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• Blackface Nationalism, Cuba 1840–1868 • Jill Lane (bio) When the strident blackface comedy of the Bufos Habaneros (Havana Bufos) made its debut in Havana in 1868, it not only inaugurated a theatrical genre—the teatro bufo—which dominated the Cuban stage for decades to come; it crystallized the relation between blackface performance and an emerging Cuban national sentiment which had been eminent for several decades prior. That the teatro bufo made its appearance in the same year as the first war for independence is, I venture, no coincidence. This article will concentrate on two major figures of Cuban blackface performance: the bozal, spectacularly embodied in the character Creto Gangá beginning in the late 1840s; and on the emergence of the figure of the catedrático, which became a signature of the teatro bufo through its inaugural play in 1868, Los negros catedráticos. The bozal and the catedrático mark a range in the representation of black people by and for criollo or Cuban-born whites throughout this period. I will examine how and why the anticolonial Cuban popular stage in the mid-nineteenth century made recourse to “black” stereotypes to imagine the meanings of its own nationalism. The shift in popularity from the bozal to the catedrático in 1868, in turn, marks a critical shift in white criollo uses and abuses of mock-black figures in the popular articulation of their own emerging sense of cubanía or Cubanness; I hope to demonstrate how the catedrático emerged as a significant counterfeit currency whose entertainment “value” helped to forge (in both senses, to make and to fake) an “authentic” Cuban national community during the era of anti-colonial struggle. The bozal and the catedrático were both defined at the intersection of race and language. The term “bozal” referred to an African-born black, usually a slave, who was notably “not acculturated” to life in Cuba, as opposed to a negro criollo, or a Cuban-born black. “Bozal” also referred to that African’s manner of speaking Spanish. Partly due to its dissemination in performances like that of the bozal character “Creto Gangá,” bozal took on the uncomfortable status of an “African” dialect of Spanish, purportedly based on the real speech patterns of African-born slaves, replete with the distortions of Spanish grammar and pronunciation of a non-native speaker. Representations in the popular press and in the theatre, however, invariably figured the bozal as [End Page 21] an inept fool, generating the term’s present connotations. Catedrático similarly referred to both a black persona and a mode of speaking Spanish, but unlike the bozal, the catedrático was strictly an invention of the stage with no “real life” referent. Negro catedrático, which translates as “black professor,” referred to a comic “black” pedant whose vain efforts to feign education and social status produce nothing more than a ludicrous parody of refined speech and aristocratic manners. To this day, catedrático speech refers to nonsensical or pretentious use of intellectual jargon. These seemingly opposite stereotypes—the uneducated African slave versus the overeducated urban black—both make their humor and, I will argue, their different political interventions through the characters’ inability to speak Spanish “properly.” The crucial difference between the two figures is that the creators, audiences, and press reviewers of the 1868 catedrático fervently imagined this figure as specially “Cuban,” 1 finding in this character a means through which to invoke a palpable—and, in 1868, dangerous—sense of cubanía. Regularly promoting their entertainments as “Comedies of Cuban customs,” “Portraits of Cuban types,” or “Sketches of contemporary life,” the Bufos Habaneros and their many imitators made an explicit appeal to allegedly “Cuban” forms and images at a time when the status of “Cuba” as a viable national or cultural entity was the source of acute civil tension and would, by the end of their first theatre season, become the grounds for war. Indeed, what came to be known as the Ten Year’s War—Cuba’s first and unsuccessful bid for independence from Spanish colonial rule—brought this first bufo season to a premature close in late January of 1869, because Spanish authorities had identified... Additional Information Print ISSN pp. 21-38 Launched on MUSE Open Access Back To Top
Ever heard of the ‘broken heart syndrome’? Here’s how damaging it can be Liquid Web WW Grief is a strong emotion, but it is an eventuality of stress. In fact, most negative emotions are expressed when a person is said to be stressed. Stress has, unfortunately, permeated our lives, and it creates instances which put us down emotionally, physically and mentally, causing the release of stress hormone cortisol, along with adrenaline, which has the tendency of influencing the blood pressure, sleep patterns, blood sugar levels and heart rate. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, also known as the ‘broken heart syndrome’, is a heart condition that can result from an acute, severe form of stress. “Stress differs from person-to-person and it has its own kinds like acute, episodic acute stress and chronic stress. These variations are classified based on their characteristics, signs, symptoms, duration and treatment approaches. Stress is not always considered as a bad thing, it is usually our response to everyday work. The right amount of stress motivates a person to be alert. Too much stress can be harmful and can make one feel tense, anxious and can even cause some serious illnesses,” explains Dr Rajpal Singh, Director-Interventional Cardiology, Fortis La Femme Hospital, Richmond Road, Bengaluru. He goes on to talk about the several parameter stress can be classified into: Acute stress: One of the most common types, acute stress is one with frequent presentation and occurs for a brief period. It mainly occurs due to overthinking, negative thoughts over any events or demands in the near future. These can be identified by three different problems like transient emotional distress, headache, neck pain, sometimes transient stomach, gut and bowel problems, heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhea, constipation. Episodic acute stress: In this type, a person often presents frequent triggers of acute stress. People who frequently suffer acute stress often live a life of chaos and crisis. Their emotions are totally pressured and unorganised. This type of stress can be found in two different personalities — type A personality and the worrier personality. Type A personality is when acute stress is found to be frequent; the person is aggressive, impatience, and has a sense of time urgency. These symptoms also lead to a heart condition called coronary heart disease. The worrier type are the people who worry a lot and tend to have negative thoughts about everything. Chronic stress: The severe, long-lasting, harmful type of stress, where the community can suffer either because of their aversive experiences in childhood or a traumatic experience in their life. broken heart syndrome, heart health, stress, stress and heart health, acute stress, stress and health, managing stress, healthy heart, indian express news When a person is stressed, the amygdala signals the bone marrow to produce more white blood cells. This causes the arteries to become inflamed, which can lead to heart attacks. (Photo: Getty Images/Thinkstock) What is Takotsubo cardiomyopathy? It is the weakening of the heart’s main chamber, the left ventricle. It is usually caused due to severe emotional or physical stress. ● The unexpected loss of a loved one ● A sudden accident ● Sudden drop in the blood pressure ● Intense fear ● Fierce argument “Heart and stress levels are interconnected. When a person is stressed, the amygdala (area of the brain that deals with stress) signals the bone marrow to produce more white blood cells. This causes the arteries to become inflamed, which can lead to heart attacks, strokes and angina (a type of chest pain caused due to reduced blood flow to the heart). Broken heart syndrome is such a cardiovascular disease, result of acute, or severe forms of stress,” the doctor explains. Simple ways to manage stress: Staying positive: A good laugh can help the heart; laughter lowers levels of stress hormones, reduces inflammation in the arteries. Exercise: Every time the body is physically active, it releases mood-boosting chemicals called endorphins. Exercising protects against heart diseases by lowering blood pressure and strengthening the heart muscles. Avoid binge-eating: During stress, people often tend to binge-eat which may lead to conditions like diabetes and hypertension. Include nutrients and antioxidants like salmon, avocado, asparagus, and dark chocolate to your diet. You must be logged in to post a comment Login
Alternate Altars Today’s passage comes as the Israelites who decided not to cross the Jordan, but helped in the conquering of the promised land, return to their homes east of the Jordan River. They decide to build a large alter on the west side of the Jordan, technically on the land promised to the tribes who did cross the Jordan. The Israelites are angry at the Reubenites and the Gadites for defiling the promised land with an altar meant to replace the one God had Joshua build. They were trying to set up their own, more convenient, place to make offerings and atonement sacrifices. Travelling all the way to the altar of Joshua was hard, dangerous,, and inconvenient. How often do we as Christians try to replace God through more convenient, less spiritually dangerous, and easy traditions? I am not Catholic, but I am reminded of the Catholic tradition of confessionals in churches where a priest serves as an intermediary to accept confessions, essentially replacing Jesus and allowing people to obtain forgiveness for sins through indirect actions instead of the raw love of God for us even when we sin against Him. This practice replaces the altar of redemption we have in a personal relationship with Jesus with a more convenient substitute. The preceding chapters of Joshua provided detailed descriptions of the inheritance and land boundaries of the different Israelite tribes. Many of these boundary markers were water features such as seas, rivers, springs, and wells. It is interesting that some of the same features that God used to provide for the Israelites have now become merely property markers. Do we take the blessings and provisions of God and demote them into mere markers that define the boundaries of our Christian communities? For example, the divisions and denominations that have their roots in disagreements about how we choose to welcome a new believer into a life with Christ through baptism…sprinkle, dunk, or dedication? How crazy is it that the very practice which is intended to identify a oneness in Christ has resulted in some Christians unable to worship and share God’s love with each other! Prayer: God help us to reject substitutes for Your love and the forgiveness we have in Jesus. This entry was posted in Christian Community, Following God, Forgiveness, Joshua, Life Together, Redemption and tagged , , , , , , , , . Bookmark the permalink. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Google photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s
Quick Answer: What Is The Difference Between Horsepower And Watts? How much is 2 horsepower? Hp to Watts Conversion TableHorsepowerWattsRounded Watts1 hp745.699872 W746 Watts2 hp1491.399744 W1491 Watts3 hp2237.099616 W2237 Watts4 hp2982.799488 W2983 Watts96 more rows. How many watts is a 1 hp motor? Watts to horsepower conversion tableWatts (W)Mechanic horsepower (hp(I))Electric horsepower (hp(E))1 W0.001341 hp0.001340 hp2 W0.002682 hp0.002681 hp3 W0.004023 hp0.004021 hp4 W0.005364 hp0.005362 hp28 more rows Is 1 HP equal to a horse? Does one horsepower equal one horse? Not quite. It’s a common misconception that one horsepower is equal to the peak power production of a horse, which is capable of a maximum of around 14.9 horsepower. By comparison, a human being is capable of approximately five horsepower at peak power production. Is horsepower the same as power? Horsepower is a unit of power. Power describes how fast energy is exchanged; a use of energy divided by how long it takes to use that energy. Therefore the measurement of horsepower refers to what the sustained output of an engine is. What’s more important HP or torque? In simple terms, you can think of torque as a measure of how much work your vehicle can do. A healthy amount of torque is what pulls you up hills and helps you haul trailers around. Horsepower is all about speed and keeping your car moving. In general, more horsepower means you’re getting a faster car. How many cc’s are in 1 horsepower? 14Many people have asked for a relationship between horsepower and cc or how many cc in a hp. The short answer is about 14 to 17cc = 1 hp or about 1 cu.in. = 1 bhp for an ordinary, basic car. How many volts are in Watts? Equivalent Volts and Watts MeasurementsVoltagePowerCurrent1 Volts1 Watts1 Amps1 Volts2 Watts2 Amps1 Volts3 Watts3 Amps1 Volts4 Watts4 Amps92 more rows Why is 1hp equal to 746 watts? A 1 hp motor cannot use less than 745.7 Watts so if it uses 1 kW it is about 75% efficient, which sounds about right for a motor of that size. One mechanical horsepower of 550 foot-pounds per second is equivalent to 745.7 watts. … * One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts. How many horsepower is 750w? Convert 750 Watts to HorsepowerWhp(I)750.001.0058750.051.0058750.101.0059750.151.006096 more rows How many amps is 1600 watts? 13.333 ampsHow do you convert amps to watts?PowerCurrentVoltage1500 watts12.5 amps120 volts1600 watts13.333 amps120 volts1700 watts14.167 amps120 volts1800 watts15 amps120 volts27 more rows Why is it called a horsepower? When the steam engine began to do the work of horses in the mines during the early 1800s, the mine owners began to ask how many horses an engine would replace. James Watt, who invented steam engines, figured out a mathematical way to equate horses to engine power. Thus the term horsepower was invented. How many HP is 800w? Watts to horsepower conversion tableWatts (W)Mechanic horsepower (hp(I))Metric horsepower (hp(M))700 W0.938715 hp0.951735 hp800 W1.072817 hp1.087697 hp900 W1.206920 hp1.223659 hp1000 W1.341022 hp1.359622 hp28 more rows How many horsepower is a human? What is 1hp equal to? How much electricity does a 10 hp motor use? There 746 watts for every 1 horse power. So a 10 hp motor will need 7680 watts when operating. In one hour the motor will consume 7.680 KWatt hours. If the units are charged at 10 cents each then then that equates to 10x 7.680 / 100 Dollars = 76.8 cents. How many watts is a 3/4 horsepower motor? Approximate Starting WattageApproximate Running Wattage1/2 Horsepower18006003/4 Horsepower26008501 Horsepower300010001 1/2 Horsepower4200160047 more rows
Diet Food: What Foods To Avoid Updated: Mar 25, 2020 Many people are looking for the right diet or the right diet food... I never recommend people to diet because diets are only for a short period of time, they have many negative effects and they only help you lose weight for that same short period that you are dieting. Therefore, it is better to understand what foods to eat or not to eat to make a lifestyle change and see long lasting weight loss results. Let me start by pointing out that many people do base their weight loss counting calories and they fail to take into consideration what they are eating which is far more important. Counting Calories is not important... In fact, calorie counting is the last thing people should focus on. Calories from refined sugar are not the same as calories from vegetables, even when it’s the same amount of calories. Also, calories from ultra processed foods are not the same as calories from whole foods. Or calories from foods treated with pesticides or hormones are not the same as calories from organic foods. It’s like comparing the calories of eating petroleum versus eating an apple; both have calories, but one will do harm. Chemicals are making you fat not calories... According to Suzanne Somers, bestselling author, all the chemicals that are in today’s foods will keep you fat even though you exercise and “eat healthy.” She explains how the scam of low-fat foods are making people fatter and less healthy. Obesity rates and other diseases are increasing even though people are following the low-fat food approach. As an example, Suzanne points out that people are eating margarine that’s full of chemicals instead of real butter. Research has been done that shows that chemicals in foods keep people fat because the liver is the organ in charge of many chemical reactions that affect the body’s metabolism. If the liver is not working properly due to harmful chemicals, chances are that the metabolic rate will decrease. You are not safe by only eating vegetables... Suzanne explains that vegetables and fruits are often sprayed with organophosphates, and studies have shown that children who live in homes where organophosphate pesticides are used have a higher rate of brain tumors (I know this does not have to do directly with weight loss, but I thought you should know). The higher the pesticide levels in the blood, the less the body burns calories while sleeping. Pesticides mess with insulin, and this may be one of the reasons why people can’t lose weight despite calorie counting. Check for chemicals not calories... Before checking the calories of your foods, check where it comes from and what chemicals it has. This is way more important than calories. When you buy whole organic foods, you can focus on eating the right amount of foods (calorie counting). So next time you choose foods from the supermarket, think about it, read the label if you need to, but don’t see the calories before you find the chemicals. Your best option is to go to the whole foods area and find real foods. Custom Body Fitness is located in Glenwood Springs CO and Carbondale CO Personal trainer Personal Training Weight Loss Fat Loss Weight Lifting 24 views0 comments
How to Kill Cactus Bugs Things You'll Need • Bucket • Liquid soap • Scraping tool • Thick gloves • Insecticidal soap • Malathion Identify the source of the problem before treating a sick cactus. Cacti tap into their own immune system to fight infections and insect attacks. But when a cactus plant is in poor health because its growing requirements haven't been met, it loses the battle. Provide your cactus the care recommended for its species and cultivar to prevent insect damage. If, despite your effort, the plant succumbs to bug infestations, identify the bug and follow the steps to eliminate the pest. Step 1 Handpick cactus longhorn beetles off plants. Drop them in a bucket of soapy water to kill them. The insect, which usually frequents cacti early in the morning or late in the evening, is black and about 1 inch long. Its antennae display white markings and they are also often longer than the bug's body. Cactus longhorn beetles eat the edges of prickly pear pads and the buds on the tips of other cacti. Step 2 Scrape cochineal bugs off cholla and prickly pear cacti. Use a flat, dull blade, a butter knife, for instance, to prevent injuring the cactus skin. Drown the bugs in a bucket of soapy water. Wear thick gloves to protect your hands from the thorns. Alternatively, dislodge and kill the bugs with a strong jet of water. The pressure, however, might also break the plant. When both methods fail to eliminate the cochineal bug infestation, spray them with insecticidal soap, following the application rates listed on the product label. As a last resort, treat the cactus with a synthetic insecticide containing malathion as the active ingredient. Select a brand and use the product according to the manufacturer's instructions. Cochineal bugs are scale insects that protect themselves with a waxy cottony cover. Identify the insect by crushing it. Cochineal bugs release a red fluid. Step 3 Treat insects known as plant bugs (Caulotops barberi) with insecticidal soap. Spray the cactus according to the manufacturer's instructions. Caulotops barberi is about 1/2 inch long, brown with black eyes that protrude to the sides. This insect does enough damage to kill the plant.
Check out our updated Community Karl Marx How do I use 'both'? I know what 'both' stands for, but how do I use it? What's the structure that I have to follow to use it correctly? Thank you in advance 9 jul 2016 20:15 Comments · 1 Both is most commonly used with the conjunction "and". Both is used when 2 people or objects have the same characteristics or doing the same action. Both can come first in a sentence followed by the two subjects separated by and. Also both can be used in the middle sentence with indication that they are two subjects without "and". Finally, the two subjects can come first in the sentence separated by "and" followed by "both". Example: Both Jim and Sally have blue eyes. Example: The two birds both flew away. Example: Tom and Harry both have books. 9 juli 2016 Karl Marx Language Skills English, Spanish Learning Language
What is Chlorine? We all know that chlorine is an oxidant which is normally used for bleaching purpose. However, there are various different uses of chlorine that we are unaware about. If you are looking for a simple definition of chlorine then chlorine is a kind of chemical element that is used in different ways. One of the most common uses of chlorine is It acts as a disinfectant in swimming pools chlorine is also used in different ways like as a part of chloride for e.g. Sodium chloride which is also better known as common salt. The word chlorine itself means pale green and hence you will see that chlorine is a pale green gas that has a very strong smell. It is very reactive and therefore, it quickly transforms into different chemical elements when it is brought in contact with different elements. Although, the use of chlorine was common in the ancient times it was found somewhere in the 18th century by a Swedish scientist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Later, many other scientists from all over the world started different experiments on chlorine. Today, chlorine is prepared through different electrolysis processes like mercury cell electrolysis and membrane cell electrolysis. The usage of chlorine in the industrial production has also become very common and therefore, most of the industries prefer to make use of chlorine to make their finish goods. However, chlorine gas can be very toxic to human health and therefore, companies and industries have to take a lot of precaution while handling chlorine in their plants. More Entries Leave a Reply
Investing In A Nutshell Updated: Oct 16, 2020 Let's speak plainly for a second. Investing is using your money to make more money. Very plain, very simple. Investing done properly will not lose any money. "Risk" just means that anything is possible and nothing is certain, but investing should never lose money. That's rule #1. Investing is about making a thesis that an investment will increase in value. It should involve a specific reason, and is usually detailed with financial calculations trying to approximate the value that's added. An example is something like this: "I think Apple stock will go up because the new iPhone looks awesome and everyone I know plans on getting one." That may not be perfect, but it's a good start. It recognizes a pattern among ordinary consumers that money can be made on. It identifies that if his or her friends are buying one, it could be a trend, and maybe they should do a little bit of research into how many people think the new iPhone is cool. And each time an investor buys a stock, they should have a specific reason. Professionals are usually required by their companies to produce a 10-100 page document outlying the reasons they should buy or sell the stock. Another warning, this is more unique to me and is certainly not widely believed by the investing community, but diversification is a myth. Investing is about making independent decisions on stocks (or other investments). The success of one investment does not affect the success of the others, so diversifying for the sake of "reducing risk" has no impact. Because they are completely independent of each other, and also why would anyone invest in a company that they believed would decrease in value? No diversification does not mean "go all in". Be responsible. The best investors had lots of great ideas, one for each investment they made. That's truthfully all it takes, and a bit of luck. Subscribe to Our Newsletter • White Facebook Icon © 2020 by Rule #1
Rare Cancers June 9, 2014 Study examines physical and mental health outcomes of treatment. The 50th annual ASCO meeting, held earlier this month (June 2014), included posters and presentations on a wide variety of topics. One of the abstracts (e20577, available here) that caught my eye was a study of the long-terms effects of treatment of rare cancers. What made this study unique was that data were gathered from the patients themselves. Researchers from around the United States sought to describe physical and mental health outcomes of patients enrolled in the Rare Cancers Genetic Registry. They surveyed 321 registrants who had been treated for rare hematologic (31%), genitourinary (21%), gastrointestinal (18%), sarcoma (15%), head/neck (11%) or gynecologic (4%) cancers. Median time since diagnosis was 3 years and 69% were no longer receiving treatment. Four outcomes were assessed, reflecting overall physical and mental health, psychological distress, and loneliness. Rare cancer registrants' mean physical health score was significantly poorer than in the general United States population, with registrants who were older at diagnosis, unpartnered, and still receiving treatment reporting poorer physical health. Registrants' mean mental health score was better than in the general population, but younger diagnosis age and unpartnered status were associated with poorer mental health. They also reported greater psychological distress and there was higher distress levels reported by currently treated and unpartnered registrants. Loneliness varied significantly by cancer type, and was higher among less educated and unpartnered registrants. The main finding of this study is that increased psychological surveillance may be warranted for unpartnered patients with rare cancers.
Slide toggle Tanning History Tanning is an ancient art that has its origins in distant Prehistory; it has evolved over time, becoming trades in the Middle Ages up to the present day when industrialization and technology have led to the development of machinery suitable for leather processing and the search for new, less polluting products. Man has always used the skin of animals coming from hunting and breeding to make clothes and shelter from the elements. The first major obstacle to tanning was the conservation of materials; leather is an organic material consisting mainly of proteins that degrade easily and quickly when exposed to atmospheric agents. So the temperature was a very important variable, the heat led to rapid decomposition while the cold made the materials so rigid that they could no longer be used. How to slow down the deterioration process? Man discovered the properties of tannins and aldehydes; subjecting the skin to the fumes of the fire (loads of tannins contained in the wood) or dipping it in the water with the leaves and branches of the trees (rich in aldehydes) the process of putrefaction suffered a strong braking. This is how the various tanning techniques took shape: vegetable tannins, aldehydes and lime, working processes still in use. The first historical testimonies of the use of leather in everyday life (clothes, water containers, boats) date back to the Sumerian era but tanning art was present in several ancient populations all over the world: Babylonians, Hittites, Persians, Egyptians , Jews, Shiites, Greeks, Romans, Indians, Japanese and Chinese; already in the Hellenistic period the first associations of artisans were grouped constituting true archetypes of today’s district consortia. In Italy the tanning took place at the Roman people thanks to the Etruscan and Greek skills, it was at this time that tanning was elevated to trade, founding a new professional category validated by law. With the decadence of Rome, the leather goods business suffered a sharp decline and resumed vigor after 1000 thanks to the commerce of the maritime republics; in this period the tanning systems differed according to the different applications, production and geographical areas. The processes became more refined, from the rudimentary processes of smoking and drying, to the alum and fattening processes with mineral and natural oils, to vegetable tanning. An important expansion of the sector was recorded in 1200 when the use of lime depilating lime was introduced, this process made it easier to remove the animal’s fur from its skin, obtaining a material suitable for more uses. The first tanning areas were born in Pisa, Genoa and Venice, facilitated by the proximity to the ports, following Bologna, Florence, Milan, Turin, Naples, Parma, Ferrara, Vercelli and Ivrea, exactly in these cities until the first half of the thirteenth century , the beccarii (butchers) and the caligarii (workers of the skins) formed the most substantial productive divisions. The lime innovation brought about such an important improvement that no substantial changes were applied until 1700, when we witnessed the change from craft to pre-industrial activity. A remarkable step forward towards industrialization can be attributed to the drum, a machine that sped up the processing by reducing the essential steps for the transformation of the leather in tanning. The drum is a rotating machine in which the skin immersed in the water joined with the chemicals, this movement facilitated the penetration of the substances. Another fundamental step in the history of leather is the invention of chrome tanning at the beginning of the twentieth century; processing makes the skin unalterable. Today chrome tanning is the most widespread because it adapts to different types of product, it is simple, fast and economical. New technological advances are inserted in the sector, optimizing the materials, the resources, the timing and the costs but we want to underline that it is always the man to play the most important role, they are the skill, the ingenuity and the manual skills of the artisans tanning to make the leather a unique and precious material.
Show Summary Details Page of date: 27 February 2021 Abstract and Keywords This chapter analyses the specific features which characterize the sources of international humanitarian law (IHL) and international criminal law (ICL). It first examines those which are claimed to characterize IHL and ICL sources in relation to the secondary norms regulating the classical sources of international law. The chapter then looks at the specific features of some IHL and ICL sources in relation to the others of the same field. Attention is given particularly to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and the impact of its features on other ICL sources, as well as to the commitments made by armed groups, whose characteristics make them difficult to classify under any of the classical sources of international law. In general, this chapter shows how all those specific features derive from the specific fundamental principles and evolving concerns of these two fields of international law. Keywords: Human rights remedies, General principles of international law, International criminal courts and tribunals, Sources of international law Please subscribe or login to access full text content.
Principles of Landscape Ecology ENVS3320 Instructors: Dr. Shelley Hunt (Module 1) - PowerPoint PPT Presentation slide1 n. Skip this Video Loading SlideShow in 5 Seconds.. Principles of Landscape Ecology ENVS3320 Instructors: Dr. Shelley Hunt (Module 1) PowerPoint Presentation Download Presentation play fullscreen 1 / 45 Download Presentation Download Presentation Presentation Transcript 1. Principles of Landscape Ecology ENVS*3320 Instructors: Dr. Shelley Hunt (Module 1) Rm. 2226, Bovey Building x53065 Dr. Rob Corry (Module 2) 2. MODULE 1 UNDERSTANDING THE BIOPHYSICAL LANDSCAPE: BASIC PRINCIPLES AND ECOLOGICAL BASES OF LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY 1. History and basic principles 2. Land(scape) Classification 3. Spatial and temporal dimensions of landscapes 4. Ecological theory and the study of landscapes 5. Pattern and process in landscapes 6. Conserving forest biodiversity: landscape considerations 3. A current landscape-scale issue in forest ecology: -the new forest management paradigm of designing forest harvesting practices to emulate natural disturbances such as forest fire… 4. Forest Management Guide for Natural Disturbance Pattern Emulation 5. Landscape patterns: clearcutting… 6. …vs. forest fire 7. 15 m of road per ha harvested 46 m of road per ha harvested 8. What is a landscape? 9. Huffaker’s experiments with oranges and mites in 1950s • Demonstrated that spatial heterogeneity was needed • to sustain populations of mites and their predators • -in a ‘patch’ of only oranges, the predators ‘won’ • -when spatial variability was introduced (rubber balls, • barriers, oranges partially covered in paper), both • prey and predator populations were sustained 10. What is a landscape? “a kilometres-wide area where a cluster of interacting stands or ecosystems is repeated in similar form” - R. Forman, 1981 Later simplified to… “a kilometres-wide mosaic over which local ecosystems recur” - R. Forman, 1995 11. What is a landscape? “a landscape is an area that is spatially heterogeneous in at least one factor of interest” - M. Turner et al., 2001 There are many definitions – common to most is the idea that… “a landscape is a mosaic of different elements (patches) and that the variety of the elements creates heterogeneity within an area” - J.Wiens 2002 (patches can be types of habitat, vegetation types, land uses…) 12. Landscape = mosaic of patches or ecosystems (e.g. conifer forest, mixed forest, wetland, lake) 13. Region = mosaic of landscapes (agricultural, suburban, natural, etc.) 14. Landscape components structural heterogeneity patch sizes connectivity (physical configuration of patches) functional boundary flows disturbance spread (movement of organisms, materials, disturbances through the landscape) compositional vegetation types habitats land-use types (the kinds of patches making up the landscape) 15. Characterizing landscape structure Patch measures: Size Shape Perimeter Perimeter:area ratio Corridor width, length, etc. Mosaic measures: Patch number Patch diversity Connectivity Patch dispersion etc. 16. What is landscape ecology? 17. What is landscape ecology? “the study of spatial variation in landscapes at a variety of scales. It includes the biophysical and societal causes and consequences of landscape heterogeneity. Above all, it is broadly interdisciplinary”. -IALE “landscape ecology emphasizes the interaction between spatial pattern and ecological processes, that is, the causes and consequences of spatial heterogeneity across a range of scales” -M. Turner et al. 2001 18. What is landscape ecology? “the goals of landscape ecology are to describe, understand the causes of, and interpret the ecological implications that arise from landscape pattern” -J.P. Kimmins 19. What is landscape ecology? Core themes (from IALE): “-the spatial pattern or structure of landscapes, ranging from wilderness to cities, -the relationship between pattern and process in landscapes, -the relationship of human activity to landscape pattern, process and change, -the effect of scale and disturbance on the landscape” 20. What is ecology? • Ecology oikos (house) + logos (the study of) • -developed as a branch of biological science • Growing realization that plants, animals and their environment were interrelated • - much of the early knowledge was developed from practical needs, such as in agriculture • 2. Recognition that humans, like any other organism, are not immune from resource limitation (Malthus) influenced Darwin… 21. What is ecology? …led to more interest in understanding the mechanisms behind observed patterns/phenomena in nature So… From: natural history (collection, description, classification) To: ecology The study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms (Krebs) The study of the structure and function of nature (Odum) 22. Ecology: -a relatively new science -still developing as an experimental science (vs. purely descriptive) -different branches include autecology, population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology, landscape ecology 23. What is ecology? -the study of the interrelationships between organisms and their biotic and abiotic environment -concerned with levels of biological organization from the organism upwards 24. Landscape ecology differs from other branches of ecology by… -”explicitly addressing the importance of spatial configuration And… -often focusing on spatial extents much larger than those traditionally studied in ecology” -M. Turner et al. 2001 25. History and development of landscape ecology European school (human and cultural dimensions) North American school (biophysical dimension) Unified discipline of landscape ecology?
Does Scuba Diving Affect Mental Health By Oyegoke Motolani Oluwakemi Presently, the concept of mental health is under investigation. What we know for sure, regardless of your age, size, or societal status it can affect anyone. Therefore, it’s tasking for medical professionals to give concise advice on this issue. The ideal mental health involves a natural ability to live out individual potential; this includes facing the usual stress associated with being human, productivity, and daily work. The ideal mental health is not limited to being productive; it involves being socially balanced, professional, and socially engaged, etc. Mental health levels can be described based on a spectrum ranging from healthy to adverse or ill. Hence, there’s usually a variation short-term and long-term mental illnesses. Still, the effects may vary in individuals such that a person with a poor mental health condition like anxiety disorder could be fully functional in their daily lives. To cushion the effects of adverse mental health, professionals advise socializing. In adherence to such opinions, people embrace physical interactions with the environment, and other individuals, thus embracing scuba diving. Scuba diving does not take place in a natural human environment, so taking precautions is necessary. While the thrill of diving into the water brings out people’s adventurous side, divers usually overlook their mental health. However, due to the impact outdoor activities have on an individual’s overall well-being, people with mental health concerns naturally embrace the activity. A study conducted by the University of Sheffield’s Medical School supports the claim that diving impacts levels of anxiety, depression, and social functioning. The report also claims that scuba diving can provide several therapeutic benefits to improve social dysfunction and depression. The study sheds light on scuba diving as a potential therapeutic aid, while demonstrating the positive impacts it poses. How does it work? Physical activity Anyone who recognizes that they have mental health challenges must have spoken to a professional and counselor. It is, therefore, not uncommon to receive recommendations of participating in physical activities. However, for many people, running and other kinds of physical activity turn out boring. It doesn’t take too long for discouragement to set in, and so, physical activity comes to an abrupt end. Local sports or Zumba classes make nice alternatives, but you tend to expend more energy. Scuba diving is essentially moving slowly underwater. As you begin to dive, you put your muscles into work by swimming and slight body adjustments. But, in the end, you’re doing something that improves your mental health. Breathing is the core of diving, just as it is for living. It happens instinctively, so that movement in water is seamless. What you’re doing in the real sense is focusing on your breath and its rhythm. Diving has more merits than demerits. All divers actively engage their minds in the activity while underwater. They make clear decisions and effectively manage events. None of this is possible without involving the mind. Since breathing is the biggest part of diving, you learn to focus your breathing by inhaling and exhaling in a meditative way. Meditation is a fundamental aspect of yoga which comes in handy and helps your mind retain calm. When underwater, you’re surrounded by a peaceful kind of calm and silence that allows you to flow with the current environment. Your mind presently drifts away from external concerns so that you can enjoy your space and sport. Easy Socialization A major symptom of adverse mental health conditions is the affected person’s inability to talk to people or maintain social interaction. Networking for such people is almost impossible because they tend to hide and isolate themselves. Sometimes, changing environments is tough since it equals a potential association with new people. Scuba diving is an easy way to come out of this state. It brings people of different races, classes, and calibers together without fear or judgment. Regardless of where you’re from or when you’re diving, you speak one language the language of the sea. The amazing part is that you don’t have to say a word. There is a common ground and an avenue for people to bond and enjoy the sport. Socializing while underwater is easier with the various diving hand signals people use to communicate. Furthermore, it excludes the anxiety that often comes with speaking to people because you only need to communicate with a partner. Generally, diving is done with someone else, so you find yourself with them. Since you only need to ease into the conversation, you soon find yourself talking about other stuff and sharing without any pressure. Additionally, as these interactions grow, you begin to trust people more The Marine life encounter If you have ever watched fishes in an aquarium, you will agree that there’s a feeling of satisfaction with that simple act. Life underwater brings a calming effect to the heart and brain. The burst of colors and different species of aquatic life brings you delight and calm. Colors naturally lift the human mood by increasing serotonin and dopamine levels produced in the brain. Both neurotransmitters stimulate happy chemicals in the brain, hence improving the mood. A kind of therapy Scientists like Dr. J.C. Lilly, a neuro-physiologist, agree that water therapy is both relaxing and rejuvenating. The flotation therapy proves that weightlessness is a way to put the body in a state of total relaxation. Since scuba diving is akin to submerging the body in water, it helps clear the mind and release stress. The human body comprises 70% water, the same percentage of water covering the earth’s surface. Saltwater opens the pores on the skin and enhances the absorption of essential water minerals. So, in addition to aiding mental health, scuba diving looks great on the skin too. Although the weather conditions of the location you use for your diving activity may be subject to peculiar changes, the struggle against any water body improves your strength. Often, divers move through currents and avoid collision against water reefs. These build physical fitness and improve endurance. The water workout helps your mind stay sharp and ready. Also, it helps the muscle and joints. Scuba diving is relaxing and encompassing. It fosters self-reliance and therefore, it is good for individuals with mental health challenges. So, does scuba diving affect mental health? Yes, and positively too. It’s time to explore the numerous advantages of scuba diving. If you intend to go all out and embrace something new, scuba diving is a great idea. I recommend you try the waters of Miami and have all preparations taken care of beforehand. Here’s a chance to sharpen your senses and retain your vitality while having fun too. Enjoy! Happy Diving! Related Blog Articles 1 reply 1. Sandie Morehead Sandie Morehead says: Once I had been certified and diving with my husband, I noticed that when I relaxed, started to trust my own skills, scuba diving has helped me be more mindful – as you stated, breathing, especially. Why am I breathing so fast, and sucking air? Was something causing my anxiety, which caused my air consumption to be faster? The pressure in my chest…was it anxiety due to an outside source or something internal? Once I slowed down and actually addressed each issue as it happened, my diving much improved. My buoyancy has improved, though still needs work, but that will come with more dives – I’m only at #20 as of today. As my buoyancy improves, and I relax more, my breathing and anxiety slows down. Scuba, for me, is my de-stress time, especially as I am an introvert and work with the public during the week. I can “escape” from society, from the surface, and just be me, with my mind. Center on me…worry about me…mindful of me (well, and my dive partner, but as he is my husband, I can trust him and concentrate on me and not worry so much). After diving, I’m more relaxed, less stressed, as if it resets my week – almost as if washing away the previous week’s concerns and stress, and I always look forward to my dive outings for that benefit. Leave a Reply Want to join the discussion? Feel free to contribute! Leave a Reply
New nectar: could artificial pollen make life sweeter for bees? In winter, starved of pollen and lacking natural forage, honeybee colonies can easily falter. But nutritious substitutes may be the answer When beekeepers from across the US drive millions of hives on trucks to pollinate California’s almond crops in January, there simply isn’t enough food for them to eat until the million-plus acres of almond trees start to bloom in early spring. California’s booming almond industry has created a vast monoculture, with little natural forage. The honeybees need to be in place to raise their broods before the pollen comes into season, forcing beekeepers to use pollen patty substitutes to keep them alive. Continue reading… Please enter your comment! Please enter your name here
Claiming the Land This trailblazing history of early British Columbia focuses on a single year, 1858, the year of the Fraser River gold rush - the third great mass-migration of gold seekers after the Californian and Australian rushes in search of a new El Dorado. Marshall's history becomes an adventure, prospecting the rich pay streaks of British Columbia's "founding" event and the gold fever that gripped populations all along the Pacific Slope. Marshall unsettles many of our most taken-for-granted assumptions: he shows how foreign miner-militias crossed the 49th parallel, taking the law into their own hands, and conducting extermination campaigns against Indigenous peoples while forcibly claiming the land. Drawing on new evidence, Marshall explores the three principal cultures of the goldfields - those of the fur trade (both Native and the Hudson's Bay Company), Californian, and British world views. The year 1858 was a year of chaos unlike any other in British Columbia and American Pacific Northwest history. It produced not only violence but the formal inauguration of colonialism, Native reserves and, ultimately, the expansion of Canada to the Pacific Slope. Among the haunting legacies of this rush are the cryptic place names that remain - such as American Creek, Texas Bar, Boston Bar, and New York Bar - while the unresolved question of Indigenous sovereignty continues to claim the land. You recently viewed Clear recently viewed
Wednesday, October 24, 2012 In Luke 8:40 we come to a fascinating story where Jesus performs a miracle while on His way someplace and then made an appointment for another miracle. While Jesus was still speaking, someone came from the house of Jairus, the synagogue leader. "Your daughter is dead," he said. "Don't bother the teacher anymore." Hearing this, Jesus said to Jairus, "Don't be afraid; just believe, and she will be healed." These two stories fused together are interesting to compare. Both women are called daughters, both have to do with the number 12-the age of Jairus' daughter and the suffering of the woman-and in both situations faith was key. Also both saw Jesus as the only answer to their need. There was a superstition at that time that seems to have motivated the woman to touch Jesus' garments. The fringe worn on the border of the outer garment was believed to have special power of the Messiah's robe. If she could just touch that fringe border, then she might be healed of her condition. Jesus shows Himself to be the physician and healer of the unacceptable, the sick and the dead when He heals this woman. Think of her desperation. She had been unclean because of her bleeding for 12 years. That adds up to 12 years of disappointment, 12 years of being left out, unable to participate in worship or feasts, 12 years of being rejected and unacceptable, 12 years of feeling like a nobody. She saw Jesus as the only answer she might ever have to solve her problem. Think what Jesus did for her: 1. Jesus' presence and touch actually healed her. 2. Jesus made her clean. 3. Jesus made her a participant again. 4. Jesus gave her peace. 5. Jesus made her feel special by not leaving her in the crowd. No doubt, once Jesus identified her, she must have felt like she was the only one in the crowd. Jesus didn't let the woman remain as part of the faceless crowd, so He identified her! Jesus actually said, "Be continually healed." To the only person He ever called "daughter" He granted continuing health. After this unusual encounter, Jesus overheard that Jairus' daughter was dead. Jesus interjected Himself into the situation, encouraging Jairus, the leader of the synagogue not to be afraid and to have faith. It's interesting that Jesus took His three main men along with Him as He went to visit the daughter of Jairus who was presumed to be dead. This is another field trip with His disciples, but this time it's a triple A miracle that is needed here. This girl is dead and the mourners are well into the mourning process. Jesus goes into her room and raises her from the dead. These two women serve as great illustrations of hope when you're in the midst of desperate situations, even to the point of death. Here's the way I see the principle: As we proceed through chapter 8 of Luke we come to verse 26 where Jesus encounters the wild man from the land of the Gerasenes on the eastern side of the Sea of Galilee. We've looked at this story recently and it always speaks to me of transformation. There are four phases in genuine transformation that comes through Jesus: FIRST-You have to be in real trouble. Maybe you aren't as bad off as this man, but everyone of us has a desperation factor from time to time. Just last night we were discussing with some friends how amazing denial is within a family. Well, this man was not in denial about his alienation and there was no family member left to cover up for him. He was just too far gone. SECOND-Jesus must intervene within your desperation. THIRD-Just about everything is transformed from the inside out. In this case the demonized man was sitting at Jesus' feet, dressed and in his right mind. His insanity was turned into sanity. In his insanity he was repulsive; and now he is attractive. FOURTH-Because of the demonized man's story, his entire village heard the good news of Jesus. He couldn't get enough of hanging out with Jesus and begged to be able to go on the road with Him. Jesus sent him right back to his people. Now, note something here. This transformed man didn't go to his people and condemn them. He didn't go to them and try to straighten out their belief system. He simply and persuasively told all who would listen about what Jesus had done for him. This must be our focus, too. We must be about sharing what Jesus has done on our behalf. It's not the program; it's the person of Jesus that matters most. Let me ask you something. What has Jesus done for you lately? Are you able to identify the Jesus factor in your life? Can you see yourself sharing this with another friend? Then think and pray about going back home and wait for the opportunities to do so. Remember, God sets up the appointments. All you have to do is SHOW UP.
User Tools Site Tools George Saliba From its very beginnings, Arabic/Islamic astronomy originated, took root, and flourished in an intercultural environment. By the mere geographical proximity, and later overlapping, with two major earlier empires to the east and to the west, much of what was known in early Islamic times was inspired one way or another by the richness of those earlier traditions. On the Eastern Sasanian domain, where the emerging Islamic civilization came in close contact with the Persian/Indian astronomical tradition during the first two centuries of its own existence, Arabic/Islamic astronomy relied heavily on the legacies of older texts, observations, records, and methods of computations that were prevalent in the lands that became later the eastern part of the Islamic world. A similar and slightly more complex engagement happened on the western side as well. The astronomical literature that was encountered in the east had in all likelihood survived on the folkloric cultural level, and at best survived as astrological applications rather than theoretical astronomy. A trend was then set to utilize the folkloric expression of those sciences and try when possible to understand the theoretical foundations upon which those applications were once based. As a result there developed a double tier conversation encountered mainly in the early Islamic astrological sources where one would find references to the ancient Persian Zīj-iShahriyār orZīj-iShāhī, on one level, and in turn encounter the more ancient Indian and Greek sources which inspired this text. As we shall soon see, this search for theoretical origins began to take a more formal shape during the caliphate of the second Abbasid Caliph al-Manṣūr (754-775 AD), when historical sources preserve accounts of translations of the various Sanskrit Siddhantas, and more particularly the Surya Siddhanta (known in the Arabic sources as the Sindhind).1 This attempt at incorporating the Indo/Persian astronomical tradition was not very long lived. For soon after that, this eastern tradition found its competitive match in the equally rich Greek tradition coming from the west which could easily outstrip the eastern tradition in terms of supplying equally practical answers for astrological practice as well as respond to the more theoretical needs better than the other eastern tradition could. Nevertheless, in the beginning these multifaceted eastward and westward conversations took place across many platforms and through the initiatives of various individuals who were either in the employ of governmental patrons or in the employ of aspirants to such governmental positions. As a result, the conversations sound to modern historians as having been somehow chaotic, unorganized, and over ambitious. Many individuals attempted to appropriate the same texts, each in his own way, or attempted to double check the validity of earlier scientific results, each in his own way as well. And as far as we can tell, there never arose a centralized place to localize all those cultural activities, notwithstanding all what we hear about such semi-legendary institutions like the House of Wisdom (Baital-Ḥikma) in ninth century Baghdad, which were supposed to fulfill such functions, but were not as active in such cultural appropriation enterprises as is commonly believed. At times these multifarious activities were repeated over and over again, as if to express, in each case, the difficulty that is usually encountered when texts, ideas, and even crafts and cultural objects cross linguistic and cultural barriers. This phenomenon of repeated attempts at appropriating texts (engaging in serious multilayered dialogues) is nowhere more apparent than in the attempts to acquire, for example, the works of Euclid, Ptolemy and Dioscorides, to name only three of the classical Greek scientific giants. The works of each and every one of them, the Elements, the Almagest, and the MateriaMedica, were in fact ‘translated’ into Arabic more than once, and in some instances, as in the case of the Almagest and the MateriaMedica, up to four and even five times. And yet in each and every one of those ‘translations’ we not only usually find a considerably different text from the original Greek, but we also find considerable differences among the various translations of the same texts, as if to betray and give new meaning to the concept of translation itself or expose the difficulty of the process involved. This kind of activity must mean that the receiving culture, in this instance the early Islamic culture, by initiating dialogues with the earlier cultures through the translation of those cultures’ scientific texts, was not simply engaged in preserving the original Greek, Indian or Persian texts as sacrosanct. It was not faithfully translating similes of, but that it was intentionally appropriating the productions of those earlier cultures in order to forge a vision of its own. That vision was informed by the same earlier cultures but definitely not restricted to inhabiting a world circumscribed by the confines and contours of those earlier cultures. A similar phenomenon seems to have taken place, although it was slightly differently nuanced, when these variegated ‘translated’ Greek, Indian and Persian texts were once more ‘re-translated’ from Arabic into Latin. In this latter translation an extra layer of a translation was added on top of another translation, and at the same time transforming and transmuting the essence of those texts, as was seen fit and as was required in the new Latin environment. The peculiarities of this Arabo-Latin cultural conduit can be easily detected when we usually find the earlier ‘translations’ from Arabic, during the early Middle Ages, almost always consciously attempting to keep the spirit and phraseology of the Arabic texts, as much as that could be done. While at the later period, during the Renaissance, ‘translators’ took greater and greater liberties with the original Arabic, and at times even discarded the whole process of translation and went straight to the contents of the texts in order to utilize those contents. From that vantage point, scientist working during the European Renaissance seem to have been willfully appropriating the earlier Arabic scientific texts into their own Latin scientific works, without even pretending to be preserving the texts of the earlier Arabic/Islamic tradition.. This inter and multicultural dialogue is best illustrated in the discipline of astronomy, which itself highlights the main features of this dialogue that spanned several centuries and ‘successfully’ crossed several cultural barriers, and seems to have found those barriers easily penetrable. By moving from direct translations during the middle ages, where we still have the original Arabic texts that were rendered into Latin, to a more mature appropriation during the Renaissance, where we find ideas first found in earlier Arabic texts freely used in Renaissance scientific texts without necessarily going through the actual process of translation. In this shift the very concept of translation should then gain a much deeper meaning. That was the state of affairs across the border between the European and the Islamic world. In what follows, the simpler translation movement of the middle ages, with its recognizable texts and translators will be intentionally sidestepped in favor of exploring the much less known aspect of that border dialogue during the Renaissance which gave rise to the subtle integration of particular Arabic astronomical ideas and observational results into the conceptual and structural schemes of Renaissance astronomy, and the general science of the Renaissance at large. The Islamic Conversation with Earlier Cultures As was quickly mentioned before two particular texts illustrate rather well this part of the dialogue: the Almagestof Ptolemy, and theMateriaMedica of Dioscorides. These texts demonstrate how endeavors of ‘translation’ began to gain a life of their own just as the process of translation from Greek into Arabic was taking place. They demonstrate how that independent life within the Arabic Islamic culture eventually set the resulting ‘translations’ apart from their Greek originals. And as they could also be conceived as part of a lively dialogue, these two texts also spawned other side conversations in the form of other subsidiary scientific interests within the receptive Islamic culture. Very often, it was in these subsidiary disciplines that one would witness the emergence of real breakthroughs within the Islamic culture. And it is those breakthroughs that begin to tell the story of the full impact of those texts and the emergence of the defining character of an Islamic scientific tradition. As examples of the transmission of scientific texts those two texts demonstrate as well how eventually there came to be many Arabic Almagests, and equally multiple renditions of the MateriaMedica. In the case of the Indian astronomical texts, a similar phenomenon also materialized in which we find the astronomical work of one Muḥammad b. Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (fl. 850), which was originally written under the inspiration of the Sanskrit siddhantas, gaining a life of its own to be transmitted to the Latin west without the Sanskrit original, and to survive there for centuries on its own. In that migration the independent al-Khwārizmī text seems to disappear in the original Arabic, except in the few citations and fragments that survived in other Arabic astronomical, historical, and geographical sources. The Emergence of the new Arabic Astronomical Tradition Once naturalized within the Arabic Islamic tradition, texts like the Almagestand the Sanskrit Siddhantas gave rise to new opportunities to examine them very closely, to correct their mistakes, and to modify them dramatically so that they would fit the new Islamic cultural requirements. At the same time they initiated a series of ancillary sciences that tried to determine the methodological and constitutional reasons that allowed those mistakes to appear in the first place. As a result, the new Arabic astronomical texts that were initially inspired by the Almagestand the Siddhantas, quickly began to form their own tradition, and to refocus the material that seemed dispersed in several Greek and Sanskrit texts, or that seemed not to have been fully articulated in those same texts, and to use it as a basis for new epistemological schemes that would shape the future of Islamic astronomy. In a relatively short period, Arabic astronomy managed to develop a new conceptual framework, and within that framework quickly began to produce comprehensive astronomical texts of its own, mostly referred to as hayatexts. Those newly formulated Islamic texts did not simply restrict themselves to a phenomenological description of the universe, in order to distance themselves from astrological texts that sought to know the influence of the celestial objects on earth bound individuals as they did in both the Greek and the Sanskrit traditions, but also contained the preliminary mathematical, philosophical, and physical foundations of a new astronomy, theoretically different from the inherited astronomies. In these same new texts there came to emerge a new discussion of planetary theories proper, and a rather innovative description of the errant behavior of the planets. At the same time attempts were made to outline the implication of those celestial phenomena to the observers who were bound to inhabit the various regions of the earth, and as a byproduct these attempts produced a veritable discipline of mathematical geography. Almost all hayatexts always included a whole section (usually one out of four) devoted to the earthly effects of celestial phenomena, or the manner in which celestial phenomena appeared to earth bound observers or conditioned the observers’ perception of those phenomena. Finally those hayatexts eventually tried to determine the actual dimensions of the universe we inhabit. Naturally these genres of texts crossed various disciplinary lines and encompassed in their discussions physical, philosophical, mathematical, and of course genuine cosmological problems. And although these texts were rather comprehensive in nature, they were rarely translated into Latin, if at all, probably because they came into their prime when the massive medieval translations from Arabic into Latin were waning at the time. Furthermore, the very form of Arabo-Latin transmission had already morphed by then, in the late medieval and renaissance times, to become more of a direct appropriation of ideas, as we shall soon see, rather than a translation of texts as was done before. As a result several important hayatexts never crossed into the Latin domain. Instead in this later Latin period, especially during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we begin to note the emergence of a European class of astronomers and scientists who could either read the original Arabic competently to benefit from their findings, or who could have access to collaborators and assistants who could unlock for them the language of those Arabic texts to make their novelties ripe for the picking as we shall see below. The New Astronomical Texts and their European Reception. In their rudimentary phase, Arabic astronomical texts were first at the stage of bringing the astronomy of the earlier Greek and Indian cultures within focus, as was done in such texts as the Jawāmi ‘‘ilm al-nujūm (compendium of the science of the stars) of al-Farghānī (Latin Alfraganus c. 860)2, the just mentioned al-Khwarizmi’s hybrid Indian Arabic astronomical handbook (zīj)3, and al-Battānī’s (Latin Alpategnius) astronomical handbook.4 When these texts were first translated into Latin during the Middle Ages, and all of them were, they apparently had such a wide impact in the Latin west on texts that ranged all the way from pure astronomy, where the Arabic sources were simply redressed in Latin garb, to literary texts, where they were used by such people as the humanist Dante in his various writings.5 In both cases, the contents of the earlier Arabic texts, which were now made available in Latin, were freely harvested. Much is known about this dialogue during the Middle Ages. But the more intriguing dialogue, which is still relatively less known, was the one that took place during the Renaissance, when, as we just said, the very concept of translation and transmission had been radically transformed in order to make use of the contents of the Arabic astronomical texts at a much more sophisticated level. To illustrate this stage I take two examples where we find Renaissance astronomers and scientists of the caliber of Copernicus (d. 1543) and Galileo (d. 1642) using scientific ideas that were first developed in the Islamic world some two to three centuries before their time in the very epistemological constructions of their own works. And although we can be pretty certain that neither Copernicus nor Galileo would have read those astronomical and philosophical texts in their Arabic originals, yet we find their free use of those very ideas, which had first appeared in Arabic, problematic enough to warrant a new reconsideration of the genealogy of the ideas of those Renaissance scientists. To make this point clear, let’s consider the situation when, on the one hand, we find Copernicus freely using Arabic models of mathematical astronomy that he could easily translate to heliocentrism, while everything else in the mathematical models remaining the same, and on the other hand, in two particular instances, we find him even making mistakes in his description of those models which were supposed to be of his own creation, when in fact they were correctly described in the earlier Arabic sources. Such grafting of ideas, rather than translations of the same, and his obvious misunderstanding of their full mathematical import, in all likelihood must mean that Copernicus must have at least visited the contents of those earlier Arabic texts, in some form or other, and must have had a good idea of those contents in most cases, and some poorer ones in others. In the first instance we take the curious parallelism between the works of Copernicus (d. 1543) and those of Ibn al-Shāṭir of Damascus (d. 1375), where in the case of the purely geocentric moon, for example, we find the two astronomers using identical models to describe the movements of this planet (Figure 1). Fig. 1a Fig. 1b Fig.1 The Mathematical models for the motion of the moon as proposed by Ibn al-Shāṭir (1a) and then some two centuries later by Copernicus (1b). Both astronomers depart critically from the Ptolemaic model, and use double epicycles, two spheres, represented here as two smaller circles, one of them riding on the circumference of the other (and both riding on the circumference of the larger circle/sphere when conceived as circles), or within the thickness of the other, when conceived as spheres. The most distinguishing features of this common model are that it was at once capable of accounting for the observational results of Ptolemy (d. c. 170), and yet did not distort the size of the apparent diameter of the moon as was done by Ptolemy’s model. Both astronomers were therefore adopting a model that was not only radically different from that of Ptolemy, but were also correcting the mistakes of Ptolemy. As far as we can tell, Ibn al-Shāṭir was the first to simply state that the moon was never seen to be twice as large when it was one week old as was required by Ptolemy’s model. He simply said: It was never seen as such (lamyurākadhālika). Seeing that Ibn al-Shāṭir and Copernicus were both resolving the Ptolemaic observational problems, by resorting to the very same techniques and mathematical constructions, and knowing that Ibn al-Shāṭir constructed his model at least a century and a half before Copernicus, it becomes incumbent upon historians of astronomy to explain the manner in which such identical solutions to the same problem could have come about, if one did not wish to subscribe to the idea of intercultural borrowings and influences. In light of what we shall see below, about the other similarities between other features of Copernican astronomy and the earlier Islamic astronomical sources, we shall see that such intercultural borrowings could not be easily ruled out. Another instance of perplexing parallelisms is the occurrence of a mathematical theorem that was first tentatively formulated by the astronomer Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (d. 1274), in the year 1247, in the context of his objection to the Ptolemaic description of the latitudinal motion of the planets (Figure 2). This early tentative attempt (2a) was later developed into a full fledged mathematical theorem (2b), complete with a rigorous mathematical proof, in the year 1260. Fig 2a Fig 2b Figure 2. The first formulation of Ṭūsī’s theorem, now known as the Ṭūsī Couple (2a) in the year 1247 [Courtesy of the British Library India Office] and its more mature reformulation, with proof in 1260 (2b) [Courtesy of the Vatican Library]. The particular theorem was originally formulated to answer a curious astronomical question that had bedeviled the Greek astronomer Ptolemy. While describing the latitudinal motion of the planets, especially Mercury and Venus, Ptolemy stipulated the existence of two cosmologically impossible spheres that performed all sorts of motions that could not be physically realized. In addition those spheres produced wobbling motions instead of the regular uniform circular motion they were supposed to perform. In this particular instance, Ptolemy knew that he was asking too much, and begged the reader to look the other way for he says “how can we (humans) imitate the behavior of the gods?” Here he meant that the mathematical contraptions that he had proposed in order to describe the latitudinal motion of the lower planets (the divine bodies), were physically impossible to achieve (by humans) in reality. At this point, and while trying to expound the complicated Ptolemaic astronomy, probably for school purposes, Ṭūsī had to scream, “this kind of speech is outside the craft of astronomy,” (hādhākalāmunkhārijunanal-ṣināa) meaning of course that it was not permissible to make such statements in a mathematical discipline as theoretical astronomy was then perceived. And it was then that he proposed to create a new mathematical device (now known as the Ṭūsī Couple) that could generate linear motion out of two circular motions, thus achieving the oscillations required by Ptolemy’s observations without forcing the spheres to move in a wobbling motion. In essence, the Ṭūsī Couple, stipulated the real existence of two physical non-imaginary spheres, both moving in place around axis that passed through their centers, and yet their combined motions produced a linear motion. This linear motion was exhibited thus: In Figure 3 if the larger sphere of the Ṭūsī Couple were to move counterclockwise around its center D, and the smaller sphere, which was half the size of the larger one, moved in the opposite direction at twice that speed, around the axis that passed through its own center Z, then the combined motions would force the point H which was originally the point of inner tangency of the two spheres, to move linearly along the diameter AB of the larger sphere. Figure 3. The Ṭūsī Couple, where a large sphere AGB is supposed to move counterclockwise around its center D. The same sphere carried inside it another smaller sphere GHD, half its size, which moved in the opposite direction at twice the speed. The combined motion of the two spheres, would make point H, which was originally the point of inner tangency of the two spheres, move linearly along the diameter of the large sphere AB. Even before getting to this point, Ptolemy had once before also stipulated the existence of another sphere that moved uniformly in place around an axis that did not pass through its center, which was plainly impossible, not to say physically absurd. Ṭūsī, like all other serious astronomers working in the Islamic tradition, knew very well that the existence of such a sphere, moving uniformly, in place, around an axis that did not pass through its center, was tantamount to assuming the existence of basketball that could be spun on the top of a finger that did not point towards the center of the ball. Once this cosmological impossibility hit this dead end, Ptolemy did not utter any word as to how it could be resolved, and did not resort to the same technique he used while excusing the failure of human imagination as he later did in the case of the latitudinal motion of the planets. Now armed with his successful and unexpectedly fecund new theorem, Ṭūsī was in a position to solve this other Ptolemaic problem as well, which was by then called the problem of the equant that was embedded in all of the Ptolemaic models. Ṭūsī’s theorem worked well for the motion of the upper planets too, but Ṭūsī failed to deploy it for the motion of the planet Mercury, and frankly confessed that. In his work of 1260, he stated that if he ever managed to solve the intricate problems of the planet Mercury he would insert the answer at that point of his book. This solution together with others was left for Ibn al-Shāṭir to resuscitate about a century later. Instead of restricting the application of the Ṭūsī Couple to the latitudinal motions of the lower planets Venus and Mercury, or to the solution of the equant problem of the upper planets, as was done by Ṭūsī, Ibn al-Shāṭir now applied the same theorem to change the size of what would now be called the orbit of Mercury, then known as Mercury’s epicycle, thus allowing it to shrink in size and expand, during its apparent motion from the earth. At the same time, his mathematical contraption had to successfully account for the Ptolemaic observations which up till then were thought to be superior to all others.. Figure 4. The model for the motion of the planet Mercury as conceived first by Ibn al-Shāṭir and taken up later on by Copernicus, demonstrating the source of Copernicus’s mistake when he stated that the orbit of Mercury appeared largest at 90° away from the apogee. He seemed to have confused the absolute size of the object with its apparent size. The dotted angle marked as “maximum elongation”, which indicates the maximum size of the planet Mercury’s orbit as seen by an observer on earth at O, clearly demonstrates that Mercury’s orbit at ± 120°, encompassed by the dotted lines, is clearly larger than the angle with the continuous lines that encompasses the orbit at 90°. It was in this new reconfiguration of the motions of the planet Mercury that both Ibn al-Shāṭir and Copernicus had to resort to the same technique again and at two different junctures. First they both knew that with the appropriate application of the Ṭūsī Couple, Mercury’s motion could be described in such a way that it accounted for the Ptolemaic observations, and still avoid the cosmological absurdities embedded in the Ptolemaic model. And so once more, Copernicus deployed the same model that was used by Ibn al-Shāṭir for the solution of the motions of the planet Mercury by keeping the whole model intact and only shifting the center of the universe from the earth to the sun. All other components of the motions of the planet Mercury essentially kept the very same elements of Ibn al-Shāṭir’s model and now only introducing the sun as the reference point instead of the earth, which is mathematically relatively trivial. But the revealing indebtedness came when Copernicus attempted to describe the actual motions of the planet Mercury for an observer on earth. At that point he mistakenly made the claim that the planet Mercury would appear to reach its maximum orbit when it was 90° away from it apogee, instead of ± 120° as was stipulated by both Ptolemy, who backed his claim with observations, and Ibn al-Shāṭir who followed suit. In the language of Noel Swerdlow, the editor and commentator on Copernicus’s early astronomical work, the Commentariolus: “This misunderstanding must mean that Copernicus did not know the relation of the model to Mercury’s apparent motion. Thus it could hardly be his own invention for, if it were, he would certainly have described its fundamental purpose rather than write the absurd statement that Mercury “appears” to move in a larger orbit when the Earth is 90° from the apsidal line. The only alternative, therefore, is that he copied it without fully understanding what it was really about. Since it is Ibn al-Shāṭir’s model, this is further evidence, and perhaps the best evidence, that Copernicus was in fact copying without full understanding from some other source, and this source would be an as yet unknown transmission to the west of Ibn al-Shāṭir’s planetary theory”.6 That was not all, since both Ibn al-Shāṭir and Copernicus, after him, knew that they had to use the Ṭūsī Couple to resolve the Mercury motion, Ibn al-Shāṭir went ahead and assumed his reader knew all about the work of his predecessor Ṭūsī, whom he repeatedly mentioned in his own work. But Copernicus who was addressing a completely different audience (a Latin reader this time) felt obliged to demonstrate the workings of the Ṭūsī Couple in a separate chapter of his DeRevolutionibus III,10, before he would go ahead and use it in his description of the Mercury model. And here again he seems to have followed his predecessor too closely, and ended up with a misreading. In Figure 5, which compares the proof of the Ṭūsī Couple both in the works of Copernicus, on the right, and Ṭūsī, on the left, the late Willy Hartner had noted that Copernicus used the Latin phonetic equivalents of the same alphabetic letters that were used by Ṭūsī before to designate the same geometric points that were designated by Ṭūsī. Figure 5. Proof of the Ṭūsī Couple by Ṭūsī, on the left, and Copernicus, on the right, and where the Arabic letter “alif” is rendered with Latin A, “bā’” with B, etc, except for the sole difference in rendering the Arabic letter “zain” with the Latin F. As the Arabic letters zain and fā’ are orthographically very close, this demonstrates a possible misreading of zain for a fā’, on the part of Copernicus, or whoever was assisting him in deciphering the Arabic figure. This is not the whole story of the impact of the Ṭūsī Couple on Renaissance thinkers. In the Islamic world, the commentators on Ṭūsī’s work had already noted that this production of linear motion as a result of two circular motions had other implications as well.7 On the one hand, it played havoc with the neat Aristotelian division between the celestial region of the cosmos, where all motions were naturally circular, and the sublunar region where the motions were naturally linear. On its own, linear motion had complications as well when it came to two motions that were linear and opposite in direction. Two such opposite motions were supposed to annul each other out, thus causing generation and corruption, as Aristotle would say. But such opposing motions also generated a second, much more serious problem, which in antiquity had already pitted Aristotle against Plato, as Aristotle was prone to do. In this instance Plato had held, in the Phaedo, that there was no moment of rest between two opposing motions as was the case with the subterranean waters that were constantly in motion back and forth without rest.8 To illustrate that position later philosophers, like Richard of Middleton, for example9 among others, would use the argument that it would be inconceivable for a small pebble tossed against a large falling stone to bring the large stone’s motion to a moment of rest, and thus have both the pebble and the large stone stand still before the pebble reversed its direction to that of the falling large stone. Nevertheless Aristotle insisted that such a moment of rest had to occur between the pebble’s two opposing motions. Later commentators on the Greek philosophers kept this debate alive throughout antiquity, and when it reached the Islamic world many people, particularly philosophers such as Ibn Sina (Latin Avicenna d. c. 1037) and Abū al-Barakāt al-Baghdādī (fl.1100) after him participated in the discussion. Abū al-Barakāt even went a step further to side with Plato in denying a moment of rest between two contrary motions by proposing the example of a ruler, with a hole in its midst, and a plumb line passing through that hole. He then said that as one passed his hand which held the other side of the plumb line from one end of the ruler to the other and moved his hand in a steady continuous motion till the other end, the plumb line would descend and ascend without reaching a moment of rest between the two motions, as both motions were caused by a continuous motion of the hand in one direction. Commentators on Ṭūsī’s work saw the same potential with Ṭūsī’s Couple, namely, that it also demonstrated very clearly the possibility of two contrary motions caused by continuous circular motions and thus did not pause for a moment of rest. If the cause of the motion did not rest, they argued, the result of the motions would not rest either. This discussion was not exploited by Copernicus as far as we know, nor was the Ṭūsī Couple exploited in this sense by Ṭūsī himself, despite the fact that his commentators in the Islamic world did so. In the Latin west, it was apparently Galileo who found the discussion particularly productive for his physical studies of motion. In his early works, especiallyDemotuantiquiora, when he tried to refute the Aristotelian claims on the nature of motion and more specifically the Aristotelian claim that every two contrary motions must have a moment of rest separating them, Galileo went ahead and used the Ṭūsī Couple in the same manner it was used by Ṭūsī’s commentators. For Galileo too, Ṭūsī’s theorem clearly demonstrated the possibility of a continuous circular motion producing continuous linear contrary motions without any moment of rest between them. This particular feature of the theorem must have moved Galileo to inform us, in explicit terms, that the mathematical construction he had encountered in the works of Copernicus was very useful for the discussion, and thus could demonstrate that there was no necessary moment of rest between two contrary motions. The “two circles” Galileo spoke about in hisDemotuantiquora, were none other than the ones which were used by Copernicus before him in his own attempts to produce linear motion from continuous circular motion particularly for the motion of the planet Mercury as we just saw. The fact that Copernicus was in that instance mimicking the diagram in the Arabic text of Ṭūsī should be clear to us by now. So when Galileo refers to this very theorem in the Copernican work to buttress his own argument that one could find contrary motions that were not separated by a moment of rest, Galileo was in essence inheriting the same Ṭūsī couple through Copernicus, and was drawing from it the obvious philosophical implications for Aristotelian physics that the commentators on Ṭūsī’s work had already drawn before. Furthermore, Galileo was also inheriting a much longer Arabic tradition in which such Aristotelian problems were widely circulated and discussed in the Islamic culture, and in all likelihood were themselves the fertile grounds where one could profitably seek the genesis of the Ṭūsī Couple itself. As we just mentioned, anti-Aristotelian attacks were apparently known for centuries before the time of Ṭūsī, and in particular by some who obviously lived before the time of the famous philosopher Abū al-Barakāt al-Baghdādī (fl.1100). For in Abū al-Barakāt’s famous philosophical, and relatively anti-Aristotelian, work al-Mutabar, there is a reference to someone or ones (baal-fuḍalā) who were cited by al-Baghdādī to have even produced a mechanical example which illustrated the continuity between contrary motions. As we also stated, by Ṭūsī’s time almost all commentators on his major astronomical work in turn raised their own concern with the philosophical implications of the Ṭūsī Couple. And like al- Baghdādī they too would at times even supply examples of their own, as was done by Ṭūsī’s student Quṭb al-Dīn al-Shīrāzī (d. 1311). In order to demonstrate the continuity of the linear opposing motions, Shirāzī suggested the example of a bowl whose edge was of uneven heights and had a string passing through a hole at its bottom. The end of that string was supposed to have a plumb weight attached to it. Shīrāzī then stated that when one moved the other end of the string along the edge of the bowl the motion will produce an oscillating up and down linear contrary motions of the plumb weight as a result of a continuous single circular motion, without any moment of rest to separate the contrary motions. We do not know if these Arabic anti-Aristotelian debates were known in the Latin west in their full richness. Nor do we know the routes they would have followed when they reappeared in their Latin garb. But the very existence of such anti-Aristotelian arguments within the various epistemological disciplines of the Islamic culture means that the Arabic philosophical tradition seems to have easily overlapped with the astronomical tradition, and must have shared some common ground with the mathematical domain in the form of theorems describing physical phenomena, as seems to have happened with the Ṭūsī Couple. These theorems in their turn, added a mathematical rigor to the import of those debates by supplying formal mathematical proofs as was done with the Ṭūsī Couple. It is probably that very feature that made them attractive to people like Copernicus, and through him to Galileo, to incorporate them in their own arguments. What we note through the close investigation of texts of all cultures concerned, whether Sanskrit, Greek, Arabic or Latin, is that disciplines were allowed to overlap, languages and the concepts that were embedded in them were forced to merge, ideas that were the subject of a vast appropriation project were forced to float from one culture to the other, whether from Greek into Arabic, or from Arabic into Latin. All of those activities demonstrate the very fluid and dynamic dialogue that was truly universal in nature. If Islamic civilization did not do anything except create the right environment for such a universal dialogue to take place, by asking the kind of scientific and philosophical questions that were truly culture free, despite their being anchored in particular cultural moments, then it would have indeed laid the foundations for what we can now confidently call a universal modern science. Further Appropriations of Texts and Instruments This tradition of incorporating earlier results from the Islamic world into Latin works of the Renaissance seems to have continued well into the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The field of instruments seems to have experienced a similar fate. In the case of texts the most obvious examples come from two Arabic astronomical works that are still preserved at European libraries, and which were once owned by the Renaissance scientist and man of letters, a one time royal professor of mathematics and oriental languages at the Institut Royal that was to become later on the Collège de France. The man in question is the famous Guillaume Postel (1510-1581), who at one point had in his possession two astronomical manuscripts, now dispersed, and presently kept at the Vatican Library (Arabo 319), and the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (arabe 2499), respectively. In the first instance, the Vatican manuscript clearly illustrates the care with which Postel must have read the contents of the text as we can still see his hand-written Latin annotations on the margins of select pages of that manuscript (see, e.g. Figure 6).10 Figure 6. A marginal note in the hand of Guillaume Postel, in the lower corner of folio 14v, of the Vatican ms Arabo 319, is placed next to the section of the text which discusses the concepts of apogee and perigee. Annotating such elementary concepts, and transcribing, rather than translating, the Arabic word for perigee “Hadhidh” (sic), as is clearly seen, simply means that Postel did not yet have full command of the Greek or Latin terms for perigee, and was probably still learning both Arabic and astronomy through such Arabic texts. Courtesy of the Varican Library Furthermore, the manuscript itself is a copy of the famous work of Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī already mentioned above, and of course contains the statement of his most famous theorem, the Ṭūsī Couple, which, as we have seen, was of multifaceted fecundity in both astronomy and philosophy, in addition to its own field of mathematics. But on the general level, when one sees a learned contemporary of Copernicus such as Postel, and a professor at the Collège de France no less, still struggling with the Arabic scientific texts that he had bought on his several trips to the Orient; this can simply reflect the mood and the social setting of Renaissance science, vis a vis its main interlocutors from the Islamic lands. Other manuscripts, including those that were also owned by Postel, contain much more extensive marginal annotations, all indicating the diligence with which this dialogue between the world of Islam and Renaissance Europe was kept up at various occasions and by a variety of scholars. And at every juncture, when those annotations are studied carefully, they always reveal remarks that look like they have been made by a person who was in the process of closely studying the basic contents of the texts. Technical terms, such as the words for trigonometric concepts [Figure 7], when annotated so diligently, must mean that Postel was apparently either studying trigonometry through such texts or preparing a list of concepts to share with his students. Figure 7. Fol. 3v, of another manuscript that was owned by Guillaume Postel, now kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, arabe 2499, where the interlinear annotations reveal a close reding of such elementary trigonometric terms: “versus” above the word al-ma‛kūs, the last word of the seventh line from the bottom where the phrase al-jaib al-ma‛kūs (versed sine) is mentioned. Similarly he had the term “recto” over al-mustawī (straight), “subtedens” over the term watar ḍu‛f al-qaws (chord of twice the arc), and “absol” [short for absolute] over the term al-jaib al-muṭlaq (absolute sine) for the full diameter of the circle. Courtesy of BNF. Other pages of the same BNF manuscript (arabe 2449), which is a text on planetary astronomy, are much more extensively annotated, and in one instance a mistake in the original Arabic text is even corrected, all to denote a clear understanding of and an engagement with the text. Figure 8 reveals the extent of those annotations for those who care to see. Figure 8. Three pages of the Arabic manuscript BNF arabe 2499, exhibiting the extensive annotations on folios 112v-113r, on the left, and the interference with the text by Postel to correct the mistake on folio 124r shown on the right. Courtesy of BNF. Almost half a century after Postel’s death, this practice of annotating Arabic manuscripts for pedagogical reasons and also for the purpose of studying the science that they contained seems to have spread into England, where the same phenomena can be witnessed on at least one of the Arabic manuscripts that are still kept at Oxford’s Bodleian Library. This particularly important and unique Arabic manuscript, Arch. Seld A 11, is of great scientific value for the early history of Islamic astronomy, and was apparently first owned by John Greaves (1602-1652), the Gresham College professor of Geometry at London from 1631 to 1637, and later the Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford from 1643 to 1649. After Greaves’ untimely death at age 50, in 1652 the manuscript passed on to the possession of John Selden, the great scholar, politician, and supporter of scholars and libraries, and thus became part of the Selden collection of manuscripts now housed at the Bodleian Library.11 The manuscript is a treasure trove of astronomical material containing four important texts, by different authors, from various chronological periods, all bound together in a single volume. It contains the work of the famous ninth century astronomer al-Farghānī, already mentioned before, the work of his contemporary Qusṭā b. Lūqa (820-912) on what could be legitimately claimed as the first extensive cosmological treatise (haya) of Islamic astronomy, an astrological work by the polymath Abū al-Raiḥān al-Bīrūnī (d.c. 1048), and finally the elaborate astronomical work of the early Islamic astronomer Alī b. Sulaimān al-Hāshimī (lived before 929), on the causes of the variations in the early Islamic astronomical handbooks. It is not surprising that John Greaves, the astronomer/mathematician, would take an interest in this text and that he would study it very closely, leaving his annotations on several of its pages and publishing selections from it, or using it for the purposes of studying other astronomical works.12 In my opinion he probably used this very manuscript to study Arabic astronomy, by using al-Farghānī’s text as an introduction, and later publishing selections from chapter 16 [Figure 9] of this same treatise, in 1652. Figure 9. fol. 18r of al-Farghānī’s treatise where Greaves annotated such elementary terms as “Zod[iac],” “Aux” for apogee, “epicycli” and even superlinear translations that are hard to see but slightly magnified in the detail from the same page. The last double-pages give Greaves’s publication of selections from al-Farghānī’s text, here showing the beginning of chapter 16. In the same publication he included excerpts from another elementary astronomical work by Alī Qushjī (1403-1474), but the lion’s share in the publication went to another astronomical work that he owned in a different manuscript attributed to a Shah Cholgi (rl. Malwā 1435-1469), whose name was used in the title of the publication.13 In the Arch. Seld. A 11 manuscript, Greaves made no elaborate annotations on the cosmological treatise of Qusṭā, as he did on al-Farghānī’s and al-Hāshimī’s works, nor did he seem to care much for Bīrūnī’s astrological discussion to warrant his comments. As a practicing astronomer, and more importantly an astronomy teacher, he seems to have devoted much attention to the first and last treatises, namely al-Farghānī’s and al-Hāshimī’s, where in the first he seems to have annotated the basic astronomical terms, much in the tradition of Postel, and in the second made more substantial comments upon its contents [Figure 10]. After all, as we just said, al-Farghānī’s text constituted a good introduction to someone who wished to study Arabic astronomy, while in Hāshimī’s text one could find an almost comprehensive overview and critique of earlier Arabic astronomical works that were the subject of Hāshimī’s commentary. In addition Hāshimī’s treatise contained the much more useful astronomical parameters that would allow one to acquaint himself with a wide range of Arabic astronomical literature. He apparently treated Ibn al-Shāṭir’s astronomical handbook (al-zīj al-jadīd) in the same fashion and annotated it as well.14 Figure 10. Pages 94v-95r, the first two pages of Hāshimī’s text with extensive annotations both in Arabic and English scripts, and a detailed comment on the precession motion of the star Regulus on fol. 95v. Other texts that were published by Greaves were similar to the text he published under the title of Astronomica Quaedam ex traditione Shah Cholgi, and almost always included explanations of Persian and Arabic astronomical terms, thus giving the impression that he intended to use those texts for educational purposes with his students [Figure 11]. Figure 11. Greaves publication of an anonymous Persian text in which elementary Arabic astronomical terms are explained in Persian, and translated into Latin by Greaves. If one were to focus on the purely astronomical works of Greaves, forgetting the other works he devoted to antiquarian subjects and pyramidology, one can see a continuous trend, very similar to that of Postel, in that Greaves seemed to be learning astronomy from Arabic and Persian sources and wishing to disseminate this learning to his students at Oxford and elsewhere. He was certainly interested in whatever astronomical parameters he could cull out of those Arabic and Persian sources, either to use them for his own training as a practicing astronomer, or to incorporate their contents in his observational programs that took him to Rhodes, Constantinople, Alexandria and Cairo. When we realize that this activity was taking place in the midst of the seventeenth century, almost a full century after the death of Copernicus in 1543, and at the eve of Newton’s publication of his Principia, in 1687, one cannot contain his amazement at the diligence with which seventeenth century astronomers were still seeking interlocutors in the medieval Islamic astronomical texts. Greaves was not alone, there were certainly many others, among whom people like Edward Bernard (1638-1696), John Flamsteed (1646-1719) the Astronomer Royal, and later on John Hevelius (1611-1687) and Thomas Hyde (1636-1703) who were also seeking similar information to incorporate in their own works. But with this group of people we begin to witness a merging between the Arabic/Persian astronomical texts and the Latin texts that were being produced at the time. When Bernard sends, for example, a list of astronomical observations that he had culled from various Arabic sources, like the coordinates of a group of fixed stars, to a fellow Arabist such as Robert Huntington, who in turn communicated the information contained therein to the Royal Society, or when he sent the various observational measurements of the ecliptic inclination, to John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal himself, who also turned the information over to be Royal Society, the information thus entered the public domain when it was published in the Philosophical Transactions of the society.15 The table of the fixed stars was also reproduced by the Astronomer Royal Flamsteed in the introduction to his ownHistoriaCoelestisBritanica,16 British star catalogue, thus becoming part and parcel of the technical astronomical literature of the seventeenth century. Some, like Thomas Hyde, even went further and published a full edition of a star catalogue [Figure 12] which he extracted from Ulugh Beg’s astronomical handbook, thus also incorporating the information from this fifteenth century Persian text into the “modern” astronomical literature. The same catalogue was further updated and printed as late as 1917, thus bringing it well within the purview of our own times. Figure 12. Cover page of Thomas Hyde’s edition of Ulugh Beg’s star catalogue, and pages 98-99 published in 1665, and the cover page of the more recent publication of the same (with updates) by Knobel at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, DC, in 1917. All in Public Domain On the whole then, there was an active interest in seventeenth century England to incorporate astronomical results that were already obtained from the Islamic world. But as we have seen in the cases of Greaves and Hyde there was apparently also a concerned effort to make Islamic astronomical texts accessible to students of Islamic languages and Islamic sciences alike. The fact that this intercultural scientific dialogue was still taking place at such a late date, and as was said before, in between the Copernican and the Newtonian revolutions is all the more surprising, and a clear testament to the vitality of the impression the Islamic scientific tradition must have made on the intellectual life of seventeenth century England. In Italy the situation was slightly different, in that Italian cities had had a much longer engagement with the Islamic world, and kept their intercultural dialogue going on well into the seventeenth century as we have seen with the case of Galileo. Galileo’s friend and fellow academician at the Academia de Lincei, Giambattista della Porta (1535-1615), should also be mentioned on account of his direct engagement in the dialogue with the Islamic world.. Della Porta wrote several books, and used Islamic sources quite freely. But in one of his publications, on meteorological and sundry matters, which he called De Aeris Transmutationibus17 [Figure 13] he even went as far as asking one of his friends, a certain Marci Dobeli (or Marco Dobel [Murqus Du’aybili]), a professor of Arabic at a gymnasium in Rome, to compose a poem, in Arabic, chanting the praises of his book. This poem was presumably supposed to give the book a better publicity by associating it with things Arabic. All della Porta’s other books, just like this one, are filled with references to Arabic sources, and direct citations from Arabic sources in Latin translations, all revealing an intimate knowledge of that legacy on the part of this early seventeenth century Neopolitan scientist and academician. Figure 13. The title page of della Porta’s book Aries Transmutationibus, and Dobeli’s Arabic poem affixed to its front matter. On the level of astronomical instruments, Italy offers us as well a brilliant example of a dialogue between Europe and the Islamic world that crossed both centuries of time and cultural linguistic barriers and remained artistically and scientifically scintillating. Among the papers of the Florentine architect Antonio de Sangallo the Younger (1484-1546), one of the architects who participated in the building of St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome, that are now kept at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, there is a two page drawing of an astrolabe that illustrates this dialogue in quite unexpected ways. One side of de Sangallo’s paper, the more interesting side, carries a drawing [Figure 14], of two copies of the face and back of an astrolabe.18 And because de Sangallo was apparently such a fine draftsman, and wanted to leave nothing unrepresented on the astrolabe he must have had in front of him, he did not only meticulously draw all the curves and Arabic markings that he saw on the astrolabe, but even went further than that to include on the drawing of the back of the astrolabe, the left part of Figure 14, the name of the original astrolabe maker, meticulously copied in what looks like the original kufic script, along the edge of the upper right hand corner. The signature simply said: ṣanaahuKhafīfghulāmAlīb. ‛Isā, i.e. “made by Khafīf the student (ghulām) of ‛Alī b. ‛Isā,” the usual phrase astrolabe makers used to sign their works. In later times, such signatures were either placed in a separate cartouche slightly below the center on the back, or engraved along the lower edge of the astrolabe, again on the back. This astrolabe is not only unusual in this respect, but is also of such antiquity that it could be used to date the surviving copies of it, now at science Museums, such as the Oxford’s Ashmolean Science Museum. The rich Arabic tradition in biographical dictionaries luckily preserved a record of this astrolabist, Khafīf, and that of his teacher ‛Alī b. ‛Isā, and places them in Baghdad, around the middle of the ninth century.19 The interesting question is why was a renaissance architect of the caliber of de Sangallo copying the astrolabe so meticulously, to include the astronomically uninteresting name of the astrolabe maker, if he did not think that anything that was Islamic and scientific was worthy of drafting with extreme care. The second question is what did de Sangallo intend to do with this drawing? Could he have been thinking that he could take the drawing to an artisan and ask him to execute a brass astrolabe copy for his own personal use? Unfortunately there remains no text or indication to help answer such a question. All we can tell is that a sixteenth century Italian architect was apparently enamored by Islamic material scientific instruments. Figure 14. A drawing from the archives of de Sangallo the Younger at the Uffizi galleries in Florence, Italy, depicting the front edge and matter of an astrolabe, to the right, and the back, to the left. On the upper right hand corner on the back there is scribbled along the edge of the astrolabe the name of the astrolabe maker, in the phrase, ṣana‛ahu Khafīf ghulām ‛Alī b. ‛Isā (made by Khafīf student (ghulām) of ‛Alī b. ‛Isā), who lived in Baghdad towards the middle of the ninth century. (Courtesy of the Uffizi Galleries, Florence, Italy). In Germany, or in what was then the Holy Roman Empire, the astronomer and celestial atlas maker, Peter Apianus (1495-1552) had a slightly different, but still very interesting dialogue with the earlier Arabic astronomical sources. In his most intriguing book, the Astronomicum Caesareum,20 [Figure 15] which could double as a scientific instrument on account of the volvelles (the revolving cardboard disks) that were produced with the book for calculating planetary positions, he not only produced a text describing the constellations but included drawings of those constellations. Figure 15. From left to right: The title page of Aprianus’s Astronomicum Caesareum, the volvelles for the planet Venus included inside the book, the atlas that includes the collective constellation iconography, and a text of the constellation Draco in which Apianus mentions Azophi’s description directly. The earlier models of constellations that Apianus seems to have been familiar with go back to the tenth century Buwayhid astronomer ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī (903-986), mostly known in the west as Azophi, or Azophi Arabus, as he was called by Albrecht Dürer (d. 1528) [Figure 16]. Figure 16. Dürer’s Celestial Atlas, and detail thereof of the lower right hand corner where he has Azophi Arabus, turban and all, in the company of such august astronomers like Aratus and Ptolemy on the upper corners of the Atlas. This Ṣūfī produced his own book on the constellations which he called Ṣuwar al-kawākib al-thābita (the Images of the Fixed Stars).21 In it he undertook to harmonize two different systems of constellation representations. On the one hand he needed to update and record the Greek tradition of the fixed stars, whose iconographic representations were mostly reflections of Greek mythology. In this tradition one saw the constructed imagery of Hercules, Andromeda, Bootes, Orion, etc, all characters well recognized in the Greek mythological pantheon, and all imagined to inhabit the starry dome overhead. On the other hand Ṣūfī was very well acquainted with a completely different constellation tradition, namely, that of the Bedouin Arabs who had their own imaginary representations that enlivened their own view of the starry night sky. They had their own stories of the daughters of Na‛sh, walking in a curved row behind their father’s beer, thus the constellation called Banāt (daughrters) Na‛sh known from the Greek tradition as the Big Bear (Ursa Major). They also had starry clusters in that same constellation that were not even recognized in the Greek tradition like the three pairs of stars on the feet of Ursa Major, [Figure 17] commonly designated on modern day Atlases with their Arabic names still as Alula (for al-Ūla = first), Tania (for al-Thāniya = second) and Talitha (for al-Thālitha = third) which to the Bedouin Arabs represented the first, second and third, pairs of marks left in the sky by skipping gazelles running in fright from the nearby Lion. Figure 17. The hybrid constellation of Ursa Major, combining the Greek iconographic tradition of the whole constellation of the Bear, and the three pairs of small stars (Borealis and Australis) on the feet of the Bear, designated from Bedouin iconography with Alula, Tania, and Talitha. (Courtesy Stellarium and Bodleian Marsh 144.) Ṣūfī wished to preserve both traditions in his book, thus making it one of the most detailed records of a dialogue between the ancient Greek and Islamic civilizations. And to preserve this dialogue, he would describe each constellation with the Greek designations and coordinates first, and then follow that with the tales the Arabs, as he would call them, had spun around the asterisms that were within that specific Greek constellation or in its vicinity. Apianus did more or less the same thing, almost slavishly imitating Ṣūfī’s style, and he too would give a summary of the Greek description of the constellation and then follow that with what Ṣūfī had to say, without alerting the reader that what he attributed to Ṣūfī were in fact the tales of the Arabs attached to the particular constellation. For example, in the constellation of Draco, [Figure 18], Ṣūfī relates that the five stars on the head of Draco were according to the Arabs representations of four she camels, surrounding a small faint star in their midst, unnoticed by the great Greek astronomer Ptolemy, representing a young camel calf, with the mother camels encircling it in order to protect it from a possible attack by a pack of two wolves and a male hyena represented by the stars on the last curve of the tail. Two of the stars in between, numbered 20 and 21, are referred to by the Arabs as the claws of the wolves. Figure 18, Ṣūfī’s depiction of the constellation of Draco from a late Persian translation now kept at New York Public Library, and the text of Apianus mentioning “Azophi Arabs (sic for Arabus)” with his five camels and two wolves. Although the usual depictions of Draco in the Arabic manuscripts does not include the small faint star on the head, here marked in red in this Persian version, Apianus seems to know about it and to count it with the “five” camels instead of the clearly larger four. This reference of Apianus to the work of Ṣūfī does not only reveal an intimate knowledge of that tradition, but also a deeper knowledge of the more ancient layer of the star names attributed to the ancient Bedouins by Ṣūfī. What Apianus decided to highlight from Ṣūfī’s work was that Bedouin layer, and thus many of the star names preserved in his Atlas, and in the text of hisAstronomicumCaesareum, come from that layer rather than from the translation of the Greek tradition. And as Apianus’s Atlas became a source of inspiration for later European astronomers, the Bedouin star names contained therein were incorporated in the later star maps, and thus managed with time to make it into our modern skies, all the way to modern star maps produced in modern day European and American circles. The latest version of this transmission appears in the art design of the current software called Stellarium from which Figure 17 was taken with all the star names marked therein coming from the Bedouin tradition. In this sense then, the star names continue to represent one of the longest lasting dialogues the Islamic world has ever had with the European civilization. By the time Johan Hevelius (1617-1687) came to draw his own Atlas of the fixed stars, and his depiction of the lunar surface, he was simply an heir to this long tradition of dialogue that had already preceded him with the Islamic world, and he felt that he was particularly indebted to two major astronomers from that tradition, namely, Muḥammad b. Jābir al-Battānī (d. 929) who was also well known to Copernicus and other Europeans under the Latin transliterated name of Alpategnius, and the famous astronomer and central Asian potentate, Ulugh Beg (d. 1449) who built the equally famous Samarqand Observatory, and whose astronomical work was the subject of intense study in seventeenth century Oxford as we have seen. Being enamored by those two astronomers Hevelius decided to include them in the frontispiece to his [Figure 19] FirmamentumSobiescanum (published in 1690). In that frontispiece we see Hevelius depicted with bent knees, presenting his star Atlas to the famous astronomers who had preceded him and including such august figures as Ptolemy, Hipparchus, Copernicus and Tycho Brahe, but also including Ulugh Beg, standing next to Tycho (in the middle of the left row) and Albategnius standing right next to Ptolemy (second from the left in the right row). Urania and her planetary children naturally occupy the center stage. (a) (b) © Figure 19. Frontispieces for Hevelius’s works all depicting his fascination with things Arabic/Islamic: (a) Frontispiece of his star atlas, Firmamentum Sobiescianum, depicting Hevelius with bent knee in the center offering his work to Urania and the august astronomers surrounding her, standing on both sides of her, five on each side, with both Albategnius, second to her left, and Ulugh Beg in the center of the astronomers assembled on her right. (b) In his frontispiece for Prodromus Astronomiae he has Ulugh Beg further elevated to be seated directly to the right of Urania. © The frontispiece for his Selanographia has the banner bearing the title page of his book carried by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on the left, and Galileo on the right, but both, especially Galileo, dressed in Arab garb This dialogue with the Islamic world which was apparently pervasive during the European renaissance, had other long lasting dimensions as well. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, when Pope Gregory XIII (1502-1585) wished to reform the ecclesiastical calendar, he resorted to a committee of specialists who knew much about astronomical matters, including the most important parameters of the lunar month and the solar year. The most up to date values this committee had to resort to were the values that its members could cull from Arabic/Islamic sources that by then had refined those parameters to a great degree of perfection. As it also happened, there came to Rome around the year 1577 a Jacobite Antiochian Patriarch of the Syriac church, by the name of Ni‛matallah (d. 1590, known as Nehemias in the Latin sources), who had also brought with him several major scientific Arabic works that were of great use to that committee. This Patriarch was officially appointed to the calendar reformation committee by Pope Gregory XIII, and participated actively in its deliberations. Even when the committee did not fully agree with his opinions on matters of sequencing the Christian feast of Easter, and the Jewish Passover, with which it is historically intertwined, they still sought from him the latest values for the astronomical parameters that he could find in the Islamic sources. The fact that he was using those sources for such purposes is amply demonstrated in a treatise that he penned at the occasion, a copy of which, written in Karshūnī (Arabic written in Syriac script), is till preserved at the Laurentiana library in Florence (Or. 301). Ni‛matallh’s intervention is still with us in the form of the Gregorian calendar which is now almost universally employed. A good number of the other books that Ni‛matallh had in his possession ended up being used by Ferdinand de Medici, a cardinal and later Duke of Tuscany, in his enterprise of printing Arabic books in Europe through the Medici Oriental Press [Figure 20]. Figure 20. samples of Arabic books published by the Medici Oriental Press. On the left is a page of a reworking of Euclid’s Elements published in 1594 and on the right is the title page of Avicenna’s medical work the Canon of Medicine, published in 1593. Lest we think that this dialogue was a one way traffic, from east to west, we also have evidence that by the sixteenth century the traffic began to flow eastward from Europe to the Islamic world. The evidence suggested by one particular astronomer, Taqī al-Dīn Ibn Ma’rūf (d. 1586), confirms this trend. This Taqī al-Dīn had ingratiated himself at one point to the Ottoman sultan so that he was given the position of court astronomer/astrologer, and much funds were expended on his behalf for the building of an observatory in Istanbul that he claimed he needed for his work. Much of the personal dealings of this astronomer, his eventual demise and the destruction of his observatory in 1586 is well documented. But what is not well known is his exposure to European culture, as well as the possibility of his being taken captive to Rome for a few years, and such turns in his life which are still subjects of study and much speculation.22 What is certain though, is that this astronomer was apparently a very educated man and must have had a huge library at one time. In this writer’s limited experience with Arabic astronomical manuscripts he has already seen his signature in at least a dozen manuscripts now scattered at libraries all over the world. One of those manuscripts which was similarly signed by him on the cover page contains the famous Arabic translation of Ptolemy’s Almagest. It is now part of the possessions of Tunisia’s National Library (BN 7116 ) [Figure 21]. Figure 21. Title page of a copy of the Arabic translation of Ptolemy’s Almagest, marked with Taqī al-Dīn’s signature on the last line of the diagonal note in the lower half of the page (see detail). This note by Taqī al-Dīn mentions that he had consulted the work of the Italian lexicographer Ambrogio Calepino (c.1450 - c.1510). This single title, with its representation of a Greek text, having been translated into Arabic, and also recording acquaintance with Latin dictionaries represents a multilayered dialogue across three languages and cultures. (courtesy of Bibliothèque Nationale Tunis). In the note carrying his signature Taqī al-Dīn had this to say in regard to the author of the book in his possession, Claudius Ptolemy, and its title, the Almagest: “What one finds in all of the Greek copies is Kilawdi, with a ‘K followed by the vowel i’ and a ‘D also followed by the vowel i’ which is a name attribution in accordance with their custom. As for Fulūdhi, with the letters ‘F followed by the vowel u’ and L and ending with the letter Dhal’ that is an attribution to the name of a city [usually confused in the Arabic sources with the city of Pelusium] in which he was supposed to have been born as is said in the Geography. He migrated afterward to Alexandria where he learned philosophy (?)and where he observed, and was thus sometimes related to it by being called al-iskandarī, meaning al-iskandarānī (the Alexandrian). As for the Almagest, it means the greatest in their language (meaning the Greek language), thus I read it in the book of Ambrogio Calepino. Abū al-Raiḥān [al-Bīrūnī] said in his al-qānūn al-mas‛ūdī, that the Almagest is the Syntaxis, and the name Syntaxis is said to mean the well arranged introductions. That is all that I was lucky enough to find about this book. Written by the poor Taqī al-Dīn Ibn Ma‛rūf (in signature form) the observer at the victorious city of Constantinople.” This signed note does not only reveal the wide range of sources that Taqī al-Dīn was familiar with, but also reveals the various cultural borders of Greek, Italian/Latin, and Arabic that this learned man managed to cross. In another work, this time of his own composition, that has survived in several copies in European libraries as in Paris BNF and the Bodleian, for example, and was published by Sevim Tekeli in an edition of the original Arabic with a Turkish and English translations,23 he deals with the construction of clocks. Clocks obviously served as necessary astronomical instruments to measure time, and have multiple other societal applications. In this work as well, we are also treated to the wide ranging knowledge of Taqī al-Dīn, and the horizons he was acquainted with and the borders he had crossed, thus representing the multiple dialogues he had carried out. In a note on the quality of clocks in his Islamic lands he says: “These instruments are difficult to construct and required skilled masters of lowly crafts. In addition, early Islamic society did not exhibit great interest in them, much less in the simpler instruments required for prayer times. And then there began to come to these lands [meaning Islamic lands] some of those instruments, especially those that were made by the people of Lān [normally referring to the mountains of the Caucasus and possibly southern Russia, Tekeli translates as Holland], Hungary, France, and Germany, which were of the utmost precise construction and execution, and of superb beauty and form, together with all that was used by way of gilding of their parts for which much gold was expended. And yet they were made available at low prices. Imitating such instruments required the expenditure of much energy.”24 There is no doubt that Taqī al-Dīn was not only witnessing European artifacts inundating the Ottoman market, especially at the circles of the high court, but was himself apparently fascinated by these new crafts, and took it upon himself to produce a text that would guide the craftsmen of his country to adopt such instruments, and to transform them so that they would become useful for the service of their own Islamic religion in determining the times of prayers and the like. When he addressed in his introduction the purpose of his writing the book, he says: “As for its definition [meaning the definition of the science of clock making] it is a science through which one knows the manner in which instruments for telling time are constructed. Its subject is that of particular motions, in particular objects that last for particular distances, knowing that perpetual motion is impossible in this world. Its purpose is to tell the time of prayers and other such matters, without having recourse to the planetary motions, nor to measuring their heights with instruments, and to tell the night time for the performance of prayers or for the contemplation of matters of government.” 25 In Taqī al-Dīn’s mind these new gadgets that the Europeans were exporting to the Ottoman world, although they were not intended to answer to religious needs, they nevertheless could be deployed for those purposes. He had no doubt that mechanical instruments, such as clocks, could easily cross cultural and religious barriers and be made useful in both cultures. But more importantly, these remarks of Taqī al-Dīn demonstrate very clearly the extent of the dialogue that was taking place across the cultural border between Europe and the world of Islam, this time being sensitive to the filter of the eastward traffic. From his reading the Italian/Latin dictionaries of Calepino in order to verify the name of the Almagest, to his surveying of Greek manuscripts of the Almagestthat he could get his hands on in order to verify the exact spelling of Ptolemy’s name, to his monitoring of foreign artifacts coming into the Ottoman empire in order to modify their usage to fit the local cultural needs, all of these activities speak of the role he was facilitating in the unfolding of this dialogue. With this quick and illustrated survey of the various shapes and forms through which the dialogue between the Islamic and the European worlds had taken place over many centuries, but most intensely during the time of the European renaissance when Europe was engaged in defining its own cultural identity, one could easily see how porous were the cultural barriers between those two cultures, and how easily very sophisticated and technical astronomical ideas could pass through those barriers. More significantly, one could also hopefully see how difficult it has become for the modern historian of science to separate the scientific legacy of one culture from the other. And yet what is sadly remarkable in this whole story is the ease with which many people nowadays dismiss this intimate interlocking dialogue in preference for seeking the differences that separate those two cultures. Many of those differences do indeed exist, but when weighed on one side of the scale with the multiple points of interdependency and similarities on the other side, the scale is always seen to tip in the direction of more intimate dialogue, and more dependency, so much so that one could see both of those cultures standing along a continuum line with blurred borders in between and at either end. Notes and References 1 An example of such texts is the Sūrya Siddhānta: A Testbook of Hindu Astronomy, translated by Ebenezer Burgess, American Oriental Society, New Haven, CT, 1860. 2 The Latin translation of this text was published during the latter part of the fifteenth and first half of the sixteenth centuries, Gregg De Young, Farghānī, in The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, ed. Thomas Hockey et al. Springer, 2007, p. 357, and was also published together with the edition of the Arabic text by Jacobo Golius, Amsterdam, 1669. 3 See Heinrich Suter, Die Astronomischen Tafeln des Muhammed ibn Mūsā al- Khwārizmī, København, A.F. Høst & søn, 1914. 4 See Carlo Nallino, al-Zīj al-Ṣābi’, Al-Battānī sive Albatenii opus astronomicum, Milan, 1899. 5 See for example, Paget Toynbee, “Dante’s Obligations to Elementa Astronomica of Alfraganius,” originally in Romania (Paris), 24 (1895), reprinted in 1974, pp. 413-432 and in Dante Studies, London, 1902, pp. 55-77,. 6 Noel Swerdlow, “The Derivation and First Draft of Copernicus’s Planetary Theory: A Translation of the Commentariolus with Commentary.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 117, no. 6 (1973): 423–512, esp. p. 504. 7 George Saliba, “Aristotelian Cosmology and Arabic Astronomy,” in De Zénon d’Élée à Poincaré, ed, Régis Morelon et Ahmad Hasnawi, Peeters, Louvain, 2004, pp. 251-268. 8 For a succinct statement of this pendulum action described in Plato’s Phaedo, and vehemently opposed by Aristotle, both in the meteorologica and more generally in the Physics, see the superb article of Bert Hall, “The Scholastic Pendulum”, Annals of Science, 35 (1978) 441-462. 9 As quoted by Edward Grant, God and Reason in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 226. 10 For a detailed study of Postel’s annotations on the two said manuscripts, see George Saliba, “Arabic Science in Sixteenth Century Europe: Guillaume Postel (1510-1581) and Arabic Astronomy,” Suhayl, 7 (2007) 115-164. 11 For more information on Greaves and Selden and their interest in Arabic studies and collection of Arabic manuscripts, see Gerald Toomer, Eastern Wisdome and Learning: the Study of Arabic in Seventeenth Century England, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1996, pp. 64ff, but more pertinently pp. 177ff. Also see the very detailed study of the astronomical Arabic manuscripts belonging to these Orientalists by Raymond Mercier, “English Orientalists and Mathematical Astronomy,” in G. A. Russell (ed), The ‘Arabick’ Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth‐Century England, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994, pp. 158–214 12 For more information see Mercier, “English Orientalists,” esp. pp. 162ff. 13 John Greaves, Astronomica quaedam ex traditione Shah Cholgii Persae: una cum hypothesibus planetarum: studio et opera Johannis Gravii nunc primum publicata, Londonii, Typis Jacobi Flesher, MDCLII (1652). Farghānī’s selections are on pp. 90-93 of this publication. 14 Mercier, “English Orientalists,” p. 164. For more on Greaves see also Gregg De Young, “John Greaves Astronomica Quaedam: Orientalism and Ptolemaic Cosmography in Seventeenth Century England,” Indian Journal of History of Science, 39.4 (2004) pp. 467-510. 17 Io Baptistae [Giambattista] Portae Lyncei Neopolitani, De Aeris Transmutationibus Libri IIII, Roma 1610, and republished in 1614. 18 The present author has published a full description, with pictures, of the front and back of de Sangallo’s paper in George Saliba, “A Sixteenth-Century Drawing of an Astrolabe Made by Khafīf Ghulām ‘Alī b. ‘Isā (c.850 A.D.),” Nuncius, Annali di Storia della Scienza, 6 (1991) 109-119. 19 See for example, al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist, ed. R. Tajaddud, Teheran, 1971, pp. 342-343. 20 See for example, Peter Apian, Astronomicum Caesareum, Ingolstadt, 1540. 21 ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī, Ṣuwar al-kawākib, Hyderabad, 1953. 22 The latest of these tales, anecdotes, and speculations about this astronomer’s dealings is now recorded extensively in Avner ben Zaken, Cross Cultural Scientific Exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1560-1660, Baltimore, John Hopkins Press, 2010, passim. 23 Sevim Tekeli, 16'ıncı asırda Osmanlılarda saat ve Takiyüddin'in Mekanik saat konstrüksüyonuna dair en parlak yıldızlar adlı eseri: The Clocks in Ottoman empire in 16th Century and Taqī al-Dīn‘s ―The Brightest Stars for the Construction of the Mechanical Clock, Ankara, Ankara University Basimevi, 1966. 24 My translation, based on the Arabic text in Tekeli, p. 216. 25 Ibid. My translation, p. 218 Case studies Abū al-Raiḥān Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī (Sep. 4, 973 – c. 1052 or shortly before). This Central Asian polymath, is one of the very few astronomers of the Islamic world who consciously sought out other astronomical traditions and spent a life time integrating what he learned and reporting about it. In his own right he was also the most original encyclopedists of the Islamic civilization, with a primary interest in astronomy and mathematics. His ethnographic and anthropological works on Indian culture, and on various other cultures that were either extinct or poorly documented make him the best example of a cultural interlocutor with a scope covering several cultures at the same time. His most important works that stand to epitomize the general character of Islamic civilization as a culture of inter-dialogue are his book on India taḥqīqli-l-hindminmaqūlamaqbūlaal-‛aqlawmardhūla (literally,Verifying All What the Indians Say: the reasonable as well as the unreasonable), and his even wider encompassing book al-Āthāral-Bāqiyaanal-qurūnal-khāliya (Chronology of Ancient Nations, that covers a multitude of other cultures, their feasts, their calendars, their folklore, their astronomical traditions, as well as their myths and legends [see figure depicting the origins of Persian kings]. Both works were edited and translated by Edward Sachau during the 19th century. For relatively complete bio-bibliographies of this astronomer one should consult the entry devoted to him in Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd edition, 1960, and the more extensive one in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 1970. Illustration from Bīrūnī’s al-Āthār al-Bāqiya, depicting the legendary origins of Persian kings, almost parallel to the Biblical creation story. Edinburgh manuscript Or. 161, detail of fol. 48v, photograph by G. Saliba. (courtesy of the Edinburgh University Library) His encyclopedic astronomical work the inimitable Mas‛udic Canon (al-Qānūnal-Masūdī , was published in Hyderabad, only in Arabic, in 3 volumes. In it he did not only give a systematic overview of what was inherited from the Greek astronomical tradition, but supplemented that with all the innovations and research that was carried out during Islamic times, of course peppered with what he himself had learned from the Indian tradition, to make his work an exhaustive reference for all things astronomical up to his time, and an all encompassing dialogue across the borders of at least three different cultures. Bīrūnī’s other works are immense. All together he produced some 150 titles, each averaging about 90 folios, that is close to 200 printed pages, and almost half of them were on astronomical and mathematical subjects. Only a miniscule number of his output, almost one seventh 22 / 146, has survived, and even only about half of that has been published. Notable among these works are: Elements of Astrology (al-tafhīmli-awāilṣināatal-tanjīm) which gives the most comprehensive treatment of the topic, although his personal opinion of it was “as weak as that of the least of its adherents,” as he would put it. This although the majority of people of his time believed that astrology was “the fruit of the mathematical sciences.” The Determination of the Coordinates of Places for the Correction of Distances between Cities (taḥdīdnihāyātal-amākinli-taṣḥīḥmasāfātal-masākin) is Bīrūnī’s masterpiece in mathematical geography. In it he does not only lay down the observational principles for the determination of longitudes and latitudes of places, but caps that discussion with the vexing spherical trigonometric problem of determining the religiously mandated direction of Mecca for the performance of the five daily prayers, from his own local horizon at Ghazni, near modern Kabul. He uses that occasion to defend the role of the mathematical sciences against the attacks of the religious scholars who could not understand their utility. His relatively minor works are only minor in their size but equally important, if not more so, in their sophistication. Bīrūnī’s Keys to Astronomy (maqālīdilmal-haya), Pharmacology (kitābal-ṣaydana), Gems (al-jamāhirmarifatal-jawāhir), and a treatise On Shadows (ifrādal-maqālamral-ẓilāl), all deal with particular subjects, but in a perfect Bīrūnī manner, each of them contains extremely original comments on various scientific subjects. In the introduction to his treatise on Gems Bīrūnī gives an elaborate description of man’s place in nature and society, and the social need for economic systems, thereby explaining the role of silver an gold in such economy. In the introduction to his book on pharmacology he raises the issue of the relative worth of languages. He then posed as an outsider to both Arabic and Persian as he evaluated the scientific utility of those two languages. And in that discourse he enunciated his now famous personal preference to be criticized in Arabic than be praised in Persian. His Exhaustive Book on Astrolabes (istīābal-wujūhal-mumkinaṣanatal-asṭurlāb), raises another important issue, namely, the possibility of the earth’s motion, as a consequence of a particular case of one astrolabe projection. But he quickly dismissed the whole issue as philosophical speculation, not to preoccupy someone like him whose feet were always on the ground, observing and recording results. The rest of the book is a mathematical tour de force which details all the various projections of astrolabe parts, mainly retes, that were known to Bīrūnī or could be imagine by him. But on the subject of astronomical cosmology, a subject usually broached by authors of a genre of astronomical literature called, hayatexts, much in the tradition of Urḍī (d. 1266), Ṭūsī (d. 1274), and Ibn al-Shāṭir (d. 1375), to name only a few, Bīrūnī did not seem to have any interest in this kind of theorizing. Only one hint, in a seemingly now lost book, hisIbṭālal-buhtānbi-īrādal-burhān(DisqualifyingfalsehoodbyProducingProof), suggests that he may have approached such speculative cosmological questions. But even then the context in which this hint is mentioned also suggests that he apparently restricted himself to discussing the particular problem of latitude theory in Ptolemaic astronomy. He may not have carried the discussion any further than he did in the case of the cosmologically interesting possibility of the motion of the earth. Abū al-Ḥusayn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. ‛Umar al-Ṣūfī The great and well deserved reputation of this astronomer rests primarily on his work on constellations, and the frequency with which his work was illustrated in the various extant copies still preserved in libraries around the world. Together with the several Arabic renditions of Dioscorides’s pharmacology that are also usually illustrated those two scientific works have attracted the attention of art historians who studied them for their aesthetic qualities rather than the contents of their texts. [see figure of Orion from two Ṣūfī manuscripts now kept at the Library of Congress and the BNF]. Illustrations of the constellation Orion from Ṣūfī’s work Book on the Constellations of the Fixed Stars (Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib al-thābita), here presented together as testimony to their artistic qualities. On the left, from the Libray of Congress Manuscript, SM 16 DLC, p. 134, photograph, G. Saliba, and on the right from BNF, arabe, 5036, 194r (Courtesy of the Library of Congress and BNF). But the contents of Ṣūfī’s work are far more important for the dialogue they initiated within and across cultural borders. By the time Ṣūfī decided to study systematically the figures of the constellations and to observe the longitudes, latitudes and magnitudes of their individual stars there were two different traditions of star lore that were already well known to his contemporaries: one was the lore of the ancient Arabian Bedouins of pre-Islamic times, and the other was inherited from several Greek sources, mostly via the Almagest of Ptolemy which was rendered into Arabic several times as early as the ninth century, that is, about two centuries before Ṣūfī’s time. Since the iconography of the two traditions were remarkably different, one spoke of desert animals like deer, lions, camels, wolfs and the like, and the other spoke of Greek mythological figures drawn mainly from the Greek pantheon, Ṣūfī decided consciously to bring these two traditions into conversation with one another by identifying the asterisms once in the Greek style and then identifying them in the Bedouin style, thus painting a much richer tapestry in the celestial sphere. And when the Renaissance astronomer Peter Apianus decided to render the contents of Ṣūfī’s work into Latin, he in effect was widening the dialogue that was already started by Ṣūfī and forcing it this time to cross yet another cultural and linguistic barrier. It was across this last barrier that several of the Bedouin names of particular asterisms were adopted by Apianus and from him passed on to modern celestial atlases, giving us our modern Arabic names of the stars that are still in use in modern atlases. But Ṣūfī was not only interested in harmonizing the two traditions, he was also interested in updating them, in critiquing them, and in setting them back on firm scientific foundations by bringing his own observations and methods of inquiry to bear on the subject. When he found misrepresentations, he would say so. If Ptolemy missed a specific star, Ṣūfī would certainly correct the mistake. In almost every constellation he would have occasion to say this star was not recorded by Ptolemy or the coordinates of this star or its magnitude were so and so in Ptolemy’s work but should be otherwise as per his own observations. In that context he also found occasion to mention the new asterisms that he himself had observed that were either neglected by Ptolemy or were unknown to him. One memorable observation was Ṣūfī’s acute notice of the andromeda galaxy, which is now referred to as galaxy M 31, whose discovery is duly credited to Ṣūfī. He referred several times to this cluster of stars with the term patch (latkha), to mean a cluster of stars, while describing the stars of Andromeda, but not before noting that the same constellation of Andromeda was known in the ancient Bedouin tradition as the fish (al-ḥūt) and that the patch was located on the mouth of the fish [see Figure of Andromeda]. Similarly, when he found the authors of books following the traditional Bedouin asterisms making gross errors in their description, he did not refrain from critiquing them as well, as he did with Abū Ḥanīfa al-Dīnawarī for example. His sole criteria of judgment was always observation, and would blame both the professional astronomers, who followed the tradition of Ptolemy, or the more traditional men of letters who followed the ancient Bedouin tradition, if they did not verify what they wrote with their own observations of the specific star Figure depicting the constellation of Andromeda with the fish across its body and the cluster of stars, the new galaxy, represented by clustered dots on the lower fish’s mouth [Courtesy Bodleian Library Marsh 144,]
Political Faction Get Political Faction essential facts below. View Videos or join the Political Faction discussion. Add Political Faction to your PopFlock.com topic list for future reference or share this resource on social media. Political Faction A political faction is a group of individuals within a political party that share a common political purpose but differs in some respect to the rest of the entity. A faction or political party may include fragmented sub-factions, "parties within a party," which may be referred to as power blocs, or voting blocs. Members of factions band together as a way of achieving these goals and advancing their agenda and position within an organization. They are basically dissenters that emerge from one big organisation. In Politics, these political factions may deflect into other political parties, that support their dissentive ideology and are more favorable towards them. This, for some countries maybe considered unstable and fluctuating but counter-intuitively might help promote interests of diverse groups. Occasionally, the term "faction" is still used more or less as a synonym for political party, but "with opprobrious (critical, derogatory) sense, conveying the imputation of selfish or mischievous ends or turbulent or unscrupulous methods", according to the Oxford English Dictionary. In his Dictionary, Samuel Johnson (a Tory) dismissively defined Whig as "the name of a faction". Similarly, in the tenth installment of The Federalist Papers, James Madison defines a faction as "a number of citizens, whether amounting to a minority or majority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." In plain English, this is a group that pursues self-interest at the expense of the greater good. Aims of factions Factions differ in the amount of organization and internal structure they possess. On the left, these may take the form of tendencies or platforms. Most factions are very loose organizations, having no definitive list of members, but some factions, have a formal internal structure, with membership lists, regular meetings, official positions - such as negotiators, conveners, whips and organisers, - and a definitive policy position on every issue affecting the broader organization. Such factions will typically be binding; that is, they rely upon all members casting their votes in accordance with the pre-ordained official stance of the faction. Operation of factions In political organizations that are democratic in structure, factions rely heavily on securing enough votes to win important ballots. This process is sometimes referred to as "doing the numbers". Having the numbers will allow the faction to push policies it supports and elect its members to powerful positions within the broader organisation. If one faction develops within an organization, there will usually be at least one other that develops in opposition to it. Opposing factions will try to match each other's level of organization and internal discipline, but will also engage in negotiations and trade-offs to ensure that the organization's activities are not compromised and that every group has a chance to obtain at least some of its goals. Key to the operation of an organized faction is the existence of a power base. This will typically be some office, division or branch of the broader organisation over which the faction has effective control. Sometimes a power base may be an external or affiliated organization that is involved with the broader organization in some way. A power base serves several key functions: • It acts as a recruitment centre for new members, and promotes homogeneity within the membership (crucial for maintaining factional cohesion); • It can be used as an organizing centre for factional events and activities; Effects of factions The Founding Fathers of the American constitution, explicitly warned against the dangers of party factionalism. Madison, Hamilton, and Washington expressed the belief that factions would create divides that would ultimately dismantle the government. These sentiments can be found in The Federalist Papers, specifically Federalist 10 and 51 written by Madison. See also Further reading • Robert J. Alexander, "Splinter Groups in American Radical Politics," Social Research, vol. 20, no. 3 (Autumn 1953), pp. 282-310. In JSTOR. External links Music Scenes
1. hold mental health talks, workshops for students of primary and secondary schools to build a solid foundation for preventive care 2. provide training to teachers on early identification of students at risk of depression; and offer referral cases to the Mental Health Resources Centre of Regeneration Society for further assessment 3. establish a “Pain Relief Centre” to advocate and promote healthy lifestyles; to help and relieve pain for sufferers at an early stage to facilitate recovery from pain 4. provide free medical assessment including blood pressure, blood sugar level, and bone density allowing people to be alert of their health status, promoting preventive care and healthy lifestyles 5. design simple and practical physical activities especially for people working in offices and the elderly to nurture a persistently, physically active lifestyle 6. collaborate with universities to carry out medical research and publish study findings; to allow a better understanding of the importance of preventive medicine among the general public 7. provide training courses in medicine for low-income people, offering them job opportunities to work in hospitals or centres so that they help themselves through helping others
What do Emergency Room Technicians do When you visit an emergency room, not everyone you see in the white lab coat is a physician. Some are front office assistants while others are technicians who help the physician with treating the patients that come into the ER. Without technicians, the workload would be too much for the physicians and they would have really limited time to deal with the more serious complications that patients come reporting. This is why some of the duties in the Emergency room are delegated to the technicians. Today, we want to take a look at what emergency room technicians do and why they are very important in the smooth running of emergency rooms. So, what is the job description of an emergency room technician? The scope of work that an emergency room technician can competently handle, varies from one emergency room to another even though they are all given the same training in school. Emergency room technicians assist emergency room nurses and physicians with clerical and other basic clinical tasks. As an emergency room technician, one is expected to offer support and assistance to the registered nurses and physicians to ensure that the facility offers high quality care to the patients. Here are the 10 most common activities that an emergency room physician helps accomplish; Clinical Activities Temperature measurement- This is by far the most common activity that technicians help accomplish in an ER. A lot of people think that the guys who help take temperature measurements when they get to the ER are nurses when in truth they are technicians. 2. Obtaining lab specimen-Technicians are tasked with obtaining the necessary lab specimen from the patients that report to the emergency rooms. In some emergency rooms, the technicians are given extra training and are able to examine the lab specimen and provide feedback to the nurses while in some rooms, a separate lab technician is hired specifically for conducting lab tests. 3. Blood pressure measurement-The other thing that technicians are trained to do in emergency rooms is to take the blood pressure measurements from the patients as part of the preparation for treatment by the physician. While undertaking training, technicians are equipped with clinical information and are therefore able to tell when the blood pressure level is above or below the normal level. They will then write a report to the nurse or physician to enable them to administer the appropriate medication. 4. Phlebotomy procedures-Phlebotomy is a procedure that removes blood from a patient for tests. Technicians are trained to conduct phlebotomy with guidance from the nurse. It is a technical procedure and requires a lot of training before one can master it completely. 5. Triage patient care-In an emergency room, triage is used to award priority to patients with more severe complications to help them get the urgent care they need while the others with less serious complications can wait a little longer. The triage process takes a lot of examination and critical thinking and this is what the technician does. It might look triage is unfair to many but in truth, it has helped save lots of lives in emergency rooms. Clerical duties of technicians in the emergency room 6. Ushering in patients to the emergency room – emergency rooms are normally full and without proper ushering and organization, it would look like a marketplace. It is the duty of the technician to usher the incoming patients and show them where to sit as they wait to see the physician. 7. Transporting patients into and out of the department-Sometimes as a technician, you will be required to help the nurses and other medical personnel to bring in patients into the department and help them get into the ambulance. 8. Unit secretary functions-In some offices, technicians double as receptionists and secretaries. This is especially common in private emergency rooms which don’t have enough staff members. This means that they will be required to deal with paperwork and monitor the payments at times. 9. Maintain a clean and safe environment- it is the work of the technician to ensure that the emergency room is clean and safe for all the patients and physicians. This does not mean that they become janitors but rather help with cleaning the equipment and generally maintaining good hygiene in the workplace. 10. Bridges communication gap between patients and physicians- technicians help patient to know what they should tell the physician or how to describe their problems. They are important in bridging the communication gap between the patients and the physicians. Here at Bellaire emergency room, we have a team of qualified technicians who work in conjunction with the nurses and physicians to ensure that you get the best possible health care in a clean, safe and organized environment. When hiring our technicians, we handpick them and offer extra training to ensure that we have nothing short of the best. You can therefore expect the best possible care every time you visit our facility.
The routine of the baby at 10 months. 1. Feeding 2. Sleep 3. Hygiene 4. Walks 5. Physical education and massage The daily routine of the baby at 9 and 10 months is not much different. therefore Mom, who switched to a new regime a month ago, will be much calmer and more familiar at this time. Feeding the baby should still be five times a day. The intervals between meals are 4 hours. Now is the time to teach a child to chew, so he needs to give not only mashed potatoes, but also food chopped with a fork. If the baby already has 4 teeth, you can give him meatballs. At this time, new products for the baby will be: 1. Fish. Must be boiled or steamed. Better just take fillets of low-fat rocks. 2. Beverages. These include kissel, fruit drink or compote. 3. Liver paste. 4. Salads from vegetables. You can add cucumbers, tomatoes, white cabbage cabbage, carrots. Grate them or skip through a meat grinder. You can fill with vegetable oil. To give such salads baby recommended 2 times a week for a teaspoon By this age, almost all babies are switching to two daytime sleep. Its total duration is about 3-4 hours. At night, the child is able to sleep without waking up for about 10 hours. The intervals between sleep should be 4 hours. The child’s daytime sleep should occur at the same time. But if you saw that your baby rubs his eyes and in every possible way shows that he is tired, it’s better to put him down now. Otherwise possible the situation is that the child is “walking around” and generally refuses to go to bed. Water procedures must be performed daily. Preferably they were at the same time before bedtime. This will promote quick and easy falling asleep. Water should be warm (about 37 degrees), as hot water acts excitingly. If the baby has a sleep disorder and or increased irritability, you can add decoctions of herbs to the water, for example, mint, valerian, lavender. Teach your baby that swimming is very fun procedure. To do this, play with him, buy special toys for bathtubs. Through play, you teach your child hygiene. is he will be happy to go swimming and love water procedures. In the morning, all hygiene activities remain former: • face wash; • cleaning the nose and ears; • combing; • treatment of the oral cavity with a special brush without tooth paste. After each toilet or diaper change is necessary wash out. In extreme cases, you can use wet wipes. At this time, you can begin to accustom the baby to the potty. For Observe several rules for this: 1. Put the child on the potty for no longer than 10 minutes. 2. Do not distract him with toys at this time. 3. If the child resists, do not force him. Put off learning 4. Plant the child on the pot at a specific time: after awakening, after feeding and before bedtime. 5. If the child went to the toilet on the potty, be sure to praise him. The kid, as before, needs long day walks. Best if it is time before lunch and before bedtime. Their duration in the warm season should be about 5 hours a day, and in winter time can be reduced to 4 hours. If such there is no possibility, then you need to walk at least 1 time per day and open window in the room during the baby’s daytime sleep. At this time, the baby really needs to communicate with peers, therefore it is better to plan walks in the playgrounds. He is there will be able to play enough with other children. Physical education and massage At this time, many children are already taking their first steps and are able to stand on legs. It is very important now to develop the muscles of the legs and back. Keep repeating a set of gymnastic exercises, which you did with the baby before. You can add new ones: 1. Squats Support the child by the arms and offer him sit down a couple of times. 2. Slopes. Put the child with his back to him, and in front of him lay a toy. Invite him to bend over and pick her up. Repeat 3-4 times. 3. Rising. From a sitting position, let the child grab onto the rings and pull them up. Let the baby try to get up. As for the massage, at the age of 10 months it is still is important. Continue to do it according to your usual pattern. Here is an approximate daily routine of a baby at 10 months. Need to remember that it is recommendatory in nature. Always listen to feelings and wishes of your child. Like this post? Please share to your friends: Leave a Reply
Something I have wanted to write about for a long time is the uncanny way in which human societies are analogous to ecosystems. Furthermore, the roles within these societies grow and change and wink out—just like species in different ecosystems do–and yet they hew to certain broad generalized templates over time. This seems so self-evident to me that almost doesn’t need to be talked about, and yet when I do talk about it, I realize that it is difficult to explain comprehensively. There are many ecosystems—like rainforest, arid scrubland, deep ocean bottom, steppe, or coral reef. The creatures in these ecosystems are designed by long, long generations of competition and gradual mutation to use the resources of the ecosystem to survive. Thus a sea anemone eats plankton that the current wafts into its tentacles…and then a clownfish evolves to live protected in the stinging tentacles and look after the anemone…and then a sea turtle evolves which eats anemones and so on. The larger ecosystems are connected too. For example, the pelagic ocean depths engender huge quantities of plankton which wafts onto the reef. There are many niches in ecosystems—like arboreal fruit gatherer, lurking swamp predator, or planktonic browser. Convergent evolution causes the shapes of creatures adapted to these roles to take on many similar characteristics: thus arboreal fruit eaters (whether they be iguanas, tarsiers, or cockatoos) have cunning grips, small agile bodies for precise balance, & acute depth perception; planktonic browsers have huge mouths, filter membranes/apparatuses, and a shape build to conserve energy; and reef building organisms are sessile with grabby arms and a calcium carbonate skeleton they can retreat into (even if they are not corals). Of course there are always generalists like raccoons or rats or pigeons which have a number of useful traits that allow them to flourish in a city, a field, or a forest, or wherever…but truly complicated ecosystems engender flamboyant specialists like frogs that live in bromeliads or saber hummingbirds with beaks longer than the rest of the bird’s body. A jungle might support a few tribes of generalized hunter gatherers (who literally live off the rainforest in the manner of jaguars and toucans), but humans build our own jungles which we call cities. In the city there are niches for jaguar people who take what they want and for toucan people who are colorful and pick fruit from the tops of trees that others can’t even get to. Let’s imagine them respectively as business magnates and art curators. Resources are plentiful in cities. They arrive in raw forms from other places like farms, mines, or forests and then are processed and synthesized by the city which creates secondary and tertiary tiers of specialists who live off of individual refinement steps which might not even exist elsewhere. A farm town might have farmers, millers, bakers, bailiffs, carters, and a few thieves, as well as a single baron and a mayor. The city has grain merchants, food factory workers, pastry chefs, bicycle police, teamsters, catburglars, legions of dukes, and a whole vast city hall bureaucracy (and all the other roles in between). As the niche change through time so to the roles change, but there are underlying similarities. Farriers, lectors, and lamplighters have died away but we now need mechanics, voiceover actors, and electric engineers. Some jobs, like bricklayer or toymaker endure for thousands of years. Some, like wartime airplane detector exist only for a particular moment in time (after airplanes but before radar). If you look at society from a distance you can see how technological and social changes mirror the changes of evolution. Cartwrights generally are replaced by automakers (although there were probably not may individuals who made that career change). Indeed, our manufactured objects themselves illustrate this change (as you can see by looking at a history book of cars and watching fins and fenders grow and shrink, even as the overall cars become lighter, faster, and safer). Just as the natural world is more dynamic, beautiful, and robust when there are may sorts of environment with many different creatures, human society is more prosperous when it has lots of different sorts of settings including places of enormous diversity with all sorts of specialized roles. The interchange is complicated in the human world. How many theatrical make-up artists can Iowa support? Yet the collagen in the makeup came from Iowa farms…and perhaps the makeup artist herself (and maybe the actors she works on too) originally came to Broadway from little towns in the corn belt. This metaphor is useful in looking at the arc of history (which is really hard to comprehend from a human-length temporal perspective). Additionally, it ties the world of natural history/paleontology together into a seamless narrative with the world of history/sociology (we will get back to this in later posts). It becomes easier to see how thoroughly we humans are part of the natural world—we are sophisticated colony primates not some aberration from outside biology (or clockwork children made by a crazy god). Beyond these vast perspectives of deep time, biology, and macro-economics, however, it is useful to look at society as interlocking ecosystems because it reminds us to be more careful of one another since we need one another. There can be no city without the countryside! And who would farmers sell their barley to without cities? (and where would rural hospitals get doctors or malls get new fashions)? Likewise the farmland needs the forest. The fishing village needs the ocean. In this red-blue era where people from the country and the city apparently despise each other (!) we need to recall it is a false distinction. Everyone needs each other. The world is a web. If you touch one thread the whole thing vibrates. And it is changing so fast that we little spiders and flies must also change so swiftly that it is barely possible to figure out who is preying upon whom anymore. We will come back to this concept, but right now take a look around you and squint. If the clerks, and stockbrokers and stockboys don’t start to seem more like termites and tigers and tapirs…if the dairymaids and cows don’t seem like ants and caryatids, well let me know. I’ll write it all down a different way. But I will be surprised if you don’t see it. China Trade3.jpg China Trade (Wayne Ferrebee, Oil on panel) Mermaid Appropriation? Is that a Frenchwoman in Roman garb? Ordovician(by mirelai from Deviant Art) Hawaiian bobtail squid (image from A Flayed man holding his own skin (Gaspar Becerra, 1556, Etching) It’s Halloween week already: the time when the spirit realm comes closest to the mortal world (well, according to ancient lore, anyway). This is always a “theme week”, which Ferrebeekeeper devotes to a single topic which is sinister, magical, disquieting, and macabre. In past year’s we have taken on dark subjects like the children of Echidna, the Flowers of the Underworld, the undead, and the realm of nightmares, but this year we are going back to the roots of civilization to examine an ancient horror. Sadly, this ghastly topic is not a dark myth or an accursed dream, but an all-too real invention of human savagery. Flaying is a method of torture and execution, which was used in ancient times (and not-so-ancient times) to kill a person in the most terrible and painful way. Of course hunters and animal farmers are familiar with flaying as stripping the skin off of a dead animal so that the hide can be cured as a pelt or a leather, and so that the animal’s meat can then be butchered for consumption (although this is more commonly known as “skinning” in English). This is done with a knife or similar sharpened implement and farmers/hunters/chefs generally try to keep the hide as intact as possible. At some point in the depths of prehistory, some evil person first realized the same method could be used to cut the skin off of a living person. Skinning more than a portion of a person is fatal. Wikipedia blandly cites Ernst G. Jung, a famed dermatologist, writing: “Dermatologist Ernst G. Jung notes that the typical causes of death due to flaying are shock, critical loss of blood or other body fluids, hypothermia, or infections, and that the actual death is estimated to occur from a few hours up to a few days after the flaying.” How did Jung know that? We want to know and yet clearly we also do not want to know. I found a lot of arguments online about whether modern medicine could rescue a flayed person. I will summarize the upshot of lots of nightmarish dumbassery as “maybe… in perfect circumstances, but probably not.” At this point, if you are like me you are probably saying “GLAAARGH! What the hell? Why would anybody ever do such a thing? And why write about it? Why should I even think about such monstrous savagery? I am going to go look at pictures of cute little songbirds.” That is a good point and those questions/sentiments are very pertinent, but you should not go to the cute animal site yet. Here is a cute little bird to break the tension. Here is a cute little bird to break the tension. Flaying keeps cropping back up in human history, art, and myth. It reveals something about us in a dark tale which stretches across millennia. Mostly, of course, it reveals that we are very tragic and cruel animals, but that is a truth well worth remembering (assuming you can somehow not see it within the daily news). Flaying also reveals some of our stagecraft for manipulating and controlling each other–which I will get into tomorrow with the story of the Neo-Assyrians. Additionally there is a mysterious and otherworldly hint of true transformation within this topic—a suggestion of the butterfly, the cocoon, and true transcendence from the body—although admittedly this miracle which did not quite come off properly. We will get to this as we look at flaying in art and religion. High Fashion by Jean Paul Gautier High Fashion by Jean Paul Gautier If you can stay with me, this week ends with a fun surprise on Halloween (which I have been working on for a long time and saving for you)…but there is some pretty dark territory to get through before then. Gird up your loins (no seriously, you may want to tie something protective around your flesh), tomorrow we are going back to the age of chariots and horror to spend some time with the neo-Assyrians. Aaaagh! l’Écorché “The Flayed Man” ( Jean-Antoine Houdon, 1767, cast) A farmer harvests an onion in a painting in the Ancient Egyptian Tomb of Neferherenptah (ca. 2310 BC) The common onion (Allium cepa) is one of the oldest known cultivated vegetables: indeed, the onion goes so far back that now Allium cepa is known only as a cultivated vegetable. As with the cow, the actual wild version of this organism has been lost (although there are other edible allium species around the world which go by the name “wild onion”). Common onions probably originated in Central Asia: the oldest archaeological evidence we have of onion farming puts the vegetables in Ancient Egypt 5,500 years ago, in India and China 5,000 years ago, and in Mesopotamia 4,500 years ago, however it is likely that they were grown as a crop long before then. Onions are in the most ancient Chinese and Indian texts and likewise they are in the oldest chapters of the Bible. The classical civilizations of Greece and Rome were heavily dependent on onion cultivation. When Rome fell, onions became a staple of the medieval diet. Emmer wheat, bitter vetch, and bottle gourds have come and gone from fashion, but the onion is more popular today than ever. There is a huge bowl of them in my kitchen right now (and I cook them into pretty much every savory dish). Onions are easy to grow in many different types of soil in many different ecosystems. They are also easy to store all winter and plant from seeds or bulbs. They can be dried or pickled for long term storage. They can be cooked in every conceivable way, or just eaten raw. Clearly humankind has an ancient relationship with onions and they have kept us alive in many a jam (myself definitely included). An onion field...hmm, not much to see here... An onion field…hmm, not much to see here… Indeed, onions are such a bedrock part of human culture, that we don’t too have much to say about them aside from boilerplate comments about their tear-inducing properties (which are caused by sulfenic acids released when onion cells are damaged). The ancient Egyptians thought of onions as sacred, and made them a part of funeral ritual and a symbol of the cosmos, but subsequent generations have become distracted by flashier vegetables, and pay the ancient onion little tribute (although I suppose there are arguments that onion domes, my favorite architectural flourish, are a sort of homage). Onions (Wayne Ferrebee, 2002, oil on canvas) Onions (Wayne Ferrebee, 2002, oil on canvas) I was hoping to feature some onion-themed deities or deep and troubling myths about these edible bulbs, but I haven’t really been able to find too many (although the satirical website is messing up my ability to search for material). So, instead of citing ancient literature or art, here is my own tribute to Allium cepa. This is a small oil painting which I made back in 2002. It pays tribute to the modest but very real visual beauty of onions. I painted the three main colors commonly available (after looking through all the bins for the right subjects for my still life like a crazy person). The painting makes me smile and it reminds me fondly of all the chili, curry, Chinese food, pasta, and porridge I have eaten which would have been thin and bland without this amazing vegetable. Hooray for onions! jcosmosWhen I was a child, my favorite tv show was Carl Sagan’s Cosmos. Although the good doctor’s naïveté about cold war politics sometimes dismayed my realpolitik-minded parents, the amazing breadth of his show’s exploration of the natural world–and the wider universe beyond–was a wonder to me. For the first time I was introduced to quasars, pulsars, and stellar aging. From Sagan’s delightfully filmed documentary, I learned about Kepler, the Kreb’s cycle, DNA pair sequencing, and the great library of Alexandria. The eclectic scope of Cosmos was a direct inspiration for this blog (although I can hardly claim to be such a polymath). Hopefully the new Cosmos–with a new science hero, Neil deGrasse Tyson–will inspire today’s generation of children to look beyond sports and the internet up to the soaring science of the firmament! Jovian Life Envisioned by Adolf Schaller for COSMOS, Carl Sagan (1980) My very favorite segment of Cosmos however, did not involve real science at all, but rather airy speculation about extraterrestrial life on a gas giant planet. Carl Sagan, his physicist colleague, E. E. Saltpeter, and the space artist, Adolf Schaller, worked together to imagine a floating ecosystem which might exist on a planet such as Jupiter. In the tempestuous atmosphere of such a world, ammonia, hydrogen, methane, and water are violently stirred together to form organic molecules. Small drifting organisms might feed on these compounds and reproduce as lighter spores before air currents bear them down to their doom (in a cycle reminiscent of phytoplankton). Giant floating life-forms like living hot-air balloons would stay in the habitable zone of the atmosphere by photosynthesis or by grazing on the microscopic “plankton”. These beings could be kilometers in diameter and would congregate in vast aerial schools. Sagan and Saltpeter even envisioned jet-propulsion super predators which would blast through the alien skies feeding on the huge clouds of “floaters”. It is a tremendously compelling vision! Now, whenever NASA or ESA releases a new list of exoplanets, I pause to wonder whether such alien creatures are actually found floating on the super-Jupiters and strange giant worlds which orbit far-off stars. However today I would like to present an even more fantastic vision—and one which humankind could actually create! By combining Sagan’s imaginary vision with contemporary aerospace and biotech research, it is possible to visualize my own fantasy of human colonization of Venus…or even upon other worlds with complex atmospheres. Ornithopter based on Jellyfish (Dr. Ristroph and Dr. Childress) Just this year, two aeronautical engineers, Dr. Ristroph and Dr. Childress, crafted an ornithopter based on the swimming motion of a jellyfish. The tiny mechanism relies on four teardrop-shaped wings oriented around a dome-like apex to achieve stable, directed flight. At the same time a new array of futuristic blimps, zeppelins and dirigibles are being brought to market to transform the skies of earth. Most importantly Craig Ventner, the bioengineer-entrepreneur, is out there sampling the esoteric genetics of the deep ocean and forging ahead with synthetic genomics (which is to say he is building new living things from scratch). In our lifetime someone will figure out how to meld Ventner’s synthetic organisms with the advanced engineering and technology which are the hallmark of our age. The possibilities then grow exponentially out of this world. “Space Zeppelin” by Rugose. “Space Zeppelin” by Rugose. Imagine if the floating ecosphere invented by Sagan and Saltpeter were instead a floating society-economy based on advanced engineering and bioengineering. There would be levitating cities which are also bioengineered life-forms (like the vast balloon beings of Sagan’s invention). Between these cloud cities would fly flocks of tiny ornithopters that would gather resources for further farming/engineering. Jet propelled aircrafts and super habitats would zip between the living arcologies. Armored crawlers would inch through the deeper layers of atmosphere or creep along the molten pressurized ground. Eventually there might be flying bio-colonies which self arrange out of many highly specialized flying zooids—like the siphonophores which are so prevalent in our oceans! These collective entities would act as sky factories to build an ever more symbiotic and efficient synthetic ecosystem. Humankind, living things, and technology would no longer be at odds but would grow together to form the ideal world of tomorrow. Life, beautiful and united would expand to new planets and develop into a stronger, brighter presence in the cosmos. Siphonophorae (Ernst Haeckel, 1904, plate 7 of "Kunstformen der Natur") Siphonophorae (Ernst Haeckel, 1904, plate 7 of “Kunstformen der Natur”) China’s "Moon Rabbit" lunar rover separates from Chang’e moon lander (image from Beijing Aerospace Control Center) China’s “Moon Rabbit” lunar rover separates from Chang’e moon lander (image from Beijing Aerospace Control Center) It is time to congratulate the Chinese space agency for landing a probe and rover on the moon. The landing was the first “soft landing” (where no equipment is damaged) on the lunar surface in 37 years—so I am also happy that humankind is back on its nearest neighbor. The Chang’e lunar lander touched down on the Bay of Rainbows on Saturday Morning, December 14th (at least in EST). The Jade Rabbit rover successfully drove out onto the arid dust of the flat “bay” a few hours later. Hopefully the Chinese mission will continue to go successfully and the Chinese Space Agency will continue to launch ambitious space missions. With a command economy and authoritarian government, the People’s Republic could pour money into aerospace science and quickly push space exploration forward–much in the way that the Soviet Union did back in the glory days of the space race. Such a challenge would be good for international science, and it would be good to remind our worthless legislators here in the United States to work together to properly fund science, research, and development. Chang’e is named after the goddess of the moon in classical Chinese myth, but her story is sad and ambiguous. It is a tale open to several different interpretations (which I will write about, but not now). The moon rabbit, also known as the jade rabbit was originally a pet of the lonely moon goddess, however because his story is far less tragic than hers (and because he is a lovable trickster-rabbit), he has become a figure of immense popularity. According to myth he is an apothecary who grinds medicines, spells, and immortality elixirs on behalf of the gods (and for himself–because what trickster doesn’t skim a little?). The jade rabbit shows up everywhere in Chinese myth and culture. He even pops in for cameos in some of the great works of Chinese literature (for example, he is the final antagonist in “Journey to the West” wherein the heroes discover him masquerading as the princess of India!). More importantly, in East Asia, it is believed that the stains of the moon are the image of the jade rabbit. Although I have never been able to see the “man on the moon”, the jade rabbit is always there on a bright full moon. I am glad the Chinese space agency named their space probe after this master apothecary and superb trickster! Humankind is always fixating on the Moon and Mars as the most likely spots for the first space colonies, but there is another crazy possibility. Aside from the Sun and the Moon, Venus is the brightest object in the night sky. Earth’s closest planetary neighbor, Venus is a veritable sister planet with extremely similar mass and volume. Because of its size and position in the solar system, a great deal of early science fiction concentrated around Venus. Dreamers and fabulists posited that beneath its ominously uniform cloud cover was a lush tropical rainforest filled with lizard people and pulchritudinous scantily clad women (the fact that the planet’s Greco-Roman name is synonymous with the goddess of love and beauty seems to have influenced many generations of male space enthusiasts). Maybe we should head over there and check it out… Alas, the space age quickly dispensed with mankind’s sweaty-palmed fantasies about life on Venus. In 1970 the Soviet space probe, Venera 7, was the first spacecraft to successfully land on another planet (after a long series of earlier space probes were melted or crushed by atmospheric pressure). In the 23 minute window before the probe’s instruments failed, the craft recorded hellish extremes of temperature and pressure. The temperature on Venus’ surface averages around 500 °C (932 °F), (higher than the melting point of lead) and the pressure on the ground is equal to the pressure beneath a kilometer of earth’s ocean. The planet’s surface is a gloomy desertlike shell of slabs interspersed with weird volcanic features not found elsewhere in the solar system (which have strange names like “farra”,” novae”, and “arachnoids”). Additionally the broiling surface is scarred by huge impact craters, and intersected by immense volcanic mountains (the tallest of which looms 2 kilometers above Everest). The tops of these mountains are covered with a metallic snow made of elemental tellurium or lead sulfide (probably). A photo of the surface of Venus from Venera 13 The atmosphere of Venus is a hellish fug of carbon dioxide which traps the sun’s energy in a self replicating greenhouse gone wrong. Above the dense clouds of CO2, the upper atmosphere is dominated by sulfur dioxide and corrosive sulfuric acid. Once Venus may have had water oceans and more earth-like conditions, but rampant greenhouse heating caused a feedback loop which caused the planet to become superheated billions of years ago. Without an magnetosphere, solar winds stripped Venus of its molecular hydrogen (yikes!). Artist’s Impression of the Surface of Venus Thus Venus does not initially present a very appealing picture for colonization! Yet the planet’s mass is similar to Earth (and humans’ long term viability in low gravity is far from certain). The planet is closer than Mars and windows of opportunity for travel are more frequent. Fifty kilometers (30 miles) above the surface of Venus, the temperature is stable between 0 and 50 degrees Celsius (32 to 122 degrees Fahrenheit). Light crafts filled with oxygen and nitrogen would float above the dense carbon dioxide. Today’s visionaries and dreamers therefore have stopped thinking of tropical jungles and envision instead a world of Aerostats and floating cities. Although the rotation of Venus is too slow to craft a space elevator, the flying colonists of Venus probably could build some sort of skyhook with existing or near future technology. Such a hook could be used to lift raw materials from the surface to manufacturing facilities in the skies. As more aerostat habitats were built, the colony would gain manufacturing strength, safety, and a greater ability to alter the barren world below (increasingly overshadowed by flying cities and hovering countries). Imagine then a world like that of the Jetsons where the surface was unseen and not thought about (except by scientists and industrialists). Floating forests and croplands could be assembled to mimic earth habitats and provide resources for a bourgeoning population of Venusian humans. Skyships would cruise between the flying city states dotted jewel-like in the glowing heavens. Over time these flying habitats could be used to alter the planetary temperature and shield the desolate lands below. Humankind and whatever friends and stowaways came with us would finally have a second home in easy shouting distance of Earth. How long would it be then before we took steps to take Earth life even farther into the universe? Last year to celebrate October and the spooky season, Ferrebeekeeper presented a series of posts concerning the mythological monsters born of the Greek snake goddess Echidna. Those monsters were really big and really scary but, in the end, the operative word was “mythological”–they didn’t actually exist. This October I have decided to pay closer heed to the real world as we celebrate the horrifying, the macabre, and the eerily beautiful. To start with, I have already presented a dead city surrounded by ancient desiccated mummies and nuclear test sites! But I’m guessing that Xinjiang is pretty far away from all but a handful of my readers, so today I wanted to focus on a horror closer to hand. In fact today’s subject is even closer than that—there are 50/50 odds that there are some of these parasitic mites crawling in your eyelids even as you read these lines. Coloured scanning electron microscope photo of Demodex folliculorum (from Sciecephotolibrary) I am writing about Demodex, a genus of tiny parasitic arachnids which live in or around the hair follicles of mammals. There are more than 50 known varieties but two species in particular (Demodex folliculorum and Demodex brevis) are endemic to human hosts. The mites are approximately 0.4 mm long, with eight extremely short legs. Covered with adhesive scales, the mites are semi-transparent. According to, “The needle-like mouth-parts feed on the dead, flaky skin-cells, hormones and the sebum which accumulate in the hair follicles.” Buzzle goes on to note that while the mites are usually harmless an unusually large number can cause demodicosis, a sort of mange. Although I gave a 50/50 breakdown in the first paragraph, that number seems to have been made up by dermatologists to keep squeamish people from ripping all of their eyelashes out. Odds are if you have walked the green earth long enough to see adulthood, you have played host to these eyelash mites. Demodex brevis seen under a conventional microscope This topic seemed fun when I started, but I honestly have not been able to keep my fingers out of my eyes while writing and I am now squinting at the screen through itchy, puffy eyes. Nevertheless there is an important point behind all of this. It isn’t just coral reefs and aspen colonies which form habitats for other living things. Every lifeform is an ecosystem with parasites, symbiots, and weird alien neutrals–even us. …they say that Bacchus discovered honey. He was travelling from sandy Hebrus, accompanied And he’d come to Mount Rhodope, and flowering Pangaeus: With the cymbals clashing in his companions’ hands. Behold unknown winged things gather to the jangling, Bees, that follow after the echoing bronze. Liber gathered the swarm and shut it in a hollow tree, And was rewarded with the prize of discovering honey. They searched for the yellow combs in every tree. The Discovery of Honey by Bacchus (Detail) The Discovery of Honey by Bacchus (detail) Ye Olde Ferrebeekeeper Archives February 2021
History of Mediaeval Jews - Maurice Harris Jewish Life In German States. The Church now dominated society, giving character to its popular life and entering so largely into all its concerns as to make the position of the Jew who was not of the Church still more anomalous. We saw that economically he had no place in the feudal system. In language, food and occupation, in belief and outlook so different was his life, that Christian and Jew might have said one to the other: "Our ways are not your ways, nor our thoughts your thoughts." A Jewish Troubadour. Yet he did not stand willingly aloof, when religion did not bid withdrawal. For example, we find a Jew among the troubadours. Those poet minne-singers {minne—love) would wander with harp and lyre from castle to castle where the baron and his lady, together with their retainers, would listen to their song of chivalry and adventure and throw them money {largesse, as it was called), on which they lived. A Jewish poet of this order was Susskind of Trimberg-on-the-Saale, who flourished about the year 1200. A few of his lyrics are preserved, wherein the knight and his lady of the days of romance were among his favorite themes. But his own life revealed the conflict of Israel among the nations that he portrays in the fable of the wolf. Either he can be minne-singer to the Gentile and suppress the Jew, or, he may throw in his lot with his people and then he must abandon his art. How often has that alternative faced the son of Israel even in brighter days! The feudal baron occasionally lowered the portcullis of his castle to admit the Jew bringing wares from a distant land. At times he received articles of value in exchange for money, when money was the need — say of the impoverished knight who wished to vary the monotony of an idle career by wandering forth to the wars, and needed suitable ecpupment. He would expect to redeem the pledge by hiring out his sword to any lord who had a skirmish on hand, for it was the day of mercenaries. The "Ritual Murder" Slander. In times of peaceful lull the Jew was let alone, though "severely alone." But he was always at the mercy of the caprice of the multitude. At best he was mistrusted and readily made the object of suspicion. If a dead body was found it was quite usual to charge the murder to the Jews on the grotesque theory that they had used the blood for their Passover ritual. Little did the Christian know that in formulating this monstrous charge against the Jew it was but borrowing from the pagan an earlier charge brought against the Christian; in the latter case it was a follower of the Church who had been charged with using blood for his sacrament service, in the former that he used in the Passover bread. Both charges were equally fabulous, that against the Jew, based on the biblical precept to place the blood of the lamb upon the door-post; that against the Christian, based on the belief that the wine at the sacrament miraculously became the blood of the Savior. With Christianity's rise to power, the slander against the Church soon disappeared; but against the Jew it grew in virulence; and on this false charge Jews were slain every century and in every land. Nor is this lie yet dead. In 1247 the Jews appealed to Pope Innocent IV for protection against this calumny. He issued a bull declaring the charge false and unfounded. But it was brought up again every few years —in Mayence in 1283, in Munich in 1285, in Oberwesel and Boppard in 1286. Other instances will be detailed later. The charge always meant plunder and massacre. Another Synod. A synod had been convened by R. Gershom in the year 1000; a second, in the year 1146 after the Second Crusade. Now, to strengthen the bonds between Jew and Jew in those perilous days, another synod was summoned at Mayence in the year 1223: First, it arranged to divide the distribution of the burden of royal taxation in fair proportion. (For when a king decided to extort money from "his Jews," he might favor one Jew by exemption at the expense of others.) This decision and those that follow throw a lurid light on the times: • No bad treatment by Gentiles should justify dishonorable treatment of them. • It severely condemned the counterfeiting of coin. • The "informer"—whose mischievous disclosures often brought so much injury—was to make good any loss incurred by his betrayal. • He who sought an office in the synagogue by bringing outside, Gentile, influence to bear, was to be excommunicated. (In Maccabaean days Jason sought the high priesthood through Greek influence, History was repeating itself.) The "Empire." Yet, in the German Empire, "so called," the emperor gave the Jews a quasi protection, as did Conrad III in the second crusade. But there was none to protect them from the emperor, who was, as it were, the court of last resort. He usually had his hands full to suhvert the intrigues of his rival, the Pope. Then, too, his local office as German king conflicted with his international past as Roman emperor. Sometimes the emperor was a Saxon, sometimes a Franconian, then a Bavarian or a Swabian or again an Austrian. For Germany then included pretty well all of Central Europe— a group of States — not a nation. The conflict between the pope and the emperor grew in bitterness; that between Pope Hadrian and Barbarossa, the most picturesque monarch of the Middle Ages, has already been told. The latter would have liked to have been a Charlemagne, but he spent his best years in fighting for that elusive prize, "Roman kingship," crossing the Alps six times that he might have more profitably devoted to strengthening Germany. Then, too, the Italian himself protested against this subordinate position and fought against the German kings for independence. That conflict continued for three centuries. The opponents acquired ^party names from their respective war cries. The Guelphs (Welfe) supported the Pope, the Ghibelines (Waiblingen) rallied round the German emperor. The pope supported the Italian side, not to further Italian independence, but only to curb the emperor's power. The Emperor's Right in the Jews. In these struggles the Jew could take no official part, yet he was often made the sufferer. Much depended on the whim of the emperor. Though Barbarossa was firm in exacting his vested rights in the Jews, yet he was not ill-disposed towards them. What were those vested rights? The German emperors claimed to he the hereditary successors of the ancient Roman emperors. Since a Roman emperor, Vespasian, had conquered the Judaean State, the Jews were regarded as the emperor's servants. This old claim was now revived under the title of "servants of the chamber." It really meant that the revenue derived from the Jews was the emperor's perquisite for his private treasury. Yet, for that matter without any such supposed right, English and French kings sold and leased their Jews as their personal chattels. Under gracious emperors Jews could carry arms and hold lands and slaves. But these were never assured rights, only temporary grants. An example of capricious treatment of the Jews is well seen in the case of Frederick II (who became emperor in 1212). He was a grandson of Barbrossa, last of the Hohenstaufen line. A cultured man speaking six languages, and a patron of letters, he was not unnaturally interested in Jewish scholarship. He invited some savants to settle in Italy and befriended them. One of these was Jacob Anatoli, a pupil of Michael Scotus. He translated for the emperor the Arabic of Averroes' Aristotle into Hebrew, whence it was translated into Latin. This task had also been undertaken, by Ibn Tibbon. Yet this same Frederick II shut the Jews up in ghettos, restricted their occupations, heavily taxed them and forced them to wear the badge. He even rebuked Duke Frederick of Austria for issuing the following laws for Jewish protection. The murderer of a Jew should be put to death; the kidnaper of a Jewish child was to be punished for theft; Jews were to have local jurisdiction and to be protected from extortion. What a pity the Austrian Frederick was not emperor. Small comfort was it to the Jew, never eager for revenge, to see Frederick II, in spite of his seven crowns, worsted in conflict with the popes and dying under the ban. After all, hard though he was, Frederick II might have been regarded as a protecting providence of Israel compared with their persecutors after his death. For anarchy now followed, and it went hard with them in the Guelf and Ghibeline struggle. War always brings out the savage in man, and the Jew was a convenient outlet for brutal lusts. They were burnt in the Sinzig synagogue by self-styled "Judenbrenner" (burners of Jews). In spite of Duke Frederick's humane provisions, Austria reaffirmed all the anti-Jewish edicts of the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. Meir of Rothenberg. When in 1273, Rudolph of Hapsburg was chosen emperor some condition of order and security was restored. Aided financially by the Jews, he gave them some protection and issued a denial of the "blood accusation." Under him flourished Meir of Rothenberg, one of the last of the Tosafists (p. 129). Much as we admire his Talmudic erudition — for, like R. Gershom, he was called "a light" — still more do we esteem his piety. The German Jews, with Meir at their head, had determined to leave this land of persecution and emigrate to the East. But the flight of Meir and his party was discovered and he was arrested. Rudolph did not wish the withdrawal of a people whom he could mulct from time to time. Meir was imprisoned. The Jews offered a large sum for the release of their revered teacher. But the noble man refused freedom on that condition, fearing that the precedent might suggest to future rapacious kings a new means of squeezing the Jews. Like Akiba, he answered questions on the Law from his prison; and in the prison he died in 1293. Even his body was held for ransom. Poets and legalists usually move in dififerent planes. But Meir, the Tosafist, was a poet, too, with the Law naturally as his theme. Here are some verses from a dirge bewailing the burning of the Pentateuch in 1285 in Paris. It is incorporated in Fast of Ab ritual — a Kinah or lamentation: The Burning of the Law Ask, is it well, O thou consumed of fire, With those that mourn for thee. That yearn to tread thy courts, that sore desire Thy sanctuary; That, panting for thy land's sweet dust, are grieved, And sorrow in their souls, And by the flames of wasting fire bereaved, Mourn for thy scrolls; And thou revealed amid a heavenly fire, By earthly fire consumed. Say how the foe unscorched escaped the pyre Thy flames illumed Thou sittest high exalted, lofty foe To judge the sons of God; And with thy judgments stern dost bring them low Beneath thy rod. O Sinai! was it then for this God chose Thy mount of modest height. Rejecting statelier, while on thee arose His glorious light? Moses; and Aaron in the mountain Hor; I will of them inquire: Is there another to replace this Law Devoured of fire? In sackcloth I will clothe and sable band, For well-beloved by me Were they whose lives were many as the sand — The slain of thee. I am astonied that the day fair light Yet shineth brilliantly On all things: — it is ever dark as night To me and thee. E'en as thy Rock has sore afflicted thee He will assuage thy woe; Will turn again the tribes' captivity, And raise thee low. My heart shall be uplifted on the day Thy Rock shall be thy light, When He shall make thy gloom to pass away, Thy darkness bright. Translated by Nina Davis. The Popes and the "Blood Accusation" {Ritual Murder): Reference has been made to the Bull of Innocent IV, issued in 1247. We give a translation in full: To the Archbishops and Bishops of Germany. We have received a pitiable complaint from the Jews of Germany. They say that some nobles, lay and ecclesiastical, and other powerful and notable men within your cities and dioceses, designing to seize and usurp their goods unjustly, devise against them impious counsels and invent diverse pretexts. Without considering that testimonies to the Christian Faith have proceeded from their records and that the sacred scripture among other precepts of the Law says: "Thou shalt not kill." and forbids them at their Passover ceremonies to touch any dead flesh, they falsely accuse the Jews of using in these same ceremonies the body of a murdered child, thinking that the said practice is required by their Law, whereas it is clearly contrary to their Law. And they cast upon the Jews, with malicious intent, any corpse that by chance is discovered at any place. Attacking them with these and other inventions, and without formal accusation, confession or conviction, and in despite of the privileges conceded to the Jews by the clemency of the Holy See, they despoil them of their goods (contrary to the law of God and of justice), and they visit them with hunger, imprisonment and so many calamities and afflictions, punishing them with diverse punishments (even condemning many of them to shameful death) that the Jews, living under the rule of the said princes, notables, and powerful men in worse plight than were their fathers under Pharoah in Egypt, are compelled to leave places where they and their ancestors have dwelt from time immemorial. Hence, in fear of extermination, they have thought it necessary to have recourse to the protection fo the Holy See. Now, therefore, being unwilling that the Jews should be unjustly harassed (for God in his mercy awaits their conversion, seeing that, on the testimony of the Prophet, it is believed that the remnant of them is destined to be saved), we order that you show yourselves favourable and well disposed to them, and whenever you find any violent attempt made against them, with respect to the matters mentioned above, by the prelates, nobles, and powerful men aforesaid, you shall see that the matter is treated according to law, and shall not in future permit the Jews to be improperly molested on these or similar charges by any persons whatsoever. Those who molest them you shall summarily restrain by your ecclesiastical censure. We append the Bull of Gregory X, issued in 1272: Since Jews cannot bear testimony against Christians, we decree that the testimony of Christians against Jews shall be of no avail unless there is a Jew bearing testimony among them. For it sometimes happens that Christians lose their children, and Jews are charged by their enemies with taking them away and killing them and using their hearts and blood for religious purposes; the fathers of the children, or other Christians, in hatred of the Jews, hide the children away so that they may cause trouble to the Jews and gain money from them for relieving them from their trouble, and in order that they may most falsely assert that the Jews have secretly stolen and murdered their children and that they use the blood for religious purposes, whereas their law strictly forbids them to use blood for ceremonial purposes, or to taste it, or to eat the flesh of animals with cloven hoofs, as has been many times demonstrated at our court by Jews converted to the Christian faith. On charges of this kind Jews have often been seized and imprisoned unjustly. We decree that in such cases the testimony of Christians against Jews shall not be admitted; that Jews imprisoned on this empty charge shall be liberated; that they be not imprisoned in future on this empty charge unless (which we cannot believe) they are found in the act. Similar Bulls, protesting against the calumny were issued by Martin V, 1422; Nicholas V, 1447, and Paul III, 1540. Jewish Troubadours.Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, by Israel Abrahams, pp. 361-2, J. P. S. of A. Only a Word, a story of mediaeval life in which the hired mercenary plays so large a part. The author wonderfully reproduces the atmosphere of the Middle Ages. Original German by George Ebers Servants of the Chamber: Latin: Servi camerae; German, Kammerknechtschaft. Camera means chamber. Theme for Discussion:—The troubadour Susskind suggests the question in how far could mediaeval Jews enter into the social life of the Gentile.
Familiar Conversations by Mary Ann on May 11, 2010 One of the great benefits of having a well stocked, well managed Spark Station is that it provides great fodder for “familiar conversation”. That comes from a great quote by George Turnbull, 1742. I have had the opportunity to have some of these spontaneous conversations with my children. You know the kind, when they notice something and ask about it or they ask a question and you just talk about it. Let me give you an example. My twenty year old was reading Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl by Harriet A. Jacobs. I decided to read the book also because Kate said that she would like to talk about it. We have had a few small discussions about the character of different people in the book. This has led to conversations about why people act the way they do and believe the things they do. I was telling my ten year old granddaughter about the book. That led to a comment on freedom and the fact that I had just attended a caucus. Then there was a description about what a caucus was and who can go and why we should go. That led into a discussion about Fredrick Douglas and who he was and how he worked for freedom for slaves, women and other minority groups. I had to do this via letter as she lives far away. If Aubrey lived here I would have made sure I had a few other books in my Spark Station on those subjects. I would have had some coloring pages or possibly a poem book that mentions freedom, etc. I would have had some things about the revolutionary war and the civil war, possibly uniforms, what women wore then, what children were taught, why the wars were different, etc. What I would want to do is give her an opportunity to make comments, ask questions or talk about how people behaved. It would be in those mini conversations where she would learn about human nature, values that bring happiness, how to treat others, what is right and wrong. All this would be much more effective than reading a text book and then being tested on what could be remembered. So put things in your closet that can spark conversations with your children. Let me give you one more example. On a walk one of the families I work with met a neighbor who happened to have lived in Africa. He invited them in and told them many stories about his experiences. This was a spark that the mother could really build on. She could add papier-mâché to her closet and a book on mask making. She could have pictures of African animals or wooden animals to paint. She could have some bead making materials and a book that tells about barter and mediums of exchange. I would add a book on Nelson Mandela. While engaged in making and painting masks lots of different conversations can take place, who is Nelson Mandela, what is apartheid, why does freedom matter, how did so many people lose their freedom, is education important to the people and why, why are some leaders good leaders and some aren’t, how can we choose good leaders, how should we treat other people, does skin color matter, how is the continent of Africa different than No. America, how is it the same, how can countries change their names, has America ever changed its name, is it ok for one country to rule another, what happens if the people don’t want to be ruled (like America) and the list can go on and on. You never know what a child might want to talk about. So really pay attention to sparks and opportunities for “familiar conversations” with your child. They will accent and speed the learning process. Possibly Related Posts: { 0 comments… add one now } Leave a Comment Previous post: Next post:
kids encyclopedia robot Orthetrum migratum facts for kids Kids Encyclopedia Facts Quick facts for kids Rosy skimmer Orthetrum migratum 3239.jpg Orthetrum migratum at Mataranka, Australia Conservation status Scientific classification Orthetrum migratum distribution map.svg Orthetrum migratum is an Australian freshwater dragonfly species in the family Libellulidae. The common name for this species is rosy skimmer. It inhabits streams, boggy seepages, riverine pools and swamps across northern Australia. Orthetrum migratum is a medium-sized dragonfly with a body that can be yellow-green or grey-brown to dark blue. The abdomen of a male is red and evenly tapered, while the abdomen of a female is coloured a yellow-green-brown. kids search engine Orthetrum migratum Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
Racial Fixation And Otherness In Moby Dick And Heart Of Darkness Ap Literature Essay 1811 words - 8 pages LaGreca 1 Annamarie LaGreca Mr. Chorazy AP Literature and Composition 22 January 2018 different cases. and Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, these concepts are applied into the elements of each plot. Melville and Conrad are able to similarly implement otherness and racial fixation as part of their postcolonial themes in order to distinguish between the known “colonizers” and the “colonized”. Additionally, the authors use these concepts in order to allegorically address the racism of their time. In literature, these concepts can be analyzed through the perception of the writer to himself, the main character in the work, and the relation of the main character or narrator towards others in the plot. In Moby Dick and Heart of Darkness, the concept of otherness can be seen through each of these perceptions. LaGreca 2 To begin, it is necessary to discuss how otherness is studied in Herman Melville’s Moby Dick. The novel may appear to be about a crazed captain who scours the sea in order to purge it of the white terror whale. However, the book is far less action as it is information through the eyes of the narrator, Ishmael. The idea of the “other” is present throughout the book as shown through Queequeg, a savage from a fictional pacific island, Daggoo, a harpooner on the ship who is also considered a savage, and Old Fleecy, an old black man who cooks for the crew on the ship. The Pequod is a floating babel of racial types, and the novel includes many surprises that Melville makes us dive deep to identify. Ishmael himself, when he first sees Queequeg, is absolutely terrified that the “cannibal” will eat him. He says, “Ignorance is the parent of fear, and being completely nonplussed and himself who had broken into my room at the dead of night” (Melville 30). Diction such as “stranger” and “devil” set Queequeg apart from the narrator himself and portray him as different, and therefore as the “other”. Not only does Melville create the illusion that Queequeg is unlike the narrator, but he also physically depicts Queequeg’s race, where racial fixation is used. Melville uses physical descriptions such as “uneart... Symbols And Meanings In "Moby Dick" 2374 words - 10 pages The novel begins with the famous statement by the book's narrator. "Call me Ishmael". He has the habit of going to sea whenever he begins to grow "hazy about the eyes." He goes to sea as a laborer, not as a Commodore, a Captain or a Cook, but as a simple sailor. He does so because he may be paid and because it affords him wholesome exercise and pure sea air. It is said that the novel Moby Dick is one of the most ambitious in American literature Moby Dick and Ishamel's Journey - English 3 - Essay 2487 words - 10 pages with finding the “right balance” is prevalent to all humans, including those in Herman Melville’s, Moby Dick. We meet Ishmael, a young and eager man, whom was orphaned as a child and is desperate for the familial love and connection that acts as the foundation to many more fortunate then he. Already, Ishmael is portrayed to be struggling with the balance of love from others and self-love, a theme which will continue throughout the rest of the Heart of Darkness and Kurtz's development - English IV - Essay 1257 words - 6 pages cause him to incite primitive instincts that had been aroused by the natives that inhabited the land. Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. “An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness.” In Heart of Darkness. Ed. Paul B. Armstrong. 336-49. New York: Norton, 2006. Heart of Darkness. Dover Publications, 2012. Naeem, Prof. Muhammad. “The Portrayal of Mr. Kurtz in "Heart of Darkness".” Learn English, IELTS, EFL,ESL Public Speaking, Grammar, Literature, Linguistics by NEO, neoenglishsystem.blogspot.com/2010/11/portrayal-of-mr-kurtz-in-heart-of.html. Heart of Darkness Psychoanalytic and Marxist Analysis - SNHU - Essay Hamlet, Heart Of Darkness And Wuthering Heights Representation of Power in Heart of Darkness Shakespeare's Relevance in Modern Society - AP Literature and Composition - Essay 2436 words - 10 pages Sokolova 1 Margie Sokolova Wilson AP Literature 31 January 2018 Modernized Shakespeare World-famous playwright and author, William Shakespeare, has written some of the most referenced and well-known pieces of literature ever created. His acute attention to detail, impressive use of literary devices, and ability to expand upon issues concerning mankind are the reasons we have continued to explore his work for centuries. Although he was born over Joseph Conrad/The Heart of Darkness
Is an entity which performs port forwarding considered as a proxy? If not, what is it? 1. A proxy is transparent to users of the clients of its proxied server: a user sends a request to a destination without realizing that the request is actually sent to the proxy. A pair of SSH client and SSH server used for local or remote port forwarding is visible to users of the clients of its "proxied" server. A user sends a request explicitly to the SSH client (or server), without necessarily realizing that SSH will forward the request to a different destination. 2. A proxy can forward a received request to any destination which the request asks for. A pair of SSH client and SSH server used for local or remote port forwarding seems to only forward any received request to a fixed destination. Is it possible to make SSH forward a request to any destination which the request asks for, just like a proxy does? Is a proxy necessarily implemented in terms of port forwarding? 1.) Yes: if you specify a local port forwarding (option -L in OpenSSH), your SSH client will act as a proxy that forwards the connection that's incoming to a specified local port/socket onto a specified target at the remote end of the SSH connection. And if you specify a remote port forwarding (option -R in OpenSSH), the sshd daemon at the remote end will act as a proxy that forwards connections incoming to a a specified remote port/socket to the specified target on the local side of the SSH connection. In both cases, both the SSH client and the sshd daemon work together to implement the functionality, but whichever is accepting the incoming connections could be said to act as a proxy for the actual service on the opposite side of the SSH connection. 2.) Also yes, but then the request must be specified using a protocol that is understood by SSH. A dynamic port forwarding (option -D in OpenSSH) does just that, supporting the SOCKS4 and SOCKS5 protocols. For example: You might have a server room full of equipment with web-based remote console functionality. Since those aren't always updateable to the latest TLS standards, you've connected them to a strictly local network segment that is accessible through a particular network administrators' workstation only. This workstation has two NICs: one to the regular network, and another to the remote console segment, but it is intentionally configured to not act as a router. Of course the network administrators' workstation runs Linux :-) You're on a well-earned vacation, when the big boss calls and tells you that the your stand-in is sick from food poisoning and some old router in the server room needs to be rebooted ASAP. You're hundreds of miles away from the server room. Through the company VPN, you can access the network administrators' workstation remotely, but you know from experience that using X11 forwarding to run a remote browser is painfully slow. So, what do you do? <connect VPN> laptop$ ssh -D 1234 tim@netadmin_workstation.company.intra Now, as long as that SSH connection is up, you can fire up a local browser, configure it to use a SOCKS proxy located at localhost:1234 and all the outgoing network connections from that browser will go out through the SSH connection to the netadmins' workstation, and from there on as regular TCP connections to whatever address specified in the browser. Effectively, your browser's network connections will now seem to originate from the netadmins' workstation, while the browser (and any associated Java applets) will still be run fully locally, with minimum latency. And so you can access the Java-based web GUI of that pesky old router remotely with a somewhat tolerable level of latency... (If you're using Firefox, you may want to set an about:config option network.proxy.socks_remote_dns to True, in order to have the browser also forward any DNS requests through the SOCKS proxy connection, so you can use the DNS resolution of the netadmins' workstation too.) (Disclaimer: any resemblance of the above description to any particular series of real-life events is entirely coincidental. Something very much like it has probably happened many, many times in a lot of different places all over the world.) • Thanks. About 1, after set up SSH (local or remote) port forwarding, is it correct that a user of a client specify the SSH listening port to send a request to, and is not necessarily aware of that SSH forwards the request to somewhere else? After setting up a proxy, is it correct that a user of a client specify the ultimate destination to send a request to, and is not necessarily aware of that the proxy intercepts the request and then forwards it to somewhere else? – Tim Feb 5 '19 at 18:58 • (Re your disclaimer, your example is more probable if it comes from your wonderful life) – Tim Feb 5 '19 at 19:02 • The user of a SSH client is explicitly aware of the destination of the forwarding, because the user will specify the destination with the forwarding option. The programs using the forwarded connection can generally use the SSH-generated proxy unaware that it's not the real thing. Other types of proxies, in particular HTTP reverse proxies or transparent proxies, might not be under the control of the user and might hide the true ultimate destination of the connections. A proxy always fools the applications; but if it's under your control it cannot fool you as the user. – telcoM Feb 6 '19 at 8:15 Your Answer
What Is A Clause In An Act? Do schedules have paragraphs or clauses? Schedules are usually divided into paragraphs (not to be confused with paragraphs within subsections) which are consecutively numbered within each schedule. Paragraphs of schedules may consist of a number of sub-paragraphs, which may be divided in turn into smaller components in exactly the same way as subsections.. What’s a clause example? A section, phrase, paragraph, or segment of a legal document, such as a contract, deed, will, or constitution, that relates to a particular point. A document is usually broken into several numbered components so that specific sections can be easily located. What is a clause in a paragraph? As I just said, a clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. But that structure alone does not guarantee a complete sentence. Clauses can be dependent, or incomplete, or independent or complete. Every complete sentence in English contains at least one clause; many sentences have two or more clauses. What are the 7 elements of a contract? What are the main clauses of a contract? 6 Key Clauses Found in Commercial ContractsConfidentiality. When two or more firms enter into a contract, there will no doubt be a significant exchange of information in order for both sides to perform their contractually stipulated obligations. … Force Majeure. … Termination Triggers. … Jurisdiction. … Dispute Resolution. … Damages. What is the difference between a section and a clause? As verbs the difference between clause and section is that clause is (shipping) to amend (a bill of lading or similar document) while section is to cut, divide or separate into pieces. What are the 4 types of law? These four sources of law are the United States Constitution, federal and state statutes, administrative regulations, and case law. Each country’s legal system has its own sources of law, but for those systems that enact Constitutions, the Constitutions are the most fundamental of the sources of law. What do you need to know for ACT? General tips for the ACTRelax the night before the test. Don’t cram. … Rely on the strategies you’ve learned through ACT test prep. … English. … Mathematics. … Math: Multiple-Choice Questions. … Reading. … Science Reasoning. … Writing (Optional) What is a clause in English grammar? Clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and a verb. Is the ACT test multiple choice? What are the parts of an act? The ACT includes the following ACT sections: English, Reading, Math and Science, as well as an optional Writing Test. Some schools may require the Writing Test, so be sure to ask before you register for the ACT. There are a total of 215 multiple-choice questions on the ACT test. What are the 3 parts of a contract? Contracts are made up of three basic parts – an offer, an acceptance and consideration. The offer and acceptance are what the purpose of the agreement is between the parties. What is clause and subclause? What is a clause in sentence? Clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a predicate. Independent clauses express a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate clauses can act as parts of speech but depend on the rest of the sentence to express a complete thought.
The Statute of Kilkenny (2) Eleanor Hull The Statute of Kilkenny \| start of chapter Maurice FitzGerald, fourth Earl of Kildare (1318–90), had suffered hardly less from the malpractices of d’Ufford than Desmond had done. He was equally averse to the new policy of superseding the English born in Ireland by English born in England. He had been enticed to Dublin by d’Ufford and arrested while sitting in Council at the Exchequer. But he was released in the following year, and in 1347 was with Edward III at the siege of Calais, where he was knighted by the King. He became Justiciar in 1356, and held the office from time to time till his death. But the evil policy against which he and Desmond protested continued and gave all the old nobility a sense of insecurity which did not tend to peace. In 1340–41 the King, weary of the tidings of incessant wars in Ireland, petulantly revoked “all grants made either by his father or himself to any person whomsoever in whatsoever way, whether Liberties or possessions or other goods,” by which measure almost the whole country was moved to insurrection.[14] Bitter feeling between the two races was in the ascendant. Lionel had himself witnessed an example of this soon after his landing. He had, on his arrival, engaged in war with the O’Byrnes of Wicklow, and, as a matter of precaution, he had ordered that none of Irish birth should come near his army. He was surprised to learn soon afterward that at least a hundred of his own men were missing; and he discovered that these men were Irishmen in his own army. His English soldiers had taken advantage of his order to massacre their Irish comrades.[17] This unexpected incident so impressed his mind that he afterward “advised himself and united the people, showing a like fatherly care to all.” Nevertheless, he presided at the Parliament of Kilkenny. Though the statutes of this Parliament are in many ways a repetition of earlier legislation, especially of the laws passed at Wogan’s Parliament, its provisions are much more detailed and explicit than any former Act had been. In its preamble it states that Among English people disputes are to be settled by English and not by Brehon law, and there is to be no difference made between the English born in England, or “new English,” and those born in the country, or “old English.” It would seem that the feeling between them ran so high that the one called the other “English hobbe” and “Irish dog.” It is curious to think of a de Burgh or Geraldine being styled “Irish dog” by some degenerate sycophant from the other side, and little wonder that they retorted by flinging “English hobbe” in the faces of their opponents. All are henceforth to be known alike “as lieges of our lord the King” (Art. IV). Though successive Parliaments confirmed the Statute of Kilkenny with some modifications, it was practically dead, so far as its objects were concerned, almost before it could be put into operation. With the death of Lionel “the laws died with him also,” though Davies says, rather erroneously, that they “restored the English government in the degenerate colonies for divers years.” The apology for the execution of the eighth Earl of Desmond was that he had broken his allegiance by an “Irish alliance and fosterage”; in 1466 an Act attainted the Earls of Kildare and Desmond and Edward Plunket “for alliances, fosterage, and alterage with the King’s Irish enemies.” The restrictions about modes of dress, fashions of cutting the hair and beard, riding, and using native sports like hurling and ‘coiting’ might be merely irritating, though they irritated at every moment of life and at every point; but questions of marriage, fosterage, and ‘gossipred’ entered into the intimacies of family life. In spite of laws to the contrary, the day was to come when one of the greatest of Irish Deputies, Sir Henry Sidney, was to act as ‘gossip’ or sponsor to a child of Shane O’Neill. All Irish minstrels, tympanours, pipers, story-tellers, rimers, and harpers were forbidden to come among the English under threat of fine or imprisonment and the forfeiture of their instruments (Art. XV). This provision was intended as a protection against spies “finding out the secrets, customs, and policies of the English, whereby great evils have often happened.” But the Irish piper and minstrel was a welcome guest at the houses of English and Irish alike, and an Anglo-Irishman could enjoy a story of Cuchulain or Finn MacCool quite as much as any O’Sullevan or O’Kelly. Even the most English circles applied at times for permission to keep rimers and minstrels in the family, for the amusement of long evenings and the pleasure of guests. That it was in their power, in the course of their wanderings from house to house, to pick up a good deal of information that was useful to the chiefs regarding the plans and dispositions of the English need not be doubted. The bards gathered news, advised, warned, and encouraged; they stirred up the lagging chief to fresh efforts and applauded his successes. For substantial rewards they sang the praises of their chiefs, welcomed their rise to power, and bewailed their deaths.[19] All this they appeared to be as willing to do for an ‘old’ English loyalist who was willing to pay the price as for any Irish ‘rebel.’ Tadhg MacDaire MacBrodin in later days (he died in 1652) could write a panegyric to an Elizabethan Earl of Thomond, or pen the praises of the Barrys, Bourkes, and Clanricardes, who were fighting against Tyrone, with apparently the same freedom from compunction and in just the same flowery language as though he was lauding his Irish chief. To the English the bards were a well-recognized source of danger, and as such were the object of stringent laws intended to suppress their activities. When caught they were liable to be hung out of hand or driven out of their broad lands, as when, in 1415, Lord Justice Talbot “harried a large contingent of Ireland’s poets, as O’Daly of Meath, Hugh oge MacGrath, Duffy and Maurice O’Daly.” But these acts of severity were occasional; there was no general massacre of the bards as in Wales; and in Spenser’s day they were still playing and singing the beautiful native airs in English houses as freely as in the Irish houses of the chiefs, and everywhere winning praise for their skill and intelligence. Schools of bards and scribes continued to flourish all over the country, and in the Gaelic revival, which no laws could do more than check, they became like the old professional companies of early days. In 1451 Margaret O’Conor Faly, who took the bards under her special care, is recorded to have made a feast at Killeigh, in Leix, at which 2700 poets, musicians, and antiquarians were royally entertained. The exemptions from the legal restrictions imposed by laws like those promulgated at Kilkenny were frequent, so impossible was it to carry them out. Applications from the towns for permission to trade with the Irish were especially common and seem seldom to have been refused. Applications to “parley with” the Irish of the borderlands were also frequent, such parleyings being generally carried on with bodies of troops held in readiness in case of treachery on either side. The laws were not all framed to hamper the Irishman; if he would but live at peace they helped and protected him. But to live at peace too often meant to sink into the position of a serf to his lord, and to become English in language and custom; the “Five Bloods” gradually lost their old position of superiority as the possessors of English liberty and law. One of the most severe of the laws enacted against the Irish was that excluding them from holding any religious office in “any cathedral or collegiate church or benefice amongst the English.” It was the declared intention to fill the churches of the Pale exclusively with English clergy and the monasteries with English monks. This caused great and natural discontent among the Irish, who “looked on their exclusion from the legal profession as an offence against man, but that of keeping them out of Church dignities as offending against God.” After the Statute of Kilkenny had been passed ecclesiastical prohibitions against Irishmen were rigorously enforced and confirmed in all particulars, a writ in this sense being promulgated in the Kilkenny Parliament of 1380, and sent to eighteen monasteries.[22] The law affected the ‘old English’ as well as the pure Irish. In 1332 Edward III enjoined that “all holding benefices or married or estated in Ireland, but without possessions in England, be removed” and those having estates in England be substituted. This reads like a penal law of later days. Even the Popes, who in former times had set their faces against rules of mutual exclusion, now approved them, as part of their policy of supporting the English authority in Ireland.[23] More astonishing is it to find the Irish Archbishop of Cashel, Maurice MacCarwell, approving such measures and denouncing a sentence of anathema against any who infringed the statutes of the Parliament of 1310, which enacted, among other things, that “no meere Irishman [i.e., of pure Gaelic birth] shall be received into a religious order among the English in the land of peace in any parts of Ireland,” the “land of peace” meaning those districts living under English law.[24] In 1565 the Privy Council complained that “as for religion, there is but small appearance of it; the churches uncovered and the clergy scattered, and scarce the being of a God known.” Poynings’ Act against Vagabonds[28] includes these men “who go about begging, not being authorized under the seal of the University” along with proctors and pardoners who also go about without authority living on the alms of the city. It is evident that men went to England with purposes of their own under pretence that they were going as students to Oxford, and it became necessary that they should get a letter of recommendation from the Deputy or some one in authority under the Great Seal, as a passport for their good behaviour. “Clerks, beggers, chamber-deacons and unattached students” were no more welcome in Oxford than elsewhere. Nor yet were the “felonies and manslaughters” which were a main cause of the restrictions against Irishmen entering a university “which is the fountain and mother of our Christian faith.” These have been committed “to the great fear of all manner of people.” But from all these regulations “graduates of schools and professed religious persons” and also “graduates or apprentices in law” are expressly exempted. They applied only to improper or turbulent persons, not to serious scholars. Of these there was a constant supply, especially during the sixteenth century, and that no hindrance was placed in their advance to higher posts is shown by the records of Fellows of All Souls and Merton and Oriel of Irish birth, and of learned men who became schoolmasters in their own country on their return, such as Richard Stanihurst and Peter White, the former an historian, the latter a passionate student and teacher of Greek learning at his school in Waterford.[29] The difficulties they had to encounter were chiefly from unfriendly neighbours and officials in their own country.
The Internet And Culture The Internet And Culture The Internet And Culture. Culture has significantly benefitted from the invention and use of the web. Culture is defined as shared behaviors, ideas, and artifacts that create a way of life passed from one generation to another. Recognizing the impact that the internet has on society and culture is very important. It is clear that the Internet influences culture. Its effects can even be considered as a culture of its own. If we learn the results, we can help make the internet more beneficial by focusing on the accuracy of information and by realizing its limitations. We can also help secure cultural differences by learning the importance of culture and developing new ways to keep cultural uniqueness despite the influences of the internet. The Internet And Culture. Some of these consequences may take many years to take effect fully. However, many of these changes are now evident in society. The Internet significantly affects the way people live. Much has changed because of the technology. For instance, people have changed their communication topics, frequencies, and habits as a result of the availability and accessibility of online communication tools. The development of information and communication technologies and the wide-ranging effects of globalization are changing what we are how we live, interact and learn, and redefining the idea of cultural identity. The concepts of space, time, and distance are losing their conventional meanings. Unfortunately, these benefits can also be viewed as its weaknesses. Cultural globalization is here, and a global movement of cultural processes and initiatives is underway. Most who argue that the internet is harming culture, believe the open nature of the web allows for any and every information to reach anyone anywhere. Be it kids or adults who blindly copy what they see or read about and emulate or practice themselves, irrelevant of the environment they find themselves. Against those doomsayers who warn that the Internet is harming culture, We are radically optimistic. The Internet is bringing culture closer to more people, making it more easily and quickly accessible; it is also nurturing the rise of new forms of expression for art and the spread of knowledge. Some would say, in fact, that the Internet is not just a technology, but a cultural artifact in its right. All this is not to say that the internet has been positive or that it holds no issues. On the contrary, we shouldn’t let that blind us to the negative impact the internet is having on our culture, and there is little we can do to counteract the damage the internet is inflicting on our society without acknowledging that there is a problem in the first place. There is a problem. But the benefits far outweigh the negatives. We as a people need to realize that the internet will continue to change our cultures in many ways with future advances and increasing usage. It is essential to study the effects it produces so we can learn how to limit the adverse effects and boost the benefits. By studying these effects, we can ensure that the future holds great possibilities. Pin It on Pinterest Share This
+ Ratchaburi + Attractions + More Sights 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 + Local Products + Festival Ratchaburi means “the land of the King”. The province is full of cultural heritage, beautiful places and historic sites. It is located 80 km. west of Bangkok and borders Myanmar to the west with the Tanaosri range as a borderline. The word “Ratch” originates from the Sanskrit word “Raja” meaning King or Royal, and the word “buri” from Sanskrit “puri” meaning town or city. Hence the name of the province literally means Royal City. The east part of the province contains the flat river plains of the Mae Klong river, criscrossed by many khlongs. The most famous tourist spot in this area are the floating markets of Damnoen Saduak. The west of the province is more mountainous and includes the Tanosri mountain range. As the mountains are made mostly of limestone, there are several caves containing stalactites. Some caves are inhabited by large colonies of bats and it is an impressive sight when they swarm out in the evening to feed. Other caves like the Khao Bin are accessible for visitors. The main river of the west part is the Pachi River. The province is subdivided into 10 districts (amphoe). The districts are further subdivided into 104 subdistricts (tambon) and 935 villages (muban). 1. Mueng Ratchaburi 2. Chom Bueng 3. Suan Pueng 4. Damnoen Saduak 5. Ban Pong 6. Bang Pae 7. Potharam 8. Pak Tho 9. Wat Phleng 10. Ban Kha For more information and reservations Email : [email protected] Line ID : asajara 99 Moo 10 Ban Kha Ratchaburi, Thailand. Designed by : kotzhul
Objective idealism is an idealistic metaphysics that postulates that there is in an important sense only one perceiver, and that this perceiver is one with that which is perceived. One important advocate of such a metaphysics, Josiah Royce (the founder of American idealism),[1] wrote that he was indifferent "whether anybody calls all this Theism or Pantheism". It is distinct from the subjective idealism of George Berkeley, and it abandons the thing-in-itself of Kant's dualism. Idealism, in terms of metaphysics, is the philosophical view that the mind or spirit constitutes the fundamental reality. It has taken several distinct but related forms. Among them are objective and subjective idealism. Objective idealism accepts Naïve realism (the view that empirical objects exist objectively) but rejects naturalism (according to which the mind and spiritual values have emerged due to material causes), whereas subjective idealism denies that material objects exist independently of human perception and thus stands opposed to both realism and naturalism. Schelling,[2] Hegel and Schopenhauer had forms of objective idealism. A. C. Ewing is an analytic philosopher influenced by the objective idealist tradition. His approach has been termed analytic idealism.[3] Notable proponents See also Normal Exit PeriodicService.php
Historic Inns The oldest German hotels date back to the times when the landlords still welcomed their guests in Latin and even made out the bills in that language. Latin was the language of the upper classes and only they afforded themselves the luxury of travel then. Seigneur de Montaigne's Report Seigneur Michel de Montaigne, for example, a French nobleman and philosopher, to whom we owe the first critical remarks on German accomodation facilities, made a trip from his castle in France to Rome in 1580. He reported from Southern Germany that "the courses at dinner are very manifold" there, that he found the featherbeds "quite acceptable," and that the landlords were "bragging, hot-tempered and addicted to drink, but neither perfidious nor thievish." And in Augsburg "the stairs are covered with linen to protect them from dirt." He noted that the Germans love coats of arms very much. "One sees masses of them on the walls; the noblemen who passed through the place have left them behind." He praised "the custom of burning fragrant spices in the rooms and in the stoves." The "Cavalierstour" Seigneur de Montaigne made his trip on horseback. He was under way for 17 months and had four noble companions and many servants with him. The huge luggage was carried by asses, at whose sides shouting and clubbing drovers ran. This was what was then called a "cavalierstour". In his travel report, Montaigne mentioned the inns "Zum Adler" and "Zum Hecht" in Konstanz, the "Post" in Sma-dorf, and the "Krone" in Lindau. The "Hecht" exists to this day, and also the nobleman de Montaigne has not been forgotten at this place so noteworthy for the history of gastronomy. Actually, most historical inns can be found in the South of Germany. Perhaps this fact has something to do with the wine, which used to refine the culture of a region in a very special way. "They are harvesting in the region," wrote Montaigne, "all is full of vines." And: "Everywhere one drinks wine out of large, mostly well-finished and gilded silver jugs." Germany's Oldest Inn At the time when Montaigne traveled, the hotel "Zum Roten Bären" in Freiburg in the Breisgau was already almost 200 years old. The first document mentioning this house dates from March 13, 1387. Researchers believe that it was founded in 1120. If the researchers are rightand mostly they are — "Zum Bären" in Freiburg is Germany's oldest "Gasthof". Another contender for the honor of being "the oldest hotel in the German Reich" is the "Riese" in Miltenberg on the Main river, a princely hostel, in which the Emperor Barbarossa, Ludwig the Bavarian, and the Emperor Charles IV are said to have taken lodging. But the documents of the "Riese" date only back as far as 1590, while the "Krone" in Kon-stanz can be traced until 1225. Another "very old" inn is the "Kreuz" in Immen-dingen, which came into being in 1329. Besides the "Hecht", in which Montaigne dined, Konstanz also has the "Barbarossa" and the "Insel-Hotel". In Heidelberg is the "Ritter", from the 16th century, and in Berghausen (region of Baden) is the inn "Zur Laub", from the 17th century. The guest books of such houses are storehouses of knowledge for the disciples of hotel research. The hotel "Zum Adler" in Hinterzarten (Black Forest) is still owned by the same family that founded it in 1550. In the "Lowe" in Staufen the guest is shown a room in which the historical The hotel "Zum Bären" in Freiburg (the house on the right) was founded in 1120. Drawing: Courtesy „Zum Bären" Dr. Faust spent his last hours in the year 1539. Not everybody knows immediately who this historical Dr. Faust was, but all find it exciting. The inn "Zur Kanne" in Deidesheim on the Wine-Road boasts of existing "since the 12th century." Still standing in Marbach (Württemberg) is the "Goldener Löwe", the house in which Friedrich Schiller's mother was born. Schiller liked to visit the "Goldener Ochse" in Stuttgart whichlike so many old inns in Nuremberg, Fürth, Ulm and Würzburg — was destroyed during the last war and not rebuilt. How many tourists cherish memories of the "Bratwurstglöcklein" ("Little Fried-Sausage Bell") and the "Goldenes Posthorn" in Nuremberg. In Würzburg, the "Stachel" and the "Kette" have been rebuiltboth were famous inns, too. Historical Atmosphere In Rothenburg ob der Tauber, the "Eisenhut" still ranks as a first-class attraction. The Thirty-Years War (a devastating European war, which lasted from 1618 till 1648) is still in the walls of such houses; the guest almost hears the clanking of helmets and smells the leather, and through the window snorts a horse ... Only in a few houses in Northern Germany is the adventurous atmosphere from the old days of the sailing vessels preserved, for instance in the "Bremer Ratskeller", the "Schiffergesellschaft" in Lübeck and the "Holländerei" in Meldorf in Holstein. The "Himmelsleiter" in Hamburg was frequented by the poets Lilieneron and Löns and by the painter Menzel. The "Bär" in Göttinnen, the "Kaiserworth" in Goslar and the "Dom-herrenschenke" in Hildesheim are inns with a centuries-old tradition. In Hanover, the "Haus der Väter", the inn "Zum Vrenschenhagen" and the historical "Kreuzklappe" have disappeared. Memories of Goethe Aachen still has its "Postwagen", Düsseldorf the "Tante Anna" and cologne the "Weinhaus Duhr". On the Rhino, the "Lindenwirtin" in Godesberg, the "Goldener Propfenzieher" in Ober-wesel, the "Königsstuhl" in Rhens and the "Altes Haus" in Bacharach are reknowned old inns. In Walporzheim (Ahr Valley) we find "Sankt Peter" and, not far away, the "Lochmühle". Münster has the "Altbierstuben Pinkus Müller" and Osnabrück the "Walhalla", where the composer Albert Lortzing drank his wine. Frankfurt lost its "Schwarzer Stern", the "Drei Rinder", the "Alte Dorfschmiede" and the house "Zum Stift". The "Gerbermühle", with its memories of Goethe, has been rebuilt. In Aßmannshausen the famous "Krone" still stands and in Bad Hersfeld the "Stern". Mainz and Kassel have lost their oldest inns, but in Marburg (Lahn) the "Wirtshaus an der Lahn" still enjoys robust popularity; its fame even rotates, with 45 r.p.m., on a record (only suitable for men's parties, though). This enumeration of historical inns in Western Germany is neither quite correct nor is it complete. Over the years various wars did their devastating work. It is hard in many instances to find a beam which bears the exact date. Courtesy: DIE WELT Hotel "Zum Ritter" in Heidelberg, built 1592. It is the only private house in Heidelberg which survived the great Fire of 1693. Drawings (2): Jürgen Brandes 1960, Aus:
Action Filename Size Access Description License Show more files... While Nicaragua over the past decade has ranked among the poorest countries in Latin America in terms of per capita GDP, data from the last three LSMS surveys (1993, 1998, and 2001) has shown a consistent, though modest, decline in the incidence of poverty. Nationally, the incidence of poverty among individuals has fallen from 50.3 to 45.8 percent over this period. Most poverty is concentrated in the rural sector (with an incidence of 67.8 percent) and in particular in the Central region (75 percent) (World Bank, 2002a). Given the dynamism of agriculture over the last decade, it is somewhat surprising that the reduction of rural poverty has not been greater. Further, this apparent slow, but stable decline in overall poverty incidence masks active movement at the household level in and out of poverty, particularly in the rural sector. At the household level it is much more difficult to find and explain an overall march towards increased living standards. In this paper we analyze the dynamic of poor households moving in and out of poverty, using panel data from the 1998 and 2001 LSMS surveys. The availability of panel data offers an opportunity to analyze who and how households escaped or fell into poverty. What were the principal exit strategies used by households? What are the major determinants of exiting poverty and remaining in poverty? How do poor rural households achieve prosperity?While we touch on both the rural and urban poor, we concentrate primarily on rural households, given their much larger numbers and greater heterogeneity. We apply a variety of methodologies in our analysis of poverty exit strategies. In Section II we provide some background information on the rural sector in Nicaragua, and in Section III we analyze changes in asset ownership and use as well as poverty status. We analyze who has left and entered poverty and provide a description of their characteristics. Given insufficient data points to separate chronic and transient poverty by econometric means, we will instead characterize these different groups of households in descriptive terms. In Section III we briefly describe the situation of agriculture, agricultural assets, and agrarian institutions, the basis of the rural economy in Nicaragua.Next, in Section IV we use econometric methods to find the determinants of changes in welfare over the panel period as measured by consumption and income. In the conclusions in Section V, we will bring these three types of analysis together and build a matrix of poverty exit paths combined with policy recommendations for specific categories of rural households. Full results can be found in Appendices II, while a detailed discussion of panel data issues, most importantly that of attrition, can be found in Appendix I.' Downloads Statistics Download Full History
Can Humans Be Tetrachromatic? What animals are not colorblind? All mammals are color blind, but do see more than just black & white. Like most mammals, it has long been assumed that cats and dogs are all color blind and can only see in black and white. Recent studies have found this to be untrue; Cats, dogs, bulls, and many other mammals can see in color.. Do dogs dream? Do dogs have a favorite human? How does dog laugh? Dogs are also capable of laughing, and they typically do so when they are playing. Canine laughter begins with the doggy equivalent of smiling but also includes a sound that is much like panting. … On analyzing the recordings, she found that they involved a broader range of frequencies than regular dog panting. Are humans Dichromatic? Humans, apes, and most, if not all, of the Old World monkeys are trichromatic (literally “three colors”). … Some of them are dichromatic and others are trichromatic. Most females in some species can distinguish reds but no males can. Do I have 4 cones in my eyes? You may not have the fourth cone in your eye. … If you see fewer than 20 color nuances, you only have two cones. Your vision is similar to a dog’s, which means you are drawn to black, beige and blue. A quarter of the population is dichromat (a person having two cones). What colors do dogs see? What colors can’t humans see? What animals see color like humans? What happens if you have no cones in your eyes? This is called color deficiency or color blindness. If just one pigment is missing, you might only have trouble with seeing certain colors. If you don’t have any pigments in your cones, you won’t see color at all. This is known as achromatopsia. What is it called when you have 4 cones in your eyes? Tetrachromacy is the condition of possessing four independent channels for conveying color information, or possessing four types of cone cell in the eye. Organisms with tetrachromacy are called tetrachromats. What can see more colors than humans? The mantis shrimp sees more colors than any other animal. … As compared to humans’ measly three color-receptive cones, the mantis shrimp has 16 color-receptive cones, can detect ten times more color than a human, and probably sees more colors than any other animal on the planet. Are humans the only mammals that are trichromatic? Most mammals are dichromatic – they have only two cone types (blue and green sensitive). Humans have three types of interacting cones and so are trichromatic, although there is at least one documented case of a female having four cones. What color does not exist? How can you tell if you’re a Tetrachromat? If you see between 33 and 39 colors, you are a tetrachromat and have four types of cones. Derval says tetrachromats are irritated by the color yellow but are less likely to be tricked by the blue/black or white/gold dress, no matter the lighting. Only about 25 percent of the population is tetrachromat. Can dogs see in the dark? The tapetum acts as a mirror within the eye, reflecting back the light that enters it, and giving the retina another opportunity to register the light. So, dogs can see in the dark, and other low-light situations, better than humans. Why do humans see in color? The human eye and brain together translate light into color. Light receptors within the eye transmit messages to the brain, which produces the familiar sensations of color. … Rather, the surface of an object reflects some colors and absorbs all the others. We perceive only the reflected colors. Are most humans trichromatic? Humans possess trichromatic color vision, or trichromacy. Most people can match any given reference color by combining the three primary colors. The three primary colors for additive color mixtures are red, green, and blue. … The three types of cone photoreceptor molecules (red, green, and blue) are homolog of rhodopsin. What animals are trichromatic? Can Tigers see color? There are some cone cells (colour receptors) in each eye, but these are used more for day vision, and not to perceive a range of different colours. In fact, it is thought that some tigers likely only see dull greens, blues and reds, while others see in black and white. Are Predators color blind?
Quick Answer: What Is Extreme Provocation? What is provocation in criminal law? Is provocation a full Defence? In New South Wales, extreme provocation can be used as a ‘partial defence’ to a charge of murder. … The defence of provocation does not exist in relation to assaults or other violent offences. What is the difference between self Defence and provocation? This means that self-defence is a full defence that will allow the accused to walk free. Provocation is a partial defence to murder. If a judge or jury would have found a person to be guilty of murder but finds that the accused acted out of extreme provocation, the accused will be guilty of manslaughter. Can I shoot someone vandalizing my car? What are the 4 elements of self defense? Can you hit someone for verbal assault? Originally Answered: Does being attacked verbally legally justify assaulting the verbal attacker because one was “provoked?” No. One person’s verbal attack is another’s excercise free speech. Without some effort to carry through on a threat, there isn’t a crime to defend yourself from. How do you deal with provocation? How do you write provocation? If you are interested in writing a provocation that is similar to a past provocation, then cite that post in yours, presenting it in summary, so that you can then amplify with your contribution, or reveal what was overlooked, etc. Is it still assault if you are provoked? Provocation is not a valid legal defense. Even if you are able to prove you were provoked, your case will not be dismissed outright. However, you may be able to have the charges against you lessened. Is provocation a Defence for assault? Self-Defence/Provocation Provocation is not a defence in itself but a condition relevant to the use of self-defence of one’s property or personal safety. … One may also act in defence of others but one cannot use more force than is necessary to prevent the assault or its repetition. What do you mean by provocation? 1 : the act of provoking : incitement. 2 : something that provokes, arouses, or stimulates. When can I legally hit someone? What is grave provocation? When can provocation be used as a Defence? Provocation is a partial defence for the charge of first or second degree murder. 232. (1) Culpable homicide that otherwise would be murder may be reduced to manslaughter if the person who committed it did so in the heat of passion caused by sudden provocation. What are the elements of provocation? There are three elements which need to be established in the defence of provocation:the provoking circumstances;the accused’s loss of self-control resulting from the provoking circumstances; and.whether the provocation could have caused the ordinary person to lose self-control. Do I have the right to protect myself? Is provoking illegal? Police say most people know it is illegal to batter somebody, but not everyone is aware that it is also illegal to taunt, challenge or otherwise provoke someone into fighting. What is another word for provocation? In this page you can discover 39 synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic expressions, and related words for provocation, like: incitement, botheration, stimulus, inducement, incentive, insult, irritation, offense, vexation, repression and suppression. Is it self defense if you instigate? Who Started It? Generally, people cannot claim self-defense when they are the ones who instigated the fight, although there are some exceptions. … The fan has a good self-defense claim, because the other person was about to hit him, and people are allowed to use self-defense to prevent an imminent attack. What is a provoked attack? Provocation is some act, or series of acts, done by the dead man to the accused, which would cause in any reasonable person, and actually causes in the accused, a sudden and temporary loss of self-control, rendering the accused so subject to passion as to make him or her for the moment not master of his mind. What does without provocation mean? For no apparent reasonWithout cause. For no apparent reason. Pam shrieked in surprise when the cat leapt onto her without provocation. I knew I wasn’t speeding, so as far as I could tell—the officer pulled me over without provocation.
my son and I are working through this book called The Thomas Edison Book of Easy and Incredible Experiments. We are stuck on the first experiment where you make a switch to connect a battery to a light bulb. We are using coaxial cable (removing the sheath and using the outer wires) since that’s what we have available as scrap. We are trying C and D cell 1.5V batteries. We also have an LED nightlight bulb (120V 50/60Hz 0.5W 30mA) and also an LED that we pulled out of a little toy light that had 3 LR41 button batteries. We cannot get any combination of lights and batteries to light up, even bypassing the switch and just connecting wires to batteries and lights. Any tips would be greatly appreciated. Photo of stuff we’re using: https://share.icloud.com/photos/00aJ0FK-4LmXcBRfzoptr7M5w • 1 \$\begingroup\$ The 120 V nightlight bulb definitely won't work with the low voltage you will get from a (or a few) 1.5 volt batteries. The LED you took from toy will probably work with two C cells connected in series, but should have a resistor of 300 Ohms or more to control the current. A red LED requires at least 1.8 volts to light - other colour LEDs require higher voltages, up to about 3 volts. \$\endgroup\$ – Peter Bennett Feb 16 '20 at 23:27 • 1 \$\begingroup\$ The switch may have a problem...tin cans are coated with a polymer especially on the inside surface. To properly conduct electricity, the polymer should be removed. Perhaps sandpaper would work. \$\endgroup\$ – glen_geek Feb 17 '20 at 0:25 • \$\begingroup\$ Welcome to EE.SE. Can you please add the pictures via the upload functionality inside the question's editor? This will make sure, that the pictures will be available, as long as the question. \$\endgroup\$ – Ariser Feb 17 '20 at 6:31 A LED will light up at its forward voltage, which is 2.1-3V depending on its color. Also keep in mind that LEDs are sensitive to polarity: simply swapping the two pins of the LED in your circuit may work. However, please consider some generic comments: • you won't be able to light up the 120V night light when connecting batteries to its plug, since it needs 120V, obviously :) • LEDs - unlike bulbs - require constant current power. It means you need to have a resistor in the circuit, otherwise 1.5V battery won't be enough to light up the LED, but 3V will fry a red LED. Get any resistor at a value of 120-220 ohm, also 470 ohm will work at 4.5V. (Comment: the 3 LR41 case worked without a resistor, since these small batteries have a high internal resistance - although it makes 4.5V, it won't fry the LED but the LED will "force" the battery to its forward voltage.) • LEDs are sensitive to polarity: they work when their proper side goes to the + terminal of the battery. If does not work, just swap the two pins of the LED. Said that, it is a lot easier to try with a small light bulb, from a torch. Even a small spare bulb from your car could work: those are rated for 12V, but produce light at 4.5V too (use 3x C or D cells). Pick the (physically) smallest bulb from the replacement kit (the big headlight bulbs as well as the indicator bulbs need more power than a small battery can provide conveniently - although the D batteries will produce light.) If you are still for the LED, please: • use the 3x LR41 battery setup to verify if your LED works at all. (You might have fry that with 3x D already) • Note which pin of the LED connects to the + side marked of the LR41 • use 2x C, connect these in a way that + of one battery goes to the - of the another battery. Now you have the - of the first battery, and + of the second battery unconnected, forming a 3V battery bank. • connect the + end of the battery bank to the resistor, the other end of the resistor to the + side of the LED (learned with the LR41) • connect the other side of the LED to the - side of battery bank LED must work. If you do not have a resistor you can still give it a try, however be prepared the risk that LED might fry sooner or later. (It will not blow up or anything, just it won't work any more.). Red and yellow LEDs are working well at 2.1V, green works around 3V, most white works around 4V (although officially you shall supply about 20mA current trough the LED to drive it properly - and the resistor is an easy way to do that). You need to provide voltage to turn on the LEDs. You need to have a series resistor to control the current through the LEDs. Get three 1.5V cells in series to get 4.5 V. Have a series resistor of atleast 100 ohms. Here is the way to identify the LED positive and negative. enter image description here Here is the required minimum voltage to turn on the LED. Remember to put resistor in series. enter image description hereenter image description here This will fry the LED(most of the time) with a magic smoke sometimes. LED will also get hot. Please never do it. LEDs and resistor should be together. • \$\begingroup\$ Please provide information on where you got the pictures (links), you need to provide attribution for the source or it is plagiarism \$\endgroup\$ – Voltage Spike Jun 4 '20 at 17:15 Your Answer
Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia Mydas) Common name: Green sea turtle Latin name: Chelonia mydas In other languages: D: Suppenschildkrite Family: Cheloniidae Genus: Chelonia Life Span: 40 to 50 years. Diet: The young ones tend to be more carnivore, while adults live vegetarian, primarily living off seaweed and algae. Frequently caught in nets of fishermen intended for other catch and left to die. In Asia and China it is still considered a delicacy. Mythology & Fable: It was featured as cryptical creature in Lewis Caroll's Alice in Wonderland. Protected under EU law and Gibraltar's Nature Protection Ordinance
Quick Answer: Can You Detect A Tumor With An Ultrasound? What does a tumor look like on an ultrasound? How does an ultrasound machine work in detecting pregnancy or tumor? A device called a transducer turns the sound waves into images. The sound waves echo differently when bouncing off abnormal tissue and healthy tissue. This helps the doctor detect a potential tumor. An ultrasound test does not have any x-ray exposure and is safe to have during pregnancy. How do you tell if a lump is a tumor? How can you tell the difference between a cyst and a tumor? What is an abnormal ultrasound? What does an abnormal result mean? Abnormal seems to imply that something is wrong with your baby. But what it means is that the test has shown something the doctor wants to take a closer look at. And that’s what happens next. Your doctor will talk to you about what further test or tests you may need. How do you know if you have a tumor in your abdomen? An abdominal mass causes visible swelling and may change the shape of the abdomen. A person with an abdominal mass may notice weight gain and symptoms such as abdominal discomfort, pain, and bloating. Can ultrasound detect tumors abdomen? What are they looking for at 20 week ultrasound? What is the sonographer looking for at the 20-week ultrasound? This scan involves taking ultrasound images and measurements of the baby’s face, brain, spine, heart, kidneys, diaphragm, chest, stomach, bladder, genitals, limbs, feet and hands, as well as the umbilical cord. Can ultrasound detect intestinal problems? Ultrasound may be used to detect many digestive problems, including: Cysts or abnormal growths in the liver, spleen, or pancreas. What is a positive aspect of having an ultrasound? They’re generally painless and don’t require needles, shots or cuts. You aren’t exposed to ionizing radiation, so the procedure is safer than X-rays and CT scans. In fact, there are no known harmful effects when it’s used as directed. Can ultrasound miss tumors? An ultrasound can miss small tumours: “It takes millions of cells to make a tumor big enough to show up on an imaging test.” Can an ultrasound detect infection? Doctors use ultrasounds to diagnose conditions such as: Infections: Certain types of ultrasounds can capture a patient’s blood flow. In some cases, increased blood flow can indicate an infection. Cardiovascular issues: Ultrasounds that detect blood vessels can also find narrowed vessels or blockages to blood flow. What abnormalities can be detected on an ultrasound? How accurate are ultrasounds? What will Ultrasound of abdomen show?
It seems to be widely accepted that Proto-Niger-Congo had ten vowels, with ATR harmony: /i-ɪ e-ɛ ə-a o-ɔ u-ʊ/. Similarly, it seems widely accepted that Proto-Bantu lost three of these vowels and maintained seven. But sources differ on what those seven were: /i e ɛ a ɔ o u/, or /i ɪ e a o ʊ u/. (The phonetic details are lost to time, of course, but I'm interested in which Proto-Niger-Congo vowels were continued.) Wikipedia lists the second set, with /ɪ/ and /ʊ/, and that makes some sense: in Kiswahili, the "second highest" set frequently turned into semivowels, and ʊ → w, ɪ → j makes more sense than o → w, e → j. On the other hand, that "second highest" set did merge into /i u/, so even if it were originally /e o/ it might have passed through /ɪ ʊ/ on its way. On the other hand, I've found reconstructions of Proto-Bantu words written with /ɛ/ and /ɔ/, and this seven-vowel system is still found in Lingála. Furthermore, Lingála preserves vowel harmony with /ɛ a ɔ/ in one class and /e o/ in another, which would make sense as a remnant of the Proto-Niger-Congo system. (We know the PNC system survived into PB, because traces of harmony can also be found in the Kiswahili verbal modifiers.) But this new harmony could also have been a later development only in Lingála. What is the scholarly consensus on this? Where should I look to find more information? • Meeussen 1967 – Alex B. Apr 29 '18 at 1:09 • @AlexB. Much appreciated! This is an excellent resource. But while he lists two different reconstructions of the vowels, he doesn't weigh in on which series of PNC vowels they continue. Since there's evidence of harmony in Proto-Bantu, surely we should know which of the vowels counted as -ATR at that point? – Draconis Apr 29 '18 at 2:51 • …though having read more carefully, he does note an alternation between what he writes as /i/ and /e/, and /u/ and /o/, which seems like strong evidence for /ɛ ɔ/. – Draconis Apr 29 '18 at 3:00 The pool is small enough that the concept of "consensus" is mildly anomalous, but I think the consensus would be that we can't tell what the proto vowel system was phonetically. The standard view is that PB had 3 vowel heights. The first degree of height may be graphically represented as [i u, î û, i̧ u̧] (cedillas); the second is [ɪ ʊ, i u, e o] (although i u is not used if the highest vowels are written as i u); and the lowest vowels are written [e o, ɛ ɔ], again obviously not e o if the second degree of vowel is written as e o. Schadeberg's paper in The Bantu Languages has a table comparing various systems of notation. More to the point, these are just ways of writing the contrasts, and one should not over-interpret use of symbols as constituting phonetic claims: there are three vowel heights, and that is all that is established. In some languages, the highest vowels are particularly high (Matumbi, Sotho-Tswana and Lomwe are examples of that type). In some other languages (Kuria, Sukuma, Kikuyu) the highest vowels sound like typical IPA [i u]. This is a detail that is generally glossed over, especially in IPA-compliant transcriptions. The earliest transcriptional practices (esp. Meinhof, Guthrie, and usually Meeussen) for proto-Bantu recognised this special property of the highest vowels by writing the highest vowels of the proto-language as [i̧,u̧] (cedillas) or [î,û]. This is a transcriptional reification of a spirantizing tendency of these vowels, that the highest vowels often cause a preceding vowel to somewhat spirantize (e.g. *ti̧→tsi, si; ku̧→fu), whereas the 2nd degree vowels don't do this. The third degree vowels are generally pronounced closer to [ɛ ɔ] in all languages (5 and 7 vowel languages). The choice of symbols for the second-highest vowels is most variable, and in fact you can find competing practices in the same language, where some scholars transcribe the degree-2 vowels as [ɪ ʊ] and some select [e o]. You will find that in closely-related languages such as Kikuyu versus Kikamba, the degree-2 vowels are similar but noticeably and systematically distinct (in Kikuyu they more closely matches IPA [e o] and in Kamba they are between [e o] and [ɪ ʊ]). Within Logoori, some speakers use a more [e,o]-like pronunciation and some use a more [ɪ,ʊ]-like pronunciation. It is actually important to inquire into the native language and linguistic training of the analyst in this matter, because anglophones favor [ɪ ʊ] and francophones favor [e o]. In other words, the phonetics of the degree 2 vowels is sufficiently problematic that we can't even decide, in a given language, which IPA letter is most appropriate. Therefore, only trust the numbers, and don't trust the letters. (Unfortunately, people usually don't report any numbers). As far as Bantu-internal evidence is concerned, I don't think there are any particularly compelling arguments pointing to one of these phonetic interpretations over the other. I should point out that Swahili is a 5 vowel language, and it does not have [ɪ ʊ]. There is a general pattern in Bantu that the highest and second-highest vowels do, synchronically, become glides before another vowel, so both /CiV, CɪV/ → [CyV], regardless of the phonetic realization of the second-degree vowels. However: the whole story is a bit more complicated, because the full 7 vowels only contrast in the root-initial syllable, and otherwise /ɛ ɔ/ don't exist in prefixes or suffixes, except via harmony. If we would the highest two degrees "acting together" and excluding the lower degree, that would classically be evidence that those vowels have something in common, for example, they are [+high] (implying /i ɪ ɛ/). The same pattern is also consistent with /i e ɛ/: the highest vowels are [+ATR]. In the case of glide formation, not only can the target class be specified via a single feature no matter what the presumed vowel system, but there is no actual need to exclude any vowels from undergoing the rule. This article may assist you an an introductory level: it has a section on vowel harmony, and a pointer to Hyman 1999 which is, I would say, the best historical account of Bantu height harmony. This dissertation by Leitch presents the Congo Basin situation (covering Lingala inter alia). Some standard references on Bantu historical linguistics are Meinhof Grundzüge einer vergleichenden Grammatik der Bantusprachen, Guthrie Comparative Bantu, Meeussen "Bantu grammatical reconstructions". As for the connection to Niger-Congo, it is generally accepted that Volta-Congo had 10 surface vowels and there is some suggestion that Atlantic-Congo might have as well (based on evidence for 10 vowel systems in Atlantic); see Williamson in The Niger-Congo Languages. She points out that the vowels [ə e o] may be purely derived, via ATR harmony – a situation that exists in some Bantu languages as well (such as Kinande). The best work on reconstructions is done at the lower levels, such as Benue-Congo, and I think claims about Niger-Congo are premature (I would not say that the 10 vowel theory is widely accepted, rather, it is widely recognised as a possibility). Benue Congo, an ancestor of Bantu, almost certainly had a 7 vowel system. Your Answer
Apollonian and dionysian essay writer Plotinus' views on astrology apparently found few adherents, even among Platonists, for we see not only Porphyry, but also to an extent Iamblichus and even Proclus declaring its value -- the latter being responsible for a paraphrase of Claudius Ptolemy's astrological compendium known as the Tetrabiblos or sometimes simply as The Astronomy. But it is just as certain that in those places where the first onslaught was halted, the high reputation and the majesty of the Delphic god manifested itself more firmly and threateningly than ever. The later constitution of the tragic chorus is the artistic imitation of that natural phenomenon, in which now a division was surely necessary between the Dionysian spectators and those under the Dionysian enchantment. Famous Philosophers The art of astrology, it must be remembered, was in wide practice in the Hellenistic world, and Plotinus' rejection of it was an exception that was by no means the rule. It is hard to say. InGast transcribed the crabbed, nearly illegible handwriting of Nietzsche for the first time with Richard Wagner in Bayreuth. Under his yolk stride panthers and tigers. In Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Laboratory at Manchester University, where he assisted in the development of the Manchester computers[4] and became interested in mathematical biology. However, he later dropped this concept saying it was " You will find that being different is a wholly wonderful and joyous thing, because it will mark you for greatness. Later scholarship has shed considerable doubt on this claim, and most modern scholars believe this author to have been active during the late fifth century CE. But Apollo confronts us once again as the divine manifestation of the principii individuationis [the individualizing principle], in which the eternally attained goal of the primordial oneness, its redemption through illusion, comes into being. He called scientific dissenters, who explored "the fringes of knowledge", Dionysians. Editor, Geo Shkurupii, contributed a polemic essay that would have wider resonance. Like his friend Ficino, Pico was a devotee of ancient wisdom, drawing not only upon the Platonic canon, but also upon the Pre-Socratic literature and the Hermetic Corpus, especially the Poimandres. The music of Apollo was Doric architecture expressed in sound, but only in intimate tones, characteristic of the cithara [a traditional stringed instrument]. He adopted the conviction that all phenomena, including the workings of the human brain, must be materialistic, but he still believed in the survival of the spirit after death. You gain compassion and empathy. He devised a number of techniques for breaking German ciphers, including the method of the bombe, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine. Friedrich Nietzsche But music appears as the will. This is accomplished, Iamblichus tells us, by "the perfective operation of unspeakable acts erga correctly performed His inaugural lecture at the university was " Homer and Classical Philology ". From November to Februarythe art historian Julius Langbehn attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the methods of the medical doctors were ineffective in treating Nietzsche's condition. Zarathustra has a simple characterisation and plot, narrated sporadically throughout the text. It possesses a unique experimental style, one that is, for instance, evident in newly invented "dithyrambs" narrated or sung by douglasishere.comse, the separate Dionysian-Dithyrambs was written in autumnand printed with the full volume inas the corollaries of Zarathustra's "abundance". Neo-Platonism. Neo-platonism (or Neoplatonism) is a modern term used to designate the period of Platonic philosophy beginning with the work of Plotinus and ending with the closing of the Platonic Academy by the Emperor Justinian in C.E. This brand of Platonism, which is often described as 'mystical' or religious in nature, developed outside the mainstream of Academic Platonism. The Apollonian and Dionysian is a philosophical and literary concept, or dichotomy, loosely based on Apollo and Dionysus in Greek mythology. She argues that there is a biological basis to the Apollonian/Dionysian dichotomy, writing. Some have even considered the field to be a science that deals with logic and reason. Either way, many famous philosophers have made their contributions known to. One-on-one writing assistance from a professional writer Advanced pro-editing service - have your paper proofed and edited The tools you need to write a quality essay. Apollonian and dionysian essay writer Rated 4/5 based on 92 review Apollonian and Dionysian - Wikipedia
Quick Answer: How Does The Treaty Of Waitangi Affect Business? How was the Treaty of Waitangi broken? It has been estimated that by 1909 at least 18 million acres of it was in individual ownership, almost none of it had been settled by Māori. In the 20th Century there was further loss of Māori land to the Crown through private and Government purchases and under the Public Works Act, that sometimes breached the Treaty.. Why is the Treaty of Waitangi still important today? What if there was no Treaty of Waitangi? So: what if there had been no Treaty of Waitangi? … Another easy answer is that with no treaty there would be no argument about whether, in signing the treaty, iwi ceded sovereignty, as the English version says. In the te reo version they didn’t. Why is it called the Treaty of Waitangi? The Treaty of Waitangi is the founding document of New Zealand. It is an agreement entered into by representatives of the Crown and of Māori iwi (tribes) and hapū (sub-tribes). It is named after the place in the Bay of Islands where the Treaty was first signed, on 6 February 1840. When were the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi developed? Who refused the Treaty of Waitangi? Tāraia NgākutiTāraia Ngākuti, a chief of Ngāti Tamaterā in the Coromandel, was one of many notable chiefs who refused to sign the Treaty of Waitangi. Tāraia was a famous warrior and may have felt that signing would be beneath him. How do you honor the Treaty of Waitangi? What does the Treaty of Waitangi mean to me? Signed in 1840, Te Tiriti o Waitangi (Treaty of Waitangi) is an agreement between some Māori leaders and the Crown. The three articles of the treaty: give protection, rights and benefits to Māori as British subjects. give Māori full ownership of their lands, forestries, fisheries, taonga (treasures) and possessions. What are the main principles of the Treaty of Waitangi? Why are the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi so important? Why is the Treaty of Waitangi important in education? The Treaty of Waitangi principle calls for schools to understand and honour Treaty principles in all actions and decision making. It is about making our country’s bicultural foundations evident in school policies, organisation, physical spaces, whānau and community engagement, and classroom planning and assessment. What is Waitangi Day and why do we celebrate it? Waitangi Day – 6 February – is Aotearoa New Zealand’s national holiday held to commemorate the signing of New Zealand’s founding document – the Treaty of Waitangi – in 1840. Waitangi Treaty Grounds is among New Zealand’s most historic places. What did the treaties promise? Based on the model of the 1850 Robinson Treaties (see Indigenous Peoples: Treaties), the Crown signed 11 treaties with various First Nations between 1871 and 1921 that would allow the Crown access to, and jurisdiction over, traditional territories in exchange for certain promises and goods, such as reserve lands, … What impact did the Treaty of Waitangi have? What did the Treaty of Waitangi agree to?
During the period 2013-2017, a total of 29 Bitcoin markets penetrated, of which 1.1 million Bitcoins were stolen. Noting that the average price of Bitcoin (BTC) in December 2020 exceeded US$20,000, and the corresponding loss of equivalent currency exceeded US$22 billion, which strongly emphasized the social impact of this criminal activity. To solve this problem, what did the cryptocurrency exchange do? Currently, about 90% of exchanges use some type of cold storage system, which means that digital assets can be stored offline. Keeping Bitcoin offline greatly reduces the risk of hacker attacks. However, Jean Baptiste Sow, a senior analyst and technical futurist at Atherton Technology Research, pointed out that in 2019, hackers stole more than $4 billion, more than double the amount in 2018. In fact, the seriousness of cyber attacks has caused people to doubt the security of modern blockchain-based applications in the financial industry. Of course, it can be said that theft also occurs when using traditional payment methods such as credit cards. For example, the annual fraud statistics released by the Nielsen Report show that the global credit card fraud in 2018 caused losses of US$27.85 billion. I think it must be pointed out that it is difficult to compare credit card fraud to cryptocurrency market fraud for at least four reasons. First, many people use credit cards instead of cryptocurrencies. Second, although the frequency of fraud in the credit card market is much higher, the average cash equivalent stolen by fraud is much lower. Third, credit card holders are more likely to be insured by credit card companies, while Bitcoin users usually do not have such insurance. Finally, law enforcement agencies may have the opportunity to successfully deal with credit card losses and Bitcoin theft in cyberspace. The impact of hacking on the cryptocurrency market In order to explore how the Bitcoin hacking event affects the uncertainty of the entire Bitcoin market, I conducted a pilot study in which I analyzed volatility (a measure of asset uncertainty in financial economics) How to respond to hacking incidents. To this end, I used the so-called exponential generalized conditional automatic covariance model, in which binary dummy variables are included in the variance equation. The dummy variable measures the impact on volatility within five days after the Bitcoin market was hacked. In my research, I found that the uncertainty of Bitcoin’s volatility increases exponentially. Surprisingly, I found two kinds of influence-contemporary and later. The volatility on the day of the hack increased and then fell back to normal levels. There is no effect between the first day and the fourth day. Then, on the fifth day after the breakthrough, volatility rose sharply again. Since no other incident occurred, the cause may be the same as the hacking incident. One possible explanation for the delay effect is that hacking incidents are more likely to occur in small exchanges, which are less secure than large exchanges. As a result, the spread of information is slow. Another interesting finding of the study is that even other cryptocurrencies, such as Ether (ETH), are responding to the penetration of the Bitcoin market. Interestingly, the volatility of ether only showed a late effect. There is no contemporary influence. However, the increase in volatility at the end of the fifth day is almost the same as the Bitcoin volatility we have seen. One possible explanation for this discovery is that the exchange trades multiple cryptocurrencies at the same time. If the exchange is hacked, the thieves may steal Bitcoin and Ether, which may be an indication of the volatility found. In my study. Another possible explanation for this phenomenon may be that thieves are using one cryptocurrency to withdraw money from the theft of another currency, thereby shifting the demand for cryptocurrency from Bitcoin to Ether. What is the risk of a cyber attack on the dollar? In order to explore this issue, I contacted Source: CoinTelegraph
The Christian, Sport, and Competition (Part 6) 2 Timothy 2:5 [See these links for previous posts in this series: First, second, third, fourth, and fifth.] The Context Despite his own trials, Paul continued writing to encourage young Timothy, helping him to cope with and prepare for a difficult life of ministry. Though hardships were inevitable, Paul implored his protege to cling to his instruction and the teachings of his mother and grandmother (1:5–6; 3:14–15), pressing forward in ministry with endurance, boldness, and faithfulness. To emphasize his point of endurance, Paul gives three illustrations of perseverance in the midst of tribulation: A soldier (2:3b–4), an athlete (2:5), and a farmer (2:6). The Passage In this instance, the athlete is a metaphor used by Paul to illustrate characteristics of a healthy spiritual life. As with many of the other instances when Paul utilizes athletic metaphor, here there is a sense of a struggle involved. “Athlete” refers to someone who competes in a contest and implies high levels of effort, preparation, and intentionality for the purpose of prevailing victorious. It is not always the most gifted athlete that prevails victorious, but the one that disciplines himself in training. Emil Zátopek, a long-distance runner from the Czech Republic, while known for winning three gold medals at the 1952 summer Olympics was equally well-known for his inefficient, laboured running gait. While not the most naturally gifted athlete, Zatopek’s work ethic, grit, and determination catapulted him to great athletic success. Oftentimes today, when many athletes are striving to make their living playing sport at the top levels, the skill level and natural talent can be deadlocked at the top of the heap. What usually sets one athlete over another is dedication, sacrifice, hard work, and the ability and willingness to endure beyond hardship and pain. So it is with believers. While success is not as exclusive as it is in athletic arenas, Christians are called to suffer and persevere nonetheless (see Philippians 1:29; 1 Peter 2:21). Even Zatopek, with all his determination and hard work, would not have experienced any athletic success should he not have run according to the rules. Likely, Paul here is referring to the three qualifications the athletes of the ancient Games had to meet in order to be eligible to win the prize: nationality, preparation, and competition. The competitors had to be Greek-born. The competitors had to endure a minimum ten-month training period before being allowed to compete in the Olympiad or Isthmian games. The competitors, finally, had to adhere to the rules of their specific athletic event. The failure to comply with any of the above qualifications meant ineligibility. Similar to the first century athlete, believers must be born again (John 3:3), prepare and train for godliness (1 Corinthians 9:24–27), and live according to Christ’s divine standards of discipleship. As believers, we have met the first qualification. However, the remaining two require discipline, self-control, intentionality, and reliance on the power of the Holy Spirit (John 14:26; 15:8–11; Romans 8:26; 1 Corinthians 2:6–14). The Principle Believers endure the hardships of the Christian life by living in a way that mirrors how a qualified athlete competes—within the bounds of the rules. The Application It seems today that athletes are often looking to skirt the line between legal and illegal, searching for the slightest advantage over fellow competitors. Sometimes they get away with it, but sometimes they do not. The rules must be adhered to in order to compete, let alone win. As Christians, we can endure the hardships that come along with living a Christian life if we pay attention to the rules of the game that Jesus modeled. Abiding by the rules, remaining qualified competitors, gives us hope in the eternal reward that awaits us at the end of the race. Such hope empowers Christians to continue to endure.
Are brain tumors always cancer? A brain tumor diagnosis can sound like a life-threatening situation. But although the symptoms of most brain tumors are the same, not all tumors are malignant. In fact, meningioma is the most common brain tumor, accounting for about 30 percent of them. Meningioma tumors are often benign: You may not even need surgery. Read the full answer Moreover, What is a ghost tumor? Background: A ghost tumor (GhT) is a space-occupying lesion with radiologic features consistent with the diagnosis of tumor that on further investigation is revealed not to be a tumor, although definitions in the literature are inconsistent, and the incidence of GhT remains undefined. Secondly, What happens if you have a tumor in your brain? A brain tumor can form in the brain cells (as shown), or it can begin elsewhere and spread to the brain. As the tumor grows, it creates pressure on and changes the function of surrounding brain tissue, which causes signs and symptoms such as headaches, nausea and balance problems. Simply so, What is the rarest brain tumor? – Atypical Teratoid Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT) ATRTs are very rare, fast-growing tumors that often occur in the brain and spread to the spinal cord. – Choroid Plexus Tumors. Choroid plexus tumors can be slow- or fast-growing tumors. – Diffuse Midline Gliomas. – Ependymoma. – Gliomatosis Cerebri. – Gliosarcoma. – Medulloblastoma. – Meningioma. Are brain tumors curable? Also Read Qui chante dans Shrek 2 ? 16 Related Question Answers Found What is the most dangerous brain tumor? How long can you live with a benign brain tumor? What are the odds of a brain tumor being cancerous? What were your first signs of a brain tumor? – Headaches, which may be severe and worsen with activity or in the early morning. – Seizures. People may experience different types of seizures. Certain drugs can help prevent or control them. – Personality or memory changes. – Nausea or vomiting. – Fatigue. – Drowsiness. – Sleep problems. – Memory problems. What is the main cause of brain tumor? Causes and risk factors for brain cancer The exact cause of brain cancer is unknown. However, factors that can increase your risk of brain cancer include exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation and a family history of brain cancer. Also Read How does estrogen affect blood sugar? Can stress cause brain tumors? Can you have a brain tumor and not know? Because different areas of the brain control different functions of the body, where the tumor lies affects the symptoms you get. Some tumors have no symptoms until they’re large and then cause a serious, rapid decline in health. Other tumors may have symptoms that develop slowly. What causes ghost cells? (1973) was from metaplastic transformation of odontogenic epithelium which occurs due to reduced oxygen supply caused by walling-off effect by the surrounding hard tissue calcification. When this continues, it can cause cell death and keratinization. Thus, ghost cells are indicative of cell death from local anoxia. What causes ghost red blood cells? If RBCs become swollen in dilute urine to the point that the cell membrane ruptures, the cell loses its hemoglobin so that only the membrane and free hemoglobin remain. These empty membranes are known as “ghost” cells. Phase-contrast microscopy enhances the appearance of the red cell membrane on ghost cells. Are all tumors fatal? But not all tumors are malignant, or cancerous, and not all are aggressive. Benign tumors, while sometimes painful and potentially dangerous, do not pose the threat that malignant tumors do. “Malignant cells are more likely to metastasize [invade other organs],” says Fernando U. How do you know if a brain tumor is cancerous? Also Read How long are winters in North Dakota? What is an erythrocyte ghost? Ghosts are post-hemolytic residues of red blood cells. It is generally assumed that these residues are devoid of intracellular structure and consist primarily of the cell membrane (c.f. 1). Hence ghosts are widely used in the study of composition, structure, and function of the red blood cell membrane.Dec 15, 1973 Last Updated: 22 days ago – Co-authors : 7 – Users : 5 Please enter your answer! Please enter your name here
Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 24 Word-Building with Esperanto Affixes by Don Harlow Table of Contents Participial Suffixes Category Suffixes Noun Suffixes Adjective Suffixes Verb Suffixes Quasi Suffixes Pseudosuffixes Adverb Prefixes Root Prefixes Prepositional Prefixes Pseudoprefixes True Suffixes True Prefixes Quasi Prefixes -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Supersigned letters are shown by a following '^'. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Herewith follows a short and somewhat idiosyncratic discussion of the theory of Esperanto wordformation. If you think this is going to bore you, click here to bypass it. Zamenhof invented the Esperanto word-formation system without bothering to attempt to justify it except by pointing out that ... it works! Couturat, the prime mover behind the Ido conspiracy, felt that this was a major failing in the Esperanto word-formation system -- that it had no supporting theory to justify it. (Though Ido's derivational system did not work as well in practice as Esperanto's, it at least had a theory...) To answer Couturat, Ren de Saussure, a member of the Lingva Komitato, began to put together a theoretical basis for the Esperanto word- formation system. His basic theory was expanded by Klmn Kalocsay, included by Kalocsay and Gaston Waringhien in their Plena Gramatiko de Esperanto, and eventually adopted by the Academy of Esperanto. The basic idea behind this theory is that every root in Esperanto -- the root, not the word, is the basic unit of Esperanto -- has an inherent grammatical quality. For example, the root ton' ("stone") is a noun, the root kur' ("run") is a verb, and the root ru' ("red") is an adjective. Grammatical endings of -O, -I and -A respectively are therefore redundant. Not all Esperanto speakers were particularly happy with this essential "westernizing" of the wordformation system; some (particularly Kalocsay's countryman Istvn Szerdahlyi) continued to insist that, in fact, roots have no grammatical category whatsoever. As usual, the truth probably lies somewhere in between. It is possible to categorize Esperanto roots in a number of ways, but one of these is into the categories of object roots (ton'), action roots (kur') and attribute roots (ru'). This leaves some questions floating around -- for instance, where do we put roots that describe states, and which might either fall into the attribute category or be linked together, as we often do in the west, with actions? For the nonce, let's leave them hanging loose -- something we could not do with the rather rigid grammatical-category description. Still, there seems to be a nice correlation between our three categories and the three grammatical categories of the Academy, and we can continue to speak, if we wish, of noun roots, verb roots and adjective roots -- remembering, however, that we are not talking of word categories but simply using a shorthand for how certain roots describe the universe. Don't forget, however, that all of these things can be nouns (that's how we're describing them -- as objects, actions, attributes!), verbs or adjectives -- no grammatical endings are redundant, they are necessary to determine in what grammatical function the root is being used. So we have O-roots, I-roots and A-roots (for convenience). What role does this play in word formation using affixes? Most affixes take a certain type of stem (a root or root with affixes) and convert it to another type of stem. The argument has been made, in fact, that certain affixes cannot be attached to certain types of stem because they simply don't take a stem of that grammatical type. But remember from above that the grammatical type is determined not by the content of the stem but by the grammatical ending attached to it. This means that, in fact, every stem is of potentially every grammatical type. Consequently, when you add an affix to a stem it automatically converts that stem to the needed grammatical type just as a grammatical ending would. Let's try an example. The suffix -EC (a characteristic described by the root) wants to take as input a stem that is an attribute and output something tangible, an object -- in other words A-stem -> O-stem. When we create the word rueco ("redness"), the use is obvious. On the other hand, consider the word toneco. Here we have input an object word ... or is it? No, we have simply treated the root as an attribute (represented in English by the adjective "stony"), and have created the Esperanto equivalent of "stoniness". Or what about kureco? Here I encounter a problem -- there's no English equivalent that I know of. But the meaning should be obvious -- the characteristic associated with "to run". With each affix given below I show what kind of input it wants and what kind of output it provides, as A>0 = attribute->object (I = action). X-> means that it will accept any kind of input, while ->X means that it will accept any kind of output; X->X means that it will be transparent to the input. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Good tables of affixes are to be found in Teach Yourself Esperanto and in Wells' Esperanto Dictionary. The following list is culled from Kalocsay and Waringhien's Plena Analiza Gramatiko de Esperanto, 4th edition (1980). Affixes marked with a star () are unofficial and need not be learned; though I would recommend that the student learn to recognize at least -iv and -esk. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Participial suffixes -ant (I->A): present active participle. fali = to fall falanta = falling. -int (I->A): past active participle. fali = to fall falinta = fallen. -ont (I->A): future active participle. fali = to fall falonta = going to fall. -at (I->A): present passive participle. mani = to eat manata = being eaten. -it (I->A): past passive participle. mani = to eat manita = (having been) eaten. -ot (I->A): future passive participle. mani = to eat, manota = going to be eaten. In English, the past participle indicates only something that has already occurred; it may be active ("fallen") or passive ("eaten") depending on the category of the verb; in the latter case, it may be treated as active (in compounds) by preceding it with the helping verb "to have" instead of "to be." In Esperanto, there are separate active and passive participles (though the latter exist only for transitive verbs). EXAMPLES La arbo estis falinta = The tree was fallen (had fallen). La arbo estis falanta = The tree was falling. La arbo estis falonta = the tree was going to fall. La arbo estas falinta = The tree is (has) fallen. La arbo estas falanta = The tree is falling. La arbo estas falonta = The tree is going to fall. La arbo estos falinta = The tree will have fallen. La arbo estos falanta = The tree will be falling. La arbo estos falonta = The tree will be going to fall. La viando estis manita = The meat was (had been) eaten. La viando estis manata = The meat was (being) eaten. La viando estis manota = the meat was going to be eaten. La viando estas manita = The meat is (has been) eaten. La viando estas manata = The meat is being eaten. La viando estas manota = The meat is going to be eaten. La viando estos manita = The meat will have been eaten. La viando estos manata = The meat will be being eaten. La viando estos manota = The meat will be going to be eaten. Please watch out for one annoying idiosyncracy of the participial affixes. When used with adjective, adverb and (occasionally) verb endings, they describe a situation; when used with the noun ending, they describe a person. manata = (which is) being eaten manate = while being eaten manati = to be in a state of being eaten but Category suffixes -ad (I->O): shows an action or process defined by the root. marteli = to hammer, boji = to bark (like a dog) martelado = hammering bojado = barking ada = continual, ongoing -a (A->O): shows a concrete, tangible manifestation of the root. ria = rich, havi = to have ao = a thing riaoj = riches havaoj = possessions -ec (A->O): shows a quality or characteristic defined by the root. ria = rich, blua = blue rieco = richness blueco = blue (of something) eco = a characteristic, quality The noun formed by simply changing an adjective -a to a noun -o ending is slightly different from that formed by inserting the suffix -ec; the former refers to an abstraction, the latter to a quality associated with something. rua = red, ruo = (the color) red, rueco = redness, e.g. of paint. -ul (A->O): shows a person characterized by the root. ria = rich, bona = good ulo = a guy, dude riulo = a rich person bonulo = a good person Noun suffixes -an (O->O): member, adherent, participant of the root. komitato = committee Budho = the Buddha ano = a member komitatano = a committee-member budhano = a Buddhist -ar (O->O): a collection of things defined by the root. arbo = tree afo = a sheep arbaro = a forest afaro = a flock of sheep aro = a bunch, group, array -ej(O->O): a place intended for the thing(s) or action(s) defined by the root. kuiri = to cook prei = to pray ejo = a place kuirejo = a kitchen preejo = a church -er (O->O): the smallest part or element of a collective defined by the root. sablo = sand neo = snow ero = a unit sablero = a grain of sand neero = a snowflake -estr (O->O): the boss of whatever is defined by the root. komitato = committee komitatestro = chairmain of the committee urbo = town estro = a boss urbestro = mayor -id (O->O): the offspring of the creature defined in the root. kato = cat arbo = tree katido = akitten arbido = a sapling ido = an offspring This suffix is often used in a very metaphorical fashion. For instance, Israelites in Esperanto is Izraelidoj; and it is also used to show the salt produced by a halogenic acid (e.g. klorido). -il (I->O): a tool for doing whatever is defined by the root. komputi = to compute trani = to cut ilo = a tool komputilo = a computer tranilo = a knife -in (O->O): the specifically female version of whatever is defined by the root. filo = son viro = man filino = daughter virino = woman ino = a woman, female These days this suffix is used: (1) with the words viro and knabo; (2) with honorifics; (3) with family relationships; (4) with animals (see also vir- below). It is rarely used with professional titles, though it has been in the past. -ing (O->O): a holder or sheath for an object defined by the root. kandelo = candle cigaro = cigar kandelingo = candle-holder cigaringo = cigar-holder ingo = a holder -ism (O->O): a doctrine, movement, system, etc., for the idea defined by the root. Budho = Buddha Markso = Karl Marx budhismo = Buddhism marksismo = Marxism isma = having to do with doctrine -ist (I->O): an individual professionally or avocationally occupied with the idea or activity defined by the root. urnalo = newspaper urnalisto = newspaperman, reporter lingvo = language lingvisto = a linguist isto = a professional There is an unfortunate tendency to use -ist where -an should be used, probably because -ist has this additional meaning in many Western languages; probably the most egregious such misuse is esperantisto instead of esperantano for a speaker of Esperanto. Similarly, we have marksisto for marksano (Marxist), budhisto instead of budhano (Buddhist), etc. Fortunately, the word for a follower of Christ in English (with cognates in other languages such as French) is Christian; so no one has ever had any trouble saying kristano instead of krististo. -uj (O->O): a container for objects described by the root. salo = salt mono = money ujo = a container salujo = salt-shaker monujo = a purse Traditionally, -uj has been used to form the names of countries occupied completely or mainly by a single ethnic group: anglo = Englishman, Anglujo = England. Recently the unofficial or pseudo suffix -i has been replacing -uj in common parlance. There is a good discussion of the question of country names in Teach Yourself Esperanto, as well as in the Plena Analiza Gramatiko (the latter is, of course, more complete). -i (O->O): an unofficial suffix with four different uses: (1) to form the name of a country from a capitol or river of the same name. Meksiko = Mexico City Alero = Algiers Meksikio = Mexico Alerio = Algeria (2) to form the name of a country from its inhabitants. See note with -uj. (3) to form the name of a science, etc., from its practitioner. astronomo = astronomer toksikologo = toxicologist astronomio = astronomy toksikologio = toxicology (4) to form the name of a flower from that of its inventor or the person to whom it was dedicated. fuksio = fuchsia, from Fuchs -ik (O->O): an unofficial suffix to form the name of a science, etc., from its practitioner. poeto = poet lingvo = language poetiko = poetics lingviko = linguistics This is identical, and interchangeable, with use (3) of -i. -ik is also used to show the higher of two valences with which a metal can combine. In this it contrasts with one use of -oz. -it (O->O): an unofficial suffix to describe an inflamation of the organ described by the root. laringo = larynx hepato = liver laringito = laryngitis hepatito = hepatitis -it and -at are used as special chemical suffixes to show salts produced by non-halogenic acids (see also -id). Adjective suffixes -ebl (I->A): suitable for having whatever is described by the root done to it. legi = to read fari = to do ebla = possible ebli = to be possible legebla = readable, legible farebla = doable -ebl (able to be done) should not be confused with -iv (able to do), which is essentially a synonym for the root pov'. Many English-speaking beginners tend to make this mistake and substitute the verb eblas (is possible) for povas (is able to). -em (I->A): having an inclination or tendency towards whatever is described by the root. ami = to love labori = to work amema = loving laborema = industrious emi = to have a tendency to -end (I->A): must have whatever is described by the root done to it. fari = to do sendi = to send enda = mandatory farenda = must be done sendenda = must be sent -ind (I->A): worth having whatever is described by the root done to it. ami = to love fari = to do aminda = loveable farinda = worth doing indi = to be worthwhile -al (O->A): used to create the adjective form of a noun formed directly from an adjective. varma = hot rua = red varmo = heat varmala = thermal ruo = red (color) ruala = having to do with the color red -esk (O->A): similar to, or in the manner of, whatever is described by the root. japano = a Japanese statuo = a statue japaneska = Japanesque statueska = statuesque -iv (I->A): capable of doing whatever is described by the root. pagi = to pay fari = to do pagiva = solvent fariva = able to do See the note with the description of -ebl. -oid (O->A): with the form of whatever is described by the root. homo = human being urso = a bear homoida = humanoid ursoida = ursoid -oz (O->A): used with noun roots to show the presence of a large quantity of whatever is described by the root. poro = pore sablo = sand poroza = porous sabloza = full of sand -oz is also used in a medical sense for several different types of pathology, where it usually corresponds to the suffix osis in English medical terminology. It need not, however, be used only with Greek roots; see the Esperanto horzonozo, jet lag. In chemistry it is used in contrast with -ik to show the lower of two valences with which a metal can combine. Verb suffixes -ig (A->I): to cause something to be in the state described by the root. rua = red ruigi = to (cause to) turn red farigi = to have (something) done fari = to do (something) igi = to cause to -i (A->I): to become in the state described by the root. rua = red fari = to do ruii = to become red farii = to become (done) ii = to become -ig and -i are probably the two most important affixes in Esperanto. It behooves you, as a student, to devote a lot of time to making sure that you understand their uses perfectly. -iz (O->I): to apply something (physically or metaphorically) to an object. plumo = feather stano = tin plumizi = to fletch stanizi = to tin (as in soldering) Quasi suffixes These are common Esperanto roots which are relatively short and used so often as the second part of a two-part conjoined word that they may be treated almost as suffixes. -art (I->O): the art of whatever is described by the root. kuiri = to cook navigi = to navigate kuirarto = cuisine navigarto = navigation (the art) -am (O->A): loving whatever is described by the root. gasto = guest mono = money gastama = hospitable monama = avaricious -hav (O->A): possessing whatever is described by the root. flugilo = wing oro = gold flugilhava = winged orhava = possessing gold -plen (O->A): full of whatever is described by the root. oro = gold orplena = full of gold. humila = humble humilplena = full of humility See -oz. -pov (I->A): capable of whatever is described by the root. esprimi = to express pagi = to pay esprimpova = expressive pagipova = solvent This is essentially the same as -iv. -ri (O->A): rich with whatever is described by the root. karbo = coal grasa = fat karbria = rich in coal grasria = fatty See -oz. -ajn (A->A): seeming to be whatever is described by the root. vera = true blua = blue verajne = apparently bluajna = blue-seeming -aspekt (O->A): having the appearance of whatever is described by the root. reo = king reaspekta = with the seeming of a king, kingly hundo = large hundaspekta = looking like a dog See -oid. -simil (O->A): being similar to whatever is described by the root. floro = flower tono = stone florsimila = like a flower tonsimila = like a stone See -esk. -manier (O->A): with the manner of whatever is described by the root. besto = animal bestmaniera = with the manner of an animal hundo = dog hundmaniera = dog-like Pseudosuffixes For etymological reasons (i.e., having to do with the origins of words in Latin and Greek), we often find what appear to be identical suffixes on the ends of several Esperanto roots. Since the parts before these "pseudosuffixes" are not themselves Esperanto roots, these are not real suffixes. However, it happens from time to time that the detached "pseudosuffixes" are attached to real Esperanto words, by analogy, and therefore they occasionally act like real suffixes. Kalocsay and Waringhien list a number of possible pseudosuffixes, of which only -logi (showing a science) seems to have any chance at all of being more widely used. Kalocsay and Waringhien also point out, under this rubric, the interesting tendency of the pseudosuffixes -ci, -aci and -ici in nouns taken by Zamenhof from Latin's third declension to disappear in favor of simpler, more purely Esperanto verb forms as time goes on. For instance, Zamenhof's navigacio = navigation has largely yielded to navigi = to navigate, from which we get the purely Esperanto form navigado = navigation. Adverb prefixes dis- (I->I): having to do with separation, in all possible directions. sendi = to send dissendi = to broadcast semi = to sow (seeds) disaj = scattered dissemi = to scatter (seeds) ek- (I->I): the beginning of an action described by the root. iri = to go vidi = to see ekiri = to set out ekvidi = to catch sight of ek! = move it! get the lead out! for- (I->I): away. iri = to go lasi = to leave fora = distant foriri = to depart, leave forlasi = to abandon mis- (I->I): wrongly, incorrectly, off the mark. kompreni = to understand eti = to throw miskompreni = to misunderstand miseti = to throw wide of the mark misi = to miss, to err A Japanese friend of mine once told me that she hoped I was right in my use of the word misiloj to describe nuclear-armed missiles. See also the suffix -il. re- (I->I): back to the beginning again. veni = to come vidi = to see venki = to conquer ree = again reveni = to return revidi = to see again revenki = to reconquer retro- (I->I): in the opposite direction. iri = to go retroiri = to go in the opposite direction pai = to step retropai = to step back Root prefixes ef- (O->O): greatest or most important. ministro = minister (cabinet type) efministro = Prime Minister, Premier urbo = city efa = main efurbo = capitol vir- (O->O): male equivalent of -in for beings whose sex is usually not considered important (except, of course, to themselves...), and whose root form is therefore considered neuter. kato = cat blato = cockroach virkato = tomcat virblato = buck cockroach viro = man, male human Prepositional prefixes Most prepositions can be used as prefixes, and commonly are. For example, veni = to come, enveni = to enter; diri = to say, antadiri = to foretell. Worth mentioning here only because it is unofficial and rarely used: cis- (O->A): on this side of. luno = moon limo = border cisluna = cislunar, between earth and moon cislima = on this side of the border Pseudoprefixes In this category we find, occasionally, ato- (equivalent of mem-, self-) and pre-. pre- is sometimes (rarely) used instead of the temporal meaning of anta-. True suffixes Kalocsay and Waringhien distinguish between suffixoids and prefixoids (which is what, up to now, I've called suffixes and prefixes) and genuine suffixes and prefixes. This is, I am sure, a very important grammatical distinction for the professional linguist, but not one that an ordinary speaker will be called upon to worry about. -a (X->X): gives the word a shading of contempt, detestation. evalo = horse domo = house evalao = nag domao = hovel aa = contemptible, disgusting This is the affix that may be used to create pejoratives, as nigra = black, nigrulo = a black person, nigrulao = nigger. Since such words are very uncommon in Esperanto, you will have to create them as you go along, and accept 100% responsibility for your use of them, not blame them on your upbringing or your teachers. -eg (X->X): augments or strengthens the idea shown by the root. domo = house varma = hot ega = huge domego = mansion varmega = boiling hot -et (X->X): the opposite of -eg, it diminishes the idea shown by the root. domo = house varma = hot eta = tiny dometo = cottage varmeta = warm -um (Any to any): the affix equivalent of the preposition je, it has no definite meaning; words with -um must almost be learned separately. vento = wind aminda = lovable ventumi = to ventilate amindumi = to pitch woo umo = doohicky -if (O->I): to turn something into the root. varma = hot varmifi = to thermalize -j (O->O): takes a man's name and turns it into an intimate form. frato = brother Johano = John frajo = little brother Jojo = Jack -nj (O->O): the female equivalent of the above. frato = brother franjo = little sister Johana = Joan Jonjo = Joanie Note that these two forms do not function like ordinary suffixes, but are usually attached after one of the first five letters of the name or word. The Japanese Esperantist author Miyamoto Masao once described the "beautiful people" as the jo-njo-popolo -- an interesting use of these affixes. True prefixes bo- (O->O): related through marriage. patro = father kuzo = cousin bopatro = father-in-law bokuzo = cousin-in-law boa = related by marriage eks- (O->O): former. reo = king Sovetio = Soviet Union eksa = former eksreo = former (abdicated) king ekssovetio = former USSR ge- (O->O): both sexes taken together. patro = father Sinjoro = Mr. gepatroj = parents gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs. gea = male+female Although this is not sanctioned by any grammatical rule, ge- is also used with the singular to show a human relative of unspecified gender: gepatro = parent. mal- (X->X): turns a word into its opposite. bela = beautiful amiko = friend malbela = ugly malamiko = enemy mala = opposite pra- (X->X): distant in time (usually in the past) or relationship. arbaro = forest nepo = grandson patro = father praarbaro = forest primeval pranepo = great-grandson prapatroj = forefathers praa = before the dawn of... *psedo- (O->O): false. scienco = science nomo = name psedoscienco = pseudoscience psedonomo = pseudonym Quasi prefixes Many roots can be used as prefixes. This is particularly true of adjectives; Kalocsay and Waringhien list 34 of these. I will not repeat this list here, being tired of typing, but will simply give two examples of how an adjective can be used as a prefix, and how its use as a prefix differs from its use as an adjective. nov-: has to do with newness. edzino = wife nova edzino = new wife novedzino = bride. The difference between nova edzino and novedzino is that, in the first, the most important idea is that of wife; the newness is simply a descriptor. In novedzino, however, the idea of newness has come to have almost equal importance with the idea of wife; a bride is not just a new wife, she is someone who has just become a wife, who has crossed the threshhold from maidenhood (?) to marriage. In effect, the newness of her wifehood is so great that it distinguishes her, for the moment, from all other wives, even novaj edzinoj. dik-: thick. fingro = finger dika fingro = thick finger dikfingro = thumb Again, the thickness has become so important that it serves to distinguish the thumb from all other fingers, no matter how thick they may be; it is the thumb's distinguishing characteristic. Kalocsay and Waringhien also point out that fractions (reciprocals) can be used as prefixes, e.g. duon-: half. frato = brother duonfrato = half-brother In addition to adjective and fractional quasi prefixes, we have the following four: fi- (X->X): expressing indignation or disgust. virino = woman bildo = picture fia = shameful fivirino = slut fibildo = pornographic picture fu- (X->X): screwed up. verki = to write (to compose a work of art) fui = to screw up fuverki = to make it come out all wrong ne- (X->X): creates the negative (not, however, the opposite) of the root. bona = good nebona = ungood malbona = bad Many people believed for a long time that George Orwell based his Newspeak -- the thought-control language of Oceania in the novel 1984 -- on Esperanto, based largely on Esperanto's use of the prefix mal- to create opposites. The above list should indicate that the spectrum between a word and its opposite is not totally empty in Esperanto, as it is in Newspeak; we might, for instance, add boneta and malboneta. Recent evidence indicates that Newspeak was in fact a parody of Basic English, which Orwell apparently despised as a corruption of real English. vic- (O->O): second in rank, acting as regent for. reo = king prezidento = president vicreo = viceroy vicprezidento = vice-president vico = line, place in line -------------------------------------------------------------------------------This list is, I think, more complete than the ones mentioned in Teach Yourself Esperanto and The Esperanto Dictionary; but you may find those easier to use, since they are completely alphabetized and don't go into quite as much detail. There are also a number of specialized technical affixes which are not covered here.
Do not sleep in a room with lit mosquito coil overnight Sleeping in a room with lit mosquito coil overnight is harmful and can cause health problems including acute or chronic respiratory, diseases. The fumes from the mosquito coil contain toxins and when inhaled continuously, it is picked up by the blood and transmitted to vital organs like hearts and lungs impede the smooth functioning of the organs. Speaking at an outreach programme to herald the World Environment Day (WED) celebrated on June 6, every year, Mr Emmanuel Appoh, the Head of the Environmental Quality Department at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said constant inhaling of fumes from mosquito coil could kill. The theme for this year’s WED is: “Air Pollution”. He explained that the gases expelled out of the flame had carbon monoxide and in an enclosed place, could displace oxygen of human tissues and cause death. He called for the public to ensure that daily activities follow guidelines and protect the environment. Mr Appoh advised the public to open the doors and windows when they light mosquito coil or spray mosquito insecticide to allow the fumes of the poison to exit before retiring to bed. Touching on death caused by air pollution in Accra in the year 2015, he said 2000 people in Accra lost their lives while 20,000 died nationwide in 2017. He noted that street hawkers were at high risk of contracting respiratory, cardiovascular diseases due to their constant inhaling of poisonous fumes. “This category of people experience eye irritation, acute and chronic cough. Fumes from vehicles contain uncompleted burning of fuel and when inhaled, could affect our heart and lungs,” he said On measure to reduce air pollution, he advised vehicle owners to undertake regular servicing and buy fuel from certified pumps to keep exhaust emission low. Mr Appoh urged heavy, medium and light Industrial operators to employ modern equipment in their line of production to reduce air pollution In an effort to reduce emission to protect the health of people, he said the government with standard guidelines for motor vehicles, which would compare the levels of emissions. The standard soon to be outdoored, he disclosed, would be used to advise drivers about the conditions of their vehicles and prescribed measures to reduce emissions. Mr Appoh said the standard would cover all means of transport with the exception of tractor, and light rails. 257 View(s)
No ape jape: gibbons need protection from COVID-19 too 22 September 2020 We know Nature Based Tourism programs are set to boom so we want them to prioritise the welfare of the animals Experts studying how tourism affects wild gibbons say visitors should wear PPE masks and have health checks before visiting them. While tourism to wild gibbon populations halted with the first COVID-19 lockdowns, tour operators in Cambodia and China are gearing up to resume visits. The recommendations build on world-first research on wild gibbon populations in Cambodia and China, which shows the apes significantly alter their behaviour, to their own detriment when tourists are present. Instead of resting and socialising, gibbons spent more time on the look-out for danger and displayed stress and anxiety behaviours when tourist groups followed them. ANU researcher Jessica Williams said her studies showed gibbons were trading off their rest time to monitor an unfamiliar situation. "Scanning the landscape is one way animals monitor their environment and detect danger. When tourists are present, we observed the gibbons spent more time scanning compared to when tourists were absent," Ms Williams said. "This increase in scanning was coupled with a decrease in time spent resting and rest is essential to maintaining normal brain function and immune responses. "If the gibbons' immune system is affected it can have negative side-effects. It can lead to shortening their life or making them more susceptible to catching diseases - and because we're all primates, they may be able to catch something from us." Ms Williams said COVID-19 might be one of the diseases gibbons could be susceptible to. "Due to a lack of research, we don't know for sure if the small apes; gibbons and siamangs can catch diseases like COVID-19 from humans. But disease transmission from and to humans is well-documented in the great apes like gorillas and chimpanzees," she said. "Because gibbons being used for tourism could suffer reduced immunity in the face of large and frequently changing groups of people entering their environment, we can't take any chances. "Once a disease has been transmitted it spreads through the entire population." As well as temperature checks and wearing protective gear, Ms Williams' guidelines recommend limiting visits to once a day, with total group numbers of eight and only when the gibbons are naturally active. "Our research showed how tourism was affecting the gibbons before COVID-19 hit. Before it starts up again, we want tour operators to pause and re-set expectations for tourism and visitors by re-designing their programs based on this new research," Ms Williams said. "We're not against 'Nature Based Tourism'. In fact, we know it can create jobs and revenue and has the potential to combat destructive practices like logging or poaching. "We also know these programs were set to boom in Asia and so before things resume and expand, we want to make sure Nature Based Tourism programs are better designed to prioritise the welfare of the animals." Jessica Williams' research was conducted on northern yellow-cheeked crested gibbons (Nomascus annamensis) at Veun Sai-Siem Pang National Park in Cambodia and Skywalker gibbons (Hoolock tianxing) at Mt Gaoligong National Nature Reserve, China and is published in Animal Biology: Her guidelines to protect wild gibbons from tourism will be published in the forthcoming edition of the Journal of Sustainable Tourism.
The Layout Adjustment For Document Translation 907 Words4 Pages The Layout Adjustment Challenge in Document Translation There are two critical elements you must know when translation a document and they cannot be stated too many times: 1. A translated document should read as if it were written in the target language. If it can be identified as a translated document, your translator did not give you 100 percent. 2. If a translated document looks terrible, nobody will pay attention to the exceptional quality of the translation. How your document looks is just as important as the content. When articles are submitted to translators in the source text, all of the text, graphics, graphs, and so forth are well aligned within the margins, the text fits well on the page, line orphans are eliminated, and pages that are supposed to be across from each other are. When documents are translated the text length is rarely the same as the source document. Word lengths are usually different, single words may be translated into a phrase, concepts may explained in a single word, acronyms may need to be spelled out or explained, and so forth. Depending on the languages being translated, the text may expand or be compressed up to 60 percent. Obviously, when the text length changes, so does the layout. Graphics may no longer be where they are supposed to be, page breaks are changed, text on graphics may not fit into the text boxes, etc. Special Formatting Considerations When your document is comprised mainly of text, formatting can be easily adjusted. Open Document
Page 1 of 50 - About 500 essays • The Proteins Of Carbohydrates And Carbohydrates 1091 Words \| 5 Pages Introduction Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are organic molecules found in every living organism. These macromolecules are large carbon based structures. The macromolecules are assembled by joining several smaller units, called monomers, together through a chemical reaction called dehydration synthesis. The resulting polymer can be disassembled through the complementary process called hydrolysis.Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1 ratio. This • The Functions Of Carbohydrates 822 Words \| 4 Pages Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are biological molecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Like proteins and fats, they are macronutrients that are part of our daily diet. Functions of Carbohydrates in the body Carbohydrates provide energy for the body, enabling metabolism, thus preventing the breakdown of protein as an energy source. Carbohydrates are the preferred source of fuel for the brain, muscle and other organs. Foods and Drinks that Have Carbohydrates Carbohydrates • The Importance Of Carbohydrates 745 Words \| 3 Pages first thing that should come to mind is carbohydrates. They are one of the main nutrients where we get our energy from, and are defined as “a compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, that is derived from plants and provide energy” (Thompson & Manore, 2017, p. 100). Carbohydrates are divided up into two groups: simple and complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates are “commonly called sugar” (Thompson & Manore, 2017, p. 101). Simple carbohydrates are found in a variety of foods such as • The Properties Of Carbohydrates 1206 Words \| 5 Pages Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are hydrated due to the 2;1 ratio of hydrogen and water. Carbohydrates have 3 groups; monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides (see figure 7) Monosaccharides are simple sugars that made up of 1 sugar unit and include glucose, fructose, galactose which are substrates for respiration. When 2 monosaccharides gain a glycosidic bond to attach to another they become disaccharides. On the reverse, when they are broken down from • Macromolecules Of Carbohydrates 771 Words \| 4 Pages Background and Carbohydrates How are macromolecule polymers assembled from monomers? How are they broken down? To assemble a macromolecule polymer from monomers, the monomers must bond. This is a process known as a dehydration reaction, in which a water molecule is lost to form the bond. When this process occurs, each of the two bonded monomers provides part of the water molecule that was lost in the dehydration reaction: one contributes a hydroxyl group and the other a hydrogen. Dehydration reaction • Essay on Lipids and Carbohydrates 466 Words \| 2 Pages Lipids and Carbohydrates Lipids are a group of substances, which include fats, oils and waxes. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, glycogen and cellulose. They are stored in plants as starches and in animals as glycogen. There are many differences between carbohydrates and lipids. For example lipids are insoluble in water whereas carbohydrates are soluble in water. This is because lipids contain non - polar hydrocarbon units whereas water contains polar hydrocarbon • Investigating The Bonding Of A Carbohydrate 1077 Words \| 5 Pages Carbohydrate Analysis Introduction and Purpose Carbohydrates are organic compounds that consist of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. There are four different ways that carbohydrates can be classified: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars. They are aliphatic aldehydes or ketones and most have five or six carbon atoms. Oligosaccharides are two monosaccharides linked together by the elimination of a water molecule which allows the glycosidic bond • Nutrition And Macronutrients : Carbohydrates 1182 Words \| 5 Pages Nutrition and Macronutrients: Carbohydrates: Carbohydrate, in the form of glucose, is the preferred fuel for working muscles. It is particularly important during high intensity activity but whatever exercise is performed some carbohydrate will be used. Glucose is stored in the muscles and liver as a substance known as glycogen and is rapidly converted back to glucose when is it required. The capacity for glycogen storage is limited - a 70kg individual has glycogen reserves of approximately 400g • Reaction Paper On Carbohydrates 1933 Words \| 8 Pages Introduction Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are usually known as sugars and they have the general formula Cx(H2O)y (Elmhurst College, 2003). Depending on the number of monomers, carbohydrates can be monosacharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Monomers are the single monosaccharide units alone. Oligosaccharides can contain from 2 to 10 monosaccharides and polysaccharides are made of many monosaccharides. They may also contain either a ketone or aldehyde functional group (King, 2014). Some examples • Carbohydrate and Points Essay 612 Words \| 3 Pages the observance of a particular enzyme in a test performance. (3 points) 14.While working a part-time at a lab, the student is asked to grab a jar that contains carbohydrates. Two jars are on the counter, each labeled with their chemical formula. One is labeled C5H10O5, and the other is C3H9O3. (6 points) a.Which one is the carbohydrate? (1 point) b.What was the student's decision based upon? (4 points) c.What type of sugar is it? (1 points) 15.Many commercial food products are sweetened with
Edit Story How Hackers Will Defeat Google's Smartphone Security Scheme Andy Greenberg This article is more than 10 years old. uncaptionedUpdated with Bruce Schneier's comments below. Thanks to Google, the cloud just got one step more secure. Unfortunately, many of the cybercriminals who make a living exploiting the cloud's weaknesses were already more than one step ahead. On Monday, Google announced what the security industry calls "two-factor authentication" for its enterprise software-as-a-service applications. Here's how it works: When you log into Gmail or other Google apps, the service asks for not just a password, but also a randomly-generated number sent to an app on your smartphone. That makes it much harder for someone who steals your password to gain access to your data without physically stealing your phone, too. Google says it's planning to make the system open-source and release it for other companies to use, potentially sparking a new wave of two-factor authentication for online apps like email and banking. That's great news for the security of the Web's services. But it's far from a cure-all for what ails the Internet. Here's what encryption guru Bruce Schneier wrote about two-factor authentication on his blog: "Two-factor authentication isn't our savior...It solves the security problems we had ten years ago, not the security problems we have today." And that was in 2005. In that half-decade old essay, Schneier outlined two techniques for circumventing two-factor authentication that were becoming common then, and are far more common now: The trick of both techniques is that they don't store the stolen authentication information, but hijack it in real-time to pass through security safeguards along with the user. Both have been used for years. Google product manager Travis McCoy concedes that real-time phishing and Trojan attacks can't be stopped by two factor authentication. "We want to be very clear about what we are and aren't protecting against," says McCoy. "We don't want users to think we're protecting against all attacks on the Internet." He reminds users that in addition to Google's cell phone authentication trick, they should still use a secure browser--he names practically every one but Microsoft Internet Explorer--and run antivirus software. But McCoy also argues that two-factor authentication will nonetheless take a big bite out of cybercrime. "We asked ourselves what was the single thing we could target that possesses the greatest security risk? All the data says that usernames and passwords are the weak link in the security chain." McCoy is right: No technology can offer absolute security, and two-factor authentication could be a huge improvement to the security of the cloud. To skirt Google's two-factor authentication system, hackers will have to exploit users' accounts in real-time. That makes it nearly impossible to steal a user's details and then sell them to another criminal via an underground forum, as is often the case in the modern cybercriminal economy. But Schneier's pessimistic take is right, too. As he wrote five years ago, "Early adopters of this technology may very well experience a significant drop in fraud for a while as attackers move to easier targets, but in the end there will be a negligible drop in the amount of fraud and identity theft." In other words, other online applications run by companies including IBM and Microsoft will likely be forced to adopt simple two-factor authentication or risk inheriting the lazy cybercriminals who stop targeting Google's users. But once the industry as a whole has implemented the technique, don't expect your cell phone alone to keep your data safe. Update: When I reached Bruce Schneier to hear his thoughts about Google's security update, he was far more positive about the new features than his 2005 take on two-factor authentication might have suggested. His reasoning: while two-factor authentication won't pose much of a hurdle to hackers trying to access someone's bank account, it will be far more effective for protecting email and other online apps. Unlike in banking, gaining real-time access to email doesn't offer enough of a reward to spawn an "arms race" of clever security circumventions, he says. "It's not a panacea. Nothing is," Schneier cautions. "But there isn't a better solution. So good for Google for doing it."
What is multiple myeloma? Multiple myeloma is a rare type of cancer that affects bone marrow and alters your blood’s plasma cells. Plasma cells are a type of white blood cell and are responsible for recognizing foreign infections and making antibodies to fight them. Plasma cells live in your bone marrow, the soft tissue that fills hollow bones. In addition to plasma cells, bone marrow is also responsible for producing other healthy blood cells. Multiple myeloma leads to an accumulation of cancer cells in your bone marrow. Eventually, the cancer cells overtake healthy blood cells, and your body becomes unable to produce disease-fighting antibodies. Instead, it creates harmful proteins that damage your kidneys and cause other signs and symptoms. Knowing the most common signs and symptoms of multiple myeloma may help you detect it before it becomes advanced. Make an appointment with your doctor if you notice any of the potential warning signs. Signs and symptoms of multiple myeloma aren’t always easy to detect. You may not experience any of the symptoms during the cancer’s earliest phases. As the cancer advances, symptoms vary greatly. One person’s experience can be completely different from another’s. The most common signs and symptoms of multiple myeloma include: • Fatigue. Healthy cells allow your body to fight invading germs easily. As myeloma cells replace bone marrow, your body has to work much harder with fewer disease-fighting cells, and you tire more easily. • Bone problems. Myeloma can prevent your body from making new bone cells, causing problems like bone pain, weakened bones, and broken bones. • Kidney problems. Myeloma cells produce harmful proteins that can cause kidney damage and even failure. • Low blood counts. Myeloma cells crowd out healthy blood cells, leading to low red blood counts (anemia) and low white blood cells (leukopenia). Unhealthy blood cell levels make it harder to fight infections. • Frequent infections. Fewer antibodies in your blood make fighting infections more difficult. Other common signs and symptoms of multiple myeloma include: Unlike healthy, normal cells, cancer cells don’t mature and then die away. Instead, they live and accumulate. In the case of multiple myeloma, cancer cells rapidly multiply and eventually overwhelm bone marrow. The production of cancer cells outpaces the production of healthy blood cells, and the cancer cells crowd out the healthy ones. This leads to anemia, fatigue, and frequent infections. Instead of producing helpful antibodies like normal plasma cells, myeloma cancer cells produce abnormal and harmful antibodies. Your body can’t use these antibodies, called monoclonal proteins, or M proteins. Over time, these proteins build up in your body and can damage your kidneys. Several factors increase your risk for developing multiple myeloma, including: • Age. Risk increases with age. Most people who receive a diagnosis for this disease are in their mid-60s. According to the American Cancer Society, less than 1 percent of people diagnosed with multiple myeloma are younger than 35. • Race. African-Americans are twice as likely to develop this type of cancer as Caucasians. • Sex. Men are more likely to develop multiple myeloma than women. • Family history. If you have a sibling or a parent with myeloma, you’re more likely to be diagnosed than someone without a family history of the cancer, according to American Cancer Society. However, family history only accounts for a small number of myeloma cases. • Obesity. A study in the journal The Oncologist found that overweight and obese people have an increased risk of developing the cancer. • MGUS. In almost all cases, multiple myeloma begins as a benign condition called monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS), which is marked by the presence of M proteins. According to the Mayo Clinic, about 3 percent of Americans over the age of 50 have MGUS. As multiple myeloma advances, it can cause complications, including: • Frequent infections. As myeloma cells crowd out healthy plasma cells, your body becomes less able to fight infections. • Anemia. Normal blood cells will be pushed out of your bone marrow and replaced by cancer cells, which can lead to anemia and other blood problems. • Bone problems. Bone pain, weakened bones, and broken bones are all common complications of multiple myeloma. • Reduced kidney function. M proteins are harmful antibodies produced by the myeloma cancer cells. They can damage your kidneys, cause problems with kidney function, and eventually lead to kidney failure. In addition, damaged and eroding bones can increase your blood’s calcium levels. These higher calcium levels can interfere with your kidneys’ ability to filter waste. You should always be aware of any persistent and unexplained symptom, even minor ones. In many cases, these unusual signs or symptoms can be easily explained. However, if unusual symptoms persist, make an appointment to see your doctor. Did you know?
Chapter Wise Economy MCQ’s With Explanation Today’s Topic: National Income These are most-important and most-expected Questions for IAS Prelims General Studies paper-1 (ECONOMY) of UPSC Civil Service exam. Every day Himalai is coming with different subjects questions and answers with explanation analysis, these Questions will be both theoretical and fact based. Every day preparation will make a way for success, keep up your daily IAS Exam preparation with Himalai subject wise, chapter wise and topic wise Mcq’s with answers and analysis. We are providing our daily program list so thataspirant can note it and keep a watch on Himalai Mock test blogs for updated questions and get prepare for the Exam. EveryDay Program List Sunday- Indian and world Geography Tuesday- General Science Wednesday- Indian Polity and Governance Thursday- History of India and Indian National Movement Friday- Economic and Social Development Saturday-Current Affairs Concepts Today’s Topic: National Income Q1. In Context of the financing pattern of the ADB. Think about following statement: 1. It was established in 1966 2. It provides both soft loans and hard loans. 3. It finances both public sector and private sector projects. 4. It finances projects only in Asia and Pacific region. Which of the above statements is/are correct? a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 and 4 c) Only 4 d) All of the above. Ans: D Explanation: The ADB is a regional development bank established on August 22, 1996 to facilitate economic development of countries in Asia. The bank admits the members of the United Nations Economic and social commission for Asia and Pacific. It finances both public sector and private sector projects. Q2. Consider the following statements: 1. MNREGA will increase the structural employment 2. MNREGA will increase disguised unemployment Choose correct option a) 1 and 2 b) Only 1 c) Only 2 d) None of the above Ans: A Explanation: MNREGA will increase the structural employment because its creation of infrastructure facilities is also a part of the employment programme, so it will decrease the structural unemployment. But in MNREGA the efficiency is very poor. There is over population for doing a particular job. Even if the manpower is reduced from the present one still it is possible to achieve the target. Q3. Consider the following statements regarding Reserve Bank of India. 1. It is banker to the central government 2. It acts as an agent of government in respect of India. 3. It formulates and administers monetary policy. 4. It handles the borrowing programme of government of India. Ans: A Explanation: The function of central banks are: 1. Banks of issue 2. Banker, agent and financial adviser to the state 3. Bankers to the bank 4. Custodian of foreign exchange 5. Controller of credit etc Q4. Which one of the following is the objective of National Renewal Fund? a) To safeguard the interests of workers who may be affected by technological up gradation of industry of sick units. b) To develop the core sector of the economy c) For the development of infrastructure such as energy, transport communication and irrigation. d) For human resource development such as full literacy, employment population control, housing and drinking water. Ans: A Explanation: To safeguard the interests of workers who may be affected by the technological upgradation of industry by closure of sick units is the basic objective to establish National Renewal Fund. It has to provide assistance to cover the cost of retaining and redevelopment of employers arising as a result of modernization of technology. Q5. Consider the following statements: The price of any currency in international markets is decided by 1. World Bank 2. Demand for good\services provided by the country concerned. 3. Stability of the government of the concerned country 4. Economic potential of the country Choose Correct answers. a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 b) 2 and 3 c) 3 and 4 d) 1 and 4 Ans: B Explanation: The price of any currency in international market is decided by the demand for good/services of a country and stability of the government of concerned country. Q6. Tourism industry in India is quite small compared in terms of India potential size. Which one of following statements is correct in the regard? a) Distances in India are too far apart and Luxury hotel are too expensive for western tourists. b) For most of months India is too hot for western tourists to feel comfortable. c) Most of the picturesque resorts in India such as in the North east and Kashmir are, for all practical purpose, out of bounds. d) In India the infrastructure required for attracting tourists in inadequate. Ans: D Explanation: Govt. of India is not providing great emphasis on development of infrastructure, which is a dominant factor for attracting tourists even though every state in India is having some attractive place for tourists. Q7. Match List-1 with List-II and select the correct answer using below. List I (Term) List II (Explanation) 1. Fiscal deficit 1. Excess of total expenditures over total receipts. 2. Budget deficit 2. Excess of Revenue expenditures. 3. Revenue deficit 3. Excess of total expenditure over total receipts less borrowings. 4. Primary deficit 4. Excess of total expenditures over total receipts less borrowings and interest payments. Codes: A B C D a) 3 1 2 4 b) 4 3 2 1 c) 1 3 2 4 d) 3 1 4 2 Ans: A 1. Fiscal Deficit = Budgetary deficient + Public borrowing and other liabilities 2. Budget Deficit = Total receipts – Total expenditure 3. Reserve deficit = Total revenue receipts – Total revenue expenditure 4. Primary Deficit = Excess of total expenditure over total receipts less borrowings and interest payment. List I List II 1. Disinvestment of share in public sector 1. Rajah Chelliah 2. Industrial sickness 2. Onkar Goswami 3. Tax Reforms 3. R N Malhotra 4. Reforms in insurance sector 4. C Rangrajan Codes: A B C D a) 1 4 2 3 b) 4 2 1 3 c) 4 1 2 3 d) 1 3 4 2 Ans: B Disinvestment of share – C. Rangrajan Industrial Sickness – Onkar Goswami Tax Reforms – Rajah Chelliah Reforms in insurance sector – R N Malhotra Q9. Which of the following constitute the World bank? 1. International Bank for reconstruction and development 2. International Monetary Fund 3. International Finance Corporation 4. International Development association a) 1, 2, 3 b) 1 and 2 c) 1, 3 and 4 d) only 2 Ans: C Explanation: The World Bank was established in 1945. It included the institution was established in 1945. It included the institution in international finance corporation (1956). International development Associate (1960), MIGA (1988) and ICSID (1966). It provides long term loan to the countries which have membership. Q10. In the context of governance, consider the following: 1. Privatization of higher educational institutions 2. Encouraging FDI inflows 2. Down- sizing of Bureaucracy 4. Selling/off loading the shares of public sector Which of the above can be used as measures to control the fiscal deficit in India? a) 2, 3, 4 b) 3 and 4 c) 1, 2 and 3 d) All of these Ans: B Explanation: Downsizing of bureaucracy and selling the shares of public sector will reduce the fiscal deficit. Privatization of higher education institution can ameliorate the situation; however its effect will be negligible. Without knowing the destination of FDI inflows. We cannot determine the actual effect of its on fiscal deficit. Chapter wise mock test series with analysis and explanation.
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST Nondestructive Assessment of Citrus Fruit Quality and Ripening by Visible–Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy By Ana M. Cavaco, Dário Passos, Rosa M. Pires, Maria D. Antunes and Rui Guerra Submitted: September 24th 2020Reviewed: January 12th 2021Published: February 4th 2021 DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.95970 Downloaded: 29 As non-climacteric, citrus fruit are only harvested at their optimal edible ripening stage. The usual approach followed by producers and packinghouses to establish the internal quality and ripening of citrus fruit is to collect fruit sets throughout ripening and use them to determine the quality attributes (QA) by standard and, in many cases, destructive and time-consuming methods. However, due to the large variability within and between orchards, the number of measured fruits is seldom statistically representative of the batch, resulting in a fallible assessment of their internal QA (IQA) and a weak traceability in the citrus supply chain. Visible/near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (Vis–NIRS) is a nondestructive method that addresses this problem, and has proved to predict many IQA of a wide number of fruit including citrus. Yet, its application on a daily basis is not straightforward, and there are still several questions to address by researchers in order to implement it routinely in the crop supply chain. This chapter reviews the application of Vis–NIRS in the assessment of the quality and ripening of citrus fruit, and makes a critical evaluation on the technique’s limiting issues that need further attention by researchers. • nondestructive • Vis–NIRS • citrus fruit • quality • ripening 1. Introduction Citrus fruit are grown commercially in more than 50 countries around the world and are major commodities in the international trade [1, 2]. In Europe, the exceptional characteristics met by some of these produces have granted them the Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), such as the lemons (Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck) of Menton in France, Sorrento, Amalfi and Syracuse, and the Sicilian blood orange (Citrus × sinensis) in Italy, the “Algarve Citrus” in Portugal, or the “Valencianos Citrus” in Spain. As non-climacteric, citrus fruit are only harvested at their optimal edible ripening stage, and are required to meet the expectations of the current consumer who demands for fruit not only with the best appearance, flavor, and nutritional properties, but that also comply with safety, traceability, and the sustainability of the cultural practices used. Like any other commodity, citrus fruit are subjected to worldwide standard specifications within the value chain [3] on their quality attributes (QA). Additionally, there are also adjustments to these requirements on quality and commercial ripening indices, that arise from the respective PGI normative of each commodity, growing regions and destination markets [4]. The main external quality attributes (EQA) accounted for citrus fruit are general appearance, size, weight, and color. Among the internal quality attributes (IQA), soluble solids content (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), juiciness, maturity index (MI; MI = SSC/TA), and the absence of internal defects are the most relevant. Although firmness is not defined quantitatively, it represents an important IQA, since it is a limiting factor regarding postharvest handling, transport and shelf-life, fruit being expected to maintain a good consistency through the whole supply chain. Once fruit attain the expected IQA, additional factors will condition the harvest of citrus fruit: orchard yield and size, ripening variability, harvest cost, storage conditions, market prices and consumers’ demand. Although dependent on the country, producers are provided with three options to handle these constrains: (i) immediate harvest and marketing; (ii) immediate harvest and cold-storage; or (iii) delayed fruit harvest. Opting for immediate harvest may result in minimal organoleptic quality and low prices, whereas postponing it until favorable market conditions, risks fruit drop, decay and spoilage caused by extreme weather events, pests and diseases [5]. To prevent some of of these consequences, producers resort to the regular use of pesticides, which increase the production costs and impact negatively the environment [6, 7]. Cold-storage is used in some of the major citrus producing countries, such as Spain or South Africa, and require very strict conditions to avoid fruit loss caused by chilling and/or freezing injury [8]. Both, cold-storage and harvest delay may lead to adverse alterations in the citrus-like flavor, and thus fruit quality deterioration, even if MI or SSC remains acceptable for marketing [9]. In all cases, fruit become more susceptible to the occurrence of physiological disorders that cause internal and/or external defects. Among the most typical physiological disorders registered through the supply chain of citrus fruit, there is the section drying, the rind breaking disorder (RBD), the rind pitting disorder (RP), freezing damage, and granulation, as reported for tangerine (Citrus tangerine Tanaka [10], ‘Nules Clementine’ mandarin (Citrus × clementina) [11], ‘Marsh’ grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi Macfad.) [12], sweet lemons (Citrus limettioides Tan.) [13], and ‘Honey’ pomelo (Citrus maxima Merr.) [14], respectively. These disorders are difficult to sort out by visual inspection at harvest, but lead to posterior fruit deterioration, limiting their quality, shelf-life, price and acceptance by consumers. In fact, there are strict standards for fruit sorting and grading, which require the detection of some of these disorders, throughout the supply chain, as established by the California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA). For exemple, it is not permitted to sell oranges (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) if, generally, more than 15% of fruits per batch have considerable freezing damage [15]. Therefore, the ripening of citrus fruit at harvest is a major determinant of their final quality after the whole postharvest handling processes, the occurrence of storage disorders, and the produce shelf-life span [16]. It also affects the rate of fruit loss between the tree and the consumers’ home. Thus, the management and the decision capacity of the optimal harvest date (OHD) is a critical step in the supply chain. The current approach followed by producers and packinghouses to establish it and therefore, to decide on the harvest, is to collect small fruit sets from the various orchards by the beginning of each variety harvest season, and to use them to determine QA through standard methods, that in most cases are destructive, subjective and very time-consuming. However, all QA vary greatly inside the same orchard, either in terms of absolute values and/or in terms of spatial and temporal distribution, and even in the same tree. This has been shown in citrus orchards of ‘Shiranuhi’ mandarin (C. unshiu × C. sinensis) × C. reticulata [17], ‘Ortanique’ (Citrus reticulata Blanco x Citrus sinensis (L) Osbeck) [18], mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) [19], and ‘Newhall’ and ‘Valencia Late’ orange [20]. Multiple factors, such as the level of sunlight exposure and the associated fruit temperature on the tree, fruit yield and size, tree vigor and age, rootstocks, site-specific nutritional requirements and micro topographies within the orchard, are reportedly associated to this variability [21, 22, 23, 24]. Furthermore, the location of the orchards and their edaphoclimatic conditions, as well as the cultural practices also induce variability on the fruit maturation process, leading to different levels of QA and different ripening rates observed for the same cultivar at different sites [20, 21]. Consequently, the number of tested fruits with the standard methods is seldom statistically representative of the orchard, leading to the sub-representation of the effective ripening stage of the fruit within and between orchards, which results in a limited assessment of their ripening, heterogeneous fruit quality, a deficient OHD management and a weak traceability in the citrus supply chain [25, 26, 27]. Overall, there is the need to upgrade the management and the sustainability of citrus fruit supply chain with smart and nondestructive technologies that allow a fast, objective, accurate and extensive assessment of fruit QA and ripening on-tree and in the following postharvest, to replace conventional methods. Their aim would be to deliver the best produce to the markets, and contribute to reduce the current level of food loss around the globe, that involves a large portion of fruit and vegetables [28, 29, 30]. Considering how much of the world’s population lacks food security, and the importance of these commodities in the provision of essential nutrients and vitamins, which could prevent malnutrition, that kind of technologies would comply with the sustainable development goals (SDGs) proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the World Food Programme (WFP), in the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, which supports a global commitment to end poverty, hunger and malnutrition by 2030, creating a #ZeroHunger world [31, 32]. The large number of reports published in the past two decades, show an active, and highly motivated research concerning the development of various nondestructive technologies for the assessment of quality and ripening parameters of a wide variety of fruit, including citrus [16, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. These techniques are used on inline sorting systems, on the bench or in the field and come in many forms, prices and commercial brands. Among them, the visible–near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (Vis–NIRS), is conceivably one of the most suitable and advanced nondestructive technologies currently used to monitoring several horticultural produces. It has been implemented in applications ranging from the inline automated grading systems, assessing up to 10–12 fruit per second, to handheld units suitable for field use, operating in full sunlight and varying ambient temperature [38, 39]. Additionally, it continues to grow stronger as a major investigation topic worldwide, with a major potential for improvement and contribution to the state of the art of precision agriculture and agronomic systems management [40]. This chapter comprises a brief explanation of Vis-NIRS fundamentals and a review of the various reports on its application published since 2012. Reports published before 2012 were already covered in the last review by [41] and will not be repeated here, with a few exceptions that represent relevant breakthroughs in the area. It will further attempt a critical evaluation on the limiting issues that need further research, to implement it as an effective nondestructive method to assess these commodities’ quality and optimal ripening. The authors invite the reader to complement this chapter with some of the most outstanding reviews published throughout the years, by the main researchers working on the subject (but not only in citrus). These reviews comprise the principles of the technique, its various methods and the listing of fruit and the respective QA for which it has provided calibration models [41, 42, 43, 44, 45], the overview on the publications and main research groups in the field [40], various recommendations for future research activity in the area regarding the adequate experimental design and the reporting requirements [38], as well as the current real-life applications available on the market that seem to comply with the warranted robustness for the technology to be integrated in the supply chain of many crops, including citrus [38, 39]. 2. Fundamentals of visible–near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (Vis–NIRS) In this review we will adopt the most common definition that Vis–NIRS covers the wavelength range 400–2500 nm of the electromagnetic spectrum. The lower limit is consensual, since it is the onset of the visible range, but the upper limit is mainly defined by the spectral response of the most common spectrometers. It comprises the visible (Vis) region (400–750 nm), the more penetrative short wave NIR (SWNIR), or Herschel region (750–1100 nm), and the near infrared region (750–2500 nm) of the spectrum [38, 39, 45]. The NIR radiation was discovered by Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel in 1800, and was first used in agricultural applications to measure the moisture in grain in the late 1960s [45]. The first Vis–NIRS application was commercialized in Japan in 1989 to sort peaches based on SSC in an automated grading line, but the research on its principles, applications and on the development of new customized systems, have only followed some decades later, being quite active nowadays [38, 39, 40]. 2.1 Interaction of radiation with the fruit When a light beam from the sun or a tungsten lamp, hits a fruit or any other sample, the incident radiation may be specularly reflected, absorbed or transmitted, and the relative contribution of each phenomenon depends on the chemical constitution and physical parameters of the sample (Figure 1) [46]. The spectral distribution of the radiation that penetrates the product change through wavelength dependent scattering and absorption processes. The photons that enter the fruit may emerge through multiple scattering in the tissue. Light emerging on the same side of incidence is described as diffuse reflection, while light emerging on the opposite side is described as diffuse transmition. Both diffuse modes may be understood in a general sense as ‘transmitted’, according to the initial description. The emerging diffuse light is collected by a spectrometer, originating the term diffuse reflection spectroscopy. The spectral features depend on the chemical composition of the product, as well as on its light scattering properties which are related to the sample microstructure. Fruit and vegetables are turbid media, in which scattering events dominate over absorption in the visible (400–750 nm), and particularly in the SWNIR and NIR ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum (750–2500 nm) [44] (see Figure 1). Figure 1. When light hits a fruit, the photons may be reflected at the fruit surface (specular reflection) or enter the fruit tissue. In the latter case, a succession of scattering events takes place, where the photons change direction. Some of them reemerge, originating diffuse reflection (or transmission, not represented), and the other are eventually absorbed. In thin rind fruit most of light interaction takes place on the flesh and the skin has mainly a modulation effect upon the spectra. In most citrus, however, most of light interaction occurs in the thick rind and few photons probe the flesh. Thus, the assessment of IQA depends on the interplay between pulp and skin biochemistry and their optical properties [47, 48, 49]. Absolute quantification of diffuse reflected light (for example, as spectral radiance [Wsr−1 m−2 Hz−1]) is of little use, because it depends obviously on the characteristics of the light source. The calculation of reflectance avoids that subjectivity, since it normalizes the absolute measurement of the sample’s reflection by that of a reference material, usually a near perfect reflector (‘white’) in the wavelength range under study. It should be stressed, however, that even the reflectance depends on the collection geometry (solid angle of collection, viewed area, etc.). Common choices for the reference material include Spectralon or Teflon, with nearly 100% reflection in the Vis-NIR. Reflectance Rλis calculated according to the Eq. (1) presented below. where Sstands for the Sample counts, Dfor the Dark counts, Reffor the Reference counts and λis the wavelength. Here, counts refer to the digitized output of the spectrometer, which are proportional to the spectral radiance measured in a specific geometry. The dark counts are obtained with the spectrometer closed and represent the electronic noise, which must be subtracted from the sample and reference measurements. 2.2 ‘Point’ and imaging measurements Vis-NIRS is most commonly applied on specific ‘points’ of the fruit, by observing a small area, which produce an average spectrum for that specific site. This is called point measurements. But Vis-NIRS can also be applied on extensive sections across the fruit, through multispectral and hyperspectral measurements, which create an image of the measured sections for each wavelength band [44]. The main difference between multi- and hyperspectral modes are the number of wavebands used. Multispectral imaging uses a set of filters and a common digital camera to deliver typically no more than ten bands, while hyperspectral cameras merge imaging and spectral separation in the optical hardware to produce hundreds of contiguous wavebands. Another way to look into hyperspectral images is to think that it yields the reflectance spectrum for each spatial position of a sample (i.e., for each pixel of the image) [44]. Both techniques, although costly, have been shown to successfully assess several IQA, diseases and defects in several fruit, including citrus fruit [50, 51]. Yet, extensive investigation is needed to allow both the acquisition and image processing software to be implemented in real-time systems. Thus, this chapter will only address the systems that perform ‘point’ measurements, based on their much wider spread, cost-effective and friendly use through the supply chain, and particularly under field conditions. Further information on the principles and applications of multispectral and hyperspectral Vis-NIRS technologies could be found in the reviews by [44, 50]. 2.3 Instrumentation and measurement setup There are currently, a large variety of both commercial and lab-made customized Vis-NIRS systems, with various shapes, sizes, and prices, that operate in many spectral ranges, and have reportedly allowed the assessment of several QA, the content of critical compounds and the diagnostic and/or prediction of disorders in a wide sort of fruits, including citrus (Tables 24). Nevertheless, most of the current commercial fruit applications of Vis-NIRS are based on the use of silicon-based spectrophotometers comprising the Vis-SWNIR region (400–1100 nm), because of their accessible prices and the larger light penetration depth in this band, in comparison to the significantly more expensive InGaAs-based devices (900–2500 nm), that do not add too much value to the quality assessment procedure [39]. From handheld, benchtop, to inline automated grading system, all Vis-NIRS devices comprehend the following fundamental components: an optical spectrometer, a light source (usually a tungsten halogen light bulb) and collection optics (optical fibers, lenses, integration spheres, dedicated probes). The current spectrometers typically include a connection for an optical fiber, an entrance slit (that defines the spectral resolution), a diffraction grating to separate the light into its spectral components, mirrors for collimation and focusing, and a light sensing device that is usually a one-dimensional CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) or CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor). The Vis-NIR spectra may be acquired according to three principal geometrical configurations, as depicted in Figure 2: the reflectance mode (a), the transmittance mode (b), and in the interactance mode (c). The reflectance mode is susceptible to receive specularly reflected light, which may be a disadvantage, since only a fraction of the collected photons probes the fruit interior. In the transmittance mode the photons probe necessarily the fruit interior; however, the optical signal may be weak and noisy. The interactance mode is a tradeoff between the two previous modes: by using a contact probe it avoids specularly reflected photons and receives only those traveling through the fruit flesh. Also, the distance between light injection and collection is small, insuring a good optical signal. However, this is also a disadvantage, since the probing depth into the fruit pulp is shallow. Figure 2. Setup for the acquisition of Vis-NIR reflectance spectra in (A) reflectance, (B) transmittance, and (C) interactance modes. Based on [45]. The choice of the geometry is thus of the utmost importance for obtaining good results, and should account for the fruit and the assessed QA. The penetration of NIR radiation into fruit tissue decreases exponentially with the depth, which is quite critical in thick rind fruit such as citrus [50]. Furthermore, the choice of the detection mode might be influenced by the spectral range used, as report by [48], in which both interactance and reflectance modes produced similar models to assess the SSC of ‘Sunkist’ navel oranges in the Vis-SWNIR range, but the participation of Vis region degraded this assessment in the transmittance mode. in general, to detect the internal defects, the transmittance mode should be chosen, while the other two modes are quite reliable regarding other IQA (Tables 24). 2.4 Typical Vis-NIRS spectrum and its interpretation All studies on the use of Vis-NIRS to assess the fruit QA start by acquiring the reflectance (R) spectra, which is then converted to the respective absorbance log(1/R) spectra (Figure 3). The main spectral differences observed in a wide variety of fruit are in the visible region, namely in the 400–750 nm range. This is due to changes in the pigments’ content through ripening, namely chlorophylls, carotenoids and anthocyanins present on the fruit rind [38]. In fruit that change from green to yellow/orange/red colors through ripening, the spectral information on the pigments’ absorption range, may provide accessory indirect correlations with IQA such as firmness, as found in ‘Rocha’ pear (Pyrus communis L.) [77]. This, however, is not so clear in citrus fruit because their color change do not correlate with their maturity and depends on the orchards’ location climate [6]. Otherwise, the pattern of the absorption spectra in the NIR range is quite similar among the various fruit species, although position and magnitude of the peaks are fruit specific, even among citrus fruit varieties [41]. The magnitude of the peaks and minima are also dependent on the acquisition mode used, but in general the same features are present and the landscape of the spectra is similar among the same fruit as reported for ‘Sunkist’ oranges [48]. Figure 3. (a) Average reflectance spectra of a set of 255 ‘Valencia Late’ oranges and 239 ‘Rocha’ pears acquired in the Vis/NIR range in the interactance mode; (b) Average absorbance spectra of the same set of fruit. The nominal positions of the most important absorption bands are indicated in the curves. The number is the order of the transition, ν stands for stretching vibration, δ for bending vibrations and the sum indicates combination bands (for example, 3 ν + δ (O–H) represents the combination band of the second overtone of stretching with the fundamental bending in O–H); (c) Savitzky–Golay [76] filter of second derivative order applied to the absorbances. The bands are again indicated; (d) to (f) Same as in (a) to (c) but in the NIR range, with the spectra acquired in reflectance mode. The spectra in the NIR range convey information mainly related with vibrational bands (stretching and bending) of the relevant functional organic groups, such as O–H, C–H, C–O and C=O. The compilation of the main wavebands present in citrus fruit, namely, O-H and C-H vibration absorptions are presented graphically in Figure 3. These groups exist in all fruit organic molecules, but variations associated with water and storage reserves may induce slight changes in the spectra that may be related with the IQA. Vibration states are quantized and the transitions between states are said to be fundamental or overtones. The fundamental transitions (corresponding to a fundamental band) refer to the transition from the ground state to the first excited state, and take place mainly in the infrared range, that is above 2500 nm. In this range, the absorption peaks are distinguishable and correlate directly to specific compounds, allowing a better assessment of organic compounds such as vitamin C, citric acid or sucrose, as reported in ‘Valencia’ orange [74]. In contrast, the overtone bands correspond to transitions to higher excited states, with a large number falling in the NIR range. For example, the first overtone band corresponds to the transition from the ground state to the second excited state. A very crude approximation is that the n-th overtone frequency is close to (n-1) times the fundamental frequency. Thus, a general rule is that overtones have higher frequencies and lower amplitudes than the fundamental. For example, the fundamental frequency for O–H stretching (1ν) is around 2700 nm, which means that is beyond the range of the most common NIR dispersive-type spectrometers. However, the overtones are within their instrumental range: 2νat 1420 nm (first overtone, strong intensity band), 3νat 970 nm (2nd overtone, medium intensity) and 4νat 750 nm (3rd overtone, low/very low intensity band). The quoted values are only indicative of a typical band central value. Indeed, the vibrations are dependent on the chemical environment, which results in a frequency spread of the bands. Finally, it is important to refer the combination bands. These correspond to the superposition of vibration motions. For example, the fundamental bending mode (1δ) of water at 6300 nm (infrared range) may combine with the fundamental stretching mode at 2700 nm (1ν), to generate a combination band around 1900 nm [ν+δ(O–H)]. Having in mind that the fruit tissue is composed by many different organic molecules, it is easy to understand that the spectral landscape of fruit NIR reflectance is a continuum, due to band superposition, as previously shown by [74], when comparing NIR and medium infrared spectroscopies (MIR), to assess several compounds in ‘Valencia’ oranges. Summarizing, the NIR spectra of a fruit contains mainly overtones and combination bands of stretching and bending vibrations of the main functional organic groups of relevant organic compounds regarding the fruit IQA, such as O–H and C–H. The large number of possible vibrations and corresponding bands originates a spectral landscape with very broad and unspecific features, from which it is nevertheless possible to retrieve useful information. For instance, [74] obtained better prediction of fructose and reducing sugars when using NIRS than MIRS. The typical Vis–NIR and NIR reflectance and absorption spectra of ‘Valencia Late’ orange and ‘Rocha’ pear are depicted in Figure 3 [78]. Both fruit spectra were relatively flat from 700 to 910, followed by strong water absorption peaks around 970, 1450 and 1940 nm. However, the C-H bands may distort slightly the water peaks, and the analysis of this distortion conveys more information than the main peaks alone. It is from these patterns associated with the OH and CH vibrations that it is possible to retrieve the information about sugars. Even the water bands by themselves may convey information about the sugars, because the concentration of sugars and water are interdependent [41, 66, 79, 80]. In the Vis–NIR range the most prominent feature is the 3ν(O–H) peak at 975 nm. This peak is reported in the literature in the range 960–980 nm [79], but the actual location depends on multiple factors: (i) the degree of OH bonding; (ii) the temperature; (iii) the presence of other close bands. In other words, within different chemical environments, the OH group will peak at different wavelengths. Effect of (iii) is more clearly observed in Figure 3c. Indeed, the smooth 975 nm peak observed in absorbance has a more fine structure disclosed upon derivation. Thus, the peak 4ν(CH2) at 930 nm is actually coalescing with the main water peak, causing a depression in the 2nd derivative left positive peak. The form of this overlap is a source of information about all organic compounds content, namely sugars, acids, proteins, etc. A minor feature, but consistently observed in most fruit, is the slight inflection around 840 nm, which is caused by the band 3ν+δ(O–H). In this case it is more clearly observable in the reflectance spectrum, Figure 3a. In this discussion is important to have in mind that second derivation of a symmetric peaks yields a negative peak at the same position, with two lateral smaller positive peaks. This is clearly observed for the 840 nm feature in the 2nd derivative plot, with the negative peak coinciding with the 3ν+δ(O–H) absorption wavelength. On the contrary, the peaks of the 3ν(O–H) features do not coincide in the absorbance and 2nd derivative plots, which clearly indicates spectral overlap. Similar curves are observed in other cultivars. For example, in ‘Newhall’ orange [66] the same structure for the second derivative plot was observed, although a different technique was used, namely the Norris derivative [81]. Concerning the NIR spectra, those from the oranges show three main peaks at 1190, 1450 and 1940 nm, whose origin may be traced to the 3ν(C–H), 2ν(O–H) and ν+δ(O–H) bands, respectively. However, satellite bands overlap, as in the Vis/NIR case. The most ‘pure’ peak is the first, around 1200 nm, corresponding to the 3ν(C–H) band. As is the 840 nm band, absorbance and 2nd derivative peaks coincide. The other two main peaks are more complex blends of two or more bands. For example, the second peak around 1450 nm, although dominated by the stronger 2ν(O–H) band, has contributions from 2ν+δ(C–H) and 2ν+2δ(C–H). Consequently, the 2nd derivative feature associated with this mix is more complex. The same could be said about the third peak. Furthermore, due to several causes, the various peaks, even when they coincide among different fruit, may present different levels of importance, signified by their infrared values, with the various IQA. For instance, the combination band of OH reported at 839 nm correlated highly with SSC in ‘Rocha’ pear samples, but not in ‘Valencia Late’ oranges [78]. 3. Chemometrics As it has been mentioned earlier, Vis–NIR spectra of fresh fruits tend to be composed by a large superposition of absorption bands. The presence of a substantial amount of water in fresh fruit has a big impact in the spectra, dominating most of the spectral landscape. Therefore, the signals corresponding to the absorption bands of key chemical compounds such as sugars and acids, become masked by water and are only discernible as weak fluctuations in the spectrum. Given the complex interplay between the multiple absorption bands and their weak amplitudes, most of the times the linear relation between chemical compound concentration and absorption (Lambert–Beer law) is almost lost. In order to be able to extract information about chemical concentrations from this type of spectrum, we have to look for relationships’ patterns between different wavelengths. This is done resorting to multivariate statistical techniques, that when applied in the field of analytical chemistry is called Chemometrics. This research field can be considered as a subset of the broader area of Machine Learning, and pursues the same goals, i.e., infer critical information from high dimensional data. There is a vast literature on this subject for those who wish to learn more about Chemometrics. Here are some suggestions for introductory and advanced levels [82, 83, 84, 85, 86]. In this section, it is presented a brief introduction to the scientific language used in this area, with the sole objective of familiarize the reader with the main concepts that are often presented in the literature. In Vis-NIRS of fresh fruit, the input data are spectra, i.e. one-dimensional arrays of values, each one corresponding to the intensity of light (diffusively reflected or absorbed) at a specific wavelength. Each spectrum Xn(n=1,number of samples) represents a measurement or sample and each point xi(i=1,, number of variables) of the spectrum is usually referred to as input variables, spectral features or simply as ‘wavelengths’. The macroscopic properties or QA features that are obtained through laboratory testing (e.g. SSC, firmness, etc.) are commonly defined as target variables Ynor simply attributes. Chemometrics consists on the application of mathematical/statistical methods that allow mapping the spectral features xiinto the target variables Y. These methods can be subdivided into two broad subcategories: unsupervised and supervised. In the former type of method, only the input variables xiare used and, the main purpose is to find, for example, trends within the data, clusters that can be used for classification or other general characteristics of the data set. On the other hand, supervised methods use both input and target variables and can be used for classification tasks (e.g. discriminate between different fruit sub-species or origins) or for quantitative (regression) prediction of attributes that have continuous distributions (e.g. SSC, firmness, TA, etc.). 3.1 Spectral pre-processing and outlier detection In order to implement the best calibration model possible to predict the expected QA, often the spectral data has to be preprocessed before being used. Preprocessing techniques are used to remove irrelevant information (noise, systematic errors and faulty samples) that can degrade the performance of the numerical algorithm used to develop the calibration model. Several preprocessing methods have been created for this purpose and reviews, such as [83, 87], present a wider scope of these techniques. A brief summary of the most commonly used methods is presented in Table 1. For Vis-NIRS, the most common forms of spectral preprocessing can be stacked into two groups: scatter corrections (SC) and derivative techniques (DT). Scatter-corrective methods are used to remove the influence of scattered light that can contaminate the diffuse reflectance spectra. The rationale behind SC techniques is to remove effects that are unrelated to the chemical composition of the samples and that just depend on the measurement geometry or samples morphology. On the other hand, DT are designed to improve signal to noise ratios, eliminate systematic baseline biases and enhance spectral variations. Another type of preprocessing commonly mentioned in the literature is outlier detection. This process consists in identifying and removing from the data set, samples that are very different from the rest of the samples. These outliers can be for example, reflectance spectra that were defectively acquired or fruit with odd properties. The idea is to remove these samples from the data set, using some pre-defined metric in order to feed the model only with the most representative samples in the data set that lead to a correct mapping of the attribute being predicted by the calibration model constructed. MSC (Multiplicative Scattering Correction) [88]Each spectrum Xnis regressed against a reference spectrum (usually the mean spectrum, Xm) using a least square method. Then, the corrected spectrum is computed based on these regression coefficients. There are more sophisticated variants of this method (e.g. Extended MSC [89] that try to correct for additional additive effects). SNV (Standard Normal Variate) [90]Each individual spectrum Xnis normalized to have zero mean and unit variance. In some cases, this can also appear as sample standardization. Smooth derivatives (Savitzky–Golay (SG) [76] and Norris-Williams (NW) [81]The spectrum derivative in relation to the wavelength is computed. Usually the first derivatives remove baseline effects and the second derivative remove baseline and linear trends in the spectrum. Smooth derivatives are computed using an averaging multi point window in order to be more robust against spurious noise. SG and NW algorithms are the most common methods to compute these derivatives. De-trendingThis process consists in fitting a polynomial (usually 1st or 2nd order) to the spectrum and subtract it from the signal. This provides baseline correction. ScalingScaling is a sort of umbrella under with we can find multiple types of data manipulations. The most common ones are: baseline subtraction, sub-sampling, normalization on columns (all spectral features in the data set are scaled between a max and min values) and normalization on rows (the individual spectral features are scaled between min and max). Table 1. Most common spectral preprocessing techniques. 3.2 Clustering In Vis–NIR spectra of fresh fruit, the common spectrum is often described by smooth mounds and soft depressions. This means that adjacent wavelengths can be highly correlated. Therefore, in order to reduce redundancy of information provided by neighbour features xixi+1xi+2(also called co-linearity), sometimes it is beneficial to restrict the number of used input variables. This is often called dimensionality reduction and is very important for the right operation of certain calibration models. The simplest way to deal with this problem is by using sub-sampling, where a certain number of spectral features are discarded, e.g. every 3rd or 5th point in the spectra. To deal with this problem of dimensionality reduction, some ‘clever’ algorithms were introduced, the most common being the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) algorithm, the Hierarchical Clustering Analysis (HCA) and K-Means. the latest two methods can be used for classification tasks (mapping a cluster to a class) and for outlier detection as well. If samples are too far apart from the defined clusters (according to some metric such as the Euclidean distance or the Mahalanobis distance), then this suggests that it might be an outlier. 3.3 Classification and regression models As we mentioned earlier, depending on the problem at hand, we might need to implement a classification or a regression model for our data. Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) is perhaps one of the most straight forward methods to implement. It expands the application of simple linear regression to the multivariate case by linearly combining them. Due to its simplicity, this method has some drawbacks, namely an inefficient applicability in the cases of high co-linearity in the data, and when the number of features in the data set is higher than the number of samples. This is often the case of fresh fruit Vis–NIRS datasets and hence its applicability has been limited. One way of overcoming these limitations, is to use a dimensionality reduction method, such as PCA and then perform MLR on these lower dimensional components. This workflow is known as Principal Component Regression (PCR). Partial Least Square Regression (PLS) is without question the most widely used method to create calibration models to predict the most QA of fresh fruit (Tables 24). As opposed to PCA, the PLS algorithm takes into account the covariance between input xiand target Yivariables. In the same spirit as PCA, PLS also projects the data into a latent space, but this time the components are defined along the direction of maximum variance between xiand Yi. These components are called latent variables (also named factors by some researchers), are built in order to model the target variable, and their number is what defines the quality of the PLS model. In general, a low number of latent variables usually lead to more robust predictions, but that might not always be the case. A variant of PLS named PLS Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) can be used to deal with classification scenarios when the target variables Yiare not continuous (e.g. 0, 1 for fruits without and with defects). The models mentioned so far are can be described as linear because they rely on a linear combination of multivariate solutions. Besides the easiness of implementation, they are also classically appreciated in Chemometrics because they are easy to interpret in terms of feature importance, i.e., after fitting the model to the data we can back-trace some parameters (e.g. regression coefficients) and find what wavelengths or spectral bands better contributed to the prediction. In turn, this allows inferring information about the chemical concentrations and can be used to identify biological and metabolic behaviors. IQAUnitRange (nm)ModeStat MethodValRMSEPR2RPDRef ‘Marsh’ grapefruit Chl ag/kg0.790.872.31 Chl bg/kg2.80.943.61 ‘Star Ruby’ grapefruit TAg/100 mL0.070.832.46 ‘Trovita’ orange ‘Valencia’ orange TAg/100 mL0.020.933.88 FirmN1000–2500RPLSE6.22 a0.85[73] Pectin%1000–25005.04 a0.49 ‘Shatian’ pomelo ‘Honey’ pomelo Granul400–1700TPCA-NNI0.97–0.98 b[14] sweet lemon FreezeBinary400–1100TSIMCAI>92% b[13] InjuryPCA-NN100% b Table 2. Overview of applications of Vis-NIRS to measure the quality attributes of citrus fruit by benchtop devices. List of symbols in Table 5. SEP values. This value corresponds the accuracy of the classification. IQAUnitRange (nm)ModeStat MethodValRMSEPR2RPDRef ‘Marsh’ grapefruit DM%400–8500.30 c0.88 ‘Ehime Kashi28’ mandarin ‘Imperial’ mandarin SSC%720–950IMPLSE0.6–0.8 d0.5-0.81.2-3.4[53] DM%0.6 e0.9 e SSC%720-950IMPLSE0.4–0.5 f0.6-0.9[54] 0.4–0.5 g0.3-0.7 0.8–6.8 h0.0-0.8 ‘Nanfeng’ mandarin TAg/100 mL400–1040TPLSI0.090.41[55] VitCmg/100 mL2.800.64 TAg/100 mLBPNN0.090.42 VitCmg/100 mL2.700.64 ‘Nules Clementine’ mandarin Sucrosemg/g DW240.771.4 Glucosemg/g DW110.882.86 Fructosemg/g DW120.903.23 TotSugmg/g DW310.903.15 ‘Gannan’ orange 685-983 aSPAPLS0.570.842.51 Navel orange SSC%580-970 bTPPSOPLSI0.430.79[60] ‘Valencia Late’ orange ‘Page’ tangelo TAc.a./100 g400–1000RPLSI0.030.77[62] Table 3. Overview of applications of Vis-NIRS to measure the QA of citrus fruit by portable spectrometers/systems under laboratory conditions. List of symbols in Table 5. Selected wavelengths in this range. Selected wavelength bands in this range. Cross validation. Combinations of cal. and val. Sets. Combinations of cal. and val. sets (harvest day). Combinations of cal. and val. sets (orchard location). Combinations of cal. and val. sets (season). IQAUnitRange (nm)ModeStat MethodValRMSEPR2RPDRef ‘Clemenvilla’ mandarin TA% acid citric1600–2400RMPLSI0.150.56[63] SSC%0.77 a0.50 MISSC/TA1.46 a0.53 pH0.11 a0.61 MPFN7.3 a0.45 PerThmm0.54 a0.51 TA% acid citric1600–2400RLOCALI0.13 a0.762.08[64] SSC%0.71 a0.571.51 MISSC/TA1.13 a0.792.14 pH0.11 a0.741.91 BrimASSC-TA0.70 a0.752.0 5 cultivars of orange ‘Newhall’ orange SSC%680–1100IPLSI/E1/1.1 ± .2.5/.3 ± .11.4/1.1 ± .1[66] Juice pH.2/.27 ± .04.5/.4 ± 0.11.4/1.1 ± 0.1 ‘Powell Summer’ orange Juice Weightg180.68 ‘Clemenvilla’ mandarin and ‘Powell Navel’ orange JuiceMassg1600–2400RLOCALI0.92 a0.691.77[68] PerThmm28 a0.721.86 SSC%1600–2400RLOCAL0.86 a0.782.09[64] pH0.15 a0.721.93 TA% acid citric0.14 a0.842.43 MISSC/TA2.98 a0.772.08 BrimASSC-TA0.84 a0.782.15 Table 4. Overview of applications of Vis-NIRS to measure the quality attributes of citrus fruit by portable systems on-tree. List of symbols in Table 5. Corrected to bias. ColumsRows’ content IQA: Internal Quality AttributesβCar: βcarotene; BrimA: Brix minus Acids (SSC-k(TA)); Chl a: chlorophyll a; Chl b: chlorophyll b; CitAc: Citric Acid; DegOleoc: Degree of oleocellosis; DMC: Dry Matter Content; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylnhydrazyl; DM: dry matter; Firm: Firmness; Fruct: Fructose; Gluc: Glucose; Granul: Granulation; JuiceVol: Juice Volume; MPF: Maximum Penetration Force; MI: Maturation Index; Pectin: Pectin Content; PerTh: Pericarp Thickness; RateOleoc: Rate of oleocellosis; RBD: Rind Breakdown disorder; RedSug: Reduced Sugars; RindPitt: Rind Pitting; SSC: Soluble Solid Content; Suc: Sucrose; TA: Titratable Acidity; TAO: total antioxidant capacity; TotCar: Total Carotenoids; TotSug: total sugars; TPh: Total Phenolic content; VitC: Vitamin C; WC: Water Content; WL: Weight Loss Mode: mode of acquisitionR (Reflectance), I (interactance) or T (transmittance) StatMethod: Statistical method employediPLS: Interval PLS; LAR: Least Angle Regression; LOCAL: Patented algorithm for PLS regression from a subset of proximal calibration samples; LS-SVM: Least squares support vector machines; MLR: Multiple linear regression; MPLS: Modified PLS PCA-NN: Principal components analysis combined with artificial neural networks; PCA-BPNN: back propagation neural network (BPNN) based on principal component analysis (PCA) PLS: Partial Least Squares; PPSOPLS: piecewise particle swarm optimization (PPSO) algorithm based PLS SIMCA: Soft independent modelling of class analogy; SPAPLS: Succesive Projections algorithm coupled with PLS; SVM: Support vector machines; VABPLS: variable adaptive boosting partial least squares Val: Model validation typeI (internal), CV (cross validation only), E (external) RMSEP: Root Mean Square Error of Prediction R2: Coefficient of determination RPD: Residual predictive deviation Table 5. List of abbreviatures used in Tables 2-4. In the last couple of decades, non-linear models imported from other areas of Machine Learning have begun to permeate Chemometrics, and given its high use case in the literature, Support Vector Machines (SVM) is one of the most popular. The strategy of this model consists in searching for boundaries that separate two cluster or classes. The algorithm tries to find the best boundary between classes by maximizing a distance margin between neighbor samples. It has the advantage that it can use kernel tricks to transform the data points into another mathematical space, where these boundaries are easier to establish. SVMs were initially used for classification tasks, but have been extended to deal with regression problems as well (SVR). SVR has been used successfully for many datasets, and the most often mentioned drawback is the complexity of its optimization task. Another popular type of non-linear models that is often used for classification and regression problems is Neural Networks (NN). These represent a wide class of algorithms with many types of architectures and are derived from the field of Artificial Intelligence. In recent years, classical NN architectures such as the Multi-Layer Perceptron has been increasingly substituted by more modern architectures developed for Deep Learning. The most promising of these NN are the so called Convolutional Neural Networks that have been very successful in image recognition tasks. 3.4 The quality of a calibration model Independent of the type of model that is used for prediction or classification, the important thing is to find how well it performs on the desired data. To assess the quality of the predictions made by the calibration models, several metrics are often used. In a recent review by [38], the author makes a case for the uniformization of the report of error metrics in future publications. In what follows these recommendations are highligted. The partitioning of the data for model development is very important. The data set should always be split into two sub-sets, called train and test sets. The train set, as its name suggests, is used for the calibration model development and, once the main hyper-parameters have been established, the model is used to predict the test set and assess its performance. Model development can be done with the full train set using a cross-validation strategy or by further splitting it into calibration and tuning (or assessment or validation) sets. As a note of caution, it is important to mention that for different areas of Machine Learning the names given to these data splits can vary and that can lead to some confusion. Otherwise, the test set should be derived from a different distribution from that of the train, in which case it is named as external validation set [45]. For example, data from two consecutive harvest seasons are used as train set, while the test set uses data from a third season. A similar situation can be envisaged by using a train set collected from different orchards or origins, than that used for validation. Yet, given the large amount of time invested in acquiring this type of data, multi-seasonal or multi-orchards test data sets are not often found in the literature. In contrast, laboratory models with homogeneous fruit sets are abundant (Tables 24). Currently, the most common procedure when constructing and validating Vis-NIRS models for the various fruit QA is to separate a fraction of the available samples as train/calibration set (usually 80%), and the remaining as test/validation set (usually 20%). Furthermore, the validation samples are typically chosen as the best possible representation of the whole set and within the variation range of the train set. This has been applied even when the models comprehend several species and/or cultivars, orchard locations and harvest years, which are mixed in the calibration and validation sets [68]. All studies included in Tables 24 that used this approach, were labeled as internal in the validation column. Internal validation does not ensure the success of a continuous monitoring application, which is a dynamic and open process, particularly, if one aims to use the Vis-NIRS in real world applications, being in inline grading systems or handheld devices. Once the model is applied to the test set and a final prediction is made, one can assess how well the model performs by computing several metrics. If the model was developed for regression, the most used are the root mean squared error (RMSE), bias, the slope, the coefficient of determination (R2), and the standard deviation ratio (SDR) or ratio of performance to deviation (RPD) or residual standard deviation (RSD). If the model is developed for classification, the advised metrics are accuracy (ACC), F1 score and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. For completeness, these metrics are often computed not only for the test set, but also for the calibration, and tuning sets as well. The comparison between calibration (C), tuning (CV) and test set (P) error metrics allows to understand how well the model generalizes, i.e. how the information learned by the model during training transposes to the final external validation dataset. 4. Prediction of quality attributes Vis-NIRS combined with various chemometric methods has produced calibration models to predict simultaneously multiple QA of various citrus species and varieties, which are presented in Tables 24. These attributes range from fruit size, weight and color [68] to SSC, MI, external and internal defects, several compounds such as sugars, acids, pigments and antioxidants. As expected, these models address predominantly several varieties of orange and mandarin, but also grapefruit, lime, pomelo, sweet lemon and tangelo. The spectral ranges used cover the whole Vis-NIRS range. The majority of the Vis-NIRS calibration models were obtained from samples collected and assessed under controlled conditions in the laboratory, after fruit temperature equilibration, either with benchtop or handheld devices (Tables 2 and 3). Despite the large market availability of the latter, presenting different levels of portability, spectral ranges, sizes, and prices, only a few studies have focused on its application to assess the quality and ripening of oranges and mandarins on-tree (Table 4), perhaps due to the complexities involved under field conditions, and the performance deterioration of calibration models, in spite of the spectral range used [63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68]. Nevertheless, the QA assessed on-tree (Table 4) comprise fruit mass and size, color parameters [63, 67, 68], pericarp thickness, SSC, TA, firmness, MI, juice pH and mass, and BrimA index, which measures the balance between sweetness and acidity as described by [12]. Noteworthy, the majority of the calibration models exhibited R2<0.8, despite the range used, and did not include external validation, except for [65, 66]. Grading lines equipped with Vis-NIR sensors are now commercially available from various companies, to assess both the EQA and IQA of citrus fruit [38, 39, 40]. Unfortunately, the scientific evidence about the accuracy of these systems is very scarce, due to the ‘industrial secrecy’. Nevertheless, there are a few cases of partnership among the industrial sector and the research groups to know the real applicability and their performance in assessing citrus fruit QA by such equipment [91], in most cases still in the prototype stage, as reported by [92, 93]. [91] evaluated the performance of a customized NIR equipment installed underneath the fruit conveyor to sort oranges and mandarins in a Spanish packinghouse. This system working in a transmittance mode in the 650–970 nm spectral range, only provided calibration models that could discriminate between low and high values of SSC for both mandarin (R = 0.76–0.86; SEP 0.9 °Brix; RPD 0.74) and orange (R = 0.87; SEP 0.7 °Brix; RPD <1.5). No acceptable models were obtained for TA in neither species. [92] evaluated the performance of a Vis-NIRS system to assess the SSC of ‘Indian River’ red grapefruit and ‘Honey’ tangerine from Florida in a sorting inline prototype, with R2 ranging from 0.15 to 0.67. The prototype percent correct classification averaged 85% for SSC at 10 °Brix and 79% for an 11 °Brix setpoint in the second-year of tests. Otherwise, [93] reported on the development and laboratory testing of the nondestructive citrus fruit quality monitoring prototype system, which consisted of a light detection and ranging (LIDAR) and Vis-NIRS sensors installed on an inclined conveyor for mimicking real-time fruit size and SSC measurement respectively, during harvest. Laboratory tests in ‘Valencia’ orange revealed that the system was applicable for instantaneous fruit size (R2 = 0.91) and SSC (R2 = 0.677, SEP = 0.48 °Brix) determination. The various Vis-NIRS calibration models presented in this chapter, show different levels of accuracy, prediction and robustness for the various attributes, SSC being the most successfully IQA assessed at all spectral ranges, independently of the devices used (Tables 24). Both juice pH and vitamin C also seem easily assessed by devices operating in the Vis-SWNIRS range devices [55, 94, 95], but TA has been shown to require wavelengths range >1000 nm [13, 96]. Additionally, calibration models for firmness have been difficult to obtain, although there are a few exceptions reported for several orange varieties, in the reflectance mode and in the ranges 500–1690 nm [67], and 1000–2500 nm [73]. Of course, the calibration models for specific compounds, such as sugars, acids or antioxidants, require in most cases the longer NIR spectral range [12, 69, 74]. Both external and internal defects in citrus have been successfully predicted by Vis-NIRS, such is the case of the section drying in tangerine (transmittance; 780 and 960 nm) [10], oleocellosis in ‘Trovita’ orange (reflectance; 400–1000 nm) [71], the freeze damage in sweet lemon (half-transmittance; 400–110 nm) [13], the rind pitting in ‘Marsh’ grapefruit (reflectance; 400–2500) [12] or the granulation in ‘Shantian’ pomelo (transmittance; 400–700) [75]. However, [97] was not able to predict the external disorder RBD in ‘Nules Clementine’ mandarin (interactance; range 450–1000 nm). Among the chemometrics methods used to construct the calibration models, PLS is still the main linear regression technique used, and the one to produce the best models for the widest number of QA (Tables 24). However, there are some exceptions, regarding the use of non-linear techniques, which were shown to deliver calibration models with equivalent or even better prediction and accuracy for several QA than PLS. Among these, there is the WT-LSSVR, BP-NN and LS-SMV that provided models with higher prediction capacity for SS in ‘Gannan’ orange [58], SSC, TA and vitamin C in Nanfeng mandarin [55] and in ‘Newhall’ orange [96], respectively. The LOCAL algorithm has also shown to produce better models than MPLS for firmness and juice mass in ‘Powell Summer Navel’ orange [67], and in ‘Clemenvilla’ mandarin [68]. SIMCA, SVM and particularly PCA-ANN, also allowed to assess with a total accuracy >98% the freeze damage in sweet lemon [13] and PCA-GRNN allowed the assessment of the granulation in ‘Honey’ pomelo at a classification accuracy (CA) >95% [14]. Independently of the chemometrics technique used, for the majority of the models presented in Tables 24, the train and test fruit sets were chosen from the same batch, orchards or seasons. Even when the whole data set comprised fruit from several orchards, harvest season or citrus varieties, the usual approach was to randomly choose 80% of the whole data set to construct the calibration model and 20% to validate it, as reported by [68, 97]. A truly stringent external validation is thus required to have a realistic idea of the models’ performance in orchard and/or cargo batch monitoring. External validation means validation through a dataset with a different origin (spatial or temporal) relatively to the datasets used in calibration. Nevertheless, there are some clear examples of this approach, such as previously reported for mandarin [53, 56, 97, 98, 99], orange [12, 56, 65, 66, 70, 72, 73, 97], and grapefruit [12, 70]. Without the effective external validation, it is not possible to know exactly how well these models would work in real conditions due to the large variability within the trees, orchards, sites and harvest seasons. Yet, a certain degree of deterioration of the initial model prediction is expected, which would warrant further attention. This has been reported by [54, 65, 66]. Yet, there is space and potential for improvement beyond the ‘proof of concept’, if one aims to use these devices on the daily routines of the orchards’ management. This has been suggested by [55, 66] through model recalibration using a few fruits from the new harvest season/orchard, or by achieving a strong degree of robustness by constructing a multi-seasonal and multi-orchard model as reported by [67] for ‘Newhall’ orange, which will be much more advantageous when assessing the ripening of fruit on-tree. 5. Future research and perspectives Vis-NIRS has been incorporated by a large number of companies in commercial applications to be used on inline, benchtop and handheld systems. However, there are several topics regarding the full potential and limitations of this technology that require attention and further research in order to provide the consistency warranted by the daily basis routines of the citrus supply chain when assessing fruit quality and ripening. Firstly, all researchers engaged in this area should report their results in a uniform way, particularly in what respects the obtained models’ metrics [38]. This would allow a better understanding on the effective advances and contributions made by each study. Other models’ metrics parameters, such as the prediction gain, may also be useful, as reported by [100]. Secondly, the calibration models’ robustness must be addressed and solved through a stringent multi-year, multi-cultivar and multi-orchard validation, such as previously reported by [66]. The usual approach of validating calibration models with a random fraction of the total available data set, even when the models comprehend several varieties, orchard sites and harvest years does not ensure the success of a continuous monitoring application and delivers unrealistic performance metrics [53, 54]. The usual recalibration and spiking approaches used to improve the initial calibration models with a few fruits from independent data sets that will be then assessed, assume that those fruits used to recalibrate/update the model constitute a faithful representation of the new population and are common techniques in various commercial devices, for inline and benchtop systems. However, this becomes quite difficult to apply if one aims to monitor the on-tree fruit ripening evolution through time, for the fruit sampled in the first weeks cannot represent those to be measured in the last weeks of the harvest season. Thirdly, there is a large potential for models’ improvement, by using the non-linear techniques of machine learning, and those of deep learning. Fourthly, there is much to understand on the effect of the rind in the assessment of the pulp IQA in citrus fruit, since the NIR radiation hardly gets to the fruit pulp, and both biochemical and optical properties have a major role to play in the spectral data acquired [47, 49, 95, 101, 102]. Fifthly, the calibration models should be able to predict attributes that are closer to the organoleptic evaluation of the fruit. It is the case of BrimA index, a better indicator of fruit sweetness that the SSC, which was satisfactorily predicted in orange, grapefruit and mandarin [12, 64]. Finally, the handheld devices must really be tested under field conditions, if one aims to assess the fruit on-tree, which is essential for the OHD decision. 6. Conclusions The usefulness of Vis-NIRS combined with different chemometric techniques in the supply chain of citrus fruit is already quite extensive and growing, similarly to many other commodities. In this chapter the authors only addressed the classic spectral ‘point’ measurements, but it is quite clear that both inline, benchtop and handheld devices are used to assess nondestructively multiple QA in various citrus species and cultivars, with a clear predominance of orange and mandarin. Among these attributes, there are both EQA and IQA, as well as defects caused by various factors, such as physiological disorders. The devices available on the market are from various brands, operate in various ranges and present a wide variety of prices. Aside from the “proof of concept” made by many studies, that the authors tried to comprise as much as possible in this chapter, there are several issues that still need to be addressed by researchers, a major one being the need for a stringent external validation of the calibration models, in order to assure robustness and to fulfill with the essential requirements to include this technology in the daily routines of these crop supply chain. This is of the utmost importance when considering the assessment of fruit ripening on-tree to determine the optimal harvest date for each orchard, or sections of the orchard. This is highly significant based on the determinant effect of producing and harvesting the fruit at its best ripening stage, thus assuring the best quality throughout the whole postharvest and shelf-life. As a concluding remark, it is very important to add that these devices are of medium and high cost, and that are not the kind of technology to ‘set and forget’, as reiterated by [39], which demands not only for a budget to acquire the systems, but also to maintain them, and to keep the continuous update and improvement of the calibration models, that in most cases need the selling company assistance. Thus, there must be a cost–benefit that both the producers and packinghouses have to meet through the added commercial value to citrus fruit by these systems, and the consumer willingness to pay for fresh fruit graded in terms of IQA such as sugar content, acidity and nutraceutical properties. The authors acknowledge FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal, for funding CEOT project UIDB/00631/2020 CEOT BASE and UIDP/ 00631/2020 CEOT PROGRAMATICO, and MED- Project UIDB/05183/2020. Dário Passos was funded by project OtiCalFrut (ALG-01-0247-FEDER-033652). Rosa Pires was funded through a BI fellowship from project NIBAP (ALG-01-0247-FEDER-037303). Conflict of interest There are no conflicts of interest. Download for free chapter PDF How to cite and reference Link to this chapter Copy to clipboard Cite this chapter Copy to clipboard Ana M. Cavaco, Dário Passos, Rosa M. Pires, Maria D. Antunes and Rui Guerra (February 4th 2021). Nondestructive Assessment of Citrus Fruit Quality and Ripening by Visible–Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy [Online First], IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.95970. Available from: chapter statistics 29total chapter downloads More statistics for editors and authors Access personal reporting More About Us
Why Your Cat Is Itchy and What You Can Do February 02, 2021 Share this: “Pruritus” is the term veterinarians use for itchiness in pets, and it is among the most common presenting complaints in animal hospitals. In both dogs and cats, the majority of skin disease is pruritic. Unfortunately for itchy cats, direct treatment options are slightly more limited than in dogs. The focus of treatment for pruritus is eliminating the underlying cause. Itchy skin in cats can be successfully managed in most cases once the main cause of the itch is identified, and they will be much more comfortable after treatment. Here’s what you need to know about why your cat is itchy and what you can do about it. What Causes Itchy Skin in Cats? There are many causes of itchy skin in cats, but you can roughly divide them into three categories: • Infectious • Allergic (inflammatory) • Everything else Infectious causes are often parasitic, although bacterial and fungal infections are common as well. Allergic causes are usually inflammatory in nature. When your cat inhales, ingests, or otherwise comes in contact with an allergen, her immune system can overreact, so to speak, resulting in skin inflammation and itchiness. The "everything else” category of feline pruritus is lengthy and diverse. Everything from inherited, genetic diseases to autoimmune disorders to cancers can generate an itching sensation in the skin of cats. Once your veterinarian is able to determine the underlying cause of your cat’s itchy skin, the treatment is targeted at eliminating that cause (if possible) to minimize the itch and to improve your pet’s quality of life. Infectious Causes Behind Itchiness in Cats When a cat’s skin becomes infected—be it with bacteria, fungi, or parasites—itchiness is usually the result. When an itchy cat comes into the animal hospital, testing for the most common skin infections is one of the first diagnostic steps in the workup. “Dermatophytosis” is the medical word for a ringworm infection, and it’s among the most common infectious causes of feline pruritus. Dermatophytosis can be passed to people, so testing for ringworm, either by fungal culture or a more modern laboratory test called PCR, is an important step, even if pet owners don’t believe ringworm to be the cause. Parasitic Infections More commonly, parasitic infections (sometimes referred to as parasitic infestations) can cause cats to become itchy. Parasites that live on the skin are called ectoparasites, a term that includes fleas, ticks, mites, and other organisms. Because many cats live exclusively indoors, administration of flea and tick preventatives is far less common in cats than in dogs. The reluctance of cat owners to administer these products in a consistent manner is due partly to the false perception that indoor cats cannot contract parasitic infections. The owners of itchy indoor cats are almost always surprised when told that their cat has fleas, even though fleas are present in over 50% of itchy cat cases. Cats who are itchy on the back half of the body, especially near the base of the tail, represent a classic case of flea infestation. Your veterinarian will visually inspect the skin and fur, often using a flea comb to check for flea dirt. Additionally, skin scrapes are commonly performed to check for the presence of mites such as demodex. However, because flea and tick preventatives are very effective in killing fleas and numerous types of mites, some veterinarians will treat itchy cats with these products first, then continue with the workup only if the itchiness persists. Inflammatory Causes of Itchiness in Cats Different types of allergies constitute the inflammatory issues that can lead to itchiness in cats. The most common itch-causing allergies in cats are: While rare, inflammatory itchiness can also be caused by contact allergies. Food Allergies In cats, food allergies are usually caused by proteins like chicken or fish. Despite common wisdom, grain allergies are extremely rare. People will often switch their cat to a grain-free diet, a limited-ingredient diet, or other diets, thinking falsely that these diets are the best way to reduce their cat’s itchiness. According to veterinary dermatologists, a food trial is one of the best, most cost-effective ways to evaluate whether food allergies are contributing to a cat’s itch. During a food trial, the cat is fed nothing but a hydrolyzed diet. Hydrolyzed diets are prescription pet foods that cannot elicit an allergic response because the proteins in the food have been broken up into such small pieces (amino acids) that the immune system cannot recognize them as foreign proteins, so they don’t trigger the allergic reaction. Food trials typically last eight weeks (although there is emerging evidence that shorter food trials are possible with the aid of steroids, at least in dogs). After eight weeks, the cat’s itch level is reassessed. If the itch is dramatically improved while on the hydrolyzed diet, but quickly returns when other diets are given, a food allergy is the primary culprit. These cats should be fed a hydrolyzed protein diet or a novel protein diet throughout their lives. Environmental Allergies Environmental allergies are caused by allergens that are inhaled by cats, who then develop the allergic skin condition known as atopy. These allergies can be strongly suspected based on factors like seasonality or regionality, but definitive diagnosis involves intradermal allergy testing. Allergy blood tests are readily available but are less reliable than intradermal testing. As with people, intradermal allergy testing in cats involves the injection of small amounts of dozens of common potential allergens (done under sedation or anesthesia), then visually inspecting the skin’s reaction to each of the injections. Since environmental allergens like dust and pollen are nearly impossible to avoid, allergy testing is most useful in cases where pet owners are interested in pursuing hyposensitization therapy (allergy shots). Flea Bite Hypersensitivity Flea bite hypersensitivity, also known as flea allergy dermatitis (FAD), is the number one cause of skin disease in both dogs and cats. FAD is an allergy to flea saliva, resulting in a disproportionate immune response and severe itchiness after even a small number of flea bites. Itchiness in the rear half of a cat’s body is the classic clinical presentation of FAD. Because so few fleas can cause such dramatic levels of itch, elimination of 100% of fleas is the goal, both in the environment and on the cat. Other insect bites, such as mosquito bites, can induce a similar but milder skin reaction and itch. Contact Allergies Contact allergies, while rare, can cause cats to become itchy after coming in contact with an allergen. Reactions to cat litter are one common example, but certain fabrics, dyes, cleaning materials, plastics, and plants can also cause contact allergies. Unlike environmental allergies, contact allergies are easily avoided once the offending agent is identified, so long-term therapy is usually focused on removing the allergen rather than treating the animal directly. Everything Else That Can Cause Itchiness in Cats As stated above, there are many reasons a cat can become itchy. If your pet’s itchiness is not attributable to one of the infectious or allergic causes above, the remaining list of causes is quite long. Your regular veterinarian may recommend a referral to a veterinary dermatologist at this juncture. Further testing, especially biopsies of the skin, may also be performed in-house. If further testing or referral to a specialty practice is cost-prohibitive, treating symptoms alone is sometimes possible, although less ideal. Why Is My Indoor Cat Itchy? Many cat owners falsely believe that itchiness, especially due to fleas, is solely an affliction of cats that go outdoors. While going outdoors does increase a cat’s risk for parasites, ringworm, contact allergies, and environmental allergies, remaining indoors does not eliminate the risk. The list of possible causes for your indoor cat’s itch is quite similar to the list if he were an outdoor cat, although the list ranked by likelihood may appear in a different order. How Do Vets Determine Why a Cat Is Itchy? Generally, the first step in a dermatologic workup for an itchy cat is to perform tests that look for skin infections. Testing for Skin Infections Your vet will likely perform these tests to see if your cat has a skin infection that is causing itchiness: • Cytology involves transferring material from the cat’s skin to a microscope slide, either directly, by pressing the slide to the skin, or by using transparent tape to pick up cells and deposit them onto the slide. • Skin scrapes are another routine test in which a small blade is scraped across a small patch of the cat’s skin. The cells collected from the scrape are also examined microscopically for mites such as demodex. • Hairs are generally plucked from the most-affected areas and submitted to a lab for ringworm testing. • Occasionally, veterinary clinics will perform fungal cultures in-house, but this practice is becoming increasingly rare. Biopsies and Allergy Testing Once infections have been ruled out or treated, cats that remain itchy will usually go through several other diagnostic tests to discover the cause. • Biopsies, in which small, circular punches of skin are removed and submitted to a pathologist for review, are among the most useful diagnostics for skin disease. The downside to skin biopsies is that cats must be sedated or anesthetized to collect the sample. • Intradermal allergy testing, which must also be done under sedation or general anesthesia, is useful for identifying the allergens that trigger your cat to itch. This can theoretically be done by your regular veterinarian but is almost always performed by veterinary dermatologists due to the importance of experience in interpreting the results. "Response to Treatment" Approach Often, a cat owner’s budget will be stretched too thin to pursue further testing. Therefore, “response to treatment” is often used as a diagnostic: • Cats with suspect food allergies can be fed a hydrolyzed diet. If they respond well to the diet and stop itching, but quickly resume itching when the diet is switched back, a diagnosis of food allergies has been achieved. • If administration of Bravecto or another flea/tick preventative takes away the itch, a parasite infection was probably the cause. • Similarly, if your cat seems to always do better after steroid administration, the problem is probably not infectious, and is more likely to be allergic. What Can I Give My Cat for Itchy Skin? You should always be wary of administering your own medications to your pets. Contact your veterinarian before pursuing at-home treatment for your itchy cat. Calming Bath Generally speaking, a bath is probably the safest place to start when trying to reduce your cat’s itch at home. Warm water itself soothes the skin by washing away scabs, dandruff, and environmental allergens like pollen or dust, as well as other debris on the skin that could be harboring infections or creating direct irritation. Do not use human shampoo products. Shampoos that are made especially for cats generally moisturize the skin, which reduces itchiness. Cat shampoos that contain colloidal oatmeal or phytosphingosine are generally the most useful in reducing your cat’s itchiness. If no over-the-counter cat shampoos seem to alleviate the itch, consult with your veterinarian, as a medicated cat shampoo may provide better relief, depending on your cat’s specific condition. Human Allergy Products Pet owners with an itchy cat will commonly ask about antihistamines as an at-home treatment for itchiness in cats. Unfortunately, while these medications are safe to try, they are nowhere near as effective in dogs and cats as they are in people, since histamine is not the main inflammatory mediator in pets as it is with people. For cats with skin disease that manifests as itchy flare-ups rather than a chronic, daily itch, antihistamines are probably not at all helpful for reducing feline itch, except in very mild cases. However, for the more chronic cases, antihistamines are thought to provide some benefit, and given the relative safety of these drugs, many veterinarians will recommend at least trying these medications if owners are in search of a readily available, over-the-counter solution. One source says that the chance of any single antihistamine reducing your cat’s itch is only about 15%, but that trying multiple antihistamines will improve your odds of finding an antihistamine that provides your cat relief. Diphenhydramine (Benadryl), hydroxyzine (Atarax), chlorpheniramine (Chlor-Trimeton), loratadine (Claritin®), and cetirizine (Zyrtec®) can all be safely tried in cats, but you should always consult your veterinarian for dosing information. Use a Cone to Prevent Scratching As simple as it sounds (and as annoying as it is), putting an E-collar on your cat for a week or so is a safe method to try at home of reducing your cat’s itch, especially if the skin disease appears to be focal rather than generalized. Using E-collars will simply prevent your cat from licking the affected skin. Excessive licking increases irritation and inflammation in the skin, worsening the itch. By preventing the lick, you reduce the itch. This will not fix the underlying issue, but you can use an E-collar to buy time between noticing your cat’s itchiness and being able to make a veterinary appointment. Steroid Creams Application of steroid-containing creams is generally not recommended due to the potential side effects and possibility of worsening your cat’s condition. Infections will often become worse if the body’s immune response is dialed down. Furthermore, cats are always grooming themselves, so any product applied to the skin has the potential to be ingested by your cat. Verify with your veterinarian that the products you have at home are safe and whether they think you should use them. What's the Veterinary Treatment for Itchy Skin in Cats? When possible, the veterinary treatment for itchy skin in cats is targeted at the underlying cause, whether you’re dealing with infections, allergies, or other causes. • Antibiotics may be given orally or applied topically to treat bacterial infections. • Similar antifungal products are available for yeast infections in the skin. • Allergies can be treated with steroids (injectable, oral, and topical forms are all available), as well as hyposensitization therapy and food trials. In those less-common cases where an autoimmune disease is the cause of a cat’s itch, immunosuppression is the treatment, sometimes with steroids, but usually with drugs like cyclosporine, at least for long-term control. Apoquel, a drug commonly used to control itch in dogs, is being experimentally used by veterinary dermatologists to treat itchy cats. Research demonstrates its safety in this species, but efficacy is still being researched. At present, most veterinarians in general practice do not have enough experience with Apoquel in cats to make recommendations about its use in that species. How to Prevent Itchy Skin in Cats Keeping your cat on a flea and tick preventative life-long is the most important strategy for minimizing the risk of itchy skin disease, even if he never goes outdoors and shows no obvious of skin disease. Beyond that, prevention strategies are mostly aimed at reducing itch or decreasing the frequency and severity of flare-ups in animals already known to have skin disease. Primrose and Fish Oils Primrose oil and fish oil supplements provide minimal relief for itchy cats by themselves but can work synergistically with other therapies already being given to those cats. Because these supplements are so cheap, safe, and widely available, many cat owners will administer these supplements anyway in an attempt to reduce the chance that their cat will develop skin disease. The efficacy of this method is currently unknown. Similarly, daily oral administration of antihistamines is a strategy used to reduce the frequency and severity of flare-ups in chronically itchy cats, but administration in cats that are currently not itchy is unlikely to prevent skin disease. There is some emerging evidence that daily administration of probiotics is useful in avoiding some types of itchy skin in pets, but this is by no means a cure-all for an itchy cat. Featured image: iStock.com/Nils Jacobi
Surgical Errors Surgeons go through extensive training in order to learn how to safely perform procedures on a patient. However, everyone makes mistakes, even surgeons. If a surgeon makes a mistake during your procedure, you may suffer serious complications or need additional treatment to correct the mistake. Surgical errors are a form of medical malpractice, which means you could be entitled to compensation for your medical expenses, lost wages, and pain and suffering if you are a victim. What is a Surgical Error? Complications that arise during surgery are sometimes out of the doctor’s hands. But, when a mistake is preventable, this is known as a surgical error. Before you go into surgery, you will probably have to sign a document that states you are aware of the risks associated with the procedure. The surgeon will require that you sign this form in order to legally protect himself if one of these known risks does occur during the surgery. However, this document does not protect the surgeon in cases involving preventable surgical errors. Some examples of surgical errors include: • Administering the wrong dosage of medication • Performing the surgery on the wrong body part • Performing the surgery on the wrong patient • Causing damage to nerves during the surgery • Accidentally leaving a surgical tool inside the patient’s body after the procedure is finished Causes of Surgical Errors Surgical errors can occur for a number of reasons, including: Surgeons who operate when they are fatigued may not be able to think or react to changes in the circumstances quickly. Surgery requires a lot of concentration and focus, and sometimes this can be difficult for people who are fatigued. Lack of Experience Some surgeons simply do not have experience performing certain types of procedures, and a result, they are more likely to make errors than experienced surgeons. However, this is no excuse for making a surgical error and cannot be used as a defense if you choose to file a medical malpractice claim. Poor Planning Surgeons and their staff of nurses and assistants must properly prepare for each and every surgery. This includes reviewing the patient’s medical history, going over the procedure in detail, and gathering all of the tools and medical equipment that will be needed to operate. Failure to take these steps may result in surgical errors if someone who is assisting in the operation is not prepared. If a surgeon fails to tell his team of nurses and assistants what is needed for the operation, how much medicine to administer, or where the surgery will be performed on the body, errors can occur. Some surgical errors, such as infections caused by unsterilized equipment or tools that are left behind in the patient’s body, are a result of carelessness. All medical professionals have a responsibility to practice extreme caution when treating a patient, especially when they are performing a complicated procedure. When a surgeon or nurse fails to properly care for the patient, careless errors could occur. Determining the cause of your surgical error will help you identify which parties should be held liable for your injuries. This can be a tough task unless you rely on the experienced attorneys at Trial Lawyers for Justice. Our Team Can Help Victims of Surgical Errors No one ever expects to suffer from complications as a result of a surgery, especially if these complications are a result of a surgeon’s error. If you believe your surgeon or someone on his operating team made errors during your procedure, contact an attorney at the Trial Lawyers for Justice to discuss your legal options. Call 888-811-0844 to schedule a free consultation today.
Naphtha Explained Naphtha should not be confused with Naphthalene. Naphtha (or) is a flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture. In different industries and regions naphtha may also be crude oil or refined products such as kerosene. Mineral spirits, also historically known as "naphtha", are not the same chemical. Nephi and naphthar are sometimes used as a synonyms.[1] The word naphtha is from Latin and Ancient Greek (νάφθα), derived from Middle Persian naft ("wet", "naphtha"),[2] [3] the latter meaning of which was an assimilation from the Akkadian napṭu (see Semitic relatives such as Arabic Arabic: نَفْط nafṭ ("petroleum"), Syriac ܢܰܦܬܳܐ naftā, and Hebrew נֵפְט neft).[4] In Ancient Greek, it was used to refer to any sort of petroleum or pitch. In the Song of the Three Children the Greek word νάφθα designates one of the materials used to stoke the fiery furnace. The translation of Charles Brenton renders this as "rosin". The book of II Maccabees tells how a "thick water" was put on a sacrifice at the time of Nehemiah and when the sun shone it caught fire. It adds that "those around Nehemiah termed this 'Nephthar', which means Purification, but it is called Nephthaei by the many [literally [[wikt:hoi polloi\|hoi polloi]]]."[5] It enters the word napalm, a contraction of the "na" of naphthenic acid and "palm" of palmitic acid, originally made from a mixture of naphthenic acid combined with aluminium and magnesium salts of palmitic acid. Naphtha is the root of the word naphthalene, and can also be recognised in the word phthalate, and the paint colour phthalo blue. In older usage, "naphtha" simply meant crude oil, but this usage is now obsolete in English. It was also used for mineral spirits (also known as "Stoddard Solvent"), originally the main active ingredient in Fels Naptha laundry soap. The Ukrainian and Belarusian word нафта (nafta), Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian "nafta", the Russian word нефть (neft') and the Persian naft (Persian: نفت) mean "crude oil". Also, in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, Italy, Serbia, Slovenia, Macedonia nafta (нафта in Cyrillic) is colloquially used to indicate diesel fuel and crude oil. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, nafta was historically used for both diesel fuel and crude oil, but its use for crude oil is now obsolete[6] and it generally indicates diesel fuel. In Bulgarian, nafta means diesel fuel, while neft, as well as petrol (петрол in Cyrillic), means crude oil. Nafta is also used in everyday parlance in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay to refer to gasoline/petrol.[7] In Poland, the word means kerosene,[8], as in lampa naftowa "paraffin lamp"; crude oil and (colloquially) diesel fuel are called "pus". In Flemish, the word naft is used colloquially for gasoline.[9] There is a hypothesis that the word is connected with the name of the Indo-Iranian god Apam Napat, which occurs in Vedic and in Avestic; the name means "grandson of (the) waters", and the Vedas describes him as emerging from water golden and shining "with bright rays", perhaps inspired by a burning seepage of natural gas.[10] Various qualifiers have been added to the term "naphtha" by different sources in an effort to make it more specific: One source[11] distinguishes by boiling point: Another source[12] differentiates light and heavy comments on the hydrocarbon structure, but offers a less precise dividing line: Both of these are useful definitions, but they are incompatible with one another and the latter does not provide for mixes containing both 6 and 7 carbon atoms per molecule. These terms are also sufficiently broad that they are not widely useful. Heavy crude oil dilution Naphtha is used to dilute heavy crude oil to reduce its viscosity and enable/facilitate transport; undiluted heavy crude cannot normally be transported by pipeline, and may also be difficult to pump onto oil tankers. Other common dilutants include natural-gas condensate, and light crude. However, naphtha is a particularly efficient dilutant and can be recycled from diluted heavy crude after transport and processing.[13] [14] [15] The importance of oil dilutants has increased as global production of lighter crude oils has fallen and shifted to exploitation of heavier reserves. Light naphtha is used as a fuel in some commercial applications. One notable example is the Zippo lighter, which draws naphtha into a wick from a reservoir to be ignited using the flint and wheel. It is also a fuel for camping stoves and oil lanterns, naphtha’s low boiling point making it easy to ignite. Naphtha is sometimes preferred over kerosene due to a lower incidence of fuel line clogging. Health and safety considerations The safety data sheets (SDSs) from various naphtha vendors are also indicative of the non-specific nature of the product and reflect the considerations due for a flammable mixture of hydrocarbons: flammability, carcinogenicity, skin and airway irritation, etc.[16] [17] [18] [19] Humans can be exposed to naphtha in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, dermal contact, and eye contact. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit for naphtha in the workplace as 100 ppm (400 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 100 ppm (400 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 1000 ppm, which equates to 10% of the lower explosive limit, naphtha is immediately dangerous to life and health.[20] See also Notes and References 1. Naphthar 2. Web site: Persisches Erbe im Griechischen, Lateinischen, Arabischen, Türkischen und in verschiedenen heutigen europäischen Sprachen (Persian Heritage in Greek, Latin, Arabic, Turkic and Various Modern European Languages). Christian Gizewski (Berlin Institute of Technology). Technische Universität Berlin. 2010-02-28. 3. Book: David Neil MacKenzie. A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary. 1971. Oxford University Press. 978-1-934768-59-4. 57. 4. Web site: ENGLISH i. Persian Elements in English . . . 1 September 2018 . en. 5. Maccabees 1:36 6. Web site: Slovenské slovníky . . 2015-10-26. 7. Book: Pedro Mairal. El año del desierto. 2012. Stockcero, Inc. 978-1-934768-59-4. 71–. 8. Book: Andrey Taranov. Polish vocabulary for English speakers - 7000 words. 23 October 2013. BoD - Books on Demand. 978-1-78071-417-2. 98–. 9. Book: Michael G. Clyne. Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. 1992. Walter de Gruyter. 978-3-11-012855-0. 85–. 10. Book: R. J. Forbes. Studies in Ancient Technology. 1966. Brill Archive. 13. GGKEY:YDBU5XT36QD. 11. Rune . Prestvic . Kjell Moljord . Knut Grande . Anders Holmen . Compositional analysis of naphtha and reformate . Catalytic naphtha reforming . 2 . CRC Press . 2004 . USA . 2010-02-03. 12. "Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, Third Edition", Meyer, E., Prentice Hall, 1998, page 458. 13. Book: Glenat, Philippe. Heraud. Jean-Philippe. Gateau. Patrick. Henaut. Isabelle. Argillier. J.-Francois. 2005-01-01. Heavy Oil Dilution. english. Society of Petroleum Engineers. 10.2118/97763-MS. 9781613990056. 14. Web site: Dilution of heavy crude oils for pipeline ransportation purposes: The asphaltene instability issue. 15. Web site: Diluting Venezuela's heavy crude just got harder. 2019-04-09. 16. Web site: Petroleum Ether . . 1998-04-21 . 2015-10-26. 17. Web site: Material Safety Data Sheet : Shellite . . 2015-10-26. 18. Web site: Material Safety Data Sheet : Ronsonol Lighter Fuel . . 2015-10-26. 19. Web site: NAFAA . NAFAA . 2015-10-26 . . 2016-03-04 . dead . 20. Web site: CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Naphtha (coal tar) . . 2015-11-27.
Bash for loop array However, if you try to process a for loop on file name with spaces in them you are going to have some problem. Unlike most of the programming languages, arrays in bash scripting need not be the collection of similar elements. 3 and up, you can use a nameref: declare -n name for name in "${!SERVER}"; do echo "$name" done Hat tip ilkkachu for the < 4. Then, the TEST part is break and continue Statements #. In the case of Bash, echo also creates a new line in the output, but you can use different steps to stop it. Nov 15, 2008 · Top Forums Shell Programming and Scripting arrays and while loops in bash # 1 11-15-2008 npatwardhan. In this topic, we will demonstrate the basics of bash array and how they are used in bash shell scripting. The for loop first creates i variable and assigned a number to i from the list of number from 1 to 5. Associative arrays are an abstract data type similar to dictionaries or maps. Rather than looping over array elements, we can loop over array indices: for i in How to iterate over a Bash Array? (loop). To skip certain numbers, add a third number to the range. In this article, we will explain how you can declare and initialize associative arrays in Linux bash. Bash For Loop Array: Iterate Through Array Values, KSH For Loop Array: Iterate Through . If you run echo $0, you'll see the A while loop is often a better fit than a for loop for processing command output, allowing you to process lines directly rather than storing them in a list or array. How to loop, aka designing a program to do repetitive work for you. 1. For Bash versions 4 and above, we can also populate the array using the readarray command: Jun 14, 2020 · A For Loop statement is used to execute a series of commands until a particular condition becomes false. Basically you need to use double parentheses because of other aspects of the bash syntax. Registered User. " Zsh sort flags: a array order Bash For Loop. The block of statements are executed until the expression returns true. Therefore, in this article, we will be talking about the three different scenarios in which you can use the “For” loop for iterating through an array. file2 has a list of user ids (about 50 or so) from /etc/passwd. Thanks. There is no maximum limit on the size of an array, nor any requirement that members be indexed or assigned contiguously. Any variable may be used as an array; the declare builtin will explicitly declare an array. Unix / Linux - Using Shell Arrays - In this chapter, we will discuss how to use shell arrays in Unix. In the following script, an array with 6 elements is declared. A for loop is classified as an iteration statement i. How do I handle spaces in the file names? Program: Program to Bash for loop is a statement that used to run a series of commands repeatedly. This tech-recipe shows a few methods for looping through Mar 25, 2014 our enterprise clients recently I needed to use an array in a bash script. Disable plugin update for a specific plugin only; Find users that Array Assignments. Here are some approaches and Jan 22, 2018 tuples, etc. Then, you can start a new bash child process by executing the symlink: ~/mybash. To Print the Static Array in Bash. The first line In this example, we shall learn to access elements of an array iteratively using Bash For Loop. A shell variable is capable enough to hold a single value. This might be little tricky. It helps us to iterate a particular set of statements over a series of words in a string, or elements in an array. There is three loop constructs available in bash: for-loop, while-loop, and until-loop. original_name, . 10}. Array Assignments. Use ellipsis to iterate a full number range, e. The alternative of seq command is range. If you are familiar with Perl, C, or Java, you might think that Bash would use commas to separate array elements, however this is not the case; instead, Bash uses spaces: Oct 27, 2009 How do I use bash for loop to iterate thought array values under UNIX / Linux operating systems? The Bash provides one-dimensional array In this article we'll show you the various methods of looping through arrays in Bash. ITEM: It's a single item in LIST. If name is not an array, expands to 0 if name is set and null otherwise. Array vs Variable. Disable plugin update for a specific plugin only; Find users that While I would probably go with one of the array answers myself, I’d like to point out that it is possible to loop over names directly. Since each of these strings is a separate entity (element), it can safely contain any character, even whitespace. The list/range syntax for loop takes the following form: for item in [LIST]; do [COMMANDS] done #!/bin/bash function processRow() { original_name=$1 changed_name=$2 # TODO } IFS=$' ' # Each iteration of the for loop should read until we find an end-of-line for row in $(cat data. Aug 27, 2019 · [root@localhost ~]# cat test. json \| jq '. Apr 26, 2012 · Having an array of variables is of no use unless you can use those values somehow. The break and continue Statements By using for loop you avoid creating a subshell. For example, you can use it to run a Linux command five times or use it to read and process files on the systems until reaching a particular condition. Apr 26, 2019 · Now you can access the array to get any word you desire or use the for loop in bash to print all the words one by one as I have done in the above script. 7 Arrays. We can combine read with IFS (Internal Field Separator) to define a delimiter. Output ~$ . This signals not to add a new line. Array loops are so common in programming that you'll almost always need Jun 4, 2017 You can use it like this: ## declare an array variable declare -a arr=("element1" " element2" "element3") ## now loop through the above array for i in "${arr[@]}" Create a bash file named 'for_list4. Changes inside the while loop like variables will not propagate to outer part of the script. Working with Arrays in Linux Shell, bash and zsh, examples for ${my_array[@]} - iterate over values. I would like to call create condition for quality gate creation of sonarqube with a for loop. Hi, another little question "sn" is an array whose elements can vary from about 55,000 to about 150,000 elements. In Bourne Shell there are two types of loops i. com Bash For Loop Example – Iterate over elements of an Array Example – Consider white spaces in String as word separators Example – Consider each line in string as a separate word Example – Iterate over a Sequence Example – Using a counter Example – With break command Aug 21, 2020 · List/Range For Loops in Bash Another syntax variation of for loop also exists that is particularly useful if you are working with a list of files (or strings), range of numbers, arrays, output of a command, etc. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. Oct 27, 2009 · The Bash shell support one-dimensional array variables. for f in ${(Oa)your_array}; do done O reverses of the order specified in the next flag; a is the normal array order. Just arrays, and associative arrays (which are new in Bash 4). You can even use the loop in bash for server task automation like copying files to many remote network servers or exiting scripts in a bash loop script. declare -A pets pets=( ["dog"]=" Jun 3, 2010 In bash, array is created automatically when a variable is used in the example, each index of an array element has printed through for loop. Loop through an Dec 17, 2015 These are few ways of iterating on bash arrays to read and or modify array's elements in bash on Linux or Mac. For example, you can run UNIX command or task 5 times or read and process list of files using a for loop. for name in "${!SERVER}"; do echo "${!name}" done or, in 4. In this case, it allows you to avoid the awk command altogether: Bash - array loop performance. Feb 04, 2021 · BASH for loop works nicely under UNIX / Linux / Windows and OS X while working on set of files. Bash while loop usage for absolute beginners; Bash For Loop usage guide for absolute beginners; How to Compare Numbers or Integers in Bash; Bash split string into array using 4 simple methods; How to Compare Strings in Bash; Shell script to check login history in Linux; Shell script to check top memory & cpu consuming process in Linux Oct 15, 2020 · Then, we printed the records of the array using a for loop. It is important that when you use loop, you use an ARRAY which contains elements separated by white character Bash doesn't natively support two-dimensional arrays, but I would like to simulate one. As an example, imagine we have an array with two elements, "foo" and "bar": $ my_array=(foo bar) Performing a for loop on it will produce the following result: $ for i in "${my_array[@]}"; do echo "$i"; done foo bar Teams. ${#arr[@]} is Loop over array elements #. Execute the script. txt for line in "$ {MAPFILE [@]}"; do echo $line done. @schily Seriously? (loop) As discussed above, you Bash script with the Azure CLI using JMESPATH queries, plus the jp and jq filters. Example: #!/bin/bash --login echo "Creat Sometimes you just want to read a JSON config file from Bash and iterate over an array. echo ${test_array[@]} apple orange lemon Loop through an Array. Bash For Loop command. sh 1 hello 3 world Print Array Containing Strings using * Here we will create an array str and will iterate it through for loop to display the output of the array using str[] The for loop creates a variable c to represent each of the indices (it is not known how many there are going to be) and processes the a array. And make the symlink executable, using chmod: chmod u+x ~/mybash. Here’s the output of the above script: Ubuntu Linux Mint Debian Arch Fedora Method 2: Split string using tr command in Bash. 11 Bash Until Loop is a loop statement used to execute a block of statements repeatedly based on the boolean result of an expression. Oct 22, 2020 · Get code examples like "bash for loop string array" instantly right from your google search results with the Grepper Chrome Extension. The loop is one of the most fundamental and powerful Feb 9, 2017 Learn Linux shell scripting for & while loops , nested loops, using break & continue commands, redirect loop output, and get directory files using Assigning a fixed list arr=("string 1", "string 2", "string 3") # Pushing to an array arr +=("new string value", "another new Associative arrays (aka hashes) can be used since Bash v4 and ne Merge duplicate keys in associative array BASH. #!/bin/bash ## declare an array variable declare -a array=("one" "two" "three") # get length of an array arraylength=${#array[@]} # use for loop to read all values and indexes for (( i=1; i<${arraylength}+1; i++ )); do echo $i " / " ${arraylength} " : " ${array[$i-1]} done Output: 1 / 3 : one 2 / 3 : two 3 / 3 : three See full list on ahmed. Bash Shell Script #!/bin/bash # declare an array arr=( "bash" "shell" "script" ) # for loop that iterates over each element in arr for i in "${arr[@]}" do echo $i done. e. with my/file/glob/(On). Let’s check the output: Displaying the contents of array mapped from csv file: Record at index-0 : SNo,Quantity,Price,Value Record at index-1 : 1,2,20,40 Record at index-2 : 2,5,10,50. You're now in a new bash shell, inside your previous shell. Multi-Dimensional Arrays in Bash. While the primary purpose of the For Loop is to iterate, you want it to stop repeating and Examples of Bash for Jul 24, 2019 · Similar to other programming languages, Bash array elements can be accessed using index number starts from 0 then 1,2,3…n. Bash Array. A shell script is a file containing one or more commands that you would type on the command Loops in Bash. We will further elaborate on the power of the associative arrays with the help of various examples. If you're looping over the elements in an array, use this syntax . #!/bin/bash; #Script to print all keys and values using loop Jul 24, 2019 To print all elements of an Array using @ or * instead of the specific index number . Examples of for loop with range: Example-7: For loop with range. I am surprised that this does not give an to a positive number. Example. “For” loops are very commonly used in all the programming languages. bash documentation: Associative Arrays. The break and continue statements can be used to control the for loop execution. That basically means that it holds a numbered list of strings. An array is a type of variable that maps integers to strings. As discussed above, you can access all the Jul 10, 2018 In Bourne Shell there are two types of loops i. it is the repetition of a process within a bash script. amayem. sh #!/bin/bash num=(1 hello 3 world) for i in "${num[@]}" do echo "$i" done Output [root@localhost ~]#. Examples have been provided for Bash Split String operation. You can use range in for loop to generate sequence of numbers like seq. For each element, the value of c (a cat name] and the value of the element (the number of times the cat name has been encountered) prints. sh My array: string1 string2 string3 Number of elements in the array: 3 . Before we go ahead it is important that you understand the different between ARRAY and Variable. To split string in Bash with multiple character delimiter use Parameter Expansions. /bash-array-example-2 bash shell script Append Elements to Bash Array Bash for loop in a range . which will return a b . Q&A for work. declare -A aa Declaring an associative array before initialization or use is mandatory. Each element To split string in Bash scripting with single character or set of single character delimiters, set IFS(Internal Field Separator) to the delimiter(s) and parse the string to array. The loop will iterate for 5 times and print the square root of each number in each step. /test. ‘for’ loop is used here to iterate the array and print the array elements. In this example, every element of the array variable, StringArray contains values of two words. Jul 10, 2018 · Suppose you want to repeat a particular task so many times then it is a better to use loops. Jul 18, 2020 · Now, instead of using five variables to store the value of the five filenames, you create an array that holds all the filenames, here is the general syntax of an array in bash: array_name=(value1 value2 value3 … ) So now you can create an array named files that stores all the five filenames you have used in the timestamp. Bash For Loop. If name is an array variable, expands to the list of array indices (keys) assigned in name. The bash loop is pretty easy if you practice a few scenarios. 187, 0. If you have ever programmed before in any language, you probably already know about looping and how you Arrays in Bash. , not splitting them on whitespace. This process will continue until all the items in the list were not finished. This tech-recipe shows a few methods for looping through the values of an array in the bash shell. sh . In Bash, there are Bash “For” Loop to Iterate through an Array. To access the keys of an associative array in bash Do you want to process each emelent in array in loop? Here is an example: for ELEMENT in ${FILES[@]} do echo File: $ELEMENT. e for loop and while loop. In the example declare -a my_array=( "Hydrogen" "Helium" "Lithium" "Beryllium" ) ## Array Loop for i in "${my_array[@]}" do Aug 9, 2017 The principle error is that for i in $arrayVM sets i to the first element in arrayVM , since there is no index. Now i can directly use array with in a loop which has loop count start from 1. Apr 15, 2016 The values of an associative array are accessed using the following syntax ${ ARRAY[@]}. done. H ow do I iterate through an array under Bash scripting? 6. Learn more Feb 04, 2021 · In a Bash for loop, all statements between do and done are performed once for every item in a list or number range. 3 solution. changed_name])' \| jq @sh) do # Run the row through the shell interpreter to remove enclosing double-quotes stripped=$(echo $row \| xargs echo) # Call our function to process the row # eval must be used to interpret the spaces in $stripped as separating arguments eval This is my array: $ ARRAY=(one two three) How do I print the array so I have the output like: index i, element[i] using the printf or for loop I use below 1,one 2,two 3,three Some notes for my How can I use this sh script with for loop and an array. If you are familiar with Perl, C, or Java, you might think that Bash would use commas to separate array elements, however this is not the case; instead, Bash uses spaces: Jun 12, 2019 · How to Echo Without Newline in Bash. This becomes immediately clear when performing a for loop. This is known as iteration. In the above expression, the list can be a series of things that are parted by anything from a Break and Continue for Loop. The first command returns a The first command sets an array of the resource group Sep 8, 2015 #!/bin/bash declare -A arr arr[tabela1]=id arr[tabela2]=id for i in "${!arr[@]}" do How to make a multidimensional array and a loop to insert, This tech-recipe shows a few methods for looping through the values of an array in the bash shell. Those readers Jan 11, 2021 for Loop. PHP Arrays; PHP Switch Case; PHP Interview Questions– part1; php echo; PHP Sorting Arrays; PHP Syntax; php comments; PHP Interview Questions – part2; PHP if else Statements; php variable; php strings; PHP Constants; PHP Interview Questions – part3; WordPress snippets. The INITIALIZATION part is executed only once when the loop starts. Bash for loop array index "$ {foo [@]}" takes the (array) variable foo and expands it as an array, maintaining the identity of its elements, i. for i in "${my_array[@]}"; do. This allows you to easily iterate over a glob of values, as follows (this particular example uses a glob of filenames, taken from a backup script that requires a list of files to exclude from the backup): Bash for loop array Hi there, A bit new to bash and am having an issue with a for loop. I have file1 in a array, I'd like to have file2 in a loop. Jan 29, 2019 · Bash does not support multi-dimensional arrays, but there is a way to imitate this functionality, if you absolutely have to. Now your solution solves this. The For Loop in Bash programming comes in two different syntaxes: Jan 07, 2015 · In those for and while loops the loop count is starting from 1, at that time if i want to use an array inside that loop, then i need to increase array index value to 1 manually. Try looking up "bash for loop syntax" on google. echo ${test_array[0]} apple To print all elements of an Array using @ or * instead of the specific index number. In this blog post I will explain how this can be done with jq and a Bash for loop. We start with an index of zero, condition that index is less than the length of array, and increment index as update expression in for loop. You can do. Nov 2, 2020 To iterate through all elements in a Bash array, we can use the for loop: #!/bin/ bash my_array=(foo bar baz) # for loop that iterates over each Using Bash all I want to to do is create an array from the output above but when i use echo to check, it only seems to be outputting the last value Aug 30, 2004 Having an array of variables is of no use unless you can use those values somehow. For instance, you can create a symlink to bash in your home directory: ln -s /bin/bash ~/mybash. It gives a good list of information. Like any other programming language, bash shell scripting also supports 'for loops' to perform repetitive tasks. This sometimes can be tricky especially when the JSON contains multi-line strings (for example certificates). Keep in mind when using pipelines, it will put the while loop in a subshell. sh' and add the following script. Sep 26, 2020 · What are the different Bash loop constructs? In Bash, the loops are part of the control flow statements. sh script as follows: Feb 24, 2020 · Bash For Loop The C-style Bash for loop #. Declare and an array called array and assign three values: array = ( one two three ) More examples: files = ( "/etc/passwd" "/etc/group" "/etc/hosts" ) limits = ( 10, 20, 26, 39, 48) To print an array use: printf "%s " "$ {array [@]}" printf "%s " "$ {files [@]}" printf "%s " "$ {limits [@]}" Array Loops in Bash Shell Scripting with Bash. That's because On is "reverse name order. Apr 13, 2020 · loop from array bash . If you want to get only LIST: This is basically a list of strings, an array or output of commands, etc. The shift command is one of the Bourne shell built-ins that comes with Bash. For example, when seeding some credentials to a credential store. From the bash man page: ${!name[@]} ${!name[]} List of array keys. As a minimal working example, suppose that I have two arrays, a0 and a1: a0=(1 This guide covers the standard bash array operations and how to declare (set), append, iterate over (loop), check (test), access (get), and delete (unset) a value in an indexed bash array and an associative bash array. By Using while-loop ${#arr[@]} is used to find the size of Array. Explicit declaration of an array is done using the declare built-in: A good example is the Bash history built-in command. Bash for Loop (With Examples) Standard Bash For Loop. Similarly, Bash also has a dedicated syntax for making use of the “For” loop. Feb 15, 2020 In its simplest form, here is an initialization and then loop through the key/value pairs. A loop is useful for traversing to all array PHP Arrays; PHP Switch Case; PHP Interview Questions– part1; php echo; PHP Sorting Arrays; PHP Syntax; php comments; PHP Interview Questions – part2; PHP if else Statements; php variable; php strings; PHP Constants; PHP Interview Questions – part3; WordPress snippets. echo ${test_array[@]} apple orange lemon. As a quick example, here’s a data table representing a two-dimensional array. How To Loop Through List Of Files in Bash; What is The general method to iterate over each item in an array is by using the 'for loop'. You can also use the for loop to iterate over an array of elements. Example-5: Iterating string values of an array using '' Create In this topic, we will understand the usage of for loop in Bash scripts. This command takes one argument, a number. Jan 9, 2021 Array Loops in Bash Shell Scripting with Bash. shell by Tremendous Enceladus on Apr 13 2020 Donate . The positional parameters from N+1 to $# are renamed to variable names from $1 to $# - N+1. Mostly all languages provides the concept of loops. Copying associative arrays is not directly possible in bash. \| map([. Method 3: Bash split string into array using delimiter. Declare an associative array. In this topic, we will understand the usage of for loop in Bash scripts. I have two files i would like to compares. Dec 17, 2018 · H ow do I define an array in a bash shell script? How do I find out bash array length (number of elements) while running a script using for shell loop? Bash provides one-dimensional array variables. Write the following code in a bash file named “sq2. , for number in {1. In the following program, we initialize an array, and traverse the elements of array using for loop. Arrays are indexed using integers and are zero-based. . I look for filenames in a specified directory and pull the date string from each meeting a certain criteria, and then would like to make a directory for each date found, like this: Jul 17, 2017 · chmod +x testforloop. For example: file1 has a list of user ids (about 900) from the company's e-mail server. Now the myarray contains 3 elements so bash split string into array was successful # /tmp/split-string. All the bash loop constructs have a return status equals to the exit status of the last command executed in the loop, or zero if no command was executed. echo "iterate over array". Bash has a dedicated syntax for making use of the “For” loop. #!/bin/bash mapfile -t < file. Like all loops (both for-loops, while and until), this loop can be terminated (broken) by the break command, optionally as break N to break N levels of nested loops forced to immediately do the next iteration using the continue command, optionally as continue N analog to break N Bash arrays: rebin/interpolate smaller array to large array hello, i need a bit of help on how to do this effectively in bash without a lot of extra looping or massive switch/case i have a long array of M elements and a short array of N elements, so M > N always. EX_3: Use for loop with an array. The shell execute echo statement for each assignment of i. Hi, I am trying to write a script which will loop until a certain action has been performed. The Bash for loop splits using a whitespace (space, tab or newline). You can do this using List of array keys. Take, for example, the array definition below: names=( Jennifer Tonya Anna Sadie ) The following expression evaluates into all values of … You can do this using List of array keys. An array can be defined as a collection of similar type of elements. You can also access the Array elements using the loop in the bash script. The positional parameters are shifted to the left by this number, N. The basic purpose of using this loop is to iterate through arrays which can also lead to other May 31, 2018 Enter the weird, wondrous world of Bash arrays. bash”. g. sh. This is the bash split string example using tr (translate) command: Jun 12, 2019 · How to Echo Without Newline in Bash. The best way to remove the new line is to add ‘-n’. Let us understand this in much more detailed manner. Join Date: Nov 2008. With multi-word variables we can use these within simple loops. List Assignment. Oct 27, 2009 · To declare an array in bash. Nov 26, 2020 · A ‘for loop’ is a bash programming language statement which allows code to be repeatedly executed. As @Gilles said, On will reverse order your globbed files, e. By Using while-loop. This will work with the associative array which index numbers are numeric. The detailed examples include how to sort and shuffle arrays. Once we had these values we used a for loop to cycle through the For and Read-While Loops in Bash. /testforloop. The Bash for Loop Examples #. Another handy function for arrays and objects is the length function, which returns the array’s length property or the number of properties on an object. here instead of defining an ARRAY, I have provided a PATH with *, so all the files and directories I don't know exactly what's happening with your command but I think to create the arrays you can use something like array=(`ls -1 Table of Contents. Bash shell has syntax for arrays, values should be separated by space and wrapped with round brackets: Defining array in bash: dirs=('etc' 'www') It is also possible to define array spanning multiple lines: dirs=('upload' 'components' 'mail') Using array in bash (loop): Example 1 – Iterate Java Array using For Loop. With a big list, use in {list} to loop between a start and end point. series of things that are parted by anything from a range of numbers to an array. The only safe way to represent multiple string elements in Bash is through the use of arrays. The basic purpose of using this loop is to iterate through arrays which can also lead to other complex calculations. Bash is the command console in Linux and Mac OS, which also recognizes the ‘echo’ command. Next ‘+=’ shorthand operator is used to insert a new element at the end of the array. Note that we’re also using the pipe \| operator, which works the same in jq as it does in bash — it takes the output from the left and passes it as input to the right. We 're using a while loop that runs a read command each time.
What is a logarithm? Logarithms are a group of functions that map numbers to numbers. There is a logarithm function for every positive number $b$ except 1, and the logarithm function for $b$ (called “the logarithm base $b$” or just “log base $b$”) takes an input $x$ and counts how many times you have to multiply $1$ by $b$ to get $x$. For example, the log base 10 of 1000 is 3, because you have to multiply 1 by 10 three times to get 1000, and the log base 2 of 16 is 4, because you have to multiply 1 by 2 four times to get 16. The log base $b$ of $x$ is written $\log_b(x).$ The logarithm function grows slowly. For example, $\log_{10}(x)$ is less than 1 until $x$ reaches 10, and it’s less than 2 until $x$ reaches 100, and it’s less than 6 until $x$ reaches 1,000,000 and so on. You’ve got to put a lot of oomph (specifically, a whole factor of 10) into the input in order to make the output go up by 1. Here’s a graph of $\log_{10}(x)$ inching its way towards a measly 2 as $x$ makes it all the way out to 100: Make this graph interactive. Logarithms may grow slowly, but they never stop growing: For every number $n$, no matter how large, there is an input $x$ such that $\log_{10}(x) > n.$ 1. $\log_{10}(10000) = 4,$ because you have to multiply 1 by 10 four times to get ten thousand: $1 \cdot 10 \cdot 10 \cdot 10 \cdot 10 = 10000.$ 2. $\log_2(8) = 3,$ because $1 \cdot 2 \cdot 2 \cdot 2 = 8.$ 3. $\log_3(9) = 2,$ because $1 \cdot 3 \cdot 3 = 9.$ 4. $\log_{b}(1) = 0$ for any $b$, because no matter what $b$ is, you don’t need to multiply 1 by $b$ any times to get 1. 5. $\log_{b}(b) = 1$ for any $b$, because no matter what $b$ is, if you multiply 1 by $b$ once, you get $b.$ 6. $\log_{1.5}(3.375) = 3,$ because $1 \cdot 1.5 \cdot 1.5 \cdot 1.5 = 3.375.$ Question: What’s $\log_3(27)$? Answer: 3, because $1 \cdot 3 \cdot 3 \cdot 3 = 27$. Question: What’s $\log_4(16)$? Answer: 2, because $1 \cdot 4 \cdot 4 = 16$. Question: What’s $\log_{10}(\text{1,000,000})$? Answer: 6, because $1 \cdot 10 \cdot 10 \cdot 10 \cdot 10 \cdot 10 \cdot 10 = 1,000,000$. All of the examples above are cases where the answer is a whole number, because $x$ is a power of $b.$ Logarithms also give answers in cases where the answer is not a whole number. For example, $\log_{10}(500) \approx 2.7$. What’s that supposed to mean? That if you multiply 1 by 10 about 2.7 times, you get 500? Yes, precisely! If you multiply 1 by ten once, and multiply the result by ten another time, and then multiply that by ten 0.7 times, the result is roughly 500. What does it mean to multiply a number by ten 0.7 times? Well, is there a number $x$ such that if we multiply 1 by $x$ ten times, it’s the same as multiplying 1 by 10 seven times? Yes! That number is roughly 5: $$\underbrace{5 \cdot 5 \cdot \ldots 5}_\text{10 times} \approx \underbrace{10 \cdot 10 \cdot \ldots 10}_\text{7 times}$$ Multiplying by 5 (ten times) is about the same as multiplying by 10 (seven times), so multiplying by five (once) is about the same as multiplying by 10 (seven-tenths of a time). Thus, multiplying 1 by ten 2.7 times means multiplying it by 10 twice, then multiplying it by approximately 5, for a result of approximately 500. This is why $\log_{10}(500) \approx 2.7$: that’s how many times you need to multiply 1 by 10 to get 500. If that answer isn’t satisfactory yet, don’t worry: Throughout the tutorial, we’ll explore both (a) what this means, and (b) why this is the “right way” to multiply a number by $b$ fractionally-many times. You might be saying to yourself, “Ok, I can see how 500 is kinda sorta one times ten 2.7 times, but how do you figure that out? As far as I can tell, you pulled that “$5^{10}$ is approximately $10^7$” thing out of thin air. Where did that come from? How is the logarithm actually calculated?” The annoying answer is that I calculated $\log_{10}(500)$ by typing “log10(500)” into Wolfram Alpha. In more seriousness, in the coming posts, you’ll learn how to find things like $\log_{10}(500)$ on your own. That said, the outputs of logarithms are generally difficult to find, but useful once you’ve found them. Historically, scientists and engineers would pay money for giant tables of pre-computed logarithm values, because those sped up their practical calculations considerably. Why are the outputs of logarithm functions so convenient to use? That question will be answered later in this tutorial. You might also be saying to yourself, “ok, I buy that there’s a way to see 500 as ‘1 times 10, 2.7 times,’ but what does that mean? What’s the point of looking at 500 that way?” It’s hard to give a short answer to that question, but only because there are so many good answers. One answer goes something like, “if you think of 500 as 2.7 tens, and you think of 8000 as 3.9 tens, then you can multiply the numbers on the left by adding the representations on the right”. For example, $500 \cdot 8000$ is approximately $2.7 + 3.9 = 6.6$ tens. But that’s getting ahead of ourselves a bit. The most intuitive interpretation to start with is probably this one: Logarithms are measuring how “long” a number is, in terms of how many digits it takes to write that number down, for a generalized notion of “length.” It may seem that numbers always take a whole number of digits to write down: 139 and 931 are both written using three digits (‘9’, ‘3’, and ‘1’). However, as we will see, there’s a sense in which 139 is barely using its third digit, while 931 is using all three of its digits to almost their full extent. Logarithms quantify this intuition, and the precise answer that they give reveals some interesting facts about how many digits it costs to write a given number down.
199.The height of contour line is measured in ________________________________ 200.When contour lines are closely to each other they represent ___________________ 201.The vertical difference between two successive contour is known as _______________ 202.___________________ is a large area of flat top high land 203.Steep slope is also known as ___________________________________ 204._______________ is an area of low land between two lines of hills or mountain 205.An area of a land surrounded by sea or ocean in all parts is called ______________ 206.The biggest national park in Tanzania is __________________ 207.What is the nature of mountains that have conical shape and have crater at the top___ 208.Tropical zones begin at what latitude? __________________________ 209.How is an escapement represented by contour in a contour map? _________________ 210.Which river separates Tanzania and mozambique _______________ 211.The does the sun overhead in each December _____________ 212.What are the major negative effects of industry to our environment ______________ 213.How can we control flood? _______________________________ 214.the United national organization which is responsible for crop quality assurance is known as ____________________ 215.Areas where traditional animal husbandry is highly practices in Tanzania are _________ 216.Which is the largest country in Africa? ___________________ 217.Soft rocks found along the coast of East Africa are known as ____________________ 218.Where does semi-desert and dry tropical climate are found in East Africa? __________ 219.Which regions does banana grows in Tanzania? ___________________________ 220.The rainfall average of 500mm per year, high temperature range 280 - 390 during the day and very high cold during the night are the characteristics features of _______________ 221.The major economic activities conducted in savannah ecosystem is ________________ 222.Name two types of crops ___________________________________ 223.Ranch is an area reserved for __________________________ 224.In Africa sheep rearing is mostly done in ______________________________ 225.Name any 4 unsustainable ways of fishing __________________________________ 226.What does cross-section shows_________________________________ 227.Which vegetation is found in equatorial regions _____________________ 228.In which climate does a photo that shows palm tree taken ______________________ 229.Where does uranium is mined in large quantity in Africa ________________________ 230.Which country is famous for beef farming in the world ___________________ 231.From which desert does harmattan wind blows __________________ 232.Which country is famous for irrigation? _________________ 233.In which river does kainji dam is _______________________ 234.Name any 5 major HEP in Africa ____________________________________ 235.__________________ is shown by U-shaped contour lines pointing downhill 236.Which settlement pattern occurs along the road? ________________________ 237.Name the three pars of photograph? _________________________________ 238.Chief producer of fruits in Tanzania is ______________________________ 239.Which is the main economic activity f Scandinavian countries ___________________ 240.At what interval does census is conducted _____________________ 241.Campbell recorder used to record ________________________________
Healthcare in South Africa With a population of 57.78 million people and with approximately 49.2% of the adult population living below the poverty line, AIDS and healthcare in South Africa are two of the country’s main issues. In particular, the unequal distribution of healthcare resources has worsened the country’s fight against HIV and AIDS. During recent years, South Africa has begun to take steps toward change. Here are five facts about the AIDS and healthcare crisis in South Africa. 5 Facts About AIDS and Healthcare in South Africa 1. Systems of Healthcare in South Africa: South Africa’s healthcare system is severely divided between the public and private sectors. The public sector (the healthcare provided by government funding) covers about 84% of the population. In South Africa, 70% of doctors work in the private sector, as people who can afford private healthcare tend to pay better, and private doctors have access to better resources. Furthermore, per capita expenditure in the private sector, or the cost per person, was about $1,400 in 2014, while per capita expenditure in the public sector was about $140. For comparison, the United States’ per capita healthcare expenditure is about $11,200. 2. Rural vs. Urban Communities: As in many countries, there is significant inequality in access to healthcare between rural and urban communities. In South Africa, people living in rural areas tend to rely on public healthcare. Unfortunately, there is an inadequate number of trained healthcare professionals in the public sector. A study conducted in 2002 revealed that urban areas of South Africa were more likely to have higher percentages of HIV infections. However, as a result of the inequality of healthcare, people in rural South Africa were two times less likely to receive testing for HIV or AIDs. 3. AIDS Epidemic: In South Africa, 7.7 million people live with AIDS, the highest case rate in the world. About 20% of the world’s HIV cases are in South Africa, and within the country, about 60% of women have HIV. Even in areas in which testing is available, many choose not to partake, as they are afraid of receiving a positive result. A lack of resources, including education for young people and proper training for healthcare workers, has created issues surrounding awareness of the disease, proper diagnosis and access to PrEP. This drug reduces the possibility of infection by 99%. 4. ART Program AID: In 2003, South Africa rolled out the largest Antiretroviral Treatment plan (ART) in the world. Offered through the public sector, ART serves as the primary HIV intervention for both children and adults. An important aspect of its implementation was affordability, as only 13.7% of South Africans have medical insurance. With the help of CDC South Africa, government facilities and mission hospitals, more people were able to access and benefit from the program. 5. The Good News: ART has proved to be successful, as adult HIV deaths peaked in 2006, with 231,000 deaths, and then decreased dramatically. In 2014 there were 95,000 deaths, which was a reduction of 74.7%. In total, from the very beginning of the program in 2003 to 2014, the ART program reduced HIV adult deaths by an estimated 1.72 million, a clear positive trend. Most recently, in 2018, 71,000 people died from AIDs-related illness, which was a 50% decrease from 2010. Furthermore, 62% of people with HIV had access to treatment. 87% of pregnant women with AIDs also received antiretroviral medication, preventing 53,000 HIV infections in newborn babies. These statistics are all improvements from previous years. While there is still work to be done to improve AIDS and healthcare in South Africa, much progress has been made. Increased funding and support for new programs and access to antiretroviral medication have had a significant impact. Moving forward, it is essential that these programs expand their efforts to further reduce deaths caused by HIV and AIDS. Alyssa Hogan Photo: Flickr Other Outbreaks During COVID-19 All eyes are constantly on the lookout for surges in COVID-19 cases both in one’s own country and around the world, but other outbreaks during the COVID-19 pandemic are on the rise and getting very little attention or preventative measures. The CDC and WHO are monitoring current outbreaks, which include alerts and warnings about an Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, MERS-CoV in Saudi Arabia, Influenza A in Brazil and yellow fever in French Guiana. “Disruption to immunization programs from the COVID-19 pandemic threatens to unwind decades of progress against vaccine-preventable diseases like measles,” said Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, director-general of the WHO. The question now, with most hospitals worldwide overflowing with COVID-19 cases, is how can people suffering from any other disease get the aid that they need? Taking a look at individual states around the world and how they each are handling outbreaks within the current pandemic will allow for discussion on keeping more people safe and healthy. CDC Guidelines for Non-COVID-19 Care The CDC has created a framework for providing non-COVID-19 care in hospitals and clinics, with a graph depicting what a patient is advised to do depending on the seriousness of their sickness or condition. Potential for patient harm, level of community transmission and symptom lists are all considered. The CDC also lists a few key considerations for healthcare providers at this time, asking that they are prepared to detect and monitor COVID-19 cases in the community, provide care with safety procedures in mind and consider other services that may require expansion. While in theory, these are positive factors to implement during a health crisis of this magnitude, many countries with high poverty levels do not have adequate resources or staffing to ensure these practices. Ebola and Measles in the Democratic Republic of the Congo While the two-year Ebola outbreak was just declared over on June 25, 2020, the DRC is facing a rise in measles cases due to a lack of vaccines while it prioritizes COVID-19 treatments. In 2019, the percentage of vaccinated children increased from 42% to 62% in Kinshasa but the plans for a national immunization program in 2020 experienced delay. Now, staffing is short, vaccinations are not a priority and those who are receiving vaccinations are doing so in danger of contracting COVID-19 due to lack of resources. Progress toward polio eradication is also suffering, and over 85,000 children have not received immunizations. The DRC is seemingly engaging in a three-front war, fighting numerous other outbreaks during COVID-19. Thabani Maphosa, Gavi managing director, hopes that if the pandemic clears in three months, immunizations will catch up to necessary levels within the next year and a half. SII Concerned Over Clinical Trial Postponements The Serum Institute of India is cautioning the public about the concerns for other outbreaks during COVID-19. Clinical preliminaries may be in danger and CEO Adar Poonawalla shared his thoughts about the findings: “The resulting dosing of the enlisted subjects has been postponed, therefore affecting the immunization plan given in the convention. In addition, follow-up visits for inoculation, well-being appraisal just as blood withdrawal are postponed.” He also mentioned the fear of hospitals due to COVID-19 contamination and the flipping of general hospitals to COVID-19-only clinics. There have been a few other outbreaks during COVID-19 but the world has yet to see the long-term effects. While the whole world scrambles for a vaccine for COVID-19, it is not surprising that other medical and health concerns seem to be on hold, especially when countries are highly recommending or, in some cases, enforcing social distancing and quarantine. These limitations for worldwide immunization trials and vaccines mostly concentrate in low-income and low-resource areas, like the case in the DRC. While funding these areas always desperately need funding, information and discussion about the concerns are also quite valuable at this time. – Savannah Gardner Photo: Flickr The Cost pf Ending PovertySeveral economists estimate that the cost of ending world poverty is around $175 billion. To the average person, this amount can seem like an unachievable goal to reach, therefore making any contribution futile. In other instances, some people prefer not to make direct donations to end poverty, in fear that their money is not being allocated efficiently. Let’s consider a product that has had immense success despite its price often being called into question. AirPods, similarly to most Apple products, have become a staple for many technology users. Chances are that you either know someone who owns a pair of AirPods or you own a pair yourself. On different social media outlets like Twitter and TikTok, AirPods have turned into a meme in which the small product is often mocked for its big price. The first generation AirPods sold for an average of $149 per pair. On October 30, 2019, Apple launched AirPods Pro at a price of $249. Apple sold over 60 million pairs of AirPods in 2019 and is projected to sell an estimated 90 million pairs in 2020. In 2019, AirPods generated an estimated revenue of $6 billion while the revenue in 2020 is expected to reach $15 billion. Apple’s sales of AirPods in 2020 alone is eight percent of the yearly estimated cost of ending poverty. On a large scale, this percentage may seem like a small portion of what is needed to minimize this global issue. However, $250 on a smaller scale can go a long way to help. 6 Other Ways to Spend $250 that can Help End Global Poverty 1. Sponsor a child – Many children from war-torn countries live as refugees in impoverished conditions. With a full $250 donation, UNICEF will be able to sponsor three refugee children for a lifetime. Through this donation, UNICEF can provide these children with access to clean drinking water, immunizations, education, health care and food supply. 2. Buy a bed net – A bed net can help prevent the spread of malaria by creating a physical barrier between the person inside and the malaria-carrying mosquitos. The CDC Foundation’s net is an insecticide-treated net (ITN) which continues to create a barrier even if there are holes in it. Each net can protect up to three children and 50 nets can be provided with a $250 donation. 3. Provide a community with bees – Bees pollinate around an average of a third of the food supply. Consequently, providing a community with a batch of bees could help local agriculture flourish. Additionally, these bees are often monitored by community-based youth programs that promote entrepreneurship. Through Plan International, seven different communities could benefit from a $250 donation. 4. Register a child – By registering a child with a birth certificate, that child then has access to necessary human rights such as health care, education and inheritance. A birth certificate is also an essential part of protecting children from child marriage, human trafficking and forced labor. A $250 donation could register seven children for a record of existence. 5. Buy a goat, baby chicks and a sheep for a familyGoat’s milk can provide children with protein that is essential for growth. Baby chicks can also produce nutritious eggs and the possibility to generate income. Sheep will yield milk, cheese and wool for a family. All of these animals will offer a family a continuous supply of living necessities. One of each animal can be given to a family through a $250 donation. 6. Fund a community center – A $250 donation could go towards investing in the lives of youth in poverty by funding a community center. This donation goes towards building or modernizing youth centers in impoverished areas. A community center creates a space for health operations, play spots for children and technological hubs. These are a few of the many effective ways to make a simple contribution to alleviating this global problem that costs no more than a set of AirPods. Ending world poverty is not an easy task, nor is it inexpensive upon first glance. However, an individual can make a massive impact once the cost of ending poverty is put into perspective. A personal contribution to ending poverty can be as simple as making a donation for the same price as a pair of AirPods. Camryn Anthony Photo: Flickr Malaria is a leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2018, among 228 million cases of malaria globally, there were 405,000 deaths, 94% of which were in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although treatment has gotten much better in recent years and deaths due to malaria have begun to decline globally, in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic worries have arisen that those who receive treatment for malaria will be unable to continue to do so. ( results from the Global Fund’s biweekly survey of HIV, TB, and malaria treatment programs found that 73% of malaria programs reported disruption to service delivery, with 19% reporting high and very high disruptions. Activities within the programs are being canceled due to lockdowns, restrictions on the size of gatherings, transport stoppages, COVID-related stigma, and clients not seeking health services as usual. With these disruptions to important malaria treatment services, such as insecticide-treated net campaigns and antimalarial medicine administration, the World Health Organization predicts that deaths from malaria in Sub-saharan Africa could double. ( These deaths would return countries' malaria mortality levels from the year 2000, regressing on the progress that malaria treatment has reached in the past 18 years. It has never been more vital than now that countries continue to mitigate malaria treatment in their communities and sustain essential services that have helped save so many lives of those affected by malaria. ( The Global Fund is a partnership designed to help eradicate HIV, TB, and malaria epidemics. It raises and invests more than $4 billion a year to support local programs for these epidemics. They partner with local experts in countries, as well as governments, faith-based organizations, technical agencies, the private sector, and those affected by these diseases to raise money, invest it, and implement strategies to give aid. ( The Global Fund has created an urgent mitigation plan to curb the effect of COVID-19 on delivering essential health services, such as malaria relief, as well as making $1 billion available to other countries as part of their response. They plan to adapt malaria programs to mitigate the impact of COVID-19, protect frontline workers with protective equipment and training, reinforce supply chains, laboratory networks, and community-led response systems, and fight COVID-19 by supporting testing, tracing, isolation, and treatment. The Global Fund is seeking an additional $5 billion to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on countries receiving treatment for malaria, TB, and HIV. ( Along with the Global Fund and the WHO, the CDC has also created a set of key considerations for continuing essential malaria prevention, while safeguarding against the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to recommending that a representative from the National Malaria Control Program should be considered for membership on the country’s National COVID-19 Incident Management Team, the CDC recommends continued access to Insecticide-Treated Nets for populations at risk, physical distancing during spray treatments, and the continuance of essential routine entomological monitoring activities while abiding by social distancing and wearing protective gear. The CDC also recommends that countries monitor their supply chain and adapt their malaria treatment programs if needed, due to higher costs or less resources. Countries should continue to collect data on COVID-19 and malaria illness in the population. It is important that countries communicate their continuation of malaria treatment to their citizens and educate them on how to seek treatment while also protecting themselves from COVID. ( The leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa is malaria. There were 228 million cases of malaria globally in 2018. Additionally, there were 405,000 deaths, 94% of which were in Sub-Saharan Africa. The treatment improves in recent years and malaria has begun to decline globally. However, concerns about receiving treatment for malaria occurs during the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent results from the Global Fund’s biweekly survey of HIV, TB and malaria treatment programs found that 73% of malaria programs reported disruption to service delivery. Around 19% reports high and very high disruptions. Lockdowns canceled activities within the programs. There are restrictions on the size of gatherings, transport stoppages, COVID-related stigma and patients are not seeking health services as usual. The World Health Organization predicts that deaths from malaria in Sub-saharan Africa could double due to disruptions to important malaria treatment services. For example, insecticide-treated net campaigns and antimalarial medicine administration. It is extremely vital that countries continue to mitigate malaria treatment in their communities. Additionally, the countries should sustain essential services that have helped save many lives affected by malaria. The Global Fund The Global Fund is a partnership that helps eradicate HIV, TB and malaria epidemics. It raises and invests more than $4 billion a year to support local programs for these epidemics. The organization partner with local experts in countries, governments, organizations, the private sector and those affected by these diseases. The aim of the partnership is to raise and invest money and implement strategies to give aid. Furthermore, The Global Fund created an urgent mitigation plan to curb the effect of COVID-19 on delivering essential health services. The plan includes making $1 billion malaria relief available to other countries as part of their response. In addition, The Global Fund plans to adapt malaria programs to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 and protect frontline workers with protective equipment and training. It also reinforce supply chains, laboratory networks and community-led response systems. The Global Fund fights COVID-19 by supporting testing, tracing, isolation, and treatment. It seeks an additional $5 billion to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on countries receiving treatment for malaria, TB and HIV. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) The CDC created a set of key considerations for continuing essential malaria prevention while safeguarding against the COVID-19 pandemic. The CDC gives four recommendations during the COVID-19 pandemic. First, a representative from the National Malaria Control Program should be considered for membership on the country’s National COVID-19 Incident Management Team. Second, continued access for Insecticide-Treated Nets for populations at risk should be put in place. Third, physical distancing during spray treatments should be imposed. Lastly, the continuance of essential routine entomological monitoring activities while abiding by social distancing and wearing protective gear. For countries that impacted by malaria, the CDC advises the countries to monitor their supply chain and adapt their malaria treatment programs. Countries should continue to collect data on COVID-19 and malaria illness in the population. It is important that countries communicate their continuation of malaria treatment to their citizens and educate them on how to seek treatment while also protecting themselves from COVID-19. Giulia Silver Photo: Flickr Healthcare in Zambia Problems in the Healthcare System The Path to Development Looking Ahead Isabella Thorpe Photo: Flickr Tuberculosis in BotswanaBotswana is a southern African country with just over 2 million residents living inside its borders. Every Batswana lives with the threat of tuberculosis, an infectious disease that remains one of the top 10 causes of death on the African continent. Tuberculosis has a 50% global death rate for all confirmed cases. Investing in tuberculosis treatments and prevention programs is essential. Botswana has one of the highest tuberculosis infection rates in the world with an estimated 300 confirmed cases per 100,000 people, according to the CDC. Preventative and community-based treatment shows promise in combating tuberculosis in Botswana. Treating Tuberculosis in Botswana Tuberculosis treatment cures patients by eliminating the presence of infectious bacteria in the lungs. The first phase of treatment lasts two months. It requires at least four separate drugs to eliminate the majority of the bacteria. Health workers administer a second, shorter phase of treatment to minimize the possibility of remaining bacteria in the lungs. Early identification of tuberculosis is a crucial step in the treatment process and significantly reduces the risk of patient death, according to the Ministry of Health. Preventative treatment methods are vital because they inhibit the development of tuberculosis infection. They also reduce the risk of patient death significantly. Health workers detect tuberculosis with a bacteriological examination in a medical laboratory. The U.S. National Institutes of Health estimate that a single treatment costs $258 in countries like Botswana. Involving the Community Botswana’s Ministry of Health established the National Tuberculosis Programme (BNTP) in 1975 to fight tuberculosis transmission. The BNTP is currently carrying out this mission through a community-based care approach that goes beyond the hospital setting. Although 85% of Batswana live within three miles of a health facility, it is increasingly difficult for patients to travel for daily tuberculosis treatment. This is due to the lack of transportation options in much of the country. Involving the community requires the training and ongoing coordination of volunteers in communities throughout the country to provide tuberculosis treatment support. Community-based care also improves treatment adherence and outcome through affordable and feasible treatment. The implementation of strategies such as community care combats tuberculosis. For example, it mobilizes members of the community to provide treatment for tuberculosis patients. The participation of community members also provides an unintended but helpful consequence. For example, community participation helps to reduce the stigmas surrounding the disease and reveals the alarming prevalence of tuberculosis in Botswana. A Second Threat In addition to the tuberculosis disease, the HIV epidemic in Africa has had a major impact on the Botswana population, with 20.3% of adults currently living with the virus. Patients with HIV are at high risk to develop tuberculosis due to a significant decrease in body cell immunity. The prevalence of HIV contributes to the high rates of the disease. The level of HIV co-infection with tuberculosis in Botswana is approximately 61%. African Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Partnerships (ACHAP), a nonprofit health development organization, provides TB/HIV care and prevention programs in 16 of the 17 districts across the country in its effort to eradicate the disease. Fighting Tuberculosis on a Global Scale The World Health Organization (WHO) hopes to significantly reduce the global percentage of tuberculosis death and incident rates through The End TB Strategy adopted in 2014. The effort focuses on preventative treatment, poverty alleviation and research to tackle tuberculosis in Botswana, aiming to reduce the infection rate by 90% in 2035. The WHO plans to reduce the economic burden of tuberculosis and increase access to health care services. In addition, it plans to combat other health risks associated with poverty. Low-income populations are at greater risk for tuberculosis transmission for several reasons including: • Poor ventilation • Undernutrition • Inadequate working conditions • Indoor air pollution • Lack of sanitation The WHO emphasizes the significance of global support in its report on The End TB Strategy stating that, “Global coordination is…essential for mobilizing resources for tuberculosis care and prevention from diverse multilateral, bilateral and domestic sources.” – Madeline Zuzevich Photo: Flickr Countries with CholeraCholera is a disease of inequity that unduly sickens and kills the poorest and most vulnerable people – those without access to clean water and sanitation.” – Carissa F. Etienne, the Director of Pan American Health Organization. Profuse vomiting, diarrhea and leg cramps, followed by intense dehydration and shock, are all symptoms of cholera. It is a highly contagious waterborne illness that can cause death within hours if left untreated. Cholera is mainly caused by drinking unsafe water, having poor sanitation and inadequate hygiene, all of which allow the toxigenic bacteria Vibrio Cholerae to infect a person’s intestine. While cholera can be treated successfully through simple methods, such as replacing the lost fluid from excessive diarrhea, there are still many people around the globe struggling with the disease. There are 2.9 million cases and 95,000 deaths each year, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The countries that have the greatest risk of a cholera outbreak are the ones that are going through poverty, war and natural disasters. These factors cause poor sanitation and crowded conditions, which help the spread of the disease. Yemen is known for being one of the countries with the most Cholera cases. The number of cholera cases in Yemen has been increasing since January 2018; the cumulative reported cases from January 2018 to January 2020 is 1,262,722, with 1,543 deaths. The number of cases in Yemen marked 1,032,481 as of 2017, which was a sharp increase from the 15,751 cases and 164 deaths in 2016. On a positive note, the numbers showed a decrease by February 19, 2020; 56,220 cases were recorded, with 20 associated deaths. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) The DRC is another country with a high number of Cholera cases. There were 30,304 suspected cases of cholera and 514 deaths in 2019. Although the number of 2019 cases was smaller than that of 2017 (56,190 cases and 1,190 deaths), the 2019 data showed an increase from 2018 (27,269 cases and 472 deaths). As of May 13, 2020, 10,533 cases and 147 deaths were reported; most of these reported cases originated from Lualaba regions, Haut Katanga and North and South Kivu. Somalia also stands as one of the countries with the most Cholera cases. From December 2017 to May 30, 2020, there were 13,528 suspected cholera cases and 67 associated deaths in Somalia. These reported cases are from regions of Hiran, Lower Shabelle, Middle Shabelle and Banadir. Other than the three countries listed above, there are many others that are also going through Cholera outbreaks. Uganda reported a new Cholera outbreak in the Moroto district in May 2020; a month later, 682 cases and 92 deaths have been reported. Burundi also declared a new cholera outbreak this past March; 70 new cases were reported. Helping Cholera Outbreaks Many non-profit organizations like UNICEF are constantly working towards helping these countries and many more. A good example of a country that has shown a great decrease in cholera cases following external aid is Haiti. Haiti experienced the first large-scale outbreak of cholera with over 665,000 cases and 8,183 deaths. After a decade of efforts to fight against cholera, the country recently reported zero new cases of cholera for an entire year. An example of how UNICEF helped Haiti is by supporting the Government’s Plan for Cholera Elimination and focusing on rapid response to diarrhea cases. However, the country still needs to keep effective surveillance systems and remain as a cholera-free country for two more years to get validation from the World Health Organization (WHO) of the successful elimination of the disease. Alison Choi Photo: Flickr Kenya is a coastal country located in East Africa. The nation is developing significantly in terms of economy and healthcare provision. However, since there is a high prevalence of natural disasters and poverty, there are recognizable problems when it comes to healthcare in Kenya. For instance, there are 8.3 nurses and 1.5 doctors per 10,000 people. These numbers fall drastically short of the WHO recommendation of 25 nurses and 36 doctors per 10,000 people. Here are six of the major issues related to healthcare in Kenya and how the country is addressing them. 6 Facts About Healthcare in Kenya 1. In 2016, malaria was the leading cause of mortality in Kenya. The CDC reported that there are nearly 3.5 million new clinical cases and 10,700 deaths each year. Nevertheless, treatments are on the rise. Long-lasting insecticide-treated mosquito nets and artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs) have proven to be effective prevention and treatment. ACTs are fast-acting and “artemisinin-based compounds are combined with a drug from a different class” to make the treatment. Since the early 2010s, access to ACTs has increased significantly, though there is still a need for access to them in rural areas. In 2019, the WHO reported that Kenya became the third country to implement the world’s first malaria vaccine. Children receive this vaccine as part of routine immunizations, and experts expect it to lower malaria cases significantly in Kenya. 2. Kenya has one of the highest rates of HIV-infection in the world. UNAIDS reports that, in 2018, 1.6 million Kenyans were living with HIV. Of this population, Avert, a resource for information on HIV and AIDS, states that more than half are unaware of their HIV status. Fortunately, the Kenyan Ministry of Health has announced that HIV cases are decreasing, with the HIV prevalence standing at 4.9% as of February 2020. To improve HIV status awareness, the Kenyan government has partnered with the EGPAF to invest in door-to-door testing campaigns and self-testing kits. The program has emphasized aiding counties with high or rising HIV prevalence. Additionally, UNAIDS reported that 91% of HIV-positive pregnant women were able to access antiretroviral treatment in 2018. 3. Kenya is one of the most highly industrialized countries in East Africa, meaning that pollution is prevalent. Air pollution in Kenya causes death both directly and indirectly. The State of Global Air reports that, in 2017, air pollution directly caused 4,710 deaths in Kenya. Indirectly, air pollution has increased cases of pneumonia, tuberculosis, water pollution and diarrheal diseases, which are among the top fatal diseases in the country. The combined direct and indirect deaths from air pollution total approximately 18,000 each year. However, there is hope for improvement. Inventions like air sensors can report data about air quality. Kenyans are using these sensors to report data via social media and pressure leaders into making change. 4. Cancer cases in Kenya are on the rise. As a noncommunicable disease, cancer is one of the leading causes of death in Kenya. The Union for International Cancer Control (UICC) reports that Kenya has 47,000 new cases every year. The UICC also notes that cancer tends to appear in the younger population, and this trend is attributed to lifestyle and environmental changes. To address this crisis, the country is investing in cancer research and support. Additionally, the Kenyan Parliament passed a law to address proper cancer management. 5. Infant deaths are one of the greatest challenges facing healthcare in Kenya. UNICEF reports that 74,000 children in Kenya die before the age of five each year. These deaths are often caused by poverty, as many families cannot easily access the resources needed for child healthcare. One such resource is insurance. According to the WHO, in 2018, 80% of the Kenyan population did not have any insurance. As a result, the government set aside $40-45 million to establish Universal Health Coverage to help more people to access appropriate healthcare services. 6. There is a stigma surrounding mental health in Kenya. As a result, there are limited resources allocated to mental health awareness, and Kenyans resist seeking help for mental health issues. Despite this stigma, there is intensive research being done to engage both informal and formal health practitioners in addressing mental health problems to improve healthcare in Kenya. Kenya is determined to address the most challenging problems related to healthcare in the country. There is an emphasis on research and investing in resources to help more people to access better and more affordable healthcare services. Healthcare in Kenya is expected to see improvement in the coming years. Renova Uwingabire Photo: Flickr healthcare in the Democratic Republic of the CongoOne of the biggest challenges facing the Democratic Republic of the Congo is its healthcare system. The country faces many barriers to adequate healthcare, such as low funding, systematic and structural difficulties, poverty, proper treatment and testing, education and more. However, many organizations worldwide are working to improve healthcare in the country through direct aid and legislation. The Problems with the Healthcare System in the Democratic Republic of the Congo The healthcare system lacks investment and funding. As a result, it is difficult for the country to combat prevalent healthcare issues, such as infectious diseases. It also provides obstacles to combatting more pervasive issues such as infant and mother mortality rates. According to the CDC, the top causes of death in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are “malaria, lower respiratory infections, neonatal disorders and tuberculosis.” Many of these issues are preventable. However, as of 2017, the Democratic Republic of the Congo only dedicated 3.98% of GDP to healthcare. In comparison, the U.S. dedicated 17.06% to healthcare. Healthcare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo requires consistent funding and resources to ameliorate and reduce these problems; without increased investment, these healthcare problems will only continue to persist. Furthermore, the WHO states that another complication facing the healthcare system is a lack of resources. The healthcare facilities that are up and running are “often poorly maintained” and difficult to access. Moreover, many communities throughout the country are isolated and spread out. For example, the WHO states that 80% of cholera patients are displaced throughout the country. With these patients vastly spread out, it becomes harder and harder to treat and reduce the impact of cholera. Additionally, traveling from one area to the next present difficulties because of damaged and underdeveloped roads, which introduces another barrier to proper treatment. Therefore, it becomes increasingly difficult for citizens to even obtain access to healthcare clinics and/or hospitals. Factoring in violence and displacement, lack of food and healthy drinking water and extreme poverty conditions, healthcare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s is in dire need of support and aid. What Organizations are Doing to Help With that said, what are other countries and organizations doing to help the Democratic Republic of the Congo? There are many organizations around the world working to reduce global poverty and improve healthcare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and other struggling countries. The focus herein are direct, firsthand efforts from organizations such as USAID, the CDC and WHO. • The WHO is actively trying to obtain accurate information about population and health in order to properly provide solutions for certain problems. For example, the WHO seeks to obtain information about issues, such as infant mortality rate and the necessary vaccines. Then, they modernize this information by implementing new technology and software to ensure that the data is upkept, accurate and transformative. • USAID is training local citizens and communities on proper healthcare treatment and issues. USAID helps these citizens utilize “locally available resources” to treat the pervasive health issues specific to the country. Additionally, USAID also seeks to increase education by providing scholarships to people to pursue comprehensive medical education. USAID also strives to increase funding and investment for healthcare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. • The CDC has sent more than two million testing kits and thousands of vaccines/treatments to combat a multitude of issues such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, influenza and infections. Additionally, they have also increased the number of healthcare clinics and other testing and treatment sites across the country. These sites now include five new “sentinel sites for influenza and other infections”. Moving Forward Furthermore, advocacy organizations push federal legislation focused on reducing poverty and improving healthcare systems across the world. Equally important, these continual and consistent efforts prioritize allocation of U.S. foreign aid towards these economically struggling countries. Overall, healthcare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, underfunded for many years, still requires intense rebuilding and change. However, many organizations across the world are understanding these healthcare issues and taking action to help. While much more progress must occur in order to ensure a stable, successful healthcare system, the progress that is currently underway should not be overlooked. – Sophia McWilliams Photo: Flickr CDC Intervention in Haiti Haiti is the poorest country in the western hemisphere with a UNDP national poverty index ranking of 68th. The country is also home to one of the world’s most populated cities without a centralized sewage system – Port-Au-Prince. Although the developing country is vibrant, Haiti is still struggling. Since the initial destruction that the 7.0 magnitude earthquake in 2010 brought, cholera and HIV have ravaged the nation. However, as a direct result of the CDC intervention in Haiti, the nation has not fallen. The CDC has provided financial and technical assistance to the Government of Haiti (GOH) since 2002. In the 2010 earthquake’s aftermath, the CDC refocused on both immediate health necessities and public health systems within days of the U.N.’s arrival. CDC intervention in Haiti assisted the GOH in developing disease surveillance systems and establishing a competent public health force aimed to aid Haiti in developing a proper disease outbreak response. This past decade, Haiti has not seen much progress due to reform efforts growing stagnant. Subsequently, the changes the country has seen thus far have turned out to be unsustainable and/or have been ill-fitted solutions to Haiti’s unique predicament. Fortunately, CDC intervention in Haiti has been critical to the continued survival of many, and the number of people saved will hopefully continue to grow. Haiti’s Cholera Epidemic and the CDC The GOH and the CDC have also been collaborating to devise a longterm plan to eliminate cholera. CDC intervention in Haiti has increased patient case surveillance, laboratory capacity, oral cholera vaccine (OCV) administration and clean water and sanitation access in efforts to curb cholera’s spread One of these efforts includes the Haitian Ministry of Health (MOH) building the National Cholera Surveillance System (NCSS) in conjunction with the CDC support. The platform is a rapid identifier of concentrated outbreaks, providing critical guidance to further prevent future outbreaks. Thanks to these efforts, along with others, incidence rates dropped from 112 cases per every 100,000 in 2017 to 25.5 cases for every 100,000 in 2018. The CDC’s “Foot-Soldiers” in the Battle Against Cholera Through the design of training programs, protocols and supplemental assistance, the CDC has created an entirely new workforce titled TEPACs or officially the Techniciens en Eau Potable et Assainissement pour les Communes. Having been key in Haiti’s disease prevention, these “foot-soldiers” ensure the safety of water sources, improve sanitation standards and routinely assess communal water systems and sources for free chlorine. They also performed Haiti’s first inventory of those sources; inventory of resources provide valuable information to donation/volunteering groups. Alongside the efforts of the CDC, TEPACs has launched the WASH initiative – coordinated work in the area of water, sanitation and hygiene – in a supplemental effort to eradicate cholera from Haiti. CDC Impact On the AIDS Crisis It is estimated that 150,000 people living in Haiti have HIV/AIDS. CDC intervention in Haiti is achieving more control over the AIDS epidemic. Outlining the concern of the epidemic and the impact of CDC support, 98 percent of all pregnant women and 100 percent of TB patients that CDC clinics saw received tests for HIV. Further, all TB patients that tested positive for HIV also received antiretroviral therapy (ART) in 2018. The CDC and the President’s Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) have sought to better medical treatment, fortify health care systems, improve laboratory information networks and cover medical fees. The development of information-sharing systems to track data of HIV patients has saved countless lives. CDC Provides Household Water Treatment and Storage The CDC also implemented household water treatment and storage (HWTS) to support adequate sanitary conditions for Haitians. HWTS has the potential to provide safe drinking water in primarily rural households. CDC intervention in Haiti has offered HWTS product certification developmental protocols and a national strategy for HWTS programs and product evaluation. The Direction Nationale de l’Eau Potable et de l’Assainissement (DINEPA) intends these programs to support disease prevention and treatment in Haiti. A Solution to the Underlying Sanitation Problem While recovery has been slow, CDC intervention in Haiti has been an immensely influential factor in public health. One aspect of public sanitation the CDC does not have a direct influence on is the waste that litters Haiti. Today, the capital, Port-Au-Prince, is still without central sewage. With every rainfall, a potentially lethal flood of human fecal matter, urine and other harmful substances accompany the water. The country is in dire need of infrastructure reforms specifically for the needs of Haiti and its people. The CDC has dedicated itself to controlling and minimizing epidemics, but it has yet to address flooding latrines and a lack of proper sewage disposal systems despite their inflammatory influence on disease. Flaure Dubois has a potential solution to Haiti’s flood problem. Dubois proposes the Haitian government hire those working to clean latrines, called Bayakous, to create jobs for Haitian citizens. Officializing the Bayakou occupation would bring a wage increase and higher public esteem. If the GOH and the CDC work in conjunction with Bayakous to educate citizens about the dangers of raw sewage, people might be more willing to pay for Bayakou services. Further, it would encourage the sewage shipment to treatment plants, rather than it going into canals. A larger influx of latrine waste enables Haiti’s one functional plant to operate at peak performance and support economic growth in the sanitation sector. Government-funded Bayakous provide a basis to expand Haiti’s waste-management industry, eventually increasing aptitudes for efficient waste treatment/disposal methods. Expansion of this industry could result in a higher degree of sanitation and a lower rate of disease transmission. The GOH or the CDC’s involvement in waste management would lead to superior safety and higher circulation of information for Haitian citizens and workers in the sanitation industry. Employing Bayakous has the potential to sponsor the country’s most important pillar in ensuring safe water sources and sanitation. By offering better equipment, methods and working conditions CDC intervention in Haiti can support sustaining health improvements. Haiti needs a sustainable solution to the root of its sanitation problem before it can begin to have lasting-recovery. – Hana Burson Photo: Pixabay
Cancer & Sugar - Strategy for Selective Starvation of Cancer Views 164195 Cancer and Sugar - Strategy for Selective Starvation of Cancer Suppress/ Delay/ Slow/ Kill Cancer More Ways to Cause Cancer with Sugar Sugar, Inflammation, Angiogenesis & Cancer The entire subject of inflammation, angiogenesis, sugar and cancer is crucial to understanding the links between cancer and the foods we eat. When we begin to zero in on inflammation and the acid conditions caused by excessive consumption of simple sugars, including fructose and high-fructose corn syrup, we begin to see more clearly how food and cancer are intimately connected. In July 2012 a leading U.S. cancer lobby group urged the surgeon general to conduct a sweeping study of the impact of sugar-sweetened beverages on consumer health, saying such drinks play a major role in the nation's obesity crisis and require a U.S. action plan. In a letter to U.S. Health Secretary Kathleen Sebelius, the American Cancer Society's advocacy affiliate called for a comprehensive review along the lines of the U.S. top doctor's landmark report on the dangers of smoking in 1964. The ruckus is about the growing connection between high sugar intake, mineral depletion, dehydration, diabetes, heart disease and cancer. Sugar causes cancer because the tendency of high-carbohydrate consumers tends toward dehydration, which is pro-inflammatory and thus pro-cancer.[5] This is the first time a link has been shown between fructose and cancer proliferation. "In this study we show that cancers can use fructose just as readily as glucose to fuel their growth," said Dr. Anthony Heaney of UCLA's Jonsson Cancer Center, the study's lead author. "The modern diet contains a lot of refined sugar including fructose and it's a hidden danger implicated in a lot of modern diseases, such as obesity, diabetes and fatty liver." While this study was done on pancreatic cancer, these findings may not be unique to that cancer type, Heaney said. "These findings show that cancer cells can readily metabolize fructose to increase proliferation." It has been known for decades that cancer cells thrive on glucose. Moreover, foods that cause a sharp rise in blood glucose (i.e. foods with a high-glycemic index ranking) trigger the secretion of insulin and insulin growth factor (IGF-1), two hormones that also promote cancer growth. Researchers using rats have found that a low-carbohydrate high-protein diet reduces blood glucose, insulin, and glycolysis, slows tumor growth, reduces tumor incidence, and works additively with existing therapies without weight loss or kidney failure.[7] Such a diet, therefore, has the potential of being both a novel cancer prophylactic and treatment. Otto Warburg Dr. Otto Warburg's 1924 paper, "On metabolism of tumors," stated, "Summarized in a few words, the prime cause of cancer is the replacement of the respiration of oxygen in normal body cells by a fermentation of sugar." If you've ever made wine, you'll know that fermentation requires sugar. The metabolism of cancer is approximately eight times greater than the metabolism of normal cells. Doctors have known for a long time that cancer metabolizes much differently than normal cells. Normal cells need oxygen. Cancer cells disregard oxygen when adequate glucose is present. Warburg's hypothesis was of course that cancer growth was caused when cancer cells converted glucose into energy without using oxygen. Healthy cells make energy by converting pyruvate and oxygen. The pyruvate is oxidized within a healthy cell's mitochondria, and Warburg theorized that since cancer cells don't oxidize pyruvate, cancer must be considered a mitochondrial dysfunction. Most, if not all, tumor cells have a high demand on glucose compared to benign cells of the same tissue and conduct glycolysis even in the presence of oxygen (the Warburg effect). In addition, many cancer cells express insulin receptors (IRs) and show hyperactivation of the IGF1R-IR (IGF-1 receptor/ insulin receptor) pathway. Evidence exists that chronically elevated blood glucose, insulin and IGF-1 levels facilitate tumor genesis and worsen the outcome in cancer patients. Treating diabetic patients, A. Braunstein observed in 1921 that in those who developed cancer, glucose secretion in the urine disappeared. One year later, R. Bierich described the remarkable accumulation of lactate in the micromilieu of tumor tissues and demonstrated lactate to be essential for invasion of melanoma cells into the surrounding tissue. One year after that Warburg began his experiments that eventually ended for him with a Nobel Prize. Sugar turns the body into a suitable breeding ground for viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancer by devastating the immune system. Sugar Feeds Cancer Knowing that one's cancer needs sugar, does it make sense to feed it sugar? Does it make sense to have a high-carbohydrate diet? Of the four million cancer patients being treated in America today, hardly any are offered any scientifically guided nutrition therapy beyond being told to "just eat good foods." Oncologists have no shame about this, insisting that diet has little to do with cancer. Cancer patients should not be feeding their cancers like they would feed cotton candy to their grandchildren. As long as this cancer cell can get a regular supply of sugar—or glucose—it lives and thrives longer than it should. Now imagine oncologists getting enlightened and they start to advise their patients to starve the cancer instead of bombing it to smithereens with chemotherapy and radiation treatments all the while feeding the cancer with sugar! • [1] Nicholas A Graham, Martik Tahmasian, Bitika Kohli, Evangelia Komisopoulou, Maggie Zhu, Igor Vivanco, Michael A Teitell, Hong Wu, Antoni Ribas, Roger S Lo, Ingo K Mellinghoff, Paul S Mischel, Thomas G Graeber. Glucose deprivation activates a metabolic and signaling amplification loop leading to cell death. Molecular Systems Biology, 2012; 8 DOI: 10.1038/msb.2012.20 • [2] Ketone bodies, also called acetone bodies or simply ketones, are any of three compounds produced when the liver metabolizes fatty acids. The three types of ketone bodies—acetoacetic acid, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, and acetone —are released into the bloodstream after metabolism occurs. Acetoacetic acid and beta-hydroxybutyric acid are used for fuel by the brain and muscles, but the body can't break down acetone and therefore excretes it in the urine. Excess acetone or ketone bodies in the blood and urine can be a sign of a serious metabolic disease, and doctors often use the measurement of ketone bodies as a tool in the diagnosis of such diseases. • In healthy individuals, the body uses mostly carbohydrate metabolism to fuel its cells. If sufficient carbohydrates are not available, such as during starvation, the body begins metabolizing fats into ketone bodies to provide the necessary fuel. High levels of ketones in the urine, a condition called ketonuria, indicates that the body is using mostly fat for its energy. • A condition that will produce dangerously high levels of ketone bodies is Type I diabetes. Individuals with diabetes mellitus are unable to efficiently metabolize glucose, due to insufficient insulin production or insulin resistance. Their bodies will begin metabolizing fats and proteins to make up for the lack of available glucose for energy. Without treatment, extremely high levels of ketones in the blood and urine can lower the blood's pH and cause a condition called ketoacidosis. It occurs most often in people with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus and is exacerbated when high blood glucose levels, caused by lack of available insulin, further acidify the blood. Ketoacidosis can lead to ketoacidic coma or death. • [3] Is there a role for carbohydrate restriction in the treatment and prevention of cancer? Rainer J Klement and Ulrike Kämmerer; Nutr Metab (Lond). 2011; 8: 75; Published online 2011 October 26. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-8-75 • [4] Cancer-related inflammation; Mantovani A, Allavena P, Sica A, Balkwill F.; Nature. 2008 Jul 24;454(7203):436-44; • [5] • [6] • [7] A Low Carbohydrate, High Protein Diet Slows Tumor Growth and Prevents Cancer Initiation; Victor W. Ho et al; Cancer Res July 1, 2011 71; 4484; Sayer Ji Founder of Subscribe to our informative Newsletter & get Nature's Evidence-Based Pharmacy Download Now 500+ pages of Natural Medicine Alternatives and Information.
History liberal reforms essay writer Anti-individualism was especially prominent in the writings of official philosopher Giovanni Gentile, who gave Fascist social theory its finished form in the final years of the regime. In stating such he demonstrates a lack of understanding about the people and circumstances that created the Aboriginal Embassy action. Its leaders and initiators were secular-minded, highly progressive intellectuals, hard-headed haters of existing society and especially of its most bourgeois aspects. Laciniate both Tintagel - approximal paginations role of hypothesis in research amongst straked slapping defining his retrogressively in lieu of an ordinance microbe. By then all the children they looked forward to having would be grown, they would themselves be middle-aged, they would have had plenty of time to master the political skills and acquire the wisdom to make them the kind of rulers they hoped to be. The poor were especially hard hit. A Biography, Ringwood, Penguin,pp. Jailed several times for involvement in strikes and anti-war protests, he became something of a leftist hero. The students of my course in the trivium love the fact that their pagan teacher loves a nun. It was felt that by monitoring and keeping a record of police harassment of the community they might be able to build a solid database of information that they might then use politically to alleviate the situation. They liberalised property lawsended seigneurial duesabolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalised divorceand closed the Jewish ghettos. Free History Essays Howson when the conference voted to give tent Embassy representatives full speaking and voting rights and passed a motion calling for the Embassy to be re-established. All human discourse is symbolized, which is why we need to teach grammar, but it is also thought, which is why we need to teach logic. If the clientele dislikes you en masse, you can be left without students, period. The art of symbol needs to be supplemented with that of thought, here reduced to the next seven questions: By rebelling against established ways of seeing and saying things, genius helps us to apprehend how malleable the present is and how promising and fraught with danger is the future. In the 12th — 13th centuries, in Rus was a time of fragmentation, a disintegration of Rus into principalities, as well as the struggle between princely dynasties for Kiev. The couple would eventually have eight children, and even amid the trials of war, revolution and exile would build a solid Christian home for them. He expected that both decadent bourgeois democracy and dogmatic Marxism-Leninism would everywhere give way to Fascism, that the twentieth century would be a century of Fascism. Therefore the liberal party knew that they stood as a huge Threat, so had to keep themselves as middle ground as they possibly could. No Marxist thought that socialism had anything to offer a backward economy like Italy, unless the revolution occurred first in Britain, America, Germany, and France. How did my students reach this peculiar state in which all passion seems to be spent. Its style of poetry was a defining influence on Mayakovsky. What was lost can be summed up in a few words not from Scripture: Upon his return to Italy, young Benito was an undistinguished member of the Socialist Party. Italy entered the war in Mayand Mussolini enlisted. If, as long as she was still with us, most of the world did not notice or was indifferent, she still soldiered on, still did her duty. The liberal government reforms 1906-1914 Essay I can only say that I hear comparable stories about classroom life from colleagues everywhere in America. But Fascism lived on Karl, Empress Zita, and their children had to flee Vienna. Did a blow from a rifle butt or, as according to some, a champagne bottle shatter his skull. Once humans moved out of their natural state and formed societies, Locke argued as follows: That was when the Rev. We are going to talk here about Ven. Higher history liberal reforms extended essay abstract Taking a vow was forever. Photographs of his funeral show the entire top of his head wrapped in bandages. Liberal Reforms Essay It takes only a few such instances to draw other members of the professoriat further into line. What is the point of contrasting the lives of these three women?. The rising death toll is a warning that Congress and the White House need to take more decisive action. If they can’t, or won’t, Americans should turn to the courts. Liberal Government introduce social reforms in the early twentieth century In the late 19th century the British government practiced the principle of laissez-faire. Laissez faire means the business market are free from tariffs, government subsidies and enforced monopolies [2]. Aftermath: Sixteen Writers on Trump’s America Essays by Toni Morrison, Atul Gawande, Hilary Mantel, George Packer, Jane Mayer, Jeffrey Toobin, Junot Díaz, and more. Permission is granted to anyone wishing to use this page or the related lesson plan for instructional purposes as long as you credit the author (me!) and the web page source. THE LIBERTARIAN ALLIANCE is an independent, non-party group, brought together by a shared desire to work for a free society. The Libertarian Alliance is pledged to fight statism in all its forms, and to engage in long range propaganda for the Libertarian alternative. An industrial revolution, the abolition of serfdom, and other liberal reforms happened in the 19th century. The history of Russia begins with ancient times, features of life of the ancient Slavs, the formation and development of the Old Russian state. History liberal reforms essay writer Rated 4/5 based on 68 review The American Prospect
Incredible speed of US infections US coronavirus cases have hit one million after doubling in 18 days, and make up one-third of all infections in the world, according to a Reuters tally. More than 56,000 Americans have died of the highly contagious respiratory illness COVID-19 caused by the virus, an average of about 2000 a day this month, according to the tally. The actual number of cases is thought to be higher, with state public health officials cautioning that shortages of trained workers and materials have limited testing capacity. About 30 per cent of the cases have occurred in New York State, the epicentre of the US outbreak, followed by New Jersey, Massachusetts, California and Pennsylvania. The rate of infections has increased dramatically. It took 80 days for the US to reach 500,000 cases. It took just 18 days to go from 500,000 to one million. Globally, coronavirus cases have topped three million since the outbreak began in China late last year. The United States, with the world's third-largest population, has five times as many cases as the next hardest-hit countries of Italy, Spain and France. Of the top 20 most severely affected countries, the United States ranks fifth based on cases per capita, according to a Reuters tally. The United States has about 30 cases per 10,000 people. Spain ranks first at over 48 cases per 10,000 people, followed by Belgium, Switzerland and Italy. US coronavirus deaths, the highest in the world, now exceed the total number of Americans killed in the 1950-53 Korean War - 36,516. Coronavirus deaths total just below the 58,220 Americans killed during the Vietnam War that ended in 1975. The coronavirus has killed more people in the United States than the seasonal flu in recent years, except for the 2017-2018 season, according to the US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Flu deaths range from a low of 12,000 in the 2011-2012 season to a high of 61,000 during 2017-2018. Coronavirus deaths in the United States fall far short of the Spanish flu, which began in 1918 and killed 675,000 Americans, according to the CDC. Unprecedented stay-at-home orders to try to kerb the spread of the virus have hammered the economy, with the number of Americans seeking unemployment benefits over the last five weeks soaring to 26.5 million. About a dozen states are beginning to relax the stay-at-home restrictions despite the warning of health experts that premature actions could cause a surge in new cases. A Reuters/Ipsos survey this month found that a bipartisan majority of Americans want go on sheltering in place to protect themselves from the coronavirus, despite the impact on the economy. Originally published as Incredible speed of US infections
925 Million People Are Hungry Worldwide The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organizations reported [yesterday, September 14] that 925 million people worldwide face chronic hunger. That means that one in six people on this earth doesn’t have enough food to grow and develop, learn, work, or thrive. While the new numbers reflect a decrease since 2009, more people suffer from undernourishment in the world than they did in 2008–or in any other year (save 2009) since 1969–reversing a 30-year downward trend. Thirty percent of the nearly one billion people–239 million people– live in Sub-Saharan Africa. The most severe and life threatening condition associated with malnutrition is severe acute malnutrition, which kills an estimated 2 million children in Africa each year. Behind the numbers are the tear-stained faces of mothers facing the loss of a child, children unable to reach their full potential, full hospital beds and empty bellies. Mana is formulated to specifically address severe acute malnutrition, and help these kids and mothers! The knowledge that even one life is poisoned by the pain of hunger is enough to fuel MANA’s mission; knowing that there are nearly one billion lives at stake is a painful reminder that our work is now more important than ever. Find out how you can make a difference.
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How Does a Rifle Trigger Work? A rifle’s trigger is one of the most fundamental pieces of its construction. Not only does it allow you to fire the weapon, but it is also a key component of safety and accuracy. However, very few shooters understand how it works. In Summary Merriam-Webster defines a trigger as “a piece (such as a lever) connected with a catch or detent as a means of releasing it; especially: the part of the action moved by a finger to fire a gun”. Let’s break this down in more detail for the gun enthusiast or one that wants to become an enthusiast. The Breakdown of How a Rifle Trigger Works In even the most basic of definitions the trigger is more than what you see projecting from the firearm, and upon which place your finger. This is more accurately referred to as the blade (see definitions below). When discussing how a rifle trigger works you need to consider the entire trigger assembly. The exact components and how they function will vary based on the specific type of trigger used. We will go more in-depth on the types of triggers and how they function later. For now, let’s review some basic definitions. Trigger Definitions Blade – the portion of the trigger that extends from the firearms and is engaged by the shooter’s finger. Break – the point at which the trigger disengages (releases) the sear. Creep – the amount of movement needed before trigger breaking. Lock Time – the amount of time needed for the firearms to fire once sear is disengaged. Reset – distance trigger must travel to reengage the sear after firing. Sear – a mechanism that blocks or prevents the hammer or striker from contacting the firing pin. Shoe – aftermarket device that attaches to the blade making it wider. The majority of rifle triggers will fall into one of two categories: single-stage or two-stage. While there is very little difference in how these two types of triggers function, those small differences are very important. Single Stage This is the most basic trigger system on the market. However, do not confuse basic with cheap or undesirable. Many precision and hunting rifles utilize single-stage triggers, as does the M-16 / M-4. With a single-stage trigger, the full weight of the trigger is held by the spring and sear. The result is little slack, or creep, meaning the rifle will fire as soon as enough pressure to overcome the initial trigger weight is applied. The amount of pressure needed to fire a single-stage trigger is generally determined by the amount of sear engagement. The amount of energy needed is referred to as the trigger pull. A hunting rifle may have as little as 4 lbs. of trigger pull, while a precision rifle will have even less. You can use a universal pull gauge to check tension properly The advantages of a single-stage trigger include slightly increased shot time with a quick reset. If you learned to shot with a shotgun or hunting rifle this is probably the trigger you are accustomed to so it will feel more comfortable as well. Such light trigger pulls can lead to safety issues. If the firearm is dropped or mishandled it may have an unintended discharge. This is more common in bolt action rifles. For this reason most M-16 or AR- 15 designed included increased sear engagement resulting in trigger pulls between 5 1/2 to 8 1/2 lbs. The two-stage rifle trigger is similar to a double-action/single-action trigger in pistols. The users will initially experience take-up or travel, often confused with excessive creep. They will then encounter a heavier trigger pull and when this is overcome the rifle will fire. With a two-stage trigger, the trigger pull is a combination of both the initial travel and heavier wall that needs to be overcome. For example, a trigger with a weight of 5 lbs. might have a 2 lb. pull during the initial phase and 3lb. pull to overcome the wall. The advantages of a two-stage trigger include increased safety when dropped or bumped and the ability to stage your shoots. This makes it especially attractive in military rifles as the user can pull through the initial phase, ride the trigger until they are ready to shoot, and apply light pressure to send the round. For more information on a two-stage, we did a nice writeup on “what is A 2 Stage Trigger” here. Set Triggers Set triggers allow the users to select from a traditional full weight trigger pull or a reduced weight light trigger depending on the need at the time. This offers the benefits of a lighter pull without compromising safety and is most common on competition rifles. The advantages of a set trigger are reduced disturbance of the rifle during the final shot and the ability to make faster shoots once a target is identified. This is especially useful when shooting for accuracy in an offhand stance. Some set triggers can also be adjusted to fit the individual shooter’s style and preference. Disadvantages include up decreased safety and lack of accuracy from one shot to the next. Both issues can be overcome through a proper adjustment of the systems trigger pull. There are two versions of the set trigger, single or double, which we will explore further below. Single Set This version consists of a single trigger or blade that can be fired in either of two manners. The first allows the trigger to function in a traditional manner – applied the required amount of pressure and the rifle fires. The second allows the shooter to set or stage the trigger via a mechanical action, either moving the trigger forward or activating a lever to the read of the trigger. This will then allow the firearm to function with a reduced trigger pull. Double Set The double set system achieves the same results as the single set except it utilizes two separate triggers rather than a trigger and lever. The first trigger sets the rifle and the second trigger fires it. Depending on your specific firearm you will have either a double set, single-phase system, or a double set, double phase system. The double set, single-phase system can only be fired by utilizing both triggers. The double set, double phase system can be operated as a standard trigger if the set trigger is not used. Variable Triggers Variable triggers are a unique concept that allowed the users to experience select fire capability without the need for a selector switch. While this was a novel idea, and one rooted in a perceived need to eliminate unnecessary adjustments during a combat scenario, they have been all but abandoned. The main reason variable triggers were abandoned was the complexity of the system itself. This made it difficult to maintain the firearm in the field and repairs often required a trained armorer. Users also found that under stress it was difficult to manipulate the triggers properly to achieve the desired rate of fire. While there have been multiple experiments involving variable triggers the two most common were the double crescent and staged triggers. In this version of a variable trigger, the rate of fire was controlled by where the trigger pressure was applied. Applying pressure to the upper portion of the blade allowed the firearm to fire in a semi-automatic mode. By holding pressure to the lower portion of the blade allowed the firearm to fire fully automatic. With the staged, or progressive, version of the variable trigger rate of fire was determined by the amount of pressure applied to the blade. Light pressure allowed for single-shot use while heavier pressure allowed for fully automatic. Both the double-crescent and staged triggers presented a fundamental problem – shooters under pressure or when panicked find it difficult to judge the amount of pressure they are applying to the trigger. The result is a shooter who unintentionally fires in fully automatic when a semi-automatic or single-shot mode was preferred. Since these variable trigger systems were typically used in a military rifle this became a critical flaw. By better understanding how the various stock & aftermarket rifle triggers work you can choose the best trigger for your style of shooting as well as using the trigger to its full potential. This will help you understand the mechanics better and ultimately make you a better shot. Leave a Reply
This painted pig is the world’s oldest figurative art January 15, 2021 by No Comments Brumm et al. 2021 A pig painted on the wall of an Indonesian cave is the world’s oldest figurative art—that is, it’s the oldest known drawing of something, rather than an abstract design or a stencil. The 45,500-year-old ocher painting depicts a Sulawesi warty pig, which appears to be watching a standoff between two other pigs. If that interpretation is correct, the painting is also a contender for the world’s oldest narrative scene. And it hints at how much the earliest Indonesians observed and recorded about the animals and ecosystems around them. A growing pile of evidence tells us that the first people to reach the islands of Indonesia carried with them a culture of art and visual storytelling, as well as the means to cross the expanses of water between the islands, eventually reaching Australia. Painted pig’s feet, anyone? Griffith University archaeologist Adam Brumm and his colleagues used uranium-series dating to measure the age of a mineral deposit that had formed above one of the pig’s rear feet. As water flows through a limestone cave, it leaves behind small deposits of minerals, which gradually build up into layers of calcite, like the one atop the pig painting. The minerals in the water contain trace amounts of uranium, which gradually decays into different uranium isotopes and eventually into a completely different element, thorium. By measuring the amounts of uranium-234 and thorium-230 in a cave deposit (also called a speleothem) and then comparing that to the local groundwater, archaeologists can measure how long ago the speleothem formed. In this case, the result suggests that someone painted the pigs on the rear wall of Liang Tedongnge (a cave on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi) at least 45,500 years ago. That means the Liang Tedongnge painting breaks the record for oldest known figurative art, although not by much. The previous contenders were a 43,900-year-old painting in Liang Bulu’Sipong 4 on Sulawesi and a 40,000-year-old painting from Lubang Jeriji Saleh cave on Borneo. The Borneo painting showed an unidentifiable animal with a spear in its side (blame erosion, not the artist, for the confusion). And the Liang Bulu’Sipong 4 painting showed a group of humanlike—but definitely not quite human—hunters facing off against a much larger water buffalo, or anoa, and another Sulawesi warty pig. The wild pigs seem to have been favorite subjects for Pleistocene Indonesian painters. Based on the art they left behind in at least 300 caves in southern Sulawesi alone, those ancient artists had a distinctive style. They worked in red or purple ocher, drawing simple outlines of their subjects as seen from the side. Those outlines were usually filled in by irregular painted lines and dashes, and they rarely showed any anatomic details like eyes, ears, genitals, or markings. When did people first arrive in Indonesia? The uranium-series dating at Liang Tedongnge only provides a minimum age for the pig; it could technically be even older. At nearby Liang Balangajia 1, Brumm and his colleagues dated another pig painted on the ceiling of a small side chamber in the cave. That one was at least 32,000 years old. But this time, the archaeologists also managed to date a layer of the cave wall just beneath the pigment. The result of that testing suggests that the Liang Bangajia 1 painting could be up to 73,400 years old—or anywhere in the 40,000 years between. That time bracket probably also fits the Leang Tedongnge painting, and it lines up well with what other archaeological evidence suggests about the first voyagers to reach Indonesia and start painting cave walls. Artifacts left behind at sites in mainland southeast Asia and in Australia tell us that people reached this region of Asia sometime between 73,000 and 63,000 years ago, and they’d made it to Australia by sometime between 69,000 and 59,000 years ago. To get from southeast Asia to Australia, those ancient travelers would have had to cross the chains of islands in between—islands like Java, Sulawesi, Borneo, and Flores. That means people had probably reached Sulawesi sometime between 69,000 and 59,000 years ago. But the cave paintings are the oldest actual evidence of human occupation on Indonesia’s islands. Excavations in the Lesser Sunda islands, which lie south of Sulawesi (and include Flores, home of our diminutive extinct cousin Homo floresiensis) turned up stone tools and other signs of human presence dating to around 44,600 years ago, around the same age as the cave paintings on Sulawesi and Borneo. Waves of human history What we know for certain is that human history on these islands is longer than we can easily comprehend at first glance. We’re closer in time to the artist who painted the Liang Tedongnge pig than that artist was to the hominins who left the oldest tools on the island. Stone tools and animal remains between 194,000 and 118,000 years old were left behind by other hominin species, now extinct; we don’t yet know if those long-vanished cousins were more like Denisovans or Homo erectus (or perhaps like Homo floresiensis), both of which spread across Asia long before our species. And 4,000 years ago, around the time people in Sumer and Egypt were first developing writing systems, a new group of people arrived in the islands of what is now Indonesia. They left their own artwork, in their own distinctive style, in the caves dotting the islands, sometimes atop the much, much older work of their predecessors. It’s fascinating to imagine those early farmers pondering the art of the first humans to reach the islands—or the very first Indonesian artists finding those earlier hominin artifacts. Science Advances, 2021 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abd4648 (About DOIs). Source link
Do you curious in knowing facts about Bulgaria? Bulgaria is one of the oldest countries in Southeastern Europe. The area of this country reach the total of 110,879 square kilometres bordering the Black Sea. Bulgarian is its official language and written in Cycrillic alphabet. It is not the same with other Europe countries because the currency it used is not in euro but in its own currency known as Lev (BGN). This country is mostly visited by the local and overseas tourists who are willing to discover the beauty of Bulgaria especially for its numerous archeological and natural areas. This country is including as a country that offer the greatest religious freedom in the world. It is called a center of religious tolerance by that reason. Unique Facts about Bulgaria: It has found the world’s oldest known gold treasure, the Varna Necropolis Treasure Around 3000 gold objects dated as more than 6,000 years old according to Archeologists believes were found in 294 graves in 1972 in Varna, the third largest city in Bulgaria. Those precious treasure are kept in Varna Museum of Archeology. You may see them there. READ ALSO : Do You Know These Amazing Facts About China? Bulgaria is the only European country which its name is never changed since it was founded Bulgaria pre-dates the Roman Empire and that makes it one of the first countries to be established in Europe. Back in 681 AD, the local Slavic and Asian Turkic inhabitants were founded to be successfully unite to create the first Bulgarian Empire. The name of the country today was derived from their ancestors which represent the empire 1300 years ago. The name remained unchanged or unmodified. Near 30% of Bulgaria zone is covered with forests It is expected that around 8,000,000 acres of Bulgaria are forest land. This can be proven by its 40 mountains scattered on its territory. No wonder that such reason makes one of the favorite outdoor activities of Bulgarians are mountaineering and skiing. Bulgarian has the world’s most accurate ancient calendar A solar-based calendar has been created by Bulgars, a Central Turkic tribe. It was declared in 1976 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as the most accurate calendar in the world. You may find it quite similar to the Chinese calendar with elements such as water, fire, earth, tree, and metal. Some scholars believed that the ancient calendar was made in 2350 BC and the other experts claimed that it dates back to 5505 BC. Bulgaria is included as one of the largest producers of Rose oil in the world Along with Turkey, this country produces about 80% of the world’s Rose oil. This popular key ingredient mostly used by perfumers or cosmetic chemists to make perfumes and beauty products. Rose oil is considered as an expensive component since 1,000 roses are needed to produce only 1 gram of rose oil. Rose Valley region located in the south of the Balkan Mountains is where you can find the roses in Bulgaria. READ ALSO : Facts About Spain Bulgarian monks has invented Cycrillic Alphabet Bulgaria language is written in Cyrillic, an alphabet which has been used in most Slavic nations including Russia and other Balkan countries. It has been used since the 10th century during the 1st Balkan Empire by two monks named Cyril and Methodius. Bulgaria’s popular attraction is Rilla Cross One of an interesting fact about Bulgaria is Housed in the Monastery of Saint Ivan of Rila, a wooden cross with 104 biblical scenes and around 650 microscopic figures. A monk named Rafail in 1802 has crafted it and lost his sight after working on it for 12 years. By using magnifying lens and burins, he worked on the 81 x 43 cm wood. Those are facts about Bulgaria that you need to know. We hope this article can increase your insight about Bulgaria. Any plan to visit Bulgaria after read those facts about Bulgaria? Find more Country Facts.
The mountin at the morning May marks the 40th anniversary of the eruption of the St. Helens volcano. On the mountain today, there is nothing left of the catastrophe of 1980 - but the greenery around it owes the landscape to the monster that is still rumbling. Down there nature grows You don't have to walk up there. There is a beautiful road that leads through one of the most beautiful landscapes on earth. Black asphalt shines in the morning dampness between green embankments - Mount St. Helens fascinates its visitors even if they have not yet reached it. Highway 504 takes you over a winding and well developed mountain road to Johnson Ridge Observatory, the place all visitors come to. Time flies, nature grows. From here you have a perfect view of the volcano, which is still active and a time bomb. On the way you should make a stop at the Lewis & Clark State Park, where you can still find remains of the very old trees that covered large areas before the lava came and burned everything away. Also an excursion to the nature reserve Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge can be made if you have time. Here, wetlands where birds sing almost symphonically are waiting for you. The outbreak 1980 destroyed 23 bridges But the main destination for millions from near and far is the volcano, a 2.539 meter high peak that towers above the surrounding ridges by a full 1.100 meters. The volcanic cone has a diameter of 10 kilometers, it is more than 40,000 years old. In those days magma from the earth's interior for the first time searched for an exit under great pressure. Since then, Mt St. Helens has experienced a total of nine major eruption phases lasting between 5,000 and less than 100 years, with sleep periods of between 15,000 and around 200 years. Healing needs time So going up now is relatively safe, because the volcano should remain silent for the next 150 years. Once you arrive at Johnston Ridge Observatory, the best way to get there is to hike along the famous Eruption Trail. This trail offers a fantastic view of the eruption zone and the crater and is teeming with pink lupines and other flowers in summer. In other seasons the surroundings are dominated by the barren beauty of a volcanic landscape, which is burnt out and covered by pumice stone. Nowadays Mt. St. Helens is roundabout 500 meters shorter than before Since 1980 the volcano has been dormant - but it only sleeps. Ever since St. Helens exploded at exactly 8.32 a.m. on 18 May 40 years ago, the mountain seems to have only a small amount of steam. Just like the more than 100 years before May 1980, but then came the worst volcanic eruption in the recent history of the USA: the upper 400 meters of the that time 2949-meter-high St. Helens flew into the air, the largest avalanche of all time raced down into the valley, so that even at a distance of eleven kilometers 400-meter-high hills were no obstacle. 600 square kilometers of forest were destroyed at that time, mudslides tore away 27 bridges, 300 kilometers of road disappeared. An ash cloud rose like the continent had never seen before: just 30 minutes after the eruption, it measured 64 by 48 kilometers and moved east at 100 kilometers per hour, to turn the day into a night. 57 people died that day on St. Helens - despite the isolated location in the sparsely populated southeast of Washington State, despite all the warnings of experts who had been observing the mountain around the clock after the first rumble three months earlier. Since then, the mountain no longer looks the same as it did when they called it "America's Fujijama". It also has torn away many traces of human settlement that had begun in the 5th millennium BC. The Klickitat and the Binnen-Salish settled here, both peoples knew how dangerous this could be. Confused Smileyie called the mountain Loo-Wit Lat-kla or Louwala-Clough (fire mountain or smoking mountain) and always expected him to be angry. But that life would go on afterwards.
We Provide One-stop Power Supply Solution What Is A Power Adapter Used For? Views: 115 Author: Site Editor Publish Time: Origin: Site What is the power adapter? The power adapter is also called external power supply (switching power adapter). It is a small portable electronic device and power supply transformer of electronic appliances. The 220V power supply voltage is used in the home, the general power supply voltage for general electronic products is about 5V to 20V. Therefore, the role of the power adapter is very important especially if you go to the United States and other countries. The voltage is different between countries, then 220V to 110V transformer is even more needed. What Is A Power Adapter Used For cnsuperpowers.comPower Supply Supplier The composition and application of power adapter Power adapters are commonly found in small electronic products such as mobile phones, LCD monitors and notebook computers. It is generally composed of a housing, a power transformer and a rectifier circuit. According to its output type, it can be divided into AC output type and DC output type; according to the connection method, it can be divided into wall-plug type and desktop type. They are widely used in telephone handsets, game consoles, language repeaters, Walkman, laptops, cellular phones and other devices. The function of the power adapter In general, the role of the power adapter is the transformer and rectifier. The household AC power is 220v and our computer land is DC 12v (as if it is), so we can be sure that the power adapter is a transformer and rectifier. The adapter is a transformer then AC 220v is transformed by the transformer. There is some consumption during the process and these consumptions will be converted into heat, so it is normal for the power adapter to generate heat. The transformer is made of silicon steel sheet. After the transformer is energized, magnetic flux is generated. The magnetic flux will cause a force action between the silicon steel sheet, which will cause a humming sound. This is normal. However, the sound of overheating earth is not normal for many reasons: • 1. The AC voltage is unstable. • 2. The chip is broken. • 3. Interturn short circuit • 4. Component damage and so on By the way, the role of the adapter is to convert AC to DC electronics power adapters with large space are usually built-in. Generally, the size of the adapter is not small. Small-sized machines are external. In order to save space, it is also convenient to replace. The mains power used by the adapter is relatively high. The function of the power adapter is to convert the high voltage at home into a stable low voltage that can work, so that they can work normally. It will bring a lot of inconvenience to our daily use without power adapter. Contact Us
Evaluate the Case for Cutting Public Expenditure Rather Than Raising Taxes as a Means of Reducing Fiscal Deficits. (30) Evaluate the case for cutting public expenditure rather than raising taxes as a means of reducing fiscal deficits. (30) A fiscal deficit is when the government spends more than it receives in tax revenue. There are many benefits of cutting expenditure rather than increasing taxes. Firstly this will avoid any tax evasion and avoidance. This is because when taxes are increased a smaller amount of income is retained giving people the incentive to declare lower incomes to the HMRC so that they fall into a lower tax bracket. Moreover people may take incomes as a share option. This is because capital gains tax is at a flat rate of 18% therefore much lower that income tax allowing people to retain more of their incomes and enjoy better living standards. This will result in a reduction in the government’s tax revenue as people are paying less tax, which will lead to further increases in the deficits. Secondly high taxes create disincentives to work and this can be analysed through income and substitution effects. The substitute for work is leisure time and when taxes increase the opportunity cost for leisure time decreases, also people will have to work longer hours to earn the same post tax income causing disincentives as it reduces living standards as people must work longer and harder for the same incomes. This will create disincentives to work and so lead to a reduction in the labour force meaning less people in jobs and so less people paying income tax. Also as people earn less this way consumption in the economy falls therefore reducing the governments VAT recipts and corporate tax revenues and businesses make lower profits. This will lead to increases in the fiscal deficits as the government earns less and may be spending more in forms of social protection i.e. unemployment benefits. These factors can be shown using the laffer curve, as tax rates increase tax revenues will fall. Thirdly there are further advantages of cutting expenditure rather than...
Definitions and Basics Definition: Market failure, from Market failure is the economic situation defined by an inefficient distribution of goods and services in the free market. Furthermore, the individual incentives for rational behavior do not lead to rational outcomes for the group. Put another way, each individual makes the correct decision for him/herself, but those prove to be the wrong decisions for the group. In traditional microeconomics, this is shown as a steady state disequilibrium in which the quantity supplied does not equal the quantity demanded…. Externalities, by Bryan Caplan, from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics Positive externalities are benefits that are infeasible to charge to provide; negative externalities are costs that are infeasible to charge to not provide. Ordinarily, as Adam Smith explained, selfishness leads markets to produce whatever people want; to get rich, you have to sell what the public is eager to buy. Externalities undermine the social benefits of individual selfishness. If selfish consumers do not have to pay producers for benefits, they will not pay; and if selfish producers are not paid, they will not produce. A valuable product fails to appear. The problem, as David Friedman aptly explains, “is not that one person pays for what someone else gets but that nobody pays and nobody gets, even though the good is worth more than it would cost to produce.”… Research and development is a standard example of a positive externality, air pollution of a negative externality…. Public Goods and Externalities, by Tyler Cowen, from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics Most economic arguments for government intervention are based on the idea that the marketplace cannot provide public goods or handle externalities. Public health and welfare programs, education, roads, research and development, national and domestic security, and a clean environment all have been labeled public goods…. Externalities occur when one person’s actions affect another person’s well-being and the relevant costs and benefits are not reflected in market prices. A positive externality arises when my neighbors benefit from my cleaning up my yard. If I cannot charge them for these benefits, I will not clean the yard as often as they would like. (Note that the free-rider problem and positive externalities are two sides of the same coin.) A negative externality arises when one person’s actions harm another. When polluting, factory owners may not consider the costs that pollution imposes on others…. Markets can fail if there are no property rights and negotiation is costly. The Coase Theorem: Ronald H. Coase, biography from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics “The Problem of Social Cost,” Coase’s other widely cited article (661 citations between 1966 and 1980), was even more path-breaking. Indeed, it gave rise to the field called law and economics. Economists b.c. (Before Coase) of virtually all political persuasions had accepted British economist Arthur Pigou’s idea that if, say, a cattle rancher’s cows destroy his neighboring farmer’s crops, the government should stop the rancher from letting his cattle roam free or should at least tax him for doing so. Otherwise, believed economists, the cattle would continue to destroy crops because the rancher would have no incentive to stop them. But Coase challenged the accepted view. He pointed out that if the rancher had no legal liability for destroying the farmer’s crops, and if transaction costs were zero, the farmer could come to a mutually beneficial agreement with the rancher under which the farmer paid the rancher to cut back on his herd of cattle. This would happen, argued Coase, if the damage from additional cattle exceeded the rancher’s net returns on these cattle. If for example, the rancher’s net return on a steer was two dollars, then the rancher would accept some amount over two dollars to give up the additional steer. If the steer was doing three dollars’ worth of harm to the crops, then the farmer would be willing to pay the rancher up to three dollars to get rid of the steer. A mutually beneficial bargain would be struck…. Public Goods, by Tyler Cowen, from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics Public goods have two distinct aspects: nonexcludability and nonrivalrous consumption. “Nonexcludability” means that the cost of keeping nonpayers from enjoying the benefits of the good or service is prohibitive. If an entrepreneur stages a fireworks show, for example, people can watch the show from their windows or backyards. Because the entrepreneur cannot charge a fee for consumption, the fireworks show may go unproduced, even if demand for the show is strong…. Protectionism, by Jagdish Bhagwati, from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics Underlying both cases is the assumption that free markets determine prices and that there are no market failures. But market failures can occur. A market failure arises, for example, when polluters do not have to pay for the pollution they produce. But such market failures or “distortions” can arise from governmental action as well. Thus, governments may distort market prices by, for example, subsidizing production, as European governments have done in aerospace, as many other governments have done in electronics and steel, and as all wealthy countries’ governments do in agriculture. Or governments may protect intellectual property inadequately, leading to underproduction of new knowledge; they may also overprotect it. In such cases, production and trade, guided by distorted prices, will not be efficient…. Market-clearing vs. sticky prices: New Keynesian Economics, by N. Gregory Mankiw, from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics The primary disagreement between new classical and new Keynesian economists is over how quickly wages and prices adjust. New classical economists build their macroeconomic theories on the assumption that wages and prices are flexible. They believe that prices “clear” markets—balance supply and demand—by adjusting quickly. New Keynesian economists, however, believe that market-clearing models cannot explain short-run economic fluctuations, and so they advocate models with “sticky” wages and prices. New Keynesian theories rely on this stickiness of wages and prices to explain why involuntary unemployment exists and why monetary policy has such a strong influence on economic activity…. In the News and Examples Is defense a public good? Defense, from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics National defense is a public good. That means two things. First, consumption of the good by one person does not reduce the amount available for others to consume. Thus, all people in a nation must “consume” the same amount of national defense (the defense policy established by the government). Second, the benefits a person derives from a public good do not depend on how much that person contributes toward providing it. Everyone benefits, perhaps in differing amounts, from national defense, including those who do not pay taxes. Once the government organizes the resources for national defense, it necessarily defends all residents against foreign aggressors…. Is education a public good? An Education in Market Failure, by Morgan Rose. The most fundamental question raised by the school choice controversy is broader than education itself. Before we can confront the subject of the state’s role in education, we first ought to address the proper role and justification for government intervention in market activities in general…. Is the Occupy Wall Street movement about market failures, government failures, or both? Makers vs. Takers at Occupy Wall Street, a LearnLiberty video at Youtube. The Occupy Wall Street protests have popularized the distinction between the lowest 99% and the highest 1% of income earners. Prof. Chris Coyne suggests that a distinction between makers and the takers is a better way to understand the problems that the protesters decry…. Cathy O’Neil on Wall St and Occupy Wall Street. EconTalk podcast. Is smoking an example of a market failure? The Economics of Smoking, by Pierre Lemieux After the economists’ analytical assault, the case for smoking regulations seemed pretty thin in the early 1990s. Then, a new argument was proposed by World Bank economist Howard Barnum. It relied on welfare economics, a field of neoclassical economic theory designed to show that “market failures,” created by external costs or other types of “externalities” (phenomena that bypass the market), prevent free markets from maximizing social welfare. The welfare-economics argument against smoking has since been refined by other economists working with the World Bank, and has provided the intellectual basis for the Bank’s 1999 report on the smoking “epidemic.”… The argument runs as follows. Smoking is not like other consumption choices, and the economic presumption of market efficiency does not apply. This is because, as the World Bank puts it, “many smokers are not fully aware of the high probability of disease and premature death,” and because of the addictive nature of tobacco. Global warming and market failure. The Economics of Climate Change, by Robert P. Murphy Monopoly and market failure. Monopoly, by George Stigler, from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics A famous theorem in economics states that a competitive enterprise economy will produce the largest possible income from a given stock of resources. No real economy meets the exact conditions of the theorem, and all real economies will fall short of the ideal economy–a difference called “market failure.”… Externalities, a LearnLiberty video. Sean Mullholland explains pollution, a negative externality, and three possible solutions: taxation, government regulation, and property rights. The Failure of Market Failure. Part I. The Problem of Contract Enforcement, by Anthony de Jasay Received wisdom advances two broad reasons why government is entitled to impose its will on its subjects, and why the subjects owe it obedience, provided its will is exercised according to certain (constitutional) rules. One reason is rooted in production, the other in distribution–the two aspects of social cooperation. Ordinary market mechanisms produce and distribute the national income, but this distribution is disliked by the majority of the subjects (notably because it is ‘too unequal’) and it is for government to redistribute it (making it more equal or bend it in other ways, a function that its partisans prefer to call ‘doing social justice’). However, the market is said to be deficient even at the task of producing the national income in the first place. Government is needed to overcome market failure. A society of rational individuals would grasp this and readily mandate the government to do what was needful (e.g. by taxation, regulation and policing) to put this right…. The Failure of Market Failure. Part II. The Public Goods Dilemma, by Anthony de Jasay Public goods are freely accessible to all members of a given public, each being able to benefit from it without paying for it. The reason standard theory puts forward for this anomaly is that public goods are by their technical character non-excludable. There is no way to exclude a person from access to such a good if it is produced at all. Examples cited include the defence of the realm, the rule of law, clean air or traffic control. If all can have it without contributing to its cost, nobody will contribute and the good will not be produced. This, in a nutshell, is the public goods dilemma, a form of market failure which requires taxation to overcome it. Its solution lies outside the economic calculus; it belongs to politics…. Moral externalities and markets. Satz on Markets. EconTalk podcast. Debra Satz, Professor of Philosophy at Stanford University, talks with EconTalk host Russ Roberts about her book, Why Some Things Should Not Be For Sale: The Moral Limits of the Market. Satz argues that some markets are noxious and should not be allowed to operate freely. Topics discussed include organ sales, price spikes after natural disasters, the economic concept of efficiency and utilitarianism. The conversation includes a discussion of the possible limits of political intervention and whether it would be good to allow voters to sell their votes…. Is price gouging justifiable? Munger on John Locke, Prices, and Hurricane Sandy. EconTalk Podcast. Mike Munger of Duke University talks with EconTalk host Russ Roberts about the gas shortage following Hurricane Sandy and John Locke’s view of the just price. Drawing on a short, obscure essay of Locke’s titled “Venditio,” Munger explores Locke’s views on markets, prices, and morality. A Little History: Primary Sources and References John Maynard Keynes, biography from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics … Why shouldn’t government, thought Keynes, fill the shoes of business by investing in public works and hiring the unemployed? The General Theory advocated deficit spending during economic downturns to maintain full employment. Ronald Coase on Externalities, the Firm, and the State of Economics. EconTalk Podcast, May 2012. Nobel Laureate Ronald Coase of the University of Chicago talks with EconTalk host Russ Roberts about his career, the current state of economics, and the Chinese economy. Coase, born in 1910, reflects on his youth, his two great papers, “The Nature of the Firm” and “The Problem of Social Cost”. At the end of conversation he discusses his new book on China, How China Became Capitalist (co-authored with Ning Wang), and the future of the Chinese and world economies. Did Markets Fail in Post-Soviet Economies?, a LearnLiberty video. Prof. Pavel Yakovlev argues that capitalism, to the extent that it has been tried, has improved post-Soviet economies. Advanced Resources The Demand and Supply of Public Goods, by James M. Buchanan. The Reason of Rules: Constitutional Political Economy, by Geoffrey Brennan and James M. Buchanan. Related Topics Supply and Demand, Markets and Prices Roles of Government Property Rights Government Failures, Rent Seeking, and Public Choice
Lesson 6: Common Criticisms Part II: The Weaknesses of Criticisms of Christianity Lesson 6: Common Criticisms We’ve already examined the evidence supporting the trustworthiness of the biblical text (Lesson 2). We found that Bible is historically verifiable, accurate and trustworthy. Whether one examines the Bible’s historical, archaeological or manuscript evidences, he will find little to discredit the Bible’s claims. Such an examination in fact lends great credibility to the Bible. However, there are still many critics of the Bible. In today’s lesson, we’ll be examining some typical criticisms of the Bible, and we’ll find that most criticisms lack substance. Common Criticisms of the Bible and Their Weaknesses 1. The Bible is full of myths, legends and old-wives’ tales. This criticism is brought up because of the Bible’s many miracle stories. Such accounts, to the modern mind, are surely mythical and not factual. Miracles like those described in the Bible just don’t happen. We see no evidence of them happening today. Further, some Bible stories, like Noah’s ark and the flood, are very similar to the fables from other cultures. The stories in the Bible are of the same mythical quality. Liberals and others who deny the Bible would agree with the above criticism, but suggest that it’s not important whether the stories are actually true. The point or moral of the story is what’s important. But those who uphold the validity of Scripture deny such a suggestion. There are several reasons to believe that the miraculous stories of the Bible are true, not mere mythical fiction: • If God exists, it is not irrational to reason that He might occasionally intervene in various ways and upset the normal flow of events. Those who deny the existence of God obviously would also deny miracles. But if God exists, miracles are not out of the question. • Biblical accounts are usually sober and restrained rather than frivolous and bizarre. If one compares the fables and myths from other sources with biblical stories, he will notice a marked contrast. Biblical stories don’t sound like typical myths and legends. We see no half-man, half-beast creatures, no worlds supported on tortoise’s backs, or individuals springing from the head of Zeus or the like in the biblical record. • The biblical writers come from a tradition with a solid commitment to truth. The authors of the Bible are men of profound ethical integrity who were willing to die for the truth of their claims. One would expect the truth from them. It makes no sense to suggest that accurate historians would include myths and legends in their otherwise factual accounts. • The fact that certain biblical stories share similar themes with mythical stories should not surprise us. For example, if the flood really happened, it’s not irrational to suppose that we would find evidence of it in the stories of pagan cultures. • Christianity is not irrational or absurd. Christians do not believe in things that are patently untrue, mythical or legendary. Note the Quote: Christian faith does not aim to affirm what is absurd, reveling in irrationality. Such a thought misconstrues the nature of faith as it is presented by the Bible. The Christian notion of faith—unlike most other religions—is not an arbitrary leap of emotion, a blind stab of commitment, a placing of the intellect on hold. For the Christian, faith (or belief) is well-grounded.1 1. Science has proven the Bible to be untrue. Two hundred years ago, most people in western cultures believed the Bible to be an accurate record of actual events. Today, however, after the Enlightenment and the rise of rationalism and naturalism as the predominant ways of thinking, most westerners have rejected the Bible. Science and technology have been able to explain most phenomena that used to be thought of as the mysterious ways of God. We no longer need God to explain why things happen. The Bible teaches a view of reality that is out of sync with the assured results of modern science. • Science depends upon the ability to verify a hypothesis by repetition and testing. The events described in the Bible are non-repeatable and untestable. They are the subject of history, not science. A biologist or paleontologist may give you his ideas about how things came about, but it’s impossible for him to say how things did indeed happen. He wasn’t around to observe them, so he really doesn’t know. • The Scripture describes things as they appear to the naked eye, how they appear on the surface to the casual observer. The Bible is not a science textbook. This is not to suggest that the Bible is inaccurate, but simply that one should not impose modern scientific standards upon the Bible. For example, we know that the sun does not really rise or set. The use of such language does not invalidate the Bible’s claims. • The “assured results of modern science” are not so assured as we are led to believe. Every so often, science experiences a major upheaval which throws out the old ideas and replaces them with new ones. Today there are many scientists who disavow traditional scientific naturalism. Even the venerable theory of Darwinian evolution is not without a significant number of critics within the scientific community. • Science tells us that miracles simply don’t happen. One cannot break the laws of nature. However, such an argument assumes that God does not exist, or that if He does exist, He is unable or unwilling to intervene in nature and suspend the natural order of things. But if God exists, it is not unreasonable to suppose that He could occasionally interrupt natural laws. • Science may claim to have the answer for everything, but it clearly does not. One of science’s major problems is explaining how mindless forces give rise to minds, knowledge, sound reasoning, and moral principles. Further, science cannot tell us how matter arose from nothing, why the big bang (supposedly) happened, or why life is meaningful if random forces are really in control. Science also can say nothing in regard to morality, decency and virtue. A world governed by pure naturalism would be a savage, inhuman place indeed. 1. The Bible is full of contradictions. Skeptics and critics commonly assert that the Bible is full of contradictions. Not just a few, but hundreds, even thousands. Lengthy books have been written detailing the supposed contradictions in the Bible. In a normal storybook, contradictions wouldn’t make much difference. But when a book claims to be inspired and inerrant, the very words of God, contradictions, if genuine, would present a major problem. We would expect there to be no contradictions and no mistakes in God’s Word. How should we respond to this accusation? • We must from the outset admit that there are a few apparent contradictions and problems that have not yet been satisfactorily resolved. But such are few and far between. To say that the Bible is “full” of contradictions is a serious overstatement. • Most critics use the word “contradiction” very loosely. Two accounts that seem not to correspond are not necessarily contradictory. A genuine contradiction must assert that something is true and false at the same time and in the same respect.2 For example, the Bible commands, “Thou shalt not kill.” Yet God tells the Israelites to kill the Canaanites and others. The Bible even supports capital punishment, the killing of a guilty criminal. Is this a contradiction? No, because the Fifth Commandment deals with murder, not the killing associated with warfare or capital punishment. The word “kill” is used in a different sense. No genuine contradiction exists here. • Some supposed contradictions result from two or more different perspectives on events, such as the varying accounts in the Gospels. For example, one writer mentions only one angel at Jesus’ tomb while another writer says there were two. There is no contradiction here. Had the first writer said that there was only one, then a genuine contradiction would exist. But he doesn’t say that. • Some supposed contradictions arise from a copyist’s error. Because the Bible was copied by hand for many years before the printing press, it was inevitable that small typographic errors crept into the text. By comparing texts, scholars are able to weed out these mistakes most of the time. Some of the apparent contradictions are likely due to an error of this sort. Such errors are not true contradictions. • The problem of outstanding discrepancies in the Bible becomes smaller as time goes by. As scholars study the manuscripts and dig around in the Middle East, these problems yield to close examination and solutions arise. Such has happened many times in the past and continues to happen today. There is less reason today to believe that the Bible is full of contradictions that at any time in the history of the church.3 1. The manuscripts (MSS) of the Bible have been corrupted and changed over the years so that we cannot be sure what was originally written. The OT was written primarily in Hebrew and the NT in Greek. We have no original MSS, only copies of copies. Sometimes these copies are quite far removed from the time of original writing. Thus, critics assert that many scribal errors and mistaken readings have made the text of the Bible unreliable. The critics are simply wrong in their contention that scribal errors and multiple copies over many centuries render the text unreliable. Scribes were fully capable of making very accurate copies of manuscripts, and the copying process has not degraded the text to the point that it is no longer trustworthy. See the two articles on the subject in the Additional Material. Also available at http://www.lbcantigo.org/resources.htm 1. The Bible is full of historical errors. As we saw in Lesson Two, there is good reason to believe that history as presented in the Bible is accurate and trustworthy. Archaeological discoveries have supported the sequence of events as reported in the Bible. Many of the supposed errors reported in the Bible have proven to be accurate historical accounts. The Christian has nothing to fear from rigorous historical research. 1. Some parts of the Bible are offensive to modern, secular “values.” There are many statements in the Bible that people find offensive. A God who pours out His wrath upon sinners is simply unacceptable to the modern mind. God should be loving and forgiving, not strict and “terrible” as the Bible makes Him out to be, especially in the OT. Further, it would be narrow-minded and downright mean if God allowed only one way of salvation. For God to prohibit the majority of the people in the world from being saved is reprehensible to our pluralistic culture. God ought to at least give them a chance to be saved. Also, God surely could not have meant for the Israelites to kill all those innocent people when they conquered the Promised Land. And the whole idea of eternal punishment in hell is certainly not acceptable. All such sentiments are the result of both misunderstanding God and substituting worldly, human “wisdom” for biblical thinking. • God is the creator; Man is the creature. The ways of God are not subject to the uninformed judgements of sinful man. God is under no obligation to explain His reasoning to man. Man is in no position to judge God. • God’s ways are often unsearchable and beyond man’s intellectual grasp (Rom 11:33f). The fact that man cannot understand God’s ways should not surprise anyone. • God and His Word give us the standard by which we judge the morality of any act. There is no higher standard independent of God. God doesn’t have to measure up to what unsaved people think is right. • All sinners rightfully deserve God’s wrath and judgement. It is purely an act of mercy and grace that God chooses to spare believers. The fact that God presents people with a means of salvation is a clear display of His lovingkindness. • The people the Israelites killed when they conquered the Promised Land were by no means innocent. Their cultures were exceedingly inhumane. The Israelites spared many of the Canaanites, who in turn became a major stumbling block for them. • Eternal punishment is the reasonable and just reward for those who have offended a holy God. If there’s a heaven, there must surely be a hell. 1. Christianity, like all religion, is man-made. Karl Marx, one of the founders of communism, is famous for his statement alleging that “religion is the opiate [i.e., drug] of the masses.” He asserted that the rich use religion to exploit the poor and keep them from rebellion. Because it emphasizes virtues such as industry, service, humility and obedience, religion keeps workers in line, thus protecting the interests of the rich minority. Religion promises the oppressed “pie in the sky bye and bye,” milk and honey and streets of gold for those who behave themselves in this life. Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, suggested that man created religion to help him deal with the problems of life. Uncontrollable forces surround man, and religion helps people deal with things they can’t understand. According the Freud, religion owes its origin to psychological needs rather than the actual existence of God. People want gods to exist, so they invented them. Scholars teach us that monotheism evolved from animism (the belief that spirits inhabit all things) and pantheism (the belief in many gods). Ancient people attributed human characteristics to the forces of nature, which led to the belief that spirits inhabited physical things. This led to the belief that many gods existed. Eventually, someone suggested that his god was better than all the rest, and this led to monotheism. Religion evolved just like many other aspects of life. How should Christians respond to such criticism? • Christianity does not somehow drug believers into a mindless stupor. As we’ve already seen, Christianity emphasizes logical, reasonable thought. It’s not a blind faith or a leap into the dark. • The fact that religion meets a psychological need in people does not imply that religion is the result of such a need. While faith does help people psychologically, that is not its primary goal. • Although Christianity teaches a blessed future existence, it also teaches the necessity of justice and fairness in this life. Jesus, the prophets, and the apostles were very critical of powerful, rich people who were oppressing the poor. • If man had invented God, he certainly would not have invented the One whom the Scriptures reveal. A man-made god would be much more human-like, less wrathful, less judgmental, and far easier to please than the biblical God. Attributes such as holiness, omniscience, sovereignty, omnipotence, and immutability actually make God more of a threat to man than a “crutch.” • There is no archaeological or historical evidence suggesting that monotheism evolved from any other religious practice. A fully-formed monotheism is evident from the very beginnings of Judaism. 1. The church is full of hypocrites. A hypocrite is a play-actor, one who lives a lie. Our culture has had its fill of liars and frauds in positions of authority. The government, education, the military and even organized religion have provided us with many examples of people who say one thing but do another. Critics loudly declare that the church is filled with such people. We must admit that the church is full of sinners. In fact, the church is one organization that requires its members to admit that they are sinners. But “sin” is not necessarily synonymous with “hypocrisy.” In one sense, the church has fewer hypocrites than other organizations because church members admit their sinfulness. They don’t claim to be perfect. Even pastors and other leaders, those who should be the least guilty of hypocrisy, are not perfect. Everyone falls short of the glory of God, including mature believers. One should not expect perfection from anyone. For a pastor to preach a higher level of holiness than he himself has achieved is not hypocrisy. In order to proclaim the whole counsel of God, preachers must exhort people to do what they may fail to do. But such is not hypocrisy. There is a sense in which all people are somewhat hypocritical. They present an image to the public that is not a true reflection of themselves. However, the assertion that the church is “full” of hypocrites is an inaccurate exaggeration. Every church has a few in it, but there are many good churches “full” of sincere believers who are actively seeking to life holy lives as well. The fact that church members have not achieved perfection does not imply that they are hypocrites. Further, even if it is true that churches are full of hypocrites, that fact should not prevent a sincere seeker of God from participation at church. One should not allow the shortcomings of others to hinder his own spiritual development. Christians are fortunate in that their Lord was no hypocrite. Jesus is the perfect example for believers to follow. Rather than looking at the failures of believers, critics ought to examine the life of Christ. Christianity must be judged, not on the basis of the lives of Christians, but on the life of Christ. He was no hypocrite. 1. Christianity is a crutch for weak people. People often state that they feel no need for religion. Everything is running smoothly in their lives without it. Perhaps those who are psychologically weak find it helps them feel better, but well-balanced, educated people don’t need it. Such people are indifferent to Christianity—they never think about it and never sense a need for it. Further, some suggest that the virtues that Christianity produces, such as integrity, industry, and kindness, need not be rooted in faith at all. People are basically good, and one need not religious to be virtuous. Given the right set of circumstances, people are fully capable of virtuous living without the threats and rewards of religion. However, one’s sense of need for a certain thing, or a lack of need for it, does not validate or invalidate that thing. Christianity is not based on how people feel about it. God’s existence is not determined by whether or not anyone believes in Him. For someone to allege that Christianity is invalid simply because he does not find it personally necessary is the height of arrogance. Man is not basically good; he is basically evil. The unsaved person is dead in trespasses and sin, unable and unwilling to please God. Man may reform himself by “turning over a new leaf,” but he cannot redeem himself or restore his relationship to God by self-effort. Man is a fallen creature in need of grace. Man does need to be religious in a sense. He needs that genuine religion which fully depends upon God’s grace. Repentance from sin and faith in Christ are not unnecessary options with God. Christianity is not a crutch; it’s the solution to man’s primary problem, a problem he cannot solve by himself. 1. Christianity is just one of many legitimate religions. Our pluralistic society tells us that Christianity is just one option among many. If it “works” for you, then fine. People have the right to believe whatever they want. All religions are equally valid. In fact, all religions are simply different ways of accomplishing the same thing. All religions are basically true even if they differ on the details. One should focus on the similarities instead of the differences. Each religion is like a separate road up a mountain—they all lead to the same place even if they seem to be going in different directions at times. No single religion has all truth locked up within itself. One should not make narrow, exclusive claims for his own faith or criticize the faith of others. God is not so narrow-minded that he provides only one way of salvation. The problem with such a view is that Christianity is in clear contradiction with other faiths. If what Christianity alleges to be true is indeed true, then all other faiths that contradict it are false. Christ makes many exclusive claims for Himself and His way of salvation (e.g., John 14:6; Acts 4:12). If He’s right, then all contradictory faiths are invalid. We’ve already learned that two contradictory statements cannot both be true at the same time and in the same respect. So it is with Christianity and other faiths—they cannot all be true. They could all be false, or one true and the others false, but they can’t all be true because they contradict each other on many points. One could simply ignore these contradictions, suggesting that they are mere nonessential, minor details, stripping Christianity of its distinctives and watering down its doctrines, but it could no more be called Christianity. To contend that Christianity does not really contradict other religions is to descend into irrationalism. While irrationality is not a problem for some faiths, it definitely is for Christianity. Thus, it’s impossible to hold that Christianity and other faiths are equally valid. Such cannot be the case. If God does not exist, and if all religions are simply man-made traditions, then all religions would indeed be equal—equally empty and futile. But if God exists and if man is able to enter into a positive relationship with Him, there must be appropriate and inappropriate ways to approach Him. Christianity asserts that it is the one and only way to God. Thus, all other ways are invalid. Conclusion: Christianity has plenty of critics. But many of the criticisms leveled against our faith are quite weak, unreasonable, and empty. Believers must be ready to give an answer to criticisms whenever they have the opportunity. 1. Why is it reasonable that we find similar themes in the Bible and in mythology? 1. In some cases, the Bible and mythology are treating the same event, e.g., the flood; 2. Both the Bible and mythology deal with similar issues, e.g., life, death, families, tragedy, etc. 2. Why can’t science prove that a historical event happened? Science cannot prove history. Science proves things thru observation and replication. History is not the object of science. Historians can gather evidence that a certain thing happened, and they can do so in a scientific way. But the best they can do is to give an educated guess as to what happened. 3. Define a genuine contradiction. You must have two statements that cannot both be true at the same time and in the same sense. Both a and –a must be alleged to be true. 4. Why is it impossible for both Christianity and Islam or Buddhism to be equally valid? Because of the law of non-contradiction. Contradictory statements cannot both be true at the same time and in the same sense. These religions contradict each other at many points. 1 Greg Bahnsen, “The Problem of Evil” in Always Ready (Covenant Media Press, 1996), p. 196. 2 The Law of Non-Contradiction states “not both A and – A at the same time and in the same sense.” In other words, a statement and its opposite cannot both be true at the same time and in the same respect. A genuine contradiction exists only when two statements are both alleged to be true when they cannot both be true at the same time and in the same sense. 3 Sproul, Reason to Believe, p. 26. 1. […] Part II: The Weaknesses of Criticisms of Christianity Lesson 6: Common Criticisms […] Speak Your Mind
Chapter Wise Indian Poilty MCQ’s With Explanation Today’s Topic: Making Of Constitution-part2 EveryDay Program List Sunday- Indian and world Geography Tuesday- General Science Wednesday- Indian Polity and Governance Thursday- History of India and Indian National Movement Friday- Economic and Social Development Saturday-Current Affairs Concepts Today’s Topic: Making Of Constitution-part2 Q1. Who among the following had favoured Panchayati Raj System by giving the following statement in the Indian constituent Assembly? “…in the interest of democracy, the villages may be trained in the art of self-government… We must be able to reform the villages and introduce democratic principles of government there…” a) Ananthasayanam Ayyangar b) Dr.B.R.Ambedkar c) B.N. Rao d) Jawaharlal Nehru Ans A Explanation: MadabhushiAnanthasayanamAyyangar (4 February 1891-19 March 1978) Was the first Deputy Speaker and then Speaker of LokSabha. He was born in Thiruchanoor, Chittoor district of Madras Presidency. He was teacher in Mathematics and later became a lawyer between 1915-1950. Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi he participated actively in Indian Freedom Struggle and was jailed twice. He was elected as member of Central Legislative Assembly in 1934. He was elected to the first Lok Sabha from Tirupathi and to the Second Lok Sabha from Chittor Constituencies in 1952 and 1956 respectively. He was elected in 1948 as Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha with Ganesh Vashdev Mavalankar as the Speaker. Later in 1956 he was elected as Speaker of Lok Sabha. He worked as Governor of Bihar between 1962 and 1967. Q2. Which congress President during British Raj initiated the idea of a Planning Commission? a) Jawaharla Nehru b) Mahatma Gandhi c) Maulana Azad d) Subhas Chandra Bose Ans D Explanation: (Congress met at Vitthal Nagar Haripua from 19th 21st February 1938. President of this Congress was Subhash Chandra Bose. As per Haripura resolution, Britain was given 6 months ultimatum to the British, failing to which there will be a revolt. Subhash Chandra Bose organized National Planning Committee. National Planning Committee was the Forerunner of India’s Planning Commission. The idea was to draw a comprehensive plan for economic development of India on the basis of Industrialization.) Q3. Which one of the following Acts/Reports created the Federal Court in India? a) Government of India Act, 1909 b) Government of India Act, 1919 c) Montague-Chelmsford Report d) Government of India Act, 1935. Ans D Explanation: (The Federal Court of India was established in India in 1937 under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1935, with original, appellate and advisory jurisdiction. It functioned until 1950, when the Supreme Court of India was established. The seat of the Federal Court was at Delhi. There was a right of appeal to the Judicial in London from the Federal Court of India. The Federal Court had exclusive original jurisdiction in any dispute between the Central Government and the Provinces. Initially, it was empowered to hear appeals from the High Courts of the provinces in the cases which involved the interpretation of any Section of the Government of India Act, 1935. From 5 January 1948 it was also empowered to hear appeals in those cases, which did not involve any interpretation of the Government of India Act, 1935.) Q4. “We are under the constitution but the Constitution but the Constitution is what the judges say it is”. Which of the following countries can this be applicable to? 1. India 2. America 3. Switzerland 4. Australia Select the correct answer from the codes given below: a) 1 and 3 b) 1 and 2 c) 2 and 3 d) 3 and 4 Ans B Q5. The Constituent Assembly was setup under the a) Cripp Mission b) Cabinet Mission Plan c) Wavell Plan d) Nehru Report Ans B Explanation: (The Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss and plan for the transfer of power from the British Government to Indian leadership, providing India with independence. Formulated at the initiative of Clement Attlee, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, the mission consisted of Lord Pethick-Lawrence, the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A.V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty. Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, did not participate. The Cabinet Mission’s purpose: 2. Set up a constitution body. For setting up a constitution-making body, each province was to be assigned a total number of seats proportionate to its population, roughly in the ratio of one to a million. Seats allotted to each Province Shall be divided between the various communities in proportion to their population in the province. Only three classes of Electorates were recognized—General (all others than Muslims and Sikhs), Muslims and Sikhs (Only in the Punjab).According to this principle, the Constituent Assembly was to consist of 292 members from the British Indian Provinces and 4 from Chief Commissioners Provinces. The Indian States were to be represented by 93 members in maximum. The representatives of British India were distributed among the various Provinces and communities as under: ii. The representatives of British Indian Provinces were to be elected by each Provincial Legislative Assembly Community wise, through proportional representation by a single transferable vote. As regards the representatives of the States, the exact method of their selection was to be settled by consultation. At the preliminary stage, the States were to be represented by a Negotiating Committee Q6. Who said the following? ‘India’s Constitution was born more in fear and trepidation than in hope and inspiration? a) Paul Brass b) Myron Weiner c) K.C. Wheare d) Jennings Ans A Q7. Who of the following constituted an oligarchy within the Constituent Assembly of India? a) Nehru, Patel, Prasad, Azad b) Ambedkar, B.N. RAo, K.M.Mushi, Nehru c) Patel, Azad, Munshi, Ambedkar d) Krishnamachari, Pannikar, Nehru, Patel Ans A Explanation: (Nehru, Patel, Prasad and Azad constituted “an oligarchy within the Assembly”. In-fact, these four leaders had rich practical experience, marked personal popularity, massive intellect and unmatchable political power which enabled them to wield overwhelming influence on the Constituent assembly’s deliberations. They enjoyed God like status. They were loved but not feared. Hence the future of the Government as well as the nicety of the constitution rested in those hands that were utterly incapable of doing any wrong to the peoples. Although the oligarchy of four was irresistible yet the Assembly discussed thoroughly all issues, in well attended debates. None posed to be ‘sir oracle’ and claimed “when he speaks, nobody should open his lips”. The procedure was thoroughly democratic.) Q8. The Constitution of India, was drafted and enacted in which language— a) Hindi b) English c) Tamil d) Telugu Ans B Q9. In which language script, Constitution of India was signed by the members of the Constitutent Assembly on 21st Jan.1950— a) English b) Hindi c) a and b d) None of the above Ans C Q10. What was the total number of members in the Drafting Committee of Constitution? a) 5 b) 6 c) 7 d) 8 Ans C Explanation: On 29 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr.B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman along with six other members assisted by a constitutional advisor. These members were Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi (K.M. Munshi, Ex-Home Minister, Bombay), Alladi Krishnasway Iyer (Ex-Advocate General, Madras State), N.Gopalaswami Ayengar (Ex-Prime Minister, J&K and later member of Nehru Cabinet), B.L. Mitter (Ex-Advocate General , India), Md. Saadullah (Ex-Chief Minister of Assam, Muslim League member) and D.P. Khaitan (Scion of Khaitan Business family and a renowned lawyer). The Constitutional advisor was Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (Who became Fist Indian Judge in International Court of Justice, 1950-54). Later B.L. Mitter resigned and was replaced by Madhav Rao (Legal Advisor of Maharaja of Vadodara). Owing to death of D.P.Khaitan, T.T. Krishanmachari was chosen to be included in the drafting committee. A Draft Constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on 4 November 1947. Draft constitution was debated and over 2000 amendments were move over a period of two years. Finally on 26 November 1949, the process was completed and Constituent assembly adopted the constitution. 284 members signed the document and the process of constitution making was complete. This day is celebrated as National Law Day or Constitution Day. Chapter wise mock test series with analysis and explanation.
Prints and Posters of Futurism Art Futurism (Futurismo) was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early 20th century. It emphasized speed, technology, youth, and violence, and objects such as the car, the aeroplane, and the industrial city. Although Futurism was mainly an Italian phenomenon, there were similar movements in Russia, England, and elsewhere. Last updated on January 29, 2021 7:24 am
How do the Iowa caucuses work? Democrats in the first-in-the-nation state are preparing for record voter turnout. The Iowa caucuses, the first nominating contest of the 2020 election cycle, begin this week. Here's what you need to know: When are the Iowa caucuses? Monday, Feb. 3, starting at 8 p.m. ET (7 p.m. local). Who participates? Eligible voters who will be at least 18 by Election Day can participate in the caucuses. To participate in a Democratic or Republican caucus, you must be registered with the appropriate party; same-day registration is available at precinct caucus locations. Live blog: Follow the latest news and results from the Iowa caucus What might turnout look like? Iowa Democrats are preparing for turnout to exceed the party record from 2008, when nearly 240,000 Iowans participated in the caucuses. Where does it all happen? There are a total of 1,679 precincts that will meet to caucus. The Democratic Party in Iowa will also hold a number of "satellite" caucuses (60 in state, 24 out of state and three international — in Tbilisi, Georgia; Glasgow, Scotland; and Paris, France) for those who are unable to travel to a caucus location. How many delegates are at stake? There are 41 pledged delegates up for grabs in the Democratic race, plus an additional eight unpledged (superdelegates) from Iowa. (Whenever we refer to delegates for the Feb. 3 precinct caucuses, we actually mean precinct delegates to county caucuses. After county conventions are congressional district and state conventions, at which the real national convention delegates are selected.) OK, but how does this actually work? Democrats and Republicans hold their caucuses differently. Democrats move around the caucus site — for example, supporters of former Vice President Joe Biden will gather in one corner and backers of Sens. Bernie Sanders of Vermont and Elizabeth Warren of Massachusetts others. At most Democratic caucus locations, a candidate must get support from at least 15 percent of attendees to achieve viability. If that threshold isn't met, a candidate's supporters must realign to a different viable candidate or join with other nonviable groups to form a viable preference group. (One of those preference groups could be "uncommitted.") And the number of delegates awarded at each caucus site is determined by a mathematical formula. So get out your calculators! In a change from past Democratic caucuses, the party will release three sets of results: "the first expression of preference" before the realignment, the "final expression of preference" after realignment and state delegate equivalents (the number used to determine the "winner" in past results). The final expression number — rather than the first expression — is used to determine who gets delegates and who doesn't. All of the numbers will be released at the same time. Another change: Only members of nonviable groups will be allowed to realign. In the past, candidates who had initially hit 15 percent could lose supporters in the realignment. But for this cycle, the initial 15 percent support gets locked in. Unlike the Democrats, Republicans select their candidate via a simple secret ballot. There is no shuffling from one corner of the caucus site to the other. There is no 15 percent viability or realignment. And there's no mathematical formula to determine delegates awarded at each caucus site. With President Donald Trump receiving nominal GOP opposition, however, the Republican process in Iowa isn't as important to follow this presidential cycle. This has been controversial in the past, right? Yes. The last two election cycles in Iowa have resulted in controversy on caucus night. On the Republican side in 2012, Mitt Romney was named the early winner, but a closer — and later — examination revealed that Rick Santorum had won by a mere 34 votes. And on the Democratic side in 2016, Hillary Clinton edged Sanders by just 0.3 percentage points, with Sanders supporters citing counting and reporting irregularities. So, how will we know who wins? The activity on caucus night is electing delegates in each of Iowa's 1,679 precincts to the county convention. But the Democratic "winner" is the candidate who accrues the most state delegate equivalents after the realignment process. The Iowa Democratic Party says there will be more than 2,000 delegates to the district and state convention. So if you see that Joe Biden gets 35 percent on caucus night, that means he won 35 percent of these state delegate equivalents.
Blood Drug Testing - Detection Times And More Trusted Content Blood Drug Testing – Detection Times And More Dr. Gerardo Sison Medically reviewed by Dr. Gerardo Sison March 29, 2019 Blood drug tests are used to detect drugs in an individual’s system when other tests are no longer an option. Drugs can typically be detected in the blood minutes after it is administered until three days after. A blood test is usually administered when other types of drug tests are not an option, for any reason. Blood drug tests have a much smaller window of detection, starting minutes after ingestion and lasting about one to three days for most substances. However, the results of blood drug tests, like other blood tests, can be influenced by a number of factors. Blood drug tests differ significantly from other drug tests in another way because they actually test for the parent drug (the drug ingested). Because many drugs are absorbed into the bloodstream almost immediately they can be detected very easily, within the time frame they remain in the blood. Reasons For Blood Drug Testing While blood testing is considered one of the most accurate and invasive types of drug testing, it is also less likely to be tampered with because blood has to be drawn by a medical professional. This means the sample generally isn’t left alone with any one person for any length of time. There are important reasons to use a blood drug test with some people. For some, there may be a history of sample tampering. Or, the results of the blood drug test could be used in criminal cases or determining employment status. Blood drug testing is usually reserved for situations where a person is suspected of being under the influence of a substance at that moment. These situations typically are work-related, ordered by an insurance company, or in an emergency room setting for toxicology purposes. virtual care Get treatment when and how you need it. Advantages Of Blood Drug Tests Although blood drug testing is not common or considered the gold standard of drug testing, there are two solid advantages for using blood drug testing. The first is that there is more flexibility to blood drug testing because they can order additional tests that look for specific substances if needed. The other key advantage to a blood drug test is there does not appear to be any known tricks to help pass a blood drug test. Disadvantages Of Blood Drug Tests The big disadvantage of blood drug tests is that they are quite expensive, in addition to the fact that there is a limited detection window. A person has to be trained in order to collect the specimen (phlebotomists), and the collection method is the most intrusive of all drug testing. There is an increased risk of infection with blood drug tests because, in order to collect the sample, the vein must be punctured. However, these disadvantages do not outweigh the benefit of being able to detect recent drug use using an established method in a laboratory setting. Factors That Can Affect Results There are many variables that can affect the outcome of a blood drug test. The following are a few of the more common reasons: • age • how often the drug is used • dependence on drug • body mass • amount of physical activity All of these factors will affect how long the substance stays in your blood. The majority of substances are detectable in the blood for no more than one or two days under normal circumstances. This time frame can increase if a person is heavily abusing drugs, or struggling with a substance use disorder (commonly referred to as substance abuse or addiction). When a person is older or doesn’t have a lot of physical activity, their body may take longer to break down substances. This can lead to drugs being at detectable levels in the body for longer periods of time. Additionally, the more body mass an individual has, the longer it takes for the substance to be broken down by the body. Drugs That A Blood Test Can Detect And Timelines For Each A blood drug test can test for many parent drugs, including alcohol, and specific tests can be ordered in addition to the standard. These drugs are detectable for only a certain amount of time before they are broken down and expelled in the urine. When testing for alcohol in the blood, the chemical that is tested for is Ethyl alcohol, and this is usually present for about 12 hours after the last consumption. Stimulants, like amphetamines, can be detected in the blood an average of 12 hours after the last use. These types of drugs are often referred to as speed or black beauties. Long-term use may affect detection rates in drug tests. Methamphetamine is also a stimulant, and has effects similar to cocaine but lasts a little longer. Meth tends to be detectable in the bloodstream for about 24 to 72 hours after the last dose is ingested. Barbiturates were historically prescribed for anxiety and insomnia, and have varying degrees of detectability. Longer-acting barbiturates, like phenobarbital (Luminal), are detectable for longer periods of time. The average time of detection ranges from one to two days in the blood. The type of benzodiazepine taken can affect detection in the blood. Some benzos, like alprazolam (Xanax) or clonazepam (Klonopin), may not show up on the test, depending on additional factors. On average, benzodiazepines can be detected in a blood drug test ranging from six to 48 hours. The active ingredient in marijuana, referred to as cannabis, is detectable in a blood drug test for an average of six to 24 hours. Long-term, frequent, or heavy marijuana use can result in a positive test for cannabis for an average of seven days using a blood drug test. Cocaine is a stimulant that stays in your system the longer you continue to use it. Long-term use leads to an accumulation of cocaine in the tissue of the body. As a result, the detection time is much longer. For someone who casually uses cocaine, the detection time is much shorter. On average, cocaine is detectable in a blood drug test for approximately 12 to 48 hours. Opioids are drugs that are derived naturally from the poppy plant or created synthetically to mimic the effects of natural opioids. They vary in detection time, and some of the more common opioids and their detection times in the blood after the last dose are listed below. • codeine: within 24 hours • heroin: up to six hours • morphine: within the first twelve hours • methadone: 24 to 36 hours LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) Typically referred to as “acid”, LSD is largely undetectable due to the small amount of the drug in the body and a very limited window of detection in a blood drug test (0 to 3 hours). However, there is a specific test that can be ordered that screens blood, urine, and stomach contents, and also screens for the metabolites for LSD. PCP (1-phenylcyclohexylpiperidine hydrochloride) PCP is a hallucinogen typically detectable in blood tests ranging from 12 to 24 hours. This specific substance’s detection window is affected by additional variables, ranging from age and body mass to health conditions and hydration levels. It is difficult to determine exactly how long PCP will be detected in any one person. Taking A Blood Drug Test If you have to take a blood drug test, make sure you take with you a list of all medications that you take, both over-the-counter and prescriptions. Include supplements and vitamins as well. Show up on time, and be ready to answer any questions they may have. If taking a blood drug test is problematic because a positive result could have a significant negative effect on your life, or if you think that you have been misusing or abusing a substance to the point of an addiction or substance use disorder, please reach out to us today. U.S. National Library of Medicine: Medline Plus - Drug Testing For 24/7 Treatment Help For 24/7 Treatment Help Call: For Immediate Treatment Help Call: (888) 979-9592
Anger Management If you're having trouble managing your anger, you may be jeopardizing more than just your health Mental & Behavioral Health July 22, 2015 Anger is a perfectly normal emotion, like joy or fear. But if your red-hot anger sometimes has you turning Hulk green, you could be putting yourself at risk for serious health problems. What does anger do? For instance, constantly suppressing anger — known as "anger in" — can have the following effects on the body: • Raise blood pressure, which can be especially dangerous for people who have high blood pressure • Increase stress • Cause digestive issues, such as ulcers, or aggravate existing gastrointestinal conditions • Create muscle tension that worsens chronic pain, especially low back pain Research also suggests that heated outbursts — or "anger out" — may be linked to worsening of heart disease. In addition to the potential health risks, there may be other unintended consequences of ineffectively managing your anger, such as losing an important relationship or getting fired from your job. "You may end up emotionally or even physically hurting others, especially if you are prone to verbal or physical outbursts," says John Burns, PhD, a clinical psychologist at Rush University Medical Center. "If people tell you they are concerned about you or afraid of you, that's a sure sign you aren't in control of your anger." Here, Burns offers eight strategies that can help you get a handle on your anger: 1. Know your triggers. What makes your blood boil? Traffic jams? Your boss yelling at you in front of everyone? Your child's perpetually messy room? Sit down and make a list of the things that are most likely to infuriate you. This can help you avoid anger-inducing situations or, when that’s not possible, know when you should take steps to soothe your angry feelings. "It's especially important when you're feeling stressed to be aware of what might be the straw that breaks the camel's back," Burns says. "For instance, you don't want to unleash your entire bad day at work on your child because she didn't pick up her toys. Or yell at your spouse for being late when really you're upset because you aren't feeling well." 2. Focus on relaxing. One way to cool down: Try relaxation techniques in the moment. Find what works best for you, whether it's taking deep breaths from the diaphragm, giving yourself a "time out" and going for a walk, playing soothing music or another strategy. "An outburst won't fix whatever is making you angry, and it may end up making the situation worse," Burns says. "Once you're calmer, you can focus on actually solving the problem, which should always be the goal." 3. Be assertive, not aggressive, to problem-solve. Instead of lashing out, try communicating your feelings in a calm but direct way at the time the incident occurs. "While perhaps less natural, saying to someone, 'That made me angry, and I would like to discuss it and request a behavior change' is a far more effective way to solve the problem than name-calling or throwing a plate across the room," Burns says. Addressing the problem with a cool head takes courage and patience. But if you're able to define the problem, talk things through and reach an agreement, you can potentially eliminate the source of your anger and prevent future outbursts. An outburst won't fix whatever is making you angry. Once you're calmer, you can focus on actually solving the problem, which should always be the goal. 4. Don't stew in your own juices. If you tend to suppress your anger, it can build up. This can eventually lead to explosions at unexpected or inappropriate times. "I've done marital counseling where one partner will say, 'I was just sitting there minding my own business, and you came at me with a list of 20 things that have been bothering you over the last six months,' " Burns says. "The dam breaks, and out comes this litany of complaints." The person who's the target may feel ambushed, especially if he or she didn’t know there were any problems. This can cause anger, resentment and defensiveness — and, potentially, unnecessary fights. Address issues as they arise rather than letting them pile up. But remember: Be assertive, not aggressive. It's better to say something like, "Please remember to put your shoes away," than "You are such a slob! Stop leaving your shoes in the middle of the floor!" 5. Look at the situation differently. "When you think about who and what makes you angry, what do all those things have in common? You," Burns says. "You interpret situations in ways that make you angry. You take them personally." For example, a driver cuts you off on the expressway. Instead of being enraged at what this "idiot" did to you, think about what might have caused his behavior. Maybe he's having a bad day and is distracted. Maybe he has an emergency. Or maybe he doesn't realize he did anything wrong because he didn't see your car. The situation hasn't changed, but in the above scenarios the driver's actions are no longer personal attacks on you. "Changing your interpretation of the event will allow you to cut the person slack and not take his actions personally," Burns explains. "You can't control what other people do. You can, however, control how you react." 6. Let it go. When you can't solve a problem, it can be frustrating and make you mad. Like when that driver cuts you off and speeds away. Or when your boss makes you stay late and you have to miss an important family event. "Sometimes, there's nothing you can do," Burns says. "You simply aren't going to be able to solve the problem — either in the moment or in the future." In those cases, you need to figure out how to move past it. "Otherwise, you will just stew and stew," he adds. "And you might hurt yourself or take your anger out on someone who doesn't deserve it." Some of the above strategies can help you let go, like doing a relaxation technique or changing your interpretation of the event. 7. Own your anger. "It can be hard to accept the idea that you make yourself angry, but the first step is taking responsibility for your anger. Just own it," Burns says. "Until you do, you won't be able to get a handle on it." That means being willing to listen — without getting angry or defensive — when others tell you that you have a problem. Use feedback from family, friends and co-workers to reflect on your behavior and find situations where your anger got the better of you. 8. Get help if you need it. Most people will never need personal counseling or anger management classes for their anger. But both are available — ask your primary care doctor or look online for resources in your area — and both can help. It's OK to start by trying to make positive behavior changes on your own. Get professional help, however, if self-management isn't working and your anger is causing health issues or hurting others. "There's nothing wrong with admitting you need help," Burns says. "But whether you use self-management techniques or see a professional, the important thing is to take control of your anger so it no longer controls you." Related Stories
• Rachel Klauzer - Oral Health Therapist What’s in my toothpaste? And Why? Toothpaste is a necessity. Not only does it assist in disturbing the plaque biofilm and freshen your breath; it also helps promote remineralisation to prevent tooth decay, prevent calculus build up, clean stains and prevent issues like gum diseases (gingivitis and periodontitis). There are many factors that can contribute to gum disease and dental decay but removing the food and plaque from our teeth is one way we can prevent these diseases. We can do this by disturbing the plaque and bacteria with good oral hygiene habits which includes the manual removal of plaque with a toothbrush (manual or electric), toothpaste at least twice per day and flossing at least once per day. Plaque that sits on our teeth for an extended period of time starts to accumulate bacteria. When that plaque bacteria gets exposed to refined carbohydrates, especially sucrose, it is then fermented to acid which then starts to break down our teeth. Toothpaste ingredients usually include an abrasive, humectant, binder, detergent, flavour, preservative and therapeutic agent. Help remove plaque and debris from the tooth surface. Some abrasive ingredients found in toothpastes are - Calcium carbonate - Aluminium oxides - Silica gels Keeps the toothpaste smooth and prevent it from drying out. Common humectants and binders found in toothpaste are sorbitol and glycerol. Helps to remove the plaque from the tooth surface during cleaning. They also contribute to the foaming of toothpaste. Some detergents found in toothpaste include: - Sodium lauryl sulfate (NOTE: this can be irritating or drying for some people) Most commonly - peppermint or spearmint. Sweetening agents (that don’t cause dental decay) are saccharin or sorbitol. Include titanium dioxide to give it the white paste - Fluoride: A mineral that changes the structure of or enamel making our teeth more resistant to acid wear and tooth decay. - Triclosan: Antimicrobial agent which can reduce the formation of dental plaque. - Abrasive agents such as calcium carbonate, silica or charcoal. Some ingredients in whitening products can just work by removing stains. Long term, this can be too abrasive on our teeth. - Other whitening ingredients include hydrogen peroxide or carbamide peroxide. In most toothpastes these ingredients are added at a very low concentration, therefore may not give you significant results. You should always discuss using a whitening product with your dental practitioner. There are many different brands of children’s toothpastes on the market which are designed for different age groups. The difference between children’s toothpastes and adult toothpaste is the amount of fluoride, the mint flavour is usually milder and they contain a lower amount of sodium lauryl sulfate to reduce foaming and possible sensitivity. Toothpastes that are aimed for children under 6 years old all contain a lower amount of fluoride (usually 500ppm). Some brands are: - Macleans milk teeth - My first Colgate junior - Colgate Dora sparking mint gel - Oral-B Children’s toothpaste Toothpastes aimed for children 6 and over usually contain the same amount of fluoride as most adult toothpastes which is 1000ppm. Some brands are: - Colgate Spider-man sparking mint gel - Macleans little teeth There are also children’s toothpastes that contain 1450ppm of fluoride. Some brands are: - Colgate maximum cavity protection junior - Macleans big teeth. Just to name a few: - Grants - Dr. Bronner - Weleda - Marvis - Ecostore - MooGoo - Lovebyt - Jack N’ Jill (children’s toothpaste) Common ingredients found in non-fluoridated toothpastes are similar to conventional toothpastes, however, they usually contain Xylitol. Xylitol is a non-fermentable sugar alcohol, which bacteria cannot process. This acts to prevent the process of caries. While fluoride has been seen to strengthen and remineralise teeth, extensive studies on Xylitol have been done to show it can be as effective at preventing cavities and cavity-causing bacteria. Xylitol has other dental benefits as well, like reducing the acidity of saliva to fight acids, increases production of saliva to assist remineralisation and increases absorption of calcium. Another ingredient used (found in toothpaste by the brand Moo-Goo) is Calcium Hydroxyapatite. Studies have shown it makes the teeth more resistant to acid wear and tooth decay. Other remineralising products like tooth mousse (applied topically after toothpaste) can be used to further prevent tooth decay. The main ingredients are casein (milk protein) as well as calcium and phosphate (major minerals that teeth are made from). All brands mentioned above in the vegan section have non-fluoridated options available. 6 views0 comments Recent Posts See All Subscribe To Our Mailing List 9971 6134 Level 2 Building 2, 49 Frenchs Forest Road East, Frenchs Forest • Facebook • Instagram ©2021 R Glasson for Tooth Sparkler
Q. The swing ride is just like the pendulum,then why the swing ride did not continue to being in oscilation like pendulum.The pendulum continued oscillates whether the watch has battery or not,then why the swing ride did not continue to oscillate just like pendulum.If we stopped putting our effort or our force then the swing ride stops oscillating.................why it stops and not oscillates like the pendulum when we stops our force ????????????????? Asked by Shreshth Sahu \| 27th Nov, 2014, 05:09: PM Expert Answer: No pendulum can continue oscillating without the constant application of an external force. If the pendulum does not work on a battery, then there is a spring mechanism in it or some other mechanism that keeps the pendulum oscillating. A swing has large amount of air resistance acting on it which prevents it from oscillating continuously. Hence, it stops soon after the force has been stopped. However, a pendulum has very less air resistance acting on it. Hence, to conclude we can say that a pendulum and a swing are similar system and both require continuous force to be applied for continuous working. Answered by Romal Bhansali \| 27th Nov, 2014, 06:42: PM
Free Web Development Online Tutorials, Learn to Code Learn AngularJS, angularjs tutorial, angularjs directive, angularjs application, angularjs api Angular Expressions Examples Let's learn how to bind Angular expression in Html code. there are some certain way writing expression in Angular Js, so that Angular can resolve the expression and return the result. Bind Angular Expressions in HTML Code In AngularJS any expressions can be written inside double braces like {{ expression }} . In model data binding we often write expressions with ng-bind attrbute like ng-bind="expression" Angular expressions can easily be mixed with html code just like we used to write JavaScript expressions in html element, only thing you need to remember that any expression has to be under ng-app="", otherwise expression will not be able to evaluate the value For example If you try to write an expression outside the ng-app directive, that will be considered as plain HTML, without evaluating the expression <script src="angular.min.js"> </script> <p>Calculated amount is {{ 10 * 90 }} </p> The result of above expression would be Calculated amount is {{ 10 * 90 }} Now if you write same expression under a ng-app directive, you will see the evaluated result <div ng-app="" ng-init="quantity=10;unitpice=90"> Calculated amount is {{ 10 * 90 }} Or <span ng-bind="quantity * unitpice"> </span> Here is the result Calculated amount is {{ 10 * 90 }} Note in above example, during initialization we have declared two variables and assign them some value and inside the expression we have calculated the value in two different ways, 1) using ng-bind and 2) using {{ }} Angular JS Expressions Othe JavaScript Framework Angular JS Examples \| Join Asp.Net MVC Course
h片子 h片子 ,久久爱这里视频精品23 久久爱这里视频精品23 ,五月色网站五月色网站 Filter By: Chapter 1: What is Intellectual Property? Protect ideas from being stolen Chapter 2: What Can Be Patented? Patents are products of the legal system Chapter 3: Is My Idea Patentable? Criteria for patentability Chapter 4: How Do I Conduct a Patent Search? A patent search is a subset of the prior art search Chapter 5: Is My Invention Worth Patenting? Chapter 6: How Do I Apply for a Patent? The Patent Application Chapter 7: How Do I Prove the Idea Is Mine? Can you prove the date you first envisioned your invention? Chapter 8: What Are Some Options to Commercialize My Patent? Persistence and determination are key ingredients Chapter 9: How Do I License My Invention? Selecting the right company interested in your product Marketing your invention Chapter 11: How Do I Raise Capital? The challenge of raising money
Different Types of Sterilization Process Sterilization can be accomplished by an amalgamation of heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure and filtration such as steam under pressure, dry heat, ultraviolet radiation, gas vapour sterilants, chlorine dioxide gas etc. Successful sterilization strategies are necessary for working in a lab and negligence of this could lead to severe consequences, it could unexpectedly cost a life. So what are the more frequently utilized methods of sterilization in the laboratory, and how do they work? The Sterilization is conveyed out by the methods according to requirement. The methods are: 1. Moist Heat Sterilization 2. Dry Heat Sterilization 3. Gas Sterilization and Others. 1. Moist Heat Sterilization: Moderate pressure is utilized in steam sterilization. Steam is utilized under pressure as a means of accomplishing an elevated temperature. It is dominant to confirm the accurate quality of steam is utilized in order to keep away the problems which follow, superheating of the steam, failure of steam penetration into porous loads, incorrect removal of air, etc. 2. Dry Heat Sterilization: Dry heat sterilization is utilized for heat-stable non-aqueous preparations, powders and definite impregnated dressings. It may also be utilized for sterilization of some types of container. Sterilization by dry heat is generally carried out in a hot-air oven. Heat is carried from its source to load by radiation, convention and to a small extent by conduction. This process can eliminate heat-resistant endotoxin. In each cycle it is predominant to make sure that the entire content of each container is maintained for a successful blend of time and temperature for most part to allow temperature variations in hot-air ovens, which may be considerable. Dry heat is utilized to sterilize glassware, porcelain and metal equipment, oils and fats and powders i.e. talc, etc. 1. Gas Sterilization: Gaseous sterilizing agents are of two main types, oxidizing and alkylating agents. Vapour phase hydrogen peroxide is an example of the former. Ethylene oxide and formaldehyde are instance of the alkylating agents. However, the BP states that gaseous sterilization is used when there is no acceptable replacement. The main advantage of ethylene oxide is that many types of materials, including thermo labile materials, can be sterilized without damage. Low temperature steam with formaldehyde has been utilized as an option for sterilizing thermo labile substances. Both ethylene oxide and formaldehyde have health risks and strict monitoring of personnel revealed to the gases required to make sure protection from harmful effects. 1. Sterilization by Radiation: Radiations can be split up into two groups: electromagnetic waves and streams of particulate matter. The former group consists infrared radiation, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays. The latter group includes alpha and beta radiations. More frequently infrared radiation, ultraviolet light, gamma radiation and high-velocity electrons are utilized for sterilization. (i) Ultraviolet Light: A narrow range of UV wavelength is successful in eliminating the microorganism. The wavelength is powerfully absorbed by the nucleoproteins. The most important disadvantage of UV radiation as a sterilizing agent is its poor penetrating power. This is the result of powerful absorption by many substances. The application of UV radiation is limited. (ii) Ionizing Radiations: Ionizing radiations are satisfactory for commercial sterilization processes. It must have good penetrating power, high sterilizing efficiency, little or no damage result on irradiated materials and are capable of being produced efficiently. The radiations that satisfy these four measures are best high-speed electrons from machines and gamma rays from radioactive isotopes. 1. Sterilization by Filtration: Membrane filters are built from cellulose derives or other polymers. There are no loose fibres or molecules in membrane filters. They keep molecules bigger than the pore size on the filter surface hence filters particularly useful in noticing of small numbers of bacteria. Passage through a filter of suitable pore size can remove bacteria and moulds. Viruses and mycoplasma may not be maintained. After filtration the liquid is aseptically dispensed into formerly sterilized containers which are later sealed. Other than this, it is tough to make universal statements about the various methods of sterilization because there can be huge non-identical in these considerations depending on the size and location of the sterilizer, as well as the methods waged for product release. All of these circumstances will influence selection of the sterilization process and the coherence with which it controls. We at KERONE have a team of experts to help you with your need for Sterilization Machines from our wide experience. For any query write us at info@kerone.com or visit www.kerone.com. Leave a Reply
Python Package Script » mcleodsdaughtersdvd.com How to Run Your Python Scripts – Real Python. Modules and Packages;. The Python script game.py will implement the game. It will use the function draw_game from the file draw.py, or in other words, thedraw module, that implements the logic for drawing the game on the screen. Modules are imported from other modules using the import command. 18/02/2019 · To grasp the details of how to run Python scripts from your preferred IDE or editor, you can take a look at its documentation. How to Run Python Scripts From a File Manager. Running a script by double-clicking on its icon in a file manager is another possible way to run your Python scripts. 15/07/2016 · Python packages allow you to break down large systems and organize their modules in a consistent way that you and other people can use and reuse efficiently. Python's motto of "Batteries Included" means that it comes preloaded with lots of useful packages in the standard library. But there are. Having a project or a library organized into packages is a good thing: a your source code is even more modularized and b packages provide protection against name clashes with other modules. We'll see why in a minute. Turn a folder into a Python package. Python has to be instructed about which directory should become a package. We used function read_command from the grass.script package which is imported under the name grass in the Python tab in GRASS GUI. There are also other functions besides read_command most notably run_command, write_command and parse_command. Learn how to use the Execute Python Script module to use Python code in Machine Learning Studio classic. Execute Python machine learning scripts in Azure Machine Learning Studio classic 03/12/2019;. It comes with close to 200 of the most common Python packages used. 14/01/2014 · All Python libraries i.e. application packages that you download using a package manager e.g. pip are distributed using a utility dedicated to do the job. These utilities create “Python distributions” which are basically versioned and compressed archives. All related elements to what’s. Any directory with an __init__.py file is considered a Python package. The different modules in the package are imported in a similar manner as plain modules, but with a special behavior for the __init__.py file, which is used to gather all package-wide definitions. A file modu.py in the directory pack/ is imported with the statement import. PyInstaller is a program that freezes packages Python programs into stand-alone executables, under Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, FreeBSD, Solaris and AIX. In this article, you'll learn how to create an executable from a Python console script easily using Pyinstaller in windows. Requirements. I have a python script which will be executed by the system python on OSX /usr/bin/python. This script uses an external package in my case PyYaml. How can I provide the package without pip-installing it into the system python. I do not want to create a virtual environment for this script either, because the script is meant to run on other. GRASS GIS Python scripting with script package. This article describes how to use functions in the sqlmlutils package to install new Python packages to an instance of SQL Server Machine Learning Services. The packages you install can be used in Python scripts running in-database using the sp_execute_external_script T-SQL statement. 6. Modules¶ If you quit from the Python interpreter and enter it again, the definitions you have made functions and variables are lost. Therefore, if you want to write a somewhat longer program, you are better off using a text editor to prepare the input for the interpreter and running it. 25/12/2018 · Tableau with Python Package InstallationScript: Part 1 Ritesh is Dancing with Data. Loading. Python integration with Tableau The new series Run Python script integrating with Tableau workbook How to get dimensions and Calculation details with one shot? In this short guide, I’ll show you how to install a package in Python using PIP. I’ll also demonstrate how to uninstall a package that is no longer needed. If you’re using Windows, you’ll be able to install a Python package by opening the Windows Command Prompt, and then typing this command: pip install package. 29/07/2013 · Oh hi there! Welcome to another useful post. This post is going to be about how to package your python scripts and packages for distribution on PyPI or some other place. Here I won't go too deep into explaining everything as most of us just need to know the basics of packaging. However i will. How to package a python application to make it pip-installable. Python scripts are usable for a lot of stuff, i.e. fetching tha latest posts from /r/python or counting the total number of. 25/02/2018 · Installing a python package with pip from within a script I want to install some third party packages into the Fusion python interpreter in a robust way. I understand one solution is to just include the dependency source code directly within my add-in. Experienced programmers in any other language can pick up Python very quickly, and beginners find the clean syntax and indentation structure easy to learn. Whet your appetite with our Python 3 overview. In order to create a Python package, it is very easy. The __init__.py file is necessary because with this file, Python will know that this directory is a Python package directory other than an ordinary directory or folder – whatever you want to call it. How to create an executableexe from a Python. 09/11/2017 · In this tutorial, you use Python 3 to create the simplest Python "Hello World" application in Visual Studio Code. By using the Python extension, you make VS Code into a great lightweight Python IDE which you may find a productive alternative to PyCharm. This tutorial introduces you to VS Code as a. Python Packages tutorial - What are Python Packages, Structure of Python packages, How to import Python modules to packages,how to create. How to Create Your Own Package. by DataFlair Team · Updated. But if your directory does not have an __init__.py file, it isn’t a package; it is just a directory with a bunch of Python scripts. This chapter shows how to execute a Python script or program. The details of Python Byte Code and the Python virtual machine PVM are also illustrated. But where can you find these packages and how to install them? In the next section of the tutorial on how to install Python packages, we will find out how. PyPI - Python Package Index. Most open source Python packages are made available through PyPI - Python Package Index. It is a repository of software for the Python programming language. We are pleased to announce the reticulate package, a comprehensive set of tools for interoperability between Python and R. The package includes facilities for: Calling Python from R in a variety of ways including R Markdown, sourcing Python scripts, importing Python modules, and using Python interactively within an R session. Modules, Packages, and all that¶ One of the key features of Python is that the actual core language is fairly small. This is an intentional design feature to maintain simplicity. Much of the powerful functionality comes through external modules and packages. 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February 28, 2021 • Home • AI • Facebook’s AI analyzes your look and helps you with dressing. Facebook’s AI analyzes your look and helps you with dressing. By on December 1, 2019 0 595 Views Facebook presented several artificial intelligence projects at the International Conference on Computer Vision 2019. Several of these projects exploit computer vision technology in an original and unexpected way… As part of the International Conference on Computer Vision 2019, Facebook recently presented many artificial intelligence projects. These projects include Machine Learning models designed to anonymize faces, simulate hand movements or modify people’s clothes in video. This concept is reminiscent of Deepfakes, which aims to integrate a person’s face into a video using Machine Learning. However, Facebook researchers are looking to use this technology in a positive way. Thus, just like Deepfakes, Facebook’s AI maps a person’s facial expressions and movements based on their different characteristics. However, rather than inverting the person’s face with that of another, Facebook simply changes the face until it is no longer possible to recognize it for facial recognition systems. This technology could allow those who wish to remain anonymous to express themselves in the video. This system will need further optimization before it can be deployed as a product, but it could prove very useful in the near future when facial recognition will be able to identify anyone instantly. Facebook’s AI simulates hand movements and relocks you The second study published by Facebook presents an AI capable of capturing, cataloging and reproducing body language movements. More precisely, the system is currently focusing on hand gestures. To train this AI, the researchers recorded 50 hours of video during which pairs of people equipped with motion sensors conduct ordinary and natural conversations. These videos were then transferred to the Machine Learning model to allow it to associate gestures with expressions. For example, the system may have noticed that a person will often point behind them when talking about the past or that they will usually make a sweeping gesture when saying “anywhere”. This technology can be used in particular in the field of virtual reality. Virtual avatars can learn to mimic users’ hand movements. Facebook could, therefore, use this innovation to increase the realism and immersion of its social network in VR “Horizon” expected in 2020. Another AI presented by Facebook at the conference is designed to help you dress better. Called “Fashion++”, the system was trained from a large library of images labeled to indicate both the type of clothing worn by the subject and the level of “style” of his costume. Now, Fashion+++ is able to analyze an outfit in real time to suggest changes. The AI is not yet advanced enough to make you look like Cristina Cordula, but enough to advise you to remove a thickness or tuck in your shirt. This is only the beginning, and this artificial intelligence could eventually become a true fashion expert. Such technology could be integrated into future connected mirrors, to provide advice to users and help them dress better… In general, the various projects presented by Facebook to the ICCV show that researchers are exploring all the possibilities offered by computer vision. Whether or not these researches are translated into commercial projects, they prove that we have only explored a tiny part of the applications of artificial intelligence… Leave a comment
You are here Beats and Measures 22 July, 2019 - 10:18 Listen to excerpts A, B, C and D. Can you clap your hands, tap your feet, or otherwise move "to the beat"? Can you feel the 1-2-1-2 or 1-2-3-1-2-3 of the meter? Is there a piece in which it is easier or harder to feel the beat? • A16 • B17 • C18 • D19 : media/image49.png Figure 1.46 Reading the Time Signature Exercise 1.10 Listen again to the music in Example 1.4. Instead of clapping, count each beat. Decide whether the music has 2, 3, or 4 beats per measure. In other words, does it feel more natural to count 1-2-1-2, 1-2-3-1-2-3, or 1-2-3-4-1-2-3-4?
The Household Product That Killed Two Bald Eagles An apparent attempt to poison coyotes resulted in the deaths of the birds and other animals. One of the poisoned bald eagles. (Photo: Facebook) May 30, 2015· 1 MIN READ Samantha Cowan is an associate editor for culture. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service officials announced Thursday that they are investigating the poisoning deaths of two bald eagles in Iberville Parish, Louisiana, last month. The eagles weren’t the only victims. Four coyotes, one opossum, and three vultures were also found dead. Wildlife investigators believe that bait meat—a pile of meat and bones covered with poisonous black granules—intended for coyotes killed all the animals. “Poison is an indiscriminate killer,” noted Sidney Charbonnet, a special agent for the wildlife agency, which is offering an $11,000 reward for information leading to an arrest and conviction in the bald eagle deaths. “It can take out whole segments of the food chain with secondary poisonings, as well as potentially killing pet dogs or cats who may consume the bait or the poisoned wildlife.” The United States’ national symbol was taken off the endangered species list in 2007 after its numbers soared from just 500 breeding pairs in the 1960s to as many as 10,000. Bald eagles are still under federal protection, which prohibits the capture, killing, possession, or sale of the species. Penalties for violating the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act can land an offender in jail for up to a year, along with a $10,000 fine. Poisoned animals often suffer a slow, painful death. The use of common rat poisons in California homes has been linked to mange in feline species. Since the rats don’t die immediately, they can be eaten by other animals that subsequently ingest the poison. The Louisiana Humane Society pointed to more humane methods for dealing with unwanted pests, such as by securing garbage cans, keeping pet food covered, and removing fallen fruits and vegetables.
xml practical questions Tempo de leitura: menos de 1 minuto It is often confusing when to use an element as opposed to using an attribute within your XML Schema. if(window.document.exitFullscreen) window.document.exitFullscreen(); For instance, one appropriate answer is that XML allows content management systems to store documents independently of their format, which thereby reduces data redundancy. You have to select the right answer to a question. These topics are also covered in Web Services Essentials. No. XML is mostly used to transfer data from one system to another e.g. XML is often used for distributing data over the Internet. XML is chosen as a standard format because it was already in use by many large companies and immensely due to its open source nature. We’ve also got some free CCAT practice questions for you to try! var src=ifr.src; For more information, * Version 1.1 uses IRIs (Internationalized Resource Identifiers) instead of URIs. 26. If the language uses an XML namespace, then the application will already use that namespace — there is no need for any special XML namespace software. The goal of the group is to establish a formal standard for SOAP. You will have to read all the given answers and click over the correct answer. By reusing existing languages and code, people can quickly define new languages and write applications that process them. For those who view XML primarily as a way to denote structure for text files, a common answer is to build a full-text search and handle the data similarly to the way Internet portals handle HTML pages. The mechanism by which we do this is XML namespaces. For example, in the following, the google prefix is associated with the http://www.google.org/ namespace on the A and B elements and the http://www.bar.org/ namespace on the C and D elements. SOAP consists of three components: an envelope, a set of encoding rules, and a convention for representing remote procedure calls. Another main difficulty lies with the code writing capability because it is written in a low level language. The URI must be under your control and should not be being used to identify a different XML namespace, such as by a coworker. SOAP is the solution for this situation. Here are a few reasons for using XML . An alternative is to use an SGML DTD to let you create a fully-normalised SGML file, but one which does not use empty elements; and then remove the DocType Declaration so it becomes a well-formed DTDless XML file. Large amounts of data must be converted, and incompatible data is often lost. else if(window.document.mozCancelFullScreen) window.document.mozCancelFullScreen(); XML is the Extensible Markup Language. The function accepts two parameters, the first one is the column name and the second one is the value with which NULL has to be replaced. You have probably heard or used JAXB which has a schema compiler (XJC). This comment symbol is applicable for single or multiple lines. iframe.scrollIntoView(); window.attachEvent("onmessage", handleIFrameMessage); In September 2000, the W3C established an XML Protocol Activity. There are no predefined elements in XML, because it is an architecture, not an application, so it is not part of XML’s job to specify how or if authors should or should not implement metadata. ifr.src=src + "?" Your email address will not be published. XML is a markup specification language and XML files are just data: they sit there until you run a program which displays them (like a browser) or does some work with them (like a converter which writes the data in another format, or a database which reads the data), or modifies them (like an editor). Programs can use this with a style sheet to create output for screen, print, audio, video, Braille, etc. The water is muddied by XSL (both XSLT and XSL:FO) which use XML syntax to implement a declarative programming language. XML Signature is recommended by W3C, and it acts as a digital signature for XML documents. Remote call procedure is considered as a very important function in SOAP. This Xml Test contains around 20 questions of multiple choice with 4 options. No, although it’s useful because a lot of XML terminology and practice derives from two decades’experience of SGML. HTML is now well beyond the limit of its usefulness as a way of describing information, and while it will continue to play an important role for the content it currently represents, many new applications require a more robust and flexible infrastructure. var args=e.data.split(":"); A better answer is to assign each language (including its Address element type) to a different namespace. Ask your database manufacturer: they all provide XML import and export modules to connect XML applications with databases. No. There are also some XML-based preprocessors for formats like XVRL (eXtensible Value Resolution Language) which resolve specialised references to external data and output a normalised XML file. They can therefore be implemented in any way supported by the XLink and XPointer specifications including using similar syntax to existing HTML images. This paper introduces some useful and practical aspects of XML technology for sharing information in a educationa l setting by way of some, hopefully, useful examples. This specification defines HTML as an XML application, and provides three DTDs corresponding to the ones defined by HTML 4. Why XML editor is needed instead of Notepad? You can use Next Quiz button to check new set of questions in the quiz. Wider acceptance is gained by HTTP, as it works better with the current internet infrastructure, especially with firewalls. Re-Written Practice test- 1 with improved English. However, because XML namespace declarations do not apply to DTDs , qualified names in the DTD cannot be converted to universal names. If so, how many root elements are required? The easiest way to get started with Web services is to learn XML-RPC. PHP Exercises, Practice, Solution: PHP (recursive acronym for PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor) is a widely-used open source general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for web development and can be embedded into HTML. Expands XML Business with “1,000 XML Masters” Ask the Educator. SMON performs periodic cleanup of temporary segments that are no longer needed. However, please note that the authoratitive interpretation of the fragment identifier is determined by the Internet Media Type. 28. What are the special characters used in XML? else if(window.document.mozCancelFullscreen) window.document.mozCancelFullScreen(); Others consider XML as a standard way of transferring structured data between disparate systems. 26 Nov 2020. It transfers messages across the board in different protocols; it also acts as a medium to transmit XML based messages over the network. XML itself provides a way to define the markup needed to implement scripting languages: as a neutral standard it neither encourages not discourages their use, and does not favour one language over another, so it is possible to use XML markup to store the program code, from where it can be retrieved by (for example) XSLT and re-expressed in a HTML script element. Creating your own document type therefore begins with an analysis of the class of documents you want to describe: reports, invoices, letters, configuration files, credit-card verification requests, or whatever. As a result, qualified names in the DTD have no special meaning. iframe.contentWindow.postMessage(JSON.stringify({"type":"urls","value":urls}), ""); var isJotForm=(e.origin.indexOf("jotform") > -1) ? Part #1 – TSQL Interview Questions And Answers (Basic) Below are the basic interview questions and answers . XML is used for development for following reasons: • Used to store data for e-commerce websites, • Used to transport and store data on internet, • XML is used for database and flat files, • Generate dynamic content by applying different style sheets. • XML structure is traversable, and it can be randomly accessed by traversing the tree. } In less trivial, but still simple, cases, you could export by writing a report routine that formats the output as an XML document, and you could import by writing an XSLT transformation that formatted the XML data as a load file. The practice exam takes approximately one hour to complete. An XML namespace name is a URI that uniquely identifies the namespace. They can also be referenced using XML’s built-in NOTATION and ENTITY mechanism in a similar way to standard SGML, as external unparsed entities. if(iframe.clientHeight > window.innerHeight){ However, this is not a useful long term solution. Such applications simply treat all element type and attribute names as qualified names. These candidates often describe some scheme of importing XML into a relational or object database and relying on the database’s engine for searching. break; DTD is abbreviated as Document Type Definition and it is defined to build legal building blocks of an XML document. Recent Articles . Become XML Certified Professional with DumpsDeals. if(typeof e.data==='object'){ return; } JSON and XML are the two markup language that can be used in restful web api . Browsers which read XML will accept and use a CSS stylesheet at a minimum, but you can also use the more powerful XSLT stylesheet language to transform your XML into HTML—which browsers, of course, already know how to display (and that HTML can still use a CSS stylesheet). case "exitFullscreen": Successful candidates should recognize this as one of the most basic applications of XSLT. This specification defines the XML Linking Language (XLink), which allows elements to be inserted into XML documents in order to create and describe links between resources. It contains a total of 50 questions, most of which are multiple-choice questions with five possible answers. [Note that this has absolutely nothing whatever to do with formatting, appearance, or the actual text content of your documents, only the structure of them]. Start Your Free Data Science Course. If you want to opt-in for XPointer, then you can always create publish your own Internet Media Type with IANA and specify that it supports the XPointer Framework for some kind of non-XML resource. To override the prefix used in an XML namespace declaration, you simply declare another XML namespace with the same prefix. Here you can access and discuss Multiple choice questions and answers for various compitative exams and interviews. Industries transport the request for finding best route and best cost price. The reason for which most of them prefer XML over HTML is that XML allows you to define your own element. HTML and XML are examples of Markup Language. 47. For a comprehensive treatment of SOAP, check out O’Reilly’s Programming Web Services with SOAP, by Doug Tidwell, James Snell, and Pavel Kulchenko. Application layer and transport layers of a network are used by SOAP. I can understand the motivation to use XML as a general purpose data format, but if your application isn't sharing this data with other systems there might be easier solutions. Updated on 15 Dec 2017 — Added 10 New questions and updated some existing questions. This way you get all the document management benefits of using XML, but you don’t have to worry about your readers needing XML smarts in their browsers. The first new group is the Web Services Description Working Group, which will take up work on WSDL. A wide variety of tools are available on shelves which ease the process of transition to SOAP. prefix:local-part –OR– local-part. In addition to signature information, an XML Signature can also contain information describing the key used to sign the content. This protocol is widely used than IOP or DCOM because those protocols are filtered by firewalls. XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language. Should I use Mixed Element Content? In these instances, XML provides a mechanism for multiple companies to exchange data according to an agreed upon set of rules. The reason is that most applications understand a particular XML language, such as one used to transfer sales orders between companies. In these cases it is arguable that you can ‘execute’ XML code, by running a processing application like Saxon, which compiles the directives specified in XSLT files into Java bytecode to process XML. Extract Attributes from XML Data Example 1. They can be converted into almost any other format with no loss of information. For example, a parser might choose to redefine validity in terms of universal names and have both namespace-aware and namespace-unaware validation modes. The XML linking specifications for external images give you much better control over the traversal and activation of links, so an author can specify, for example, whether or not to have an image appear when the page is loaded, or on a click from the user, or in a separate window, without having to resort to scripting. For example, google:A is just google:A — it is not A in the XML namespace to which the prefix google is mapped. It provides a robust, nonproprietary, persistent, and verifiable file format for the storage and transmission of text and data both on and off the Web; and it removes the more complex options of SGML, making it easier to program for. iframeParams=iframeParams.concat(window.location.href.substr(window.location.href.indexOf("?") This may cause problems with proxy server and firewalls. The mathematics-using community has developed the MathML Recommendation at the W3C, which is a native XML application suitable for embedding in other DTDs and Schemas. With the help of the XML practice exam questions and preparation material offered by DumpsDeals, you can pass any XML certifications exam in the first attempt. if(src&&src.indexOf("?") if(args.length > 2){ iframe=document.getElementById("JotFormIFrame-" + args[(args.length - 1)]); }else{ iframe=document.getElementById("JotFormIFrame"); } Dear Readers, Welcome to XML interview questions with answers and explanation. XML provides a common syntax for messaging systems for the exchange of information between applications. Interview Questions and Answers for Experienced Freshers PDF. break; I have a SQL Express 2005 instance running a single database with 2 tables that are related as master / detail using a one-to-many foreign key constraint. No. Check out the XML-RPC specification or read my book, Web Services Essentials. The second new group is the Web Services Architecture Working Group, which will attempt to create a cohesive framework for Web service protocols. 43. You can’t: XML isn’t a programming language, so you can’t say things like bar. Although HTML was written as an SGML application, browsers ignore most of it (which is why so many useful things don’t work), so just because something is done a certain way in HTML browsers does not mean it’s correct, least of all in XML. An XML Data island is XML data embedded into a HTML page. What are the differences between HTML and XML? However, this only needs to be done once, as the two-part name is universally unique. If it contains inside the XML document, then it is called Enveloping signature. window.location.reload(); script.src=src; Yes, root element is required, and it can have only one root element in each XML. XML based messages over a network of computers are exchanged by using SOAP standard, using HTTP. XML Signature is recommended by W3C, and it acts as a digital signature for XML documents. How does XML work? Attribute name can be given to an element person. This will depend on what facilities your users’ browsers implement. A third common response involves wireless applications that require WML to render data on hand held devices. In particular, any XML document that uses XML namespaces is a legal XML 1.0 document and can be interpreted as such in the absence of XML namespaces. It gives access to entire XML document – Nodes and Elements, and it has its own properties. Consider a real estate database with huge data ranges. Below is the list of Important 2020 TSQL Interview Questions that are asked mostly in an interview. XML allows groups of people or organizations to question C.13, create their own customized markup applications for exchanging information in their domain (music, chemistry, electronics, hill-walking, finance, surfing, petroleum geology, linguistics, cooking, knitting, stellar cartography, history, engineering, rabbit-keeping, question C.19, mathematics, genealogy, etc). A DiffGram is an XML format which is used to find current and original versions of XML document. Oracle deals with Null values using NVL function. If you want to view or display an XML file, open it with an XML editor or an question B.3, XML browser. The same rule applies as for server-side inclusions, so you need to ensure that any embedded code which gets passed to a third-party engine (eg calls to SQL, VB, Java, etc) does not contain any characters which might be misinterpreted as XML markup (ie no angle brackets or ampersands). This can be done by using Document Type Definition(DTD). If you're looking for Tag: XML PRACTICAL and whether you’re experienced or fresher & don’t know what kind of questions will be asked in job interview, then go through the below Real-Time Tag: XML PRACTICAL PDF to crack your job interview. That is, the names A and B are in the http://www.google.org/ namespace and the names C and D are not in any XML namespace. In particular, an xmlns attribute declared in the DTD with a default is not an XML namespace declaration for the DTD.. (Note that an earlier version of MSXML (the parser used by Internet Explorer) did use such declarations as XML namespace declarations, but that this was removed in MSXML 4. XML tags are not as predefined as HTML, but we can define our own user tags for simplicity. Whether it does this depends on whether such processing is already done by lower-level software, such as a namespace-aware DOM implementation. if(ifr){ Attribute name can be represented within single quotes if double quotes are present in the attribute name. To perform these web services, SOAP is the reliable protocol. If you're looking for Tag: XML PRACTICAL and whether you’re experienced or fresher & don’t know what kind of questions will be asked in job interview, then go through the below Real-Time Tag: XML PRACTICAL PDF to crack your job interview. AP6AM Interview Questions ©Copyright 2020. Server-side tag-replacers like shtml, PHP, JSP, ASP, Zope, etc store almost-valid files using comments, Processing Instructions, or non-XML markup, which gets replaced at the point of service by text or XML markup (it is unclear why some of these systems use non-HTML/XML markup). IS NULL operator is usually used to check if a columns value is NULL or not. Therefore, the behavior is application-dependent. Unless experience with SOAP is a direct requirement for the open position, knowing the specifics of the protocol, or how it can be used in conjunction with HTTP, is not as important as identifying it as a natural application of XML. Client server interaction can be best achieved by RPC. Querying a database and then formatting the result set so that it can be validated as an XML document allows developers to translate the data into an HTML table using XSLT rules. It is just a markup language to represent the data. 10. Together, they form the universal name. xml-interview-questions-freshers.pdf. XML itself is not a programming language, so XML files don’t ‘run’ or ‘execute’. This is done in the document’s Document Type Declaration, not in the DTD. No, XML is not a replacement of HTML. A qualified name is a name of the following form. if(isJotForm&&"contentWindow" in iframe&&"postMessage" in iframe.contentWindow){ This works only with the Internet. This markup language specifies the code for formatting, layout and style of data .This markup code is called Tag. Any SOAP element may use this format and it gets implemented on the child and contents of the SOAP. What is XML Signature? Most XML documents are written in a specific XML language and processed by an application that understands that language. 36. XPath is the major element in XSLT, and it is w3c recommendation. In addition, they bundle support for at last the following XPointer schemes: * xmlns() * element() * xpath() – This is not a W3C defined XPointer scheme since W3C has not published an XPointer sheme for XPath. On January 25, 2002, the W3C also announced the formation of a Web Service Activity. A draft version of SOAP 1.2 is currently under review, and progressing through the official W3C recommendation process. The uberjar command line utility provides some configuration options. You will receive XML questions in pdf, and you will have a practice test software that will help you to assess your XML exam knowledge about the actual exam. Markup languages are designed for presentation of text in different formats, and it can also be used for transporting and storing data. Even if candidates have never participated in a project involving this type of architecture, they should recognize it as one of the common uses of XML. The test contains 25 questions and there is no time limit. “%” is used as a wild card in the query. These 20 solved XML questions will help you prepare for technical interviews and online selection tests conducted during campus placement for freshers and job interviews for professionals. 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The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is actively pursuing standardization of Web service protocols. • XML files are text files, and no editor is required, • Minimal and a limited number of syntax rules in XML, • It is extensible, and it specifies that structural rules of tags. SOAP purpose: A web service needs a combination of XML, HTTP and a protocol which is application-specific. There is a large body of middleware (APIs) written in Java and other languages for managing data either in XML or with XML input or output. The only difference is that the namespace-aware application: * Might need to check for xmlns attributes and parse qualified names. Top 30+ Advanced XML Interview Questions Pdf 2020-2021; xml-interview-questions-answers.pdf. What are possible ways to solve this?Xpath question I have two XML files. CDATA section starts with and & are the valid application layer protocol uses as transport for SOAP as Unicode thing you taking... 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Conflicts, and it can be xml practical questions by using SOAP standard, DTD. Quiz, your total score will be displayed including its Address element types — example... Own markup language ) probably heard or used JAXB which has a compiler... Using DTD or a Schema subset of ASCII characters, while IRIs allow much use! Of them prefer XML over HTML is that most applications understand a particular XML namespace declarations that no. Local name by the internet Media type that expects the old name many Computer systems contain in. Into a HTML page for formatting, layout and style of data this means that any code recognizes! Are confusing to read all the given answers and explanation SOAP is the list of DTDs that developers have with... Extensible because it ’ s written in SGML, XML browser this case, you can use XPointer. 2000, the scope of an optional prefix and colon, followed by XML... Be present in the document ’ s useful because a lot of,. 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Date of Award: Document Type: Degree Name: Master of Science (MS) Karen M. Kapheim James P. Strange Lee Rickords Bumble bees (Bombus Latrielle) are a wide-spread group of pollinating insects that are important species to conserve across many environments to ensure both ecological and economic resiliency because they pollinate important agricultural, horticultural, and wild flora. Surprisingly, fundamental questions still remain about this important charismatic group of pollinators. The investigations in this thesis are but two of many topics that require further research. The topics investigated are understanding bumble bee nest site preferences and reproductive development of both sexes of bumble bees. The first experiment (Chapter 2) investigates whether nest boxes elevated off of the ground and attached to trees attract bumble bees to initiate and start nests. This study documents which species interact with these nest boxes the most. Aspect of box placement and blue and ultraviolet (UV) painted entrances are tested for increased nesting by vernal queen bumble bees. Bumble bees interacted with 34% of nest boxes with Bombus appositus being the most abundant species observed interacting with nest boxes. Aspect and entrance color showed no significance in increasing nest-box interactions by bumble bee queens. The second experiment (Chapter 3) is the first study to document developmental patterns in the internal reproductive anatomy of adult male bumble bees as they age and investigates differences between males from queenless microcolonies to males produced from standard queenright bumble bee colonies. The species used is a bumble bee of interest for pollination of greenhouse crops, Bombus vosnesenskii. Overall, male development continues for up to 7 days in adult males and overall slows down once adult males are 8 days old. No significant differences in development are observed between males from microcolonies and males from queenright colonies but the size of the male is shown to be significant in the reproductive development of male bumble bees. The reproductive development of B. vosnesenskii males offers the first insights into development that takes place in bumble bees post-eclosion. These experiments provide knowledge on fundamental questions still unanswered about the bumble bee life cycle. These experiments are much needed to further understand how to utilize and conserve bumble bees for ecological and economic benefit. Included in Biology Commons
Is The Nasal Spray As Effective As The Flu Shot? Are nasal flu vaccines safe? Does the nasal flu vaccine make you sick? What month do flu shots become available? People should begin getting vaccinated soon after the 2020 flu vaccine becomes available on April 1st, to ensure that as many people as possible are protected before flu season begins. However, as long as flu viruses are circulating in the community, it’s not too late to get vaccinated. Is FluMist live virus? Like the vaccines for chicken pox and measles, FLUMIST QUADRIVALENT is a live vaccine. That means it contains weakened live viruses. It stimulates the immune system in the lining of the nose and throat. That is where the flu virus typically enters the body. Is the FluMist as effective as the shot 2020? How accurate is the flu shot 2019 2020? The vaccine must be changed each year, in hopes of matching the ever-mutating viruses. And that’s been a challenge. On average, it’s been 40% effective, meaning it’s prevented illness 40% of the time. What are the negatives of getting a flu shot? Some possible downsides to flu shots include:only about 40–60% of flu shots are effective in preventing the flu each year.they can take up to 2 weeks to start working.sometimes, they cause mild side effects, such as pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site.More items…• Why was FluMist discontinued? Who should not get FluMist? FluMist is recommended for healthy people 2 to 49 years of age. You should not get FluMist if you are allergic to eggs, gentamicin, gelatin, or arginine; or have ever had a life-threatening reaction to influenza vaccinations. Children or teens should not take aspirin for 4 weeks after getting FluMist. How long do you shed flu virus after vaccination? Among vaccine recipients, 80% shed one or more vaccine virus (mean duration: 7.6 days). Is the flu nasal spray a live vaccine? The flu vaccine for children is a nasal spray (sprayed into the nose), not an injection. The live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) contains live forms of flu virus which have been weakened (attenuated). These stimulate the immune system but do not cause disease in healthy people. Is there a nasal flu vaccine this year 2020? All nasal spray influenza (flu) vaccines for the 2020-2021 season are quadrivalent, meaning they will be made using four flu viruses: an influenza A(H1N1) virus, an influenza A(H3N2) virus and two influenza B viruses. Learn more about the vaccine composition of the 2020-2021 flu season vaccines. How long is flu shot effective 2020? The flu shot offers protection against the flu for at least 6 months. Healthcare professionals usually vaccinate most people in October, when flu activity typically begins to increase, so their immunity will last until the following April. Why can’t inactivated flu vaccines cause flu in a vaccinated person? Is the flu shot or nasal spray better? There are two options: the flu shot and the nasal spray FluMist. Most years, both offer about the same level of protection, but some people are better suited for the shot, while others do better with the spray. How long does the flu shot last 2020?
Flank speed From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Flank speed is a nautical term referring to a ship's true maximum speed but it is not equivalent to the term full speed ahead. Usually, flank speed is reserved for situations in which a ship finds itself in imminent danger, such as coming under attack by aircraft. Flank speed is very demanding of fuel and often unsustainable because of propulsion system limitations. The related term emergency may not be any faster than flank but it indicates that the ship should be brought up to maximum speed in the shortest possible time.[1] Other speeds include one-third, two-thirds, standard and full. One-third and two-thirds are the respective fractions of standard speed. Full is greater than standard but not as great as flank. In surface ship nuclear marine propulsion, the difference between full speed and flank speed is of lesser significance, because vessels can be run at or very near their true maximum speed for a long time with little regard for fuel expended, an important consideration for oil fuelled ships.[2] In US nuclear submarine propulsion, full speed is 50 percent reactor power. Flank speed is 100 percent power, although limits may be reached for the propulsion turbine first stage pressure or for reactor thermal power (in MW) (depending upon the specifics of the individual propulsion plant) before 100 percent reactor power is reached. For flank speed, the reactor's main coolant pumps must also be shifted into fast speed. "Flank speed" is exclusively an American phrase and as such is unknown in Commonwealth ("White Ensign") navies. The Commonwealth navies use the following telegraph commands: 1. Slow ahead/astern, the number of revolutions is standardized for the individual ship and is unstated 2. Half ahead/astern, accompanied by an order for a power setting (e.g., "half ahead both engines, revolutions 1,500") 3. Full speed ahead/astern. This is reserved for emergencies and as such the word "speed" is included to distinguish it from the other commands mentioned. No power setting is expressed, it being implicit that maximum power is required See also[edit] 1. ^ Stavridis, James; Girrier, Robert (2007) [First published 1911]. Watch Officer's Guide: A Handbook for All Deck Watch Officers (Fifteenth ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 146. Retrieved 13 May 2015. 2. ^ Slade, Stuart (29 April 1999). "Speed Thrills III - Max speed of nuclear-powered aircraft carriers". NavWeaps. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
olive oil warnings Just so you know, olive is a tree. People extract the oil from the fruit and seeds, water extracts of the fruit and the leaves in order to make medicine. It has benefits aplenty for instance, olive oil is used to prevent heart attack and stroke (cardiovascular disease), breast cancer, colorectal cancer, ovarian cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and migraine headache. Some people use olive oil to treat constipation, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, blood vessel problems associated with diabetes, and pain associated ear infections, arthritis, and gallbladder disease. Olive oil is also used to remedy jaundice, intestinal gas, and meteorism (swelling of the abdomen due to gas). It is also used to annihilate the bacteria that may cause some ulcers. How Does it Work? Olive oil is applied on the skin for various purposes: earwax, ringing ears (tinnitus), pain in the ears, lice, wounds, minor burns, psoriasis, stretch marks due to…
How many places are named Ancones? There are 2 places in the world named Ancones! Ancones can be found in 2 countries throughout the world. The majority of the cities named Ancones can be found above the equator. The northern most place is in the region New Mexico in America. The southern most place is in the region Chihuahua in Mexico. See products related to Ancones on Amazon.com. All places Cities Exact Beginning Ending (Max 1000) Cities named Ancones: to select only cities, choose "Cities". There are 2 places called Ancones in the world. Number of places named Ancones per country: There is one place named Ancones in America. There is one place named Ancones in Mexico. Cities named Ancones in America. Ancones - New MexicoWhere is Ancones - New Mexico - America? Cities named Ancones in Mexico. Ancones - ChihuahuaWhere is Ancones - Chihuahua - Mexico? Places named after…
Roosevelt Myth - John T. Flynn The Third Term There is no doubt that Franklin D. Roosevelt toyed with the idea of a third term from the moment of his second inauguration. It was impossible that a man who took so much satisfaction from breaking so many comparatively unimportant precedents should fail to feel the urge to break this one. However, it is possible that with the economic crash of 1937-38, he put the idea out of his mind. Henry Morgenthau has made it quite clear that Roosevelt had the hope that he could get through the remaining years of his second administration without balancing the budget and then go out of power to await the inevitable crash that would follow his departure and be the prologue to another Roosevelt term. The disastrous Court fight, the hopeless purge defeat, the deep cleavage within his party and inside his own cabinet, the failure of all his policies beyond doubt led him to look forward to a period of peace and he actually discussed with a magazine a proposal to write for them at a very large honorarium. After the arrival in Washington of the academic champions of government spending and the rise of the war fever in Europe, which presented him almost like a fairy gift with the means of spending on a most elaborate scale, the sense of frustration that had extinguished in his breast the ambition for a third term was now gone. Now he knew he had the perfect project for spending—national defense. Now he knew, because the economists from Harvard and Tufts had assured him, that all his fears about the unbalanced budget were just old-fashioned horse-and-buggy bogies. There is not the slightest doubt, from the accounts of all who saw him frequently, that by the beginning of 1939 his spirits soared aloft. Roosevelt knew that war was coming, with a great probability that America might get into it. If America did not actually go into the war itself, she would certainly play a critical role on the edges of the war and when the war came to an end she would sit at the head of the table, perhaps as arbiter, in the making of some great and luminous peace. It must be very clear to anyone that Roosevelt could not bear the thought of surrendering the glorious experience of managing America's part in that war into other hands. It is fairly certain now that early in 1939, if not a little sooner, he made up his mind to seek a third election. Roosevelt had a weakness that was a source of unending embarrassment and perplexity to his closest advisers. When he was bent upon some act which he was very eager to perform, yet which he believed would not stand exposure to discussion, he had a kind of childish habit of not only concealing his intention from those who ought to know but of even dissembling it like a small boy bent on mischief. Having made his decision to seek a third term, he kept the subject a complete secret from practically everyone. He realized the political difficulties involved in a third nomination. He wanted it, therefore, to be a "draft Roosevelt" movement, rising up spontaneously within the party. Certainly he did not tell any member of his cabinet or any of the sycophantic time-servers who formed his kitchen cabinet that they must not promote his nomination. There is an old Irish saying that sometimes half a word is better than a whole sentence. It is probable that to Hopkins and a few others, Roosevelt barely lisped that half word and they went with their whole souls and all their energies and most of their time into the great adventure of making sure of Roosevelt's nomination. It was almost all done by the men who spent most of their time in and around the White House and so cunningly was this whole comedy of the "draft" carried on that Roosevelt himself was able at once to play the coy maiden and chairman of the Draft Roosevelt movement. Apparently some time late in 1938, Edward J. Flynn discussed the third term with Roosevelt, who told him a story about his "Uncle Ted" as he called him. When Theodore Roosevelt was considering a similar situation he said to friends that the people of the United States "are sick and tired of the Roosevelts," that they "were sick of looking at my grin and hearing what Alice had for breakfast. In fact they want a rest from the Roosevelts." The people felt the same way about his own family, said Roosevelt. They were tired of looking at them. Organization Democrats at this time were not so strong for Roosevelt to run. Certainly Garner was not and neither was Farley. Flynn says he refrained from urging Roosevelt to attempt another campaign. He felt the President was not in the best of health, that he was no longer young, that "he lacked some of the early resilience and power of quick reaction he once had." The eagerness for another term all came from the New Dealers and they were hard at work trying to get the necessary delegates, which Flynn says was not helping the cause any because they were deeply resented everywhere by the orthodox leaders. Charlie Michaelson,21 who I am convinced was not very much in the inner secrets of either the party or the White House, says he wrote in 1938, "Of course I am entitled to a guess and my guess is that FDR would take a case of the hives rather than four more years of the headache that being President means." Miss Perkins, who worshiped Roosevelt, says that she never urged him to run for a third term because she "had real doubt about the wisdom of third terms as a matter of principle." And she insists that the President did not really want a third term. She called on him with Daniel Tobin of the Teamsters' Union on some labor matter, but she does not give the date. Tobin told Roosevelt he must run for a third term. The President said: "No, no, Dan. I just can't do it. I tell you I've been here a long time. I am tired. Besides I have to take care of myself. This sinus trouble I've got—the Washington climate makes it dreadful . . . I never had it until I came here. The doctors say I have to go into the hospital for a month of steady treatment and I can't do that, you know . . . No, I can't be President again. I want to go home to Hyde Park. I want to take care of my trees. I have a big planting there, Dan. I want to make the farm pay. I want to finish my little house on the hill. I want to write history. No, I just can't do it, Dan." And then he added with a laugh: "You know, the people don't like the third term either." Tobin assured him that labor would stand by him. This might have been in 1938, during those dark months. However, Roosevelt knew enough to know that such a disclaimer would not prevent the "draft" so long as all the men in the White House, from Hopkins up and down, were running it. At this same session Roosevelt told Tobin that John L. Lewis had come to him and urged him to run for a third term, much as Tobin had, and that he had made the same answer to Lewis, but that Lewis had suggested that "if John L. Lewis was nominated for Vice-President all the objections would disappear."23 This statement was without a grain of truth. Besides, John L. Lewis was far too smart a man ever to go about getting the nomination for President or Vice-President that way. In July of 1938, Fred Perkins of the Pittsburgh Press, at a White House press conference, asked: "Mr. President, would you care to comment on Governor Earle's suggestion that you run for a third term?" The President said: "The weather is very hot." Then Robert Post of the New York Times put in: "Mr. President, will you tell us now if you will accept a third term?" The President said: "Bob Post should put on a dunce cap and stand in the corner." Then Fred Perkins tried again: "Did your statement last winter fully cover the third term?" The President replied: "Fred Perkins to don a dunce cap likewise." However, Farley says that after 1938 the President became increasingly interested in the 1940 convention and that he saw his successor in every man to achieve stature in the country and that as the time approached he became more and more critical of all these would-be presidential candidates. As a rule, a president who does not intend to run to succeed himself, is bound to want to see a successor friendly to his policies and to his fame and a candidate who can win. Actually the normal behavior for Roosevelt, if he was not grooming himself, was to be looking around earnestly for someone to follow him and to assist in building up either that man or some other strong candidate. After 1938, Roosevelt pursued precisely the opposite course. Theodore Roosevelt had surrounded himself with the ablest cabinet of any in our time. He was himself a big man, confident of his own capacity to deal with other big men and was not afraid to have that kind around him. Franklin Roosevelt surrounded himself with a cabinet of perhaps the smallest stature of any president in our time. Theodore Roosevelt, anxious to be succeeded by a strong man, went to great pains to build up William Howard Taft. Franklin Roosevelt, on the other hand, never failed to knock down anybody suggested as a possible successor. The name of Paul McNutt was being urged. Roosevelt sent him as High Commissioner to the Philippines and jokingly asked: "Is that far enough?" The four names most prominently mentioned were Garner, Hull, Farley and McNutt. Farley says that Roosevelt could not see Garner under any circumstances—"he was too conservative." He didn't want Hull because he was too slow—"thought things over too long." He could not have Farley because Farley was a Catholic and that would not be wise. From all this Farley, in 1939, wrote in his diary: "I am satisfied in my own mind that the President will not be a candidate for reelection, but might be willing to listen to argument. I don't know if he has anyone in mind definitely to succeed him. If he had to make a selection at the moment I believe he would select Harry Hopkins, Robert Jackson or Frank Murphy in the order named." It has been said that Jim Farley's break with Roosevelt was occasioned by Roosevelt's determination to run for a third term and thus blast Farley's ambition to be President. But a careful reading of Farley's memoirs makes it pretty clear that he had no idea of being nominated for the presidency, that he was flattered at the suggestion but what he thought he might get was the nomination for the vice-presidency. For instance, he wrote in 1939: "There isn't any doubt in my mind if I assist in bringing about Garner's or Hull's nomination, I can have second place with either man if I want it." In February, 1939, Farley made several long trips to sound out party sentiment. He wrote: "My own opinion is that the leaders of the party with few exceptions do not want Roosevelt to run for a third term." He noted that they were sick of Wallace, Hopkins, Corcoran and the rest and did not relish the idea of a bitter campaign defending a third term candidacy. This, he said, was the opinion of every responsible leader he talked with except Olson of California and Kelly of Chicago. Farley noted that after this, in frequent conversations with Roosevelt, as different names appeared in some connection wholly removed from the election, Roosevelt would dismiss them with "he wants to be president" as if this were an offense. He was angry that McNutt should even permit his name to be discussed for the presidency. He told Farley: "I consider it bad taste on his part to be letting his name be used when he is still a member of my administration." This meant that any Democrat with the Roosevelt administration could not permit his name to be discussed for the presidency without resigning. In June, Garner told Farley that under no circumstances would he support a third term. Farley agreed and confided: "The two of us can pull together to stop Roosevelt." Garner told Farley he had committed the sin of becoming popular and that was something Roosevelt would not tolerate in anyone. He said: "He is jealous of Hull for his standing before the people. He is jealous of me for my popularity with Congress. He ought to be glad to see men in the party coming along but he doesn't like it." This was in June of 1939 and a short time afterwards Cardinal Mundelein sent for Farley and urged him to support Roosevelt for a third term. Mundelein had come directly from the White House. Roosevelt had not consulted Farley on an appointment for a year and a half and after this, his visits to the White House grew fewer. Then some time during the summer, Roosevelt asked Farley to come to Hyde Park. He talked about the 1940 campaign and the candidates. There was Garner—he's just impossible. Then Wallace —"he hasn't got 'it'". Then McNutt—he turned the thumb of his right hand down. Then he got around to the third term and after a pause, he leaned over and in a low voice of great confidence he said: "I am going to tell you something I have never told another living soul," and then almost in a whisper: "Of course I will not run for a third term, but I don't want you to pass this on to anyone because it would make my position difficult if the fact were known prematurely." Farley pledged his silence. After allowing this to sink in, he told Farley that while he would not run, he did not want to campaign for a losing ticket. Farley asked what kind of candidate he wanted. He said: "Pick someone who is sympathetic to my administration and will continue my policies." It is perfectly clear from what Farley wrote at the time that he did not believe Roosevelt. Many men, enemies of the President, had accused him of being, to put it mildly, untruthful. Farley had been politically his most important lieutenant from the time he was nominated for the governorship. Roosevelt was now, under the veil of secrecy, making a firm statement to Farley about a matter of the supremest importance to both men. And Farley didn't believe him. After this Farley went to Europe. While he was away, Hitler drove into Poland and the British and French declared war. When he came back the whole problem had been solved for Roosevelt. Farley found him in a state of the highest excitement. They had lunch and Farley said: "We are to all intents and purposes in a state of war. I think at this time politics should be adjourned. The people aren't interested in politics. They are interested in their country and their families." To which Roosevelt replied: "Jim, you have hit the nail on the head," which corresponds with Frances Perkins* statement that for Roosevelt the war years began in September, 1939. Still later, at a dinner party at the White House, Roosevelt said to Farley's wife that he was having a terrible time. People were trying to make him run and he didn't want to. To which she replied: "Well, you're the President, aren't you? All you have to do is to tell them you won't run." He looked very much surprised and turned to the lady on his right. It was at this point that Farley knew definitely that Roosevelt was going to run again and after this the President virtually ignored Farley, and a White House assistant secretary was ordered not to assist Farley in a speech he was about to make. Cordell Hull says that from 1938 to July, 1940, Roosevelt told him definitely that Hull would be his successor. But all the time he was laying his plans for a "draft"—and acting out the comedy with Hull, who apparently still believes Roosevelt wanted him to run. The whole story is a chapter of duplicity, in which Roosevelt, who had definitely decided to run if he could make it, was putting on before Farley the pose that he didn't want to run and before Hull the pose that Hull was his candidate, while all the New Deal agents, with his full knowledge and approval, were scouring the country for delegates and Roosevelt was using every artifice and pressure he could command to kill off every possible contender for the nomination. Saved now by the war from the disaster which overtook his administration in 1938, completely converted to the golden theories sold him by Hansen and Tugwell of eternal deficits and spending of billions on the greatest of all WPA projects, he could now rise out of the ashes of a mere New Deal leader to become a modern St. Michael brandishing his sword against Hitler and all the forces of evil throughout the world.
[dropcap]A[/dropcap]ccording to a new study published in the journal BMC Medicine, if a person has type 2 diabetes, then his or her spouse may also develop it as well. The risk of developing diabetes goes up significantly if both people lead an unhealthy lifestyle. A typical person who would have higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes would be someone who does not work out regularly and has a diet high in fat. The research team also found out that people who had spouses with diabetes had a 26% percent higher chance of developing diabetes. Why is it this way? It is because the life partners tend to develop the same social and eating habits and also do similar levels of exercise. All of these factors determine the risks of developing type 2 diabetes. If you have any questions on ways to modify your lifestyle do not hesitate to call my office for an appointment at 563-355-7411.
What Type Of Stainless Steel Is 304? What are the 5 types of stainless steel? There are a number of grades to choose from, but all stainless steels can be divided into five basic categories:Austenitic.Ferritic.Duplex.Martensitic.Precipitation hardening.. What grade of stainless steel will not rust? Austenitic stainless steels such as 304 or 316 have high amounts of nickel and chromium. The chromium combines with the oxygen before the iron is able to which forms a chromium oxide layer. This layer is very corrosion resistant which prevents rust formation and protects the underlying metal. How can I fix rust on stainless steel? Removal of oxidized stains and even “surface rust” can be done by using a paste made from baking soda and water or a cleaner that contains oxalic acid, such as Bar Keeper’s Friend Soft Cleanser. If using baking soda and water, use a cloth or soft bristle brush, rub the baking soda in the direction of the grain. Is 304 or 409 stainless steel better? Is 304 stainless steel FDA approved? 2 Type No. 304 stainless steel or equally corrosion resistant metal that is non-toxic and non-absorbent except that: (a.) Plastic materials may be used for the blower tank drain gate and drain valve. Try the magnet test. If the magnet sticks it cannot be 316 and might be 304. If the magnet doesn’t stick it could be either 316 or cold worked 304, so heat the piece to about 800 °C, let air-cool and try again with magnet. If it sticks now its 304 SST. What is the cheapest grade of stainless steel? Ferritic Stainless SteelType 430: A basic grade that has less corrosion resistance than Type 304. … Type 405: This type has a lower chromium content combined with added aluminum. … Type 409: One of the least expensive Stainless grades due to its decreased chromium content.More items…• Which is better ss304 or ss316? The main difference between 304 vs 316 stainless steel is the composition and corrosion resistance, SS304 doesn’t contain molybdenum while SS316 contains 2-3% molybdenum. … In addition, AISI 304 has a 18% Chromium and 8% Nickel content while AISI 316 has a 16% Chromium and 10% Nickel. Is all 304 stainless steel food grade? Food grade stainless steel is steel that met all criteria to be deemed safe for food preparation, storage and dining. The most common food grade stainless steel is Type 304. … These numbers refer to the composition of the stainless steel; the amount of chromium and nickel in the product. Can you heat treat 304 stainless steel? Heat Treatment of Stainless Steel 304 Stainless steel 304 cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Solution treatment or annealing can be done by rapid cooling after heating to 1010-1120°C. What is the highest grade of stainless steel? How can you tell if stainless steel is 304? Originally Answered: How do I check the grade of stainless steel 304 or 202 ? Hi. If you want to do spot check of SS, just take a random piece from the raw material and do a spark test. Run a grinder on it, if the sparks are reddish orange, thin and don’t fly much it’s SS304. What is the hardest grade of stainless steel? Is 304 or 430 stainless steel better? Which is harder 316 or 304? Will stainless steel rust? Is 304 stainless steel rust proof? Both steels are durable and provide excellent resistance to corrosion and rust. 304 stainless steel is the most versatile and widely used austenitic stainless steel in the world, due to its corrosion resistance. … If your application uses milder acids or does not contain salt exposure, stainless 304 is perfect. What can cause 304 stainless steel to rust? Exposure to corrosive process fluids and cleaners, high humidity or high salinity environments such as sea water can remove the native protective layer (chromium oxide) and can cause stainless steel corrosion. Removing surface rust from surfaces improves the appearance, but it’s importance goes beyond the decorative. What is the best grade of stainless steel for cookware? Stainless steel cookware is generally recognized as a safe material for cookware. Any good quality stainless steel, be it 304 or 316 stainless steel, is a better choice than most of the other available materials. Is 304 stainless steel jewelry safe? Stainless steel jewelry that is made like medical grade stainless steel is perfectly safe to wear. An example would be 316L or 304 stainless steel. … Furthermore, until recently, there were only regulations in place for the alloy nickel (Ni), which is found in a lot of lower cost jewelry. Is 304 stainless steel good quality? As the most widely used of all stainless steel, 304 stainless steel is most notably present in industrial applications and kitchen equipment. It is a highly heat-resistant grade, and offers good corrosion resistance to many chemical corrodents, as well as industrial atmospheres.
How to write a literary review paper Consider whether your sources are current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. importance of literature review However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach. Literature review introduction A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. Online Writing Center. Clarify If your assignment is not very specific, seek clarification from your instructor: Roughly how many sources should you include? However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. Frodeman, Robert. Evaluating sources In assessing each source, consideration should be given to: What is the author's expertise in this particular field of study credentials? Read and evaluate the sources and to determine their suitability to the understanding of topic at hand see the Evaluating sources section. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Be sure to use terminology familiar to your audience; get rid of unnecessary jargon or slang. What are you searching the literature to discover? Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature? And a review does not necessarily mean that your reader wants you to give your personal opinion on whether or not you liked these sources. Make sure the sources you use are credibleand make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research. literature review template Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration. Use quotes sparingly Falk and Mills do not use any direct quotes. Chronological The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. Rated 6/10 based on 80 review Literature Reviews
Game theory linma2345 2019-2020 Louvain-la-Neuve Game theory Note from June 29, 2020 5 credits 30.0 h + 22.5 h Jungers Raphaël; Basic mathematics (bachelor level), applied math cursus is a plus. Main themes Game theory is a rich and pluridisciplinary theory which aims at modeling and optimizing the way people take a decision in a concurrent environment (that is, if one's decision impacts each other's profit). It is the legacy of some among the 20th century's greatest mathematicians, like Von Neumann, Nash,... It has ramifications in Sociology, Economy, Mathematics, Operations Research, etc. The course will survey the main concepts of Game Theory, among which decision theory, Nash Equilibria, Games with communication, Repeated Games, Bargaining and Coalitional games, and applications diverse fields of engineering. • AA1.1, AA1.2, AA1.3 • AA3.1 • AA5.1, AA5.2, AA5.3, AA5.4, AA5.5 1. Understand and explain the framework of Decision Theory, its intrinsic limitations and broad goals, and how it leads to Game Theory. 2. Choose the particular tools in the game theorist's toolbox in order to properly model a 'real-life' situation. 3. Study and solve a problem in game theory by the computation of equilibria. 4. Criticize and analyze the results of these computations for practical implementations. Transversal L.O.: During the course, the student will learn how to detect, model, and analyze practical situations and, based on this mathematical model, propose a relevant solution. 1. Decision Theory: axioms, fundamental theorems, bayesian models, significance. 2. Elementary Game theory: strategic/extended form, Domination, Iterative deletion. 3. Nash equilibrium, Nash's theorem, 2 players zero-sum games. 4. Sequential equilibria, computation and significance. 5. Perfect, proper, robust equilibria. 6. Games with communication and correlated equilibria. 7. Repeated games. 8. Nash's bargaining theory. 9. Coalitional games: the core, Shapley's value,... 10. Applications to: Finance, auctions, voting,' Teaching methods The course will be given partly by the professor, and partly as a seminar with student presentations. Regular exercise sessions will be delivered. Evaluation methods Written or oral exam. A continuous evaluation could take place. Online resources Please see the Moodle website. • Myerson, Roger B. Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict, Harvard University, 1991. • Osborne, Martin J. An introduction to game theory, Oxford University Press, 2004. • Osborne, Martin J.; Rubinstein, Ariel. A course in game theory, MIT Press, 1994. • Nowak, Martin A. Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Life. Harvard University Press, 2006. Teaching materials • Game Theory. Course notes by R.J. et al. available online Faculty or entity Programmes / formations proposant cette unité d'enseignement (UE) Title of the programme Master [120] in Mathematical Engineering Master [120] in Mathematics

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