiki or acupuncture.
The Emerson Theological Institute, headquartered in Oakhurst, California, and working within the New Thought spiritual approach, offers degree programs up to the doctorate level in Humane Religious Studies, the cornerstone of which is a veterinary chaplain program. The Animal Ministry Institute (AMI), run by the Rev. Paula T. Webb, also offers an online chaplain program for continuing education but without college credit. A less formal online certificate program is offered by the Rev. Karen j Kobrin Cohen, a veterinary chaplain based in Florida.
Colonial
A colonial chaplain was appointed to a colony. The term is commonly used to refer to the chaplain appointed as a non-military chaplain to one of the Crown Colonies from the late 18th century or early 19th century. Richard Johnson (1756–1827) was the first colonial chaplain appointed to the new prison colony at New South Wales in 1786.
Environmental
Environmental chaplaincy is an emerging field within chaplaincy. Environmental chaplains (also known as eco-chaplains, Earth chaplains, nature chaplains) provide spiritual care in a way that honors humanity's deep connection to the earth. Environmental chaplains hold many roles. They may support people working on the frontlines of issues like climate change or other environmental issues or they may support people impacted by industrial or other disasters by providing pastoral care, presence, and rituals. Environmental chaplains may also bear witness to the Earth itself and represent the merging of science and spirituality. Their role can be to "usher in a new conscience and consciousness to find contentment, the appreciation of inner riches over outer wealth, quality over quantity" using universally appreciated values, such as honesty and vision. Sarah Vekasi created a vision of eco-chaplaincy inspired by Joanna Macy's The Work that Reconnects, and saw eco-chaplaincy as a path to facilitating the "Great Turning," which is described as the turning away from a business-as-usual way of being and turning toward a life-sustaining way that protects people and the planet
Health care
Many hospitals, nursing homes, assisted living facilities, and hospices employ chaplains to assist with the spiritual, religious, and emotional needs of patients, families and staff. Chaplains are often employed at residential care facilities for the elderly (RCFE) and skilled nursing facilities (SNF) as well. Chaplains care for people of all faiths and no faith. In mental health work, chaplains are highly skilled, working with other therapists as part of a multi-disciplinary team, especially where the patient's mental health is associated with their religiosity, or where their mental well-being can be aided by spiritual care.
In the United States, health care chaplains who are board-certified have completed a minimum of four units of Clinical Pastoral Education training through The Association for Clinical Pastoral Education, Healthcare Chaplains Ministry Association, The Institute for Clinical Pastoral Training; or The College of Pastoral Supervision and Psychotherapy and may be certified by one of the following organizations: The Spiritual Care Association, The Association of Professional Chaplains, The National Association of Catholic Chaplains, Neshama: Association of Jewish Chaplains (formerly The National Association of Jewish Chaplains), The Association of Certified Christian Chaplains, or The College of Pastoral Supervision and Psychotherapy. Certification typically requires a Masters of Divinity degree (or its equivalent), faith group ordination or commissioning, faith group endorsement, and four units (1600 hours) of Clinical Pastoral Education (the Military Chaplains Association of the United States of America does require more, but they are a dod2088 501c-3 military support group founded in 1954 by Military Chaplains). The Chaplain Innovation Lab, set up in 2008, has responded rapidly and creatively to the unique pastoral demands of the COVID-19 pandemic; it has 3000 members world-wide.
In Canada, health care chaplains may be certified by the Canadian Association for Spiritual Care.
In the UK, health care chaplains are employed by their local NHS Trust (Health Boards in Scotland and Wales) or by charities associated with delivering health care such as a hospice or private hospital. The NHS in England publishes occasional guidance on chaplaincy practice. UK Chaplains are drawn from a range of faith and belief backgrounds, and are not necessarily ordained or a recognised faith leader. In Scotland Healthcare Chaplaincy developed to be 'generic' from 2002 onwards; that is the chaplaincy provides spiritual care to all people and chaplains do not represent a faith or belief group. They may work on a full-time and part-time basis, and some work unpaid but with formal recognition for a faith or belief group regarding their training and status and may be termed honorary chaplain. The term Voluntary Chaplain is frowned on. The largest professional body for the UK is the College of Health Care Chaplains. Scotland historically had a distinct professional body, the Scottish Association of Chaplains in Healthcare (SACH) but this has since dissolved. Northern Ireland also has the Healthcare Chaplains Association. Membership of the College of Health Care Chaplains was historically not open to Catholic Priests as it carries with it the membership of the Unite Trade Union, but this changed in April 2018. Chaplains working in a palliative care setting may also choose to join the Association of Hospice and Palliative Care Chaplains. Other less formal networks also exist supporting Chaplaincy in Paediatric settings and GP based Chaplaincy.
Within the UK there is also the UK Board of Healthcare Chaplaincy (UKBHC) which has been set up in order to regulate the ministry and professional practice of health care chaplains. They publish a code of conduct which all registered chaplains are bound to abide by. The UKBHC has successfully applied to the Professional Standards Authority to be an accredited register of healthcare chaplains demonstrating that it meets the Authority's high standards in areas such as governance and training.
Peer-reviewed journals that publish scholarly articles and research on healthcare chaplaincy include the Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy (USA), the international journal Health and Social Care Chaplaincy (UK) and the Journal of Religion and Health (US).
Cruise
Working on board cruise ships, cruise chaplains provide pastoral and spiritual support to both passengers and crew members. With the co-operation of cruise companies, chaplains normally stay on board for the specific duration of a cruise. Catholic seafarers' charity Apostleship of the Sea currently deploys chaplains on board P&O Cruises and Cunard Line ships during the Christmas and Easter periods. While ministering to passengers are part of Apostleship of the Sea's chaplains role, their main focus is the welfare of the crew, who can often spend many months at sea away from home.
Domestic
A domestic chaplain was a chaplain attached to a noble household in order to grant the family a degree of self-sufficiency in religion. The chaplain was freed from any obligation to reside in a particular place so could travel with the family, internationally if necessary, and minister to their spiritual needs. Further, the family could appoint a chaplain who reflected their own doctrinal views. Domestic chaplains performed family christenings, funerals and weddings and were able to conduct services in the family's private chapel, excusing the nobility from attending public worship.
In feudal times most laymen, and for centuries even most noblemen, were poorly educated and the chaplain would also be an important source of scholarship in the household, tutoring children and providing counsel to the family on matters broader than religion. Before the advent of the legal profession, modern bureaucracy and civil service, the literate clergy were often employed as secretarial staff, as in a chancery. Hence the term clerk, derived from Latin clericus (clergyman). This made them very influential in temporal affairs. There was also a moral impact since they heard the confessions of the elite.
The domestic chaplain was an important part of the life of the peerage in England from the reign of Henry VIII to the middle of the 19th century. Up until 1840, Anglican domestic chaplains were regulated by law and enjoyed the substantial financial advantage of being able to purchase a license to hold two benefices simultaneously while residing in neither.
Many monarchies and major noble houses had, or still have, several domestic or private chaplains as part of their Ecclesiastical Household, either following them or attached to a castle or other residence. Queen Elizabeth II had 36 Anglican chaplains, in addition to chaplains extraordinary and honorary chaplains appointed to minister to her. Castles with attached chaplains generally had at least one Chapel Royal, sometimes as significant as a cathedral. A modern example is St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, also the home of the Order of the Garter.
Other
There are also chaplains to private clubs, television or radio stations, family, community teams, groups such as Boys' and Girls' Brigade companies and Scout troops, airports, cruise ships, nightclubs, and theaters.
The term can also refer to priests attached to Catholic convents. There is also the position of Chaplain of His Holiness, a title granted by the Pope to certain priests who become part of the Papal Household and work with the Papal Chapel. Prior to 1968 they were called Supernumerary Privy Chamberlains.
In German-speaking countries, the German "Kaplan" is often translated as "chaplain", but in fact the two words are false friends. "Kaplan" as generally used in German-speaking countries is better translated as curate in British usage, or assistant pastor in American usage.
In the Church of England and other Anglican churches, a Bishop's "examining chaplain(s)" are those (usually priests) who examine candidates for ordination and advise the bishop as to their suitability. This role, and ordination processes, have varied greatly in the churches' history and between the churches.
At the University of Oxford, the term Caplan is used for the position equivalent to president, for the head of the Cymdeithas Dafydd ap Gwilym, (Dafydd ap Gwilym Society) the Oxford University Welsh society, named after the 14th-century Welsh poet, Dafydd ap Gwilym.
See also
Religion in United States prisons
United States military chaplain symbols
References
Further reading
Paul Alexander (2008). Cascadia Publishing House: PEACE TO WAR: Shifting Allegiances in the Assemblies of God Peace to War: Shifting Allegiances in the Assemblies of God]. Telford, PA: Cascadia Publishing/Herald Press. This book contains a scholarly analysis of the impact of Pentecostal military chaplaincy during the 20th century.
Baker, Alan T. (2021). Foundations of Chaplaincy: A Practical Guide. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. .
Bergen, Doris. L., (ed), 2004. The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century. University of Notre Dame Press
Nay, Robert. "The Operational, Social, Religious Influences Upon The Army Chaplain Field Manual, 1926–1952" .
Norman, James (2004). At the Heart of Education: School Chaplaincy and Pastoral Care. Dublin: Veritas Publications. .
Paget, Naomi & McCormack, Janet (2006). The Work of the Chaplain. Valley Forge: Judson Press. .
Smith, John C. Chaplain. International Chaplains Association.
VandeCreek, Larry & Lucas, Art (2001). The Discipline for Pastoral Care Giving: Foundations for Outcome Oriented Chaplaincy. Binghamton: The Haworth Press. .
External links
"chaplain", Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary
"chaplain", Chaplaincy certification and Training
Unit Chaplain on the WW2 Movie Fury
Ecclesiastical titles
Religious occupations | wiki |
Gus Goes to Cybertown is a children's educational CD-ROM game released in 1993 by Modern Media Ventures. The main character is Gus, a talking and singing dog, who must find the three CyberBuds hiding in each of the town's five locations. Games are also hidden in each location, from spelling and number games to shape recognition and pattern matching games. Cybertown's park includes a timeline that shows Gus through time, from a Neanderthal to a futuristic spaceman. As the time changes, players can click on other items in the park to see them change as well. CyberBuds are revealed by interacting with various parts of each area. These characters will also provide tidbits of educational information. Upon completion of all in-game tasks, the player is treated to a final song on a "secret screen."
Sequels
Gus Goes to Cyberopolis (1994)
Gus Goes to the Kooky Carnival (1995)
Gus Goes to CyberStone Park (1996)
Gus Goes to the Megarific Museum (1996)
Gus and the CyberBuds Software SchoolHouse Collection (A collection of twenty-seven educational CD-ROMs for children released in 1996.)
References
External links
News article about the announce of the CD-ROM collection
1993 video games
Children's educational video games
Classic Mac OS games
Video games about dogs
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games | wiki |
A satellite modem or satmodem is a modem used to establish data transfers using a communications satellite as a relay. A satellite modem's main function is to transform an input bitstream to a radio signal and vice versa.
There are some devices that include only a demodulator (and no modulator, thus only allowing data to be downloaded by satellite) that are also referred to as "satellite modems." These devices are used in satellite Internet access (in this case uploaded data is transferred through a conventional PSTN modem or an ADSL modem).
Satellite link
A satellite modem is not the only device needed to establish a communication channel. Other equipment that is essential for creating a satellite link include satellite antennas and frequency converters.
Data to be transmitted are transferred to a modem from data terminal equipment (e.g. a computer). The modem usually has intermediate frequency (IF) output (that is, 50-200 MHz), however, sometimes the signal is modulated directly to L band. In most cases, frequency has to be converted using an upconverter before amplification and transmission.
A modulated signal is a sequence of symbols, pieces of data represented by a corresponding signal state, e.g. a bit or a few bits, depending upon the modulation scheme being used. Recovering a symbol clock (making a local symbol clock generator synchronous with the remote one) is one of the most important tasks of a demodulator.
Similarly, a signal received from a satellite is firstly downconverted (this is done by a Low-noise block converter - LNB), then demodulated by a modem, and at last handled by data terminal equipment. The LNB is usually powered by the modem through the signal cable with 13 or 18 V DC.
Features
The main functions of a satellite modem are modulation and demodulation. Satellite communication standards also define error correction codes and framing formats.
Popular modulation types being used for satellite communications:
Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK);
Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK);
Offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK);
8PSK;
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), especially 16QAM.
The popular satellite error correction codes include:
Convolutional codes:
with constraint length less than 10, usually decoded using a Viterbi algorithm (see Viterbi decoder);
with constraint length more than 10, usually decoded using a Fano algorithm (see Sequential decoder);
Reed–Solomon codes usually concatenated with convolutional codes with an interleaving;
New modems support superior error correction codes (turbo codes and LDPC codes).
Frame formats that are supported by various satellite modems include:
Intelsat business service (IBS) framing
Intermediate data rate (IDR) framing
MPEG-2 transport framing (used in DVB)
E1 and T1 framing
High-end modems also incorporate some additional features:
Multiple data interfaces (like RS-232, RS-422, V.35, G.703, LVDS, Ethernet);
Embedded Distant-end Monitor and Control (EDMAC), allowing to control the distant-end modem;
Automatic Uplink Power Control (AUPC), that is, adjusting the output power to maintain a constant signal to noise ratio at the remote end;
Drop and insert feature for a multiplexed stream, allowing to replace some channels in it.
Internal structure
Probably the best way of understanding how a modem works is to look at its internal structure. A block diagram of a generic satellite modem is shown on the image.
Analog tract
After a digital-to-analog conversion in the transmitter, the signal passes through a reconstruction filter. Then, if needed, frequency conversion is performed.
The purpose of the analog tract in the receiver is to convert signal's frequency, to adjust its power via an automatic gain control circuit and to get its complex envelope components.
The input signal for the analog tract is at the intermediate frequency, sometimes, in the L band, in which case it must be converted to an IF. Then the signal is either sampled or processed by the four-quadrant multiplier which produces the complex envelope components (I, Q) through multiplying it by the heterodyne frequency (see superheterodyne receiver).
At last the signal passes through an anti-aliasing filter and is sampled or (digitized).
Modulator and demodulator
A digital modulator transforms a digital stream into a radio signal at the intermediate frequency (IF). A modulator is generally simpler than a demodulator because it doesn't have to recover symbol and carrier frequencies.
A demodulator is one of the most important parts of the receiver. The exact structure of the demodulator is defined by a modulation type. However, the fundamental concepts are similar. Moreover, it is possible to develop a demodulator that can process signals with different modulation types.
Digital demodulation implies that a symbol clock (and, in most cases, an intermediate frequency generator) at the receiving side has to be synchronous with those at the transmitting side. This is achieved by the following two circuits:
timing recovery circuit, determining the borders of symbols;
carrier recovery circuit, which determines the actual meaning of each symbol. There are modulation types (like frequency-shift keying) that can be demodulated without carrier recovery, however, this method, known as noncoherent demodulation, is generally worse.
There are also additional components in the demodulator such as the intersymbol interference equalizer.
If the analog signal was digitized without a four-quadrant multiplier, the complex envelope has to be calculated by a digital complex mixer.
Sometimes a digital automatic gain control circuit is implemented in the demodulator.
FEC coding
Error correction techniques are essential for satellite communications, because, due to satellite's limited power a signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver is usually rather poor. Error correction works by adding an artificial redundancy to a data stream at the transmitting side and using this redundancy to correct errors caused by noise and interference. This is performed by an FEC encoder. The encoder applies an error correction code to the digital stream, thereby adding redundancy.
An FEC decoder decodes the Forward error correction code used within the signal. For example, the Digital Video Broadcasting standard defines a concatenated code consisting of inner convolutional (standard NASA code, punctured, with rates , , , , ), interleaving and outer Reed–Solomon code (block length: 204 bytes, information block: 188 bytes, can correct up to 8 bytes in the block).
Differential coding
There are several modulation types (such as PSK and QAM) that have a phase ambiguity, that is, a carrier can be restored in different ways. Differential coding is used to resolve this ambiguity.
When differential coding is used, the data are deliberately made to depend not only on the current symbol, but also on the previous one.
Scrambling
Scrambling is a technique used to randomize a data stream to eliminate long '0'-only and '1'-only sequences and to assure energy dispersal. Long '0'-only and '1'-only sequences create difficulties for timing recovery circuit. Scramblers and descramblers are usually based on linear-feedback shift registers.
A scrambler randomizes the transmitted data stream. A descrambler restores the original stream from the scrambled one.
Scrambling shouldn't be confused with encryption, since it doesn't protect information from intruders.
Multiplexing
A multiplexer transforms several digital streams into one stream. This is often referred to as 'muxing.'
Generally, a demultiplexer is a device that transforms one multiplexed data stream into several. Satellite modems don't have many outputs, so a demultiplexer here performs a drop operation, allowing to the modem to choose channels that will be transferred to the output.
A demultiplexer achieves this goal by maintaining frame synchronization.
Applications
Satellite modems are often used for home internet access.
There are two different types, both employing the Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) standard as their basis:
One-way satmodems (DVB-IP modems) use a return channel not based on communication with the satellite, such as telephone or cable.
Two-way satmodems (DVB-RCS modems, also called astromodems) employ a satellite-based return channel as well; they do not need another connection. DVB-RCS is ETSI standard EN 301 790.
There are also industrial satellite modems intended to provide a permanent link. They are used, for example, in the Steel shankar network.
See also
Communications satellite
Yahsat
Intelsat
Satellite Internet access
VSAT
External links
Satellite broadcasting
Modems
Telecommunications equipment
Telecommunications infrastructure | wiki |
"Harch" is the command issued by the Drum Major of a marching band, or by a Sergeant in charge of assembled troops, to move forwards upon the left foot. The command most commonly issued is "For'd, Harch" meaning for the entire group to move forwards as one body. "For'd" is the attention-getting and directive part of the command; "Harch" is the executive part of the command.
The term "harch", rather than "march" is used, as the latter term may easily be scattered by noise. For similar reasons, the contraction "for'd" is (preferably) used rather than "forward." Also, the term march may be confused with a number of other commands that include this word, e.g., "To the Right Flank, Harch."
Marching bands | wiki |
A special marine warning (SAME code SMW) is a warning issued by the U.S. National Weather Service for potentially hazardous marine weather conditions usually of short duration (up to 2 hours) producing sustained marine thunderstorm winds or associated gusts of 34 knots or greater; or hail 3/4 inch or more in diameter; or waterspouts affecting areas included in a coastal waters forecast, a nearshore marine forecast, or a Great Lakes open lakes forecast that is not adequately covered by existing marine warnings. It is also used for short duration mesoscale events such as a strong cold front, gravity wave, squall line, etc., lasting less than 2 hours and producing winds or gusts of 34 knots or greater.
References
Weather warnings and advisories | wiki |
The word chromatophore may refer to:
Chromatophore, a kind of pigmented cell or organ found in some animals.
Chromatophore (bacteria), a vesicle associated with the cell membrane used to photosynthesize.
Chloroplast, also called a chromatophore in some organisms
"Chromatophore", a song by BT from _ (album) | wiki |
As part of the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (signed Feb 17, 2009), the United States Government has allocated Small Business Administration (SBA) backed funds for viable small businesses in the United States. Businesses must have qualifying business loans and must be experiencing immediate financial hardship. Qualifying recipients of the America’s Recovery Capital (ARC) Loan Program may receive up to $35,000 in short-term relief. Each small business is limited to one ARC loan.
ARC loans can be used to make payments of principal and interest, in full or in part, on one or more existing, qualifying small business loans for up to six months. ARC loans are intended to provide immediate capital to small businesses to make payments (principal and interest) on existing debt and thus allow business owners to sustain and retain jobs.
ARC loans are interest-free to the borrower and carry a 100% guarantee from the SBA. Loan proceeds are provided over a six-month period. Repayment of the ARC loan principal is deferred for 12 months after the last disbursement (18 months from the first disbursement), followed by a repayment period of five years.
Good candidates for ARC loans are small businesses that can show a profitable past but are currently struggling to make loan payments or are just beginning to miss loan payments due to financial hardship.
ARC loans are made by participating commercial SBA lenders. The SBA will pay these banks a monthly interest rate throughout the term of the loan. ARC loans will be offered by some SBA lenders for as long as funding is available or until September 30, 2010, whichever comes first.
Eligibility
In order to be eligible, a small business must be established, have financial statements to demonstrate it was profitable in one of the past two years, and be able to project sufficient cash flow to meet current and future loan payments over a two-year period from loan approval. ARC loans are not designed for start-up businesses.
Examples of qualifying loans may include business credit card obligations, capital leases, notes payable to vendors or suppliers, Development Company Loan Program (504) first-lien loans, other loans to small businesses made without an SBA guaranty, and loans made by or with an SBA guaranty on or after Feb. 17, 2009.
Borrowers with loans that are already severely delinquent or whose past performance or future cash flow projection indicates that the business is not viable will not be a good candidate for an ARC loan.
Application
ARC Loans are provided by participating commercial lenders and guaranteed by the SBA. Your next step is to contact your lender to determine whether or not they are participating. If they are, they may ask questions such as:
Has your small business been in operation for a minimum of two years?
Do you have financial statements (balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement) that indicate your business was in a positive cash
flow position in one of the past two years (or as long as your business has been operating, if less than two years)?
Do your cash flow projections for the next two years indicate sufficient funds to meet both current and future loan obligations?
Is your business suffering an immediate financial hardship? (Declining sales and revenues; Difficulty in making loan payments on existing debt; Difficulty in paying employees; Difficulty in purchasing materials, supplies, or inventory; and/or Difficulty in paying rent and/or other operating expenses).
External links
SBA.gov page on ARC loan program
Small Business Administration | wiki |
Tongue diseases can be congenital or acquired, and are multiple in number. Considered according to a surgical sieve, some example conditions which can involve the tongue are discussed below. Glossitis is a general term for tongue inflammation, which can have various etiologies, e.g. infection.
Congenital
Examples of congenital disorders which affect the tongue include:
Aglossia - complete absence of the tongue at birth
Ankyloglossia (tongue tie) - where the lingual frenum tethers the tongue to the floor of the mouth. If it interferes with oral hygiene and feeding, frenectomy may be indicated.
Hypoglossia - congenitally short tongue
Microglossia
Macroglossia - an abnormally large tongue, seen in some disorders such as Down syndrome (although macroglossia can be an acquired condition as well).
Hamartomata - for example Leiomyomatous hamartoma
Glossoptosis
Choristomata - For example, osseous choristoma of the tongue, a very rare condition characterized by a nodule on the dorsum of the tongue containing mature lamellar bone without osteoblastic or osteoclastic activity. Cartilaginous (chondroid), and glial choristomas may also very rarely occur on the tongue.
Lingual thyroid
Cleft tongue (bifid tongue) - completely cleft tongue is a rare condition caused by a failure of the lateral lingual swellings to merge. More common is an incompletely cleft tongue, appearing as midline fissure. This is normally classed as fissured tongue.
Acquired
Vascular
Caviar tongue - the veins underneath the tongue can become dilated and prominent, giving the undersurface of the tongue a caviar like appearance.
Hemangioma
Infective
Glossitis - some types of glossitis are caused by infections, e.g. median rhomboid glossitis (Candida species), "strawberry tongue" (seen in scarlet fever), and syphilitic glossitis (seen in tertiary syphilis).
Oral hairy leukoplakia (seen in people with immunosuppression, caused by Epstein–Barr virus)
Oral candidiasis can affect the tongue. Risk factors for oral candidiasis include antibiotic and corticosteroid use, and immunodeficiency (e.g. HIV), or diabetes mellitus).
Traumatic
The tongue may traumatized by mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical means. A common scenario is where the tongue is bitten accidentally whilst a local anesthetic inferior alveolar nerve block is wearing off. The tongue may develop scalloping on the lateral margins, sometimes termed crenated tongue. This appearance is the result of indentations of the teeth where the tongue is habitually pressed against the teeth ("tongue thrusting", and example of oral parafunction). A lesion similar to morsicatio buccarum can occur on the tongue (sometimes called morsicatio linguarum), caused by chronic chewing on the tongue. The ventral surface (under surface) of the tongue may also be traumatized during oral sexual activity such as cunnilingus ("cunnilingus tongue").
Autoimmune
Autoimmune conditions such as Sjögren syndrome can cause xerostomia, with resultant glossitis.
Inflammatory
Glossitis
Oral lichen planus
Neurological
Hypoglossal nerve weakness can cause atrophy and fasciculation of the tongue.
Melkersson–Rosenthal syndrome - a neurological disorder characterized by fissured tongue, facial palsy and orofacial swelling.
Neoplastic
The sides (lateral) and undersurface (ventral) of the tongue are high risk sites for the development of oral cancer, most commonly squamous cell carcinoma.
Degenerative
Motor neuron disease (Lou Gehrig's disease) can cause impaired control of tongue movement, affecting speech and swallowing.
Environmental
Poor diet can cause malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies. Deficiency of iron, B vitamins and folic acid are common causes for atrophic glossitis.
Black hairy tongue - some factors thought to cause black hairy tongue are environmental, such as eating a soft diet, poor oral hygiene, smoking and antibiotic use.
Unknown
Geographic tongue (benign migratory glossitis) - a common disorder which occasionally causes a burning sensation but is usually painless. Irregular patches of depapillation form on the tongue giving the appearance of a map. The cause is unknown.
Leukoplakia - can affect the tongue
Tongue coating - food debris, desquamated epithelial cells and bacteria often form a visible tongue coating. This coating has been identified as a major contributing factor in bad breath (halitosis), which can be managed by brushing the tongue gently with a toothbrush or using special oral hygiene instruments such as tongue scrapers or mouth brushes.
Burning mouth syndrome - this chronic pain disorder commonly involves the tongue. In reflection of this, some of the synonyms for the condition include tongue-specific terms such as "glossodynia" or "burning tongue syndrome". Burning mouth syndrome is characterized by chronic burning sensation on the tongue and other oral mucous membranes in the absences of any identifiable signs or causes.
Iatrogenic
Paratrichosis tongue - Real hair implanted on tongue.
Epidemiology
Tongue lesions are very common. For example, in the United States one estimated point prevalence was 15.5% in adults. Tongue lesions are more common in persons who wear dentures and tobacco users. The most common tongue conditions are geographic tongue, followed by fissured tongue and hairy tongue.
History
Hippocrates, Galen and others considered the tongue to be a "barometer" of health, and emphasized the diagnostic and prognostic importance of the tongue. Assessment of the tongue has historically been an important part of a medical examination. The shape and color of the tongue is examined and observed diagnostically in traditional Chinese medicine. For example, scalloping of the tongue is said to indicate qi vacuity. Some modern medical sources still describe the tongue as "the mirror of physical health". This is related to the high rate of turnover of the oral mucosa compared to the skin, which means that systemic conditions may manifest sooner in the mouth than the skin. Physical appearances such as cyanosis are also often more readily apparent in the mouth.
See also
Tooth pathology
Tongue
Tongue map
Oral and maxillofacial pathology
References
External links | wiki |
.22 Winchester Centerfire (.22 WCF) is a small centerfire cartridge introduced in 1885 for use in the Winchester Model 1885 single-shot rifle. Factory manufacture of ammunition was discontinued in 1936. The .22 WCF was loaded with a 45 grain bullet with a muzzle velocity of about 1550 feet per second, similar to the performance of the .22 Winchester Rimfire (.22 WRF) designed in 1890.
Experimentation with the .22 WCF among civilian wildcatters and the U.S. military at Springfield Armory in the 1920s led to the development of the .22 Hornet cartridge.
Sources
Barnes, Frank C., Cartridges of the World, Northfield, IL: DBI Books, 1972. .
References
Pistol and rifle cartridges
22 Centerfire | wiki |
Wheel of Fate may refer to:
Wheel of Fate (Ferris wheel), at the Enchanted Kingdom theme park in Santa Rosa, Laguna, Philippines
Wheel of Fate (film), a 1953 British drama
Rota Fortunae, a concept in medieval and ancient philosophy referring to the capricious nature of fate | wiki |
Wibele are very small, sweet biscuits originating from the Franconian city of Langenburg in Germany, though nowadays they are considered a Swabian speciality. The dough is made from egg white, icing sugar, flour and vanilla sugar. They are similar to "Russisch Brot" ("Russian bread"), another form of German biscuit, but instead are only baked until they are slightly brown. They are in the shape of a figure 8, and are formally supposed to be 22 millimeters long and 12 millimeters wide.
They were invented by the court cook of the prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, Jakob Christian Carl Wibel. Café Bauer in Langenburg is the only company allowed to produce "Original Wibele", as the owner secured the rights in 1911. However, Wibele biscuits are also produced by other companies.
See also
List of German desserts
References
External links
Café Bauer page (in German)
Biscuits
German desserts
Swabian cuisine | wiki |
A kaliapparat is a laboratory device invented in 1831 by Justus von Liebig (1803–1873) for the analysis of carbon in organic compounds. The device, made of glass, consists of a series of five bulbs connected and arranged in a triangular shape.
To determine the carbon in an organic compound with a kaliapparat, the substance is first burned, converting any carbon present into carbon dioxide (CO2). The gaseous products along with the water vapor produced by combustion are passed through the kaliapparat, which is filled with a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution. The potassium hydroxide reacts with the CO2 to trap it as potassium carbonate. The global reaction, ignoring intermediate steps and the corresponding ionic dissociation, can be written as follows:
2 KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O.
Subtracting the mass of the kaliapparat before the combustion from that measured after the combustion gives the amount of CO2 absorbed. From the mass of CO2 thus determined, standard stoichiometric calculations then give the mass of carbon in the original sample.
A stylized symbol of a kaliapparat is used in the American Chemical Society logo since 1909, originally designed in the early 20th century by Tiffany's Jewelers.
See also
CHN analyzer
Combustion analysis
Dumas method of molecular weight determination
Elemental analysis
Total organic carbon
References
Further reading
See especially pages 36 – 41 and 58 – 66.
External links
– The American Chemical Society's logo contains a kaliapparat.
1831 in Germany
1831 in science
Analytical chemistry
Elemental analysis
German inventions
Justus von Liebig
Laboratory equipment
Organic chemistry | wiki |
A bicycle brake reduces the speed of a bicycle or prevents it from moving. The three main types are: rim brakes, disc brakes, and drum brakes.
Most bicycle brake systems consist of three main components: a mechanism for the rider to apply the brakes, such as brake levers or pedals; a mechanism for transmitting that signal, such as Bowden cables, hydraulic hoses, rods, or the bicycle chain; and the brake mechanism itself, a caliper or drum, to press two or more surfaces together in order to convert, via friction, kinetic energy of the bike and rider into thermal energy to be dissipated.
History
Karl Drais included a pivoting brake shoe that could be pressed against the rear iron tyre of his 1817 . This was continued on the earliest bicycles with pedals, such as the boneshaker, which were fitted with a spoon brake to press onto the rear wheel. The brake was operated by a lever or by a cord connecting to the handlebars. The rider could also slow down by resisting the pedals of the fixed-wheel drive.
The next development of the bicycle, the penny-farthings, were similarly braked with a spoon brake or by back pedalling. During its development from 1870 to 1878, there were various designs for brakes, most of them operating on the rear wheel. However, as the rear wheel became smaller and smaller, with more of the rider's weight over the front wheel, braking on the rear wheel became less effective. The front brake, introduced by John Kean in 1873, had been generally adopted by 1880 because of its greater stopping power.
Some penny-farthing riders used only back pedalling and got off and walked down steep hills, but most also used a brake. Having a brake meant that riders could coast down hill by taking their feet off the pedals and placing the legs over the handlebars, although most riders preferred to dismount and walk down steep hills. Putting the legs under the handlebars with the feet off the pedals placed on foot-rests on the forks had resulted in serious accidents caused by the feet getting caught in the spokes.
An alternative to the spoon brake for penny-farthings was the caliper brake patented by Browett and Harrison in 1887. This early version of caliper braking used a rubber block to contact the outside of the penny-farthing's small rear tyre.
The 1870s and 1880s saw the development of the safety bicycle which roughly resembles bicycles today, with two wheels of equal size, initially with solid rubber tyres. These were typically equipped with a front spoon brake and no rear brake mechanism, but like penny-farthings they used fixed gears, allowing rear wheel braking by resisting the motion of the pedals. The relative fragility of the wooden rims used on most bicycles still precluded the use of rim brakes. In the late 1890s came the introduction of rim brakes and the freewheel.
With the introduction of mass-produced pneumatic tyres by the Dunlop Tyre Company, the use of spoon brakes began to decline, as they tended to quickly wear through the thin casing of the new tyres. This problem led to demands for alternative braking systems. On November 23, 1897, Abram W. Duck of Duck's Cyclery in Oakland, California, was granted a patent for his Duck Roller Brake (U.S. Patent 594,234). The Duck brake used a rod operated by a lever on the handlebar to pull twin rubber rollers against the front tyre, braking the front wheel.
In 1898, after the advent of freewheel coasting mechanisms, the first internal coaster brakes were introduced for the rear wheel. The coaster brake was contained in the rear wheel hub, and was engaged and controlled by backpedaling, thus eliminating the issue of tyre wear. In the United States, the coaster brake was the most commonly fitted brake throughout the first half of the 20th century, often comprising the only braking system on the bicycle.
Brake types
Spoon brakes
The spoon brake or plunger brake was probably the first type of bicycle brake and precedes the pneumatic tyre. Spoon brakes were used on penny farthings with solid rubber tyres in the 1800s and continued to be used after the introduction of the pneumatic-tyred safety bicycle. The spoon brake consists of a pad (often leather) or metal shoe (possibly rubber faced), which is pressed onto the top of the front tyre. These were almost always rod-operated by a right-hand lever. In developing countries, a foot-operated form of the spoon brake sometimes is retrofitted to old rod brake roadsters. It consists of a spring-loaded flap attached to the back of the fork crown. This is depressed against the front tyre by the rider's foot.
Perhaps more so than any other form of bicycle brake, the spoon brake is sensitive to road conditions and increases tyre wear dramatically.
Though made obsolete by the introduction of the Duck brake, coaster brake, and rod brake, spoon brakes continued to be used in the West supplementally on adult bicycles until the 1930s, and on children's bicycles until the 1950s. In the developing world, they were manufactured until much more recently.
Duck brake
Invented in 1897, the Duck brake or Duck roller brake used a rod operated by a lever on the handlebar to pull twin friction rollers (usually made of wood or rubber) against the front tyre. Mounted on axles secured by friction washers and set at an angle to conform to the shape of the tyre, the rollers were forced against their friction washers upon contacting the tyre, thus braking the front wheel. A tension spring held the rollers away from the tyre except when braking. Braking power was enhanced by an extra-long brake lever mounted in parallel with and behind the handlebar, which provided additional leverage when braking (two hands could be used to pull the lever if necessary). Used in combination with a rear coaster brake, a cyclist of the day could stop much more quickly and with better modulation of braking effort than was possible using only a spoon brake or rear coaster brake. Known colloquially as the duck brake, the design was used by many notable riders of the day, and was widely exported to England, Australia, and other countries. In 1902, Louis H. Bill was granted a patent for an improved version of the Duck Roller Brake (Patent 708,114) for use on motorized bicycles (motorcycles).
Rim brakes
Rim brakes are so called because braking force is applied by friction pads to the rim of the rotating wheel, thus slowing it and the bicycle. Brake pads can be made of leather, rubber or cork and are often mounted in metal "shoes". Rim brakes are typically actuated by a lever mounted on the handlebar.
Advantages and disadvantages
Rim brakes are inexpensive, light, mechanically simple, easy to maintain, and powerful. However, they perform relatively poorly when the rims are wet, and will brake unevenly if the rims are even slightly warped. Because rims can carry debris from the ground to the brake pads, rim brakes are more prone to clogging with mud or snow than disc brakes (where braking surfaces are higher from the ground), particularly when riding on unpaved surfaces. The low price and ease of maintenance of rim brakes makes them popular in low- to mid-price commuter bikes, where the disadvantages are alleviated by the unchallenging conditions. The light weight of rim brakes also makes them desirable in road racing bicycles.
Rim brakes require regular maintenance. Brake pads wear down and have to be replaced. As they wear down, their position may need to be adjusted as the material wears away. Because the motion of most brakes is not perfectly horizontal, the pads may lose their centering as they wear, causing the pads to wear unevenly. Over longer time and use, rims can become worn. Rims should be checked for wear periodically as they can fail catastrophically if the braking surface becomes too worn. Wear is accelerated by wet and muddy conditions. Rim brakes require that the rims be straight (not out-of-round or warped). If a rim has a pronounced wobble, then the braking force may be intermittent or uneven, and the pads may rub the rims even when the brake is not applied.
During braking, the friction surfaces (brake pads and rims) will experience thermal heating. In normal use this is not a problem, as the brakes are applied with limited force and for a short time, so the heat quickly dissipates to the surrounding air. However, on a heavily laden bike on a long descent, heat energy may be added more quickly than it can dissipate causing heat build-up, which may damage components and cause brake failure.
A ceramic coating for the rims is available which may reduce wear and can also improve both wet and dry braking. It may also slightly reduce heat transfer to the inside of the rims because it is a thermal insulator.
Brake pads
Brake pads are available with numerous shapes and materials. Many consist of a replaceable rubber pad held on a mounting, or brake shoe, with a post or bolt on the back to attach to the brake. Some are made as one piece with the attachment directly molded in the pad for lower production costs; brake pads of the cartridge type are held in place by a metal split pin or threaded grub screw and can be replaced without moving the brake shoe from its alignment to the rim. The rubber can be softer for more braking force with less lever effort, or harder for longer life. Many pad designs have a rectangular shape; others are longer and curved to match the radius of the rim. Larger pads do not necessarily provide more braking force, but will wear more slowly (in relation to thickness), so can usually be thinner. In general, a brake can be fitted with a variety of pads, as long as the mounting is compatible. Carbon fiber rims may be more sensitive to damage by incorrectly-matched brake pads, and generally must use non-abrasive cork pads.
Ceramic-coated rims should be used with special pads because of heat build-up at the pad-rim interface; standard pads can leave a "glaze" on the ceramic braking surface, reducing its inherent roughness and leading to a severe drop in wet-weather braking performance. Ceramic pads usually contain chromium compounds to resist heat.
For wet-weather use, brake pads containing iron (iii) oxide are sometimes used as these have higher friction on a wet aluminum rim than the usual rubber. These salmon-colored pads were first made by Scott-Mathauser and are now produced by Kool-Stop.
To minimise excessive rim wear, a brake pad should be hard enough that it does not embed road grit or chips of rim metal in the face of the pad, since these act as grinding/gouging agents and markedly reduce rim life.
Types of rim brakes
The following are among the many sub-types of rim brakes:
Rod-actuated brakes
The rod-actuated brake, or simply rod brake (roller lever brake in Raleigh terminology), uses a series of rods and pivots, rather than Bowden cables, to transmit force applied to a hand lever to pull friction pads upwards against the inner surface, which faces the hub, of the wheel rim. They were often called "stirrup brakes" due to their shape. Rod brakes are used with a rim profile known as the Westwood rim, which has a slightly concave area on the braking surface and lacks the flat outer surface required by brakes that apply the pads on opposite sides of the rim.
The rear linkage mechanism is complicated by the need to allow rotation where the fork and handlebars attach to the frame. A common setup was to combine a front rod brake with a rear coaster brake. Although heavy and complex, the linkages are reliable and durable and can be repaired or adjusted with simple hand tools. The design is still in use, typically on African and Asian roadsters such as the Sohrab and Flying Pigeon.
Caliper brakes
The caliper brake is a class of cable-actuated brake in which the brake mounts to a single point above the wheel, theoretically allowing the arms to auto-centre on the rim. Arms extend around the tyre and end in brake shoes that press against the rim. While some designs incorporate dual pivot points — the arms pivot on a sub-frame — the entire assembly still mounts to a single point.
Caliper brakes tend to become less effective as tyres get wider, and so deeper, reducing the brakes' mechanical advantage. Thus caliper brakes are rarely found on modern mountain bikes. But they are almost ubiquitous on road bikes, particularly the dual-pivot side-pull caliper brake.
Side-pull caliper brakes
Single-pivot side-pull caliper brakes consist of two curved arms that cross at a pivot above the wheel and hold the brake pads on opposite sides of the rim. These arms have extensions on one side, one attached to the cable, the other to the cable housing. When the brake lever is squeezed, the arms move together and the brake pads squeeze the rim.
These brakes are simple and effective for relatively narrow tyres but have significant flex and resulting poor performance if the arms are made long enough to fit wide tyres. If not adjusted properly, low quality varieties tend to rotate to one side during actuation and tend to stay there, making it difficult to evenly space brake shoes away from the rim. These brakes are now used on inexpensive bikes; before the introduction of dual-pivot caliper brakes they were used on all types of road bikes.
Dual-pivot side-pull caliper brakes are used on most modern racing bicycles. One arm pivots at the centre, like a side-pull; and the other pivots at the side, like a centre-pull. The cable housing attaches like that of a side-pull brake.
The centering of side-pull brakes was improved with the mass-market adoption of dual-pivot side-pulls (an old design re-discovered by Shimano in the early 1990s). These brakes offer a higher mechanical advantage, and result in better braking. Dual-pivot brakes are slightly heavier than conventional side-pull calipers and cannot accurately track an out-of-true rim, or a wheel that flexes from side to side in the frame during hard climbing. It is common to see professional racers climbing mountains with the quick-release undone on the rear brake, to eliminate drag from this source.
Centre-pull caliper brakes
Centre-pull caliper brakes have symmetrical arms and therefore centre more effectively. The cable housing attaches to a fixed cable stop attached to the frame, and the inner cable bolts to a sliding piece (called a "braking delta", "braking triangle", or "yoke") or a small pulley, over which runs a straddle cable connecting the two brake arms. Tension on the cable is evenly distributed to the two arms, preventing the brake from taking a "set" to one side or the other.
These brakes were reasonably priced, and in the past filled the price niche between the cheaper and the more expensive models of side-pull brakes. They are more effective than side-pull brakes in long reach applications as the distance between the pivot and brake pad or cable attachment is much shorter, reducing flex. It is important that the fixed bridge holding the pivots is very stiff.
U-brakes
U-brakes (also known by the trademarked term 990-style) are essentially the same design as the centre-pull caliper brake. The difference is that the two arm pivots attach directly to the frame or fork while those of the centre-pull caliper brake attach to an integral bridge frame that mounts to the frame or fork by a single bolt. Like roller cam brakes, this is a caliper design with pivots located above the rim. Thus U-brakes are often interchangeable with, and have the same maintenance issues as, roller cam brakes.
U-brakes were used on mountain bikes through the early 1990s, particularly under the chainstays, a rear brake mounting location that was then popular. This location usually benefits from higher frame stiffness, an important consideration with a powerful brake since flex in the stays will increase lever travel and reduce effective braking force. Unfortunately it is also very prone to clogging by mud, which meant that U-brakes quickly fell out of favour on cross-country bikes.
U-brakes are the current standard on Freestyle BMX frames and forks. The U-brake's main advantage over cantilever and linear-pull brakes in this application is that sideways protrusion of the brake and cable system is minimal, and the exposed parts are smooth. This is especially valuable on freestyle BMX bikes where any protruding parts are susceptible to damage and may interfere with the rider's body or clothing.
Cantilever brakes
The cantilever brake is a class of brake in which each arm is attached to a separate pivot point on one side of the seat stay or fork. Thus all cantilever brakes are dual-pivot. Both first- and second-class lever designs exist; second-class is by far the more common. In the second-class lever design, the arm pivots below the rim. The brake shoe is mounted above the pivot and is pressed against the rim as the two arms are drawn together. In the first-class lever design, the arm pivots above the rim. The brake shoe is mounted below the pivot and is pressed against the rim as the two arms are forced apart.
Due to a wider possible distance between the mounts and pads, cantilever brakes are often preferred for bicycles that use wide tyres, such as on mountain bikes. Because the arms move only in their designed arcs, the brake shoe must be adjustable in several planes. Thus cantilever brake shoes are notoriously difficult to adjust. As the brake shoes of a second-class cantilever brake wears, they ride lower on the rim. Eventually, one may go underneath the rim, so that the brake does not function.
There are several brake types based on the cantilever brake design: cantilever brakes and direct-pull brakes – both second class lever designs – and roller cam brakes and U-brakes – both first class lever designs.
Traditional cantilever brakes
Traditional cantilever brakes pre-date the direct-pull brake. It is a centre-pull cantilever design with an outwardly angled arm protruding on each side, a cable stop on the frame or fork to terminate the cable housing, and a straddle cable between the arms similar to centre-pull caliper brakes. The cable from the brake lever pulls upwards on the straddle cable, causing the brake arms to rotate up and inward thus squeezing the rim between the brake pads.
Originally, cantilever brakes had nearly horizontal arms and were designed for maximum clearance on touring or cyclo-cross bicycles. When the mountain bike became popular, cantilever brakes were adopted for these too, but the smaller MTB frames meant that riders often fouled the rear brake arms with their heels. "Low profile" cantilevers were designed to overcome this, where the arms are closer to 45 degrees from horizontal. Low profile brakes require more careful attention to cable geometry than traditional cantilevers but are now the most common type.
Traditional cantilever brakes are difficult to adapt to bicycle suspension and protrude somewhat from the frame. Accordingly, they are usually found only on bicycles without suspension.
V-brakes
Linear-pull brakes or direct-pull brakes, commonly referred to by Shimano's trademark V-brakes, are a side-pull version of cantilever brakes and mount on the same frame bosses. However, the arms are longer, with the cable housing attached to one arm and the cable to the other. As the cable pulls against the housing, the arms are drawn together. Because the housing enters from vertically above one arm yet force must be transmitted laterally between arms, the flexible housing is extended by a rigid tube with a 90° bend known as the "noodle" (a noodle with a 135° bend is used where the front brake is operated by the right hand, as this gives a smoother curve in the cable housing). The noodle is seated in a stirrup attached to the arm. A flexible bellows often covers the exposed cable.
Since there is no intervening mechanism between the cable and the arms, the design is called "direct-pull". And since the arms move the same distance that the cable moves with regard to its housing, the design is also called "linear-pull". The term "V-brake" is trademarked by Shimano and represents the most popular implementation of this design. Some high-end v-brakes use a four-pivot parallel motion so the brake pads contact at virtually the same position on the wheel rim regardless of wear.
V-brakes function well with the suspension systems found on many mountain bikes because they do not require a separate cable stop on the frame or fork. Because of the higher mechanical advantage of V-brakes, they require brake levers with longer cable travel than levers intended for older types of brakes. Mechanical (i.e. cable-actuated) disc brakes use the same amount of cable travel as V-brakes, except for those that are described as being "road" specific. As a general rule, mechanical disc brakes for so-called "flat bar" bicycles (chiefly mountain and hybrid bicycles) are compatible with V-brake levers, whereas mechanical disc brakes intended for "drop-bar" bicycles are compatible with the cable pull of older brake designs (cantilever, caliper, and U-brake).
Poorly designed V-brakes can suffer from a sudden failure when the noodle end pulls through the metal stirrup, leaving the wheel with no braking power. Although the noodle can be regarded as a service item and changed regularly, the hole in the stirrup may enlarge through wear. The stirrup cannot normally be replaced, so good-quality V-brakes use a durable metal for the stirrup.
Mini V-brakes (or mini Vs) are V-brakes with shorter arms, typically between 8 and 9 centimeters. This reduces the required cable pull, making them compatible with brake levers intended for cantilever brakes. Mini V-brakes retain advantages specific to V-brakes such as not requiring extra cable stops. On the downside, their shorter arms provide very small tyre and wheel clearance and generally make for a less forgiving setup: they can only accommodate smaller tyre sizes compared to cantilever brakes, may pose problems for mounting fenders, can be clogged more easily by mud, and they can make it harder to change wheels.
V-brakes always use thin and relatively long brake pads. The thin pads ease wheel removal, which is achieved by pushing the arms together and unhooking the noodle from the stirrup. The additional length gives good pad life by compensating for the thinner material depth.
Roller cam brakes
Roller cam brakes are centre-pull cantilever brakes actuated by the cable pulling a single two-sided sliding cam. (First- and second-class lever designs exist; first-class is most common and is described here.) Each arm has a cam follower. As the cam presses against the follower it forces the arms apart. As the top of each arm moves outward, the brake shoe below the pivot is forced inward against the rim. There is much in favor of the roller cam brake design. Since the cam controls the rate of closure, the clamping force can be made non-linear with the pull. And since the design can provide positive mechanical advantage, maximum clamping force can be higher than that of other types of brakes. They are known for being strong and controllable. On the downside, they require some skill to set up and can complicate wheel changes. They also require maintenance: like U-brakes, as the pad wears it strikes the rim higher; unless re-adjusted it can eventually contact the tyre's sidewall.
The roller cam design was first developed by Charlie Cunningham of WTB around 1982 and licensed to Suntour. Roller cam brakes were used on early mountain bikes in the 1980s and into the 1990s, mounted to the fork blades and seat stays in the standard locations, as well as below the chain stays for improved stiffness as they do not protrude to interfere with the crank. It is not unusual for a bicycle to have a single roller cam brake (or U-brake) combined with another type. They are still used on some BMX and recumbent bicycles.
There are two rare variants that use the roller cam principle. For locations where centre-pull is inappropriate, the side-pull toggle cam brake was developed. Also a first-class cantilever, it uses a single-sided sliding cam (the toggle) against one arm that is attached by a link to the other arm. As the cam presses against the follower, the force is also transmitted to the other arm via the link. And specifically for suspension forks where the housing must terminate at the brake frame, the side-pull "sabre cam brake" was developed. In the sabre cam design, the cable end is fixed and the housing moves the single-sided cam.
Delta brakes
The delta brake is a road bicycle brake named due to its triangular shape. The cable enters at the centre, pulls a corner of a parallelogram linkage housed inside the brake across two opposite corners, pushing out at the other two corners on to the brake arms above the pivots, so that the arms below the pivots push pads in against the rim. A feature of the design is that the mechanical advantage varies as a tangent function across its range, where that of most other designs remains fixed.
Many consider the brake attractive, and it has a lower wind profile than some other common brakes. However, Bicycle Quarterly criticized the delta brake for being heavy, giving mediocre stopping power, and suffering disadvantageous variable mechanical advantage. In particular, with a small parallelogram, pad wear causes mechanical advantage to rise dramatically. However, with high leverage, the stroke of the lever is not enough to fully apply the brake, so the rider can have brakes that feel normal in light braking but which cannot be applied harder for hard braking.
The basic design dates from at least the 1930s. They were made most prominently by Campagnolo in 1985, but brakes based on the same mechanism were also manufactured by Modolo (Kronos), Weinmann, and others. They are no longer made and are now uncommon.
Hydraulic rim brakes
Hydraulic rim brakes are one of the least common types of brakes. They are mounted either on the same pivot points used for cantilever and linear-pull brakes or they can be mounted on four-bolt brake mounts found on many trials frames. They were available on some high-end mountain bikes in the early 1990s, but declined in popularity with the rise of disc brakes. The moderate performance advantage (greater power and control) they offer over cable actuated rim brakes is offset by their greater weight and complexity. Some e-bikes continue to use them since they are powerful, relatively low-maintenance and weight is less of an issue when electric assistance is available.
Disc brakes
A disc brake consists of a metal disc, or "rotor", attached to the wheel hub that rotates with the wheel. Calipers are attached to the frame or fork along with pads that squeeze the rotors for braking. Disc brakes may be actuated mechanically by cable, or hydraulically.
Disc brakes are most common for mountain bikes (including nearly all downhill bikes), and are also seen on some hybrid bicycles and touring bicycles. Towards the end of the 2010s, disc brakes have become increasingly common also on racing bicycles. A disc brake is sometimes employed as a drag brake for controlled speed reduction on steep descents.
Many hydraulic disc brakes have a self-adjusting mechanism so as the brake pad wears, the pistons keep the distance from the pad to the disc consistent to maintain the same brake lever throw. Some hydraulic brakes, especially older ones, and most mechanical discs have manual controls to adjust the pad-to-rotor gap. Several adjustments are often required during the life of the pads.
Advantages
Disc brakes tend to perform equally well in all conditions including water, mud, and snow due to several factors:
The braking surface is farther from the ground and possible contaminants like mud which can coat or freeze on the rim and pads. With rim brakes, the first point that mud builds up on a mountain bike ridden in thick mud is usually the brakes. A mountain bicycle with disc brakes is less susceptible to mud buildup provided the rear frame and front fork yoke have sufficient clearance from the wheels.
Disc brakes may be made of materials that dissipate heat better than the wheel rim, but undersized sport-sized discs will be too small to take advantage of this fact.
There are holes in the rotor, providing a path for water and debris to get out from under the pads.
Wheel rims tend to be made of lightweight metal. Brake discs and pads are harder and can accept higher maximum loads.
It is possible to ride a bicycle with a buckled wheel if it has disc brakes, where it would not be possible with a rim brake because the buckled wheel would bind on the brake pads.
Other reasons include:
While all types of brakes will eventually wear out the braking surface, a brake disc is easier and cheaper to replace than a wheel rim or drum.
The use of very wide tyres favors disc brakes, as rim brakes require ever-longer arms to clear the wider tyre. Longer arms tend to flex more, degrading braking. Disc brakes are unaffected by tyre width.
Unlike some rarer rim brake designs, disc brakes are compatible with front and rear suspension.
Different wheel sizes can be used with the same frame: i.e. the same frame built for 29" tires can often also fit 27.5"+ (650+) tires, despite the two wheel sizes having different rim diameters. This is possible with disc brakes, so long as the rotor sizes are consistent and the frame has enough clearance; with rim brakes, this would be impossible, as the different rim sizes would not allow the same rim brakes to work with a different sized wheel. Wheel size optionality with disc brakes allows the rider more options, including using a smaller diameter rim-sized wheel (such as 27.5"+) with a higher volume wider tire with the same outer diameter size as a larger rim-sized wheel (such as 29") – the outer diameter consistency is important as it preserves the geometry of the frame between the two different wheel sizes.
Disadvantages
Hydraulic vs. "mechanical"
There are two main types of disc brake: "mechanical" (cable-actuated) and hydraulic. Advantages and disadvantages are highly discussed by the users of each system. As advantages of cable-actuated disc brakes are argued lower cost, lower maintenance, and lighter system weight, hydraulic disc brakes are said to offer more braking power and better control. Cable-actuated disc brakes were traditionally the only type of disc brake that could be used with the brake levers found on drop handlebars, but this is no longer the case.
Single vs. dual actuation
Many disc brakes have their pads actuated from both sides of the caliper, while some have only one pad that moves. Dual actuation can move both pads relative to the caliper, or can move one pad relative to the caliper, then move the caliper and other pad relative to the rotor, called a "floating caliper" design. Single-actuation brakes use either a multi-part rotor that floats axially on the hub, or bend the rotor sideways as needed. Bending the rotor is theoretically inferior, but in practice gives good service, even under high-force braking with a hot disc, and may yield more progressiveness.
Multiple pistons
For disc brakes with a hydraulic system, high-performance calipers usually use two or three pistons per side; lower-cost and lower-performance calipers often have only one per side. Using more pistons allows a larger piston area and thus increased leverage with a given master cylinder. Also, pistons may be of several sizes so pad force can be controlled across the face of the pad, especially when the pad is long and narrow. A long narrow pad may be desired to increase pad area and thus reduce the frequency of pad changes. In contrast, a single large piston may be heavier.
Caliper mounting standards
There are many standards for mounting disc brake calipers. However, most manufactures today use either the IS or post-mount (PM) standards. These differ by disc size and axle type.
Advantages and disadvantages of various types of mounts
A disadvantage of post mounts is that the bolt is threaded directly into the fork lowers. If the threads are stripped or if the bolt is stuck, then the threads will need to be repaired, or the seized bolt drilled out. Frame manufacturers have standardized the IS mount for the rear disc brake mount. In recent years post mount has gained ground and is becoming more common. This is mostly due to decreased manufacturing and part cost for the brake calipers when using post mount. A limitation of the mount is that the location of the rotor is more constrained: it is possible to encounter incompatible hub/fork combinations, where the rotor is out of range.
Disc mounting standards
There are many options for rotor mounting. IS is a six-bolt mount and is the industry standard. Centerlock is patented by Shimano and uses a splined interface along with a lockring to secure the disc. The advantages of centerlock are that the splined interface is theoretically stiffer, and removing the disc is quicker because it only requires one lockring to be removed. Some of the disadvantages are that the design is patented requiring a licensing fee from Shimano. A Shimano cassette lockring tool (or an external BB tool in case of through-axle hub) is needed to remove the rotor and is more expensive and less common than a Torx key. Advantages of IS six-bolt are that there are more choices when it comes to hubs and rotors.
Examples of mounting standards are shown here:
International Standard (IS) (in widespread use) 44 mm bolt circle diameter (BCD)
Centerlock (Shimano proprietary)
Hope Technology's 3-bolt pattern (proprietary)
Rohloff's 4-bolt pattern (proprietary)
Disc sizes
Rotors come in many different sizes, such as and diameter. Other sizes are available as manufacturers make discs specific to their calipers; the dimensions often vary by a few millimeters. Larger rotors provide greater braking torque for a given pad pressure, by virtue of a longer moment arm for the caliper to act on. Smaller rotors provide less braking torque but also less weight and better protection from knocks. Larger rotors dissipate heat more quickly and have a larger amount of mass to absorb heat, reducing brake fade or failure. Downhill bikes usually have larger brakes to handle greater braking loads. Cross country bicycles usually use smaller rotors which handle smaller loads but offer considerable weight savings. It is also common to use a larger diameter rotor on the front wheel and a smaller rotor on the rear wheel since the front wheel does the most braking (up to 90% of the total).
Drum brakes
Bicycle drum brakes operate like those of a car, although the bicycle variety use cable rather than hydraulic actuation. Two pads are pressed outward against the braking surface on the inside of the hub shell. Shell inside diameters on a bicycle drum brake are typically . Drum brakes have been used on front hubs and hubs with both internal and external freewheels. Both cable- and rod-operated drum brake systems have been widely produced.
A Roller Brake is a modular cable-operated drum brake manufactured by Shimano for use on specially splined front and rear hubs. Unlike a traditional drum brake, the Roller Brake can be easily removed from the hub. Some models contain a torque-limiting device called a power modulator designed to make it difficult to skid the wheel. In practice this can reduce its effectiveness on bicycles with adult-sized wheels.
Drum brakes are most common on utility bicycles in some countries, especially the Netherlands, and are also often found on cargo bikes and velomobiles. Older tandem bicycles often employ a rear drum brake as a drag brake.
Drum brakes provide consistent braking in wet or dirty conditions since the mechanism is fully enclosed. They are usually heavier, more complicated, and often weaker than rim brakes, but they require less maintenance. Drum brakes do not adapt well to quick release axle fastening, and removing a drum brake wheel requires the operator to disconnect the brake cable as well as the axle. They also require a torque arm which must be anchored to the frame or fork of the bicycle, and not all bicycles are constructed to accommodate such fastenings or tolerate their applied forces.
Coaster brakes
Invented in 1898 by Willard M. Farrow, the "coaster brake", also known as a "back pedal brake" or "foot brake" ("torpedo" or "contra" in some countries, in Italy ), is a type of drum brake integrated into the back hub with an internal freewheel. Freewheeling functions as with other systems, but when back pedaled, the brake engages after a fraction of a revolution. The coaster brake can be found in both single-speed and internally geared hubs.
When such a hub is pedaled forwards, the sprocket drives a screw which forces a clutch to move along the axle, driving the hub shell or gear assembly. When pedaling is reversed, the screw drives the clutch in the opposite direction, forcing it either between two brake shoes and pressing them against the brake mantle (which is a steel liner within the hub shell), or into a split collar and expanding it against the mantle. The braking surface is often steel, and the braking element brass or phosphor-bronze, as in the Birmingham-made Perry Coaster Hub. Crude coaster brakes also exist, usually on children's bicycles, where a serrated steel brake cone grips the inside of the hub shell directly, with no separate brake pads or mantle. These offer a less progressive action and are more likely to lock the rear wheel unintentionally.
Unlike most drum brakes (but like a Shimano Roller Brake) a coaster brake is designed to run with all its internal parts coated in grease for quiet operation and smooth engagement. Most grey molybdenum disulphide greases work well in a coaster brake, with its metal-to-metal friction surfaces.
Coaster-brake bicycles are generally equipped with a single cog and chain wheel and often use an wide chain. However, there have been several models of coaster brake hubs with derailleurs, such as the Sachs 2×3. These use special extra-short derailleurs which can stand up to the forces of being straightened out frequently and do not require an excessive amount of reverse pedal rotation before the brake engages. Coaster brakes have also been incorporated into hub gear designs – for example the AWC and SRC3 from Sturmey-Archer, and the Shimano Nexus 3-speed. They can have up to eight gears, like the Nexus inter-8.
Coaster brakes have the advantage of being protected from the elements and thus perform well in rain or snow. Though coaster brakes generally go years without needing maintenance, they are more complicated than rim brakes to repair if it becomes necessary, especially the more sophisticated type with expanding brake shoes. Coaster brakes also do not have sufficient heat dissipation for use on long descents, a characteristic made legendary through events such as the 'Repack Downhill' race, where riders almost certainly would need to repack their coaster brakes after the grease melted or smoked due to the heat from lengthy downhill runs. A coaster brake can only be applied when the cranks are reasonably level, limiting how quickly it can be applied. As coaster brakes are only made for rear wheels, they have the disadvantage common to all rear brakes of skidding the wheel easily. This disadvantage may, however, be alleviated if the bicycle also has a hand-lever-operated front brake and the cyclist uses it. Another disadvantage is that the coaster brake is completely dependent on the chain being fully intact and engaged. If the chain breaks or disengages from the chainwheel and/or rear sprocket, the coaster brake provides no braking power whatsoever. Like all hub brakes except disc brakes, a coaster brake requires a reaction arm to be connected to the frame. This may require unbolting when the wheel is removed or moved in its fork ends to adjust chain tension.
Drag brakes
A drag brake is a type of brake defined by its use rather than by its mechanical design.
A drag brake is intended to provide a constant decelerating force to slow a bicycle on a long downhill rather than to stop it; a separate braking system is used to stop the bicycle. A drag brake is often employed on a heavy bicycle such as a tandem in mountainous areas where extended use of rim brakes could cause a rim to become hot enough to blow out.;The typical drag brake has long been a drum brake. The largest manufacturer of this type of brake is Arai, whose brakes are screwed onto hubs with conventional freewheel threading on the left side of the rear hub and operated via Bowden cables. As of 2011, the Arai drum brake has been out of production for several years, with remaining stocks nearing depletion and used units commanding premium prices on internet auction sites.
More recently, large-rotor disc brakes are being used as drag brakes. (Some tandem riders with Avid BB-7 mechanical disc brakes and 203 mm rotors report fewer heat problems under heavy braking than when using the previous standard of comparison, an Arai drum used as a drag brake.) DT-Swiss make an adapter to mate disc rotors with hubs threaded for the Arai drum brake, but this still leaves the problem of fitting the caliper.
Band brake
A band brake consists of a band, strap, or cable that wraps around a drum that rotates with a wheel and is pulled tight to generate braking friction. Band brakes appeared as early as 1884 on tricycles. Star Cycles introduced a band brake in 1902 on its bicycles with freewheels. Band brakes are still manufactured for bicycles today.
A rim band brake, as implemented on the Yankee bicycle by Royce Husted in the 1990s, consists of a stainless-steel cable, wrapped in a kevlar sheath, that rides in a u-shaped channel on the side of the wheel rim. Squeezing the brake lever tightens the cable against the channel to produce braking friction. A return spring slackens the cable when the brake lever is released, no adjustment is required, and the brake becomes more forceful when wet. Husted said his inspiration was the band brake used on industrial machinery. The Yankee bicycle only included a rear brake, but that met U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission standards.
Actuation mechanisms
The actuation mechanism is that part of the brake system that transmits force from the rider to that part of the system that does the actual braking. Brake system actuation mechanisms are either mechanical or hydraulic.
Mechanical
The primary modern mechanical actuation mechanism uses brake levers coupled to Bowden cables to move brake arms, thus forcing pads against a braking surface. Cable mechanisms are usually less expensive, but may require some maintenance related to exposed areas of the cable. Other mechanical actuation mechanisms exist: see Coaster brakes for back-pedal actuation mechanisms, and rod-actuated brakes for a mechanism incorporating metal rods. The first Spoon brakes were actuated by a cable that was pulled by twisting the end of a handlebar.
Hydraulic
Hydraulic brakes also use brake levers to push fluid through a hose to move pistons in a caliper, thus forcing pads against a braking surface. While hydraulic rim brakes exist, today the hydraulic actuation mechanism is identified mostly with disc brakes. Two types of brake fluid are used today: mineral oil and DOT fluid. Mineral oil is generally inert, while DOT is corrosive to frame paint but has a higher boiling point. Using the wrong fluid can cause seals to swell or become corroded. A hydraulic mechanism is closed and therefore less likely have problems related to contamination at exposed areas. Hydraulic brakes rarely fail, but failure tends to be complete. Hydraulic systems require specialized equipment to repair.
Hydraulic brake fluid
Hydraulic disc brakes make use of two common forms of fluid: Automotive grade DOT 4 or DOT 5.1 which are hygroscopic and has a boiling point of 230 °C; and mineral oil which is not hygroscopic and has varying boiling points depending on the type. O-rings and seals inside the brake are specifically designed to work with one or the other fluid. Using the incorrect fluid type will cause the seals to fail resulting in a "squishy" feeling in the lever, and the caliper pistons are unable to retract, so a scraping disc is common. The brake fluid reservoir is usually marked to indicate the type of brake fluid to be used.
Hybrid
Some older designs, like the AMP and Mountain Cycles brakes, use a cable from lever to caliper, then use a master cylinder integrated into the piston. Some Santana tandem bicycles used a cable from lever to a master cylinder mounted near the head tube, with a hydraulic line to the rear wheel caliper. Such "hybrid" designs allow the leverage of a hydraulic system while allowing use of cable brake levers, but may be heavier and can suffer from grit intrusion in the standard cable.
An older Sachs drum brake kit ("Hydro Pull") allows to rebuild a regular Sachs bicycle drum brake to hydraulic lever and action. A piston is added outside the drum instead of the bowden clamp. This solution is often seen on modified Long John cargo bikes, allowing a low friction lever pull front wheel brake action. After Sachs ceased production of this kit a similar solution is sometimes done by welding on a Magura piston to the drum cylinder lever. Welding was necessary because the Magura action is reverse to that of the Sachs kit.
Brake levers
Brake levers are usually mounted on the handlebars within easy reach of the rider's hands. They may be distinct from or integrated into the shifting mechanism. The brake lever transmits the force applied by the rider through either a mechanical or hydraulic mechanism.
Bicycles with drop handlebars may have more than one brake lever for each brake to facilitate braking from multiple hand positions. Levers that allow the rider to work the brakes from the tops of the bars, introduced in the '70s, were called extension levers, safety levers or, due to their reputation for being unable to actuate the full range of travel of the brake, suicide levers. Modern top-mounted brake levers are considered safer, and are called interrupt brake levers due to their mechanism of action which "interrupts" the cable run from the primary lever and actuates the brake by pushing the cable housing downward instead of pulling the cable. This type of lever is also known as a "cross lever" due to its popularity in cyclo-cross.
The mechanical advantage of the brake lever must be matched to the brake it is connected to in order for the rider to have sufficient leverage and travel to actuate the brake. Using mismatched brakes and levers could result in too much mechanical advantage and hence not enough travel to properly actuate the brake (v-brakes with conventional levers) or too little mechanical advantage, requiring a very strong pull to apply the brakes hard (v-brake levers with other types of brake).
Mechanical (cable) brake levers come in two varieties based on the length of brake cable pulled for a given amount of lever movement:
Standard pull levers work with most brake designs, including caliper brakes, traditional cantilever brakes, and mechanically actuated disc brakes branded for "Road".
Long pull levers work with "direct-pull" cantilever brakes, such as Shimano "V-Brakes", and mechanically actuated disc brakes branded for "Mountain".
Adapters are available to allow the use of one type of lever with an otherwise incompatible type of rim brake. Some brake levers have adjustable leverage that can be made to work with either type of brake. Others vary their mechanical advantage as the lever moves to move the pad quickly at first, then provide more leverage once it contacts the brake surface. Hydraulic brake levers move a piston in a fluid reservoir. The mechanical advantage of the lever depends on the brake system design.
Braking technique
The motion dynamics of a bicycle will cause a transfer of weight to the front wheel during braking, improving the traction on the front wheel. If the front brake is used too hard, momentum may cause the rider and bike to pitch forward – a type of crash sometimes called an "endo". Light use of the rear brake causes a light skid as the bicycle approaches the limit where pitchover will occur, a signal to reduce force on the front brake. On a low-traction surface or when turning, the front wheel will skid, the bicycle cannot be balanced and will fall to the side instead.
On tandem bicycles and other long-wheel-base bicycles (including recumbents and other specialized bicycles), the lower relative centre of mass makes it virtually impossible for heavy front braking to flip the bicycle; the front wheel would skid first.
In some situations, it is advisable to slow down and to use the rear brake more and the front brake less:
When unfamiliar with the braking characteristics of a bicycle. It is important to test the brakes and learn how much hand force is needed when first riding it.
When leaning in a turn (or preferably, brake before turning).
Slippery surfaces, such as wet pavement, mud, snow, ice, or loose stones/gravel. It is difficult to recover from a front-wheel skid on a slippery surface, especially when leaned over.
Bumpy surfaces: If the front wheel comes off the ground during braking, its rotation will cease completely. Landing on a stopped front wheel with the brakes still applied is likely to cause the front wheel to skid and may flip the rider over the handlebar.
Very loose surfaces (such as gravel and loose dirt): In some loose-surface situations, it may be beneficial to completely lock up the rear wheel in order to slow down or maintain control. On very steep slopes with loose surfaces where any braking will cause the wheel to skid, it can be better to maintain control of the bicycle by the rear brake more than one would normally. However neither wheel should stop rotating completely, as this will result in very little control.
Steep descents: the slope angle makes the front flip more easily achieved, and moreover a front-wheel skid would be very difficult to recover (crash highly probable), whereas a rear skid does still drag the bike without losing too much control.
Long descents: alternating the front and back brake can help prevent hand fatigue and overheating of the wheel rims which can cause a disastrous tyre blow-out, or boiling of the hydraulic fluid in case of hydraulic disc brakes.
Flat front tyre: braking a tyre that has little air can cause the tyre to come off the rim, which is likely to cause a crash.
It is customary to place the front brake lever on the left in right-side-driving countries, and vice versa, because the hand on the side nearer the centre of the road is more commonly used for hand signals. Placing the front brake lever on the right also mimics the layout on motorcycles and is advantageous to avoid confusion when switching to and from a pedal cycle to motorcycle.
Bicycles without brakes
Track bicycles are built without brakes so as to avoid sudden changes in speed when racing on a velodrome. Since track bikes have a fixed gear, braking can be accomplished by reversing the force on the pedals to slow down, or by locking the pedals backwards and inducing a skid. Fixed gear road bikes may also lack brakes, and slowing or stopping is accomplished as with a track bike. Many fixed gear bikes however are fitted with a front brake for safety reasons, or because it is a legal requirement. Some BMX bicycles are built without brakes to forgo the expense and complication of a detangler. The usual method of stopping is for the rider to put one or both feet on the ground, or to wedge a foot between the seat and the rear tyre, effectively acting as a spoon brake. Cycle speedway is a type of close track racing in the UK, Poland, Australia, and France. The special built bike has a single freewheel and no brakes. Slowing is done during cornering by dragging the inside foot. These bikes are not intended for road use and are kept at the track.
In Belgium, Australia, Germany, the UK, France, Poland, Japan, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, it is illegal to ride a bicycle without brakes on a public road.
Single-lever two-wheel brakes
A braking system has been fitted to selected bicycle models whereby a single lever operates first the rear brake then the front brake and it is claimed this reduces the risk of some braking-related accidents including going over the handlebars. This system emphasises the use of the rear brake, fails to optimise use of front braking, whilst being marketed as a solution to the fear of toppling over handle bars. The system encourages complacent use of brake levers by cyclists and reinforces the myth that the front brakes of bicycles are dangerous.
Cyclists young and old should seek training in the effective use of both brakes to stop in the minimum possible stopping distance in an emergency.
See also
Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics
Detangler
Glossary of cycling
List of bicycle parts
References
Sources
Bicycle parts
Vehicle braking technologies
Brakes | wiki |
Socket 479 är en sockel avsedd för processorer av typen Pentium M från Intel. Sockeln har 479 stift, ett fler än socklar för Pentium 4-processorer för att dessa inte ska kunna förväxlas och monteras i fel sockel.
Processorsocklar | wiki |
Pipe snake may refer to:
Snakes:
Aniliidae, a.k.a. the false coral snakes, a family of harmless snakes found in South America.
Cylindrophiidae, a.k.a. Asian pipe snakes, a family of harmless snakes found in Asia.
Uropeltidae, a.k.a. shield-tailed snakes, a family of harmless snakes found in southern India and Sri Lanka.
Other:
Plumber's snake, a tool used to clear clogged drains
Animal common name disambiguation pages | wiki |
Smith Row is a group of six Federal-style townhouses within the Georgetown Historic District in Washington, D.C. Built in 1815 by brothers Clement and Walter Smith, the structures extend from 3255–3267 N Street NW.
It was added to the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites in 1964.
References
External links
District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites
Federal architecture in Washington, D.C.
Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)
Houses completed in 1815 | wiki |
Round Church may refer to:
Round Church, Orphir, Orkney, United Kingdom
Round Church, Preslav, a 10th-century church in Preslav, Bulgaria
Round Church, Cambridge or Holy Sepulchre, a 12th-century church in Cambridge, England, UK
Round Church (Richmond, Vermont), a 19th-century meeting house in Richmond, Vermont, U.S.
Round church, a special type of church construction, having a completely circular plan | wiki |
A bike, or bicycle, is a two-wheeled, pedal-driven vehicle.
Bike may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Bike (band), a 1990s New Zealand pop band fronted by Andrew Brough
Bike (magazine), a UK magazine about motorcycling
"Bike" (song), by Pink Floyd
Bike (TV channel), a defunct sports channel in Italy and the UK
"Bike" (Bluey), an episode of the first season of the animated TV series Bluey
Other uses
Bike (given name), a common Turkish given name
Bike, Ethiopia
BIKE Athletic Company, an American sportswear company
Motorbike
See also
Bike Magazine (disambiguation)
Biker (disambiguation)
Bic (disambiguation)
Bik (disambiguation) | wiki |
On 20 November 1992, a fire broke out in Windsor Castle, the largest inhabited castle in the world and one of the official residences of the British Monarch. The castle suffered extensive damage and was fully repaired within the next five years at a cost of £36.5 million, in a project led by the conservation architects Donald Insall Associates. It led to Queen Elizabeth II paying tax on her income, and to Buckingham Palace, the former monarch's other official residence, being opened to the public to help pay for the restoration work. This event was part of what Queen Elizabeth II called her annus horribilis.
Timeline of the fire
Early stages
The fire began in the Queen's Private Chapel at 11:15am when a curtain was ignited by a spotlight pressed up against it. Agents of the Royal Household were in the chapel at the time inspecting works of art. A fire alarm went off in the watch room of the castle fire brigade, manned by the Chief Fire Officer, Marshall Smith. The fire's location was shown by a light on a grid-map of the castle. Initially, the Brunswick Tower was lit up, but lights soon began to flash indicating that the fire had spread quickly to neighbouring rooms.
A major part of the State Apartments was soon ablaze. Building contractors working in a nearby room attempted to subdue the blaze with fire extinguishers. The curtains eventually dropped to the floor and continued to burn, while those present hurriedly began removing paintings from the chapel, until the intense heat and raining embers forced them to leave at 11:32am.
At 11:36am, Smith pressed a switch to alert the control room at Reading fire station. He then activated the castle's public fire alarm and telephoned the Royal Berkshire Fire and Rescue Service on a direct line, giving the message, "Windsor Castle here; we have got a fire in the Private Chapel. Come to the Quadrangle as arranged".
The castle still had its own twenty-person fire brigade, of whom six were full-time. Equipped with a Land Rover and pump tender, they were based in stables two miles south of the castle, and arrived on the scene at 11:41am. Appliances from the Fire and Rescue Service arrived at 11:44am. By 11:56am, 17 pumping appliances had been ordered. An operation to save furniture and works of art involving castle staff, building contractors and the Queen's son, Prince Andrew, had commenced in rooms adjacent to the fire.
Subsequent events
By 12:12pm, there were 20 fire engines, and by 12:20pm there were 35. Over 200 fire-fighters had come from London, Buckinghamshire, Surrey, and Oxfordshire, as well as from Berkshire. The Fire Incident Commander was David Harper, Deputy Chief Fire and Rescue Officer of the Fire and Rescue Service. The Chief Officer, Garth Scotford, was out of the country, on holiday.
By 12:20pm, the fire had spread to St George's Hall, a banqueting hall and the largest of the State Apartments. The number of fire appliances now totalled 39 with 225 fire-fighters in attendance. Hoses were directed at all levels of the building surrounding the fire. As an indication of the fire's scale, there had been just one 30-appliance fire in the whole of Greater London since 1973.
By 1:30pm, tradesmen had created fire breaks at the southern wall of the Green Drawing Room (at the end of St George's Hall on the east side of the Quadrangle) and at the northwest corner at Chester Tower, where joins the Grand Corridor. The fire-fighters had by this time started to bring the fire under control, though the roof of the State Apartments had begun to collapse.
At 3:30pm, the floors of the Brunswick Tower collapsed. Firemen had to temporarily withdraw to locate three men who were briefly lost in the smoke, and withdrew again because men were temporarily unaccounted for when part of the roof collapsed.
At 4:15pm, the fire had revived in the Brunswick Tower. As night fell, the fire was concentrated in the tower, which by 6:30pm was engulfed by flames up to high.
At 7:00pm, the roof of St George's Hall finally collapsed.
By 8:00pm, after burning for nine hours, the fire was under control. It continued to burn for another three hours.
By 11:00pm, the main fire was extinguished, and by 2:30am, the last secondary fires were extinguished. Pockets of fire remained until the early hours of the morning, some 15 hours after it began. 60 firemen with eight appliances remained on duty for several more days. The fire had spread rapidly due to the large cavities and voids in the roof. 1.5 million gallons (7 million litres) of water from the mains water supply, a reservoir-fed hydrant, a swimming pool, a pond, and the nearby River Thames were used to fight it.
Salvage operation
Apart from the several hundred firemen directly involved in the fire-fight, staff and tradesmen helped the castle's fire brigade and volunteer salvage corps move furniture and works of art from the endangered apartments, including a long table and a long carpet from the Waterloo Chamber, to the safety of the castle's riding school. It was an enormous operation: 300 clocks, a collection of miniatures, thousands of valuable books and historic manuscripts, and old Master drawings from the Royal Library were saved. On fire officers' instructions, heavy chests and tables were left behind. All other items were placed on giant sheets of tarpaulin in the North Terrace and Quadrangle, and the police called in dozens of removal vans from a large part of the home counties to transport items to other parts of the castle.
Members of the Royal Household, including the 13th Earl of Airlie, assisted in the operation. The Royal Collection Department were especially active, including the director, Sir Geoffrey de Bellaigue; the surveyor of pictures, Christopher Lloyd; the deputy surveyor of the Queen's works of art, Hugh Roberts; the curator of Print Room, Mrs Roberts; and the librarian, Oliver Everett. The Household Cavalry arrived from nearby Combermere Barracks. Some 100 officers and men of the Life Guards proved invaluable for moving bulky items. In all, 125 castle staff, 125 contractors, 100 military personnel and 20 Crown Estate staff were involved in the salvage operation.
There had been no serious injuries and no deaths. Dean Lansdale, a decorator in the Private Chapel, burnt his hands while removing the three or four pictures he rescued. He was moved to the royal surgery and then to a hospital. A royal spokesman denied reports in the media that the surveyor of the Queen's pictures had suffered a heart attack. Five firemen were taken to hospital with minor injuries.
Extent of damage to the castle
Structural damage
The major loss was to the fabric of the castle. The false ceiling in St George's Hall and the void for coal trucks beneath the floor had allowed the fire to spread. It burned as far as the Chester Tower. Several ceilings collapsed. Apartments burnt included the Crimson Drawing Room (completely gutted), the Green Drawing Room (badly damaged, though only partially destroyed by smoke and water) and the Queen's Private Chapel (including the double-sided 19th century Henry Willis organ in the gallery between St George's Hall and Private Chapel, oak panelling, glass and the altar).
St George's Hall survived with the walls largely intact, but the ceiling had collapsed. The State Dining Room in the Prince of Wales Tower and the Grand Reception Room were also devastated. In total, 100 rooms were affected by the fire. Smaller apartments damaged or destroyed included the Star Chamber, Octagon Room, Brunswick Tower (covered in 12 feet (3.5 m) of debris), Cornwall Tower, Prince of Wales Tower, Chester Tower, Holbein Room and the Great Kitchen, which lost its plaster coving and most of the medieval timber. The external wall above the bay window of the Crimson Drawing Room (between the Prince of Wales and Chester Towers) was seriously calcified.
Contents
The most seriously damaged rooms had largely been emptied of their valuable contents the previous day, and some paintings were on loan to a travelling exhibition. Items from the Royal Collection lost include the Sir William Beechey equestrian portrait George III and the Prince of Wales Reviewing Troops, which at 13 feet (4 m) by 16 feet (5 m) was too large to remove; an long 1820s sideboard by Morel and Seddon; several items of porcelain; several chandeliers; the Willis organ; and the 1851 Great Exhibition Axminster carpet was partly burnt. Peter Brooke, then Secretary of State for National Heritage, called the fire a national disaster.
Tourism
Tourists were allowed into the precincts within three days. The Queen was back in residence a fortnight later. The Gallery and Queen Mary's Dolls' House reopened in December. The State Apartments reopened in 1993 after rewiring was completed, with all major rooms open by Easter, when only St George's Hall and the Grand Reception Room stayed closed. Thus eleven of fifteen principal rooms of the State Apartments were open, and two were still undergoing long-term restoration, with two more having been destroyed.
Restoration project
Funding
It was initially feared that it would cost £60 million to restore the castle, though the final cost was £36.5 million (equivalent to £ million in ), and that drying out the castle would take 10 years. Occupied royal palaces like Windsor Castle are too valuable to insure, and items in the Royal Collection are not insured against loss. An independent trust for private donations towards the cost of the restoration was announced on 16 February 1993 by the Queen's bank, Coutts. On 29 April 1993 it was announced that 70% of the cost would be met by charging the public for entry into the castle precincts and £8 for admission to Buckingham Palace for the next five years. The Queen contributed £2 million of her own money, and she agreed to start paying income tax from 1993 onwards, making her the first British monarch to do so since the 1930s.
Planning
On 7 June 1994, details of the restoration project were announced. The architectural firm Donald Insall Associates was appointed by the Royal Household to take overall charge of the restoration, with Sidell Gibson dealing with the reconstruction of St George's Hall and the design of the new Lantern Lobby and Private Chapel. Over half the damaged and destroyed rooms, including the State and Octagon dining rooms, were to be restored as original. There were to be new designs for the St George's Hall ceiling (with steel reinforcing beams in the roof) and East Screen, as well as the Queen's Private Chapel and the Stuart and Holbein Rooms. However, only the Queen's Private Chapel and several modern rooms were to be restored in a modern style.
Designs were submitted to a Restoration Committee, whose chairman was Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and deputy chairman was Charles, Prince of Wales. Members included the David Ogilvy, 13th Earl of Airlie (Lord Chamberlain), Sir Hayden Phillips (Permanent Secretary of the Department of National Heritage), Norman St John-Stevas, Lord St John of Fawsley (Chairman of the Royal Fine Art Commission), Sir Jocelyn Stevens (Chairman of English Heritage), Frank Duffy (President of the Royal Institute of British Architects) and three senior palace officials.
The fire, catastrophic though it was, presented the opportunity for some major new architectural work. Although criticised by some people who thought it lacked imagination, the architects believed that, given the history of the building and the surviving fabric, the new work had to be Gothic.
Execution
The state dining room gilded sideboard, 19 feet long and made out of rare rosewood and oak, was originally designed by Augustus Pugin in the 19th century. It had to be replicated by N.E.J. Stevenson using only some photographs and descriptions.
New designs for St George's Hall and the Queen's Private Chapel were approved by the Queen on 24 January 1995. Designed by architect Giles Downes, the new roof for St George's Hall is an example of a hammer-beam ceiling. The new chapel and adjoining cloisters were realigned to form a processional route from the private apartments, through an octagonal vestibule, into St George's Hall. Downes's new roof is the largest green-oak structure built since the Middle Ages and is decorated with brightly coloured shields celebrating the heraldic element of the Order of the Garter; the design attempts to create an illusion of additional height through the Gothic woodwork along the ceiling. Commentators have noted that Downes's work does much to compensate for the originally flawed dimensions of the hall. The Lantern Lobby has oak columns forming a vaulted ceiling, imitating an arum lily.
The first stage of the structural restoration was completed in May 1996. Fitting out, originally planned to finish by spring 1998, occurred on 17 November 1997. The Queen held a reception in the newly restored hall for the architects and building contractors involved in the project.
References
External links
A day that shook the world: Windsor Castle fire (2010) at The Independent
Building and structure fires in England
Disasters in Berkshire
1992 Fires
1992 disasters in the United Kingdom
1992 in England
1992 fires in the United Kingdom
1990s in Berkshire
November 1992 events in the United Kingdom
Residential building fires
Events involving British royalty
Rebuilt buildings and structures in the United Kingdom | wiki |
The Bangladeshi records in swimming are the fastest ever performances of swimmers from Bangladesh, which are recognised and ratified by the Bangladesh Swimming Federation.
All records were set in finals unless noted otherwise.
Long Course (50 m)
Men
Women
Short Course (25 m)
Men
Women
References
External links
Bangladesh Swimming Federation
Bangladesh
Records
Swimming | wiki |
The following is a list of episodes from Cobra Kai, an American comedy-drama streaming television series based on The Karate Kid film series created by Robert Mark Kamen. The first two seasons of the series were released on YouTube Red / YouTube Premium, while the latest three seasons have been released on Netflix.
On January 20, 2023, the series was renewed for a sixth and final season.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2018)
Season 2 (2019)
Season 3 (2021)
Season 4 (2021)
Season 5 (2022)
Notes
References
Cobra Kai | wiki |
Somebody Loves Me is a 1952 American comedy-drama musical film starring Betty Hutton. "Spanning the colorful era that was born with the San Francisco earthquake and ended with the stock market crash," the story focuses on the careers of entertainers Blossom Seeley and Benny Fields.
Plot
Cast
Betty Hutton as Blossom Seeley
Ralph Meeker as Benny Fields
Robert Keith as Sam Doyle
Adele Jergens as Nola Beach
Jack Benny as himself
References
External links
1952 films
1950s romantic musical films
American romantic musical films
Films with screenplays by Irving Brecher
Films directed by Irving Brecher
Paramount Pictures films
Films produced by William Perlberg
Films produced by George Seaton
1950s English-language films
1950s American films | wiki |
K2000 may refer to:
KITT from the television program Knight Rider
The TV movie Knight Rider 2000
The Pentax K2000 digital single-lens reflex camera, also known as the Pentax K-M
The Kurzweil Music Systems K2000 electronic music keyboard | wiki |
California Redemption Value (CRV), also known as California Refund Value, is a regulatory fee paid on recyclable beverage containers in the U.S. state of California. The fee was established by the California Beverage Container Recycling and Litter Reduction Act of 1986 (AB 2020, Margolin) and further extended to additional beverage types in California State Senate Bill No. 1013, signed into law on September 28, 2022 and taking effect on January 1, 2024; since 2010 the program has been administered by the Cal/EPA California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery (CalRecycle) (it was previously administered by the California Department of Conservation, Division of Recycling).
Other states have similar bottle bills/deposit laws, including Connecticut, Hawaii, Iowa, Massachusetts, Maine, Michigan, New York, Oregon, and Vermont.
Regulatory system
The bottler pays CRV for beverages with aluminum, plastic, glass, and bimetal containers and anyone can receive the same amount in exchange for the container by bringing it to a recycling center. The symbol on beverage containers eligible for reimbursement is "CA CRV". Currently, CRV is 5 cents for containers less than and 10 cents for containers or larger. The state also allows recyclers to pay by weight, for which the state also sets a separate minimum price per pound (kg). When redeeming in quantities up to 50 containers, the consumer has the right to be paid by count on request. In larger quantities, the recycler has discretion. Recyclers have the right to refuse or offer a reduced price for contaminated materials. It is illegal to bring in out-of-state cans or bottles to California to recoup the CRV and violators can be charged with fraud, a felony.
The charge for California Redemption Value is similar to bottle bill deposits used in other states, but is technically a fee imposed on the distributor of the beverage. The fee tends to be passed along to the retailer and to the consumer via normal market forces. Distributors and retailers usually break out the CRV as a distinct part of the purchase price in advertising and on receipts (for example the charge for a 50-cent bottle of soda may appear on the receipt as "45 cents plus 5 cents CRV").
One way the difference between CRV and a system in which the consumer pays a deposit or tax shows up is that sales tax applies to the CRV amount, if the item is subject to sales tax. If it were not part of the basic price of the product, sales tax would not apply to it. Accordingly, when the State of California raised the CRV from $0.04 on 2 L bottles and $0.02 on cans to $0.08 and $0.04, respectively, then again to $0.10 and $0.05, respectively, it was also raising California's sales tax revenue gained on the imposed fee.
Types of beverages
CRV is paid on the following types of beverages:
Carbonated and noncarbonated water
Carbonated and noncarbonated soft drinks, energy drinks, and sport drinks
Coffee and tea drinks
Beer and other malt beverages
Wine (after January 1, 2024)
Distilled spirits (after January 1, 2024)
Distilled Spirits Coolers
100% fruit juice in containers smaller than .
CRV is not paid on the following:
Milk, white or flavored
Medical food
Infant formula
Wine (through December 31, 2023)
Distilled spirits (through December 31, 2023)
100% fruit juice in containers or more
100% vegetable juice in containers more than
Products not in liquid or "ready to drink" form
Products not intended for human consumption
Containers not made of glass, metal, or plastic
Recycling centers
In August 2019, California's largest recycling redemption and processing centers operator, RePlanet, announced closing all 284 of its remaining centers, ceasing operations, terminating 750 employees, and beginning the process of liquidating assets to pay creditors, because of continued reduction in State fees, the depressed pricing of recycled aluminum and PET plastic, minimum wage increases, and the rise in operating costs. In February 2016, RePlanet had closed 191 recycling centers and terminated nearly 300 employees in smaller communities across California, due to the same causes.
Issues with implementation
Fresno State had trash bins along with dedicated beverage containers recycling receptacles. Despite their best effort to secure them against theft including keeping them under lock and key, they were forced to remove the beverage receptacles as for "vagrants would break the locks and steal the contents", according to Fresno State's manager for office of environmental health safety, risk management and sustainability.
Declining value of materials from recyclable containers
The falling market value of materials that redeemable containers are made of such as metal, plastic or glass has led to a decrease in the viability of many local recycling centers. CalRecycle, the agency that oversees the CRV program, reported in 2016 that recycling rates had declined below their goal of 80%. It is estimated that around 1.7 million containers were not recycled as a result of the decline over the past five years, ending up in dumps instead. Barriers to the ease of recycling has effectively caused consumers to lose, as the LA Times reported, "at least $308 million in 5-cent deposits on cans and bottles in 2018". The incentive to process the containers has decreased in monetary amount along with inflation further devaluing the incentive.
A later bill, The California beverage container recycling law, attempted to solve the initial shortcomings by requiring that when not within half of a mile from a recycling center, that the markets themselves must accept CRV qualified containers or be fined a daily rate. This has not completely solved the issue as many companies choose not to accept recycles but do not pay the fine, similar to the litigation between the state of California and CVS as recent as December 2019.
See also
Container deposit legislation in the United States
References
External links
Find a CRV recycling center by zipcode
"California's Bottle & Can Recycling Law--The Bottle" at "Californians Against Waste"
Program Info
PCRV - Protect CRV.com/newsroom
1987 introductions
Environment of California
Recycling in the United States
United States waste law
Container deposit legislation | wiki |
Colpodes planops is een keversoort uit de familie van de loopkevers (Carabidae). De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1953 door Louwerens.
planops | wiki |
Virginia Gardens – wieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Floryda, w hrabstwie Miami-Dade.
Wsie w stanie Floryda | wiki |
In a musical composition, a chord progression or harmonic progression (informally chord changes, used as a plural) is a succession of chords. Chord progressions are the foundation of harmony in Western musical tradition from the common practice era of Classical music to the 21st century. Chord progressions are the foundation of popular music styles (e.g., pop music, rock music), traditional music, as well as genres such as blues and jazz. In these genres, chord progressions are the defining feature on which melody and rhythm are built.
In tonal music, chord progressions have the function of either establishing or otherwise contradicting a tonality, the technical name for what is commonly understood as the "key" of a song or piece. Chord progressions, such as the common chord progression I–vi–ii–V, are usually expressed by Roman numerals in Classical music theory. In many styles of popular and traditional music, chord progressions are expressed using the name and "quality" of the chords. For example, the previously mentioned chord progression, in the key of C major, would be written as C major–A minor–D minor–G major in a fake book or lead sheet. In the first chord, C major, the "C" indicates that the chord is built on the root note "C" and the word "major" indicates that a major chord is built on this "C" note.
In rock and blues, musicians also often refer to chord progressions using Roman numerals, as this facilitates transposing a song to a new key. For example, rock and blues musicians often think of the 12-bar blues as consisting of I, IV, and V chords. Thus, a simple version of the 12-bar blues might be expressed as I–I–I–I, IV–IV–I–I, V–IV–I–I. By thinking of this blues progression in Roman numerals, a backup band or rhythm section could be instructed by a bandleader to play the chord progression in any key. For example, if the bandleader asked the band to play this chord progression in the key of C major, the chords would be C–C–C–C, F–F–C–C, G–F–C–C; if the bandleader wanted the song in G major, the chords would be G–G–G–G, C–C–G–G, D–C–G–G; and so on.
The complexity of a chord progression varies from genre to genre and over different historical periods. Some pop and rock songs from the 1980s to the 2010s have fairly simple chord progressions. Funk emphasizes the groove and rhythm as the key element, so entire funk songs may be based on one chord. Some jazz-funk songs are based on a two-, three-, or four-chord vamp. Some punk and hardcore punk songs use only a few chords. On the other hand, bebop jazz songs may have 32-bar song forms with one or two chord changes every bar.
Basic theory
A chord may be built upon any note of a musical scale. Therefore, a seven-note diatonic scale allows seven basic diatonic triads, each degree of the scale becoming the root of its own chord. A chord built upon the note E is an E chord of some type (major, minor, diminished, etc.) Chords in a progression may also have more than three notes, such as in the case of a seventh chord (V7 is particularly common) or an extended chord. The harmonic function of any particular chord depends on the context of the particular chord progression in which it is found.
Diatonic and chromatic chords
The diatonic harmonization of any major scale results in three major triads, which are based on the first, fourth, and fifth scale degrees. The triads are referred to as the tonic chord (in Roman numeral analysis, symbolized by "I"), the subdominant chord (IV), and the dominant chord, (V), respectively. These three triads include, and therefore can harmonize, every note of that scale. Many simple traditional music, folk music and rock and roll songs use only these three chord types (e.g. The Troggs' "Wild Thing", which uses I, IV and V chords).
The same major scale also has three minor chords, the supertonic chord (ii), mediant chord (iii), and submediant chord (vi), respectively. These chords stand in the same relationship to one another (in the relative minor key) as do the three major chords, so that they may be viewed as the first (i), fourth (iv) and fifth (v) degrees of the relative minor key. For example, the relative minor of C major is A minor, and in the key of A minor, the i, iv and v chords are A minor, D minor and E minor. In practice, in a minor key, the third of the dominant chord is often raised by one semitone to form a major chord (or a dominant seventh chord if the seventh is added).
In addition, the seventh degree of the major scale (i.e. the leading tone) forms a diminished chord (vii).
A chord may also have chromatic notes, that is, notes outside of the diatonic scale. Perhaps the most basic chromatic alteration in simple folk songs is the raised fourth degree () that results when the third of the ii chord is raised one semitone. Such a chord typically functions as the secondary dominant of the V chord (V/V). In some instances, chromatic notes are introduced to modulate to a new key. This in turn may lead to a resolution back to the original key later on, so that the entire sequence of chords helps create an extended musical form and a sense of movement.
Progressions
Although there are many possible progressions, in practice, progressions are often limited to a few bars' lengths and certain progressions are favored above others. There is also a certain amount of fashion in which a chord progression is defined (e.g., the 12-bar blues progression) and may even help in defining an entire genre.
In western classical notation, chords are numbered with Roman numerals. Other types of chord notation have been devised, from figured bass to the chord chart. These usually allow or even require a certain amount of improvisation.
Common progressions
Simple progressions
Diatonic scales such as the major and minor scales lend themselves particularly well to the construction of common chords because they contain many perfect fifths. Such scales predominate in those regions where harmony is an essential part of music, as, for example, in the common practice period of western classical music. In considering Arab and Indian music, where diatonic scales are used, there are also available a number of non-diatonic scales, the music has no chord changes, remaining always upon the key-chord, an attribute which has also been observed in hard rock, hip hop, funk, disco, jazz, etc.
Alternation between two chords may be thought of as the most basic chord progression. Many well-known pieces are built harmonically upon the mere repetition of two chords of the same scale. For example, many of the more straightforward melodies in classical music consist entirely or mostly of alternation between the tonic (I) and the dominant (V, sometimes with an added seventh), as do popular songs such as "Achy Breaky Heart". The Isley Brothers' "Shout" uses I–vi throughout.
Three-chord progressions
Three-chord progression are more common since a melody may then dwell on any note of the scale. They are often presented as successions of four chords (as shown below), in order to produce a binary harmonic rhythm, but then two of the four chords are the same.
Often the chords may be selected to fit a pre-conceived melody, but just as often it is the progression itself that gives rise to the melody.
Similar progressions abound in African popular music. They may be varied by the addition of sevenths (or other scale degrees) to any chord or by substitution of the relative minor of the IV chord to give, for example, I–ii–V. This sequence, using the ii chord, is also used cadentially in a common chord progression of jazz harmony, the so-called ii–V–I turnaround.
Three-chord progressions provide the harmonic foundation of much African and American popular music, and they occur sectionally in many pieces of classical music (such as the opening bars of Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony).
Where such a simple sequence does not represent the entire harmonic structure of a piece, it may readily be extended for greater variety. Frequently, an opening phrase has the progression I–IV–V–V, which ends on an unresolved dominant, may be "answered" by a similar phrase that resolves back onto the tonic chord, giving a structure of double the length:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:110px;"
| width="25%" |I
| width="25%" |IV
| width="25%" |V
| width="25%" |V
|-
|I
|IV
|V
|I
|}
Additionally, such a passage may be alternated with a different progression to give a simple binary or ternary form such as that of the popular 32-bar form (see musical form).
Blues changes
The 12-bar blues and its many variants use an elongated, three-line form of the I–IV–V progression that has also generated countless hit records, including the most significant output of rock and rollers such as Chuck Berry and Little Richard. In its most elementary form (and there are many variants), the chord progression is
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:110px;"
| width="25%" |I
| width="25%" |I
| width="25%" |I
| width="25%" |I
|-
|IV
|IV
|I
|I
|-
|V
|IV
|I
|I
|}
Blues progressions have also been subjected to densely chromatic elaboration, as in the Bird blues.
Steedman (1984) proposed that a set of recursive rewrite rules generate all well-formed transformations of jazz, both basic blues chord changes and slightly modified sequences (such as the "rhythm changes"). Important transformations include:
replacement of (or addition to) a chord with its dominant, subdominant or the tritone substitution.
use of chromatic passing chords.
extensively applying the ii–V–I turnaround.
chord alterations such as minor chords, diminished sevenths, etc.
1950s progression
Another common way of extending the I–IV–V progression is by adding the chord of the sixth scale degree, giving the sequence I–vi–IV–V or I–vi–ii–V, sometimes called the 50s progression or doo-wop progression.
This progression had been in use from the earliest days of classical music and then generated popular hits such as Rodgers and Hart's "Blue Moon" (1934) and Hoagy Carmichael's "Heart and Soul" (1938).
Taken up into the pop mainstream, it continued to be used sectionally, as in the last part of The Beatles' "Happiness Is a Warm Gun".
Circle progressions
Introducing the ii chord into these progressions emphasises their appeal as constituting elementary forms of circle progression. These, named for the circle of fifths, consist of "adjacent roots in ascending fourth or descending fifth relationship"—for instance, the sequence vi–ii–V–I ascends with each successive chord to one a fourth above the previous. Such a motion, based upon close harmonic relations, offers "undoubtedly the most common and the strongest of all harmonic progressions".
Short cyclical progressions may be derived by selecting a sequence of chords from the series completing a circle from the tonic through all seven diatonic chords:I–IV–viio–iii–vi–ii–V–IThis type of progression was much used by classical composers, who introduced increasingly subtle inflections. Particularly, substitution of major for minor chords giving, for example, I–VI–II–V allowed a more sophisticated chromaticism as well as the possibility of modulation. These harmonic conventions were taken up by American popular entertainers, giving rise to many variations on those harmonic staples of early jazz that have been dubbed the ragtime progression and the stomp progression. All such progressions may be found used sectionally, as for example in the much-used "rhythm changes" of George Gershwin's "I Got Rhythm".
Harmonizing the scale
As well as the cyclical underpinning of chords, the ear tends to respond well to a linear thread; chords following the scale upwards or downwards. These are often referred to as step progressions because they follow the steps of the scale, making the scale itself a bassline. In the 17th century, descending bass lines found favour for "divisions on the ground", so that Pachelbel's canon contains very similar harmonizations of the descending major scale.
At its simplest, this descending sequence may simply introduce an extra chord, either III or V, into the I–vi–IV–V type of sequence described above. This chord allows the harmonization of the seventh degree, and so of the bass line I–VII–VI....
The finale measures of the first movement of Ravel's Piano Concerto in G feature the harmonization of a descending hybrid scale (phrygo-major). In this special case, Ravel used a parallel series of major triads (G F E D C B A G).
Minor and modal progressions
Similar strategies to all the above, work equally well in minor modes: there have been one-, two-, and three-minor-chord songs, minor blues. A notable example of a descending minor chord progression is the four-chord Andalusian cadence, i–VII–VI–V.
Folk and blues tunes frequently use the Mixolydian scale, which has a flat seventh degree, altering the position of the three major chords to I–VII–IV. For example, if the major scale of C, which gives the three chords C, F and G on the first, fourth and fifth degrees, is played with G as the tonic, then the same chords will now appear on the first, fourth, and seventh degrees. A common chord progression with these chords is I-VII–IV-I, which also can be played as I-I-VII–IV or VII–IV-I-I.
The minor-third step from a minor key up to the relative major encouraged ascending scale progressions, particularly based on an ascending pentatonic scale. Typical of the type is the sequence i–III–IV (or iv)–VI.
According to Tom Sutcliffe:
This came about partly from the similarity of the blues scale to modal scales and partly from the characteristics of the guitar and the use of parallel major chords on the pentatonic minor scale. With barre chords on guitar, the same chord shape can be moved up and down the neck without changing the fingering. This phenomenon is also linked to the rise in use of power chords in various sub-genres of rock music.
See also
Chromatic mediant
Diatonic function
Ear training
List of chord progressions
List of songs containing the 50s progression
List of songs containing the I–V–vi–IV progression
Montgomery-Ward bridge
Passamezzo moderno
Passing chord
Root progressions
Sequence (music)
Twelve-bar blues
Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony
References
Further reading
Lloyd, Peter (2014). The Secret Life of Chords: A guide to chord progressions and composition. Australian eBook Publisher. .
Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). "Studying Popular Music". Philadelphia: Open University Press. .
Nettles, Barrie & Graf, Richard (1997). The Chord Scale Theory and Jazz Harmony. Advance Music, .
R., Ken (2012). DOG EAR Tritone Substitution for Jazz Guitar, Amazon Digital Services, Inc., ASIN: B008FRWNIW
Harmony
Jazz terminology
Musical terminology | wiki |
A lifting hook is a device for grabbing and lifting loads by means of a device such as a hoist or crane. A lifting hook is usually equipped with a safety latch to prevent the disengagement of the lifting wire rope sling, chain or rope to which the load is attached.
A hook may have one or more built-in pulley sheaves as a block and tackle to multiply the lifting force.
See also
References
American Society of Mechanical Engineers: ASME B30.10 "Hooks" (2014).
Lifting equipment | wiki |
Pastina (Italian: literally, "little pasta") is a variety of pasta consisting of tiny pieces of pasta, typically of a round (irregular) shape with a diameter of about 1.6 millimetres (1/16"). It is the smallest type of pasta produced. It is made of wheat flour and may also include egg. In Italy, pastina is a general term referring to many small shapes of pasta. In North America, however, the term pastina is usually used to refer to one type of pastina: "stellina."
Pastina is used in many different ways in Italian cuisine, including as an ingredient of soup, desserts, infant food and also, alone, as a distinct and unique pasta dish.
Ronzoni, the flagship brand of New World Pasta, discontinued its use of pastina in January 2023.
See also
List of pasta
Italian cuisine
References
Types of pasta
Italian cuisine | wiki |
Picture Perfect may refer to:
Film and television
Picture Perfect (1995 film), a comedy starring Dave Thomas and Mary Page Keller
Picture Perfect (1997 film), a romantic comedy starring Jennifer Aniston and Jay Mohr
Picture Perfect (2016 film), a Nigerian romantic drama film
"Picture Perfect!" (The Raccoons), an episode of The Raccoons
Literature
Picture Perfect (novel), a 1995 novel by Jodi Picoult
Picture Perfect, a novel based on the TV series Charmed
Music
Albums
Picture Perfect (12 Stones album), 2017
Picture Perfect (Every Avenue album), 2009
Picture Perfect (Soil album), 2009
Picture Perfect, by Ahmad Jamal, 2001
Picture Perfect, by Close to Home, 2006
Picture Perfect, by Rittz, 2020
Songs
"Picture Perfect" (Roll Deep song), 2012
"Picture Perfect" (Sevendust song), 2013
"Picture Perfect", by Angela Via released before her song "I Don't Care"
"Picture Perfect", by Chamillionaire from The Sound of Revenge
"Picture Perfect", by Chris Brown from Exclusive
"Picture Perfect!", by Jeffree Star from Cupcakes Taste Like Violence
"Picture Perfect", by Man Overboard from Man Overboard
"Picture Perfect", by Michael W. Smith from Change Your World
"Picture Perfect", by Nelly Furtado from Folklore
"Picture Perfect", by Wizkid from Sounds from the Other Side
"Picture Perfect (Freestyle)", by Jhené Aiko from Trip | wiki |
Ezra 1 is the first chapter of the Book of Ezra in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, or the book of Ezra–Nehemiah in the Hebrew Bible, which treats the book of Ezra and book of Nehemiah as one book. Jewish tradition states that Ezra is the author of Ezra-Nehemiah as well as the Book of Chronicles, but modern scholars generally believe that a compiler from the 5th century BCE (the so-called "Chronicler") is the final author of these books.
Ezra 1 contains a narrative of the Edict of Cyrus and the initial return of exiles to Judah led by Sheshbazzar as well as the restoration of the sacred temple vessels. It also introduces the section comprising chapters 1 to 6 describing the history before the arrival of Ezra in the land of Judah in 468 BCE. The opening sentence of this chapter (and this book) is identical to the final sentence of 2 Chronicles.
Cyrus Cylinder
The Cyrus Cylinder contains a statement related to the Cyrus's edict which gives the historical background to the Book of Ezra:
Cyrus's edict is significant to the return of the Jews, because it shows that they did not slip away from Babylon but were given official permission by the Persian king in the first year of his rule, and it is a specific fulfillment of the seventy years prophecy of Jeremiah (, ).
Text
The text is written in Biblical Hebrew and divided into 11 verses.
Textual witnesses
There is a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (B; B; 4th century), and Codex Alexandrinus (A; A; 5th century).
An ancient Greek book called 1 Esdras (Greek: Ἔσδρας Αʹ) containing some parts of 2 Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah is included in most editions of the Septuagint and is placed before the single book of Ezra–Nehemiah (which is titled in Greek: Ἔσδρας Βʹ). 1 Esdras 2:1-14 is an equivalent of Ezra 1:1-11 (Cyrus's edict).
An early manuscript containing the text of this chapter in Biblical Hebrew is the Codex Leningradensis (1008 CE). Since the anti-Jewish riots in Aleppo in 1947, the whole book of Ezra-Nehemiah has been missing from the text of the Aleppo Codex.
Biblical narrative
Ezra 1 starts by providing historical context of a real event: "the first year of Cyrus king of Persia", but immediately follows with the statement about Yahweh, who has the real control and even already speaks about this event before the birth of Cyrus (Isaiah 44:28; 45:13) and the fulfillment of his word through Jeremiah.
Verse 1
Verse 2
Verse 3
Verse 4
{{blockquote|And whoever is left in any place where he dwells, let the men of his place help him with silver and gold, with goods and livestock, besides the freewill offerings for the house of God which is in Jerusalem.}}
Verse 7
The Temple treasures that Nebuchadnezzar took away () are now to be returned to Jerusalem.
See also
Cyrus the Great in the Bible
Jerusalem
Mithredath
Zerubbabel
Related Bible parts: 2 Chronicles 36, Isaiah 44, Isaiah 45, Jeremiah 25, Jeremiah 29, Jeremiah 51
Notes
References
Sources
Brosius, Maria (ed.): The Persian Empire from Cyrus II to Artaxerxes I'' (2000, London Association of Classical Teachers (LACT) 16, London.
External links
Jewish translations:
Ezra - Chapter 1 (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Christian translations:
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
Book of Ezra Chapter 1. Bible Gateway
01 | wiki |
TIVA may refer to:
People
Tiva Ben-Yehuda or Netiva Ben-Yehuda (1928–2011), Israeli author, editor and media personality
Tiva, the portmanteau for characters Tony DiNozzo and Ziva David
Science and technology
TIVA, medical acronym for total intravenous anesthesia; see Remifentanil
Tiva species, see Thubana
Transcriptome in vivo analysis tag (TIVA tag), a molecular biology mRNA isolation technique
Other uses
Tiva TV, branding name for WRUA in Fajardo, Puerto Rico
See also
Tivaru
Tivat | wiki |
This is a list of public holidays in Ivory Coast.
Public holidays
Variable dates
2020
Easter Monday – April 13
Qadr Night (Revelation of the Quran) – May 20
Ascension Day – May 21
Korité (Breaking of the Ramadan fast) – May 24
Whit Monday – June 1
Tabaski (Feast of the Sacrifice) – starts July 31
Mawlid (Prophet's birthday) – starts at sundown, October 28
2021
Easter Monday – April 5
Qadr Night (Revelation of the Quran) – May 9
Ascension Day – May 13
Korité (Breaking of the Ramadan fast) – May 13
Whit Monday – May 29
Tabaski (Feast of the Sacrifice) – starts July 20
Mawlid (Prophet's birthday) – starts at sundown, October 18
2022
Easter Monday – April 18
Qadr Night (Revelation of the Quran) – April 29
Korité (Breaking of the Ramadan fast)– May 2
Whit Monday – June 6
Tabaski (Feast of the Sacrifice) – starts July 9
Mawlid (Prophet's birthday) – starts at sundown, October 7
2023
Easter Monday – April 10
Qadr Night (Revelation of the Quran) – April 17
Korité (Breaking of the Ramadan fast)– April 21
Whit Monday – May 29
Tabaski (Feast of the Sacrifice) – starts June 28
Mawlid (Prophet's birthday) – starts at sundown, September 26
2024
Easter Monday – April 1
Qadr Night (Revelation of the Quran) – April 6
Korité (Breaking of the Ramadan fast)– April 10
Whit Monday – May 20
Tabaski (Feast of the Sacrifice) – starts June 16
2025
Easter Monday – April 21
2026
Easter Monday – April 6
2027
Easter Monday – April 29
2028
Easter Monday – April 17
2029
Easter Monday – April 1
References
Ivorian culture
Ivory
Ivory Coast | wiki |
New Testament and Mythology: The Problem of Demythologizing the New Testament Message, often shortened to New Testament and Mythology, is an influential and controversial theological essay by Rudolf Bultmann, published in 1941. The essay is generally considered one of the defining theological works of the 20th century. In it, Bultmann stresses the need to understand the New Testament, particularly the Gospels and their account of Christ, as being mythological in nature.
References
Sources
Ogden, Schubert, Introduction to New Testament and Mythology, Fortress Press edition
1941 essays
1941 in Christianity
Mythology
New Testament | wiki |
Crystal Valley is a residential neighborhood located in Columbus, Georgia. It is located in the eastern section of the city.
Columbus metropolitan area, Georgia
Neighborhoods in Columbus, Georgia | wiki |
A perpend stone, perpend (parpen, parpend, perpin, and other spellings), through stone, bond stone, or tie stone is a stone that extends through an entire wall's width, from the outer to the inner wall. Such stones are especially used to lock two wall layers structurally together. Usually stone walls are built with two layers of stone, an inner and an outer layer, with the space between them sometimes filled with rubble.
The term perpend is also used to refer to a joint in brickwork also called a cross joint or, when extending through the entire wall, a transverse joint or perpend bond.
References
Stonemasonry
Building stone
Types of wall | wiki |
Woodlawn Estates is an upscale neighborhood located in Columbus, Georgia. In recent years, the neighborhood has had a real estate boom, with many houses built, most in the $250,000-$400,000 range.
References
Columbus metropolitan area, Georgia
Neighborhoods in Columbus, Georgia | wiki |
Han Gang may refer to:
Han Gang (athlete) (born 1978), Chinese marathon runner
Han Kang (born 1970), Korea writer
See also
Han River (Korea), a major river in South Korea known as the Hangang | wiki |
Events from the year 1785 in the Dutch Republic
Events
- Treaty of Fontainebleau (1785)
Births
Deaths
References
1785 in the Dutch Republic
1780s in the Dutch Republic
Years of the 18th century in the Dutch Republic | wiki |
Retail is the sale of goods and services to consumers, in contrast to wholesaling, which is sale to business or institutional customers. A retailer purchases goods in large quantities from manufacturers, directly or through a wholesaler, and then sells in smaller quantities to consumers for a profit. Retailers are the final link in the supply chain from producers to consumers.
Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Some of the earliest retailers were itinerant peddlers. Over the centuries, retail shops were transformed from little more than "rude booths" to the sophisticated shopping malls of the modern era. In the digital age, an increasing number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels, including both bricks and mortar and online retailing. Digital technologies are also affecting the way that consumers pay for goods and services. Retailing support services may also include the provision of credit, delivery services, advisory services, stylist services and a range of other supporting services.
Most modern retailers typically make a variety of strategic level decisions including the type of store, the market to be served, the optimal product assortment, customer service, supporting services, and the store's overall market positioning. Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel, and presentation.
Etymology
The word retail comes from the Old French verb tailler, meaning "to cut off, clip, pare, divide in terms of tailoring" (c. 1365). It was first recorded as a noun in 1433 with the meaning of "a sale in small quantities" from the Middle French verb retailler meaning "a piece cut off, shred, scrap, paring". At the present, the meaning of the word retail (in English, French, Dutch, German and Spanish) refers to the sale of small quantities of items to consumers (as opposed to wholesale).
Definition and explanation
Retail refers to the activity of selling goods or services directly to consumers or end-users. Some retailers may sell to business customers, and such sales are termed non-retail activity. In some jurisdictions or regions, legal definitions of retail specify that at least 80 percent of sales activity must be to end-users.
Retailing often occurs in retail stores or service establishments, but may also occur through direct selling such as through vending machines, door-to-door sales or electronic channels.
Although the idea of retail is often associated with the purchase of goods, the term may be applied to service providers that sell to consumers. Retail service providers include retail banking, tourism, insurance, private healthcare, private education, private security firms, legal firms, publishers, public transport, and others. For example, a tourism provider might have a retail division that books travel and accommodation for consumers plus a wholesale division that purchases blocks of accommodation, hospitality, transport, and sightseeing which are subsequently packaged into a holiday tour for sale to retail travel agents.
Some retailers badge their stores as "wholesale outlets" offering "wholesale prices." While this practice may encourage consumers to imagine that they have access to lower prices, while being prepared to trade-off reduced prices for cramped in-store environments, in a strictly legal sense, a store that sells the majority of its merchandise direct to consumers, is defined as a retailer rather than a wholesaler. Different jurisdictions set parameters for the ratio of consumer to business sales that define a retail business.
History
Retail markets have existed since ancient times. Archaeological evidence for trade, probably involving barter systems, dates back more than 10,000 years. As civilizations grew, barter was replaced with retail trade involving coinage. Selling and buying are thought to have emerged in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) in around the 7th-millennium BCE. In ancient Greece, markets operated within the agora, an open space where, on market days, goods were displayed on mats or temporary stalls. In ancient Rome, trade took place in the forum. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shop-front. Recent research suggests that China exhibited a rich history of early retail systems. From as early as 200 BCE, Chinese packaging and branding were used to signal family, place names and product quality, and the use of government imposed product branding was used between 600 and 900 CE. Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song Dynasty (960–1127), Chinese society developed a consumerist culture, where a high level of consumption was attainable for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite.
In Medieval England and Europe, relatively few permanent shops were to be found; instead, customers walked into the tradesman's workshops where they discussed purchasing options directly with tradesmen. In the more populous cities, a small number of shops were beginning to emerge by the 13th century. Outside the major cities, most consumable purchases were made through markets or fairs. Market-places appear to have emerged independently outside Europe. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul is often cited as the world's oldest continuously operating market; its construction began in 1455. The Spanish conquistadors wrote glowingly of markets in the Americas. In the 15th century, the Mexica (Aztec) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas.
By the 17th century, permanent shops with more regular trading hours were beginning to supplant markets and fairs as the main retail outlet. Provincial shopkeepers were active in almost every English market town. As the number of shops grew, they underwent a transformation. The trappings of a modern shop, which had been entirely absent from the sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century store, gradually made way for store interiors and shopfronts that are more familiar to modern shoppers. Prior to the eighteenth century, the typical retail store had no counter, display cases, chairs, mirrors, changing rooms, etc. However, the opportunity for the customer to browse merchandise, touch and feel products began to be available, with retail innovations from the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
By the late 18th century, grand shopping arcades began to emerge across Europe and in the Antipodes. A shopping arcade refers to a multiple-vendor space, operating under a covered roof. Typically, the roof was constructed of glass to allow for natural light and to reduce the need for candles or electric lighting. Some of the earliest examples of shopping arcade appeared in Paris, due to its lack of pavement for pedestrians. While the arcades were the province of the bourgeoisie, a new type of retail venture emerged to serve the needs of the working poor. John Stuart Mill wrote about the rise of the co-operative retail store, which he witnessed first-hand in the mid-nineteenth century.
The modern era of retailing is defined as the period from the industrial revolution to the 21st century. In major cities, the department store emerged in the mid- to late 19th century, and permanently reshaped shopping habits, and redefined concepts of service and luxury. Many of the early department stores were more than just a retail emporium; rather they were venues where shoppers could spend their leisure time and be entertained. Retail, using mail order, came of age during the mid-19th century. Although catalogue sales had been used since the 15th century, this method of retailing was confined to a few industries such as the sale of books and seeds. However, improvements in transport and postal services led several entrepreneurs on either side of the Atlantic to experiment with catalogue sales.
In the post-war period, an American architect, Victor Gruen developed a concept for a shopping mall; a planned, self-contained shopping complex complete with an indoor plaza, statues, planting schemes, piped music, and car-parking. Gruen's vision was to create a shopping atmosphere where people felt so comfortable, they would spend more time in the environment, thereby enhancing opportunities for purchasing. The first of these malls opened at Northland Mall near Detroit in 1954. Throughout the twentieth century, a trend towards larger store footprints became discernible. The average size of a U.S. supermarket grew from square feet in 1991 to square feet in 2000. By the end of the twentieth century, stores were using labels such as "mega-stores" and "warehouse" stores to reflect their growing size. The upward trend of increasing retail space was not consistent across nations and led in the early 21st century to a 2-fold difference in square footage per capita between the United States and Europe.
As the 21st century takes shape, some indications suggest that large retail stores have come under increasing pressure from online sales models and that reductions in store size are evident. Under such competition and other issues such as business debt, there has been a noted business disruption called the retail apocalypse in recent years which several retail businesses, especially in North America, are sharply reducing their number of stores, or going out of business entirely.
Retail strategy
The distinction between "strategic" and "managerial" decision-making is commonly used to distinguish "two phases having different goals and based on different conceptual tools. Strategic planning concerns the choice of policies aiming at improving the competitive position of the firm, taking account of challenges and opportunities proposed by the competitive environment. On the other hand, managerial decision-making is focused on the implementation of specific targets."
In retailing, the strategic plan is designed to set out the vision and provide guidance for retail decision-makers and provide an outline of how the product and service mix will optimize customer satisfaction. As part of the strategic planning process, it is customary for strategic planners to carry out a detailed environmental scan which seeks to identify trends and opportunities in the competitive environment, market environment, economic environment and statutory-political environment. The retail strategy is normally devised or reviewed every three to five years by the chief executive officer. The profit margins of retailers depend largely on their ability to achieve market competitive transaction costs.
The strategic retail analysis typically includes following elements:
Market analysis – Market size, stage of market, market competitiveness, market attractiveness, market trends
Customer analysis – Market segmentation, demographic, geographic, and psychographic profile, values and attitudes, shopping habits, brand preferences, analysis of needs and wants, and media habits
Internal analysis – Other capacities including human resource capability, technological capability, financial capability, ability to generate scale economies or economies of scope, trade relations, reputation, positioning, and past performance
Competition analysis – Availability of substitutes, competitor's strengths and weaknesses, perceptual mapping, competitive trends
Review of product mix – :: Sales per square foot, stock-turnover rates, profitability per product line
Review of distribution channels – Lead-times between placing order and delivery, cost of distribution, cost efficiency of intermediaries
Evaluation of the economics of the strategy – Cost-benefit analysis of planned activities
At the conclusion of the retail analysis, retail marketers should have a clear idea of which groups of customers are to be the target of marketing activities. Not all elements are, however, equal, often with demographics, shopping motivations, and spending directing consumer activities. Retail research studies suggest that there is a strong relationship between a store's positioning and the socio-economic status of customers. In addition, the retail strategy, including service quality, has a significant and positive association with customer loyalty. A marketing strategy effectively outlines all key aspects of firms' targeted audience, demographics, preferences. In a highly competitive market, the retail strategy sets up long-term sustainability. It focuses on customer relationships, stressing the importance of added value, customer satisfaction and highlights how the store's market positioning appeals to targeted groups of customers.
Retail marketing
A retail mix is devised for the purpose of coordinating day-to-day tactical decisions. The retail marketing mix typically consists of six broad decision layers including product decisions, place decisions, promotion, price, personnel and presentation (also known as physical evidence). The retail mix is loosely based on the marketing mix, but has been expanded and modified in line with the unique needs of the retail context. A number of scholars have argued for an expanded marketing, mix with the inclusion of two new Ps, namely, Personnel and Presentation since these contribute to the customer's unique retail experience and are the principal basis for retail differentiation. Yet other scholars argue that the Retail Format (i.e. retail formula) should be included. The modified retail marketing mix that is most commonly cited in textbooks is often called the 6 Ps of retailing (see diagram at right).The primary product-related decisions facing the retailer are the product assortment (what product lines, how many lines and which brands to carry); the type of customer service (high contact through to self-service) and the availability of support services (e.g. credit terms, delivery services, after sales care). These decisions depend on careful analysis of the market, demand, competition as well as the retailer's skills and expertise.
Customer service is the "sum of acts and elements that allow consumers to receive what they need or desire from [the] retail establishment." Retailers must decide whether to provide a full service outlet or minimal service outlet, such as no-service in the case of vending machines; self-service with only basic sales assistance or a full service operation as in many boutiques and speciality stores. In addition, the retailer needs to make decisions about sales support such as customer delivery and after sales customer care.
Place decisions are primarily concerned with consumer access and may involve location, space utilisation and operating hours. Retailers may consider a range of both qualitative and quantitative factors to evaluate to potential sites under consideration. Macro factors include market characteristics (demographic, economic and socio-cultural), demand, competition and infrastructure (e.g. the availability of power, roads, public transport systems). Micro factors include the size of the site (e.g. availability of parking), access for delivery vehicles. A major retail trend has been the shift to multi-channel retailing. To counter the disruption caused by online retail, many bricks and mortar retailers have entered the online retail space, by setting up online catalogue sales and e-commerce websites. However, many retailers have noticed that consumers behave differently when shopping online. For instance, in terms of choice of online platform, shoppers tend to choose the online site of their preferred retailer initially, but as they gain more experience in online shopping, they become less loyal and more likely to switch to other retail sites. Online stores are usually available 24 hours a day, and many consumers across the globe have Internet access both at work and at home.
The broad pricing strategy is normally established in the company's overall strategic plan. In the case of chain stores, the pricing strategy would be set by head office. Broadly, there are six approaches to pricing strategy mentioned in the marketing literature: operations-oriented, revenue-oriented, customer-oriented, value-based, relationship-oriented, and socially-oriented. When decision-makers have determined the broad approach to pricing (i.e., the pricing strategy), they turn their attention to pricing tactics. Tactical pricing decisions are shorter term prices, designed to accomplish specific short-term goals. Pricing tactics that are commonly used in retail include discount pricing, everyday low prices, high-low pricing, loss leaders, product bundling, promotional pricing, and psychological pricing. Retailers must also plan for customer preferred payment modes – e.g. cash, credit, lay-by, Electronic Funds Transfer at Point-of-Sale (EFTPOS). All payment options require some type of handling and attract costs. Contrary to common misconception, price is not the most important factor for consumers, when deciding to buy a product.
Because patronage at a retail outlet varies, flexibility in scheduling is desirable. Employee scheduling software is sold, which, using known patterns of customer patronage, more or less reliably predicts the need for staffing for various functions at times of the year, day of the month or week, and time of day. Usually needs vary widely. Conforming staff utilization to staffing needs requires a flexible workforce which is available when needed but does not have to be paid when they are not, part-time workers; as of 2012 70% of retail workers in the United States were part-time. This may result in financial problems for the workers, who while they are required to be available at all times if their work hours are to be maximized, may not have sufficient income to meet their family and other obligations. Retailers can employ different techniques to enhance sales volume and to improve the customer experience, such as Add-on, Upsell or Cross-sell; Selling on value; and knowing when to close the sale.
Transactional marketing aims to find target consumers, then negotiate, trade, and finally end relationships to complete the transaction. In this one-time transaction process, both parties aim to maximize their own interests. As a result, transactional marketing raises follow-up problems such as poor after-sales service quality and a lack of feedback channels for both parties. In addition, because retail enterprises needed to redevelop client relationships for each transaction, marketing costs were high and customer retention was low. All these downsides to transactional marketing gradually pushed the retail industry towards establishing long-term cooperative relationships with customers. Through this lens, enterprises began to focus on the process from transaction to relationship.
While expanding the sales market and attracting new customers is very important for the retail industry, it is also important to establish and maintain long term good relationships with previous customers, hence the name of the underlying concept, "relational marketing". Under this concept, retail enterprises value and attempt to improve relationships with customers, as customer relationships are conducive to maintaining stability in the current competitive retail market, and are also the future of retail enterprises.
Presentation refers to the physical evidence that signals the retail image. Physical evidence may include a diverse range of elements – the store itself including premises, offices, exterior facade and interior layout, websites, delivery vans, warehouses, staff uniforms. The environment in which the retail service encounter occurs is sometimes known as the retail servicescape. The store environment consists of many elements such as aromas, the physical environment (furnishings, layout, and functionality), ambient conditions (lighting, air temperature, and music) as well as signs, symbols, and artifacts (e.g. sales promotions, shelf space, sample stations, visual communications). Retail designers pay close attention to the front of the store, which is known as the decompression zone. In order to maximize the number of selling opportunities, retailers generally want customers to spend more time in a retail store. However, this must be balanced against customer expectations surrounding convenience, access and realistic waiting times. The way that brands are displayed is also part of the overall retail design. Where a product is placed on the shelves has implications for purchase likelihood as a result of visibility and access. Ambient conditions, such as lighting, temperature and music, are also part of the overall retail environment. It is common for a retail store to play music that relates to their target market.
Shopper profiles
Two different strands of research have investigated shopper behaviour. One is primarily concerned with shopper motivations. The other stream of research seeks to segment shoppers according to common, shared characteristics. To some extent, these streams of research are inter-related, but each stream offers different types of insights into shopper behaviour.
Babin et al. carried out some of the earliest investigations into shopper motivations and identified two broad motives: utilitarian and hedonic. Utilitarian motivations are task-related and rational. For the shopper with utilitarian motives, purchasing is a work-related task that is to be accomplished in the most efficient and expedient manner. On the other hand, hedonic motives refer to pleasure. The shopper with hedonic motivations views shopping as a form of escapism where they are free to indulge fantasy and freedom. Hedonic shoppers are more involved in the shopping experience.
Many different shopper profiles can be identified. Retailers develop customised segmentation analyses for each unique outlet. However, it is possible to identify a number of broad shopper profiles. One of the most well-known and widely cited shopper typologies is that developed by Sproles and Kendal in the mid-1980s. Sproles and Kendall's consumer typology has been shown to be relatively consistent across time and across cultures. Their typology is based on the consumer's approach to making purchase decisions.
Quality conscious/Perfectionist: Quality-consciousness is characterised by a consumer's search for the very best quality in products; quality conscious consumers tend to shop systematically making more comparisons and shopping around.
Brand-conscious: Brand-consciousness is characterised by a tendency to buy expensive, well-known brands or designer labels. Those who score high on brand-consciousness tend to believe that the higher prices are an indicator of quality and exhibit a preference for department stores or top-tier retail outlets.
Recreation-conscious/Hedonistic: Recreational shopping is characterised by the consumer's engagement in the purchase process. Those who score high on recreation-consciousness regard shopping itself as a form of enjoyment.
Price-conscious: A consumer who exhibits price-and-value consciousness. Price-conscious shoppers carefully shop around seeking lower prices, sales or discounts and are motivated by obtaining the best value for money
Novelty/fashion-conscious: characterised by a consumer's tendency to seek out new products or new experiences for the sake of excitement; who gain excitement from seeking new things; they like to keep up-to-date with fashions and trends, variety-seeking is associated with this dimension.
Impulsive: Impulsive consumers are somewhat careless in making purchase decisions, buy on the spur of the moment and are not overly concerned with expenditure levels or obtaining value. Those who score high on impulsive dimensions tend not to be engaged with the object at either a cognitive or emotional level.
Confused (by overchoice): characterised by a consumer's confusion caused by too many product choices, too many stores or an overload of product information; tend to experience information overload.
Habitual/brand loyal: characterised by a consumer's tendency to follow a routine purchase pattern on each purchase occasion; consumers have favourite brands or stores and have formed habits in choosing; the purchase decision does not involve much evaluation or shopping around.
Some researchers have adapted Sproles and Kendall's methodology for use in specific countries or cultural groups. Consumer decision styles are important for retailers and marketers because they describe behaviours that are relatively stable over time and for this reason, they are useful for market segmentation.
Types of retail outlets
Retail formats (also known as retail formulas) influence the consumer's store choice and addresses the consumer's expectations. At its most basic level, a retail format is a simple marketplace, that is; a location where goods and services are exchanged. In some parts of the world, the retail sector is still dominated by small family-run stores, but large retail chains are increasingly dominating the sector, because they can exert considerable buying power and pass on the savings in the form of lower prices. Many of these large retail chains also produce their own private labels which compete alongside manufacturer brands. Considerable consolidation of retail stores has changed the retail landscape, transferring power away from wholesalers and into the hands of the large retail chains. In Britain and Europe, the retail sale of goods is designated as a service activity. The European Service Directive applies to all retail trade including periodic markets, street traders and peddlers.
Retail stores may be classified by the type of product carried. Softline retailers sell goods that are consumed after a single-use, or have a limited life (typically under three years) in they are normally consumed. Soft goods include clothing, other fabrics, footwear, toiletries, cosmetics, medicines and stationery. Grocery stores, including supermarkets and hypermarkets, along with convenience stores carry a mix of food products and consumable household items such as detergents, cleansers, personal hygiene products. Retailers selling consumer durables are sometimes known as hardline retailers – automobiles, appliances, electronics, furniture, sporting goods, lumber, etc., and parts for them. Specialist retailers operate in many industries such as the arts e.g. green grocers, contemporary art galleries, bookstores, handicrafts, musical instruments, gift shops.
Types of retail outlets by marketing strategy include shopping arcade, anchor store, bazaar, boutique, category killer, chain store, co-operative store convenience store, department stores, discount stores, e-tailer, general store, give-away shop, hawkers also known as peddlers, costermongers or street vendors, high street store, hypermarket, pop-up retail, marketplace, market square, shopping center, speciality store, supermarket variety stores, vending machine, no frills, warehouse clubs, warehouse stores, automated retail, big-box stores, second-hand shop, and charity shop. Retailers can opt for a format as each provides different retail mix to its customers based on their customer demographics, lifestyle and purchase behavior. An effective format will determine how products are display products, as well as how target customers are attracted.
Challenges
To achieve and maintain a foothold in an existing market, a prospective retail establishment must overcome the following hurdles:
regulatory barriers including:
restrictions on real-estate purchases, especially as imposed by local governments and against "big-box" chain retailers
restrictions on foreign investment in retailers, in terms of both absolute amount of financing provided and percentage share of voting stock (e.g. common stock) purchased
unfavorable taxation structures, especially those designed to penalize or keep out "big box" retailers (see "Regulatory" above)
absence of developed supply-chain and integrated IT management
high competitiveness among existing market participants and resulting low profit margins, caused in part by:
constant advances in product design resulting in constant threat of product obsolescence and price declines for existing inventory
lack of a properly-educated and/or -trained work-force, often including management, caused in part by loss in business
lack of educational infrastructure enabling prospective market entrants to respond to the above challenges
direct e-tailing (for example, through the Internet) and direct delivery to consumers from manufacturers and suppliers, cutting out any retail middle man.
Method
When discussing the impact of technology on shopping and retail, e-commerce is often the first thing that comes to mind for retailers. However, technologies such as big data, artificial intelligence, computer vision and the Internet of Things have used data to transform every part of the shopping experience, from browsing to checkout.
It is important for organizations to embrace digital disruption in order to gain a competitive advantage. When an industry experiences digital disruption, it typically signals that consumer needs are shifting. Retailers enhance their analytics process and make better informed decisions thanks to big data, artificial intelligence, computer vision, and the Internet of Things. The use of data by retailers is mostly evident in the following aspects, based on the above-mentioned new technologies:
Enhance marketing by Personalizing customer experience
Optimize supply chain management
Adjust prices to maximize profits
Consolidation
Among retailers and retails chains a lot of consolidation has appeared over the last couple of decades. Between 1988 and 2010, worldwide 40,788 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of US$2.255 trillion have been announced. The largest transactions with involvement of retailers in/from the United States have been: the acquisition of Albertson's Inc. for US$17 billion in 2006, the merger between Federated Department Stores Inc with May Department Stores valued at 16.5 bil. USD in 2005 – now Macy's, and the merger between Kmart Holding Corp and Sears Roebuck & Co with a value of US$10.9 billion in 2004.
Between 1985 and 2018 there have been 46,755 mergers or acquisitions conducted globally in the retail sector (either acquirer or target from the retail industry). These deals cumulate to an overall known value of around US$2,561 billion. The three major Retail M&A waves took place in 2000, 2007 and lately in 2017. However the all-time high in terms of number of deals was in 2016 with more than 2,700 deals. In terms of added value 2007 set the record with the US$225 billion.
Here is a list of the top ten largest deals (ranked by volume) in the Retail Industry:
Statistics
Global top ten retailers
As of 2016, China was the largest retail market in the world.
Competition
Retail stores may or may not have competitors close enough to affect their pricing, product availability, and other operations. A 2006 survey found that only 38% of retail stores in India believed they faced more than slight competition. Competition also affected less than half of retail stores in Kazakhstan, Bulgaria, and Azerbaijan. In all countries the main competition was domestic, not foreign.
Retail trade provides 9% of all jobs in India and 14% of GDP.
Statistics for national retail sales
United States
The National Retail Federation and Kantar annually rank the nation's top retailers according to sales. The National Retail Federation also separately ranks the 100 fastest-growing U.S. retailers based on increases in domestic sales.
Since 1951, the U.S. Census Bureau has published the Retail Sales report every month. It is a measure of consumer spending, an important indicator of the US GDP. Retail firms provide data on the dollar value of their retail sales and inventories. A sample of 12,000 firms is included in the final survey and 5,000 in the advanced one. The advanced estimated data is based on a subsample from the US CB complete retail & food services sample.
Retail is the largest private-sector employer in the United States, supporting 52 million working Americans.
Central Europe
In 2011, the grocery market in six countries of Central Europe was worth nearly €107bn, 2.8% more than the previous year when expressed in local currencies. The increase was generated foremost by the discount stores and supermarket segments, and was driven by the skyrocketing prices of foodstuffs. This information is based on the latest PMR report entitled Grocery retail in Central Europe 2012
World
National accounts show a combined total of retail and wholesale trade, with hotels and restaurants. in 2012 the sector provides over a fifth of GDP in tourist-oriented island economies, as well as in other major countries such as Brazil, Pakistan, Russia, and Spain. In all four of the latter countries, this fraction is an increase over 1970, but there are other countries where the sector has declined since 1970, sometimes in absolute terms, where other sectors have replaced its role in the economy. In the United States the sector has declined from 19% of GDP to 14%, though it has risen in absolute terms from $4,500 to $7,400 per capita per year. In China the sector has grown from 7.3% to 11.5%, and in India even more, from 8.4% to 18.7%. Emarketer predicts China will have the largest retail market in the world in 2016.
In 2016, China became the largest retail market in the world.
In the Republic of Armenia, retail trade has been increasing recently. In October 2022, it increased by 23.1% year by year, which was the most considerable rise since April 2021, faster than the 20.7 percent increase recorded a month earlier. Retail dropped by 1.9% after accumulating 2.1%in the earlier month. For the first 10 months of 2022, retail sales increased by 15.5% by measuring the exact time of 2021. Among its bordering countries, on retail trade percentage of GDP, Armenia ranks more increased than Turkey, but it is still lower than Georgia.
See also
Types of sales person:
Types of store or shop:
Influential thinkers in sales and retail:
Dale Carnegie: author and lecturer; proponent of salesmanship, public speaking and self-improvement
E. St. Elmo Lewis: salesmen for NCR and developer of the AIDA model of selling
William Thomas Rawleigh: founder of Rawleigh's company with one of the largest travelling sales teams in the United States
Harry Gordon Selfridge: founder of UK Selfridges; redefined shopping away from essential errand to a pleasurable activity; was noted for introducing a touch of theatre and celebrity appearances to department stores; also wrote the book, The Romance of Commerce published in 1918.
Walter Dill Scott: psychologist and author; wrote a number of books on the psychology of selling in the early twentieth century
Thomas J. Watson: salesman at NCR and CEO of IBM; often described as the "greatest American salesman"
References
Further reading
Adburgham, A., Shopping in Style: London from the Restoration to Edwardian Elegance, London, Thames and Hudson, 1979
Alexander, A., "The Study of British Retail History: Progress and Agenda", in The Routledge Companion to Marketing History, D.G. Brian Jones and Mark Tadajewski (eds.), Oxon, Routledge, 2016, pp. 155–72
Feinberg, R.A. and Meoli, J., [Online: "A A Brief History of the Mall Brief History of the Mall"], in Advances in Consumer Research, Volume 18, Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon (eds.), Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991, pp. 426–27
Hollander, S. C., "Who and What are Important in Retailing and Marketing History: A Basis for Discussion", in S.C. Hollander and R. Savitt (eds.) First North American Workshop on Historical Research in Marketing, Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 1983, pp. 35–40.
Jones, F., "Retail Stores in the United States, 1800–1860", Journal of Marketing, October 1936, pp. 135–40
Kowinski, W. S., The Malling of America: An Inside Look at the Great Consumer Paradise, New York, William Morrow, 1985
Furnee, J. H., and Lesger, C. (eds), The Landscape of Consumption: Shopping Streets and Cultures in Western Europe, 1600–1900, Springer, 2014
MacKeith, M., The History and Conservation of Shopping Arcades, Mansell Publishing, 1986
Nystrom, P. H., "Retailing in Retrospect and Prospect", in H.G. Wales (ed.) Changing Perspectives in Marketing, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 19951, pp. 117–38.
Stobard, J., Sugar and Spice: Grocers and Groceries in Provincial England, 1650–1830, Oxford University Press, 2016
Underhill, Paco, Call of the Mall: The Author of Why We Buy on the Geography of Shopping, Simon & Schuster, 2004
External links
ECRoPEDIA – Free Global Collection of Retail/FMCG Best practices by ECR Community
Investopedia.The Industry Handbook: The Retailing Industry
National Retail Federation (U.S.-based trade association)
Marketing strategy
Merchandising | wiki |
Hooters is the trade name of two American restaurant chains.
Hooters or Hooter may also refer to:
The Hooters, an American rock band
Hooters Casino Hotel, in Las Vegas, Nevada
Hooters Air, a defunct airline
Miami Hooters, a defunct Arena Football League team
An owl
A vehicle horn
An American slang term for large female breasts | wiki |
Smiler(s) may refer to:
Characters
"Smiler" Grogan, from the 1963 film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World
Clem "Smiler" Hemmingway, from the British sitcom Last of the Summer Wine
The Smiler, from the comics series Transmetropolitan
Smiler, main antagonist of The Emoji Movie
Music
Smiler (musician), a British rapper
Smiler (album), an album by Rod Stewart
Smilers, an Estonian rock band named for Stewart's album
Smiler, a 1970s UK band whose members included Iron Maiden founder Steve Harris
Other uses
Smilers sheet, Britain's first personalised postage stamp sheet, issued in 2000
The Smiler, a ride at Alton Towers, England.
Smiler, a strip in the British comic Whoopee!
Smiler, nickname for fans of singer-songwriter Miley Cyrus
See also
Smile (disambiguation)
Smiley (disambiguation) | wiki |
Trident, in comics, may refer to:
Trident Comics, a former publisher of British comic books
Trident (UK comics), an anthology comic book title
Trident (DC Comics), a DC Comics character
Trident Corporation, a fictional corporation in the manga Spriggan
See also
Trident (disambiguation) | wiki |
Lunge refer to:
Lunge (exercise), a weight training exercise
Lunge (fencing), the fundamental offensive fencing technique
Longeing, also spelled Lungeing or Lunging, a technique for training horses where a horse is asked to work at the end of a long line
Lunge (surname), a surname
Lunge feeding, an extreme feeding method used by some whales
"LUNGE", a song by Susumu Hirasawa from Detonator Orgun 2
Places
Lunge, Angola, a commune in the municipality of Bailundo, province of Huambo, Angola
See also
Longe (disambiguation)
Lung (disambiguation) | wiki |
"Goin' Home" is a song recorded by the English rock band the Rolling Stones. Written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, it was the longest popular music song at the time, coming in at 11 minutes and 35 seconds, and was the first extended rock improvisation released by a major recording act. It was included as the sixth track on side one of the United Kingdom version and the fifth track on side two of the American version of the band's 1966 studio album Aftermath.
Writing and recording
"Goin Home" was written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, and recorded at RCA Studios in Hollywood from 8 to 10 December 1965. The recording is a long blues-inspired track that is notable as one of the first songs by a rock and roll band to break the ten-minute mark and the longest recorded song on any Stones album. While many bands had stretched a song's duration in live performances, and Bob Dylan was known to write long songs (such as Highlands), "Goin' Home" was the first "jam" recorded expressly for an album. In an interview with the magazine Rolling Stone, Richards said:
Jack Nitzsche, a regular Stones contributor throughout the 1960s, here performs percussion.
The song, while lengthy, is built around a common theme, as opposed to later Stones songs of great length like "Midnight Rambler" or "Can't You Hear Me Knocking" which are divided into distinct sections punctuated by differing instrumentations. "Goin' Home" plays as a long jam, eventually deconstructing Richards' guitar piece, Jagger's lyrics, and Watts' drum lines which build in power as the song progresses. Jagger's lyrics are called "a basic expression of [his] pining for his girl and determining to go home and get him some. It's the bumpety-bump, ascending chorus of announcing his intentions to go home that's the most 'pop' element of the song." A bitter-sweet ending is in the final lyrics: "Come on, little girl, you may look sweet, but I know you ain't".
Legacy
According to the music historian Nicholas Schaffner, at 11 minutes and 35 seconds, "Goin' Home" displaced the 1965 Bob Dylan song "Desolation Row" (11:21) as the longest recording in popular music. He also cites it as "the first extended improvisation released by a major rock group—though by no means the last."
Personnel
According to authors Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon, except where noted:
The Rolling Stones
Mick Jagger vocals
Keith Richards lead guitar, rhythm guitar
Brian Jones harmonica
Bill Wyman bass
Charlie Watts brushed bass drum
Additional musicians
Ian Stewart piano
Jack Nitzsche tambourine
Notes
Sources
External links
Complete Official Lyrics
The Rolling Stones songs
1966 songs
Songs written by Jagger–Richards
Song recordings produced by Andrew Loog Oldham | wiki |
Rummel v. Estelle, 445 U.S. 263 (1980), (sometimes erroneously cited as Rummel v. Estell) was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld a life sentence with the possibility of parole under Texas' three strikes law for a felony fraud crime, where the offense and the defendant's two prior offenses involved approximately $230 of fraudulent activity.
Background
Defendant William James Rummel had, prior to the offense in question, twice pleaded guilty to felony charges involving property:
In 1964, Rummel pleaded guilty to fraudulent use of a credit card to obtain $80 worth of goods or services. As the amount in question exceeded $50, under Texas law the offense was classified as a felony punishable by 2–10 years in the (then called) Texas Department of Corrections (TDC). Rummel was sentenced to three years.
In 1969, Rummel pleaded guilty to passing a forged check in the amount of $28.36. The offense was classified as a felony by 2–5 years in the TDC. Rummel was sentenced to four years.
The third offense, in 1973, involved Rummel refusing to return $120.75 received as payment for repairs of an air conditioning unit that were not performed at all. By itself, the crime was designated as "felony theft" and punishable by 2–10 years in the TDC. However, the prosecution sought to enhance the sentence under Texas' three strikes law, citing the 1964 and 1969 convictions as proof of Rummel's being a repeat offender; the law required a mandatory sentence of life with the possibility of parole if the enhancement allegation were found to be true.
A jury found Rummel guilty of felony theft and also found as true the allegation that Rummel had been convicted of two prior felonies; the trial court imposed the mandatory sentence in accordance with the law.
Prior appeals
The Texas appellate courts rejected Rummel's appeal of the conviction as well as subsequent collateral attacks on his sentence. Rummel then filed a federal habeas corpus petition in the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas, which also denied relief, on the basis that the Supreme Court had already ruled on the constitutionality of Texas' three strikes law, as well as agreeing with the State that the sentence was not truly "life" as Rummel would be eligible for parole in 12 years.
However, a divided panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit reversed the sentence on grounds that it "was 'so grossly disproportionate' to his offenses as to constitute cruel and unusual punishment." But the Court of Appeals sitting en banc reversed the panel's ruling, on the basis that Rummel would be eligible for parole; six judges dissented on the basis that Rummel had no enforceable right to parole and that prior Supreme Court rulings mandated overturning the sentence.
Opinions of the Court
Majority opinion
Justice Rehnquist delivered the Court opinion affirming Rummel's life sentence.
At the outset, Rehnquist noted that Rummel did not challenge the general constitutionality of the three strikes law, only its application to his case, nor did Rummel challenge the classification of his current offense or either of his prior two offenses as felonies.
The Court then noted that in Graham v. West Virginia, a 1912 case which involved an individual convicted of three separate counts of horse thievery totaling $235 (only slightly more than the $230 total of Rummel's three offenses), Graham's life sentence was upheld.
Rummel then attempted to challenge his sentence "on an alleged 'nationwide' trend away from mandatory life sentences and toward 'lighter, discretionary sentences'", and provided "detailed charts and tables documenting the history of recidivist statutes in the United States since 1776" in an attempt to show that "[n]o jurisdiction in the United States or the Free World punishes habitual offenders as harshly as Texas." The Court noted, however, that Washington and West Virginia also imposed mandatory life sentences for habitual offenders, so Texas was not as harsh as other states.
The Court also noted that, although Rummel had no Constitutional right to a parole of his sentence, Texas had "a relatively liberal policy of granting "good time" credits to its prisoners, a policy that historically has allowed a prisoner serving a life sentence to become eligible for parole in as little as 12 years." The Court noted that this sentence was still not as harsh as Mississippi law, which imposed a life without parole sentence for three felony convictions where one was a violent felony, and upheld it.
Concurring opinion
Justice Stewart (who also joined the majority opinion) noted that "[i]f the Constitution gave me a roving commission to impose upon the criminal courts of Texas my own notions of enlightened policy, I would not join the Court's opinion", indicating that he would not have upheld the sentence. However, as the question posed was "whether those procedures fall below the minimum level the [Constitution] will tolerate", Justice Stewart was "constrained to join the opinion and judgment of the Court."
Dissenting opinion
Justice Powell delivered a dissenting opinion, arguing that "(i) the penalty for a noncapital offense may be unconstitutionally disproportionate, (ii) the possibility of parole should not be considered in assessing the nature of the punishment, (iii) a mandatory life sentence is grossly disproportionate as applied to petitioner, and (iv) the conclusion that this petitioner has suffered a violation of his Eighth Amendment rights is compatible with principles of judicial restraint and federalism."
Justice Powell focused the majority of his dissent on the second and third points. He noted that prior Court opinions ruled that prisoners had no Constitutional right to parole; thus, consideration of the possibility of parole should not be considered in determining whether a sentence was disproportionate. Justice Powell noted that "parole is simply an act of executive grace", and that in June 1979, the Governor of Texas refused to grant parole to 79% of state prisoners for which the parole board recommended release.
Justice Powell also noted that 3/4 of the state legislatures had never instituted a three strikes law imposing a mandatory life sentence for two or more nonviolent offenses, and of the 12 states that had, only three (Texas, West Virginia, and Washington) still retained the law. Specifically, Justice Powell noted that the states of Kansas and Kentucky changed their laws to a more flexible sentencing scheme. Justice Powell also noted that the federal habitual offender law also did not impose a mandatory life sentence.
Subsequent events
Rummel later filed another habeas corpus challenge to his sentence, this time claiming ineffective assistance of counsel. On October 3, 1980, the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas granted Rummel's petition for a writ of habeas corpus on the grounds of ineffective assistance of counsel. Rummel then pleaded guilty to theft by false pretenses and was sentenced to time served under the terms of a plea-bargaining agreement.
Texas would later amend its three strikes law to remove the mandatory life imprisonment rule, changing it to permit a jury to return a sentence of life (with the possibility of parole) or a sentence of a term between 25 and 99 years.
The Rummel case is commonly used by Texas courts as a proportionality test (if requested on appeal, usually by the defendant) to determine whether, under the Eighth Amendment, a sentence is excessive. Almost always the ruling is that a sentence is not excessive, given that Rummel's life sentence for a small felony conviction which only involved misappropriation of a small amount of property, enhanced by his two prior convictions both involving similar offenses and both involving small amounts of property, was upheld by the United States Supreme Court. The case has also been used by Federal courts for proportionality test purposes, again with usually the same ruling that the sentence is not excessive.
See also
Three strikes law
Capital punishment
Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution
References
External links
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Burger Court
Penal system in Texas | wiki |
Borderlands Legends is a third-person shooter developed by Gearbox Software and published by 2K Games for iOS. It was released in 2012 to coincide with the release of Borderlands 2.
Reception
The game received "mixed" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. IGN said that the game was "a good idea dragged down by its inconsistent execution and lack of content."
References
External links
2012 video games
2K games
Borderlands (series) games
Gearbox Software games
IOS games
IOS-only games
Third-person shooters
Video games developed in the United States | wiki |
Underwater Warrior is a 1958 CinemaScope film telling the story of the US Navy's Underwater Demolition Teams between World War II and the Korean War. It was based on the 1957 nonfiction book The Naked Warriors by Commander Francis Douglas Fane. Dan Dailey played Fane with two naval officer divers also appearing in the film, Lt Alex Fane, Francis's son and Lt Jon Lindbergh, son of Charles Lindbergh. Producer Ivan Tors subsequently produced the syndicated television series Sea Hunt, also on underwater diving themes.
Cast
Dan Dailey as Cmdr. David Forest
James Gregory as Lt. William Arnold, MD
Ross Martin as Sgt. Joe O'Brien
Raymond Bailey as Adm. Ashton
Alex Gerry as Captain of Battleship
Claire Kelly as Anne Winnmore
Reception
According to MGM records the film earned $405,000 in the US and Canada and $390,000 elsewhere, making a profit of $34,000.
See also
List of American films of 1958
References
External links
Underwater Warrior at TCMDB
1958 films
1958 drama films
American black-and-white films
American war drama films
CinemaScope films
1950s English-language films
Films directed by Andrew Marton
Films about the United States Navy in World War II
Films based on non-fiction books
Films scored by Harry Sukman
Korean War films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Underwater action films
1950s American films | wiki |
Watercolor Fairies is an educational art book published 2003 a compilation of the 21st century contemporary visual art movement of fairies and fantasy featuring the art of the foremost artists of this new movement.
Books about visual art | wiki |
Dipole moment may refer to:
Electric dipole moment, the measure of the electrical polarity of a system of charges
Transition dipole moment, the electrical dipole moment in quantum mechanics
Molecular dipole moment, the electric dipole moment of a molecule.
Bond dipole moment, the measure of polarity of a chemical bond
Electron electric dipole moment, the measure of the charge distribution within an electron
Magnetic dipole moment, the measure of the magnetic polarity of a system of charges
Electron magnetic moment
Nuclear magnetic moment, the magnetic moment of an atomic nucleus
Topological dipole moment, the measure of the topological defect charge distribution
The first order term (or the second term) of the multipole expansion of a function
The dielectric constant of a solvent; the measure of its capacity to break the covalent molecules into ions
See also
Dipole (disambiguation)
Moment (disambiguation) | wiki |
On Probation is a 1983 animated short film created by Aardman Animations. It is one of five films released as part of the Conversation Pieces series.
References
1981 animated films
1981 films
1980s animated short films
Aardman Animations short films
British animated short films
Films directed by Peter Lord
1980s English-language films
1980s British films | wiki |
Rococo Variations may refer to:
Variations on a Rococo Theme by Tchaikovsky
Rococo Variations (ballet) by Christopher Wheeldon made to the Tchaikovsky Variations on a Rococo Theme | wiki |
ADERRA may refer to:
Automobile Dealer Economic Rights Restoration Act, US legislation introduced in the 111th United States Congress to restore the economic rights of car dealers
Aderra inc., a music technology company based in Los Angeles and London | wiki |
This is a list of exhibitions by Independent Curators International since 1975.
List
External links
Past exhibitions, Independent Curators International
American contemporary art
Arts-related lists | wiki |
The Coso Range of eastern California is located immediately south of Owens Lake, east of the Sierra Nevada, and west of the Argus Range. The southern part of the range lies in the restricted Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake and the northern part of the range is designated as the Coso Range Wilderness. The mountains include Coso Peak, at above sea level, as well as Silver Peak and Silver Mountain, both more than in height.
The range is underlain principally by Mesozoic granitic rocks that are partly veneered by upper Cenozoic volcanic rocks of the Coso Volcanic Field. The volcanic units (in apparent decreasing age) include (1) widespread basaltic flows, (2) dacitic flows and tuff, and (3) rhyolitic domes and flows and basaltic cones and flows. These volcanic rocks are encompassed by an oval-shaped zone of late Cenozoic ring faulting that measures about east to west and north to south and that defines a structural basin. Most of the Coso Range and a slice of the adjacent Sierra Nevada lie within this ring structure. The youngest volcanic rocks are Pleistocene and, with associated active fumaroles, occupy a north-trending structural and topographic ridge about near the center of the basin. The ring structure and associated volcanic rocks suggest a large underlying magma chamber that has periodically erupted lava to the surface during the past few million years.
Prehistory
Numerous rock art sites (the Coso Rock Art District) are found in the range, left by the ancient Coso people. The prehistoric Coso inhabitants exported volcanic glass (Coso obsidian) and this highly valued toolstone has been found as far distant as the Channel Islands of California. Little Petroglyph Canyon and Renegade Canyon within the Range are open for guided tours through the Maturango Museum in Ridgecrest, California.
See also
Fossil Falls
List of mountain ranges of California
Notes
References
California Road and Recreation Atlas. 2005, pg. 87
C. Michael Hogan. 2008. Morro Creek, ed. by A. Burnham
Alan P. Garfinkel, 2007, Archaeology and Rock Art of the Eastern Sierra and Great Basin Frontier, Maturango Museum, Ridgecrest,California.
Mountain ranges of the Mojave Desert
Volcanoes of Inyo County, California
Igneous petrology of California
Mountain ranges of Inyo County, California
Mesozoic magmatism
Pliocene volcanism
Pleistocene volcanism | wiki |
A sound trademark or sound logo or audio logo is a trademark where sound is used to perform the trademark function of uniquely identifying the commercial origin of products or services.
In recent times, sounds have been increasingly used as trademarks in the marketplace. However, it has traditionally been difficult to protect sounds as trademarks through registration, as a sound was not considered to be a 'trademark'. This issue was addressed by the World Trade Organization Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, which broadened the legal definition of trademark to encompass "any sign...capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertaking" (article 15(1)).
Despite the recognition which must be accorded to sound trademarks in most countries, the graphical representation of such marks sometimes constitutes a problem for trademark owners seeking to protect their marks, and different countries have different methods for dealing with this issue.
Sound branding
Sound branding (also known as audio branding, music branding, sonic branding, acoustic branding) is “the strategic use of sound … in positively differentiating a product or service, enhancing recall, creating preference, building trust, and even increasing sales.” Audio branding can tell you whether the brand is romantic and sensual, family-friendly and everyday, indulgent and luxurious, without ever hearing a word or seeing a picture. And it gives a brand an additional way to break through audiences’ shortened attention spans.
Sound logos
The sound logo (or audio mnemonic) is one of the tools of sound branding, along with the jingle, brand music, and brand theme. A sound logo (or audio logo or sonic logo) is a short distinctive melody or other sequence of sound, mostly positioned at the beginning or ending of a commercial. It can be seen as the acoustic equivalent of a visual logo. Often a combination of both types of logo is used to enforce the recognition of a brand. An example is the T-Mobile logo and ringtone composed by Lance Massey, the Intel logo composed by Walter Werzowa, or the Michelin logo composed by Sixième Son.
The sound logo leads to learning effects on consumer's perception of a certain product. A melody is the most memorable sequence of sound, since, when a melody starts, the human brain automatically expects the ending. However, some brands realize the importance the sound their brand can make and attempt to capitalize on its own uniqueness. A good example is the motorcycle brand Harley-Davidson, which, in 1994, filed a sound trademark application for its distinctive V-twin engine sound. It realized that if it could capture its own sound, it could distinguish the brand at every point of customer interaction. Just like a visual logo, the most essential qualities of a sound logo are uniqueness, memorability, and relevancy to the brand promise.
Radio and television stations create their own audio identities using melodic themes to strengthen their brand. Notable examples include the short variations of the BBC Radio 2 or Classic FM jingles. In recent years, television station idents have also introduced their own audio identities to strengthen their brand recognitions.
There are typically four to six steps involved in creating a sound logo:
The audio strategy development phase where the brand essence and other foundational elements is confirmed.
The audio touch point analysis phase where all places the brand will come in contact with customers and other stakeholders is identified.
The concept phase where an audio collage is created to help define texture, rhythm, melody, harmony, and instrumentation that best convey the brand values and then the unique sound or piece of music is composed to convey the distinctive brand essence and values.
The test and refine phase to where the combination of sound elements are optimized to ensure that they communicate essence, values, and promise of the brand. In this phase, psycho-acoustic research would be conducted, if needed.
The implementation stage to create the adaptations for each touch point.
The handover phase where an audio style guide is developed to help the supervisor or manager of the brand recommend, plan, and supervise the installation of the audio brand elements into devices, expo booths, displays, call centers, and other places where it will be used. Additionally, the licensing or ownership of the branding elements or all applicable usage rights, depending on the agreement, are formally transferred to brand.
Once completed, the audio elements should be managed just like the rest of a company’s brand assets.
Environmental sound design
Creating a brand experience using sound is also within the area of sound branding. The opportunities for creating a sound branding experience that conveys a brand essence and soul is possible. Bentley Motors, for instance, recently looked to create a unique brand experience by replacing all interior mechanical sounds with sound that had been created for their Continental GT car. Roland Garros, home of the French Open created an audio identity that is used in its facilities and played during award ceremonies as well as opening and closing ceremonies.
In a retail environments, sound branding extends to the use of sound in order to enhance the consumer experience and influence behavior . “For instance, an academic study that took place in a Scotland supermarket found that sales of wines displayed side-by-side and priced similarly responded to music. On days when French music played, French wines outsold German wines. German wines, however, outsold French ones on days when typical German music was playing.
British department store chain Selfridges is one of the notable brands to have enjoyed success with this approach, creating distinct consumer ‘zones’ within its stores, which change visually and sonically so customers know they have passed into a new department. These zones are often tailored to suit a particular product, customer profile, season or even times of the day and week. The Swedish Mall, Emporia, has also found success using soundscapes to help guide customers. Unibail Rodamco upscale malls have an audio identity that is adapted to their parking lots, entryways, walkways, even chairs and plant walls and extends into their advertising.
Branding sound technology and devices
Sound design for mobile phones, ATMs, laptop computers, PDAs, and countless other devices can improve the user experience by making tasks easier and more enjoyable. These sounds can also reveal something about the company that created the experience (and, in the case of personalized ringtones, something about the user themselves).
Sound branding also encompasses the use of targeted audio messages by organizations to communicate with customers over the telephone, known as on-hold marketing or on-hold messaging. These messages are typically deployed on an organizations interactive voice response (IVR) switchboard system or when customers are placed on hold and incorporate short, informative voice messages often accompanied by music.
A study commissioned by audio branding specialist PHMG provided insight into consumer perceptions of on-hold marketing. It revealed 70 percent of consumers are put on hold for more than 50 percent of their calls and 68 percent of consumers are put on hold for longer than one minute. When on hold, 73 percent of callers want to hear something other than beeps or silence and 76 percent preferred to hear something other than Muzak.
Companies integrate sound branding and audio styles into marketing efforts in several ways — by including the sounds at key points in advertising materials via video-based or sound-based ads both online and via traditional channels like TV and radio. Newer technologies for small recordable devices like the Botski, which is a sticker-based recordable device that can be applied to substrates like paper, cardboard or other packaging and or marketing materials to help brands differentiate themselves beyond visual mediums.
Other forms of sound in branding
Sound branding encompasses many other tactics intended to convey organizational or product identity (who an organization is and what it stands for); enhance consumers' experience of a product or service; or extend an organization's relationship with its audience.
Another form of sound branding involves an organization's public association with or sponsorship of a musical enterprise—a non-profit music organization, for instance, or perhaps a music artist or group of artists. For example, some companies completely unrelated to music offer free music downloads on their websites. Ostensibly intended to demonstrate the sponsoring organization's good will from a cultural patronage stand point, practices like these also brand the organization by calling public attention to its beliefs, its values, and its aesthetic sensibilities.
It is arguable that sound branding is now using ‘subliminal’ brand placement in pop song lyrics to echo a corporate slogan, a company’s ‘Unique Selling Point’ or ‘brand values’ (rather than the ‘old fashioned’ mentioning of brands / products directly). An example of this would be Pharrell Williams’s 2005 song ‘Can I Have It Like That’ (featuring Gwen Stefani), with the chorus which echoed the Burger King advertising slogan "Have It Your Way”.
Audio marketing
Audio marketing, also known as on-hold marketing or on-hold messaging, is increasingly being seen as an important element of audio branding. It involves the creation of brand-congruent voice and music tracks, which are used by companies to communicate marketing messages to customers over the telephone. Typically, these messages are played while a customer is waiting on hold or while they are being transferred. They are also frequently used as part of interactive voice response systems designed to handle large volumes of calls.
Different attributes of voice and music, including tempo, tone, pitch and volume, are all taken into account in order to create messaging that reinforce the values conveyed through a company's visual branding.
Changes in consumer perceptions towards audio marketing have played a large part in its adoption. Negative perceptions were traditionally attached to on-hold marketing but a more recent survey conducted by CNN found that 70% of callers in the United States who are made to hold the line in silence will hang up within 60 seconds, while further research by PHMG found 73 percent of consumers want to hear something more than beeps or silence on hold.
Registration of sound marks in different jurisdictions
Australia
Graphic representation
In Australia, sound trademarks are generally acceptable if they can be represented by musical notation. According to the Australian trademarks Office, an application for a sound trademark which cannot be graphically represented with musical notation must include the following requirements.
a graphic representation of the mark (e.g. "CLIP CLOP MOO");
a clear and concise description of the trademark (examples are given below);
The trademark is a sound mark. It comprises the sound of dogs barking to the traditional tune "Greensleeves" as rendered in the audio tape accompanying the application.
The trademark consists of the sound of two steps taken by a cow on pavement, followed by the sound of a cow mooing (clip, clop, MOO) as rendered in the recording accompanying the application.
The trademark consists of the sound of a soprano voice singing wordlessly to the tune represented in the musical score attached to the application. The trademark is demonstrated in the recording accompanying the application form.
The trademark consists of a repeated rapid tapping sound made by a wooden stick tapping on a metal garbage can lid which gradually becomes louder over approximately 10 seconds duration. The sound is demonstrated in the recordings accompanying the application.
a recording of the trademark which can be played back on media which is easily and commonly accessible.
Other requirements are set out in the trademarks Office Manual of Practice and Procedure issued by IP Australia.
European Union
In the European Union, Article 4 of Council Regulation (EC) No. 40-94 of 20 December 1993 ("signs of which a Community trademark may consist") relevantly states that any CTM may consist of "any signs capable of being represented graphically...provided that such signs are capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings". In Shield Mark BV vs Joost Kist (case C-283/01) the EcJ basically repeats the criteria from Sieckmann v German Patent Office (case C-273/00) that graphical representation, preferably means by images, lines or characters, and that the representation must be clear, precise, self-contained, easily accessible, intelligible, durable and objective.
This definition generally encompasses sound marks, and therefore an applicant for a CTM may use musical notation to graphically represent their trademark. A piece of music—a tune, or a ring tone on a telephone—can be easily registered as a trademark (provided, of course, that it meets the Community trademark tests for registrability and distinctiveness). While tunes are capable of registration, before 2005 noises were not. The sound of a dog barking or the crash of surf cannot be recorded in musical notation and sonograms were not accepted by the OHIM trademark registry. A change in legislation occurred in 2005 so that now the Office accepts sonograms as a graphical representation of a trademark if they are accompanied by an MP3 sound file when filing a trademark electronically.
United States
In the United States, the test for whether a sound can serve as a trademark "depends on [the] aural perception of the listener which may be as fleeting as the sound itself unless, of course, the sound is so inherently different or distinctive that it attaches to the subliminal mind of the listener to be awakened when heard and to be associated with the source or event with which it struck".
This was the fairly strict test applied by the US Trademark Trial and Appeal Board in the case of General Electric Broadcasting Co., 199 USPQ 560, in relation to the timed toll of a ship's bell clock.
More famously, Harley-Davidson attempted to register as a trademark the distinctive "chug" of a Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine. In 1994, the company filed its application with the following description: "The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant's motorcycles, produced by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use." Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed oppositions against the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use the same crankpin V-twin engine which produces the same sound. After six years of litigation, with no end in sight, in early 2000, Harley-Davidson withdrew their application.
Other companies have been more successful in registering their distinctive sounds: MGM and their lion's roar; the NBC chimes; famous basketball team the Harlem Globetrotters and their theme song "Sweet Georgia Brown"; Intel and the three-second chord sequence used with the Pentium processor; THX and its "Deep Note"; Federal Signal Corporation and the sound of their "Q2B" fire truck siren; AT&T and the spoken letters "AT&T" accompanied by music; RKO with a combined moving image and sound mark depicting the RKO Pictures radio tower transmitting a Morse-code like signal; and 20th Century Studios with the famous fanfare composed by Alfred Newman.
See also
Producer tag – a common form of auditory branding in hip hop music
Notes
References
Cornelius Ringe (2020): Audio Branding Guide. Publisher: Radiozentrale Germany.
Bronner, Kai / Hirt, Rainer (2009): Audio Branding. Brands, Sound and Communication, Nomos, Baden-Baden.
Bronner, Kai / Hirt, Rainer (2007): Audio-Branding. Entwicklung, Anwendung, Wirkung akustischer Identitäten in Werbung, Medien und Gesellschaft [Development, Usage and Effect of Acoustic Identities in Advertising, Media and Society], Verlag Reinhard Fischer, München (German, 2 articles in English).
Communicate magazine (2010): Sonic Branding, Cravenhill Publishing
Groves, John (2008): "Sound Branding – Strategische Entwicklung von Markenklang". Marken-Management 2008/2009, - Jahrbuch für Strategie und Praxis der Markenführung, Henning Meyer (Ed.), Deutscher Fachverlag 2007.
Groves, John (2011): "ComMUSICation – From Pavlov’s Dog to Sound Branding" (English). Editor: Oak Tree Press, Cork, Ireland, 2011.
Jackson, Daniel (2004): Sonic Branding: An Introduction, Palgrave Macmillan.
Kusatz, Herwig (2007): Akustische Markenführung – Markenwerte gezielt hörbar machen, in: transfer – Werbeforschung & Praxis, 1/2007, S. 50-52.
Langeslag, Patrick/ Hirsch, Wilbert (2004): Acoustic Branding: Neue Wege für Musik in der Markenkommunikation, in: Brandmeyer, K./ Deichsel, A./ Prill, C. (Hrsg.): Jahrbuch Markentechnik 2004/2005, Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main
Ringe, C. (2005): Audio Branding, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, Berlin (German).
Spitzer, Manfred (2005): Musik im Kopf – Hören, Musizieren, Verstehen und Erleben im neuronalen Netzwerk, 1. Aufl., 5. Nachdr., New York : Schattauer (German).
Steiner, Paul (2009): Sound Branding – Grundlagen der Akustischen Markenführung, Gabler Verlag, Wiesbaden,
Treasure, Julian (2007): Sound Business, Management Books 2000.
Andrew, Diey (2009) Creative Review primer on designing sonics for products
Further reading
"A Quacking Kazoo Sets Off a Squabble" article by Jesse McKinley in The New York Times June 2, 2009
External links
International Sound Awards: What is Audio Branding?
The Non-Traditional Trade Mark Archives
The fresh version of Non-Traditional Trade Mark Archives under publications
Article on the registration of sound trademarks in the European Union
Trademark law | wiki |
Platanthera hookeri, otherwise known as Hooker's orchid or Hooker's bog orchid, is a perennial wildflower in the genus Platanthera that can be found in temperate regions of North America ranging from Iowa to Newfoundland.
Characteristics
Hooker's orchid prefers partial shade and is found in dry or mesic forests and either deciduous or coniferous woodlands.
Leaf structure
Basal and opposite, the two leaves for this orchid are found nearly flat on the ground. The leaves are round in shape with the edges and surface being smooth but wrinkled.
Pollination and flowers
Hooker's orchid flowers take bloom in June and July and are pollinated by skippers and nocturnal moths. Though the flowers are hook-like in shape, the plant is actually named after William Jackson Hooker (1785-1865). The plant typically has between 6 and 25 yellow-green, bractless flowers with the lateral petals and the dorsal sepal converging towards each other while the labellum curves upward.
Uses
The roots of Platanthera hookeri are used to calm the nerves, to relieve urinary and gastric issues, and as a stimulant.
References
hookeri | wiki |
There are multiple types of snow barriers, sometimes known as snow-supporting structures, in use to lessen the damaging impact that snow can have on human development:
Snow shed, a structure designed to collect snow on top, allowing people to pass safely below. Frequently used in mountainous areas
Avalanche net, a netting designed to slow the motion of snow and prevent avalanches
Snow fence, a fencing designed to cause snow drifts down wind, so the snow drifts don't instead happen in an undesired area
Snow guard, a barrier installed on roofs to prevent snow and ice from falling on people below.
See also
Snow bridge, a natural feature
Avalanche control | wiki |
Ticarcillin/clavulanic acid, or co-ticarclav, is a combination antibiotic consisting of ticarcillin, a β-lactam antibiotic, and clavulanic acid, a β-lactamase inhibitor. This combination results in an antibiotic with an increased spectrum of action and restored efficacy against ticarcillin-resistant bacteria that produce certain β-lactamases.
References
Combination antibiotics | wiki |
A duty (from "due" meaning "that which is owing"; , past participle of devoir; , whence "debt") is a commitment or expectation to perform some action in general or if certain circumstances arise. A duty may arise from a system of ethics or morality, especially in an honor culture. Many duties are created by law, sometimes including a codified punishment or liability for non-performance. Performing one's duty may require some sacrifice of self-interest.
Cicero, an early Roman philosopher who discusses duty in his work “On Duty", suggests that duties can come from four different sources:
as a result of being a human
as a result of one's particular place in life (one's family, one's country, one's job)
as a result of one's character
as a result of one's own moral expectations for oneself
The specific duties imposed by law or culture vary considerably, depending on jurisdiction, religion, and social normalities.
Civic duty
Duty is also often perceived as something owed to one's country (patriotism), or to one's homeland or community. Civic duties could include:
Obey the law
Pay taxes
Provide for a common defense, should the need arise
Enroll to vote, and vote at all elections and referendums (unless there is a reasonable excuse such as a religious objection, being overseas, or illness on polling day)
Serve on a jury, if called upon
Go to the aid of victims of accidents and street crime and testifying as a witness later in court
Report contagious illnesses or pestilence to public-health authorities
Volunteer for public services (e.g. life-saving drills)
Donate blood periodically or when needed
Give time to voice advice on a relevant field of expertise, benefits, workplace improvements and on how it is conducted or run
Duty of revolution against an unjust government
Duties of employment
Specific obligations arise in the services performed by a minister of a church, by a soldier, or by any employee or servant.
Examples:
Dereliction of duty is an offense in U.S. military law
Duty to protect, in medicine
In loco parentis, for schools
Professional responsibility for lawyers
Legal duties
Examples of legal duties include:
Duty of care
Duty of candour
Duty to defend and duty to settle, in insurance
Duty to rescue
Duty to retreat
Duty to report a felony
Duty to vote (in countries with mandatory voting)
Duty to warn
Fiduciary duties
Duty to care for children as legal guardian (opposite of child neglect)
Special duties created by a contract
In loco parentis (duty like a parent to child towards nonhuman entities, such as animals, river, environment, etc. e.g. by treating them as legal person.
Filial duty
In most cultures, children are expected to take on duties in relation to their families. This may take the form of behaving in such a way that upholds the family's honor in the eyes of the community, entering into arranged marriages that benefit the family's status, or caring for ailing relatives. This family-oriented sense of duty is a particularly central aspect to the teachings of Confucius, and is known as xiao, or filial piety. As such, the duties of filial piety have played an enormous role in the lives of people in eastern Asia for centuries. For example, the painting Lady Feng and the Bear, from ancient China, depicts the heroic act of a consort of the emperor placing herself between her husband and a rampaging bear. This is meant to be taken as an example of admirable filial behavior. Filial piety is considered so important that in some cases, it outweighs other cardinal virtues: In a more modern example, "concerns with filial piety of the same general sort that motivate women to engage in factory work in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and elsewhere in Asia are commonly cited by Thai prostitutes as one of their primary rationales for working in the skin trade". The importance of filial piety can be expressed in this quote from the Analects of Confucius: "Yu Tzu said, 'It is rare for a man whose character is such that he is good as a son and obedient as a young man to have the inclination to transgress against his superiors; it is unheard of for one who has no such inclination to be inclined to start a rebellion. The gentleman devotes his efforts to the roots, for once the roots are established, the Way will grow there from. Being good as a son and obedient as a young man is, perhaps, the root of a man's character'".
In various cultures
Duty varies between different cultures and continents. Duty in Asia and Latin America is commonly more heavily weighted than in Western culture. According to a study done on attitudes toward family obligation:
"Asian and Latin American adolescents possessed stronger values and greater expectations regarding their duty to assist, respect, and support their families than their peers with European backgrounds".
The deeply rooted tradition of duty among both Asian and Latin American cultures contributes to much of the strong sense of duty that exists in comparison to western cultures. Michael Peletz discusses the concept of duty in his book Gender, Sexuality, and Body Politics in Modern Asia:
"Notions of filial duty … are commonly invoked to mobilize the loyalties, labor power, and other resources children in the ostensible interests of the household and, in some cases, those of the lineage clan as a whole. Doctrines of filial piety … attuned to them may thus be a source of great comfort and solace to the elders but they can also be experienced as stressful, repressive, or both by those who are enjoined to honor their parents’ (and grandparents’) wishes and unspoken expectations".
An arranged marriage is an example of an expected duty in Asia and the Middle East. In an arranged marriage relating to duty, it is expected that the wife will move in with the husband's family and household to raise their children. Patrilocal residence is usual; rarely does the man move in with the woman, or is the married couple allowed to start their own household and life somewhere else. They need to provide for the entire family in labor and care for the farms and family. Older generations rely heavily on the help from their children's and grandchildren's families. This form of duty is in response to keeping the lineage of a family intact and obliging to the needs of elders.
Criticisms of the concept
Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche is among the fiercest critics of the concept of duty. "What destroys a man more quickly", he asks, "than to work, think, and feel without inner necessity, without any deep personal desire, without pleasure—as a mere automaton of “duty”?" (The Antichrist, § 11)
Nietzsche claims that the task of all higher education is "to turn men into machines". The way to turn men into machines is to teach them to tolerate boredom. This is accomplished, Nietzsche says, by means of the concept of duty. (Twilight of the Idols, “Skirmishes of an untimely man” § 9.29)
Arthur Schopenhauer's writings, among them On the Basis of Morality, had a profound effect on Nietzsche and led him to a series of inversions to show that morality was not based in "compassion or sympathy" but in life overcoming itself through the will to power. Among these inversions "duty" and "pity," from Immanuel Kant and Schopenhauer respectively.
Ayn Rand
Ayn Rand, a youthful admirer of Nietzsche, anchored her morality against Kant's notion of duty. "In a deontological theory, all personal desires are banished from the realm of morality; a personal desire has no moral significance, be it a desire to create or a desire to kill. For example, if a man is not supporting his life from duty, such a morality makes no distinction between supporting it by honest labor or by robbery. If a man wants to be honest, he deserves no moral credit; as Kant would put it, such honesty is 'praiseworthy,' but without 'moral import.'"
See also
Deontological ethics
Dharma
Filial piety
Mitzvah
Morality
References
External links
Duty and Moral Worth
Contract law
Deontological ethics
Ethical principles
Ethics
Tort law
Virtue | wiki |
Southeast Division – jedna z dywizji znajdujących się w konferencji wschodniej w NBA. Obecnymi zespołami są: Atlanta Hawks, Charlotte Hornets, Miami Heat, Orlando Magic, Washington Wizards.
Mistrzowie dywizji
Zwycięzcy
10: Miami Heat
4: Orlando Magic
1: Atlanta Hawks
1: Washington Wizards
Dywizje National Basketball Association | wiki |
Ariane van Oranje-Nassau (2007) | wiki |
Thomas Becket School may refer to one of the following British schools named after St Thomas Becket:
Thomas Becket Catholic School, a secondary school in Northampton, Northamptonshire.
Thomas A Becket Middle School, a middle school in Worthing, West Sussex.
St Thomas à Becket Catholic Comprehensive School, secondary school in Wakefield, West Yorkshire | wiki |
Monponsett Pond Seaplane Base is a privately owned, public-use seaplane base located two miles (3 km) northwest of the central business district of Halifax, a town in Plymouth County, Massachusetts, United States.
Facilities and aircraft
Monponsett Pond Seaplane Base has two landing areas:
Runway 10/28: 3,200 x 300 ft. (975 x 91 m), Surface: Water
Runway 17/35: 4,600 x 500 ft. (1,402 x 152 m), Surface: Water
For the 12-month period ending May 1, 2005, the airport had 162 general aviation aircraft operations.
References
External links
Seaplane bases in the United States
Airports in Plymouth County, Massachusetts | wiki |
A drop-leaf table is a table that has a fixed section in the center and a hinged section (leaf) on either side that can be folded down (dropped). If the leaf is supported by a bracket when folded up, the table is simply a drop-leaf table; if the leaf is supported by legs that swing out from the center, it is known as a gateleg table. Depending on the style of drop-leaf or gateleg tables, the leaves vary from coming almost down to the floor to only coming down slightly.
The usual purpose of a drop-leaf table is to save space when the table is not in use. Typical examples of drop-leaf tables are: dining tables, night stands, side tables, coffee tables, and desks.
Drop-leaf tables were found mostly in England where they date back to the late sixteenth century; Elizabethan era and Jacobean era examples are still extant.
References
Tables (furniture) | wiki |
Yemen does not have any permanent rivers, but does have numerous wadis, which is an either permanently or intermittently dry riverbed. This is a list of wadis in Yemen.
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries indented under each larger stream's name.
Red Sea (Tihamah)
Wadi Harad
Wadi Mawr
Wadi Akhraf
Wadi Haydan
Wadi Surdud
Wadi Siham
Wadi Rima
Wadi Zabid
Wadi Mawza
Wadi Bani Khawlan
Wadi De Nachib
wadi alwoja raimah
Gulf of Aden
Wadi Harim
Wadi Tuban
Wadi Bana
Wadi Hassan
Wadi Ahwar (Wadi Jurrah)
Wadi Milh (Wadi Ar Ruqub)
Wadi Mayfa‘ah
Wadi Amaqin
Wadi Hada
Wadi Hajr
Wadi Huwayrah
Wadi al Masilah
Wadi Hibun
Wadi Hamir
Wadi Hayfari
Wadi Tabaqim
Wadi Sana
Wadi Adim
Wadi Hadramawt (Hadhramaut)
Wadi Sarr
Wadi Amd
Wadi al Jiz
Wadi Dawan (Dhahawn)
Wadi Kidyut
Wadi Mahrat
Wadi Tinhalin
Rub' al-Khali
Wadi Jawf
Wadi Raghwan
Wadi al Kharid
Wadi Abrad
Wadi as Sudd
Wadi Harib
Wadi Dumays
Wadi Bayhan
Wadi Markhah
Wadi Makhyah (Wadi as Sidarah)
Wadi Qinab
Wadi Aywat al Manahil
Wadi Armah
Wadi Dahyah
Wadi Arabah
Wadi Rakhawt
Wadi Mitan
Wadi Shihan
Wadi Hat
See also
List of wadis of Oman
Wildlife of Yemen
References
Yemen
Wadis | wiki |
North American was a Great Lakes steamship built by the Great Lakes Engineering Works at Ecorse, Michigan, in 1913 for the Chicago, Duluth & Georgian Bay Transit Company. The vessel was launched on January 16, 1913, and was the older of two near-sister ships, the newer one being SS South American.
North American was in length, had a beam, and drew She had a 2,200 indicated horsepower quadruple expansion steam engine and three coal-burning Scotch boilers. In 1923 the boilers were converted to burn oil.
In 1963, North American was sold to the Canadian Holiday Company of Erie, Pennsylvania. The company used her in cross-lake service between Erie and Port Dover, Ontario, Canada, for one year until she was retired in 1964. After being retired from service, North American was involved in purchasing deals of uncertain nature, and was finally sold at public auction to the Seafarers International Union of North America in 1967 for use as a training ship at Piney Point, Maryland.
While North American was in the North Atlantic Ocean under tow to Piney Point, she unexpectedly sank off Massachusetts on September 4, 1967, 25 nautical miles (29 miles; 46 km) northeast of Nantucket Light.
In July 2006, a research team aboard Quest Marine’s research vessel Quest located the North American close to the edge of the continental shelf, approximately off the New England coast in of water.
References
External links
Marine Historical Society of Detroit: SS North American
Great Lakes ships
Shipwrecks of the Massachusetts coast
Passenger ships of the United States
1913 ships
Maritime incidents in 1967
Ships built in Ecorse, Michigan
Passenger ships of the Great Lakes | wiki |
Himatsuri may refer to:
Himatsuri (film), 1985 Japanese drama film
Himatsuri (professional wrestling) | wiki |
This article presents the discography of the French pop rock singer Calogero.
Albums
Studio albums
Live albums
Compilation albums
Singles
Promotional singles
DVD
Tours
Live 1.0
References
Discographies of French artists
Pop music discographies | wiki |
Unidirectional may refer to:
simplex communication, in communications theory
Half-duplex signaling behavior, using ITU standards
Uni-directional vehicle, a railcar with controls at one end only | wiki |
The Willow song is an Elizabethan folk song used by Shakespeare in his play Othello.
Willow song may also refer to:
the "Willow song" from Otello (Rossini)
the "Willow song" from Otello (Verdi) | wiki |
Ventricular fibrillation (V-fib or VF) is an abnormal heart rhythm in which the ventricles of the heart quiver. It is due to disorganized electrical activity. Ventricular fibrillation results in cardiac arrest with loss of consciousness and no pulse. This is followed by sudden cardiac death in the absence of treatment. Ventricular fibrillation is initially found in about 10% of people with cardiac arrest.
Ventricular fibrillation can occur due to coronary heart disease, valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathy, Brugada syndrome, long QT syndrome, electric shock, or intracranial hemorrhage. Diagnosis is by an electrocardiogram (ECG) showing irregular unformed QRS complexes without any clear P waves. An important differential diagnosis is torsades de pointes.
Treatment is with cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and defibrillation. Biphasic defibrillation may be better than monophasic. The medication epinephrine or amiodarone may be given if initial treatments are not effective. Rates of survival among those who are out of hospital when the arrhythmia is detected is about 17% while in hospital it is about 46%.
Signs and symptoms
Ventricular fibrillation is a cause of cardiac arrest. The ventricular muscle twitches randomly rather than contracting in a co-ordinated fashion (from the apex of the heart to the outflow of the ventricles), and so the ventricles fail to pump blood around the body – because of this, it is classified as a cardiac arrest rhythm, and patients in V-fib should be treated with cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and prompt defibrillation. Left untreated, ventricular fibrillation is rapidly fatal as the vital organs of the body, including the heart, are starved of oxygen, and as a result patients in this rhythm will not be conscious or responsive to stimuli. Prior to cardiac arrest, patients may complain of varying symptoms depending on the underlying cause. Patients may exhibit signs of agonal breathing, which to a layperson can look like normal spontaneous breathing, but is a sign of hypoperfusion of the brainstem.
It has an appearance on electrocardiography of irregular electrical activity with no discernable pattern. It may be described as 'coarse' or 'fine' depending on its amplitude, or as progressing from coarse to fine V-fib. Coarse V-fib may be more responsive to defibrillation, while fine V-fib can mimic the appearance of asystole on a defibrillator or cardiac monitor set to a low gain. Some clinicians may attempt to defibrillate fine V-fib in the hope that it can be reverted to a cardiac rhythm compatible with life, whereas others will deliver CPR and sometimes drugs as described in the advanced cardiac life support protocols in an attempt to increase its amplitude and the odds of successful defibrillation.
Causes
Ventricular fibrillation has been described as "chaotic asynchronous fractionated activity of the heart" (Moe et al. 1964). A more complete definition is that ventricular fibrillation is a "turbulent, disorganized electrical activity of the heart in such a way that the recorded electrocardiographic deflections continuously change in shape, magnitude and direction".
Ventricular fibrillation most commonly occurs within diseased hearts, and, in the vast majority of cases, is a manifestation of underlying ischemic heart disease. Ventricular fibrillation is also seen in those with cardiomyopathy, myocarditis, and other heart pathologies. In addition, it is seen with electrolyte imbalance, overdoses of cardiotoxic drugs, and following near drowning or major trauma. It is also notable that ventricular fibrillation occurs where there is no discernible heart pathology or other evident cause, the so-called idiopathic ventricular fibrillation.
Idiopathic ventricular fibrillation occurs with a reputed incidence of approximately 1% of all cases of out-of-hospital arrest, as well as 3–9% of the cases of ventricular fibrillation unrelated to myocardial infarction, and 14% of all ventricular fibrillation resuscitations in patients under the age of 40. It follows then that, on the basis of the fact that ventricular fibrillation itself is common, idiopathic ventricular fibrillation accounts for an appreciable mortality. Recently described syndromes such as the Brugada Syndrome may give clues to the underlying mechanism of ventricular arrhythmias. In the Brugada syndrome, changes may be found in the resting ECG with evidence of right bundle branch block (RBBB) and ST elevation in the chest leads V1-V3, with an underlying propensity to sudden cardiac death.
The relevance of this is that theories of the underlying pathophysiology and electrophysiology must account for the occurrence of fibrillation in the apparent "healthy" heart. It is evident that there are mechanisms at work that we do not fully appreciate and understand. Investigators are exploring new techniques of detecting and understanding the underlying mechanisms of sudden cardiac death in these patients without pathological evidence of underlying heart disease.
Familial conditions that predispose individuals to developing ventricular fibrillation and sudden cardiac death are often the result of gene mutations that affect cellular transmembrane ion channels. For example, in Brugada Syndrome, sodium channels are affected. In certain forms of long QT syndrome, the potassium inward rectifier channel is affected.
In 1899, it was also found that ventricular fibrillation was, typically, the ultimate cause of death when the electric chair was used.
Pathophysiology
Abnormal automaticity
Automaticity is a measure of the propensity of a fiber to initiate an impulse spontaneously. The product of a hypoxic myocardium can be hyperirritable myocardial cells. These may then act as pacemakers. The ventricles are then being stimulated by more than one pacemaker. Scar and dying tissue is inexcitable, but around these areas usually lies a penumbra of hypoxic tissue that is excitable. Ventricular excitability may generate re-entry ventricular arrhythmia.
Most myocardial cells with an associated increased propensity to arrhythmia development have an associated loss of membrane potential. That is, the maximum diastolic potential is less negative and therefore exists closer to the threshold potential. Cellular depolarisation can be due to a raised external concentration of potassium ions K+, a decreased intracellular concentration of sodium ions Na+, increased permeability to Na+, or a decreased permeability to K+. The ionic basic automaticity is the net gain of an intracellular positive charge during diastole in the presence of a voltage-dependent channel activated by potentials negative to –50 to –60 mV.
Myocardial cells are exposed to different environments. Normal cells may be exposed to hyperkalaemia; abnormal cells may be perfused by normal environment. For example, with a healed myocardial infarction, abnormal cells can be exposed to an abnormal environment such as with a myocardial infarction with myocardial ischaemia. In conditions such as myocardial ischaemia, possible mechanism of arrhythmia generation include the resulting decreased internal K+ concentration, the increased external K+ concentration, norepinephrine release and acidosis. When myocardial cell are exposed to hyperkalemia, the maximum diastolic potential is depolarized as a result of the alteration of Ik1 potassium current, whose intensity and direction is strictly dependent on intracellular and extracellular potassium concentrations. With Ik1 suppressed, an hyperpolarizing effect is lost and therefore there can be activation of funny current even in myocardial cells (which is normally suppressed by the hyperpolarizing effect of coexisting potassium currents). This can lead to the instauration of automaticity in ischemic tissue.
Re-entry
The role of re-entry or circus motion was demonstrated separately by G. R. Mines and W. E. Garrey. Mines created a ring of excitable tissue by cutting the atria out of the ray fish. Garrey cut out a similar ring from the turtle ventricle. They were both able to show that, if a ring of excitable tissue was stimulated at a single point, the subsequent waves of depolarisation would pass around the ring. The waves eventually meet and cancel each other out, but, if an area of transient block occurred with a refractory period that blocked one wavefront and subsequently allowed the other to proceed retrogradely over the other path, then a self-sustaining circus movement phenomenon would result. For this to happen, however, it is necessary that there be some form of non-uniformity. In practice, this may be an area of ischemic or infarcted myocardium, or underlying scar tissue.
It is possible to think of the advancing wave of depolarisation as a dipole with a head and a tail. The length of the refractory period and the time taken for the dipole to travel a certain distance—the propagation velocity—will determine whether such a circumstance will arise for re-entry to occur. Factors that promote re-entry would include a slow-propagation velocity, a short refractory period with a sufficient size of ring of conduction tissue. These would enable a dipole to reach an area that had been refractory and is now able to be depolarised with continuation of the wavefront.
In clinical practice, therefore, factors that would lead to the right conditions to favour such re-entry mechanisms include increased heart size through hypertrophy or dilatation, drugs which alter the length of the refractory period and areas of cardiac disease. Therefore, the substrate of ventricular fibrillation is transient or permanent conduction block. Block due either to areas of damaged or refractory tissue leads to areas of myocardium for initiation and perpetuation of fibrillation through the phenomenon of re-entry.
Triggered activity
Triggered activity can occur due to the presence of afterdepolarisations. These are depolarising oscillations in the membrane voltage induced by preceding action potentials. These can occur before or after full repolarisation of the fiber and as such are termed either early (EADs) or delayed afterdepolarisations (DADs). All afterdepolarisations may not reach threshold potential, but, if they do, they can trigger another afterdepolarisation, and thus self-perpetuate.
Power spectrum
The distribution of frequency and power of a waveform can be expressed as a power spectrum in which the contribution of different waveform frequencies to the waveform under analysis is measured. This can be expressed as either the dominant or peak frequency, i.e., the frequency with the greatest power or the median frequency, which divides the spectrum in two halves.
Frequency analysis has many other uses in medicine and in cardiology, including analysis of heart rate variability and assessment of cardiac function, as well as in imaging and acoustics.
Histopathology
Myofibre break-up, abbreviated MFB, is associated with ventricular fibrillation leading to death. Histomorphologically, MFB is characterized by fractures of the cardiac myofibres perpendicular to their long axis, with squaring of the myofibre nuclei.
Treatment
Defibrillation is the definitive treatment of ventricular fibrillation, whereby an electrical current is applied to the ventricular mass either directly or externally through pads or paddles, with the aim of depolarising enough of the myocardium for coordinated contractions to occur again. The use of this is often dictated around the world by Advanced Cardiac Life Support or Advanced Life Support algorithms, which is taught to medical practitioners including doctors, nurses and paramedics and also advocates the use of drugs, predominantly epinephrine, after every second unsuccessful attempt at defibrillation, as well as cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) between defibrillation attempts. Though ALS/ACLS algorithms encourage the use of drugs, they state first and foremost that defibrillation should not be delayed for any other intervention and that adequate cardiopulmonary resuscitation be delivered with minimal interruption.
The precordial thump is a manoeuver promoted as a mechanical alternative to defibrillation. Some advanced life support algorithms advocate its use once and only in the case of witnessed and monitored V-fib arrests as the likelihood of it successfully cardioverting a patient are small and this diminishes quickly in the first minute of onset.
People who survive a "V-fib arrest" and who make a good recovery are often considered for an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, which can quickly deliver this same life-saving defibrillation should another episode of ventricular fibrillation occur outside a hospital environment.
Epidemiology
Sudden cardiac arrest is the leading cause of death in the industrialised world. It exacts a significant mortality with approximately 70,000 to 90,000 sudden cardiac deaths each year in the United Kingdom, and survival rates are only 2%. The majority of these deaths are due to ventricular fibrillation secondary to myocardial infarction, or "heart attack". During ventricular fibrillation, cardiac output drops to zero, and, unless remedied promptly, death usually ensues within minutes.
History
Lyman Brewer suggests that the first recorded account of ventricular fibrillation dates as far back as 1500 BC, and can be found in the Ebers papyrus of ancient Egypt. An extract, recorded 3500 years ago, states: "When the heart is diseased, its work is imperfectly performed: the vessels proceeding from the heart become inactive, so that you cannot feel them … if the heart trembles, has little power and sinks, the disease is advanced and death is near." A book authored by Jo Miles suggests that it may even go back farther. Tests done on frozen remains found in the Himalayas seemed fairly conclusive that the first known case of ventricular fibrillation dates back to at least 2500 BC.
Whether this is a description of ventricular fibrillation is debatable. The next recorded description occurs 3000 years later and is recorded by Vesalius, who described the appearance of "worm-like" movements of the heart in animals prior to death.
The significance and clinical importance of these observations and descriptions possibly of ventricular fibrillation were not recognised until John Erichsen in 1842 described ventricular fibrillation following the ligation of a coronary artery (Erichsen JE 1842). Subsequent to this in 1850, fibrillation was described by Ludwig and Hoffa when they demonstrated the provocation of ventricular fibrillation in an animal by applying a "Faradic" (electrical) current to the heart.
In 1874, Edmé Félix Alfred Vulpian coined the term mouvement fibrillaire, a term that he seems to have used to describe both atrial and ventricular fibrillation. John A. MacWilliam, a physiologist who had trained under Ludwig and who subsequently became Professor of Physiology at the University of Aberdeen, gave an accurate description of the arrhythmia in 1887. This definition still holds today, and is interesting in the fact that his studies and description predate the use of electrocardiography. His description is as follows: "The ventricular muscle is thrown into a state of irregular arrhythmic contraction, whilst there is a great fall in the arterial blood pressure, the ventricles become dilated with blood as the rapid quivering movement of their walls is insufficient to expel their contents; the muscular action partakes of the nature of a rapid incoordinate twitching of the muscular tissue … The cardiac pump is thrown out of gear, and the last of its vital energy is dissipated in the violent and the prolonged turmoil of fruitless activity in the ventricular walls." MacWilliam spent many years working on ventricular fibrillation and was one of the first to show that ventricular fibrillation could be terminated by a series of induction shocks through the heart.
The first electrocardiogram recording of ventricular fibrillation was by August Hoffman in a paper published in 1912. At this time, two other researchers, George Ralph Mines and Garrey, working separately, produced work demonstrating the phenomenon of circus movement and re-entry as possible substrates for the generation of arrhythmias. This work was also accompanied by Lewis, who performed further outstanding work into the concept of "circus movement."
Later milestones include the work by W. J. Kerr and W. L. Bender in 1922, who produced an electrocardiogram showing ventricular tachycardia evolving into ventricular fibrillation. The re-entry mechanism was also advocated by DeBoer, who showed that ventricular fibrillation could be induced in late systole with a single shock to a frog heart. The concept of "R on T ectopics" was further brought out by Katz in 1928. This was called the "vulnerable period" by Wiggers and Wegria in 1940, who brought to attention the concept of the danger of premature ventricular beats occurring on a T wave.
Another definition of VF was produced by Wiggers in 1940. He described ventricular fibrillation as "an incoordinate type of contraction which, despite a high metabolic rate of the myocardium, produces no useful beats. As a result, the arterial pressure falls abruptly to very low levels, and death results within six to eight minutes from anemia [ischemia] of the brain and spinal cord".
Spontaneous conversion of ventricular fibrillation to a more benign rhythm is rare in all but small animals. Defibrillation is the process that converts ventricular fibrillation to a more benign rhythm. This is usually by application of an electric shock to the myocardium and is discussed in detail in the relevant article.
See also
Atrial fibrillation
Electric shock
Flatline
HMR 1883
Osborn wave
Re-entry ventricular arrhythmia
Ventricular flutter
References
External links
Interactive models and information on ventricular fibrillation and other arrhythmias
Cardiac arrhythmia
Medical emergencies
Causes of death
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate | wiki |
Ezra 2 is the second chapter of the Book of Ezra in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, or the book of Ezra-Nehemiah in the Hebrew Bible, which treats the book of Ezra and book of Nehemiah as one book. Jewish tradition states that Ezra is the author of Ezra-Nehemiah as well as the Book of Chronicles, but modern scholars generally accept that a compiler from the 5th century BCE (the so-called "Chronicler") is the final author of these books. The section comprising chapter 1 to 6 describes the history before the arrival of Ezra in the land of Judah in 468 BCE. This chapter contains a list, known as the "Golah List", of the people who returned from Babylon to Judah following Cyrus's edict "by genealogy, family and place of habitation".
Text
The original text is written in Hebrew language. This chapter is divided into 70 verses.
Textual witnesses
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter in Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text, which includes Codex Leningradensis (1008).
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (B; B; 4th century), and Codex Alexandrinus (A; A; 5th century).
An ancient Greek book called 1 Esdras (Greek: Ἔσδρας Αʹ) containing some parts of 2 Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah is included in most editions of the Septuagint and is placed before the single book of Ezra–Nehemiah (which is titled in Greek: Ἔσδρας Βʹ). 1 Esdras 5:7-46 is an equivalent of Ezra 2 (List of former exiles who returned).
The Community (2:1–63)
The list here is not an account the people who were recently back from the journey, but those who have arrived and settled down after returning from Babylon, where they currently reside in Palestine among the other inhabitants of the land – non-Jews and also the Jews who never left the land, "whom the Babylonians has left behind as undesirable". The genealogies apparently "function as authenticators of who has a right to be classified as an Israelite", because "those who could not prove their genealogy were excluded" (verses 59–63).
Verse 1
Now these are the children of the province, who went up out of the captivity of those who had been carried away, whom Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon had carried away to Babylon, and who returned to Jerusalem and Judah, everyone to his city;
"The province": refers to the "Persian province of Judah".
"Of those who had been carried away": is translated from , ha-, the "Gola" ("Golah") or "the exiles".
Verse 2
Those who came with Zerubbabel were Jeshua, Nehemiah, Seraiah, Reelaiah, Mordecai, Bilshan, Mispar, Bigvai, Rehum, and Baanah.
The number of the men of the people of Israel:
"Zerubbabel": is the leader of the group and of Davidic line (), so he is associated with the messianic hope in the book of Zechariah, although none of it is mentioned in this book.
Some names are written differently in the book of Nehemiah:
{|class=wikitable
!Ezra 2:2 !! Nehemiah 7:7
|-
|Seraiah || Azariah
|-
|Reelaiah || Raamiah
|-
|Mispar || Mispereth
|-
|Rehum || Nehum
|}
"Men of the people of Israel": The list makes the point that only those of the Gola (="the exiles") 'properly constituted "Israel"'.
Verse 16
the sons of Ater of Hezekiah—ninety-eight;
"Of Hezekiah": in Hebrew can also mean "[born] to Hezekiah", that is "through Hezekiah", or "through the family/house of Hezekiah" (cf. NET Bible), or "through the line of Hezekiah" (cf. NET Bible).
Verse 61
Also, of the sons of the priests: the sons of Habaiah, the sons of Hakkoz, and the sons of Barzillai (who had taken a wife from the daughters of Barzillai the Gileadite, and was called by their name).
"Hakkoz": the name of the seventh of "24 Priestly Divisions" in 1 Chronicles 24 (cf. Nehemiah 3:4, 21). This name appears in a stone inscription that was found in 1970 on a partially buried column in a mosque, in the Yemeni village of Bayt al-Ḥaḍir, among the ten names of priestly wards and their respective towns and villages. This "Yemeni inscription" is the longest roster of names of this sort ever discovered, unto this day. The names are legible on the stone column discovered by Walter W. Müller.
The Totals (2:64–67)
The number of the people here shows the depletion of the population; in time of Moses "the whole number of the people of Israel...from 20 years old and upward,... was 603,550" () not counting the Levites, whereas in the time of David, "in Israel there were 800,000 valiant men who drew the sword, and the men of Judah were 500,000" (), but now the returned exiles, including the priests and Levites, only "amount to 42,360" (). The listing of servants and animals reflects "the status of the exiles, their resources and capabilities".
Temple Gifts (2:68–69)
Those arrived back in Jerusalem and Judah gave freewill offerings "toward the rebuilding of the house of God".
Resettlement (2:70)
The conclusion of the list is similar to the beginning (verse 1): "by affirming the resettlement of the exiles", as every person has now settled "in their own towns".
See also
Jerusalem
Jeshua
Related Bible parts: Nehemiah 7, Haggai 2
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Jewish translations:
Ezra - Chapter 2 (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Christian translations:
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
Book of Ezra Chapter 2. Bible Gateway
02 | wiki |
QFG may refer to:
Quest for Glory, an adventure RPG video game series
Quest for Glory: So You Want to Be a Hero, the first game of the series
QFG, a signal in Q code for "Am I overheard?"
The IATA code for Eqalugaarsuit Heliport
"Qualified For Gold Medal Game" in sporting events where medals are awarded | wiki |
In plane Euclidean geometry, a rhombus (plural rhombi or rhombuses) is a quadrilateral whose four sides all have the same length. Another name is equilateral quadrilateral, since equilateral means that all of its sides are equal in length. The rhombus is often called a "diamond", after the diamonds suit in playing cards which resembles the projection of an octahedral diamond, or a lozenge, though the former sometimes refers specifically to a rhombus with a 60° angle (which some authors call a calisson after the French sweet – also see Polyiamond), and the latter sometimes refers specifically to a rhombus with a 45° angle.
Every rhombus is simple (non-self-intersecting), and is a special case of a parallelogram and a kite. A rhombus with right angles is a square.
Etymology
The word "rhombus" comes from , meaning something that spins, which derives from the verb , romanized: , meaning "to turn round and round." The word was used both by Euclid and Archimedes, who used the term "solid rhombus" for a bicone, two right circular cones sharing a common base.
The surface we refer to as rhombus today is a cross section of the bicone on a plane through the apexes of the two cones.
Characterizations
A simple (non-self-intersecting) quadrilateral is a rhombus if and only if it is any one of the following:
a parallelogram in which a diagonal bisects an interior angle
a parallelogram in which at least two consecutive sides are equal in length
a parallelogram in which the diagonals are perpendicular (an orthodiagonal parallelogram)
a quadrilateral with four sides of equal length (by definition)
a quadrilateral in which the diagonals are perpendicular and bisect each other
a quadrilateral in which each diagonal bisects two opposite interior angles
a quadrilateral ABCD possessing a point P in its plane such that the four triangles ABP, BCP, CDP, and DAP are all congruent
a quadrilateral ABCD in which the incircles in triangles ABC, BCD, CDA and DAB have a common point
Basic properties
Every rhombus has two diagonals connecting pairs of opposite vertices, and two pairs of parallel sides. Using congruent triangles, one can prove that the rhombus is symmetric across each of these diagonals. It follows that any rhombus has the following properties:
Opposite angles of a rhombus have equal measure.
The two diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular; that is, a rhombus is an orthodiagonal quadrilateral.
Its diagonals bisect opposite angles.
The first property implies that every rhombus is a parallelogram. A rhombus therefore has all of the properties of a parallelogram: for example, opposite sides are parallel; adjacent angles are supplementary; the two diagonals bisect one another; any line through the midpoint bisects the area; and the sum of the squares of the sides equals the sum of the squares of the diagonals (the parallelogram law). Thus denoting the common side as a and the diagonals as p and q, in every rhombus
Not every parallelogram is a rhombus, though any parallelogram with perpendicular diagonals (the second property) is a rhombus. In general, any quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals, one of which is a line of symmetry, is a kite. Every rhombus is a kite, and any quadrilateral that is both a kite and parallelogram is a rhombus.
A rhombus is a tangential quadrilateral. That is, it has an inscribed circle that is tangent to all four sides.
Diagonals
The length of the diagonals p = AC and q = BD can be expressed in terms of the rhombus side a and one vertex angle α as
and
These formulas are a direct consequence of the law of cosines.
Inradius
The inradius (the radius of a circle inscribed in the rhombus), denoted by , can be expressed in terms of the diagonals and as
or in terms of the side length and any vertex angle or as
Area
As for all parallelograms, the area K of a rhombus is the product of its base and its height (h). The base is simply any side length a:
The area can also be expressed as the base squared times the sine of any angle:
or in terms of the height and a vertex angle:
or as half the product of the diagonals p, q:
or as the semiperimeter times the radius of the circle inscribed in the rhombus (inradius):
Another way, in common with parallelograms, is to consider two adjacent sides as vectors, forming a bivector, so the area is the magnitude of the bivector (the magnitude of the vector product of the two vectors), which is the determinant of the two vectors' Cartesian coordinates: K = x1y2 – x2y1.
Dual properties
The dual polygon of a rhombus is a rectangle:
A rhombus has all sides equal, while a rectangle has all angles equal.
A rhombus has opposite angles equal, while a rectangle has opposite sides equal.
A rhombus has an inscribed circle, while a rectangle has a circumcircle.
A rhombus has an axis of symmetry through each pair of opposite vertex angles, while a rectangle has an axis of symmetry through each pair of opposite sides.
The diagonals of a rhombus intersect at equal angles, while the diagonals of a rectangle are equal in length.
The figure formed by joining the midpoints of the sides of a rhombus is a rectangle, and vice versa.
Cartesian equation
The sides of a rhombus centered at the origin, with diagonals each falling on an axis, consist of all points (x, y) satisfying
The vertices are at and This is a special case of the superellipse, with exponent 1.
Other properties
One of the five 2D lattice types is the rhombic lattice, also called centered rectangular lattice.
Identical rhombi can tile the 2D plane in three different ways, including, for the 60° rhombus, the rhombille tiling.
Three-dimensional analogues of a rhombus include the bipyramid and the bicone as a surface of revolution.
As the faces of a polyhedron
Convex polyhedra with rhombi include the infinite set of rhombic zonohedrons, which can be seen as projective envelopes of hypercubes.
A rhombohedron (also called a rhombic hexahedron) is a three-dimensional figure like a cuboid (also called a rectangular parallelepiped), except that its 3 pairs of parallel faces are up to 3 types of rhombi instead of rectangles.
The rhombic dodecahedron is a convex polyhedron with 12 congruent rhombi as its faces.
The rhombic triacontahedron is a convex polyhedron with 30 golden rhombi (rhombi whose diagonals are in the golden ratio) as its faces.
The great rhombic triacontahedron is a nonconvex isohedral, isotoxal polyhedron with 30 intersecting rhombic faces.
The rhombic hexecontahedron is a stellation of the rhombic triacontahedron. It is nonconvex with 60 golden rhombic faces with icosahedral symmetry.
The rhombic enneacontahedron is a polyhedron composed of 90 rhombic faces, with three, five, or six rhombi meeting at each vertex. It has 60 broad rhombi and 30 slim ones.
The rhombic icosahedron is a polyhedron composed of 20 rhombic faces, of which three, four, or five meet at each vertex. It has 10 faces on the polar axis with 10 faces following the equator.
See also
Merkel-Raute
Rhombus of Michaelis, in human anatomy
Rhomboid, either a parallelepiped or a parallelogram that is neither a rhombus nor a rectangle
Rhombic antenna
Rhombic Chess
Flag of the Department of North Santander of Colombia, containing four stars in the shape of a rhombus
Superellipse (includes a rhombus with rounded corners)
References
External links
Parallelogram and Rhombus - Animated course (Construction, Circumference, Area)
Rhombus definition, Math Open Reference with interactive applet.
Rhombus area, Math Open Reference - shows three different ways to compute the area of a rhombus, with interactive applet
Types of quadrilaterals
Elementary shapes | wiki |
The Thai or Wichien Maat (, , , meaning 'diamond gold') is a newly renamed but old cat breed, related to but different from the Western, modern-style Siamese cat. This natural breed is descended from the cats of Thailand, and, among various groups of breeders in different times and places has also been called the Old-Style Siamese, Traditional Siamese, Classic Siamese; Wichien Maat (anglicised from the Thai name); and the Applehead, a nickname that originated in the 1950s (originally as a pejorative used by breeders of the modern-style, more extreme-featured Siamese). According to The International Cat Association: "The Thai is breed dedicated to preserving the native pointed cat of Thailand in as close to its original form as possible."
Compared to the modern-style, more extreme-featured Siamese, the traditional Thai breed (and native specimens) have a much more moderate appearance.
History
Cats that were imported from Siam (today, Thailand) to Western countries in the 19th and early 20th century were more moderate in conformation than the modern Western Siamese. While the Thai has common ancestry with the Western Siamese, separate breeding, beginning after World War II, led to the development of two distinct breeds, with more extreme features dominating the cat show circuit and becoming the dominant variety of Siamese in the West. Starting in the 1980s, various breed clubs in both North America and Europe appeared that were dedicated to preserving the type that represents the early 20th-century Siamese and still found in Thailand. The World Cat Federation (WCF) recognized the original style as a separate breed, Thai, with full championship competitive status, in 1990.
In the United Kingdom and in North America, the cats continued to be registered as Siamese. In 1999, in North America, the independent club PREOSSIA coined the name Old-Style Siamese to refer specifically to the moderate, original type of registered Siamese. In 2000, the Old-style Siamese Club, or OSSC, formed in the UK. It was originally called The Classic Siamese Club but changed the name after someone in the USA claimed to have copyright over the name.
Native pointed cats were imported directly from Thailand, beginning in 2001, to refresh the gene pool of the Western, pedigreed Thai breeding programs and ensure that the traits of the indigenous Southeast Asian cats are preserved and distinct in these bloodlines.
Beginning in 2007, members of PREOSSIA began the new breed application process in The International Cat Association (TICA). It was necessary to request separate breed status from the Siamese in order to permit the Old-Style Siamese to be bred and shown using different registration rules and a different breed standard. However, TICA refused to allow the name Old-Style Siamese for the "new" breed, and breeders decided to follow the example of the Europeans and use the name Thai. In January, 2010, the Thai was granted Championship status in TICA, enabling it to compete for top honours along with the other breeds of pedigreed cats. Although by this time, the Thai had been recognized by WCF for 20 years, one major European registry still had not recognized the breed. At last, in 2015, Fédération Internationale Féline (FIFe) accepted the Thai in its "Preliminary Recognized Breeds" class.
Long before its re-branding as the Thai, the old type of Siamese was part of the foundation stock of a variety of new 20th century breeds, such as the Himalayan, Ocicat, and Havana Brown. Near the end of the 20th century, modern Siamese were used more frequently for this purpose, as in the case of the Cornish Rex and Peterbald.
Description
As breeds, the Thai and the modern Siamese share common ancestry, the point colouration gene, and the outgoing, people-loving, vocal personality made famous in the West by the early 20th century imports. They differ only in "type," meaning the conformation of body and head.
The primary features of the Thai are that it is a "pointed" cat (blue eyes, dark extremities, pale body) of foreign body type (more elongated than the average Western domestic cat, but noticeably less so than the modern Siamese or Oriental); has a modified wedge shaped head; a long flat forehead; a nose with no more than a slight concave curve at eye level; has a short, flat-lying single coat; does not carry the longhair gene; and it usually has a registered pedigree dating back to the late 19th century Siamese, with no Western domestic shorthair ancestors. In TICA, unregistered cats with import documentation proving origin in Thailand are also permitted to register as Thais—and Thailand imports have all the same breeding and show privileges that Western bred Thais have. In order to permit British Thai breeders (isolated by still restrictive British rabies quarantine laws) to work with GCCF Old-Style Siamese, TICA also allows outcrossing to registered Siamese of moderate type. In WCF and FIFe, natural, unregistered cats born in Thailand are not allowed to register as Thais or be used as outcrosses. Outcrossing to Siamese is also prohibited. However, when the Thai breed was new to WCF, there was a temporary period during which unregistered pointed European cats were allowed to register as Thais and outcrossing to other Western breeds was allowed.
While the foundation and concept of the Thai varies somewhat from one country's registry to the next, all define the Thai as a breed that preserves the characteristics of early Western Siamese. TICA uniquely defines the Thai as preserving the native, natural pointed cats of Thailand as well as the earliest Western Siamese. The goal of Thai breeders is always to preserve the old look, provide plenty of genetic diversity for a healthy future, and guarantee the authenticity and personality of the old type of Siamese.
Background
In Thailand, the ancestor of this elegant cat is known as the which means 'moon diamond '. The , along with other cats, was named, described and illustrated centuries ago in the "Tamra Maew" book of cat poems. Over the years, the has stayed true to its original breeding, which is still seen today in Thailand where it remains a popular cat.
Starting in the late 1800s, the was first imported to the West by British cat breeders, and the cats became known as "Siamese," after the name of the country Siam (today Thailand). Cat fanciers were impressed with the graceful, "marten-faced" cats so very different from the cobby, rounder native breeds and longhairs. Western breeders wanted to emphasize and augment the qualities that made the cats so different and through selective breeding, they developed an increasingly elongated, angular, finer-boned type of Siamese. This "modern" or "show-style" type of Siamese dominated in the show halls by the latter half of the 20th century. As the new look became prevalent, some breeders in England, Europe, and North America decided to buck the trend and instead preserve the look of the old type of Siamese. These breeders tend to work with a variety of different registries, but they have long exchanged breeding stock with each other, and they still do. While some call their cats Old-Style Siamese, others call them Thais. They are the same basic cat.
See also origins in Thailand
Birman cat
Siamese cat
Korat cat
Burmese cat
Tonkinese cat
Khao Manee cat
Suphalak cat
Thai Lilac cat
References
External links
TICA Thai breed introduction
Old-style Siamese Club (UK, established 2000). The club is affiliated to the GCCF.
PREOSSIA (United States, established January, 1999). PREOSSIA is an unaffiliated, international breed preservation club.
Cat breeds
Cat breeds originating in Thailand
Natural cat breeds | wiki |
Heathfield railway station may refer to :
Heathfield railway station (Devon), England
Heathfield railway station (East Sussex), England
Heathfield railway station, Adelaide, South Australia | wiki |
A software architect is a software engineer responsible for high-level design choices related to overall system structure and behavior.
See also
Software architecture
Software engineering
References
External links
International Association of Software Architects (IASA) | wiki |
Questo è un nuovo evento.
Tabellone
Finali
Collegamenti esterni
US Open 2013 | wiki |
Spidermonkey may refer to:
Spider monkey, tropical forest animals of Central and South America
SpiderMonkey (software), a JavaScript engine
Spidermonkey, a fictional character, one of the Ben 10 aliens
Jake Spidermonkey, a fictional My Gym Partner's a Monkey character | wiki |
A passenger car is an automobile as opposed to a truck.
Passenger car may also refer to:
Passenger car (Ferris wheel), a compartment for carrying passengers
Passenger car (rail), railway rolling stock for carrying passengers
See also
Car (disambiguation)
Sedan (disambiguation)
Voiture (disambiguation)
Automobile (disambiguation) | wiki |
Fiona Hill could refer to:
Fiona Hill (presidential advisor) (born 1965), British-American foreign affairs specialist and academic
Fiona Hill (British political adviser) (born 1973), British political adviser and former Downing Street Chief of Staff to Theresa May | wiki |
Voter suppression in the United States consists of various legal and illegal efforts to prevent eligible citizens from exercising their right to vote. Such voter suppression efforts vary by state, local government, precinct, and election. Voter suppression has historically been used for racial, economic, gender, age and disability discrimination. Before and during the American Civil War, most African-Americans had not been able to vote. After the Civil War, all African-American men were granted voting rights, causing some Southern Democrats and former Confederate states to institute actions such as poll taxes or language tests that were ostensibly not in contradiction to the U.S. Constitution at the time, but were used to limit and suppress voting access, most notably African American communities that made up large proportions of the population in those areas, but in many regions the majority of the electorate as a whole was functionally or officially unable to register to vote or unable to cast a ballot. African Americans' access to registration and voting in the South was often difficult until the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and continues to be a subject of debate.
In the 21st century, some fear voter suppression has been revived, at least in part due to the 2013 US Supreme Court ruling of Shelby v. Holder, which removed protections of the 1965 Voting Rights Act. Since then (and as of March 24, 2021), more than 361 bills that would restrict voting access have been introduced in 47 states according to the Brennan Center for Justice, An example being a Georgia legislative bill SB 202, that was signed into law after an upsurge in voting in 2020 election, and which "reduced the number of ballot boxes in communities of color, limited voting hours, added additional voter ID requirements, and made it illegal to provide those waiting in line with food or water". As states grow more polarized against their perceived "opponents" such as Florida, which recently introduced a new bill, that if passed, could ban the Democratic Party
Suffrage
Black and Native American suffrage
The passage of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 guaranteed the right to vote to men of all races, including former slaves. Initially, this resulted in high voter turnout among African-Americans in the South. In the 1880 United States presidential election, a majority of eligible African-American voters cast a ballot in every Southern state except for two. In eight Southern states, Black turnout was equal to or greater than White turnout. At the end of the Reconstruction era, Southern states began implementing policies to suppress Black voters. After 1890, less than 9,000 of Mississippi's 147,000 eligible African-American voters were registered to vote, or about 6%. Louisiana went from 130,000 registered African-American voters in 1896 to 1,342 in 1904 (about a 99% decrease). Between the end of Reconstruction era and the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the rights of black voter's were frequently infringed upon.
The decision on Cherokee Nation v. Georgia in 1831 meant that Native people would essentially not have a right to vote, until the passage of the 15th amendment, when certain ground was gained towards enfranchisement. Native Americans gained more ground with the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924.
Poll taxes
Poll taxes were used to disenfranchise voters, particularly African-Americans and poor whites in the South. Poll taxes started in the 1890s, requiring eligible voters to pay a fee before casting a ballot. Some poor whites were grandfathered in if they had an ancestor who voted before the Civil War era. This meant that they were exempt from paying the tax. Eleven Southern states (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia), as well as several outside the South, imposed poll taxes. The poll tax mechanism varied on a state-by-state basis; in Alabama, the poll tax was cumulative, meaning that a man had to pay all poll taxes due from the age of twenty-one onward in order to vote. In other states, poll taxes had to be paid for several years before being eligible to vote. Enforcement of poll tax laws was patchy. Election officials had the discretion whether or not to ask for a voter's poll tax receipt.
The constitutionality of the poll tax was upheld by the Supreme Court in the 1937 Breedlove v. Suttles and again affirmed in 1951 by a federal court in Butler v. Thompson. Poll taxes began to wane in popularity despite judicial affirmations, with five Southern states keeping poll taxes by 1962 (Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia). The poll tax was officially prohibited in 1964 by the Twenty-fourth Amendment.
Literacy tests
Like poll taxes, literacy tests were primarily used to disenfranchise poor or African-American voters in the South. African-American literacy rates lagged behind White literacy rates until 1940. Literacy tests were applied unevenly: property owners were often exempt, as well as those who would have had the right to vote (or whose ancestors had the right to vote) in 1867, which was before the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment. Some states exempted veterans of the Civil War from tests. Literacy tests varied in difficulty, with African-Americans often given more rigorous tests. In Macon County, Alabama in the late 1950s, for example, at least twelve whites who had not finished elementary school passed the literacy test, while several college-educated African-Americans were failed. Literacy tests were prevalent outside the South as well, as they were seen as keeping society's undesirables (the poor, immigrants, or the uninformed) from voting; twenty states still had literacy tests after World War II, including seven Southern states, California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York. A 1970 Amendment to the Voting Rights Act prohibited the use of literacy tests for determining voting eligibility.
Women's suffrage
Momentum for women's suffrage in the United States started in the 1840s. Organizations began in 1869 and eventually merged in 1890 as the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) with Susan B. Anthony as its leading force. Suffragists made several attempts to vote in the early 1870s in hopes to convince the United States Supreme Court to give women the right to vote. The group fought for suffrage on a state-by-state basis. At the turn of the 19th century, Carrie Chapman Catt prioritized leading the two-million-member NAWSA to advocate for a constitutional amendment giving women the right to vote. After a series of votes in Congress and in state legislatures, the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified on August 18, 1920. The amendment states, "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."
Youth suffrage
Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution created a floor where anyone 18 years or older could vote, but giving states and localities the option to extend the franchise by lowering the voting age to even younger citizens.
Suffrage of the elderly and disabled
Suffrage for Americans with disabilities & Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
Contemporary
Many laws that made voting more difficult for certain groups of people were overturned or blocked after the Voting Rights Act of 1965 up until the Supreme Court cases Shelby County v. Holder in 2013 and Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee in 2021 opened the door for more varieties of voter suppression.
Purging of eligible voters from the rolls
Database matching
In 1998, Florida created the Florida Central Voter File with the stated purpose of combatting vote fraud documented in the 1997 Miami mayoral election. At least 1,100 people (~2x than the margin of victory) were wrongly purged from voter registration lists in Florida ahead of the 2000 election because their names were similar to those of convicted felons, who were not allowed to vote at that time under Florida law. According to the Palm Beach Post, African-Americans accounted for 88% of those removed from the rolls through this effort but were only about 11% of Florida's voters. However, according to the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, nearly 89% of felons convicted in Florida were black at the time; therefore, a purge of convicted felons could be expected to include a disproportionately high number of blacks. The Post added that "a review of state records, internal e-mails of DBT employees and testimony before the civil rights commission and an elections task force showed no evidence that minorities were specifically targeted".
In 2008, more than 98,000 registered Georgia voters were removed from the roll of voters because of discrepancies in computer records of their identification information. Some 4,500 voters had to prove their citizenship to regain their right to vote. Georgia was challenged for requesting more Social Security-based verifications than any other state—about 2 million voters in total. An attorney involved in the lawsuit said that since the letters were mailed within 90 days of the election, Georgia violated federal law. The director of the American Civil Liberty Union's Georgia Voting Rights Project said, "They are systematically using these lists and matching them and using those matches to send these letters out to voters. They're using a systematic purging procedure that's expressly prohibited by federal laws, if people who are properly eligible are getting improperly challenged and purged. Elise Shore, a regional attorney for the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF), agreed the letters appear to violate two federal laws against voter purging within 90 days of the election. People are being targeted, and people are being told they are non-citizens, including both naturalized citizens and U.S.-born citizens," said Shore. "They're being told they're not eligible to vote, based on information in a database that hasn't been checked and approved by the Department of Justice (DOJ), and that we know has flaws in it." Secretary of State Karen Handel denied that the removal of voters' names was an instance of voter suppression.
Address confirmation cards
In 2019, presiding circuit court Judge Paul V. Malloy of Ozaukee County, Wisconsin, removed 234,000 voters from the statewide rolls, ruling that state law compelled him to do so for people flagged as 'having potentially moved' and who didn't respond within 30 days of a mailing sent to the address on file.
"Use it or lose it"
"Use it or lose it" policies exist in nine states as of 2020. These laws select voters who have not voted in several elections. Voters are then sent a letter in the mail asking that they confirm their address. If this notice is not returned, it is assumed they have moved and they will be removed from the voter rolls.
Illegal purges conducted by staff
Between November 2015 and early 2016, over 120,000 voters were dropped from rolls in Brooklyn, New York. Officials have stated that the purge was a mistake and that those dropped represented a "broad cross-section" of the electorate. However, a WNYC analysis found that the purge had disproportionately affected majority-Hispanic districts. The board announced that it would reinstate all voters in time for the 2016 congressional primary. The Board of Elections subsequently suspended the Republican appointee connected to the purge, but kept on her Democratic counterpart.
Limitations on early and absentee voting
In North Carolina, Republican lawmakers requested data on various voting practices, broken down by race. They then passed laws that restricted voting and registration many ways that disproportionately affected African Americans, including cutting back on early voting. In a 2016 appellate court case, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit struck down a law that removed the first week of early voting. The court held that the GOP used the data they gathered to remove the first week of early voting because more African American voters voted during that week, and African American voters were more likely to vote for Democrats. Between 2008 and 2012 in North Carolina, 70% of African American voters voted early. After cuts to early voting, African American turnout in early voting was down by 8.7% (around 66,000 votes) in North Carolina.
As of 2020, Georgia requires absentee voters to provide their own postage for their ballots. On April 8, 2020, the ACLU filed a lawsuit challenging this rule, claiming it "is tantamount to a poll tax."
Voting procedure disinformation
Voting procedure disinformation involves giving voters false information about when and how to vote, leading them to fail to cast valid ballots.
For example, in recall elections for the Wisconsin State Senate in 2011, Americans for Prosperity, a conservative political advocacy group founded in 2004 by brothers Charles and David Koch to support Republican candidates and causes in the United States, sent many Democratic voters a mailing that gave an incorrect deadline for returning absentee ballots. Voters who relied on the deadline in the mailing could have sent in their ballots too late for them to be counted. The organization claimed that it was caused by a typographical error.
Just prior to the 2018 elections, The New York Times warned readers of numerous types of deliberate misinformation, sometimes targeting specific voter demographics. These types of disinformation included false information about casting ballots online by email and by text message, the circulation of doctored photographs in 2016 which claimed Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agents were arresting voters at polling places and included threatening language meant to intimidate Latino voters, polling place hoaxes, disinformation on remote voting options, suspicious texts, voting machine malfunction rumors, misleading photos and videos, and false voter fraud allegations. The Times added that messages purportedly sent by Trump to voters in Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, and Georgia were actually disseminated from Republican organizations. In 2018, Trump actually spread information about defective machines in a single Utah county, giving the impression that such difficulties were occurring nationwide.
Caging lists
Caging lists have been used by political parties to eliminate potential voters registered with other political parties. A political party sends registered mail to addresses of registered voters. If the mail is returned as undeliverable, the mailing organization uses that fact to challenge the registration, arguing that because the voter could not be reached at the address, the registration is fraudulent.
Identification requirements
Some states have imposed photo ID requirements, which critics claim are intended to depress the turnout of minority voters. It has been explored whether or not photo ID laws disproportionately affect non-white voters and those of lower income: 8% of White Americans lack driver's licenses, for example, compared to 25% of African-American citizens. For driver's licenses that are unexpired where the stated address and name exactly match the voter registration record, 16% of White Americans lack a valid license, compared to 27% of Latinos and 37% for African Americans. In July 2016, a federal appeals court found that a 2011 Texas voter ID law discriminated against black and Hispanic voters because only a few types of ID were allowed; for example, military IDs and concealed carry permits were allowed, but state employee photo IDs and university photo IDs were not. In August 2017, an updated version of the same Texas voter ID law was found unconstitutional in federal district court; the district judge indicated that one potential remedy for the discrimination would be to order Texas election-related laws to be pre-cleared by the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ). The court also ruled that the law would force some voters to spend money traveling to a government office to update their identification information; the court compared this provision to a poll tax.
During the 21st century, Wisconsin and North Carolina – states with Republican-controlled governments – passed laws that restrict the ability of people to vote using student ID cards for identification. This is likely motivated by the fact that students tend to be more liberal than the general population.
A 2019 paper by University of Bologna and Harvard Business School economists found that voter ID laws had "no negative effect on registration or turnout, overall or for any group defined by race, gender, age, or party affiliation." A 2019 study in the journal Electoral Studies found that the implementation of voter ID laws in South Carolina reduced overall turnout but did not have a disparate impact. 2019 studies in Political Science Quarterly and the Atlantic Economic Journal found no evidence that voter ID laws have a disproportionate influence on minorities, while other studies show differently. These claims are contradicted by the "Findings of fact and conclusions of law" in Fish v. Kobach: In that case, Judge Julie Robinson, who had been appointed to the bench by President George W. Bush, a Republican, noted that the Kansas Documentary Proof of Citizenship law illegally denied 12.4% of new voter registration applications, over 31,000 US citizens, during the period covered by data considered in that case.
Historical examples
1838 Gallatin County Election Day Battle
William Peniston, a candidate for the Missouri state legislature, made disparaging statements about the Mormons and warned them not to vote in the election. Reminding Daviess County residents of the growing electoral power of the Mormon community, Peniston made a speech in Gallatin claiming that if the Missourians "suffer such men as these [Mormons] to vote, you will soon lose your suffrage." Around 200 non-Mormons gathered in Gallatin on election day to prevent Mormons from voting.
When about 30 Latter Day Saints approached the polling place, a Missourian named Dick Weldon declared that Mormons were not allowed to vote in Clay County. One of the Mormons present, Samuel Brown, claimed that Peniston's statements were false and then declared his intention to vote. This triggered a brawl between the bystanders. The Mormons called upon the Danites, a Mormon vigilante group, and the Missourians left the scene to obtain guns and ammunition and swore to kill the Mormons.
Rumors among both parties spread that there were casualties in the conflict. When Joseph Smith and volunteers rode to Adam-ondi-Ahman to assess the situation, they discovered there were no truths to the rumors.
Jim Crow laws
Jim Crow laws were state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States. All were enacted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by white Democratic-dominated state legislatures after the Reconstruction period. The laws were enforced until 1965.
The origin of the phrase "Jim Crow" has often been attributed to "Jump Jim Crow", a song-and-dance caricature of blacks performed by white actor Thomas D. Rice in blackface, which first surfaced in 1832 and was used to satirize Andrew Jackson's populist policies. As a result of Rice's fame, "Jim Crow" by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning "Negro". When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, these statutes became known as Jim Crow laws.
During the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U.S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, and the minority of blacks who had been free before the war. In the 1870s, Democrats gradually regained power in the Southern legislatures, having used insurgent paramilitary groups, such as the White League and the Red Shirts, to disrupt Republican organizing, run Republican officeholders out of town, and intimidate blacks to suppress their voting.
In 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election (a corrupt bargain) resulted in the government's withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained political power in every Southern state.
Blacks were still elected to local offices throughout the 1880s, but their voting was suppressed for state and national elections. Democrats passed laws to make voter registration and electoral rules more restrictive, with the result that political participation by most blacks and many poor whites began to decrease. Between 1890 and 1910, ten of the eleven former Confederate states, starting with Mississippi, passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised most blacks and tens of thousands of poor whites through a combination of poll taxes, literacy and comprehension tests, and residency and record-keeping requirements. By the 1940s there were presidential, Congressional, Senate, state, and local elections held in the South states with less than 5% of the area's eligible voting population participating, or with the no votes cast against a victorious candidate.
Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures. In Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the state's population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0.5% of eligible black men. "In 27 of the state's 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer; in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was." The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that black voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896 to 1904. The growth of their thriving middle class was slowed. In North Carolina and other Southern states, blacks suffered from being made invisible in the political system: "[W]ithin a decade of disfranchisement, the white supremacy campaign had erased the image of the black middle class from the minds of white North Carolinians." In Alabama tens of thousands of poor whites were also disenfranchised, although initially legislators had promised them they would not be affected adversely by the new restrictions.
In some cases, progressive measures ostensibly intended to reduce election fraud, such as the Eight Box Law in South Carolina, acted against black and white voters who were illiterate, as they could not follow the directions. While the separation of African Americans from the white general population was becoming legalized and formalized during the Progressive Era (1890s–1920s), it was also becoming customary. For instance, even in cases in which Jim Crow laws did not expressly forbid black people to participate in sports or recreation, a segregated culture had become common.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965, passed by huge bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress and signed by President Lyndon Johnson, aimed to end these practices. A key provision of the act required that states with a history of disenfranchising black voters, namely those in the Jim Crow South, submit to the Department of Justice for "pre-clearance" any proposed changes to state voting laws. This provision was overturned by the Supreme Court in the case of Shelby County v. Holder (2013). In her dissenting opinion, Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg argued, “Throwing out preclearance when it has worked and is continuing to work to stop discriminatory changes is like throwing away your umbrella in a rainstorm because you are not getting wet."
1980s
In 1980, Republican Christian Conservative leader Paul Weyrich said, "I don't want everybody to vote. ... our leverage in the elections ... goes up as the voting populace goes down."
In 1981 and 1986, the Republican National Committee (RNC) sent out letters to African-American neighborhoods. When tens of thousands of them were returned undeliverable, the party successfully challenged the voters and had them deleted from voting rolls. The violation of the Voting Rights Act got the RNC taken to court by the Democratic National Committee (DNC). As a result of the case, the RNC entered a consent decree, which prohibited the party from engaging in anti-fraud initiatives that targeted minorities from conducting mail campaigns to "compile voter challenge lists."
Modern examples
2002 New Hampshire Senate election phone jamming scandal
In the 2002 New Hampshire Senate election phone jamming scandal, Republican officials attempted to reduce the number of Democratic voters by paying professional telemarketers in Idaho to make repeated hang-up calls to the telephone numbers used by the Democratic Party's ride-to-the-polls phone lines on election day. By tying up the lines, voters seeking rides from the Democratic Party would have more difficulty reaching the party to ask for transportation to and from their polling places.
2004 presidential election
Allegations surfaced in several states that a private group, Voters Outreach of America, which had been empowered by the individual states, had collected and submitted Republican voter registration forms while inappropriately discarding voter registration forms where the new voter had chosen to register with the Democratic Party. Such people would believe they had registered to vote, and would only discover on election day that they were not registered and could not cast a ballot.
Michigan Republican state legislator John Pappageorge was quoted as saying, "If we do not suppress the Detroit vote, we're going to have a tough time in this election."
In 2006, four employees of candidate John Kerry's campaign were convicted of slashing the tires of 25 vans rented by the Wisconsin state Republican Party which were to be used for driving Republican voters and monitors to the polls on Election Day 2004. They received jail terms of four to six months. At the campaign workers' sentencing, Judge Michael B. Brennan told the defendants, "Voter suppression has no place in our country. Your crime took away that right to vote for some citizens."
2006 Virginia Senate election
During the Virginia U.S. Senate election, Secretary of the Virginia State Board of Elections Jean Jensen concluded that incidents of voter suppression appeared widespread and deliberate. Documented incidents of voter suppression include:
Democratic voters receiving calls incorrectly informing them voting will lead to arrest.
Widespread calls fraudulently claiming to be "[Democratic Senate candidate Jim] Webb Volunteers," falsely telling voters their voting location had changed.
Fliers paid for by the Republican Party, stating "SKIP THIS ELECTION" that allegedly attempted to suppress African-American turnout.
The FBI has since launched an investigation into the suppression attempts.
Despite the allegations, Democrat Jim Webb narrowly defeated incumbent George Allen.
2008 presidential election
Michigan
On September 16, 2008, attorneys for then-Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama announced their intention to seek an injunction to stop an alleged caging scheme in Michigan. It was alleged that the Michigan Republican Party used home foreclosure lists to challenge voters who used their foreclosed homes as their primary addresses at the polls. Michigan GOP officials called the suit "desperate".
The Democratic party eventually dropped the case, instead accepting a non-legally binding public agreement from the Michigan GOP to not engage in foreclosure-based voter challenges.
On October 30, 2008, a federal appeals court ordered the reinstatement of 5,500 voters wrongly purged from the voter rolls by the state, in response to an ACLU of Michigan lawsuit which questioned the legality of a Michigan state law requiring local clerks to nullify the registrations of newly registered voters whenever their voter identification cards are returned by the post office as undeliverable.
Minnesota
The conservative nonprofit Minnesota Majority reportedly made phone calls claiming that the Minnesota Secretary of State had concerns about the validity of voters' registration. Their actions were referred to the Ramsey County attorney's office.
Pennsylvania
On Election Day 2008, at a polling station in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, two members of the New Black Panther Party (NBPP)—Minister King Samir Shabazz and Jerry Jackson—stood in front of the entrance to a polling station in uniforms that have been described as military or paramilitary. Shabazz carried a billy club, and was reported to have pointed it at voters and shouted racial slurs, including phrases such as "white devil" and "you're about to be ruled by the black man, cracker". The incident drew the attention of police, who around 10:00 am, sent Shabazz away, in part because of his billy club. Jackson was allowed to stay because he was a certified poll watcher and was not accused of intimidation. Stephen Robert Morse, upon arriving at the scene, filmed Shabazz. The incident gained national attention after the video was uploaded to YouTube and went viral with over a million views. The Philadelphia incident became known as the New Black Panther Party voter intimidation case.
No complaints were filed by voters about the incident, though poll watchers witnessed some voters approach the polls and then turn away, apparently in response to the NBPP members. Nevertheless, the Bush administration's Department of Justice (DOJ) became aware of the incident and started an inquiry. In January 2009, less than two weeks before the Bush Administration left office, Christopher Coates of the DOJ's Civil Rights Division filed a civil suit under the Voting Rights Act against four defendants, including Shabazz. There was no evidence that Shabazz's actions were directed or incited by the party or its national leader. Although none of the defendants challenged the lawsuit, the Obama administration dropped its claims against all but Shabazz in May 2009.
In response to the controversy, the NBPP suspended its Philadelphia chapter and repudiated Minister King Shabazz in a posting at its website. In December 2010, the Civil Rights Commission released a report concluding that their investigations had uncovered "numerous specific examples of open hostility and opposition" within the Obama DOJ to pursue cases in which whites were victims. The report accused the DOJ of failing to cooperate with investigations into its reason for dropping the case.
Wisconsin
The Republican Party attempted to have all 60,000 voters in the heavily Democratic city of Milwaukee who had registered since January 1, 2006 deleted from the voter rolls. The requests were rejected by the Milwaukee Election Commission, although Republican commissioner Bob Spindell voted in favor of deletion.
2010 Maryland gubernatorial election
In the Maryland gubernatorial election in 2010, the campaign of Republican candidate Bob Ehrlich hired a consultant who advised that "the first and most desired outcome is voter suppression", in the form of having "African-American voters stay home." To that end, the Republicans placed thousands of Election Day robocalls to Democratic voters, telling them that the Democratic candidate, Martin O'Malley, had won, although in fact the polls were still open for some two more hours. The Republicans' call, worded to seem as if it came from Democrats, told the voters, "Relax. Everything's fine. The only thing left is to watch it on TV tonight." The calls reached 112,000 voters in majority-African American areas. In 2011, Ehrlich's campaign manager, Paul Schurick, was convicted of fraud and other charges because of the calls. In 2012, he was sentenced to 30 days of home detention, a one-year suspended jail sentence, and 500 hours of community service over the four years of his probation, with no fine or jail time. The Democratic candidate won by a margin of more than 10 percent.
2015 early voting controversy in Maryland
In Maryland's Montgomery County, Republicans planned to move two early-voting sites from densely populated Bethesda and Burtonsville to more sparsely populated areas in Brookeville and Potomac. They claimed to be aiming for more "geographic diversity"; Democrats accused them of trying to suppress the vote. The Burtonsville site had the most minority voters of all the early-voting sites in the county, while the proposed new locations were in more Republican-friendly areas with fewer minority residents. The Republican election board chairman admitted at a County Council committee that he and two GOP colleagues held a conference call with the chairman of Montgomery's Republican Party Central Committee. They said the call, from which Democrats were excluded, was legal. Democrats called it a violation of Maryland's Open Meetings Act. Todd Eberly, a political science professor from Saint Mary's College, called the claim by the Republicans, "a stupid defense."
2016 presidential election
The 2016 presidential election was the first in 50 years without all the protections of the original Voting Rights Act. Fourteen states had new voting restrictions in place, including swing states such as Virginia and Wisconsin.
Kansas
In early 2016, a state judge struck down a law requiring voters to show proof of citizenship in cases where the voter had used a national voter registration form. In May, a federal judge ordered the state of Kansas to begin registering approximately 18,000 voters whose registrations had been delayed because they had not shown proof of citizenship. Kansas secretary of state Kris Kobach ordered that the voters be registered, but not for state and local elections. In July, a county judge struck down Kobach's order. Kobach has been repeatedly sued by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) for allegedly trying to restrict voting rights in Kansas.
In particular, Fish v. Kobach was filed in 2016 and heard in the United States District Court for the District of Kansas in 2018 by Chief District Judge Julie A. Robinson; she had been appointed to the bench by President George W. Bush, a Republican. She found that Kobach's Documentary Proof of Citizenship law had illegally refused to accept 12.4% of new voter registration applications by US citizens while it was in effect, over 31,000 people, to protect the "integrity" of elections from the threat of votes by 39 non-citizens who had registered to vote. Moreover, the "voting rate among purported noncitizen registrations on [a Kansas temporary drivers license] match list is around 1%, whereas the voting rate among registrants in Kansas more generally is around 70%." She also noted that Hans von Spakovsky, whom Kobach called as an expert witness, had made multiple misleading statements, including claiming that a U.S. GAO study 'found that up to 3 percent of the 30,000 individuals called for jury duty from voter registration roles over a two-year period in just one U.S. district court were not U.S. citizens.' On cross-examination, however, he acknowledged that the GAO study contained information on 8 district courts, 4 of which had reported zero non-citizen called for jury duty, and the other 3 reported that less than 1% of those called for jury duty from voter rolls were noncitizens.
North Carolina
In 2013, the state House passed a bill that requires voters to show a photo ID issued by North Carolina, a passport, or a military identification card to begin in 2016. Out-of-state drivers licenses were to be accepted only if the voter registered within 90 days of the election, and university photo identification was not acceptable. In July 2016, a three-judge panel of the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed a trial court decision in a number of consolidated actions and struck down the law's photo ID requirement, finding that the new voting provisions targeted African Americans "with almost surgical precision," and that the legislators had acted with clear "discriminatory intent" in enacting strict election rules, shaping the rules based on data they received about African-American registration and voting patterns. On May 15, 2017, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the Appeals Court ruling.
North Dakota
North Dakota abolished voter registration in 1951 for state and federal elections, the only state to do so. It has since 2004 required voters to produce an approved form of ID before being able to vote, one of which was a tribe ID commonly used by Native Americans. However, it was common and lawful for a post office box to be used on this ID instead of a residential address. This has led to North Dakota being accused of voter suppression because many Native American were being denied a vote because they did not have an approved form of ID with a residential address.
North Dakota's ID law especially adversely affected large numbers of Native Americans, with almost a quarter of Native Americans in the state, otherwise eligible to vote, being denied a vote on the basis that they do not have proper ID; compared to 12% of non-Indians. A judge overturned the ID law in July 2016, also saying: "The undisputed evidence before the Court reveals that voter fraud in North Dakota has been virtually non-existent." However, the denial of a vote on this basis was also an issue in the 2018 mid-term election.
In the run-up to North Dakota's election for U.S. Senate in 2018, state lawmakers implemented changes to voter identification rules, citing nine "suspected" double voting cases. Under the new rules, voter IDs had to include a residential address, rather than a post office box. The change led to rebuke and lawsuits from Native American voters on a Turtle Mountain Chippewa reservation, as well as claims of partisanship from then-Senator Heidi Heitkamp, a Democrat, as the law was championed by Republican state representatives. The voters claimed discrimination, and in legal filings cited a survey that indicated 18% of Native Americans lacked a valid ID due to the new street address requirement, while the requirement only affected 10.9% of non-Natives. The survey pinned the discrepancy on higher poverty rates and lower transportation access in areas with higher proportions of Native Americans. The legal battle quickly rose to national attention. While former Attorney General Eric Holder called the rule "nothing more than voter suppression", North Dakota House Majority Leader Republican Al Carlson, who sponsored the law, said "Our attempt was never to disenfranchise anybody. From a legislative standpoint, we wanted the integrity ... in the ballots, but we also want to have anybody that wants to vote that is a legal citizen be able to identify where they live and be able to vote." Ultimately, the legal battle ended when the Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal in November 2018, which effectively left the rule in place. In July 2019, the ID law was judged to be constitutional. A settlement of the dispute was reached in February 2020.
Ohio
Since 1994, Ohio has had a policy of purging infrequent voters from the rolls. In April 2016, a lawsuit was filed, challenging this policy on the grounds that it violated the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA) and the Help America Vote Act of 2002. In June, the federal district court ruled for the plaintiffs, and entered a preliminary injunction applicable only to the November 2016 election. The preliminary injunction was upheld in September by the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. Had it not been upheld, thousands of voters would have been purged from the rolls just a few weeks before the election.
Wisconsin
Wisconsin has enforced a photo ID law for all elections since April 7, 2015. A federal judge found that Wisconsin's restrictive voter ID law led to "real incidents of disenfranchisement, which undermine rather than enhance confidence in elections, particularly in minority communities"; and, given that there was no evidence of widespread voter impersonation in Wisconsin, found that the law was "a cure worse than the disease." In addition to imposing strict voter ID requirements, the law cut back on early voting, required people to live in a ward for at least 28 days before voting, and prohibited emailing absentee ballots to voters. A study by Priorities USA, a progressive advocacy group, estimates that strict ID laws in Wisconsin led to a significant decrease in voter turnout in 2016, with a disproportionate effect on African-American and Democratic-leaning voters.
2017–2018
Election Integrity Commission and Crosscheck
In May 2017, President Donald Trump established the Presidential Advisory Commission on Election Integrity, purportedly for the purpose of preventing voter fraud. Critics have suggested its true purpose is voter suppression. The commission was led by Kansas attorney general and Republican gubernatorial nominee Kris Kobach, a staunch advocate of strict voter ID laws and a proponent of the Crosscheck system. Crosscheck is a national database designed to check for voters who are registered in more than one state by comparing names and dates of birth. Researchers at Stanford University, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University, and Microsoft found that for every legitimate instance of double registration it finds, Crosscheck's algorithm returns approximately 200 false positives. Kobach has been repeatedly sued by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and other civil rights organizations for trying to restrict voting rights in Kansas. On February 20, 2016, while speaking to a committee of Kansas 2nd Congressional District delegates, regarding their challenges of the proof-of-citizenship voting law he championed in 2011, Kobach said, "The ACLU and their fellow communist friends, the League of Women Voters—you can quote me on that, the communist League of Women Voters — the ACLU and the communist League of Women Voters sued".
Often, voter fraud is cited as a justification for such measures, even when the incidence of voter fraud is low. In Iowa, lawmakers passed a strict voter ID law with the potential to disenfranchise 260,000 voters. Out of 1.6 million votes cast in Iowa in 2016, there were only 10 allegations of voter fraud; none were cases of impersonation that a voter ID law could have prevented. Only one person, a Republican voter, was convicted. Iowa Secretary of State Paul Pate, the architect of the bill, admitted, "We've not experienced widespread voter fraud in Iowa."
Alabama
Alabama HB 56, an anti-illegal-immigration bill co-authored by Kansas Secretary of State Kris Kobach and passed in 2011, required proof of citizenship to be presented by voters on Election Day. Much of the law was invalidated on appeal at various levels of appeals courts or voluntarily withdrawn or reworded.
In its 2014 Shelby County v. Holder decision, the Supreme Court of the United States allowed jurisdictions with a history of suppression of minority voters to avoid continuing to abide by federal preclearance requirements for changes in voter registration and casting of ballots. Within 24 hours of that ruling, Alabama implemented a previously-passed 2011 law requiring specific types of photo identification to be presented by voters. The state closed DMV offices in eight of ten counties which had the highest percentage black population, but only three in the ten counties with the lowest black population. In 2016, Alabama's Secretary of State (SOS) John Merrill began the process to require proof of citizenship from voters, despite Merrill saying he did not know of any cases where non-citizens had voted. Four-term Republican Representative Mo Brooks found that he himself had been purged from the rolls. Merrill also declined to publicize the passage of legislation that enabled some 60,000 Alabamian former felons to vote. Alabama's requirement regarding proof of citizenship had been approved by federal Election Assistance Commission Director Brian Newby. Kobach had supported Newby in the federal suit, and had appointed him to an elections position in Kansas prior to his EAC appointment.
Alabama boasts the 3rd highest rate of people barred from voting due to a felony conviction per 100,000 residents in each state across the US, according to a recent study. This disproportionately affects African Americans. In 2018, critics accused the state of intentionally disenfranchising non-white voters. The suburban and rural outreach efforts by the Doug Jones campaign were successful and he captured the U.S. Senate seat, the first Democrat in 25 years to do so, and in a state that Donald Trump had won by 30 points.
Georgia
In Louisville, Georgia, in October 2018, Black senior citizens were told to get off a bus that was to have taken them to a polling place for early voting. The bus trip was supposed to have been part of the "South Rising" bus tour sponsored by the advocacy group Black Voters Matter. A clerk of the local Jefferson County Commission allegedly called the intended voters' senior center to claim that the bus tour constituted "political activity," which is barred at events sponsored by the county. LaTosha Brown, one of the founders of Black Voters Matter, described the trip's prevention as a clear-cut case of "...voter intimidation. This is voter suppression, Southern style." The NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund sent a letter to the county calling for an "immediate investigation" into the incident, which it condemned as, "an unacceptable act of voter intimidation," that "potentially violates several laws."
Georgia's Secretary of State, Brian Kemp, the Republican gubernatorial nominee, was the official in charge of determining whether or not voters were allowed to vote in the November 2018 election and has been accused of voter suppression. Minority voters are statistically more likely to have names that contain hyphens, suffixes or other punctuation that can make it more difficult to match their name in databases, experts noted, and are more likely to have their voter applications suspended by Kemp's office. Barry C. Burden, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and director of its Elections Research Center said, "An unrealistic rule of this sort will falsely flag many legitimate registration forms. Moreover, the evidence indicates that minority residents are more likely to be flagged than are whites." Kemp has suspended the applications of 53,000 voters, a majority of whom are minorities. Strict voter registration deadlines in Georgia prevented 87,000 Georgians from voting because they had registered after the deadline. "Even if everyone who is on a pending list is eventually allowed to vote, it places more hurdles in the way of those voters on the list, who are disproportionately black and Hispanic," said Charles Stewart III, Professor of Political Science at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Indiana
In 2017, Indiana passed a law allowing the state to purge voters from the rolls without notifying them, based on information from the controversial Crosscheck system. The Indiana NAACP and League of Women Voters have filed a federal lawsuit against Connie Lawson, Indiana's Secretary of State, to stop the purges. In June 2018, a federal judge ruled that the law violated the National Voter Registration Act.
2019–2020
Georgia
Georgia made efforts to correct voting problems that had occurred in the 2018 election. In the 2020 statewide primary, however, many irregularities were reported, including missing machines at polling places and mail-in ballots that never arrived at voters' houses. Georgia has a law prohibiting felons on probation for crimes involving moral turpitude from voting or registering to vote, with a similar law in Alabama having been criticized by the United States Supreme Court in 471 U.S. 222 (1985) as having roots in white supremacy.
Texas
In March 2020, it was reported that Texas leads the South in closing down voting places, making it more difficult for Democratic-leaning African-Americans and Latinos to vote. The 50 counties that have experienced the greatest increases in African-American and Latino populations had 542 polling sites closed between 2012 and 2018, while those with the lowest increases in minority populations had only 34 closures. Brazoria County, south of Houston, closed 60% of its polling places, below the statutory minimum; the county clerk promised this would not happen again. Texas law allows the centralization of vote centers, which sometimes make it easier for people to vote. However, the 334 poll closures outside of vote centers still put Texas ahead of Arizona, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi.
Texas limits who can request absentee postal ballots only to voters over 65, those sick or disabled, those who will be out of the county on election day and those who are in jail. Attempts in court to expand mail in voting before the 2020 elections because of health concerns during the COVID-19 pandemic have been unsuccessful. In addition, some eligible postal voters want to lodge postal ballots in advance in drop-off points rather than rely on the postal service, which had warned that ballot papers may not arrive in time to be counted on election day. However, on October 1, Texas Governor Greg Abbott, a Republican, ordered a limit of one drop-off location per county. Harris County, for example, received national media attention because it is larger than the size of Rhode Island and has 2.4 million registered voters but is being served by only one voting drop-box location. On October 10, a judge blocked the order to allow only one absentee vote drop-off point per county, on the basis that it would affect older and disabled voters. A Texas appeals court on October 23 confirmed the ruling that the Republican governor cannot limit drop-off sites for mail ballots to one per county.
Some prominent Texas Republicans sued Governor Abbott in September 2020, seeking to limit the number of days early voting was allowed in the state. They sought to push back the early voting start date from October 13 to October 19. Early voting had been expanded by the governor in July, in response to the pandemic and to the limits he had imposed on mail in voting. The same lawsuit also sought to limit the time frame for submitting mail-in ballots in person. A similar lawsuit was filed by Houston Republicans a week later, seeking the same restrictions on in person and absentee ballots in Harris County. The Texas Supreme Court ruled against the Republicans and allowed early voting to take place from October 13 to October 30, 2020.
A conservative activist and three Republican candidates sued in late October 2020 to have 127,000 drive-through ballots cast in predominantly Democratic Harris County, tossed. A federal judge rejected the Republican lawsuit, as did the Texas Supreme Court.
Turnout in the 2020 Texas election increased by more than 6%, breaking a 28-year record, with both major-party Presidential candidates breaking records for the most votes ever cast for a candidate in Texas.
Attorney General of Texas and 2020 presidential election conspiracy theorist Ken Paxton has stated that he believed Joe Biden would've won the state if he had not filed a legal action to prevent Harris County from sending out unsolicited mail-in ballots to all its registered voters.
Wisconsin
In 2019, district court Judge Paul V. Malloy of Ozaukee County, Wisconsin removed 234,000 voters from state rolls. Wisconsin's Attorney General Josh Kaul appealed to halt the purge, on behalf of the Wisconsin Elections Commission.
The issue was brought before the court by the Wisconsin Institute for Law and Liberty (WILL), a conservative organization mostly supported by the Bradley Foundation, which funds such political causes. The lawsuit demanded that the Wisconsin Election Commission respond to a "Movers Report," generated from voter data analysis produced by the Electronic Registration Information Center (ERIC), a national, non-partisan partnership funded in 2012 by the Pew Charitable Trusts. ERIC shares voter registration information to improve the accuracy of voter rolls. The report tagged 234,039 voters who may have moved to an address that had not yet been updated on their voter registration forms. Despite election officials' protests, Wisconsin may be forced to comply with Malloy's order. On January 2, 2020, WILL said it asked the circuit court to hold the Elections Commission in contempt, fining it up to $12,000 daily, until it advances Malloy's December 17, 2019 order to purge from the voting rolls hundreds of thousands of registered voters who possibly have moved to a different address.
The case being litigated in a state appeals court, but it was thought that the conservative-dominated Wisconsin Supreme Court would be likely to hear it. The purge was claimed to be targeting voters in the cities of Madison and Milwaukee, and college towns, which all tend to favor Democrats. Disenfranchisement expert Greg Palast ties the Wisconsin effort at voter purging as part of a national Republican strategy.
COVID-19 pandemic and voting by mail, 2020 US election
The COVID-19 pandemic in the United States posed challenges for the 2020 election, with many states expanding mail-in voting to avoid voters having to choose between not voting and risking illness by voting in person. President Trump encouraged restricting mail-in voting, and hundreds of lawsuits were filed disputing whether witness requirements, arrival deadlines, the removal of ballot drop-boxes, the reduction of polling places, and aggressive rejection of "mismatched" signatures infringed the right to vote.
The large numbers of COVID-19 cases has postponed primary elections. Voting by mail has become an increasingly common practice in the United States, with 25% of voters nationwide mailing their ballots in 2016 and 2018. The coronavirus pandemic of 2020 is believed to have caused a large increase in mail voting because of the possible danger of congregating at polling places. This method of voting-by-mail may potentially be limited to residents. For the 2020 election, a state-by-state analysis concluded that 76% of Americans would be eligible to vote by mail in 2020, a record number. The analysis predicted that 80million ballots could be cast by mail in 2020, more than double the number in 2016. Thus, voting in 2020 may exclude minority groups such as homeless people, lower socioeconomic groups, and people that are unable to register to vote via the internet. As an example, the state of New York, with a high spike of COVID cases, has tried to cancel their primary elections and switched to voting-by-mail.
The Postal Service sent a letter to multiple states in July 2020, warning that the service would not be able to meet the state's deadlines for requesting and casting last-minute absentee ballots. The House voted to include an emergency grant of $25 billion to the post office to facilitate the predicted flood of mail ballots. Trump conceded that the post office would need additional funds to handle the additional mail-in voting, and said he will not grant any additional funding because he wanted to prevent any increase in balloting by mail.
As reported on the site Common Dreams, as an example of occurrences across the country, the head of the Iowa Postal Workers Union "alleged [Tuesday August 11, 2020] that mail sorting machines are 'being removed' from Post Offices in her state due to new policies imposed by Postmaster General Louis DeJoy, a major Republican donor to President Donald Trump whose operational changes have resulted in dramatic mail slowdowns across the nation. Asked by National Public Radio's Noel King whether she has felt the impact of DeJoy's changes, Iowa Postal Workers Union President Kimberly Karol—a 30-year Postal Service veteran—answered in the affirmative, saying 'mail is beginning to pile up in our offices, and we're seeing equipment being removed.' Karol went on to specify that 'equipment that we use to process mail for delivery'—including sorting machines—is being removed from Postal Service facilities in Iowa as DeJoy rushes ahead with policies that, according to critics, are sabotaging the Postal Service's day-to-day operations less than 90 days before an election that could hinge on mail-in ballots."
Due to the timing of the coronavirus pandemic with respect to the 2020 presidential election, the Brennan Center for Justice has recommended that states establish contingency plans and pandemic task forces to limit the impact the virus has on voter turnout. The memorandum encourages the expansion of early voting and online registration, and a universal vote-by mail option; especially for at-risk groups. The memorandum recommends polling places remain open to the extent permissible by public health mandates, to prevent the disenfranchisement of those for whom voting by mail is difficult. Fifteen states (Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Hawaii, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, West Virginia, Wyoming) and Puerto Rico have either delayed their primary elections or switched to voting by mail with extended deadlines. The New York State Board of Elections decided to cancel the 2020 Democratic Primary as New York was experiencing a major outbreak COVID-19 at the time. This decision was met with backlash from supporters of Bernie Sanders' presidential campaign, since although Sanders had suspended his campaign on April 8, he was still eligible to receive delegates and thus influence the 2020 Democratic platform. The 2020 Democratic National Convention was pushed from its original June 9 date to the week of August 17th due to COVID-19. In Wisconsin, Governor Tony Evers (D) issued an executive order postponing in-person voting and extending the deadline for absentee voting to June, in an attempt to limit the spread of the virus. However, the Wisconsin state Supreme Court denied this order; a decision upheld by the US Supreme Court one day before the primary election.
Aftermath of the 2020 election
After Joe Biden defeated Donald Trump in the 2020 presidential election, Republican lawmakers around the nation began attacking the voting methods used in the election. Drawing on the false claims of widespread voting fraud and a stolen election, by February 2021 Republican state legislatures had begun to implement new laws and rules to restrict voting access in ways that would favor Republican candidates. By April 2021, 361 bills in 47 states have been proposed by GOP lawmakers meant to restrict voting access.
In March 2021, John Kavanagh, a Republican elected to the Arizona House of Representatives, justified restrictions on voting, saying that "everybody shouldn't be voting ... Quantity is important, but we have to look at the quality of votes, as well."
Anti-suppression efforts
Starting in 2015, various states enacted laws for automatic voter registration. At Politico's "State Solutions" voter engagement conference, former Secretary of State and Oregon Governor Kate Brown said, "Registration is a barrier to people participating in this process... [v]oting is a fundamental right of being a citizen, and people across the country should have the ability to access this fundamental right without barriers like registration." She emphatically aimed at critics of policies such as Oregon's "motor voter" law that are aimed at increasing voter turnout, saying, "I think the good news is, in Oregon, we actually want people to vote in our state."
See also
Black suffrage in the United States
Cost of voting index (US)
Democratic backsliding in the United States
Gerrymandering in the United States
Voter Suppression
Voting Rights Act of 1965 for relevant court cases
References
Further reading
External links
Fighting Voter Suppression
The Brennan Center for Justice research page for voter suppression
American legal terminology
Electoral fraud in the United States
History of voting rights in the United States
Political corruption in the United States
Political and cultural purges
Political repression in the United States
Political violence in the United States
Voter suppression
Suppression
White supremacy in the United States | wiki |
Loweina is a small genus of lanternfishes.
Species
There are currently three recognized species in this genus:
Loweina interrupta (Tåning, 1928)
Loweina rara (Lütken, 1892) (Laura's lantern fish)
Loweina terminata Becker, 1964
References
Myctophidae
Marine fish genera
Taxa named by Henry Weed Fowler | wiki |
There are various names of Korea in use today, all derived from ancient kingdoms and dynasties. The modern English name "Korea" is an exonym derived from the name Goryeo, also spelled Koryŏ, and is used by both North Korea and South Korea in international contexts. In the Korean language, the two Koreas use different terms to refer to the nominally unified nation: Joseon (, ) in North Korea and Hanguk (, ) in South Korea. Ethnic Koreans living in China and Japan also use the term Joseon to refer to Korea.
History
The earliest records of Korean history are written in Chinese characters called hanja. Even after the invention of hangul, Koreans generally recorded native Korean names with hanja, by translation of meaning, transliteration of sound, or even combinations of the two. Furthermore, the pronunciations of the same character are somewhat different in Korean and the various Korean dialects, and have changed over time.
For all these reasons, in addition to the sparse and sometimes contradictory written records, it is often difficult to determine the original meanings or pronunciations of ancient names.
Ancient history
Gojoseon
Until 108 BC, northern Korea and part of Manchuria were controlled by Gojoseon. In contemporaneous Chinese records, it was written as , which is pronounced in modern Korean as Joseon (). The prefixing of Go- (), meaning "old" or "ancient," is a historiographical convention that distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty. The name Joseon is also now still used by North Koreans and Koreans living in China and Japan to refer to the peninsula, and as the official Korean form of the name of Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Joseon). Cognates of 朝鮮 Joseon are also used in many Asian languages, such as Japanese, Vietnamese, and Chinese, to refer to the Korean Peninsula.
Possibly the Chinese characters phonetically transcribed a native Korean name, perhaps pronounced something like "Jyusin". Some speculate that it also corresponds to Chinese references to (, Suksin (ethnic group)), (, Jiksin) and (, Siksin), although these latter names probably describe the ancestors of the Jurchen people.
Other scholars believe was a translation of the native Korean Asadal (), the capital of Gojoseon: asa being a hypothetical Altaic root word for "morning", and dal meaning "mountain", a common ending for Goguryeo place names.
An early attempt to translate these characters into English gave rise to the expression "The Land of the Morning Calm" for Korea, which parallels the expression "The Land of the Rising Sun" for Japan. While the wording is fanciful, the essence of the translation is valid.
Han
Around the time of Gojoseon's fall, various chiefdoms in southern Korea grouped into confederacies, collectively called the Samhan (, , "Three Han"). Han is a native Korean root for "leader" or "great", as in maripgan ("king", archaic), hanabi ("grandfather", archaic), and Hanbat ("Great Field", archaic name for Daejeon).
Han was transliterated in Chinese records as (, hán), (, gan), (, gan), (, gan), or (, hàn), but it is unrelated to the Han people () and states also called Hán (), both of which are similar but different in tone. (See: Transcription into Chinese characters).
Beginning in the 7th century, the name "Samhan" became synonymous with the Three Kingdoms of Korea. According to the Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa, Silla implemented a national policy, "Samhan Unification" (), to integrate Baekje and Goguryeo refugees. In 1982, a memorial stone dating back to 686 was discovered in Cheongju with an inscription: "The Three Han were unified and the domain was expanded." During the Later Silla period, the concepts of Samhan as the ancient confederacies and the Three Kingdoms of Korea were merged. In a letter to an imperial tutor of the Tang dynasty, Choe Chiwon equated Byeonhan to Baekje, Jinhan to Silla, and Mahan to Goguryeo. By the Goryeo period, Samhan became a common name to refer to all of Korea. In his Ten Mandates to his descendants, Wang Geon declared that he had unified the Three Han (Samhan), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Samhan continued to be a common name for Korea during the Joseon period and was widely referenced in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty.
In China, the Three Kingdoms of Korea were collectively called Samhan since the beginning of the 7th century. The use of the name Samhan to indicate the Three Kingdoms of Korea was widespread in the Tang dynasty. Goguryeo was alternately called Mahan by the Tang dynasty, as evidenced by a Tang document that called Goguryeo generals "Mahan leaders" () in 645. In 651, Emperor Gaozong of Tang sent a message to the king of Baekje referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea as Samhan. Epitaphs of the Tang dynasty, including those belonging to Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla refugees and migrants, called the Three Kingdoms of Korea "Samhan", especially Goguryeo. For example, the epitaph of Go Hyeon (), a Tang dynasty general of Goguryeo origin who died in 690, calls him a "Liaodong Samhan man" (). The History of Liao equates Byeonhan to Silla, Jinhan to Buyeo, and Mahan to Goguryeo.
The "Han" in the names of the Korean Empire, Daehan Jeguk, and the Republic of Korea (South Korea), Daehan Minguk or Hanguk, are named in reference to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.
Goryeo
Around the beginning of the Common Era, remnants of the fallen Gojoseon were re-united and expanded by the kingdom of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It, too, was a native Korean word, probably pronounced something like "Guri", transcribed with various hanja characters: , , or (, Goguryeo), (, Goryeo), (, Gori), or (, Guryeo). The source native name is thought to be either *Guru ("walled city, castle, fortress"; attested in Chinese historical documents, but not in native Korean sources) or *Gauri ("center, middle"; cf. Middle Korean *gaβɔndɔy and Standard Modern Korean gaunde ).
The theory that Goguryeo referenced the founder's surname has been largely discredited (the royal surname changed from Hae to Go long after the state's founding).
Revival of the names
In the south, the Samhan resolved into the kingdoms of Baekje and Silla, constituting, with Goguryeo, the Three Kingdoms of Korea. In 668, Silla unified the three kingdoms, and reigned as Later Silla until 935. The name Samhan became synonymous with the Three Kingdoms of Korea beginning in the 7th century, and by the Goryeo period it became a common name to refer to all of Korea.
The succeeding dynasty called itself Goryeo (), and regarded itself as the successor to Goguryeo (). The name Goryeo was the shortened form of Goguryeo and was first used during the reign of Jangsu in the 5th century. Through the Silk Road trade routes, Persian and Arab merchants brought knowledge about Silla and Goryeo to India and the Middle East. Goryeo was transliterated into Italian as "Cauli", the name Marco Polo used when mentioning the country in his Travels, derived from the Chinese form Gāolí.
In 1392, a new dynasty established by a military coup revived the name Joseon (, , Chosŏn), after the ancient state Gojoseon. The alternative name for this nation could have been Hwaryeong, but in the end, Taejo of Joseon decided to go with Joseon. The hanja for Joseon often translated into English as "morning calm/sun", and Korea's English nickname became "The Land of the Morning Calm"; however, this interpretation is not often used in the Korean language, and is more familiar to Koreans as a back-translation from English. This nickname was coined by Percival Lowell in his book, "Chosön, the Land of the Morning Calm," published in 1885.
In 1897, the nation was renamed Daehan Jeguk (, , literally, "Great Han Empire", known in English as Korean Empire). Han had been selected in reference to Samhan, specifically the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula. So, Daehan Jeguk (, ) means it is an empire that rules the area of Three Kingdoms of Korea. This name was used to emphasize independence of Korea, because an empire cannot be a subordinate country.
20th century
When the Korean Empire came under Japanese rule in 1910, the name reverted to Joseon (officially, the Japanese pronunciation Chōsen). During this period, many different groups outside of Korea fought for independence, the most notable being the Daehan Minguk Imsi Jeongbu (, ), literally the "Provisional Government of the Great Han People's State", known in English as the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea ( = 'people' + country/state' = 'republic' in East Asian capitalist societies).
Korea became independent after World War II (1945) and the country was then divided.
In 1948, the South adopted the provisional government's name of Daehan Minguk (, ; see above), known in English as the Republic of Korea, though commentators have noted that the English name is not a direct translation of the Korean one.
Meanwhile, the North became Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk (, ), translated in English as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. Each component of the name was carefully selected. Chosŏn was the natural choice for the short form, "Korea", since it had been used throughout the colonial period to denote the Peninsula. For the long form of the name, Konghwaguk was used for republic because of its leftist connotations over Minguk. North Koreans wanted to adopt something that had already been used in the Eastern Bloc to borrow legitimacy. A choice was presented between a "People's Republic" and a "Democratic Republic", because they had been used in the names of the short-lived Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets and the Finnish Democratic Republic, respectively. "People's Republic" was favored by Pak Hon-yong of the Communist Party of Korea and it had already been used by the temporary People's Republic of Korea (PRK) formed in Seoul after liberation. "Democratic Republic", on the other hand, was associated with Mao Zedong's concept of New Democracy, which influenced Kim Tu-bong of the New People's Party of Korea. After his party merged with the Workers' Party of North Korea, the concept found its way to Kim Il-sung's parlance. Kim began to speak of a "Democratic People's Republic". This was echoed by what the true authorities of the country, the Soviet Civil Administration, prescribed, albeit in different order: "People's-Democratic Republic" (). Thus the name of the country became the "Korea(n) Democratic People's Republic" in Korean and "Korean People's-Democratic Republic" in Russian so that both parties could claim that they were behind the coining.
Current usage
East Asia
Korea
Today, South Koreans use Hanguk (, ) to refer to just South Korea or Korea as a whole, Namhan (, ; "South Han") for South Korea, and Bukhan (, ; "North Han") for North Korea. South Korea less formally refers to North Korea as Ibuk (, ; "The North"). South Koreans often refer to Korea as "uri nara" (), meaning "our nation" or "our country". In addition, the official name for the Republic of Korea in the Korean language is "Daehan Minguk" (, ; which is usually translated as "The Republic of Korea").
North Koreans use Chosŏn, Namjosŏn (, ; "South Chosŏn"), and Pukchosŏn (, ; "North Chosŏn") when referring to Korea, South Korea, and North Korea, respectively. The term Pukchosŏn, however, is rarely used in the north, although it may be found in pre-war sources, such as the Song of General Kim Il-sung. In the 1970s, Kim Il-sung suggested that in the event of a North Korean takeover of South Korea, "Koryo" () could become the Korean name of the country.
In the tourist regions in North Korea and the official meetings between South Korea and North Korea, Namcheuk (, ) and Bukcheuk (, ), or "southern side" and "northern side", are used instead of Namjosŏn and Bukhan.
The Korean language is called Hangukeo (, , referring to the Korean language) or Hangukmal (, , referring to spoken Korean only) in the South and Chosŏnmal (, ) or Chosŏnŏ (, ) in the North. The Korean script is called hangeul () in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl () in North Korea. The Korean Peninsula is called Hanbando (, ) in the South and Chosŏn Bando (, ) in the North.
Chinese-speaking areas
In Chinese-speaking areas such as China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, different naming conventions on several terms have been practiced according to their political proximity to whichever Korean government although there is a growing trend for convergence.
In the Chinese language, the Korean Peninsula is usually called Cháoxiǎn Bàndǎo () and in rare cases called Hán Bàndǎo (). Ethnic Koreans are also called Cháoxiǎnzú (), instead of Dàhán mínzú (). However, the term Hánguó ren () may be used to specifically refer to South Koreans.
Before establishing diplomatic relations with South Korea, the People's Republic of China tended to use the historic Korean name Cháoxiǎn ( "Joseon" or "Chosŏn"), by referring to South Korea as Nán Cháoxiǎn ( "South Joseon"). Since diplomatic ties were restored, China has used the names that each of the two sides prefer, by referring to North Korea as Cháoxiǎn and to South Korea as Hánguó ( "Hanguk"). The Korean language can be referred to as either Cháoxiǎnyǔ () or Hánguóyǔ (). The Korean War is officially called the Kàngměi Yuáncháo Zhànzhēng ( "War to Resist America and Aid Korea") although the term Cháoxiǎn Zhànzhēng () is also used in unofficial contexts.
Taiwan, on the other hand, uses the South Korean names, referring to North Korean as Běihán ( "North Han") and South Korean as Nánhán ( "South Han"). The Republic of China previously maintained diplomatic relations with South Korea, but has never had relations with North Korea. As a result, in the past, Hánguó () had been used to refer to the whole Korea, and Taiwanese textbooks treated Korea as a unified nation. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China under the Democratic Progressive Party Government considered North and South Koreas two separate countries. However, general usage in Taiwan is still to refer to North Korea as Běihán ( "North Han[guk]") and South Korea as Nánhán ( "South Han[guk]") while use of – which in Taiwan is not pronounced Cháoxiǎn but Cháoxiān – is generally limited to ancient Korea. The Korean language is usually referred to as Hányǔ ().
Similarly, general usage in Hong Kong and Macau has traditionally referred to North Korea as Bak Hon ( "North Han") and South Korea as Nam Hon ( "South Han"). Under the influence of official usage, which is itself influenced by the official usage of the People's Republic of China government, the mainland practice of naming the two Koreas differently has become more common.
In the Chinese language used in Singapore and Malaysia, North Korea is usually called Cháoxiǎn ( "Chosŏn") with Běi Cháoxiǎn ( "North Chosŏn") and Běihán ( "North Han") less often used, while South Korea is usually called Hánguó ( "Hanguk") with Nánhán ( "South Han[guk]") and Nán Cháoxiǎn ( "South Chosŏn") less often used.
In Hokkien speaking areas of chinese communities in countries like Taiwan and around Southeast Asia, Korea is called Hân-kok ( "Hanguk") where North Korea is referred to as Pak-hân ( "North Han") and South Korea as Lâm-hân ( "South Han").
The above usage pattern does not apply for Korea-derived words. For example, Korean ginseng is commonly called Gāolì shēn (, "Koryo ginseng").
Japan
In Japan, North Korea is called Kita-Chōsen () and South Korea Kankoku ().
However, Japan-based North Koreans claim the name Kita-Chōsen is derogatory, as it only refers to the northern part of Korean Peninsula, whereas the government claims sovereignty over its whole territory. Pro-North people such as Chongryon use the name Kyōwakoku (; "the Republic") instead, but the ambiguous name is not popular among others. In 1972, Chongryon campaigned to get the Japanese media to stop referring to North Korea as Kita-Chōsen. This effort was not successful, but as a compromise most media companies agreed to refer to the nation with its full official title at least once in every article, thus they used the lengthy Kita-Chōsen (Chōsen Minshu-shugi Jinmin Kyōwakoku) (; "North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea)"). By January 2003, this policy started to be abandoned by most newspapers, starting with Tokyo Shimbun, which announced that it would no longer write out the full name, followed by Asahi, Mainichi, and Nikkei.
For Korea as a whole, Chōsen (; "Joseon") is commonly used. The term Chōsen, which has a longer usage history, continues to be used to refer to the Korean Peninsula, the Korean ethnic group, and the Korean language, which are use cases that would not cause confusion between Korea and North Korea. When referring to both North Korean and South Koreans, the transcription of phonetic English Korean (, Korian) may be used because a reference to a Chōsen national may be interpreted as a North Korean national instead.
The Korean language is most frequently referred to in Japan as Kankokugo () or Chōsengo (). While academia mostly prefers Chōsengo, Kankokugo became more and more common in non-academic fields, thanks to the economic and cultural presence of South Korea. The language is also referred to as various combined terms, such as Kankoku-Chōsen-go (), Chōsen-Kankoku-go (), "Kankokugo (Chōsengo)" (), etc. Some people refer to the language as Koriago (), using the European name for Korea. This term is not used in ordinary Japanese, but was selected as a compromise to placate both nations in a euphemistic process called kotobagari. Likewise, when NHK broadcasts a language instruction program for Korean, the language is referred to as hangurugo (; "hangul language"); although it's technically incorrect since hangul itself is a writing system, not a language. Some argue that even Hangurugo is not completely neutral, since North Korea calls the letter Chosŏn'gŭl, not hangul. Urimaru (), a direct transcription of uri mal (, "our language") is sometimes used by Korean residents in Japan, as well as by KBS World Radio. This term, however, may not be suitable to ethnic Japanese whose "our language" is not necessarily Korean.
Uri (우리 "we/us/our") is the first-person plural pronoun and it is commonly used as a prefix in Korean terms to describe things that are Korean, such as uri nara (우리 나라, "our country") which is yet another name Koreans give their country.
In Japan, those who moved to Japan usually maintain their distinctive cultural heritages (such as the Baekje-towns or Goguryeo-villages). Ethnic Korean residents of Japan have been collectively called Zainichi Chōsenjin ( "Joseon People in Japan"), regardless of nationality. However, for the same reason as above, the euphemism Zainichi Korian (; "Koreans in Japan") is increasingly used today. Zainichi (; "In Japan") itself is also often used colloquially. People with North Korean nationality are called Zainichi Chōsenjin, while those with South Korean nationality, sometimes including recent newcomers, are called Zainichi Kankokujin ( "Hanguk People in Japan").
Mongolia
Mongolian people have their own word for Korea: Солонгос (Solongos). In Mongolian, solongo means "rainbow." And another theory is probably means derived from Solon tribe living in Manchuria, a tribe culturally and ethnically related to the Korean people. North and South Korea are, accordingly, Хойд Солонгос (Hoid Solongos) and Өмнөд Солонгос (Ömnöd Solongos).
The name of either Silla or its capital Seora-beol was also widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for the people of Silla, appearing [...] as Solgo or Solho in the language of the medieval Jurchens and their later descendants, the Manchus respectively.
Vietnamese-speaking areas
In Vietnam, people call North Korea (; "Chosŏn") and South Korea (; "Hanguk"). Prior to unification, North Vietnam used (; Bukchosŏn) and (; Namjoseon) while South Vietnam used (; Bukhan) and (; Namhan) for North and South Korea, respectively. After unification, the northern Vietnamese terminology persisted until the 1990s. When South Korea reestablished diplomatic relations with Vietnam in 1993, it requested that Vietnam use the name that it uses for itself, and gradually replaced in usage.
In the Vietnamese language used in the United States, Bắc Hàn and Nam Hàn are most common used.
Outside East Asia
English usage and spelling
Both South and North Korea use the name "Korea" when referring to their countries in English. North Korea is sometimes referred to as "Democratic People's Republic of Korea" (DPRK) and South Korea is sometimes referred to as the "Republic of Korea" (ROK). The official names of both entities are also used by organizations such as United Nations, International Olympic Committee and media such as the Associated Press, China Global Television Network (CGTN), and several others.
As with other European languages, English historically had a variety of names for Korea. These included "Cauli" (Marco Polo's rendering of Goryeo), Caule, Core, Cory, Caoli, and Corai as well as two spellings that survived into the 19th century, Corea and Korea. The modern spelling, "Korea", first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Company's Hendrick Hamel. The terms "Chosunese" or "Chosonese" were first used to refer to the people of Joseon in the late 19th century but were eventually phased out.
Both major English-speaking governments in the 19th and 20th centuries (the United States and the United Kingdom and its empire) used both "Korea" and "Corea" until the early part of the period of Japanese occupation. English-language publications in the 19th century generally used the spelling Corea, which was also used at the founding of the UK's embassy in Seoul in 1890. However, at the turn of the century, the then U.S. minister and consul general to Korea, Horace Newton Allen, used "Korea" in his works published on the country. At the official Korean exhibit at the World's Columbian Exhibition in Chicago in 1893 a sign was posted by the Korean Commissioner saying of his country's name that "'Korea' and 'Corea' are both correct, but the former is preferred." This may have had something to do with Allen's influence, as he was heavily involved in the planning and participation of the Korean exhibit at Chicago.
A shift can also be seen in Korea itself, where postage stamps issued in 1884 used the name "Corean Post" in English, but those from 1885 and thereafter used "Korea" or "Korean Post".
By the first two decades of the 20th century, "Korea" began to be seen more frequently than "Corea" – a change that coincided with Japan's consolidation of its grip over the peninsula. However, the spelling "Corea" was occasionally used even under full colonial rule and both it and "Korea" were largely eschewed in favor of the Japanese-derived "Chosen", which itself was derived from "Joseon".
A theory that grew in popularity in South Korea in the early 2000s and especially during the 2002 joint World Cup (and endorsed by the North Korean state) was that Japan as occupier had intentionally standardized the spelling on "Korea", allegedly so that "Japan" would appear first alphabetically. However, evidence of a deliberate name change orchestrated by Japanese authorities is circumstantial, for example, a 1912 memoir by a Japanese colonial official that complained of the Koreans' tendency "to maintain they are an independent country by insisting on using a C to write their country's name."
Other languages
European languages use variations of the name "Korea" for both North and South Korea. In general, Celtic and Romance languages spell it "Corea" (or variations) since "c" represents the sound in most Romance and Celtic orthographies. However, languages that have a general preference towards representing with "k" rather than "c", such as most Germanic or Slavic languages, generally use variants of "Korea" instead. In languages using other alphabets such as Russian (Cyrillic), variations phonetically similar to "Korea" are also used for example the Russian name for Korea is Корея, romanization Koreya or Koreja. Outside of Europe, most languages also use variants of "Korea", often adopted to local orthographies. Some Languages, especially Romance Languages like Italian, French and Spanish still use the old Spelling "Corea" (As Corea, Corée and Córea respectively). "Korea" in the Jurchen Jin's national language (Jurchen) is "Sogo". "Korea" in the conlang Esperanto is "Koreio". "Korea" in Hmong is "Kauslim" ("s" and "m" represent tones, not consonants).
Koreans abroad
Emigrants who moved to Russia and Central Asia call themselves Goryeoin or Koryo-saram (; ; literally "person or people of Goryeo"), or Koreytsi () in Russian. Many Goryeoin are living in the CIS, including an estimated 106,852 in Russia, 22,000 in Uzbekistan, 20,000 in Kyrgyzstan, 17,460 in Kazakhstan, 8,669 in Ukraine, 2,000 in Belarus, 350 in Moldova, 250 in Georgia, 100 in Azerbaijan, and 30 in Armenia. As of 2005, there are also 1.9 million ethnic Koreans living in China who hold Chinese citizenship and a further 560,000 Korean expatriates from both North and South living in China.
South Korean expatriates living in the U.S. may refer to themselves as Jaemi(-)gyopo (; , ), or "gyopo" for short.
Names of Unified Korean sporting teams
Sobriquets of Korea
In traditional Korean culture, as well as in the cultural tradition of East Asia, the land of Korea has assumed a number of sobriquets over the centuries, including:
Gyerim, "Rooster Forest", in reference to an early name for Silla.
Gunjaji-guk, or "Land of Scholarly Gentlemen".
Geumsu gangsan, "Land of Embroidered (or Splendid) Rivers and Mountains".
Danguk, "Country of Dangun".
Daedong, "Great East".
Dongguk, "Eastern Country".
Dongbang, literally "an Eastern Country" referring to Korea.
Dongbang yeuiji-guk, "Eastern Country of Courtesy".
Dongya, "Eastern Plains".
Dong-i, or "Eastern Foreigners".
Gu-i, "Nine-i", refers to ancient tribes in the Korean peninsula.
Dongto, "Eastern Land".
Baeguiminjok, "The white-clad race".
Three-thousand Li, a reference to the length traditionally attributed to the country from its northern to southern tips plus eastern to western tips.
Sojunghwa, "Small China" or "Little Sinocentrism" was used by the Joseon Court. It is nowadays considered degrading and is not used.
Asadal, apparently an Old Korean term for Joseon.
Cheonggu, or "Azure Hills". The color Azure is associated with the East.
Paldo gangsan, "Rivers and Mountains of the Eight Provinces", referring to the traditional eight provinces of Korea.
Geunhwahyang, "Country of Mugunghwa" refer to Silla Kingdom.
Geunyeok, "Hibiscus Territory", or Land of Hibiscus
Samhan, or "Three Hans", refers to Samhan confederacy that ruled Southern Korea. Beginning in the 7th century, Samhan became synonymous with the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
Haedong, "East of the Sea" (here being the West Sea separating from Korea).
Haedong samguk, "Three Kingdoms East of the Sea" refers to Three Kingdoms of Korea
Haedong seongguk, literally "Flourishing Eastern Sea Country", historically refers to Balhae Kingdom of north–south period.
Jinguk, "Shock Country", old name of Balhae Kingdom.
Jinyeok, "Eastern Domain".
Jindan, "Eastern Country of Dangun".
Jinguk, "Country of Early Morning", refer to the Jin state of Gojoseon period.
See also
History of Korea
Romanization of Korean
Little China (ideology)
Notes
References
Further reading
History of Korea
Korean culture
Korea
Korea | wiki |
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