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Making Connections While CLOSE Reading
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SWBAT to read closely and write the connections they make to other texts we have read, to society, and to themselves.
Big Idea
Connecting various texts together to help with comprehension can be tricky. Students will take an interesting story that will be easy to form connections to many things we have learned already; like Martin Luther King Jr.
The Connections We Can Make
2 minutes
During CLOSE reading I have found that it is still a very new concept. We have been practicing often throughout the year, and it is still a bit tricky. The class knows the routines involved in the lesson, and are comfortable with the basic annotations.
To being this lesson I start with a review of the annotations and add them to the board. I then write a large C next to them. The class remembers that the C is for Connections. I explain that during this CLOSE reading they will be focusing on all the connections they can make. I remind them that connections can be formed between text to text, text to world, and text to self.
Read, Annotate and Connect
15 minutes
For this lesson I have chosen an article about Ruby Bridges, one of the first African American children to integrate into white Alabama schools. I chose it because of the easy connections they could draw from our readings and lessons on Martin Luther King Jr. and the Alabama Bus Boycotts.
Students need time to read and annotate the article. I remind them of what this sounds and looks like in the room. Before they begin reading I ask them to really focus on any parts of the article that they can make connections to. This will really help them when writing their first responses. The direction I give are to read, annotate, and then write an initial response with connections. It is now up to them to focus on their reading and make their annotations. They will also need to write their first response to what they have read and try to make connections to the text. I give them the time needed to do this.
Here are some Ruby Bridges articles you might want to use:
Ruby Bridges: African American World History PBS
Ruby's Story
Ruby Bridges: The Story
The Teacher's Role
10 minutes
When they are finished with their writing, it is now my turn to model the reading and annotation processes. I read the story straight through the first time. Making sure to read fluently and pausing after each paragraph to show the class that I am checking for understanding.
The second time I read I explain that I am going to focus on the main ideas and also on trying to make connections. The connections that I am looking for are text to text, text to world, and text to self. I want to also look for evidence that might help me show these connections.
I read the article again, and I model circling unknown words, underlining important and key details, and then placing a "C" by any text that I can make a connection to. If I need to model adding notes to the margins I will, however, I am really trying to focus this reading on making connections.
Final Connections
5 minutes
The final piece is allowing the class to add to their initial response. I remind them to add details that they believe help them explain their connections. I model an example of how I can connect Ruby's first day with my firs day of school. I then give them more time to write.
When the time ends, I collect their responses. I also have a debriefing session where students can talk to each other about what they read. I ask them to explain the connections they have made and also to talk about who Ruby was. I bring up the character trait of courage and ask them to talk about how this word could help describe Ruby. |
On the website www.yourhormones.com it is written:
"If there is insufficient thyroid hormone available for the brain, this will be detected by the hypothalamus and thyrotropin-releasing hormone will be released into the blood supplying the pituitary gland."
What allows the hypothalamus to detect a lack of thyroid hormones? Are there chemoreceptors in the bloodstream that send afferent signals to hypothalamus when the concentration of thyroid hormones is low (similarly to how chemoreceptors inform the cardiovascular center of the medulla oblongata in the brain stem when there is a lack of oxygen and/or excess of carbon dioxide)?
The thyroid hormone, thyroxin has a multitude of effects in various cells of the body. It is a lipophilic hormone and acts via nuclear receptors, i.e. the receptors for the hormone are not on the cell surface but inside it. This hormone-receptor complex then travels into the nucleus to attend to transcriptional changes.
enter image description here
The picture above is for steroid hormones but is almost similar for thyroxin too.
Inside the cell, the effect of the hormone depends on which cell it is in. For thyroxin - in heart muscles, it increases cardiac contractility, in fat cells, increases fat catabolism, and in the very same way, in the hypothalamus, its function is to reduce the production of TRH. And the control of this production is at the level of gene transcription.
Hence there is a lovely feedback loop that is formed. Increased thyroxin would lead to reduced TRH production and vice versa. So the hypothalamus responds to the thyroxin hormone by regulating the production of TRH. There is nothing special that the thyroxin is doing here. It just has different effects in different cells and in this particular cell (the neurons of the hypothalamus), the effect happens to be its own feedback loop regulation (via TRH).
The effect of thyroxin is through its receptor that is an intracellular protein and is more or less the same in all cells.
Chemoreceptors are a different ballgame. They sense changes in pH, pO2, and other biochemical parameters through their direct effect on neurons and their firing. Although their functioning is not particularly clear, they interfere with channel conductivities in particular neurons. There is no receptor and transcriptional changes as in thyroxin.
• $\begingroup$ By saying that chemoreceptors "interfere with channel conductivities", do you mean that they, for instance, increase the conductivity of afferent neuron axons that signal the cardiovascular center to modulate breathing when oxonium ion or CO2 concentration is high? $\endgroup$ – K. Claesson May 20 '18 at 17:56
• $\begingroup$ Yes something of that sort. A direct biophysical change perhaps... If that's the right term.. I don't know $\endgroup$ – Polisetty May 20 '18 at 17:59
Your Answer
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CommandLineFu ExplainedHey everyone, this is the fourth article in the series on the most popular commandlinefu one-liners explained.
Here are the first three parts:
And here are today's one-liners:
31. Quickly access ASCII table.
$ man 7 ascii
Ever forgot a keycode for some ASCII character or escape code? Look no further, man ascii contains the 7-bit ASCII table. Take a look at it online.
Linux man pages are full of gems like these. One day I actually went through all the man pages to find the most interesting ones. An article about them is upcoming but before I get it published, here are a few interesting ones:
And finally the section 7 man pages that are most packed with wild and cool info,
• man 7 bootparam - a tutorial and reference of Linux kernel boot parameters.
• man 7 charsets - a Linux programmer's view of character sets and internationalization.
• man 7 glob - how pathname globbing works.
• man 7 hier - description of the Linux file system hierarchy.
• man 7 operator - C language operator precedence and associativity table.
• man 7 regex - basic and extended regular expression overview.
• man 7 suffixes - lists common Linux file suffixes and the associated file types.
• man 7 time - overview of time and timers.
• man 7 units - kilo, kibi, mega, mebi, giga, gibi, ... - decimal (SI) and binary system of units.
• man 7 utf8 - description of UTF-8 encoding.
• man 7 url - description of URIs, URLs and URNs.
There are a lot more interesting man pages but these stood out from the rest.
32. Simple timer.
$ time read
This one-liner can be used a simple timer. For example, if you want to time something, you can execute it when the event starts and press the return key when the event ends. It will output the time the event took to finish.
Here is how this one-liner works. First the time command times any command that is supplied to it. In this case the command supplied to it is read that reads a line from the standard input. As soon as you press enter, read finishes and time reports how long it took.
If you get annoyed by having to press enter, you can specify that read should return after having read 1 character,
$ time read -N 1
Now you can press any key to stop the timer.
If you want to run a timer for a specific number of seconds, you can add -t flag for timeout,
$ time read -t 60
This would stop the timer after 60 seconds.
33. Shutdown a Windows machine.
$ net rpc shutdown -I IP_ADDRESS -U username%password
Everyone knows the net command, right? We all used to net use \ip\ipc$ *, right? :)
Anyway, the net command comes as part of Samba, which allows you, for example, to use Linux in a Windows workgroup.
This particular one-liner executes the shutdown command on a Windows computer located at IP_ADDRESS with as the user username with password password.
To reboot a machine use the -r switch to net rpc:
$ net rpc shutdown -r -I IP_ADDRESS -U username%password
If you're on an unsecured network, don't forget about the good old nmblookup and smbclient tools that come with Samba.
34. Execute a command independently from the current shell.
$ (cd /tmp && ls)
This one-liner illustrates subshells. Here the commands cd /tmp and ls are executed but they do not affect the current shell. If you had done just cd /tmp && ls, your current shell would have changed directory to /tmp but in this one-liner it happens in a subshell and your current shell is not affected.
Surely, this is only a toy example. If you wanted to know what's in /tmp, you'd do just ls /tmp.
Actually, talking about cd, be aware of pushd and popd commands. They allow you to maintain a stack of directories you want to return to later. For example,
/long/path/is/long$ pushd .
/long/path/is/long$ cd /usr
/usr$ popd
Or even shorter, passing the directory you're gonna cd to directly to pushd,
/long/path/is/long$ pushd /usr
/usr$ popd
Another cool trick is to use cd - to return to the previous directory. Here is an example,
/home/pkrumins$ cd /tmp
/tmp$ cd -
35. Tunnel your SSH connection via intermediate host.
$ ssh -t reachable_host ssh unreachable_host
This one-liner creates an ssh connection to unreachable_host via reachable_host. It does it by executing the ssh unreachable_host on reachable_host. The -t forces ssh to allocate a pseudo-tty, which is necessary for working interactively in the second ssh to unreachable_host.
This one-liner can be generalized. You can tunnel through arbitrary number of ssh servers:
$ ssh -t host1 ssh -t host2 ssh -t host3 ssh -t host4 ...
Now catch me if you can. ;)
36. Clear the terminal screen.
$ CTRL+l
Pressing CTRL+l (that's small L) clears the screen leaving the current line at the top of the screen.
If you want to clear just some line, you can use argumented version of CTRL+l - first press ESC, then the line you want to clear, let's say 21 (21st line), and then press the same CTRL+l. That will clear the 21st line on the screen without erasing the whole screen.
$ ESC 21 CTRL+l
This command outputs a special "clear-screen" sequence to the terminal. The same can be achieved by tput command,
$ tput clear
Another way to clear the terminal (usually when the screen gets garbled) is to use the reset command,
$ reset
37. Hear when the machine comes back online.
$ ping -a IP
Ever had a situation when you need to know when the system comes up after a reboot? Up until now you probably launched ping and either followed the timeouts until the system came back, or left it running and occasionally checked its output to see if the host is up. But that is unnecessary, you can make ping -a audible! As soon as the host at IP is back, ping will beep!
38. List 10 most often used commands.
The person who wrote it has the Unix mindset right. He's combining several shell commands to get the result he/she wants.
First, history outputs all the commands the person has executed. Next, awk counts how many times the second column $2 appears in the output. Once history has output all the commands and awk has counted them, awk loops over all the commands and outputs the count a[i] separated by space, followed by the command itself. Then sort takes this input and sorts numerically -n and reverses the output -r, so that most frequent commands were on top. Finally head outputs the first 10 most frequent history commands.
If you want to see more than 10 commands (or less), change head to head -20 for 20 commands or head -5 for 5 commands.
39. Check gmail for new mail.
$ curl -u --silent "" |
perl -ne \
print "Subject: $1 " if /<title>(.+?)<\/title>/ && $title++;
print "(from $1)\n" if /<email>(.+?)<\/email>/;
Gmail is cool because they offer an Atom feed for the new mail. This one-liner instructs curl to retrieve the feed and authenticate as code></code. You'll be prompted a password after you execute the command. Next it feeds the output to perl. Perl extracts the title (subject) of each email and the sender's email. These two items are printed to stdout.
Here is a the output when I run the command,
Subject: i heard you liked windows! (from
Subject: got root? (from
40. Watch Star-Wars via telnet.
$ telnet
Needs no explaining. Just telnet to the host to watch ASCII Star-Wars.
And here is another one,
$ telnet 666
Connecting on port 666 will spit out BOFH excuses.
That's it for today.
I hope you enjoyed the 4th part of the article. Tune in next time for the 5th part.
Oh, and I'd love if you followed me on Twitter! |
An Overview of Cat6 Cable and Its Usage
May 24, 2019
Though the Cat8 cabling is now being offered for sale in the market, the previous generations of cables such as cat6 and cat6a cables still serve as the integrate part of a robust network. This paper focuses on the Cat6 cable, and offers an all-round interpretation of the Cat6 Ethernet cable and its usage.
What Is Cat6 Cable?
Cat6, short for Category 6, is an Ethernet cable standard defined by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) and Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA). Cat6 max speed is theoretically 10Gbps. Then what is Cat6 cable used for? As the sixth generation of twisted pair Ethernet cabling, Cat6 cable is mainly used in home and business networks. It is backward compatible with the Cat5 and Cat5e standards that preceded it, which is, to some extent, attributed to its being shipped with RJ-45 standard connector, same as previous generations of Ethernet cables.
alt Cat6 cable
Cat6 Cable
When deploying the Ethernet cable, there exists a maximum allowed length, within which the cable performs well. Otherwise, it begins to lose data or speed. As for a Cat6 cable, the figure is 100 meters (328 ft). This Cat6 max length usually consists of 90 meters (295 ft) of solid “horizontal” cabling between the patch panel and the wall jack, plus 5 meters (16 ft) of stranded patch cable between each jack and the attached device. An unshielded Cat6 cable, one of the Cat6 cable types, should not exceed 55 meters, the max distance for Cat6 10GBASE-T applications.
How to Make A Cat6 Cable by Yourself?
Sometimes the Cat6 cables showcased in stores cannot fit your needs. And the cable should be customized according to some specific application. In this way, one needs to make detailed plan before making the Cat6 cable. Then how to make a Cat6 cable in the right way? Here makes an illustration by the Cat5e cable production which is also applicable to Cat6 Ethernet cable.
Steps to Make A Cat6 Cable
Cut the cable to the length needed. The snagless boot, if needed, can be slid into the cable.
Strip the cable approximately 1 inch from the end with the stripper tool. Then untwist the wire pairs and make them straight as much as possible.
Put the straightened wires together closely in line with the Cat6 wire order and cut all of the wires at a perfect 90 degree angle from the cable, 1/2 inch from the end of the cable jacket. Take care not to “squash” the wire ends.
With the connector pins facing up, carefully insert the wires into the connector. Preserve enough of the cable jacket inside the connector to crimp against.
Place the RJ45connector into the crimp tool, and squeeze hard so that the handle reaches its full swing.
Cat6 Cables for Different Scenarios in Home or Enterprise Network
Cat6 cables can be classified into different types according to various specifications. For example, they can be categorized into solid Cat6 and stranded Cat6 in terms of copper conductor in pairs, and unshielded Cat6 and shielded Cat6 in terms of shielding types. With regards to cable jacket rating, the commonly seen types are CM, CMR and CMP Cat6 cables. Choices of Cat6 cable vary from different scenarios.
Where to Use Solid and Stranded Cat6 Cables?
Solid cable uses a single piece of copper for the electrical conductor while stranded uses a series of copper cables twisted together. Therefore, stranded cable is more flexible and can be used at your desk or anywhere you may move the cable around often. Solid cable is not as flexible but it is also more durable which makes it ideal for permanent installations as well as outdoor and in walls. Solid or stranded conductor cable, which to choose?
altStranded cable vs solid cable
Stranded Cable VS. Solid Cable
Due to high attenuation, stranded cable runs should be kept short to lower the chance of introducing even more attenuation into the system. It's best to keep lengths of stranded patch cables under 6.0 meters. It is common to use stranded patch cables for connecting workstation network interface cards (NICs) and outlets or between concentrators and patch panels, hubs and other rack-mounted equipment.
Where to Use CM, CMR and CMP Cat6 Cables?
The CM cables are generally the minimum jacket ratings of Ethernet cables, and are appropriate for installation inside a residence or a single-story commercial building. CMR cable is referred to as “riser-rated cable” and designed to prevent fires from spreading between floors through risers or vertical shafts. CMP cable is referred to as “plenum-rated cable” and the jacket is made from material that retards the spread of flames, and does not give off much smoke or toxic gas when burned. Therefore, it is designed for plenum spaces where the building’s air ducts are connected for heating, ventilation and air conditioning, such as raised floors and drop ceilings. Most homes do not have significant plenum spaces, so plenum cabling is rarely a concern for residential installations.
altCM, CMR and CMP Cat6
CM, CMR and CMP Cat6
Where to Use Unshielded and Shielded Cat6 Cables?
The unshielded Cat6 cable is a cable with wires that are twisted together to reduce noise and crosstalk. Whereas the shielded one is a twisted pair cable confined in foil or mesh shield that guards the cable against electromagnetic interference (EMI), so it is ideal for high-speed networks such as data centers where 10GBase-T networks are used, because 10G Ethernet is significantly more sensitive to EMI.
altshielded cable vs unshielded cable
Shielded Cable vs. Unshielded Cable
In a word, unshielded Cat6 can be used between your computer and the wall, but you will want to use shielded Cat6 cable in areas with high interference and running cables outdoors or inside walls.
The widely used Cat6 cable is recognized by its high performance and reliability. To put it into good use, it is necessary to know how to make and apply them properly. The appropriate application of Cat6 cables can, to some extent, save the budget and the install and maintenance time. FS provides pre-terminated Ethernet cables and bulk cables of varied types to cover your needs.
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How Much Calcium Do We Need?
milk has calcium
Calcium helps your teeth fend off tooth decay and creates healthy bones. It does this by strengthening the jawbone, which holds the teeth in place and fortifies the teeth themselves. This fortification makes teeth less vulnerable to the damage dealt by bacteria. You’re also less likely to lose teeth when you have the right amount of calcium in your system. But before we dive into how much you and your child need, let’s take a closer look.
What is Calcium?
Calcium is an essential and abundant mineral in the body that is needed to preserve bone strength and allow the proper communication of the brain and other body parts.
It’s necessary for optimal bone and oral health — to build and keep bones and teeth healthy. The chemical element also helps muscles, nerves, and cells to function correctly. It supports the function and synthesis of blood cells. It also regulates muscle contraction, nerve conduction, and blood clotting.
How Much Do I Need Everyday?
The minimum daily amount is 1,000 milligrams a day for women ages 50 and below and 1,200 milligrams for women above 50 years old. Consuming at least 800 milligrams of calcium a day decreases the likelihood of developing gum disease than those who take 500 milligrams or less of calcium.
A report from Harvard Women’s Health Watch said that the needed minimum daily calcium requirement is not as much as what people have come to believe and what the United States guidelines are saying. Head of Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health’s Department of Nutrition Dr. Walter Willett said that adults do not necessarily need 1,200 milligrams of calcium a day and will do well with about half as much calcium.
According to Dr. Willett, the 1,200-mg recommendation lacked evidence to support the claim that such an amount can prevent fractures. Dr. Willet added that the calcium balance studies, which was the basis of the recommendation, lasted only a few weeks, shorter than the years needed to determine calcium balance.
Instead of 1,200 milligrams, Dr. Willet suggests about 500 to 700 milligrams, the recommended amount by the World Health Organization and the United Kingdom.
How Much Does My Child Need?
Getting an adequate amount of calcium during childhood is imperative for healthy adult development. It’s only through childhood and adolescence that we can build a foundation for healthy bones and teeth. As calcium absorption lessens over time, getting the needed supplements becomes harder. Seeing to it that your child gets enough calcium while they’re still young, then, could benefit their futures.
How do you know how much calcium your child needs, then? There are a few things to consider:
It Depends How Old They Are
As your child grows, their bodily needs change as well. Infants, for instance, typically still rely on their mother’s milk for sustenance. Because human milk is highly nutritious, babies need only 700 mg of calcium daily. The older they grow, however, the greater this requirement becomes. A child of 4-8 years, for instance, needs 1000 mg. And once they turn 9, their calcium intake grows to 1300 mg per day.
Part of this growing need stems from higher efficiency in calcium absorption once the child reaches adolescence. It’s also during this time that a child begins to develop their peak bone mass. This growth could boost further if they had adequate calcium intake when they were younger. As of now, researchers have yet to delve into the effects of excessive calcium intake.
Is Your Child at Risk?
Another factor to consider when assessing how much calcium your child needs is their risk factor. Premature babies, for instance, will require more supplements than babies born full-term. The same goes for older kids.
If your child, for instance, seems to exhibit signs of calcium deficiency, it might be time to up their intake. According to a 1999 study by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), optimal intake for children aged 9-18 lies between 1200-1500 mg per day. This said, there are ways to fill up this requirement.
For one, parents may opt to provide calcium supplements to kids who are genuinely at risk. The AAP study notes that supplementing calcium to children as young as six may produce beneficial effects, although they have yet to be fully looked into.
Aside from supplementation, however, the best way to ensure that your child gets all the calcium they need is to add calcium-rich food into their diet. These foods include dairy products, eggs, and calcium-rich vegetables such as broccoli and legumes. The best part? Integrating these foods into their diet don’t just fill up their calcium quota. It can aid other aspects of their dental health as well.
What Happens if I Don’t Get Enough Calcium?
It can be problematic. Not receiving the right amount can lead to deterioration and weakening of the bones and teeth which use most of the body’s calcium. Low calcium can prevent children from reaching their full potential adult height. It lowers bone mass in adults that can lead to osteoporosis. It also increases the risk of gum disease, tooth decay, and jaw-joint problems.
Research found that those who consume less than what the body needs are more likely to develop gum diseases by 54 percent. Additionally, because of the weakening of the teeth, it can become more susceptible to tooth decay.
Getting the right amount of calcium is especially important for infants and toddlers who are still on the stage of developing their first set of teeth. Despite their eventual fall out, primary teeth are vital for the development of the permanent or adult teeth as they serve as guide. If the children lose their primary teeth earlier than normal, they can suffer from spacing problems, as well as, chewing and speaking issues.
Where Can I Get Calcium?
Most foods like dairy products, seafood, vegetables, and fruits contain calcium including:
• Dairy products like milk, cheese, and yogurt.
• Fortified tofu
• Seafood like sardines and salmon
• Vegetables like broccoli, kale, green beans, and collards
• Fruits like oranges
• Almonds
Is it bad to have a dairy-free diet?
Those who don’t consume dairy products at all aren’t necessarily lacking in the calcium and vitamin D department. As long as one is consuming many other calcium and vitamin D-enriched foods and beverages, such as the ones listed above, one should have no problem with achieving healthy teeth without the consumption of dairy.
A calcium deficiency, however, can not only contribute to oral health-related problems but also muscle tension, high blood pressure, and osteoporosis. It’s also important to keep in mind that many dairy products such as raw milk, kefir, and yogurt provide some of the largest sources of calcium and vitamin D.
Just like vitamin D is necessary to properly absorb calcium, magnesium is important in order to activate vitamin D. Unfortunately, most folks are lacking in magnesium. Supplements are typically a must; however, there are great sources of it in non-dairy foods as well:
• Leafy greens
• Avocados
• Fish
• Bananas
• Dried fruit
• Beans
• Seeds
• Nuts
• Whole grains
While it’s not absolutely necessary to have a dairy-based diet to have healthy pearly whites, dairy products are one of the biggest sources of calcium, vitamin D, and magnesium, all important in the absorption of calcium in the first place.
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1. Business
2. Economics
3. stc 40 10q 01q2 smc ...
Question: stc 40 10q 01q2 smc ...
Question details
STC = 40 + 10Q + 0.1Q^2 . SMC = 10 + 0.2Q. The market price is $20.
a. Find the profit maximizing Q.
b. Calculate the maximum profit.
c. Find the average variable cost.
d. In the short run, at what price will this firm close?
e. Find the firm’s short run supply curve and express it as a function of price: Qs (P) = ?
Solution by an expert tutor
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Carbon Credits: Environmental Boon or Boondoggle?
Agriculture Industry Bets on a New Cash Crop: Carbon
As discussed in the article below, the new “green” climate initiatives will probably include carbon credits. If the past predicts the future, proponents of these subsides will claim they are for small operators, but in practice, payments will wind up benefiting a handful of politically connected agro-giants. Subsidies will not change carbon storage to any great extent overall, and certainly not relative to their cost.
If we think that targeted agricultural subsidies are the best way to increase soil carbon storage, let us maximize our “bang for the buck” by: (1) putting money with the little guys instead of the big boys, and, (2) focusing on our declining grasslands because other than the oceans, this is where most of our planet’s carbon storage occurs.
We could pay ranchers to implement holistic grazing methods and convert their ranches to support the beneficial practices. These modifications are relatively inexpensive. The modifications consist mainly of manipulating water and fences to support larger herds held in smaller pastures for shorter grazing periods. Essentially, these practices make it possible for livestock herds to mimic the large nomadic herds of grazers with which grasslands coevolved.
Without the huge nomadic herds, the grasslands have grown unhealthy. Improving the health and vigor of rangelands and forests could increase carbon sequestration across vast areas.
Most ranchers are small operators, especially compared to the big ag companies. Holistic grazing could help countless of these small ranchers prosper, and thereby preserve our precious ranching culture.
Much, if not most, Western grazing is done on public lands. As physiological function of grasslands and forests improve, public lands, the public, and the wildlife would benefit.
NOTE: this article was originally published to on December 23, 2020. It was written by By Jacob Bunge. Photography by Rachel Mummey.
Big companies and startups jockey to pay farmers for capturing greenhouse gases in fields; environmental groups question impact
U.S. farmers make their living raising crops from the soil each year. Now, some are getting paid for putting something back into their fields: carbon.
Big agriculture companies including Bayer AG, Nutrien, and Cargill are jockeying with startups to encourage crop producers to adopt climate-friendly practices and develop farming-driven carbon markets. Those efforts would let retailers, food makers and other companies offset their greenhouse gas emissions by paying farmers for their fields’ capacity to withdraw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and trap it in the soil.
The concept envisions the U.S. Midwest’s swatches of cropland doing double duty as a vast carbon sink. Plants’ process of photosynthesis withdraws carbon dioxide from the air, combines it with water and sunlight to produce energy, and ultimately embeds carbon in dirt through roots, while releasing oxygen back into the atmosphere. Soil, if left undisturbed, can retain the converted carbon for years.
Kelly Garrett’s son Colin hauling manure earlier this month.
Agricultural companies, long criticized as environmental villains, say that paying farmers to maximize those natural processes can put the scale of modern farming behind a potential climate solution. Farmers, following half a decade of lean crop prices, are contemplating a possible new source of income that is less dependent on weather and agricultural commodity markets. The Environmental Protection Agency has estimated that the agriculture sector accounts for 10% of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.
President-elect Joe Biden’s administration also plans to pursue the concept. Mr. Biden said this month that under his administration, the U.S. Department of Agriculture will direct federal conservation payments to farmers who use their fields to capture more carbon.
There is no U.S. federal requirement for companies to offset their greenhouse gas emissions, whether by buying credits from farmers or other means. But some companies say they are voluntarily looking for ways to reduce or eliminate their carbon footprint, to attract environmentally conscious consumers and investors, and pursue their own corporate missions.
In September, while other Iowa farmers were tilling their fields after harvest to help combat weeds, Kelly Garrett headed out to plant again. The wheat and rye he sowed on his farm near Denison, Iowa, won’t be harvested and sold. Keeping his fields covered with growth over the winter months, he said, keeps his soil enriched and boosts the quantity of carbon dioxide his fields can pull from the atmosphere. In the spring, he plants his typical crops into the residue.
Kelly Garrett, second from left, works the farm with his sons, Connor, to his right, Colin, to his left, and Max Grady.
It is also padding his bottom line. In early November, Mr. Garrett posed in one of his corn fields with an oversize check for $75,000, proceeds from selling 5,000 carbon credits that his farm generated through a program being developed by the agricultural startups Nori LLC and Locus Agricultural Solutions.
“There’s a lot of money to be made here for farmers,” said Mr. Garrett, who adopted carbon-trapping practices on his farm several years ago to help enrich his soil.
The buyer of Mr. Garrett’s carbon bounty was Shopify Inc. The e-commerce platform used the carbon reductions generated by Mr. Garrett’s farm to help offset carbon emissions from the boats, planes and trucks transporting goods sold through Shopify’s platform during the Black Friday/Cyber Monday weekend of Nov. 27 to Nov. 30.
Shopify’s Shop Pay payment system automatically offsets emissions associated with purchases. Stacy Kauk, director of Shopify’s Sustainability Fund, said that and other efforts have helped draw more than 60 million users to the system. “Customers are voting with their wallets and supporting companies that align with their values,” she said.
Some agricultural companies, including Bayer and Nutrien as well as startups like Nori and Indigo Ag, aspire to be carbon middlemen, offering products and services to develop platforms where farmer-generated credits can be bought and sold. Others, including Cargill, Corteva Inc. and Archer Daniels Midland Co. are facilitating and funding farmers’ efforts as a way to burnish the companies’ own climate commitments and those of their customers, such as grain buyers.
Kelly Garrett sold 5,000 carbon credits that his farm generated through a program being developed by startups Nori and Locus Agricultural Solutions.
Farmers that participate in the carbon credit programs so far have generally received between $7 and $40 per acre, depending on farmers’ practices. The companies say those practices can be verified through data beamed from tractors to online farm management systems, and by monitoring fields with satellites and soil tests. A typical Iowa corn farmer this year will earn $49 to $246 per acre, and between a $28 loss and a $172 profit for soybeans, according to Iowa State University analyses.
“The only way this will work is if there is real revenue on the table for farmers,” said Emma Fuller, director of sustainability science for Corteva’s data science unit Granular, which is helping manage farmers’ carbon data.
Some in the food industry are wary of investing heavily behind still-new scientific models for measuring farm-driven carbon reductions, over concerns that the calculations could later turn out to be faulty. And despite growing Farm Belt momentum, some environmental groups are leery.
Jim Walsh, senior energy policy analyst for Food and Water Watch, said that polluting companies could use carbon offset purchases as a way to avoid cleaning up their own operations. Craig Cox, senior vice president of agriculture and natural resources for the Environmental Working Group, said that permanently converting land to trees and natural grasses is a more surefire way of sequestering carbon, since farmers’ climate-friendly practices could easily be undone if a field changes hands.
“If the practices disappear, are the credits refunded?” Mr. Cox said. Carbon credit registries typically require legal commitments from farmers and landowners to maintain carbon-capturing practices, and can include monitoring periods, company officials said.
Mr. Garrett, the Iowa farmer, said he generated 22,745 carbon credits by verifying through Locus and Nori his practices from the past five years, like conserving irrigation water, spreading manure as fertilizer and giving up tillage. He said he is committed to the carbon-capturing practices, because they improve his soil quality and crop yields enough to pay off even without carbon payments. He said he believes climate change is producing more volatile weather, such as the derecho storm system that leveled portions of his cornfields last summer.
The proceeds from selling carbon credits to Shopify helped Mr. Garrett offset his purchase this fall of 160 acres of farmland, he said, and another buyer is ready to buy the remainder.
“If we sell all the credits, it’ll pay for one-third of the farm,” Mr. Garrett said.
Practices such as spreading manure as fertilizer and conserving irrigation water have helped Kelly Garrett generate nearly 23,000 carbon credits over the past five years.
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Animal testing
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The poetry of reality
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Animal testing or animal experimentation (including conducting surgery on living organisms for the purpose of observing internal structures, known as vivisection) is, controversially, the use of living animals in scientific experiments, including genetics, neuroscience, psychology, and developing cosmetics, and investigating the safety and efficacy of medical treatments.
Sciencific opinion[edit]
Despite difficult ethical questions bound up in changing definitions of personhood, the common consensus of the scientific community is that animal research is an effective and necessary method of scientific inquiry. It is an important step in determining the safety and efficacy of medical treatments before they are tested on humans. Proponents claim animal testing saves many human lives. For example, animals were the first recipients of open heart surgeries as the procedure was perfected; they suffered a near-100% fatality rate. That rate decreased over the course of two more rounds of experiments until by the fourth group it was zero.[1]
Another thing that makes animal testing more efficient than human testing is that the former are much more controllable — the scientists are able to know their genetic predispositions, their eating habits, and basically everything about them — along with the animals being genetically identical[2] in some cases. A common criticism is that the animals suffer. However, suffering alters the animal's hormone levels, which can severely damage the research, so they are usually handled in the best way possible so that they are calm, comfortable, and healthy.[3]
Notwithstanding consensus on the usefulness of animal testing, scientists endeavor to reduce the number of animals used and, where possible, replace the use of living animals altogether. A growing industry in computer modeling is attempting to create digital systems that can be an effective alternative, but this research has many decades to go until it can take the place of conventional animal models.[4]
Historically, most pharmaceuticals were not tested on female lab rats, (or, for that matter, on female humans, for reasons that had varying degrees of legitimacy), however, as of 2013 the NIH began developing programes to encourage a better sex balance in test animals and cells. [5]
Animal testing can help preserve endangered species. Baylor College of Medicine used mice and rabbits to study a virus that was killing young elephants to develop a possible vaccine.[6] Scientists in the US, created a successful Ebola vaccine for wild chimpanzees by experimenting on captive chimps.[7]
Drawbacks to testing[edit]
The main drawback to animal testing is whether conclusions drawn apply equally or to some degree to humans. Drug companies with vested interests may happily over-extrapolate animal studies, while PETA and other groups play this point to death, often severely underestimating the efficacy of animal testing and ignoring the examples where it works well. The reality is somewhere in the middle where animal testing is extremely useful, but the results should be treated with some caution. Animal experimentation never guarantees the safety of human medicines, but the models often give very big hints and are suitable as a starting point; if it doesn't kill a rat, dog or chimp after a massive over-dose, it is very likely that it is safe to give a pill to a human, for example.
Experimentation on higher mammals is tightly regulated, the European Union banning experimentation on great apes in 2010.[8] Similar laws exist for rare species threatened by extinction, and with regulation generally tightening for great apes and other closer cousins of us. Only GabonWikipedia allows chimpanzees to be used in experiments[9] with the US, in 2015, now protecting chimpanzees as endangered animals.[10] The US retired the use of all chimpanzees for research purposes in 2015.[11]
In the United States, the "Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals," a protocol at least adopted in part by most academic institutions, recommends conditions for the humane keeping, feeding, and euthanasia of animals used in experiments.
Some countries require a license to experiment on animals, including the United Kingdom,[12] which requires the submission and approval of a protocol and justification that no other reasonable test can be performed.
Licensure is then strictly supervised in the UK.[13][14]
After Brexit, animal welfare groups are highly concerned that the UK will loosen its animal welfare laws. Animal testing has sharply increased after Brexit.[15] In 2017, animal testing in the UK has fallen by 5%.[16]
The image of scientists just coming along and torturing animals for shits and giggles is just NOT how it happens. That being said however, the standing regulations intended to legally ensure the well-being of test animals may come across as surprisingly condensed.
The Animal Welfare Act was signed into law in 1966. It is the only Federal law in the United States that regulates the treatment of animals in research. [17]. Conveniently for scientists, mice and rats (the most used animals in medical research) are excluded from this law, among others.[18]. Thus, there are no protections in place for these animals, meaning scientists involved legally can "do whatever they want to them".
Required animal testing[edit]
In the United States, before a new experimental drug can be tested on human subjects, it must first be tested on animal subjects to ensure its safety. Any human that was going to use the drug is also an animal testing it, so an animal test is inherent and unavoidable anyways.
By legislating for systematic and controlled laboratory animal testing, the legislation is practically also against random and uncontrolled human experimentation.
Animal rights protests[edit]
Main article: Animal rights
Despite the many potential benefits of animal experimentation, many animal rights activists are actively opposed to it and protest any use of animals in research, claiming it is a form of speciesism and therefore morally unjustifiable. They argue that the claims that animal testing has significant benefits for humans and animals are not justification enough for animal testing to take place. Their argument is that since humans are not used for “the greater good” in these tests, equally sentient animals should not be either, emphasizing the similar abilities to feel pain and emotions. The argument from marginal cases is often put forward in cases like this. The difference in intelligence between animals and humans they view as irrelevant, as in certain cases, some young babies or severely cognitively disabled people may be less intelligent than the animals that are being used in experiments, but nobody would argue that they should be used for scientific research instead of the animals because they are less intelligent. [19] [20] [21]
A number of animal activists, however, will resort to extremist measures to achieve their goal of ending animal experimentation and, as a result, end up becoming their own worst enemy. Extreme acts of opposition range from sabotage of research facilities, physical attacks on individual researchers and their families, and even murder and arson.[22] This makes it very easy for pro-vivisectionists to persuade the public that animal activists are too crazy and violent for any sane person to take seriously. Marketing efforts by animals rights activists are often accused by vivisection supporters of using appeal to emotion by showing pictures of cruelty to animals in labs (claiming the most shocking pictures are horribly out of date) and that they are focusing especially on "cute" ones most associated with being pets, such as dogs, cats, and rabbits, though largely ignoring that rats and mice (which don't have as good of PR managers) are the more commonly studied. They will also claim activists of ignoring the fact that scientists make great efforts to keep research animals in humane conditions and to minimize suffering. Violent activism requires additional security measures for scientists and their animals, as well as researchers refusing to speak about what they do and where they do it for fear of attacks.
It should be noted that if PETA and the ALF get their way and animal testing is banned, it will only be banned in the places where they have strong influence, such as the US and Europe, where regulations already prevent unnecessary suffering of animals, though of course ALF would argue any suffering, especially for cosmetics, is unnecessary. As animal testing is essential, if banned in one place, it would just move to another; specifically a place without such regulations. Evidence for this can be seen in child labor being employed in countries other than where it is banned. Places that have banned child labor no longer have much in the way of textile industries, but child labor still exists, therefore it shouldn't be banned (according to this "logic").
However, successful legislative change has occurred in Europe where in 2013 it was made illegal to sell cosmetic products tested on animals within the European Union, even if testing was undertaken outside of the European Union. [23]
Potential Alternatives to Animal Testing[edit]
Alternatives to animal testing have attempted to better match human physiology and typical environment humans inhabit. These technologies are continuing to be developed and may, in future, be a viable alternative to animal testing.
In-Vitro Testing[edit]
The growth of human tissue in an in-vitro environment has been achieved. This has been useful in many cosmetic tests by using cultivated skin cells to test the reaction its reaction to certain chemicals.[24]
In-Silico Modelling[edit]
Use of Computer Modelling has also been put forward as an alternative to animal testing. Many computer models are very accurate though it is likely that many researchers and consumers would be unwilling to trust findings based on assumption rather than experience.
Use of Volunteers[edit]
Testing on a being that is able to consent does appear to have a more ethical basis for experimentation. However, there have been catastrophic failures in human drugs tests in the past when not properly undertaken. Ingesting a 'microdose' of a chemical followed by very close observation of changes in a volunteer's metabolic rate or brain function has been suggested as a possible precursor to large scale human trials that could replace animal testing.
Many simulators can mimic living, injured or dying humans. This would largely be applied in education, potentially as an alternative to dissection in some cases. The use of 'Traumaman' is an example of a simulator which is used for emergency medical training. [25]
See also[edit]
1. PBS NOVA:Pioneers of Heart Surgery
2. either clones or functional clones, the latter of which are highly inbred animals (typically mice) that have very minimal genetic variability
4. to balance sex in cell and animal studies. Includes link to NIH public announcement.
6. Learn How Animal Research is Helping Elephants and Other Endangered Species National Association for Biomedical Research
7. Ebola vaccine success highlights dilemma of testing on captive chimps to save wild apes University of Cambridge
8. EU rules on Animal Testing Ban use of Great Apes The Independent
9. The Endangered Lab Chimp Science
10. US government gives research chimps endangered-species protection Nature
11. NIH to retire all research chimpanzees Nature
12. Animal testing and research GOV.UK
13. UK regulations on research using animals University of Oxford
14. Animal experiments in the UK BBC
15. Concern over animal testing laws after Brexit, as new figures reveal sharp spike in live monkey experiments The Independent
16. UK animal experiments fall by 5% - annual figures BBC
17. [1]
18. [2] Section 2132(g)
19. [3]
20. [4]
21. [5] Question 4
22. .The Guardian:Animal Liberation Front bomber jailed for 12 years |
Ecotourism and the Environment: Observations and Insights
A cow on overage releases between 70 and 120 kg of Methane per year. Methane is a greenhouse gas like carbon dioxide (CO2). But the negative effect on the climate of Methane is 23 times higher than the effect of CO2. Therefore, the release of about 100 kg Methane per year for each cow is equivalent to about 2,300 kg of CO2 per year. Let's compare this value of 2,300 kg of CO2: the same amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) is created by using 1,000 liters of petrol. In a car using 8 liters of petrol per 100 km, you could [...] |
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Russia (Россия)
Flag of Russia.svg
Name Триколор
Use National flag and civil ensign National flag and civil ensign
Proportion 2:3
Adopted 11 December 1993 (originally adopted on 28 April 1883, de facto used since 1668)
Design Rectangular tricolour with three equal-size horizontal bands: the upper one is white, the middle blue, and the lower red.[1]
Naval Ensign of Russia.svg
Variant flag of Russia (Россия)
Name Андреевский флаг
Andreyevsky flag
St. Andrew Flag
Use Naval ensign War ensign
Adopted 1992[2] (originally adopted in 1712[3])
Design White with a blue saltire.
Flag of Russia (1991–1993).svg
Variant flag of Russia (Россия)
Name Триколор
Use historical Design used in the past, but now abandoned
Proportion 1:2
Adopted As national flag (civil flag): 22 August 1991[4]
As state flag: 1 November 1991[5]
Replaced by current version on 11 December 1993
Design Rectangular tricolour with three equal-size horizontal bands: the upper one is white, the middle azure, and the lower scarlet
Flag of Tsar of Russia (1668)
The "coat of arms flag", erroneously called "Romanov dynastic flag": the official national flag of the Russian Empire from 1858 to 1883. The flag is currently being used by Russian Nationalists and Monarchists
Flag of the Russian Empire "for private use" (1914–1917)
Flag of the Russian SFSR (1918-1937)
Flag of the Russian SFSR (1937-1954)
Flag of the Russian SFSR (1954-1991)
The flag of Russia is a tricolour flag of three equal horizontal fields, white on the top, blue in the middle and red on the bottom. The flag was first used as an ensign for Russian merchant and war[citation needed] ships and only became official in 1896. The flag continued to be used by the Russian Provisional Government after the Tsar was toppled in the February Revolution and was not replaced until the October Revolution which established a Bolshevik government. From that time period, a red flag charged with communist symbols was favoured over the tricolour. It was not until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that the tricolour was brought back as the official flag of the new Russian Federation. The modern era flag underwent a slight change in 1993 and has been official since 2000.
There was no universally accepted flag for Russia until the middle of the 17th century. The earliest mention of the flag occurs during the reign of Tsar Alexis I, in 1668, and is related to the construction of the first Russian naval ship, the frigate Oryol.
According to one source[which?], the choice of the colours may originate from the Dutch flag, and is related to the nationality of the ship's lead engineer Butler. During the construction, he faced the need for the flag, and issued a request to the Boyar Duma, to "...ask His Tsarist Majesty as to which (as is the custom among other nations) flag shall be raised on the ship." The official response merely indicated that, as such issue is as yet unprecedented, even though the land forces do use (apparently different) flags, the Tsar ordered that his (Butler's) opinion be sought about the matter, asking specifically as to the custom existing in his country. The Netherlands had at the time already settled on its current flag, consisting of red, white and blue stripes, which Butler duly told the Tsar.
This conversation apparently took notice, as the source proceeds to describe the materials bought "overseas" for the ship, and specifically mentions red, blue and white fabric. It is not at all certain, however, that the choice of the colours was affected by the Dutch flag. Another possibility is that the flag repeats the colour choice of the Coat of arms of Moscow; that emblem is alleged by at least one author (Prince Aleksandr Putyatin) to effectively be the first Russian flag.
A different account traces the origin of the Russian flag to Tsar Peter the Great's visits to Archangel in 1693 and 1694. Peter was keenly interested in shipbuilding in the European style, different from the barges ordinarily used in Russia at the time. In 1693, Peter had ordered a Dutch-built frigate from Amsterdam. In 1694 when it arrived, the Dutch red-white-and-blue banner flew from its stern. Peter decided to model Russia's naval flag after this banner by changing the sequence of colours. It eventually became the flag of the Russian empire.[6]
While differing in the circumstances, the two flag origin versions agree on the Dutch flag influence. However, there are historical reasons to doubt that the flag was chosen as late as Peter's reign. One of the strongest arguments against that comes from a German flag book of 1695 by Carel Allard, which is considered to be one of the world's first flag books. Printed only a year after Peter's trip to Western Europe, the book already describes three flags of a similar design noted as belonging to the either Tsar of Muscovy, or Muscovy itself. One of the three flags shown is the tricolour with a double-headed eagle holding a shield in its hands, and wearing a golden crown over both of its heads. Another is the tricolour with a blue saltire over it and the third consists of two white (top left and bottom right) and two red (top right and bottom left) squares, with a blue cross in the middle.[7]
The flag was used as naval and military ensign since at least as early as 1693, and was adopted as a merchant flag in 1705. On 7 May 1883 it was authorized to be used on land. However, it did not become an official national flag (State Flag) until the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II in 1896.
Meaning and origin of the colours
The flag of Russia uses the Pan-Slavic colours of red, blue and white. While there are several theories as to the origin and reason for the choice of the colours, none is currently universally accepted as correct. There is no official meaning assigned to the colours in Russian laws.
The three colours purportedly came from the coat of arms of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which depict Saint George wearing white (silver) armor, riding a white horse, wearing a blue cape and holding a blue shield, on a red field[citation needed]. According to another version, these three colours were associated with the robes of the Virgin Mary, the holy protectress of Russia.
Yet another interpretation of the three colours is that the order in which they are placed reflects the Russian social system under the monarchy: white represents God, blue the Tsar and red the peasants. Another very common interpretation is the association of colours with the main parts of the Russian Empire: white representing Belarus ("White Russia"), blue Ukraine (or Malorossia, "Little Russia"), and red "Great Russia".
A different interpretation associates white with the bright future (where the colour itself is associated with brightness, while its placement at the top - with future); blue with clouded present, and red with bloody past.[citation needed]
Variant versions
A variant of the flag was authorized for private use by Tsar Nicholas II during World War I, adding the large Romanov eagle on a yellow field in a canton in the top left-hand corner. This variant was never made the official state flag.
When the Bolsheviks took power in 1917, the tricolour design was discarded, and a definitive new flag of the SFSR (one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union) was introduced in 1954 (see flag of Russian SFSR), and this remained the republic's flag until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. All of the Soviet Republics' flags were created by introducing a small, but noticeable change, to the flag of the Soviet Union. In this case, the change was an introduction of the left-hand blue band. The previous Soviet design was different, a plain red flag with different variants of the "RSFSR" abbreviation in the canton.
The original flag of 1883 (rather than the black-yellow-white colour combination) was re-adopted by Russia on 22 August 1991. The readoption date is celebrated yearly as the national flag day.
The president of Russia uses a Presidential Standard (Russian: Штандарт Президента), which is officially defined as the tricolour with the Coat of Arms (at this case the two-headed eagle is depicted without the shield) in the middle.
National Flag Day
The National Flag Day is an official holiday in Russia, established in 1994. It is celebrated on 22 August, the day of the victory over putschists in 1991, but it is not a day-off.
See also
External links
am:የሩሲያ ሰንደቅ ዓላማ ar:علم روسيا az:Rusiya bayrağı be:Сцяг Расіі be-x-old:Сьцяг Расеі bi:Flag blong Rusia bg:Национално знаме на Русия bs:Zastava Rusije ca:Bandera de Rússia cs:Ruská vlajka cy:Baner Rwsia da:Ruslands flag de:Flagge Russlands dv:ރޫސީވިލާތުގެ ދިދަ et:Venemaa lipp el:Σημαία της Ρωσίας es:Bandera de Rusia eo:Flago de Rusio eu:Errusiako bandera fa:پرچم روسیه fr:Drapeau de la Russie gl:Bandeira de Rusia ko:러시아의 국기 hy:Ռուսաստանի դրոշ hi:रूस का ध्वज hr:Zastava Rusije bpy:রাশিয়ার ফিরালহান id:Bendera Rusia is:Fáni Rússlands it:Bandiera della Russia he:דגל רוסיה lv:Krievijas karogs lt:Rusijos vėliava hu:Oroszország zászlaja mk:Знаме на Русија mr:रशियाचा ध्वज ms:Bendera Rusia nah:Īpān Rusia nl:Vlag van Rusland ja:ロシアの国旗 no:Russlands flagg nn:Det russiske flagget pl:Flaga Rosji pt:Bandeira da Rússia ro:Drapelul Rusiei ru:Флаг России se:Ruošša leavga sco:Banner o Roushie sq:Flamuri i Rusisë simple:Flag of Russia sk:Vlajka Ruska sr:Застава Русије sh:Zastava Rusije fi:Venäjän lippu sv:Rysslands flagga th:ธงชาติรัสเซีย tg:Парчами Русия tr:Rusya bayrağı uk:Прапор Росії vi:Quốc kỳ Nga yo:Àsìá ilẹ̀ Rọ́síà zh:俄羅斯聯邦國旗 |
The Concept Of The American Dream In The Great Gatsby
1397 Words6 Pages
When the sounding of America occured, the definition of the American Dream was a possible way to better one’s circumstances; however, Fitzgerald shows through his novel The Great Gatsby that the definition and attainableness of the American Dream has changed: it became an unachievable dream that focused on making it big. Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby focused on the American Dream and mainly reflected how Fitzgerald himself felt about it. It showed how the 1920’s changed the dream and turned it into a fantasy rather than a reality. Fitzgerald’s opinion of the American Dream was that it was an unattainable dream that left behind the notion of hard work and embraced improving one’s life; however, there are parts of Fitzgerald’s work that support the concept of an obtainable dream and the importance of hard work. F. Scott Fitzgerald pushed the idea that the American Dream was an unattainable goal throughout his novel The Great Gatsby. He used characters and places to show the impossibleness of the so called dream that filled the people of the 1920’s. The character Myrtle was a prime example of the desire to have the American Dream and not reaching it. She desired to be a rich woman and tried to act as if she was one through her affair with Tom; however, she was never similar to a rich woman for her attempt to seem rich resulted in her acting as those with new money do and not dignified like old money. During the party at Myrtle and Tom’s apartment, Fitzgerald describes Myrtle as, “[h]er laughter, her gestures, her assertions became more violently affected moment by moment” (Fitzgerald 30-31). Her voice was shrill and unpleasant because Myrtle thought that rich women spoke in that way. The dream that Myrtle had was unreachable due to her upbringing and misconceptions of who she wished to be. Similar to Myrtle, Gatsby dreamed of being rich as well; although he craved more than richness, he wanted to be part of the old money society. While it is possible to consider Daisy as Gatsby’s dream, what truly attracted Gatsby was Daisy’s upbringing. Daisy was raised with old money, and Gatsby connected Daisy to the society that he wanted to become a part of. He deluded himself and thought that if he married Daisy,
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The Brain from Top to Bottom Blog – Intermediate Level Intermediate blog for The Brain from Top to Bottom website Thu, 11 Feb 2021 15:12:46 +0000 en-US hourly 1 Revisiting an optical illusion in terms of predictive processing Thu, 11 Feb 2021 15:00:54 +0000 I recently came across a little experiment that I posted years ago on this website to show how the blind spot in each of your eyes works. The blind spot is a part of the retina where there are no photoreceptors, because it is where the axons of the retina’s ganglion cells converge and exit the eye, forming the optical nerve. As a result, there’s a corresponding area in your field of vision that doesn’t register on the retina. Hence, in theory, you shouldn’t see anything there. But in reality, you don’t see any such blank spot in your field of vision.
To find out why not, let’s revisit this optical illusion from the standpoint of predictive-processing theory, which has become more and more accepted in cognitive science over the past 10 years or so. In the traditional view, the brain passively waits to receive inputs, then processes them and ultimately produces outputs, as if it were nothing more than a biologically based computer. In contrast, according to predictive-processing theory, the brain is a proactive organ that is constantly making predictions about its environment and what may be about to happen there, so as to operate within it more effectively.
According to predictive-processing theory, the reason that you don’t notice your blind spot is that your brain makes you blind, so to speak, to the blindness in that part of your field of vision. It does so by filling this area in with the visual information that is most likely to occur there, according to the experience of the world stored in your memory.
The two graphics above give you two ways of experiencing your blind spot.
For the top graphic, close your right eye, look at the + sign with your left eye, then move your head toward or away from the screen slowly while continuing to watch the + sign. The big black dot will disappear as it passes through the blind spot of the retina of your left eye, because your brain projects the surrounding white background onto the corresponding spot in your field of vision.
For the bottom graphic, do the same thing. This time, when the image is at the right distance from your eye, the two lines will look like one solid line. This seems like pure magic, until you apply the theory of predictive processing to explain it: the brain predicts what is most likely to appear in the space between the two lines—a continuation of them—and inserts it there!
You can readily imagine the evolutionary advantages of your brain’s operating in this way. Most of the signals that it receives from the outside world involve a certain degree of ambiguity. If your brain couldn’t project its predictions about the world based on your past experiences, you might, for example, have to wait until the catlike form jumped out of the high grass on the trail ahead of you before you recognized it as a tiger. By then it would probably be too late to run. If your humanoid ancestors’ brains had worked like that, you might not be around here now to worry about it.
Being rich makes you less empathetic (even when it’s just Monopoly money) Thu, 14 Jan 2021 15:47:18 +0000 Today I’m going to talk about the work of social psychologist Paul Piff, whose research interests revolve around social hierarchies, economic inequality, altruism and co-operation. I learned about Piff while working on a French-language documentary inspired by the book Capital in the 21st Century, by French economist Thomas Piketty. In this documentary, Piff explains an experiment in which people playing the board game Monopoly showed disturbing changes in behaviour when they won repeatedly because the researchers had rigged the rules in their favour (more money to begin with, more dice to roll to pass Go more often, etc.)—in other words, had given them more power. I have touched on this same subject in an earlier blog post, about Dacher Keltner’s research on how wealth alienates the wealthy from their humanity. And it turns out to be no accident that these two authors’ findings are so consistent: as I just discovered this morning, they have published many articles together!
In a 2013 TED Talk, Piff describes the behavioural changes in the subjects who had been given these special advantages. They made more noise when they moved their pieces, displayed more dominant body language, even ate more of the pretzels that had been placed on the table. But most disturbingly, as Piff relates, once they had won a game, they took much of the credit for their success even though they knew that the rules had been rigged in their favour. One can’t help being reminded of something that Piketty has demonstrated over many years of research: the self-satisfaction and lack of empathy shown by so many millionaires even though they owe their wealth mostly to an inherited family fortune. (In this respect, I find the tribute to Bill Gates at the end of Piff’s TED Talk somewhat puzzling.).
Maybe the best hope for breaking this vicious cycle of concentration of wealth that predisposes the rich to exploit the poor even further lies in exposing the rich to environments that, according to Piff’s and Keltner’s research, can generate empathy faster than you might think, In a 2015 article in The New York Times, they write:
In still other studies, we have sought to understand why awe arouses altruism of different kinds. One answer is that awe imbues people with a different sense of themselves, one that is smaller, more humble and part of something larger. Our research finds that even brief experiences of awe, such as being amid beautiful tall trees, lead people to feel less narcissistic and entitled and more attuned to the common humanity people share with one another. In the great balancing act of our social lives, between the gratification of self-interest and a concern for others, fleeting experiences of awe redefine the self in terms of the collective, and orient our actions toward the needs of those around us.
Using science to create art. Mon, 14 Dec 2020 19:06:18 +0000 Some scientists use science to create art. One good example is Greg Dunn, a neurobiologist and visual artist. They are a startling combination of the precise images captured by neuron-imaging technology and the traditional techniques of Japanese ink-wash painting, also known as sumi-e.
More recently, I have discovered the impressive image of David Goodsell, who transforms deadly viruses into stunning works of art. Goodsell is a biologist who studies the molecular structure of cells at Scripps Research in San Diego, California. The watercolours that he paints with such precision represent the molecules that compose human cells and the bacteria and viruses that attack them constantly (such as the HIV, Ebola and Zika viruses below, as well as coronaviruses).
Like Dunn, Goodsell create his paintings using data obtained with leading-edge technologies such as electronic microscopy, X-ray crystallography, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Goodsell’s genius consists in the way that he interprets the sometimes cryptic molecular images that these technologies provide and shows us their complex, tangled patterns through his palette of different colours (for example, the images at the top of this post represent two synapses at two different moments in the process of synaptic transmission). As Goodsell says himself, “I’m not making editorial images that are meant to sell magazines. I want to somehow inform the scientists and armchair scientists what the state of knowledge is now and hopefully give them an intuitive sense of how these things really look—or may look.”
Goodsell stresses that he necessarily takes a lot of artistic liberties to represent this microscopic world. For example, although most proteins do not really have any colour, he gives them colours so that viewers can clearly distinguish them. He also stresses the highly dynamic nature of what he has captured in each of his still images: “They’re just one snapshot of something that’s intrinsically superdynamic. Every time I do a painting, the next day it’s out of date because there’s so much more data coming out.”
People like Janet Iwasa, who uses computers to generate molecular animations, consider Goodsell to be in a sense the father of their discipline. Iwasa is constantly seeking accurate data on the strangely shaped molecules that she wants to depict. That said, while there is often something a bit “cold” about computer-generated images, that coldness is not apparent in Goodsell’s work. I leave the final word to Iwasa, who eloquently expresses the theme of this post: the intimate connections between art and science, between creativity and cognition:
Serious problems in the reproducibility of brain imaging results Fri, 13 Nov 2020 01:28:55 +0000
As I’ve pointed out in previous posts, the results produced by brain-imaging technologies such as fMRI are subject to at least two limitations. First. they detect neural activation only indirectly, by monitoring blood flows in the brain. Second, the methods used to analyze such images are subject to many forms of bias. These limitations were confirmed in a troubling study by Tom Schonberg, Thomas Nichols and Russell Poldrack, entitled “Variability in the analysis of a single neuroimaging data set by many teams ”, published in the May 20, 2020 issue of the journal Nature.
This important study was summarized in another article, in the journal The Scientist. As this article describes, Schonberg and his colleagues asked 70 independent research teams to analyze the same set of data collected in an experiment using fMRI. In the end, the study found, no two teams chose the same approach to analyze these data, and their conclusions were highly variable.
The study’s authors had no difficulty in recruiting 70 research teams to participate. The field of brain imaging, like the field of psychology, has for many years been facing a crisis regarding the reproducibility of its findings. As is well known, being able to obtain the same results when another term of researchers applies the same protocol is a basic principle of the scientific method. But the topics examined in psychological studies and brain-imaging studies are becoming more and more complex, so that the data are becoming less and less clear. Hence researchers must apply all sorts of methods to, for example, increase the clarity of the signal relative to the background noise or to correct errors due to head movements by the subjects of brain scans. Also, they must calculate statistics that apply the concept of a threshold above which the results may be regarded as statistically significant. A huge variety of statistical methods are available, and for various reasons, most of the 70 research teams did not choose the same one.
As the authors of the study themselves admit, all of this led to results that were fairly discouraging in terms of uniformity. And yet the task that the 108 subjects were asked to perform in the original study that produced the data was fairly simple. While undergoing an fMRI scan, they had to decide whether or not to bet a certain amount of money. The 70 research teams were supposed to test nine hypotheses about the increase or decrease in neural activity that occurred in various parts of the brain when the subjects made their decisions. On some of these hypotheses, there was broad consensus. For example, the hypothesis that activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex would decrease when the subjects lost money was confirmed by 84% of the teams, and three other hypotheses were rejected by over 90% of them.
But for the five other hypotheses, the team’s conclusions showed a great deal of variability. This variability confirmed what many researchers in this field had feared: there were simply too many degrees of freedom in the choice of analytical methods available to them. And to correct this huge problem, the scientific community will have to make several changes. First, for full transparency, researchers will have to provide the smallest details of the choices made in their data analyses. Researchers should also be required to record their hypotheses in advance, so that they cannot adjust them subsequently to fit the data (a practice known as sharking). Lastly, researchers should always try to analyze their data with multiple methods of statistical analysis and a variety of parameters. Such constraints may be burdensome, but they are the only way to prevent the current anomalies and will make it easier to separate real, robust effects in brain-imaging experiments from effects that are mere artifacts of the analytical methods chosen.
Behaviour as a control loop located outside the organism Mon, 26 Oct 2020 21:28:26 +0000 With his famous Chinese Room Argument, philosopher John Searl raised an important question: can a computer understand Chinese (or French or English)? Probably not, if the results of some of today’s computer-translation programs are any indication. Unlike computers, we human beings can usually grasp the meaning of things fairly effortlessly, while a computer cannot. Many neuroscientists believe that to explain why, we must look more closely at the biological substrate of the brain, and in particular its long evolutionary history.
Indeed, the concept of embodied, situated cognition answers this question neatly: meaning can come only from the environment in the broad sense, which includes the body. The classic example is a mobile bacterium swimming through an aqueous medium in which there is a gradient of sucrose molecules. The bacterium moves through this medium randomly until sucrose receptors in its cell membrane sense these molecules. It then naturally begins to swim up this gradient, toward the source of the sucrose, to get more of it.
One important point to note here is that although the sucrose is a physical and chemical entity that exists in the bacterium’s environment, the status of sucrose as food for the bacterium does not follow automatically. That status is not intrinsic to the sucrose molecule but is instead a relational characteristic, connected to the metabolism of the bacterium that can assimilate this molecule and draw energy from it. The sucrose has value as food not in and of itself, but only in relation to an organism that can use it to maintain its homeostasis (its internal equilibrium and structural integrity) and stave off the second law of thermodynamics, that is, entropy.
Thus the particular positive or negative meanings that occur in the world are the result of the possible interactions between organisms and their environment. The meaning and value of things do not pre-exist in the physical world, but are instead manifested (or “enacted”) by organisms. That is why we can say that by definition, living is a process that creates meaning.
And that is why we can also redefine what a behaviour is, in light of all that. On the one hand, as we have just seen, there are countless feedback loops in our metabolism that enable our bodies to maintain their internal equilibrium, among other ways by digesting the food that they take in. But our behaviours also play a role in this homeostasis, by enabling our bodies to find this food in their environment. A behaviour can therefore be redefined as an extension of an organism’s physiological control mechanisms outside its own body. In other words, behaviour can be thought of as another control loop, but this time outside of the organism (rather than just an input-output process).
Our perceptions are shaped by the possibility of imminent actions Tue, 13 Oct 2020 20:40:04 +0000
Affordances are a key concept in cognitive science, first advanced by J.J. Gibson in 1966. As I explained in an earlier post in this blog, an affordance is an opportunity that an object offers to take action. A hammer, for example, offers the opportunity to be grasped by its handle, and a chair offers the opportunity to sit down. What is interesting about this concept of affordances is that the opportunity for action does not depend on an object’s characteristics in any absolute sense, but instead is relative: it depends on the possible relationships that a particular organism may establish with that object. A tree, for example, offers different affordances to humans, who may use it as shelter from the rain, or crows, which may use it as a perch, or to woodpeckers, which may use it as a place to hunt for food. Moreover, as the above illustration suggests, any given object (again, such as a tree), may inspire different affordances for a given organism (such as a human) depending on that organism’s motivations and/or the broader general situation.
There is a large body of neuroscientific research, notably including the studies by Paul Cisek and his colleagues, showing that the brain is constantly simulating the actions suggested to it by the affordances that it perceives in its environment. In physical terms, this means that certain populations of neurons begin to increase their activity with a view toward possibly increasing it even further to actually carry out the actions suggested to them by the affordances that their environment suggests to them. These studies showed that certain “pre-motor” areas of the brain were thus activated in our day-to-day perceptions, which therefore operate to identify objects’ affordances much more than their physical characteristics such as size, colour, and shape.
But what about the brain’s sensory regions themselves, such as the primary visual cortex? Surely they can’t be “contaminated” by signals from affordances in the outside world, because that might prevent them from doing their jobs as “objective” sensors of the properties of objects. And yet the brain’s sensory areas, just like its motor areas, are in fact affected by affordances, as was shown by Zakaria Djebbara and his colleagues in a study published in the journal PNAS in July 2019.
In this study, subjects wore virtual-reality headsets, along with electroencephalogram sensors that recorded their brain activity as they performed a task in the virtual reality environment. The task began in a virtual-reality room with a door in one wall, leading to another room. In each trial of the task, the door could be any one of three widths: too narrow to pass through, just wide enough to pass through, and wide enough to pass through easily. When the wall turned red, the subjects didn’t have to do anything. But when the wall turned green, the subjects had to try to walk through the door. The researchers made two very interesting observations. First, the type of neural activity in the subjects’ primary visual cortexes depended on the affordance offered by the door, that is, whether or not the subjects perceived it as passable. But second, and even more interesting, this dependency was observed only when the wall was green—in other words, when the subjects knew that they were going to have to try to pass through the door.
These findings suggest that the subjects actually saw the door differently both according to the affordances (degrees of passability) that it offered and to the situation at hand (whether or not the subjects had to try to pass through the door). In other words, as Gepshtein and Snider might put it, these findings support the ideas that our perceptions are shaped by the possibility of imminent actions.
The expertise account, or, why the brain’s face-recognition area can be activated by the sight of a chessboard Wed, 30 Sep 2020 17:59:08 +0000
In a 2017 article on the chess website chessable, entitledBeating Magnus after a month of training: the neuroscience of why learning chess is so much harder than learning a language”, author David Karmaley writes: “A fascinating finding from neuroscience is that your brain starts using the fusiform face area to store chess positions! This is the part of the brain usually responsible for human face recognition.”
Karmaley seems surprised that a part of the brain associated with face recognition is also used to recognize the positions of pieces on a chessboard, and at first glance, the connection may seem puzzling. But a theory known as the expertise account offers a highly plausible explanation.
The fusiform face area (FFA) was first described in 1992 and given this name in 1997 by cognitive neuroscientist Nancy Kanwisher and her team. Kanwisher observed that this ventral area of the temporal cortex was strongly activated when someone saw a familiar face. Kanwisher saw this observation as strong evidence that the brain contains modules that specialize in particular functions—in this case, in the visual system. Subsequently, numerous brain-imaging studies showed that although this part of the brain generally responded more to human faces than to any other stimulus, in some people it was also activated in very different situations, such as when they saw images of birds or cars. Interestingly, the people whose FFAs responded to bird images were ornithologists, and those whose FFAs responded to images of cars were automobile enthusiasts.
These findings led neuroscientist Isabel Gauthier and other researchers to formulate the expertise account for the behaviour of this part of the brain. According to this account, the reason that the FFA responds to faces is not that it specializes in facial recognition, but rather that all humans acquire expertise in recognizing the patterns formed by human faces, because they are so important in human interactions. And when people become experts in recognizing birds or automobiles, for example, their FFAs also become important nodes in a brain network that facilitates rapid categorization of these items with which they have become so familiar.
Other studies have led further weight to the expertise account—for example, one study showed strong activation of the FFA in radiologists examining X-ray images that bore no resemblance whatever to human faces, while others showed such activation in response to other patterns that were nothing like human faces, such as the positions of the pieces on a chessboard. In a 2011 experiment, Merim Bilalić and his team showed that in chess experts, the FFA became activated not only when they observed chess pieces arranged in game situations, but even when they observed such pieces distributed randomly on the board. The researchers concluded that highly familiar visual inputs, in this case composed of numerous elements, triggered a form of automatic processing that was specific to this type of stimulus, and that the FFA was an important node in the brain network that carried this processing out.
Further studies have begun to show that the FFA and the adjacent areas of the lower temporal lobe are in fact composed of different neuron clusters on a finer spatial scale, and that these clusters perform distinct specialized functions. The adventure of functional brain mapping, with the help of ever-more-powerful brain imaging devices, is a never-ending story.
The combined effects of meditation and magic mushrooms Wed, 09 Sep 2020 13:44:30 +0000
Today I want to tell you about a study entitled “Psilocybin-assisted mindfulness training modulates self-consciousness and brain default mode network connectivity with lasting effects,” which a research team from the University of Zurich published in the journal NeuroImage in August 2019. As the title suggests, this study combined two methods of modulating the brain: engaging inmindfulness meditation and taking the hallucinogen psilocybin, a psychoactive molecule found in “magic mushrooms”. Previous studies had shown that both of these methods produced a similar effect: they gave subjects the impression that the boundaries between their bodies and their environments were dissolving (a state of consciousness often referred to as ego dissolution). But in this study, the research team wanted to find out whether combining these two methods might make this effect stronger and longer-lasting.
In this experiment, 38 subjects who were experienced meditators went on a five-day meditation retreat during which they received a single dose of either psilocybin or a placebo. This was a double-blind study: neither the subjects nor the persons administering the doses knew who was receiving the drug and who was receiving the placebo. Six hours later, the participants filled out a questionnaire about their levels of states of altered consciousness.
The day before the retreat and the day after, the subjects also underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging of the functional connectivity of their brains while they engaged in two different forms of meditation: first, focused attention meditation, and then open awareness meditation.
The results showed, first of all, that compared with the subjects who received the placebo, the subjects who received the psilocybin were more likely to feel this effect of the boundaries between themselves and the rest of the world dissolving. The results also showed that in terms of functional connectivity (which parts of the brain tended to work together), when the subjects were engaged in open awareness meditation, the psilocybin-induced ego dissolution appeared to be associated with decoupling of the medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortexes of the default mode network.
What makes this observation especially interesting is that ever since the default mode network was discovered some 20 years ago, it has been associated with processing of the sense of self. This study would seem to have shown that for experienced meditators, a five-day meditation retreat combined with a single dose of psilocybin can induce positive, lasting changes in the connectivity of brain networks associated with their perception of themselves in the world. I say positive and lasting because, when the subjects were evaluated four months after the retreat, the levels of change observed in the connectivity of their default mode networks were correlated with positive general changes in their attitudes about life, their relationships with themselves, their social behaviour, and their affect and spirituality.
How labelling brain parts functionally can be overly simplistic: the cerebellum as a case in point Tue, 18 Aug 2020 13:21:10 +0000
Today I’d like to talk about the cerebellum. To introduce this topic, I’ll remind you that as animals’ bodies evolved and became more complex, they were subjected to greater adaptive pressures to move more and more efficiently, and the cerebellum is a brain structure that was closely involved in this process.
Here’s the most surprising fact about the cerebellum. The human brain as a whole contains about 86 billion neurons. The cerebral cortex accounts contains about 16 billion of these neurons and accounts for about 80% of the brain’s weight. In contrast, the cerebellum accounts for only about 10% of the brain’s weight, but contains nearly 69 billion neurons! Thus more than three-quarters of the neurons in the human brain are located in the cerebellum, even though it is a small structure compared with the brain as a whole.
Every signal that enters the cerebellum is processed by some 10,000 of its granule cells, which are among the smallest neurons in the brain (that’s how so many of them can fit in such a small space). But these granule cells are organized into groups of 200,000, within which all of the cells send signals to the same single Purkinje cell (the Purkinje cells are the largest neurons in the cerebellum). This cell in turn relays one signal to the rest of the brain, as shown in the image below (Source: Schematic representation of the neuronal circuit of the cerebellum.).
It has long been known that people with cerebellar lesions have some highly disabling problems with their locomotion or fine motor coordination. The cerebellum was therefore long thought to be involved chiefly in coordinating and synchronizing body movements. But as neuropsychologist Jörn Diedrichsen explains, if you look at the activity of the cerebellum in brain images, you will see that about 70% of its neurons apparently have nothing to do with motor control. Only 30% really activate when the individual is performing body movements. It is now clear that this structure is involved in all of the processes for which we also use the rest of our brain: thoughts, emotions, language and even memory.
Neuroscientists now know that the cerebellum helps to coordinate schemas for numerous types of learning across time (for example, to calculate the right moment to perform a given motor action, in response to a given sensory input). It thus serves as a kind of sub-contractor that can perform this specific kind of calculation on behalf of various mental processes. Consequently, the cerebellum “lights up” in almost all of the tasks observed with brain imaging. Yet its activation often receives less analysis than that of the cortex, which is better known and more highly “valued” in research in general. Diedrichsen revealingly relates that he often receives e-mails from colleagues who ask him why the cerebellum is activating when they are observing a given task, or whether it is not actually really activating and they are instead making errors in their observations.
One example among many others might be this study published in the Journal of Neuroscience in 2017, which showed an activation of certain parts of the cerebellum when the subjects were performing a sentence-completion task. As the authors write, “These results are consistent with a role for the right posterolateral cerebellum beyond motor aspects of language, and suggest that cerebellar internal models of linguistic stimuli support semantic prediction.”
Most of the structures in the brain are in fact composed of numerous sub-regions that maintain specific connections with one another as well as with other brain structures, and the cerebellum is no exception. In its case, it is the most lateral portion, the neo- or ponto-cerebellum which developed the most during hominization, that enables rapid adjustments not only in movements but also in thoughts, and even in emotional reactions (so that they can be appropriate in the eyes of outside observers, which is not always the case following certain injuries to the cerebellum).
Images that arouse emotions activate various areas in the cerebellum, which has direct connections to the amygdala, an important emotional centre in the brain. Moreover, many emotions also have a motor component (for example, fear and its connection with the fight-or-flight reaction). The cerebellum’s tremendous computational capabilities, which are necessary for sensorimotor integration, thus seem to have been used for other neuronal processes in the course of evolution, which represents another example of neuronal recycling.
How neuronal communication began, and how brains differ from computers Tue, 21 Jul 2020 14:27:44 +0000 When you move through space, your sensory perceptions change constantly, in real time. What we call cognition can be equated with this uninterrupted flow of perception and action through by a body and a brain located in an environment. But as scientists have now told us, the modern human brain contains many neurons that are neither sensory nor motor—so many that it can sometimes be hard to realize that this perception/action loop is still the foundation of the nervous systems of primates and other animals. These interneurons, as they are called, receive nerve impulses from sensory neurons and transmit signals to other neurons, and so on. And at some point in time, after all sorts of indescribably complex detours, a motor neuron will receive signals from some of these interneurons and then be able to command a muscle to contract to make a body part move.
What distinguishes the nervous system from other communication systems in the human body, such as the endocrine and immune systems, is its speed. The time that elapses between a perception and a suitable bodily action in response can be a second or less. How do the myriad neurons in the nervous system manage to communicate with one another so rapidly?
In this regard I will refer to a 2014 article by Antonio Damasio and his colleagues that I discussed in an earlier blog post entitled From membrane excitability to subjective consciousness. These authors had investigated the nature of the disturbances that might alert a sensory nerve cell that something that concerned it was happening in its environment. These authors found that the process always started with a massive influx of small, positively charged ions, essentially sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+), into the nerve cell. Furthermore, they found that along the entire chain of transmission from neurons to neuron and ultimately to the muscles, this influx of positive ions was always the first event that occurred in a cell before the molecular mechanisms specific to each subsequent step of neuronal communication were triggered. And that’s what led them to think that a massive intrusion of sodium or calcium ions, which are abundant in the marine environment where life began, may have been the first direct signal telling the inside of a cell that something was going on outside—for example, that ions were flooding in because a predator had eaten a hole in its cell membrane, and that it had better trigger a movement to get away from this danger.
According to Damasio and his co-authors, this grounding of animal cognition in the most fundamental processes of life also explains why artificial intelligence, implemented in electronic circuits in which the flows consist of electrons, cannot have sentience in the sense that we understand animals to have it. Because these microprocessors, even though they process inputs and produce outputs in a way that is often very similar to what happens inside animal brains, do not have the intrinsic concern for their own survival that we have here seen to be associated with the inflow of positive ions into nerve cells.
Obviously, there are many other things that distinguish a brain from a computer in terms both of the “hardware” of these two systems (the number of elementary units that they contain, the degree of conductivity between them, their processing speed, etc.) and of their flexibility or plasticity. Not to mention that whereas computers perform digital computations, animal brains perform computations that are neither entirely digital nor entirely analog, but instead of a mixed type called “neuronal”. All of these considerations provide fodder for what are still very fierce debates in the cognitive sciences, such as the extent to which the brain can be said to perform computations, and what that word really means. |
1ALL undertakings depend upon finance. Hence foremost attention shall be paid to the treasury.
2Public prosperity (prachárasamriddhih), rewards for good conduct (charitránugrahah), capture of thieves, dispensing with (the service of too many) government servants, abundance of harvest, prosperity of commerce, absence of troubles and calamities (upasargapramokshah), diminution of remission of taxes, and income in gold (hiranyópáyanam) are all conducive to financial prosperity.
3Obstruction (pratibandha), loan (prayóga), trading (vyavahára), fabrication of accounts (avastára), causing the loss of revenue (parihápana), self-enjoyment (upabhóga), barter (parivartana), and defalcation (apahára) are the causes that tend to deplete the treasury.
4Failure to start an undertaking or to realise its results, or to credit its profits (to the treasury) is known as obstruction. Herein a fine of ten times the amount in question shall be imposed.
5Lending the money of the treasury on periodical interest is a loan.
6Carrying on trade by making use of government money is trading.
7These two acts shall be punished with a fine of twice the profit earned.
8Whoever makes as unripe the ripe time or as ripe the unripe time (of revenue collection) is guilty of fabrication. Herein a fine of ten times the amount (panchabandha) shall be imposed.
9Whoever lessens a fixed amount of income or enhances the expenditure is guilty of causing the loss of revenue. Herein a fine of four times the loss shall be imposed.
10Whoever enjoys himself or causes others to enjoy whatever belongs to the king is guilty of self-enjoyment. Herein death-sentence shall be passed for enjoying gems, middlemost amercement for enjoying valuable articles, and restoration of the articles together with a fine equal to their value shall be the punishment for enjoying articles of inferior value.
11The act of exchanging government articles for (similar) articles of others is barter. This offence is explained by self-enjoyment.
12Whoever does not take into the treasury the fixed amount of revenue collected, or does not spend what is ordered to be spent, or misrepresents the net revenue collected is guilty of defalcation of government money. Herein a fine of twelve times the amount shall be imposed.
13There are about forty ways of embezzlement: what is realised earlier is entered later on; what is realised later is entered earlier; what ought to be realised is not realised; what is hard to realise is shown as realised; what is collected is shown as not collected; what has not been collected is shown as collected; what is collected in part is entered as collected in full; what is collected in full is entered as collected in part; what is collected is of one sort, while what is entered is of another sort; what is realised from one source is shown as realised from another; what is payable is not paid; what is not payable is paid; not paid in time; paid untimely; small gifts made large gifts; large gifts made small gifts; what is gifted is of one sort while what is entered is of another; the real donee is one while the person entered (in the register) as donee is another; what has been taken into (the treasury) is removed while what has not been credited to it is shown as credited; raw materials that are not paid for are entered, while those that are paid for are not entered; an aggregate is scattered in pieces; scattered items are converted into an aggregate; commodities of greater value are bartered for those of small value; what is of smaller value is bartered for one of greater value; price of commodities enhanced; price of commodities lowered; number of nights increased; number of nights decreased; the year not in harmony with its months; the month not in harmony with its days; inconsistency in the transactions carried on with personal supervision (samágamavishánah); misrepresentation of the source of income; inconsistency in giving charities; incongruity in representing the work turned out; inconsistency in dealing with fixed items; misrepresentation of test marks or the standard of fineness (of gold and silver); misrepresentation of prices of commodities; making use of false weight and measures; deception in counting articles; and making use of false cubic measures such as bhájan— these are the several ways of embezzlement.
14Under the above circumstances, the persons concerned such as the treasurer (nidháyaka), the prescriber (nibandhaka), the receiver (pratigráhaka), the payer (dáyaka), the person who caused the payment (dápaka), the ministerial servants of the officer (mantri-vaiyávrityakara) shall each be separately examined. If any one of these tells a lie, he shall receive the same punishment as the chief-officer, (yukta) who committed the offence.
15A proclamation in public (prachára) shall be made to the effect “whoever has suffered at the hands of this offender may make their grievances known to the king.”
16Those who respond to the call shall receive such compensation as is equal to the loss they have sustained.
17When there are a number of offences in which a single officer is involved, and when his being guilty of parókta in any one of those charges has been established, he shall be answerable for all those offences. Otherwise (i.e., when it is not established), he shall be tried for each of the charges.
18When a government servant has been proved to be guilty of having misappropriated part of a large sum in question, he shall be answerable for the whole.
19Any informant (súchaka) who supplies information about embezzlement just under perpetration shall, if he succeeds in proving it, get as reward one-sixth of the amount in question; if he happens to be a government servant (bhritaka), he shall get for the same act one-twelfth of the amount.
20If an informant succeeds in proving only a part of a big embezzlement, he shall, nevertheless, get the prescribed share of the part of the embezzled amount proved.
21An informant who fails to prove (his assertion) shall be liable to monetary or corporal punishment, and shall never be acquitted.
22When the charge is proved, the informant may impute the tale-bearing to someone else or clear himself in any other way from the blame. Any informant who withdraws his assertion prevailed upon by the insinuations of the accused shall be condemned to death. |
Earth Magnets
The Programs Of Earth Magnets
earth magnets
Earth magnets are unique magnetic properties, which make them particularly useful for many different applications. A type of rare earth magnetic substance called moissanite is used extensively in modern automobile parts, and its exceptionally magnetic properties have made it a much desired metal for such functions. Rare-earth alloys are those with the maximum proportion of magnetizing components – usually iron or titanium – of any additional substance. Earth magnets have yet another advantage in that they are highly resistant to rust, which makes them great for use in ship-breaking software. The high level of resistance to corrosion means the magnets used in boat breaking require a much larger supply of rare earth alloys than would be required to be used in different applications, along with the large number of those metals used makes this a very cost-effective method of magnet fabrication.
Aside from their use in the auto industry, earth magnets are utilized widely in a number of other applications requiring powerful, durable magnets that are less expensive to produce than traditional metallic parts. These include home appliances, watches, sports equipment, health equipment, jewellery and even weaponry. The higher durability and strength afforded by rare earth magnets mean that these pieces are far more capable of holding their shape than conventional metallic pieces. This usually means that these magnets are much less costly to create, meaning that the software requiring them are also able to purchase them for a bigger overall expenditure.
Earth magnets have a number of different attributes that also make them exceptionally useful in a vast array of applications. For example, magnets using high electric resistance are more powerful than non-magnetic magnets and are often utilized to decrease the weight and energy consumption of electric vehicles. The magnetic field created by means of an earth magnet behaves like an external strong electric field, so like iron, they can also be utilized to generate power in extreme conditions. But, unlike iron, magnetized iron will get soft and twisted when placed close to a metallic surface, therefore it is not quite as effective as galvanized steel.
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Mercury is simply grey.
If we have any young painters and fans of outer space in the house, we have an out-of-this-world craft for you. That way once the planets are finished you can glue them right into the base. FAQ: Q. Spray Paint Art How-To #1: Basic Planets Now we need to make a shadow of the planet. Before the paint dries you should take a sheet of glossy paper, attach to the half of the circle, iron and gently peel it off. Planets Coloring Pag... 1000x1000 129 0. Venus is two steps: paint the whole thing white then while that paint is still wet streak in some yellow. So, go ahead and do that. I'm not good with giving directions, but if you have any questions, I'll do my best to answer them.
While the paint is wet, quickly crumble a piece of newspaper, open it, and lay it on top of the painted planet area, very gently run your fingers on top of the paper. Cut a 12-inch circle out of the cardboard box using the scissors. PRO TIP: Wear an old shirt or smock to protect your clothing and have fun! Create your adhesive in a separate bowl, then tear your paper into strips, dip them in the adhesive, and cover the balloon's surface with them. Do so twice and the texture is ready(if somewhere is not printed, just repeat the process). Paint the whole base black and then splash on some white stars. We collected 39+ Planets Drawing For Kids paintings in our online museum of paintings - PaintingValley.com.
Next, gather 5 polystyrene balls in various sizes to represent gas giants like the sun, Jupiter, and Neptune. Draw … You can also go from dark to light colors, which creates a lighter planet.
Things you’ll need .
This will lift some of the paints and create a cool texture on the planets. The first time may not work because it is a matter of practice, you need to spend a fat curve in black a little going to the planet. Find the center of the cardboard and make a black dot using the marker. Paint the largest ball yellow, then paint the remaining planets. Allow the planets to dry. Painting Planets Craft PIN IT. Step 7 Create stars on the ceiling using a fine-tipped brush and white or light yellow paint, or use a glow-in-the-dark paint for maximum effect. Paint the planets.
To make a planet model with papier mache, blow up a balloon slightly until you have a round shape, tie off the end, and place the balloon in a bowl. Paint the Sun a nice bright yellow. ADVERTISEMENT. Paint the planets in different colors and use different patterns to make them speckled or streaked. Like JPG.
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6 ways to protect yourself from eye strain, according to someone who’s online a lot
Talks about blue light and its potentially harmful effects on our sleep patterns and eye health aren’t new, but up to now, experts are debating the necessity of using glasses that block it.
While there’s no concrete evidence yet on how much blue light exposure damages our eyes, using blue light-blocking glasses may benefit some people who are sensitive to glare and contrasts and reduce eye strain. Those who like working at night or have trouble falling asleep because of the melatonin-stopping effect of blue light may also find these glasses helpful.
Blue light-blocking glasses from Ideal Vision
As for eye strain, some people who have used it may even tell you that their eyes feel less tired because of the glasses. But here’s the thing: Some experts think that this might just be a placebo effect.
They say that the problem isn’t with the blue light radiated by our phones and laptops themselves. Instead, it’s our destructive screen habits throughout the day that harm our vision and cause eye strain. You might as well wear prescription or nonprescription glasses without the blue light-blocking feature and still feel relieved from eye strain—or better yet, develop these healthier screen habits from now on.
Prescription glasses from Ideal Vision
Don’t forget to blink
Blinking might be an involuntary eye movement, but the tendency to “forget” it when we’re too focused on something actually exists—and it’s a contributing factor to eye fatigue. Blinking lubricates our eyes and saves them from dryness and irritation, so it’s important that you don’t skip it for long periods of time.
Practice computer distancing
People aren’t the only ones you’d need to keep a distance from right now. For your eye health, it is recommended that you sit at least an arm’s length—around 25 inches—away from your computer screen. It is also better to position your device in a way that lets you look down at it, instead of being at exact eyesight level.
Do the 20-20-20 method
Here’s a piece of advice from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Every 20 minutes, look at something at least 20 feet away for 20 seconds. This gives your eye muscles ample time to relax, and you can even sneak in a few stretches to benefit other parts of your body while doing so.
Usher in some brightness
A bit of brightness in your life might just be the solution to reducing eye strain. Make sure to have adequate lighting in your room (or wherever you use your electronic devices) especially at night, so that you can avoid squinting at your screen every minute. You can also choose to adjust the brightness or increase the contrast on the screen of your device.
Get your eyes checked
If the eye strain that you feel becomes unbearable, you might want to consult with an optometrist or ophthalmologist or take a digitalized eye exam at Ideal Vision. While most cases are just temporary discomfort that gets solved by lessening your exposure to electronic devices, it could actually end up being a symptom of a more serious condition.
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Ask Eartha: Bee colony collaspe a consequence of liberal use of herbicides |
Dear Eartha,
My dad is set in his ways and continues to use Roundup on the weeds in his yard and garden. I’ve heard of the adverse effects of pesticides, namely colony collapse disorder in bee populations. He insists that using Roundup does not hurt the bees because it’s an herbicide not an insecticide. How should I respond?
— Cecily, Dillon Valley
Herbicides such as Roundup can harm bees, other pollinators, humans and the environment. Herbicides account for about 70 percent of all agricultural pesticide use.
Dear Cecily,
Old habits die hard, right? Your father is correct. Roundup is an herbicide not an insecticide. Herbicides are used to kill unwanted plants, insecticides are used to kill unwanted insects. The term “pesticide” refers to herbicides, insecticides and fungicides. Insecticides, namely, neonicotinic insecticides are considered one of the primary culprits of colony collapse disorder in bees.
You may be asking what neonicotinoids are. I wrote a previous Ask Eartha on colony collapse disorder and neonicotinoids several months back. To refresh your memory, neonicotinoids are chemically similar to nicotine and affect the nervous system of insects, especially bees, often resulting in paralysis and death. Without these essential pollinators, crop production is seriously jeopardized. Imidacloprid, one of six other families of neonicotinoids, is the most widely used insecticide in the world so it is little wonder we are hearing so much about colony collapse disorder.
So what is wrong with chemically based herbicides? Herbicides such as Roundup can harm bees, other pollinators, humans and the environment. Herbicides account for about 70 percent of all agricultural pesticide use. Roundup is a popular herbicide used in commercial crop production and the home and garden market. It was first brought to market by Monsanto in the 1970s. Originally known as glyphosate, Roundup is a broad-spectrum herbicide used to kill weeds. With the advent of genetically modified crops, many of which have been genetically engineered to be glyphosate-resistant, farmers have been using it in excess.
When glyphosate is used, it not only kills the weeds but the blooming plants in field borders. This can lead to poor nutrition in bees and make them susceptible to stress diseases. Furthermore, the use of herbicides used in tandem with insecticides and fungicides can have a synergistic effect on toxicity levels.
According to Natural Health News and Scientific Discoveries, “… most chemicals currently in use were only safety tested in isolation — if they were even safety tested at all.” Toxicity is also exacerbated by the process of food irradiation. When the chemical cocktail is exposed to radiation, the toxicity of the chemicals are increased substantially.
A study by the University of Maryland found that a commonly used fungicide can impede the bee’s ability to fight off a potentially lethal parasite. The bottom line is, it’s not just the chemically based insecticides that are effecting the bees, it’s the herbicides and fungicides as well.
Try convincing your dad to use non-chemical based pesticides. Here is a great recipe for weed-be-gone. It’s cheaper than store bought pesticides and will kill just about anything you spray with it.
Weed-be-gone recipe
1 gallon vinegar
2 cups Epsom salt
¼ cup Dawn dish soap (the blue original)
Just mix and spray in the morning after the dew has evaporated. Walk away. Go back after dinner and the weeds are gone!
Another alternative is integrated pest management. This technique involves planting something like mustard around vulnerable lettuce so the mustard gets munched on and not the lettuce. You can also attract beneficial insects that will eat the larvae of aphids, mites and thrips. Attract them by planting wild bergamot, sweet alyssum and English lavender.
Try using sticky traps to trap those pesky buggers! To make your own sticky trap cut rectangular pieces of plastic or wood, paint them yellow and coat the traps with Tangle-Trap, vegetable oil, or another sticky material. Then suspend them near your plants.
Consider getting a bat box and place it near your garden. Bats love to eat all kinds of pesky insects that would otherwise devour your garden. In fact, HC3 recently acquired a bat box that we placed in The Living Classroom Garden in the back of our office. We hope a number of bats will make their home in it. There are many ways to control pests naturally. It just takes a little creativity and ingenuity.
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Medical marijuana may reduce opioid deaths
Not just an excuse to get high.
Fighting the battle against opioid addiction epidemic with a new tool.
In recent years, a new addiction epidemic has taken hold on across the US. Opioids, prescribed legally if recklessly for chronic pain conditions, have led millions into an addiction that is easy to slip into, excruciatingly difficult to kick, and yet ineffective for the chronic pain they were prescribed to treat.
Millions of Americans suffer from chronic pain conditions, for which many receive prescriptions for opioid-based pain relievers such as OxyContin or Vicodin.
What are opioids?
Opiates refer to drugs made from the opium poppy. Opioids are similar drugs made artificially. Drugs that fall into this class include heroin, oxycodone, morphine and others. Opiates provide short-term relief from pain. Opioids such as OxyContin were developed to deliver longer-acting relief. However, studies have shown that they are not effective for long-term use. But they are extremely addictive, leading countless pain suffers to become inadvertently addicted. Moreover, they are easily acquired, leading to their rise in abuse for non-medical street use for getting high, sometimes surpassing heroin in popularity.
Consider these chilling statistics:
• In 2015, 1.9 million Americans were dependent on or abusing prescription opioids, as compared to 517,000 Americans who were addicted to heroin.
• The number of prescription opioid overdose deaths increased by 91.2% from 1999 to 2002.
• In 2013, over 100 Americans died every single day from opioid overdose; 46 died each day from prescription opioid overdoses.
• About 75% of opioid addiction disease patients switch to heroin as a cheaper opioid source.
• In 2012, 259 million opioid pain medication prescriptions were written, enough for every adult in America to have a bottle of pills.
Health officials across the country call this an epidemic. And, in many cases, people using prescription painkillers move on to heroin use. Both prescription painkillers and heroin are easily available on the street, but heroin is cheaper.
And, as the aging of America continues, chronic pain issues will affect more and more of the population. With statistics showing that there are more than 100 million chronic pain patients today, how can we both relieve their pain and still prevent opioid painkiller addiction and deaths?
One toke at a time: Medical marijuana may be the answer.
Several new studies by the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) showed some intriguing results. Although their research did not confirm marijuana’s effectiveness for every ailment it has been claimed to help, one area it did confirm was marijuana’s effectiveness for alleviating chronic pain.
(JAMA acknowledges that the amount of research is limited due to the difficulty of conducting studies on a Schedule 1 drug, as marijuana is still classified. Schedule 1 drugs are defined as having no medical value, and are strictly controlled. Until it has been proven to have medical value, it is almost impossible to do effective research, which could show whether it has any medical value. Yes, you read that right. It’s a classic Catch-22.)
Even within the confines of such limited research, the clear findings that marijuana can help chronic pain suggest that it might substitute for much more dangerous opioids. A previous JAMA Psychiatry study found that opioid painkiller use has contributed to the rising use of heroin, another opioid, which is even deadlier and more addictive than painkillers.
In 2015, a JAMA study found that prescription painkiller deaths dropped in states that allowed both medical marijuana and dispensaries.
This is huge. If medical marijuana can substitute for opioid painkillers effectively, it will represent an enormous public health benefit, both in lives saved and treatment costs. No one has ever died of a marijuana overdose.
Forget, for now, whether medical marijuana can be an effective treatment for other disorders. If marijuana can do nothing else but replace opioids, it will save countless lives and reduce the cost of treating addiction and overdoses.
The newest study showed that states with laws that allow medical marijuana dispensaries have seen a relative reduction in opioid overdose deaths and addiction treatment admissions.
A paper from the RAND Corporation concurred, concluding, “Our findings suggest that providing broader access to medical marijuana may have the potential benefit of reducing abuse of highly addictive painkillers.”
States that allow medical marijuana but do not allow dispensaries did not show the same reduce in opioid deaths, presumably because it was more difficult to obtain for those who were seeking pain relief only and may not have the same access as recreational users.
If marijuana can relieve chronic pain more effectively than opioids with none of the problems of addiction and overdose potential, it could be a boon to the 100 million Americans who suffer from chronic pain. Marijuana may not only have valid medical use, but it may prove to be a superior medicine than legal drugs currently prescribed.
Out-of-date attitudes and an archaic and paradoxical classification of marijuana need to change immediately. It’s not about stoners and getting buzzed. Medical marijuana can save lives.
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How Many Dogs Have Been to Space?
Suborbital Flights:
Credit: Wikipedia Commons (.ru)
Orbital Flights:
Animals in Space
Astronomy Cast has an episode on space capsules.
What Animals Have Been to Space?
When we think of astronauts, we think of humans. But there have been plenty of animals who have traveled in space as well.
When we think of spaceflight, we think astronauts. You’re a human, you perceive the Universe with your human-centric attitudes. You… specist.
The reality is that the vast number of living things sent to space were our animal buddies. This is a tough topic to hit, as it’s kinda sad. More sensitive animal loving viewers might want might to skip this one, or at least grab some tissue. Just don’t shoot the messenger.
We’ve thrown so many different kinds of animals into space, a better question might be: what animals haven’t been in space? It’s a Noah’s Ark salad of living things.
Mice, monkeys, fish, reptiles, frogs, insects, dogs, and of course, those hardy hardy tardigrades, who laugh at the rigors of spaceflight, and eat vacuum for breakfast. We’ve brought them all home safe and sound. Well, some of them. A good number of them. All the tardigrades are fine. I think.
At the beginning of the space age, scientists sent a series of animals in high altitude balloons to test the physical demands of spaceflight. Scientists had no idea whether creatures could even survive high altitude or radiation, so they sent insects, mammals and even primates nearly halfway to space.
This is how we roll. Mostly we make all kinds of weird assumptions about what might happen, and really it’s better to send a handful of bugs than a person. When we first worked out flight, there were concerns all the air would get sucked out of our lungs and we’d just pass out. Sometimes we get a little freaked out.
This high altitude business all seemed to go well enough. So they packed the poor creatures, I mean our brave animal adventurer friends onto left-over German V-2 rockets and fired them on ballistic trajectories, including a few monkeys.
The Russians… oooh, Russians… were the first to send dogs into space, with Tsygan and Dezik. They didn’t actually reach orbit, and were both brought home safely. Good dogs!
Sputnik 2
Laika inside Sputnik 2
Here’s the one you’re waiting for… Laika was launched aboard the second spacecraft to ever orbit the Earth, Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957. At that point, scientists weren’t sure if humans could even survive spaceflight, or if we’d just dissolve after soiling our space pantaloons.
Oh, you hu-mans. Soviets chose the toughest dog they could find, a stray mutt they found living on the streets of Moscow. You can’t make this stuff up. Well, I could.
If I did, I’d make it more like, they went to the toughest dog bar in all of Moscow and met the bouncer, Laika at a high stakes winner take all poker-slash-Russian roulette game for all the bones, in a dark smokey dog house in the back.
Originally, it was reported Laika lasted 6 days in orbit, but in 2002, it was uncovered that she actually died shortly after launch. Either way, Laika was doomed, as technology to recover a capsule from space was still a few years off. Apparently there was some kind of race on.
Five months after launch, Sputnik 2 burned up in the Earth’s atmosphere, and Laika’s name still lives on to this day in legend.
In the 50s and 60s, there was a whole series of monkeys sent to space. A third survived their flights and then went on to live long monkey lives, reminiscing about their days of monkey glory hanging out in the primate version of that bar in “The Right Stuff”.
In 1961, Ham the Chimp was sent into space on board a Mercury-Redstone rocket. Ham was trained to believe he was flying the spacecraft. The brave little tyke demonstrated that human astronauts could do the same, as long as they were rewarded with fruit.
Three months later, Alan Shepard followed in Ham’s footsteps, becoming the first American in space. Whether the fruit rewards program was retained is classified.
Chimps in Space
Ham, the Chimpanzee
From that point on, it was a river of living things traveling into space: crickets, ants, spiders, newts, frogs, fish, jellyfish, sea urchins, snails and shrimp.
Even cockroaches. Seriously, somebody thought that would be a good idea. I suspect it was part of some kind of secret Atomic SuperRoach program.
One of the most poignant stories of animals traveling to space has got to be the nematode worms that flew to orbit with the Space Shuttle Columbia in 2003.
When the shuttle tore up on re-entry, killing all 7 astronauts, the nematode worms survived the re-entry and crash landing. There were 60 other science experiments on board Columbia, many of which included animals: fish, insects, spiders, bees and even silk worms. Only the nematodes survived.
It wasn’t the originals that they found. Nematodes have a lifecycle of 7-10 days, so the ones they discovered were probably 5th generation removed from the initial spaceketeers.
As you can see, we aren’t the only creatures to go to space. In fact, we’re the minority. Space belongs to the tardigrades, mice and nematode worms.
I for one welcome our horrible waterbear overlords.
Okay, I’m going to brace myself for this one. Do you think it’s ethical to use animals in spaceflight? Tell us your opinion in the comments below.
Who was the First Dog to go into Space?
Animals in Space
Before man ever set foot on the moon or achieved the dream of breaking the Earth’s gravity and going into space, a dog did it first! Really, a dog? Well… yes, if the topic is the first animal to go into space, then it was a dog that beat man to the punch by about four years. The dog’s name was Laika, a member (after a fashion) of the Russian cosmonaut program. She was the first animal to go into space, to orbit the Earth, and, as an added – though dubious – honor, was also the first animal to die in space. Laika’s sacrifice paved the way for human spaceflight and also taught the Russians a few things about what would be needed in order for a human to survive a spaceflight.
Part of the Sputnik program, Laika’s was launched with the Sputnik 2 craft, the second spacecraft launched into Earth orbit. The satellite contained two cabins, one for its “crew”, the other for its various scientific instruments, which included radio transmitters, a telemetry system, temperature controls for the cabin, a programming unit, and two photometers for measuring solar radiation (ultraviolent and x-ray emissions) and cosmic rays. Like Sputnik 1, the satellite’s launch vehicle the R-7 Semyorka rocket, a ballistic missile that was responsible for placing the satellite into the upper atmosphere.
The mission began on November 3rd, 1957 and lasted 162 days before the orbit finally decayed and it fell back to Earth. No provisions were made for getting Laika safely back to Earth so it was expected ahead of time that she would die after ten days. However, it is now known that Laika died within a matter of hours after deployment from the R-7. At the time, the Soviet Union said she died painlessly while in orbit. More recent evidence however, suggests that she died as a result of overheating and panic. This was due to a series of technical problems which resulted from a botched deployment. The first was the damage that was done to the thermal system during separation, the second was some of the satellite’s thermal insulation being torn loose. As a result of these two mishaps, temperatures in the cabin reached over 40º C.
In spite of her untimely death, Laika’s flight astonished the world and outraged many animal rights activists. Her accomplishment was honored by many countries through a series of commemorative stamps. The mission itself also taught the Russians a great deal about the behavior of a living organism in space and brought back data about Earth’s outer radiation belt, which would be the subject of interests for future missions.
We have written many articles about Laika for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the first animal in space, and here’s an article about Russia sending monkeys to Mars.
If you’d like more info on Laika, check out NASA’s Imagine the Universe Article about Laika, and here’s a link to The First Dog in Space Article.
We’ve also recorded an entire episode of Astronomy Cast all about the Space Capsules. Listen here, Episode 124: Space Capsules, Part 1 – Vostok, Mercury and Gemini. |
Lübeck law
The Lübeck law was the constitution of a municipal form of government developed at Lübeck
in Schleswig-Holstein
Schleswig-Holstein is the northernmost of the sixteen states of Germany, comprising most of the historical duchy of Holstein and the southern part of the former Duchy of Schleswig...
after it was made a free city
Free Imperial City
in 1226. The law provides for self-government. It replaced the personal rule of tribal monarchs descending from ancient times or the rule of the regional dukes and kings that had been established by Charlemagne
. The latter held all of his aristocratic vassals personally responsible for the defence, health and welfare of the tribesmen settled on their estates, including the towns. The Lübeck Law in theory made the cities to which it applied independent of royalty.
Lübeck set about spreading its form of government to other cities around the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
. Eventually about 100 adopted a government based on the law. It still serves as a foundation for German town law
German town law
German town law or German municipal concerns concerns town privileges used by many cities, towns, and villages throughout Central and Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages.- Town law in Germany :...
s in many of those cities. Later in the 13th century, cities governed by the Lübeck Law formed into a powerful trade association, the Hanseatic League
Hanseatic League
The Hanseatic League was an economic alliance of trading cities and their merchant guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe...
, which amounted to a confederacy with headquarters at Lübeck.
An official Lübeck law transcript was never available or used until the revised edition of 1586 was printed by printer Johann Balhorn, but rather Lübeck was the a leader in German cities giving rights to town citizens and overturning aristocratic
privilege. This was the basis for the Dortmund code
Dortmund is a city in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of North Rhine-Westphalia, in the Ruhr area. Its population of 585,045 makes it the 7th largest city in Germany and the 34th largest in the European Union....
in Westphalia
, the Goslar code
Goslar is a historic town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the administrative centre of the district of Goslar and located on the northwestern slopes of the Harz mountain range. The Old Town of Goslar and the Mines of Rammelsberg are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.-Geography:Goslar is situated at the...
in Saxony
Old Saxony
Old Saxony is the original homeland of the Saxons in the northwest corner of modern Germany and roughly corresponds today with the contemporary Lower Saxony, Westphalia and western Saxony-Anhalt....
and the Magdeburg rights
Magdeburg rights
Magdeburg Rights or Magdeburg Law were a set of German town laws regulating the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages granted by a local ruler. Modelled and named after the laws of the German city of Magdeburg and developed during many centuries of the Holy Roman Empire, it was...
in East-Central
East-Central Europe
East-Central Europe – a term defining the countries located between German-speaking countries and Russia. Those lands are described as situated “between two”: between two worlds, between two stages, between two futures...
and East European
Eastern Europe
towns. References to 'German Law' in the Middle Ages mean laws sprung from the Lübeck law at root.
Main principle
The Lübeck law provided that a city should be governed by a Rat (Council), having 20 Ratsherrn (council members). They were not elected by the citizens, but they would appoint a new member on their own from the city's merchant guilds, considering a key of representation of the guilds in the Rat of the city. The period of office was in principle 2 years, but the Rat could ask a Ratsherr to stay in office, which usually happened, so that the election was for life. The Rat then elected up to four Bürgermeister (burgomaster
Burgomaster is the English form of various terms in or derived from Germanic languages for the chief magistrate or chairman of the executive council of a sub-national level of administration...
, mayor) out of its own row, who shared the power of government. The "first burgomaster", usually the eldest of them, acted as a primus inter pares
Primus inter pares
Primus inter pares is Latin phrase describing the most senior person of a group sharing the same rank or office.When not used in reference to a specific title, it may indicate that the person so described is formally equal, but looked upon as an authority of special importance by their peers...
. These rules were in force up to the middle of the 19th century. The burgomasters stayed in office as long as they could, but there are quite a few examples from the Middle Ages in which burgomasters of Hanseatic League cities were sentenced to death for unsuccessful politics.
This model of a city government provided that only the most experienced, influential and personally most successful merchants - and a few lawyers, called Syndics - became member of the Rat. It was also a rule that a father and his son, or brothers, could never be members of the Rat at the same time, so that influential families could not get a larger influence on the city's politics.
Cities with Lübeck law
• Lübeck
• 1188 - Hamburg
• 1218 - Rostock
Rostock -Early history:In the 11th century Polabian Slavs founded a settlement at the Warnow river called Roztoc ; the name Rostock is derived from that designation. The Danish king Valdemar I set the town aflame in 1161.Afterwards the place was settled by German traders...
• 1226 - Wittenburg
Wittenburg is a town in the district Ludwigslust-Parchim in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Population 5570, area 46.25 km². Wittenburg should not be confused with the much bigger Wittenberg....
• 1234 - Stralsund
- Main sights :* The Brick Gothic historic centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.* The heart of the old town is the Old Market Square , with the Gothic Town Hall . Behind the town hall stands the imposing Nikolaikirche , built in 1270-1360...
• 1236 - Plön
Plön is the district seat of the Plön district in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, and has about 13,000 inhabitants. It lies right on the shores of Schleswig-Holstein's biggest lake, the Great Plön Lake, as well as on several smaller lakes, touching the town on virtually all sides...
• 1238 - Itzehoe
Itzehoe is a town in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein.As the capital of the district Steinburg, Itzehoe is located on the Stör, a navigable tributary of the Elbe, 51 km northwest of Hamburg and 24 km north of Glückstadt...
• 1242 - Kiel
Kiel is the capital and most populous city in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, with a population of 238,049 .Kiel is approximately north of Hamburg. Due to its geographic location in the north of Germany, the southeast of the Jutland peninsula, and the southwestern shore of the...
• 1243 - Tondern
• 1246 - Elbing (Elbląg
Elbląg is a city in northern Poland with 127,892 inhabitants . It is the capital of Elbląg County and has been assigned to the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship since 1999. Before then it was the capital of Elbląg Voivodeship and a county seat in Gdańsk Voivodeship...
• 1248 - Reval (Tallinn
Tallinn is the capital and largest city of Estonia. It occupies an area of with a population of 414,940. It is situated on the northern coast of the country, on the banks of the Gulf of Finland, south of Helsinki, east of Stockholm and west of Saint Petersburg. Tallinn's Old Town is in the list...
• 1250 - Greifswald
Greifswald , officially, the University and Hanseatic City of Greifswald is a town in northeastern Germany. It is situated in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, at an equal distance of about from Germany's two largest cities, Berlin and Hamburg. The town borders the Baltic Sea, and is crossed...
• 1253 - Damgarten
Ribnitz-Damgarten is a town in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is situated at the Ribnitzer See . Ribnitz-Damgarten is the largest town of the district Vorpommern-Rügen, but not its capital.-Geography:...
• 1254 or 1258 - Memel (Klaipėda
Klaipėda is a city in Lithuania situated at the mouth of the Nemunas River where it flows into the Baltic Sea. It is the third largest city in Lithuania and the capital of Klaipėda County....
• 1255 - Kolberg (Kołobrzeg)
• 1260 - Dirschau (Tczew
Tczew is a town on the Vistula River in Eastern Pomerania, Kociewie, northern Poland with 60,279 inhabitants . It is an important railway junction with a classification yard dating to the Prussian Eastern Railway...
• before 1263 - Gdańsk (Danzig)
Gdańsk is a Polish city on the Baltic coast, at the centre of the country's fourth-largest metropolitan area.The city lies on the southern edge of Gdańsk Bay , in a conurbation with the city of Gdynia, spa town of Sopot, and suburban communities, which together form a metropolitan area called the...
, the name used there was e.g. Danceke
• 1282 - Wolgast
Wolgast is a town in the district of Vorpommern-Greifswald, in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is situated on the bank of the river Peenestrom, vis-a-vis the island of Usedom that can be accessed by road and railway via a bascule bridge...
• 1282 - Wilster
-History:Wilster was granted town rights under Lübeck law in 1282, and thereby counts itself among Schleswig-Holstein's oldest towns. Wilster forms the centre of the Wilstermarsch, a major cattle raising area in Germany....
• 1284 - Braunsberg (Braniewo
Braniewo is a town in northeastern Poland, in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, with a population of 18,068 . It is the capital of Braniewo County...
• 1302 - Wesenberg (Rakvere
Rakvere is a town in northern Estonia and the county seat of Lääne-Viru County, 20 km south of the Gulf of Finland.-History:The earliest signs of human settlement dating back to the 3rd-5th centuries AD have been found on the present theatre hill. Probably to protect that settlement, a wooden...
• 1310 - Stolp (Słupsk)
• 1310 - Neustettin (Szczecinek
Szczecinek [] is a city in Middle Pomerania, northwestern Poland with some 39,777 inhabitants . Previously in Koszalin Voivodeship , it has been the capital of Szczecinek County in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship since 1999...
• 1312 - Rügenwalde (Darłowo)
• 1313 - Pollnow (Polanów
Polanów is a town in Poland, in West Pomeranian Voivodeship, in Koszalin County. It has 3,001 inhabitants .- Points of interest :* Gołogóra transmitter, a facility for FM-/TV-broadcasting with 2 guyed masts, which are 271 respectively 115 metres tall-External links:* *...
• 1317 - Schlawe (Sławno)
• 1343 - Zanow (Sianów
Sianów is a town in Poland, in West Pomeranian Voivodeship, in Koszalin County. It has 6,520 inhabitants .-External links:**...
• 1345 - Narva
Narva is the third largest city in Estonia. It is located at the eastern extreme point of Estonia, by the Russian border, on the Narva River which drains Lake Peipus.-Early history:...
• 1613 - Bergen auf Rügen
Bergen auf Rügen
Bergen auf Rügen is the capital of the former district of Rügen in the middle of the island of Rügen in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Since 1 January 2005, Bergen has moreover been the administrative seat of the Amt of Bergen auf Rügen, which with a population of over 23,000 is...
• Hapsal (Haapsalu
Haapsalu is a seaside resort town located on the west coast of Estonia. It's the administrative centre of Lääne County and has a population of 11,618 ....
• Velikiy Novgorod
• Wismar
Wismar , is a small port and Hanseatic League town in northern Germany on the Baltic Sea, in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern,about 45 km due east of Lübeck, and 30 km due north of Schwerin. Its natural harbour, located in the Bay of Wismar is well-protected by a promontory. The...
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Homework help industrial revolution
French revolution homework help
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Syntax error for loop python
I& # x27; m facing what seems to be a really dumb problem. I& # x27; m trying to create a & # x27; 2d& # x27; list in python but a syntax erro. I keep getting a syntax error on the while loop,. Browse other questions tagged python loops syntax while- loop or ask your own question. Invalid syntax in " for item in L" loop. caused by a problem that can no longer be reproduced or a simple typographical error. a do- while loop in Python? try: ip = float( input( " Enter a number to find it& # x27; s absolute value ( press & # x27; e& # x27; to exit) : " ) ) if ip = = & # x27; e& # x27; : break Python is saying that break is outside of the loop. Python for Loop Statements - Learn Python in simple and easy steps starting from basic to advanced concepts with examples including Python Syntax Object Oriented Language, Methods, Tuples, Tools/ Utilities, Exceptions Handling, Sockets, GUI, Extentions, XML Programming. Originally Answered: Why do I keep on getting invalid syntax error in Python while using " else" function? How do I use for and while loops in Python? Python Loop with Syntax and Examples.
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Syntax error loop
Python for loop can iterate over a sequence. It causes a syntax error in the shell. Learn: Python Operators with Syntax. |
To kill a mocking bird summary?
Could someone sort of summarise what the "To kill a mocking bird" is about. I know it's about racism. But could you extend on that. And is it only talking about racism to black people?
1 Answer
• 1 decade ago
Favorite Answer
A girl called Scout (Jean Louise) Finch lives in a small town in Alabama during the '50s. Her father, Atticus, is a lawyer, and she has an older brother named Jem. The two kids with their friend Dill become really interested in the neighborhood "spook," a man named "Boo", really Arthur, Radley who appears never to leave his house. The children half-believe the silly tales that Boo haunts the neighborhood at night, feeding on squirrels, etc. As the kids grow up, they occasionally find little gifts in the knothole of an oak tree near their house. Atticus Finch, who is a lawyer, agrees to defend Tom Robinson, an upstanding black citizen accused of raping Mayella Ewell. Everyone in Maycomb (the town) knows that the Ewells are trash, and in the course of a very controversial trial, it becomes clear that Mayella's father Bob Ewell really raped her. Nonetheless, the jury convicts Robinson and sends him to jail, where he is later shot trying to escape. Bob Ewell is angry with Atticus for having humiliated him. On Halloween, as Jem and Scout are returning late from a Halloween party (Scout dressed as a ham), Ewell attacks them in the woods and Jem breaks his arm and falls on Scout, immobilizing her. But just as Ewell is about to strike, Boo Radley stabs him. As Radley has a mental deficiency, Atticus and the police inspector determine that it would be pointlessly cruel to put Boo on trial (like killing a mockingbird). At the end, Scout realizes that Radley has been watching them for some time and has been leaving them the gifts in the knothole.
The book talks about prejudice, specifically prejudice against black people and people with mental disabilities, but it's message is decidedly not limited to these two parties.
Still have questions? Get your answers by asking now. |
Trade Union: an organized association of workers in a trade, group of trades, or profession, formed to protect and further their rights and interests.
The power of the oppressed worker, trampled on by a flood of globalization, cheated by faceless foreigners, has become a rather romanticized notion in British politics. The weathered and weary faces of the likes of Corbyn and Farage, promising something better, have failed to deliver thus far. Maybe this is why Unite leader Len McCluskey has declared that he will consider illegal strikes over public sector pay, breaking turnout rules needed to qualify a strike as legitimate, that were brought in by the Conservative Party. As pressing as worker concerns may be, supporting illegal action will signal the end of union power at a time where it is needed more than ever. This tactic has been adopted by a union leader previously renound for his support of Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn. From funding his leadership bid, to offering his support to the Labour General Election campaign, it is undoubtedly true that Corbyn would not have seen his unexpected success without the backing of Unite. However, it is untenable for Corbyn to support illegal actions by the unions as this would undermine his own role as a lawmaker.
Therefore, by making this announcement McCluskey is cutting himself off from the conventional route of patronage that he was previously successfully pursuing to grow union power in Britain. This is problematic in two ways. Firstly, it signals to political parties that unions are an unreliable or politically toxic form of base support. Relying so much on unions already drew a lot of criticism for Corbyn and by making unions illegal, outsider institutions, this kind of action will only add to the disincentives of future political figures to listen to union concerns and make them a key player in the decision making progress. Secondly, it alienates public support as people begin to label striking workers as militant and unreasonable. This means they are less likely to back any given strike, making it easier for the government to brush off the issues that underpinned it without voters objecting. Not only will the illegal strikes undermine the key mechanisms of support for unions, but they are also not even likely to be effective. If a government were to give in to an organization that had so publicly declared breaking the law as one of its tactics, this would only encourage other unions and groups to adopt the same tactics to get results for their causes. It will always seem easier to a government to wait out one illegal strike than to set a precedent for more of the same in the future. By undertaking illegal actions, strikers leave the government with no choice but to reject their concerns.
At best, McCluskey’s new stance will create fragments of legislation in the short-term, but in the long-term unions need crucial partisan and public support to achieve a voice for their members and this cannot happen with illegal striking as a tactic. In the context of a Britain that is leaving the EU and losing many of the worker safety nets that have been so crucial over the past few decades, it is more important than ever that union leaders act pragmatically, rather than being swept along in a haze of justice seeking anger. There is no question that life is getting harder for the average worker and that the people that Len McCluskey represents are being let down by the modern British economy. But turning against the law is not the solution. Continuing a system of pursuing legislation, lobbying, growing public awareness and direct involvement in political parties is the only hope that Unite has. McClusky would be foolish to throw away the symbiotic relationship he has developed with Jeremy Corbyn, because if he does so, he will be signing the death warrant of union power for good. |
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
Many scholars often wonder of questions framed as “At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *”? Well, this article will tackle exactly that and in the process introduce you to one of the best essay writing services, that is Custom Essay Writers. But before all that, lets tackle your question, “At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *”?
Well, the elasticity of demand can be measured mathematically as the ratio between the rates of change in quantity demanded versus the ratio of change of the price of a commodity.
Basically we have the following:
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
Change in Qty Demanded = (Q2 – Q1)/((Q2+Q1)/2) X 100
Change in Price = (P2 – P1)/((P2+P1)/2) X 100
Elasticity of Demand = Change in Qty demanded /Change in price
By having this understanding of the way elasticity is calculated, then it becomes very easy and obvious to make the price the subject of the formulae. We can do whatever the elasticity is we equate it to the other variables and have the price P2 as the unknown variable.
This then becomes a very easy algebraic formulae to solve.
If you are having challenges on such a question, our technical team will be glad to receive your order and do your assignment promptly and in good time.
Price Elasticity Of Demand Measures
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
There are many who wonder precisely what the elasticity of demand measures in the economy. Well, each type of the demand elasticity will ultimately point to a very unique business and economic condition of any market. On this we shall be looking at the 5 major bands of elasticity values that present on a day to day basis and on a market to market basic for different commodities. Below is an exhaustive summary of the major pointers as seen in the diagram above.
Perfectly Inelastic Demand
Perfectly inelastic demand point to a market where the quantity of a product that is demanded is not really affected by the price. This is always a huge win for Veblen goods as well as luxury goods. Essentially we are looking at a price elasticity of Zero. When Ep = 0 then it means that the price of the substance at stake is immaterial when it comes to determining how many people will eventually buy it. It can be seen as a perfectly neutral correlation between price and quantity demanded.
An example of this would be a pair of luxury diamond rings. No matter the price of the rings, the demand will remain precisely the same. Thus making the demand perfectly inelastic to price.
Inelastic Demand
The second scenario on this matter is of course the inelastic demand. So what is inelastic demand? Well mathematically it is when the elasticity of demand is between 0 and 1.
Basically 0 < Ep < 1
This means that the change in the price of a commodity cause a very small change in the quantity demanded. Essentially the change can be termed as negligible and not writing home about. It can also be attributed to imperfect markets.
Unit Elastic demand
Thirdly, we have a form of Elasticity of demand when the elasticity is termed as unitary. Unitary elasticity means that the value of elasticity is mathematically equal to 1.
That is:
Ep = 1
This means that the quantity demanded changes at the same rate as the price. For instance, if the price dropped by say 10%, then the quantity demanded would ultimately increase by 10%. This means that the income of the suppliers remain constant through many economic phases and the different prices. Unitary demand also means that the producers have a sale ceiling that is constant no matter the pricing of their goods. Unitary elasticity of demand of goods is mostly common with goods that have ready substitutes and comprise of a small portion of the household income.
Elastic demand
Elastic demand can be defined mathematically as:
1 < Elasticity Demand < ∞
Basically, the elasticity of demand varies between 1 and infinity. This alone implies that a small change in price causes a negative change in the demand. Essentially, majority of market goods follow this model. The more the quantity demanded the lower the price. The higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded.
Perfectly Elastic demand
Finally we have a perfectly elastic demand. Mathematically:
Elasticity Demand at A Price = X
This implies that the quantity demanded will vary infinitely as the price.
Price Elasticity Of Demand Formula
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
As mentioned earlier, the formula for the price elasticity of demand is very simple. We measure both the percentage changes in the demand as well as the corresponding prices. The PED or the Price Elasticity of Demand is thus the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage in the price.
With these in action, we have a very clear guideline on how to calculate every variable. Note also that in many occasions, the examiner may give you the elasticity as well as the quantity and demand for the price. Or give you the elasticity and the demand and ask for the price. This is basically what this article is all about. It seeks to answer the question of “At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *”?
How To Calculate Price Elasticity Of Demand From Demand Function
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
On several instances, you may be faced with a problem asking how to calculate the price elasticity of demand from the demand function. Well, that is not very hard. Remember that the demand function is the generator of different sets of demand and price values. Given the function it becomes easy to integrate the function mathematically and come up with various spot prices as well as the quantities.
The elasticity of the demand can thus be determined by first calculating the rate of change of the quantity demanded. Secondly you can mathematically calculate the rate of change of the price on the same range of time. Finally, the simple thing will be to perform the final division.
If your demand formulae is purely algebraic, you may need to compile this as a formula rather than a value. This will be perfectly okay. In case you have difficulty in making head or tail of these, we are here to help. Please engage us for help in taking your online classes, help with your assignment as well as help with your dissertations and research writings.
Perfectly Elastic Demand
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
When it comes to perfectly elastic demand, we can term it as when price and quantity have zero correlation. Essentially, we are looking at constant price despite various levels of quantity demanded. This is a huge win if you get it.
On the converse, a perfectly inelastic demand comes into play when you have a zero reaction to the quantity demanded by diverse changes of price. Essentially, this graph is orthogonal to the perfectly elastic demand curve.
Price Elasticity Of Demand Examples
There are many price elasticity of demand examples that we can quote. Essentially, all of them have one thing in common. There is a change in price which is supposed to commensurate a change in demand and vice versa. The economists use these various changes to determine if the changes in demand and price affect each other predictably. If the model can be well predicted, then that is all, the goal will be to determine the use of these models at various levels to have a complete understanding of prevailing market dynamics.
Price Elasticity Of Demand Formula Examples
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
• Colton and company recently lowered the pricing of their gaming mouse from $30 to $24. The firm predicted that the sales are likely to increase from the current 14,000 units to 30,000 units.
Q: What is the PED (price elasticity of demand)?
Q: What form of PED are we looking at?
Change in the price is: -20%
Change in the demand is: 114%
PED = 5.7
The demand of the price is elastic
• A woven bag maker has blown up the prices of their wares by 6%. In exchange, the sales dropped by 16% as a result of the price change.
Q: What is the PED (Price elasticity of demand?)
Q: Comment on the PED
Q: What will happen to the total revenue in the firm?
Change in price: 6%
Change in demand: 16%
PED = 2.6
The demand is elastic
The overall revenue of the firm will drop.
Income Elasticity Of Demand
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
Income elasticity of demand is a measure of the effect of income levels of a household to the demanded quantities of particular commodities. Essentially we are looking at the answer to the question, does an increase in disposable income of the household affect their demand for a particular good or service? If the answer is yes, then what is the relationship? Is it:
• Perfectly Inelastic to disposable Income
• Inelastic to disposable Income
• Unitary to disposable Income
• Elastic to disposable Income
• Perfectly Elastic to disposable Income
The answer to this question will often help the manufacturer and supplier firms in determining where to sell their wares and to which group of people. The models will also guide their expectations in terms of what to expect given a change in disposable income in their target market.
Unitary Elastic Demand
At What Price Is The Elasticity Of Demand Equal To *
Unitary elastic demand basically refers to a state where a change in income brings about a corresponding similar change in the demand of a good. This implies that the revenue of the firm remains unchanged. While the price increases the demand decreases at the same rate, meaning the coefficient of elasticity is 1. |
Quick Answer: Can Someone Have A 106 Fever?
What temp does your brain melt?
What do hospitals do for high fevers?
Acetaminophen (Tylenol) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), are options. Your doctor will treat any underlying infection if necessary. If you have a high fever, avoid dehydration by drinking plenty of liquids.
What is an unhealthy temperature?
Anything above 100.4 F is considered a fever. You may feel terrible, but on the whole, a fever isn’t bad for you. It’s a sign your body is doing what it should when germs invade. It’s fighting them off. However, if your temperature is 103 F or higher or if you’ve had a fever for more than 3 days, call your doctor.
Can a person have 105 fever?
Is a fever of 105 dangerous for adults?
Adults: If the fever is above 103 degrees F and lasts more than 48 hours. Any time an adult fever reaches 105 or more, talk to a doctor right away.
Can you survive a fever of 107?
How high is too high a fever for adults?
Can stress cause a fever?
What happens when your body reaches 105 degrees?
Dehydration sets in and bloodflow to the skin decreases, along with the ability to sweat. A body temperature of 104 degrees indicates danger, 105 degrees is in the definition of heat stroke and a temperature of 107 degrees could result in irreversible organ damage or death.
What is the highest temperature a human can survive?
108.14°FBody temperature: 108.14°F The maximum body temperature a human can survive is 108.14°F. At higher temperatures the body turns into scrambled eggs: proteins are denatured and the brain gets damaged irreparably.
Why does fever increase at night?
Will a fever of 106 kill you?
Occasionally, fevers can rise to 105 or 106 degrees, which although on the high side, still aren’t dangerous and won’t cause brain damage. In very, very rare cases, a fever might trigger a seizure. Thankfully, seizures caused by fever won’t harm the child (even though they will likely scare us!).
Can someone have a 110 fever?
At what temperature should an adult go to the hospital?
What is the highest fever ever?
How do I know I have a fever without a thermometer?
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Quick Answer: How Many German Officers Were Executed?
What side was Vichy France on?
Despite heavy pressure, the French government at Vichy never joined the Axis alliance and even remained formally at war with Germany.
Conversely, Vichy France became a collaborationist regime….Vichy France.Preceded bySucceeded byFrench Third RepublicProvisional Government of the French Republic.
How many spies were executed ww2?
19 spiesBetween 1940 and 1946, 19 spies and saboteurs were prosecuted under the Treachery Act and executed.
Does Germany still have military restrictions?
How many British soldiers were executed in ww2?
Of the 346 men executed, 309 were pardoned, while the remaining 37 were those executed for murder, who would have been executed under civilian law.
How many French collaborators were executed?
At the close of the war, France punished many Nazi collaborators: 9,000 were summarily executed during the liberation campaign, 1,500 were executed after a trial, and 40,000 were sentenced to prison.
How many Waffen SS survived the war?
In reality, only 250,000 former Waffen-SS veterans lived in the country and only eight percent of those were members of HIAG.
Who was Hitler’s deadliest general?
Otto SkorzenyOtto SkorzenyBorn12 June 1908 Vienna, Austria-HungaryDied5 July 1975 (aged 67) Madrid, SpainAllegianceGermany Egypt (military advisor to Nasser) Argentina (military advisor to Peron) Israel (worked for the Mossad)Years of service1931–19457 more rows
How many attempts were made on Adolf Hitler’s life?
6 Assassination Attempts on Adolf Hitler – HISTORY.
Who killed the most German soldiers in ww2?
How many German generals were executed?
How many German soldiers were executed?
15,000 German soldiersAt least 15,000 German soldiers were executed for desertion alone, and up to 50,000 were killed for often minor acts of insubordination. An unknown number were summarily executed, often in the moment, by their officers or comrades when they refused to follow commands. This wasn’t always the case.
What was the most elite SS Division?
The Dirlewanger Brigade, also known as the SS-Sturmbrigade Dirlewanger (1944), or the 36th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (German: 36.
How many Waffen SS died in ww2?
OKW figures from 9/1/1939 to 12/31/1944DescriptionDeadTotalArmy and Waffen SS1,750,0003,360,000Navy60,000160,000Air Force155,000303,000Total Wehrmacht1,965,0003,823,000
How many German soldiers froze to death in Russia?
Is Valkyrie real?
Can you visit Hitler’s bunker in Berlin?
A Berlin Story Bunker tour is set in a recreation of the infamous Führerbunker, where Adolf Hitler spent his last days. The tour, a frightening reminder of a war that claimed 70 million lives, is understandably intimidating and visitors can only visit the bunker with a guide.
What happened to German collaborators?
In general, after a short trial, if they were not executed, Nazi collaborators were imprisoned in Gulag forced labour camps. The Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was abolished and Volga Germans were banished from their settlements on the Volga River with many being deported to Kazakhstan or Siberia.
How many were executed after Valkyrie?
Under Himmler’s new Sippenhaft (blood guilt) laws, many relatives of the principal plotters were also arrested in the immediate aftermath of the failed plot. More than 7,000 people were arrested and 4,980 were executed.
Who was Hitler’s best friend?
Friedrich KubizekAugust (“Gustl”) Friedrich Kubizek (3 August 1888 – 23 October 1956) was an Austrian musical conductor best known for being a close friend of Adolf Hitler, when both were in their late teens.
What does SS stand for?
Why did the SS tattoo blood type?
In the early part of the war, tattoos were printed in Fraktur, while later on they were printed in Latin-style. The purpose of the tattoo was to identify a soldier’s blood type in case a blood transfusion was needed while unconscious, or his Erkennungsmarke (dog tag) or Soldbuch (pay book) were missing. |
The Feminist Movement Study
215 : 152 cm | Unicum
Artikelnummer: 12.500 Categorie:
In “The Feminist Movement Study” Maayke depicts the 2nd, 3rd and 4th feminist wave and the role of the sexual revolution in it. The three women each represent an era by their important role they have played or play in it. The woman drawn in pencil represents the sexual revolution in itself. The battle that, despite the struggle of all generations of feminists, has still not been fought and that is why it is enclosed and protected in her work by these 3 icons. On the left is Rebecca Walker | 3rd wave 1969 | American feminist, writer and activist. In the middle is Simone de Beauvoir | 2nd wave 1908-1986 | French feminist, philosopher, intellectual and writer. On the right is Emma Watson | 4th wave 1990 | British actress, model and activist. |
Position Statements
MASNA Aquaculture & Conservation Position Statement
Aquaculture is the fastest growing sector of food production on the planet, with a reach that extends to nearly every country on the globe. Its products provide a reliable source of protein to a vast number of homes, support the livelihoods of tens of millions worldwide, and generate advancements in the way we produce our medicine, pharmaceutical products, and energy. Looking to the future, aquaculture is expected to play an increasingly important role amidst a growing human population, wild fisheries that have reached or are close to reaching maximum capacity, pollution, and climate change.
In recent decades, marine ornamental aquaculture has paralleled advances in our understanding of aquaculture as a whole, fueled largely by emerging technologies developed by the collective community of scientists, industry leaders, and hobbyists that MASNA supports. What once consisted of a dispersed group of hobbyists housing bleached coral skeletons as decoration in fish-only systems, the marine aquarium industry has blossomed to support a diverse group of hobbyists successfully housing a broad array of marine species from diminutive fishes to reef-building corals. As of 2018, 358 species of marine ornamental fishes have been successfully raised in aquaria, and 28 have been added in the last year. This group is mainly comprised of gobies, blennies, and damsels – all species that lay clutches of eggs on the substrate, where they develop and hatch into large, relatively well-developed larvae.
Conversely, species that rely on pelagic spawning like wrasses, tangs, and anthias release smaller eggs directly into the water column, which quickly hatch into small, underdeveloped larvae that immediately require live foods to survive. Given the difficult nature of successfully raising these larvae in captivity, this group of species has received less attention. However, dedicated efforts to advance our knowledge in live feeds production and larval nutrition have made major strides in our ability to culture and provide larval fishes with quality live food items at the commercial scale. Scientists and aquaculturists continue to hone their production methods for copepods, ciliates, and other small prey items that will undoubtedly add to the list of successfully cultured marine ornamental species moving forward. These advances have contributed to several success stories in the past few years. Among them are the yellow tang, Pacific blue tang, melanurus wrasse, Cuban hogfish, borbonius anthias, several species of angelfish, and a handful of butterflyfish.
As the marine ornamental industry progresses, it is important to recognize these achievements, what they represent, and encourage the continued development of marine ornamental aquaculture as we grow as a community. From a conservation perspective, success in captive breeding reduces fishing pressures on wild populations, promotes sustainable and ethical reef- keeping, and ultimately ensures the preservation of the marine aquarium hobby for future generations. This is especially important for species that have limited wild ranges like the banggai cardinalfish, those that are already facing the threat of overcollection, and those that are harvested using destructive fishing practices like cyanide application. From an industry perspective, developing these technologies can reduce the cost of providing quality animals to hobbyists, ensure a constant supply of fishes to meet growing market demand, and have the potential to encourage the growth of the marine aquarium industry. From the perspective of the hobbyist, advances in ornamental aquaculture provide a steady supply of healthier, parasite free fishes that are adapted to life in the home aquarium.
MASNA stands behind the collective efforts of scientists, industry leaders, conservationists, and hobbyists that are instrumental in driving the success of marine ornamental aquaculture. In our celebration of aquaculture for MACNA 2019, we would like to call to action all researchers and practitioners of aquaculture in a concerted effort to close the life cycle of additional species of marine ornamental fishes, particularly those that are popular within the aquarium trade. These include the tangs, wrasses, and anthias, among many others. We firmly believe that if we act together, the marine aquarium industry will continue to grow and exist in perpetuity. This year, join us as we celebrate the many dedicated scientists, hobbyists, and industry leaders in their commitment to furthering ornamental aquaculture.
BY Tim Lyons, M.Sc., MASNA Director of Conservation for MACNA 2019
Position Statement on Sustainable Marine Aquarium Fisheries
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Genus krigia meanings in Urdu
Genus krigia meanings in Urdu is جینس کرگیا Genus krigia in Urdu. More meanings of genus krigia, it's definitions, example sentences, related words, idioms and quotations.
جینس کرگیا
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Genus krigia Definitions
Please find 1 English and definitions related to the word Genus krigia.
• (noun) : small herbs closely related to chicory: dwarf dandelions
What are the meanings of Genus krigia in Urdu?
Meanings of the word Genus krigia in Urdu are . To understand how would you translate the word Genus krigia in Urdu, you can take help from words closely related to Genus krigia or it’s Urdu translations. Some of these words can also be considered Genus krigia synonyms. In case you want even more details, you can also consider checking out all of the definitions of the word Genus krigia. If there is a match we also include idioms & quotations that either use this word or its translations in them or use any of the related words in English or Urdu translations. These idioms or quotations can also be taken as a literary example of how to use Genus krigia in a sentence. If you have trouble reading in Urdu we have also provided these meanings in Roman Urdu.
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Definition of the genus krigia are
• small herbs closely related to chicory: dwarf dandelions |
Several devices marketed as CPAP devices are not in fact devices designed to deliver constant pressure. For example the Infant Flow device, widely used in NICUs, delivers a constant flow into its circuit, but there is no mechanism to respond to changes in resistance, and the pressure in the circuit is therefore very variable depending on down-stream resistance, and should therefore I think be called a positive airway flow device. It is often referred to as variable flow CPAP, as the flow into the baby varies depending on the phase of respiration of the infant, so this can get very confusing. However, as I said, the pressure is not constant, so CPAP is not the right terminology; and the flow into the circuit is actually constant, it is supposedly the flow into the baby that varies, based on the so-called ‘fluidic flip’.
Now the flow across the prongs changes according to this ‘fluidic flip’ principle, which is supposed to reduce expiratory work of breathing; but as others have pointed out, in normal use the baby does not breathe out through the prongs, most of the expiratory gas leaves the airway through the mouth, or around the prongs, wherever the resistance is lowest. So although under very specific experimental conditions there may be a reduction in respiratory work, I am unsure if this translates into any real advantage in clinical use. If the infants changes head or mouth position, or the prongs are slightly displaced, anything which changes the resistance, the delivered pressure may change dramatically, very often falling well below the desired pressure. I find this most problematic during non-invasive intermittent positive pressure ventilation, we might set up the device to give a peak pressure of 10 and an expiratory pressure of 5, but when I go round to review the baby a few minutes later the pressures being delivered may be 5 over 4, or even less.
In contrast using a ventilator to deliver CPAP uses a very expensive machine to deliver a constant pressure, the pressures can be maintained over a much wider range of infant conditions. A simple constant pressure circuit which is very much cheaper, and probably as good as ventilator derived CPAP, is the so-called bubble CPAP which delivers a constant pressure as a result of the height of the water column, and may deliver some pressure oscillations as a result of the bubbling, more of which below.
Does the difference between CPAP and PAF matter? A new multicenter RCT from Poland randomized 276 babies between 750 and 1500 g birth weight to either the Infant Flow, or CPAP using a Draeger Babylog within the first 6 hours of life. The primary outcome was never needing to be intubated, and there were no substantial differences in outcomes between the groups. (Bober K, Swietlinski J, Zejda J, Kornacka K, Pawlik D, Behrendt J, et al. A multicenter randomized controlled trial comparing effectiveness of two nasal continuous positive airway pressure devices in very-low-birth-weight infants. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13(2):191-6. Epub 2011/06/15.)
Another RCT from 3 years ago compared the Infant flow device to bubble CPAP. (Gupta S, Sinha SK, Tin W, Donn SM. A Randomized Controlled Trial of Post-extubation Bubble Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Versus Infant Flow Driver Continuous Positive Airway Pressure in Preterm Infants with Respiratory Distress Syndrome. The Journal of Pediatrics. 2009;154(5):645-50.e2.) Samir Gupta and colleagues from the NICU in Middlesborough randomized 140 babies of 24 to 29 weeks gestation when they were extubated. The primary outcome of extubation failure was not different between the groups, however, the failure rate was lower than expected, so the study was underpowered, the non-significant differences in outcomes favored the bubble CPAP group, and subgroup analyses also showed some benefits for bubble CPAP.
A recent review by Thomas Shaffer and his colleagues reviews many of the physiologic effects of non-invasive respiratory support. (Shaffer TH, Alapati D, Greenspan JS, Wolfson MR: Neonatal non-invasive respiratory support: Physiological implications. Pediatric Pulmonology 2012 this very complete and clearly written review covers all forms of non-invasive support, including oxygen, CPAP, nIMV and high flow cannulae. They point out that the pressure oscillations which occur during the bubbling of bubble CPAP are far less than those which are produced by a high frequency ventilator, and that under usual circumstances it seems unlikely that there is measurable ventilation from the oscillations caused by the bubbles.
So overall, I think that a true constant pressure system is probably preferable, and that bubble CPAP is as good, and may be preferable, to a ventilator, and is very much cheaper. The main limitation being that bubble CPAP can’t do non-invasive ventilation.
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1 Response to CPAP or PAF?
1. Yona Nicolau says:
Hi Dr.Barrington!
My name is Yona Nicolau and I am a neonatologist at Loma Linda University in CA.
I was wondering if you encountered in your research a comparison between different BCPAP devices available. I know it has been done and I recall Dr. Finner talking about it at one of the Discovery Labs meetings but I cannot find it. I would greatly appreciate it if you could point me in the right direction.
Thank you,
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Causes Of Delinquency Essay
Write a 750- to 1,050-word essay, describing the process in which Freud and other psychologists theorized how a person could become delinquent. Describe how someone could become delinquent based on social and biological causes. Identify all the concepts and elements.
Format your essay consistent with APA guidelines, including in-text citations and a reference page.
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The importance of understanding land management
By Helen Kilburn
Staff Writer
Many Sewanee students are very active in their passion for outdoor recreation. The plateau is the perfect place for such activities, but many of our students also travel around the country and the globe to go on trips involving hiking, skiing, climbing and the like. This is wonderful as it connects these students to nature in a way that often fosters a tradition of environmental protection, but how much do we really know about the history, management, and impact of such lands and the people they attract?
In order to examine this question, Dan Harper (C’20) invited Dr. Ken Smith to give a talk about land management at the Green House on March 7. The lecture portion mostly revolved around land management out west, where 30 to 60 percent of land is managed by the government. This has been a very publicized topic in recent news and, as such, was important to learn more about.
Additionally, it is an area where Smith has experience working in the field. He spoke to the level of emotion that surrounds the issue of protected land and the tension that comes with the federal government controlling the land in these rural communities. Smith spoke to the role of mining, oil, and ranching as an incentives that turns people against protecting lands while tourism and (often) support from local Native American tribes.
Smith also spoke about the effects of the political climate on land protection. He said agencies will continue to prioritize mining and oil under the current administration, but that land management will be a big topic in the west in the next election.
Overall, how land is controlled in the western United States is highly complicated, and Smith suggests that, for people from the East, they should “work and live for a while to get a feel for how it all works.” The layers of complication require someone to be present in the space in order to best understand it.
Smith spoke to the many environmental issues the West currently faces. He listed one of the most evident matters as the number of tourists visiting and using the protected areas in the west. The example he gave of this was skiing. Skiing is often considered environmental, but he did point out that clear cutting a vertical area of a mountain is not the best course of action ecologically speaking. As he said “in the summer it’s just bare-naked right up the hill.”
Other current environmental issues he listed included invasive species and gas leases. He again brought up tourism, saying that the West is often a dry and fragile environment and is being damaged by the number of visitors. This raises the important question of protection versus exposure and how it is the legal right of citizens to visit national protected areas. This then segued into a conversation reminding us that, with that legal right, it is important to remember that protected areas have a contentious history in that most of the land was taken from Native Americans.
The information, questions, and reminders were all leading to a culmination, namely is there a solution and what would that be. The answer: there is no answer, at least no sure answer. Smith did say he sees “the best way to go” as giving power to local collaborative groups that know the area.
So what does western land history, management, and impact have to do with the outdoor recreational tendencies of Sewanee students? As Harper said about his inspiration for organizing the event: “I benefit a lot from the one side of this as an outdoor recreator and I want to be conscious of my actions. How we treat our land [and the people associated with it] is a reflection of our true values”
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Genes are present in each body cell, and they affect the way cells grow, divide, and die. Any changes in the body’s genetic code can cause mutations that can either harm or help the body. Mutations can be passed to children from their parents (inherited gene mutations).
BRCA1 and BRCA2 are common genes associated with breast cancer, and everyone has them. When you have an inherited mutation in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene, your risk of breast cancer and some other diseases like ovarian cancer increases, but having the mutation doesn’t mean you’ll develop breast cancer. Even those without the mutation are also at risk.
A person is likely to have a genetic mutation associated with breast cancer if they have blood relatives with a history of breast cancer on one or both breasts, ovarian cancer or triple-negative breast cancer.
Other less common genetically inherited mutations that may cause breast cancer include;
• PALB2 – PALB2 is a gene that instructs the body to produce a protein that helps BRCA2 to repair damaged cells and prevent the growth of tumors. Women with PALB2 mutations have a 14% risk of getting breast cancer when they reach 50 years. The risk will increase as they get older
• PTEN – PTEN gene helps to regulate the growth of cells in the body. A mutative PTEN causes a rare disorder known as Cowden syndrome, which increases the risk of benign and cancerous breast tumors. It also causes growths in the ovaries, uterus, thyroid, and digestive tract. PTEN is often diagnosed in women aged 38-50 years
• TP53 – TP53 is the gene that instructs the body to produce a protein that stops the growth of tumors. An abnormal TP53 can cause Li-Fraumeni syndrome, where the patient develops soft tissue cancer at a young age. This puts them at high risk of breast cancer and other cancers such as brain tumors, sarcoma, and leukemia. Women with Li-Fraumeni syndrome are likely to develop breast cancer at age 70 or earlier. They are also vulnerable to HER2 cancers
Dr. Dabney and Dr. Goday all offer genetic counseling to patients in our office. They may order genetic tests to determine if you’ve inherited abnormal genes that may cause breast cancer. The decision on the type of test you’ll undergo will solely depend on your family and personal history of breast cancer and other related cancers.
Frequent screening is recommended (twice a year) if you’re at high risk to help identify cancer early before it spreads to the rest of the body. |
Quick Answer: Who Was Jamestown Founded By?
Was there cannibalism in Jamestown?
Archaeologists have discovered the first physical evidence of cannibalism by desperate English colonists driven by hunger during the Starving Time of 1609-1610 at Jamestown, Virginia (map)—the first permanent English settlement in the New World..
What disease did Jamestown?
As the winter wore on, scores of Jamestown’s inhabitants suffered from diseases associated with malnutrition and contamination, including dysentery, typhoid and scurvy. By the time Lord De La Warr showed up with supplies in June 1610, the settlers, reduced in number from several hundred to 60, were trying to flee.
Was there cannibalism in Valley Forge?
Apparently, during their stay at Valley Forge, Washington and his troops were stranded without supplies and forced to resort to cannibalism in order to survive. Washington relished the taste of human meat, having one man killed each day to satisfy him even after supplies came through.
What was the main reason that Jamestown was founded?
The main reason why Jamestown was founded is to gain wealth. Inhabitants wanted to earn more wealth and huge profits from gold mining activities. Also, the settlers here did not want to pay the taxes that they were forced to pay when they were in England.
Was Jamestown the first successful colony?
Jamestown, founded in 1607, was the first successful permanent English settlement in what would become the United States. The settlement thrived for nearly 100 years as the capital of the Virginia colony; it was abandoned after the capital moved to Williamsburg in 1699.
Who founded the Jamestown colony?
James I.On December 6, 1606, the journey to Virginia began on three ships: the Susan Constant, the Godspeed, and the Discovery. In 1607, 104 English men and boys arrived in North America to start a settlement. On May 13 they picked Jamestown, Virginia for their settlement, which was named after their King, James I.
What really happened in Jamestown?
The settlers of the new colony — named Jamestown — were immediately besieged by attacks from Algonquian natives, rampant disease, and internal political strife. In their first winter, more than half of the colonists perished from famine and illness. … The following winter, disaster once again struck Jamestown.
Who was the first woman in Jamestown?
Anne BurrasOne of the first English women to arrive and help provide a home life in the rugged Virginia wilderness was young Anne Burras. Anne was the personal maid of Mistress Forrest who came to Jamestown in 1608 to join her husband. Although the fate of Mistress Forrest remains uncertain, that of Anne Burras is well known.
Why was Jamestown the first successful English colony?
Who were the men who caused Jamestown to be successful? John Smith saved the colony from starvation. He told colonists that they must work in order to eat. John Rolfe had the colony plant and harvest tobacco, which became a cash crop and was sold to Europe.
Why did Jamestown resort to cannibalism?
New evidence supports historical accounts that desperate Jamestown colonists resorted to cannibalism during the harsh winter of 1609-10. … The Jamestown settlers suffered greatly from hunger and disease, and struggled to grow crops due to the region’s drought and their inexperience.
Who founded Jamestown quizlet?
The colony of Jamestown was founded when 105 colonists landed near the mouth of the James River, in Virginia.
How was Jamestown funded?
The colony was a private venture, financed and organized by the Virginia Company of London. King James I granted a charter to a group of investors for the establishment of the company on April 10, 1606. … The charter gave the company the right to settle anywhere from roughly present-day North Carolina to New York state.
Why is Jamestown important?
But against the odds Jamestown survived, becoming the first successful English colony in North America, from which the English language, laws, and secular and religious institutions in time spread across North America and the globe. At Jamestown the English learned the hard lessons of how to keep a colony going.
Who was the first baby born in Jamestown?
Anne Burras was an early English settler in Virginia and an Ancient Planter. She was the first English woman to marry in the New World, and her daughter Virginia Laydon was the first child of English colonists to be born in the Jamestown colony.
Did Plymouth have cannibalism?
Plymouth’s hidden history Documents had previously suggested desperate colonists had resorted to cannibalism after a series of harsh winters. A particularly harsh winter of 1609 – 1610 was known to historians as the Starving Time. The Starving Time was one of the most horrific periods of early colonial history. |
Before starting to make investments in stock markets, you must make an effort to understand the vital indicators of stocks. One such key indicator or measure of stocks is the dividend growth rate. Publicly listed companies pay dividends to its shareholders in various forms, including cash. The dividends are paid out of the net profits of a company. Calculating the dividend growth rate in stock markets could help you calculate the long-term returns from your investments in various stocks, and thus aid in making informed decisions.
Understanding dividend growth rate
The dividend growth rate is the percentage of growth of a particular company’s stocks over a period of time. Typically, this rate is calculated on an annual basis, considering the fact that companies increase their dividend payouts to shareholders, over a number of years. You can also calculate the dividend growth rate in stock markets on a quarterly, half-yearly or monthly basis, if required.
Dividend growth rate and stock valuation models :
To know the value of stocks, valuation models such as the dividend discount model are used. This model of stock valuation takes into account factors such as the company’s net present value to estimate the intrinsic value of its stocks. According to the dividend discount model, you have to deduct the excess of the company’s internal growth rate (the maximum growth rate which is possible for a company without obtaining external finance) from the estimated dividend growth rate to know the price of a particular stock. If any stock’s current price is lower than the price calculated via this model, then as per the model, the price of the stock is undervalued. The mathematical formula for the dividend discount model is : P0 = D1/r-g, where Po is the company’s current stock price, D1 being the next year’s dividends and r and g implying the company’s cost of equity and the dividend growth rate respectively.
How to calculate dividend growth rate in stock markets?
You can calculate dividend growth rate by using either the arithmetic mean or via the compounded method calculation.
Dividend growth rate formula using arithmetic mean :
In this method, you can arrive at the dividend growth rate by the using the steps given below:
• Step 1: You are required to find the information regarding dividend payments over a period of time. You can find the relevant date in the annual reports of a particular company. To determine the dividend growth rate you can use the mathematical formula G1= D2/D1-1, where G1 is the periodic dividend growth, D2 is the dividend payment in the second year and D1 is the previous year’s dividend payout. If XYZ company has made Rs 10,000 annual dividend payment in 2010, along with Rs 10,500 dividend payment in 2011, the dividend growth rate will be: 10,500/10,000-1= 0.05 or 5%. Similarly, over a period of time the dividend growth rates of XYZ company will be as per the chart given below:
Year Dividend Dividend growth rate
2010 Rs 10,000
2011 Rs 10,500 5.0%
2012 Rs 11,500 9.52%
2013 Rs 11,700 1.74%
2014 Rs 12,500 6.84%
• Step 2: Now determine the number of years for which the periodic dividend growth rates have been provided. The dividend growth rate formula using arithmetic mean denotes this number as ‘n.’ For instance, in the above-mentioned chart, n=4 years.
• Step 3: Now you are required to use the mathematical formula: Dividend growth rate = (G1+G2+G3……+Gn)/ n. So, as per the above mentioned chart the arithmetic average will be 5%+9.52%+1.74%+6.84%/4= 5.78%.
1. Dividend growth rate formula using compounded method calculation : Along with the arithmetic mean method, you can also use the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) formula to know about the dividend growth rate in stock markets. You have to follow the steps given below:
• Step 1: Foremost, you are required to find the initial dividend payment from the annual report of a company. The dividend growth rate formula using the compounded method denotes the initial dividend payment period as D0. Next, determine the recent or final dividend payment period. This is denoted by Dn.
• Step 2: You now need to calculate the number of years, beginning from the initial dividend payment year and the final dividend payment year. The CAGR method denotes this variable by n.
• Step 3: Now you can calculate the compounded annual dividend growth rate by dividing the final dividend with the initial dividend and placing the calculated variable to the power of reciprocal of the number of periods. Now subtract one from it to arrive at the final figure. Mathematically, this dividend growth rate formula can be expressed as : Dividend growth rate= (Dn/D0)1/n-1.
Let us understand the calculation with the help of an example. Suppose for ABC company, the dividend payments are:
Year Annual dividend Dividend growth rate
2014 Rs 18,200
2015 Rs 19,800 8.79%
2016 Rs 21,800 10.10%
2017 Rs 24,000 10.09%
2018 Rs 27,200 13.33%
By using the above-mentioned dividend growth rate formula , the calculation will be : (27,200/18,200) ¼-1)*100= 10.57%. Thus, the annualised dividend growth rate, as per the compounded growth method for company ABC will be 10.57%.
Benefits of assessing dividend growth rates in stock markets
Calculating the dividend growth rate in stock markets can provide the following benefits to individual investors:
Assessment of earnings from stocks :
This concept can help you to assess how much you can possibly earn from a particular company’s stock. If the company has strong dividend growth figures over a number of years, it could mean a similar dividend growth in future. This, in turn, would imply long-term profitability from your investment.
Determining the intrinsic value of stocks :
Once you know the dividend growth rate, you can easily determine the intrinsic value of stocks as compared to its current market value by using the dividend discount model of stock valuation.
Freedom to calculate dividend growth rate for any time period :
Apart from annual dividend rate growth calculation, you can use the mathematical formulas to calculate the growth rate for any intervals.
Conclusion :
Thus, it is imperative for any investor to understand the concept of dividend growth rate in stock markets. Along with knowing the key concepts of stock market trading, you should also select a trusted and reliable financial partner. A stockbroking company with proven credentials can provide you with multiple benefits, like free Demat and trading accounts, free equity delivery trade for lifetime, single point access to all markets, in-depth research reports and personalised customer support. |
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Hypermenorrhea: Symptoms, and Causes
By EmpowHER
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Hypermenorrhea, also known as menorrhagia, is a disruption in the normal menstrual flow of girls and women. When a girl or woman experiences hypermenorrhea, she is losing more blood than she normally would during an average menstruation cycle, although the timing of her cycle may remain completely within the time frame of what usually occurs for her.
Menstruation is a woman’s monthly cycle of the rising and falling of hormones and the preparation for pregnancy. When a pregnancy does not occur, the lining of the uterus is shed from the body through the vagina, causing the bleeding to occur.
As mentrual cycles are variable, there is no one set time that a woman will bleed every month. However, regularity usually begins to help with a pattern that a woman can count on, particularly as she grows older and heads out of adolescence.
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In King Lear, when does Lear recognize that his two older daughters are evil and that Cordelia was the one who really loved him?
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Lear's enlightenment has more to do with himself than with his two daughters. He does not necessarily realize that they are evil. He realizes that they are liars and that they care nothing about him at all. An especially revealing soliloquy comes in Act IV Scene VI, where he says:
They flattered me like a dog; and told me I had white hairs in my beard ere the black ones were there. To say ‘ay’ and ‘no’ to every thing that I said!—‘Ay’ and ‘no’ too was no good divinity. When the rain came to wet me once, and the wind to make me chatter; when the thunder would not peace at my bidding; there I found 'em, there I smelt 'em out. Go to, they are not men o' their words: they told me I was every thing; 'tis a lie, I am not ague-proof.
Lear was born a prince and then became a king. This gave him an inflated opinion of himself, as is the case with many people who are born to privilege and high social status. He is like many selfish aristocrats, but even more so because he...
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Students describe the difference between geological resources and othe natural resources. They list the rocks, minerals, and fossil fuels that are found in Illinois and their uses. They identify ways to conserve natural resources.
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One of the most common — and erroneous — arguments contributing to the proliferation of purported corner markers representing a single corner is the idea that modern subdivision regulations and field procedures somehow supersede the more traditional legal principles relating to boundary retracement. Many have argued that the recent trend toward subdivisions that are designed first, then staked at a later date, favors dimensions and acreage calculations over monuments. Others assert that the surveyor’s intent to create lots of specific size controls over the customary rules of construction favoring monuments over measurements.
These arguments have little merit when considered within the context of relevant case law. One of the most telling points against the abandonment of the rules of construction is their continued and consistent application in modern decisions. Courts seldom concern themselves with the specifics of the drafting process. Subdivision regulations have been considered to be subordinate to established rules of construction, and the specific field procedures used by surveyors are seldom an issue unless they are clearly substandard or otherwise flawed according to prevailing standards.
Cordova v. Town of Atrisco: 201 P.2d 996 (1949) is a New Mexico ruling that includes a good general list of priorities and also highlights the basic premise behind the rules of construction: Generally, in determining boundaries, natural and permanent monuments are the most satisfactory evidence and control all other means of description, in the absence of which the following calls are resorted to, and generally in the order stated: First, natural boundaries; second, artificial marks; third, adjacent boundaries; fourth, course and distance, course controlling distance, or distance course, according to circumstances. Area is the weakest of all means of description.
…The ground of the rule is that mistakes are deemed more likely to occur with respect to courses and distances than in regard to objects, which are visible and permanent. The reason assigned for this rule is that monuments are considered more reliable evidence than courses and distances. A description by course and distance is regarded as the most uncertain kind of description, because mistakes are liable to occur in the making of the survey, in entering the minutes of it, and in copying the same from the field-book. Nothing in this rationale hints at variations based on local ordinances or survey methods. Regardless of the technology used to lay out the subdivision, measurements are still presumed to be less certain and more prone to error than marks on the ground.
Four Corners Rule for Deeds and Plats
The “four corners rule” is one of several principles established by the courts to facilitate the interpretation of deeds and other documents. This principle also supports the application of traditional rules of construction to modern subdivisions just as they are used for older surveys.
The Ohio decision Cydrus v. Horton: Case No. 98CA2406 (1998) emphasizes the significance of the four corners rule: The intent of the parties to a deed control its interpretation. … When a deed is worded in clear and precise terms and its meaning is evident upon its face, there is no need to go beyond the four corners of the deed. It is important to apply the proper definition to the phrase “parties to a deed.” In this context, the parties referred to are the grantor and grantee. These are the entities bound by the contract and the meeting of minds between them is the central issue. The intent of the surveyor is not controlling; nor is the intent of local regulatory authorities.
While the four corners rule is applied commonly to deeds, wills and contracts, it is equally applicable to recorded and unrecorded plats. This principle requires land-use professionals to consider all language and information included in any written document under consideration.
Most modern survey plats will indicate that markers have been set by the surveyor to denote property corners; that same map will also include measurements and areas for the various parcels created. In this circumstance, the same rules of construction apply to the plat as would be applied to a deed. The Illinois court clearly illustrates this principle in Sikes v. Moline Consumers: 293 Ill. 112; 127 N.E. 342 (1920): In construing that plat the same rules of construction must be applied as if we were construing a deed, and what the plat proves is a question of law for the court … The meaning of every word, figure and line must be considered in determining the meaning of that plat. It is erroneous to assume that established rules of construction do not apply to survey plats.
Where a surveyor states on the face of a plat that markers of specific type have been set to denote streets, roads or alleys, this assertion becomes a significant part of the plat and any deed that references the plat. Murrells Inlet v. Ward: 378 S.C. 225; 662 S.E.2d 452 (2008) observes that: Where land is subdivided, platted into lots, and sold by reference to the plats, the buyers acquire a special property right in the roads shown on the plat.
A recent Vermont decision considers the effect of subdivision ordinances on accepted retracement principles. Wheeler v. Hoffman: No. 40-2-07 Oecv; Vermont Super (2009) points out the fallacy of depending on local regulations while ignoring the rules of construction.
Wheeler and Hoffman owned adjoining parcels that were formerly part of a larger common tract until its division in 1975. At the time this common boundary was created, a local ordinance recognized an exception to the subdivision standards where the resulting tracts exceeded a 10-acre minimum.
While the 1975 description clearly identified the point of beginning, it also included ambiguities that were at the center of the dispute. The deed included a description, but there was no evidence that it had been surveyed at the time of the original conveyance. Both surveyors agreed that a purely mathematical analysis of the bearings and distances included in the description failed to produce a closed perimeter. To further complicate matters, iron pipes of unknown origin were found purporting to represent the property corners, but there was no definitive link between the original conveyance and the pipes.
The surveyor for Wheeler held one of these iron pipes, resulting in a line length of 551.8 feet, creating an apparent conflict with the 400-foot call included in the deed. The surveyor justified his decision in part by citing the 10.095-acre result as a close match for the 10.1 acres as described in the deed. He also indicated that the apparent attempt by the grantor to avoid the subdivision ordinance restrictions for smaller parcels clearly indicated an intent for area to control.
The Vermont court concluded otherwise. Judge Teachout observes: The deed language and contemporaneous property transfer tax return show that Catherine Crouse intended to create a parcel that was large enough (10+ acres) to be exempt from state subdivision regulations. Such a general intent does not, however, establish boundaries of a parcel that can be surveyed or laid out on the ground. The relevant intent is her intent with respect to location of specifically described boundaries. The long-standing principle that specific descriptions prevail over general descriptions applies in determining the grantor’s intent with respect to parcel boundaries. Pine Haven North Shore Ass’n v. Nesti,138 Vt. 381, 416 A.2d 147 (1980). Her general intent to create a parcel with a certain acreage cannot operate to enlarge a parcel whose boundaries and size can be determined from the property description. Statements of acreage are given the least weight in determining the intent of the grantor.
Despite the recent vintage of this decision and the possible conflicts with local regulatory authority, the judge cites relevant rules of construction as they have been recognized by the Vermont court for many years. It is the intent relevant to boundary creation that controls, not the intent to avoid regulatory restrictions. While the discrepancy may have been due to an initial mistake by the parties who drafted the deed, the court ultimately upheld the survey performed for Hoffman, which applied established rules of construction to resolve the ambiguities in the description.
Measurements as a Source of Instability
Land-use professionals should consider the impossible decision that they face when attempting to separate those existing monuments that are in need of “correction” from those that are “good enough.” Should each surveyor who arrives in an existing subdivision retrace the entire subdivision? If not, what relevant legal principle allows the selective use of some original monuments at the expense of others? If surveyors only locate monuments within a small portion of the subdivision, how will they know that they have not created additional problems with their “adjustments?”
The stability of property boundaries and titles is of paramount concern to the courts. This is one of the guiding principles supporting consistent application of the rules of construction to modern subdivisions that is found in courts nationwide.
Justice Thomas Cooley points out the fallacy of unreasonable reliance on measurements to the detriment of original monuments. In Britton v. Ferry: 14 Mich. 53 (1866), he observes: The corner he looks upon as a fixed point, and it is only where no stake has been set, or corner designated, that he resorts to measurement to ascertain where the line will come. A post set which was to govern nothing, but to be itself controlled by course, distance and quantity, would not only be useless, but in the majority of cases would tend to deceive and invite litigation…If every fractional section were subject to correction by subsequent surveys, the purchase of the northwest fraction would commonly be a mere lottery…
The recent Texas decision Severance v. Patterson: 370 S.W.3d 705 (2012) reinforces Cooley’s opinion, and emphasizes the importance of maintaining stable and certain boundaries: we must also recognize ages-old private property rights that are protected by law. “…Government is instituted to protect property of every sort; as well that which lies in the various rights of individuals, as that which the term particularly expresses. This being the end of government, that alone is a just government, which impartially secures to every man, whatever is his own.” This argument applies equally to private and public land.
Over-reliance on measurements will result in more extraneous markers that will continue to sprout in the vicinity of property corners, increasing the chances for litigation, dispute and discord. Following this path of reasoning leads to the inevitable conclusion that irrelevant monuments will continue to proliferate, despite our stated desire to avoid this very outcome.
Neither the author nor POB intend this column to be a source of legal advice for surveyors or their clients. The law can change over time and differs in important respects for different jurisdictions. If you have a specific legal problem, the best source is an attorney admitted to the bar in your jurisdiction. |
Study Guide
Sentimental Education Chapter 5
By Gustave Flaubert
Chapter 5
Love Knoweth No Laws
• Frederick buys "a box of colours, paintbrushes, and an easel" (1.5.1) and gets Pellerin to give him painting lessons. Yeah, not his best idea.
• They go back to his room, where Deslauriers is in conversation with a man named Sénécal. Frederick doesn't like this guy at all. He has "a certain hard, cold look in his grey eyes" (1.5.4)—plus he insults Arnoux. Not cool.
• A debate about the purpose of art ensues. Sénécal insists, "Art should aim exclusively at promoting morality amongst the masses! The only subjects that ought to be reproduced were those which impelled people to virtuous actions; all others were injurious" (1.5.14).
• Well, not everyone agrees with him that art must make people more moral or that it should depict misery so that it will incite people to political action.
• When everyone leaves, Frederick and Deslauriers begin to enjoy each other's company and even get into a little domestic routine.
• Frederick takes care of his friend, "still playing the part, which he had assumed in their college days, of protector and senior" (1.5.38).
• They share their hopes and dreams, chat from their beds, and enjoy walking arm in arm.
• Frederick is soon in financial strain because he is supporting both of them and spending loads of money at Arnoux's shop. Hmmm.
• Meanwhile, his painting career is not going so well either. So yeah, things aren't looking good.
• One day, he tries to "stop by" to see Madame Arnoux. She's not there, but he starts spending more time at L'Art Industriel just to get in good with Arnoux.
• He gets invited to a few dinners, but can only stare at Madame Arnoux, memorizing every inch of her body (that he can see, at least). Sexy times.
• Deslauriers is getting really sick of hearing his friend go on about this woman.
• And since Frederick is gone so often, Deslauriers hangs out with Hussonet, Dussardier, Sénécal, and a guy named M. de Cisy. "They discussed the immortality of the soul, and drew comparisons between the different professors" (1.5.64). They also talk about their hatred of government and their love of women.
• Deslauriers really wants Frederick to take him to meet the Arnouxes, but Frederick thinks his friend looks too scruffy. Ouch.
• Deslauriers catches on and is really insulted. He gets really fed up with his friend's constant discussion of the Arnouxes.
• Meanwhile, Frederick basically bombs on his law exams—remember, he's a law student, too…
• His friends succeed, so his failure is all the more embarrassing. As the narrator dryly puts it, "There is nothing so humiliating as to see blockheads succeed in undertakings in which we fail" (1.5.116).
• He gets over that quickly when he discovers that Monsieur Arnoux is getting out of town. He quickly spends a heap of cash on new clothes.
• His Mom (Madame Moreau) is getting on his case about visiting, so he sends some excuse off to her.
• Then he hurries over to visit Madame Arnoux in his new fancy outfit only to find Monsieur Arnoux there instead. Awkward.
• All flustered, Frederick breaks the ivory handle of a parasol, thinking it belongs to Madame Arnoux—who happens to be in the countryside with her ill mother.
• He does a lot of wandering around, thinking and planning and generally seeking a distraction or amusement. He spends three months doing basically nothing but walking around and visiting L'Art Industriel in the hopes of getting a clue about when Madame will return.
• He has a lot of dinners with Arnoux, and sometimes Regimbart (The Citizen) joins them.
• Finally, Frederick discovers that Madame Arnoux is back—turns out she didn't have a sick mother, so something is suspicious. Hmmm.
• Frederick hangs out with the Arnouxes even more, having dinner at their house and getting really (and we mean really) lovesick.
• Everything reminds him of her—from a satin slipper to a palm tree. Yep, he's got it bad. But he thinks, "As for trying to make her his mistress, he was sure that any such attempt would be futile" (1.5.182).
• Deslauriers is starting to get seriously annoyed by his friend's behavior, so he takes him to a dance hall with Hussonet, Dussardier, and Cisy, where they see Monsieur Arnoux with Mademoiselle Vatnaz.
• Deslauriers brags that he can go home with the first woman he sees, and he does exactly that.
• One day, Frederick's luck seems to be changing when he receives an invitation from the Dambreuses and the Arnouxes for dinners on the same evening. He thinks it would be good professionally for him to go to the Dambreuses, so he decides to get Madame Arnoux a new parasol to compensate for his absence. Oh, but he has to borrow money from Deslauriers to buy it.
• The Dambreuse dinner is canceled, though, so he attends Madame Arnoux's feast-day at their country-house at Saint-Cloud —a celebration day for all people named Marie.
• When he arrives at the party and gives her the parasol, he apologizes for having broken her other one. She's confused, and Arnoux quickly shuts him up: "catching hold of his arm; then in a whisper, "You are not very knowing, certainly!" (1.5.322)
• Huh?
• Frederick gets to chat with Madame Arnoux, and it doesn't really matter what they discuss because he's just sick in love: "He loved her without mental reservation, without any hope of his love being returned, unconditionally" (1.5.357).
• Things get weird when Arnoux begins lying to his wife; Frederick is a little shocked by the man's boldness. Arnoux then really blows it by giving his wife a bouquet of flowers wrapped in a personal note. Oops.
• She throws the bouquet out the window of the coach: "She seemed irritated; everything annoyed her" (1.5.366).
• Frederick hasn't a clue about why she is behaving this way and thinks she's ill. We're guessing something else is up.
• Finally Frederick passes his law exams—but he still only wants to chase Madame Arnoux.
• His acquaintances—Cisy, Martinon, Pellerin, Regimbart, and Sénécal—are all undergoing professional change as well.
• One evening, while wandering about in a love-haze, Frederick decides to pop into the theater to see "An old-fashioned dramatic version of a fairy-tale…" (1.5.399).
• There, he runs into Monsieur and Madame Dambreuse. Something about her strikes him; though she is not all that pretty, she has a certain grace and refinement that appeals to Frederick.
• Time to go visit his mother in the countryside. Bad news: his inheritance is not as big as they thought and Madame Moreau's one prospect—Monsieur Roque (their wealthy neighbor)—has just married his housekeeper.
• Stunned, Frederick goes outside and sees Monsieur Roque's daughter—"A little girl of about twelve with red hair" (1.5.422)—by the housekeeper. |
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Kamchatka Islands, Kuril Islands
Exploring Kamchatka & the Kuril Islands of Russia
Lavanya Sunkara|January 7, 2019|Blog Post
Located off the eastern coast of Russia, the Kuril Islands are the definition of the word “untamed.” Stretching 700 nautical miles in an arc from the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Sakhalin Oblast province of Russia to Japan’s Hokkaido, this volcanic archipelago is essentially like the Galápagos Islands of the east.
With at least 100 volcanoes (40 of which are still active), the 56 Kuril Islands in the Pacific Ring of Fire are dramatic and ethereal. Expect to find snow-capped mountains, lava and wildflower-studded tundra, dense spruce and larch forests, rocky shores, and an abundance of wildlife.
Huge colonies of seabirds such as northern fulmars, murres, kittiwakes, and puffins nest in the islands’ rocky outcroppings. Curious Arctic foxes roam the remote beaches. Northern fur seals and steller sea lions come ashore to breed, while dolphins and whales swim the frigid waters of the Sea of Okhotsk and the Pacific Ocean. The Kamchatka Peninsula is the ideal starting point for exploring the Kuril Islands, which are accessible only by boat.
Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands
With little to no infrastructure, the mostly uninhabited islands beckon you to traverse their lands lightly, admiring their primal beauty and incredible wildlife, and exploring their secrets (including an interesting submarine base on Samushir Island).
The Kurils were originally inhabited by the indigenous Ainu people but were later settled by the Japanese, followed by the Russians. The islands ceded to Russia in 1945 as part of the Yalta agreements. The Kuril Dispute between Russia and Japan, which began at the end of WWII over some of the archipelago’s southern islands, is still ongoing. Fortunately, the political negotiation has no bearing on the visitor experience of these enchanted isles.
The winters there are long, with plenty of cold, snowy days, while the summers are cool with wet and foggy conditions. But the immense natural beauty of this relatively unknown world makes the journey all the more worthwhile. Here we’ll explore what makes the Kuril Islands a must-visit wilderness destination on Zegrahm’s new Wild Kamchatka cruise.
Located in Russia’s Far East, the 100,000 square mile Kamchatka Peninsula is included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites for its high density of active volcanoes (more than 300).
The peninsula is also home to the Valley of the Geysers, which boasts the second largest concentration of geysers in the world after Iceland. Although the geysers aren’t accessible for travelers, there are plenty of other things to do and see in this spectacular region, with nature reserves and parks that offer excellent wildlife viewing and hiking up volcanoes.
Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands
The iconic brown bears of Kamchatka hunt salmon along rivers that roar through the taiga forests of the peninsula and excursions offer plenty of opportunities to spot them in their natural habitat. The peninsula was once dominated by the largest bear in Eurasia, and still remains home to the highest recorded numbers of brown bears on the planet (around 10,000).
Thanks to the area’s rich resources, male brown bears can weigh up to 1300 pounds. During salmon spawning season, these beautiful animals can be seen feeding along the rushing rivers. They can also be spotted in the coastal meadows and shores, hunting for sea otters in the months when they aren’t hibernating at higher elevations.
Sadly, the Kamchatka brown bears are facing increased threats to their existence. Poaching for their parts to satiate demand in Asia, trophy hunting, and over-development are some of the numerous causes to their decline in population. Salmon poaching and increased commercial fishing are also contributing factors. Though there is a quota for hunting for bears in the peninsula, it is rarely enforced.
Despite these threats, Kamchatka still remains one of the last places on Earth to see these giant bears in the wild.
Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands
Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, the sprawling capital city of Kamchatka, is located on the picturesque shores of Avachinskaya (Avacha Bay). The area offers outdoor activities like such as skiing and climbing nearby volcanoes and snow-capped mountains.
Discovered by the Russians in 1703, Avacha Bay is named after the biggest river that flows into it. As you approach the peninsula, the natural monuments of the “Tri Brata” (Three Brothers) rocks stand as visual symbols of Kamchatka, enticing visitors to the natural wonders ahead.
According to folklore, there were three handsome Koryak brothers, indigenous to Russia’s coastal Far East, who protected the bay from a tsunami and ended up turning into stone.
Located on the southeast coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the deep and narrow freshwater Russkaya Bay resembles a Norwegian fjord, with craggy shores and imposing mountains.
Seabirds such as cormorants, auklets, and kittiwakes can be seeing nesting on the side of cliffs and swirling above boats. You may also spot the adorable horned and tufted puffins, small diving birds that mate for life, gathering on the islands in the spring to reunite with their lovers.
The horned puffin has milky white feathers around the face, a large flashy beak, and tiny black horns above the eyes. The tufted puffin is similar to the horned, except it has two tufts of yellow feathers atop its head. It is believed that the birds’ bills fade and brighten depending on the time of the year in order to attract their mates.
The surrounding waters attract sea otters, grey whales, humpbacks, and orcas, offering great opportunities to photograph these incredible marine animals.
Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands
Reaching up some 900 feet, the sheer cliffs of Broutona Island are dotted with millions of nesting northern fulmars, the gull-like seabirds that are remarkably abundant in the area.
This roughly circular, uninhabited island consists of a dormant stratovolcano and is located near the northern end of the Southern Kuril Islands chain. It was named after William Robert Broughton, a British American ship captain who voyaged to the Kurils during the 19th century.
The island is also home to other birds, like puffins, black-legged kittiwakes, thick-billed murres, red-faced and pelagic cormorants, and guillemots, who delight bird lovers with their black, white, and shades of grey plumage.
As your Zodiac approaches the fog-shrouded coast of Chirpoy Island, orcas (killer whales) might be spotted. Chirpoy is part of two uninhabited volcanic islands nicknamed Snow and Cherny, which are known collectively as Chyornie Bratya. They are surrounded by a number of small islets and lava rocks.
Chirpoy is made up of several overlapping stratovolcanoes that cover the island in shaded layers of dark sediment. The shores have a large concentration of endangered Steller sea lions.
These animals, named after naturalist Georg Steller, are also called Northern sea lions. They’re much larger and lighter in color than California sea lions, coming in hues of light tan to reddish brown. Large populations of black-legged kittiwakes and thick-billed murres can also be spotted along the island’s rocky coast.
Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands
Simushir translates to “Large Island” in Ainu, and is situated near the center of the Kuril Island archipelago. Formerly known as Marikan, Simushir Island features a string of extinct volcanoes– Milne, Prevo, Urataman, and Zavaritski– encircled by lush slopes.
The northern tip features the flooded crater of Urataman. Its narrow pass opens into Brouton Bay, which was the site of a secret Russian military base named Kraternyy from 1978 to 1991. During this time, nearly 2,000 soldiers inhabited the harbor.
The flooded caldera is only eight feet deep at its entrance and 780 feet deep inside, making it a natural hiding place for Russian submarines. Visitors can spend a fascinating time wandering among the abandoned barracks and other relics of the Cold War era.
Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands
In the middle of the Kurils is a string of islands and rock formations that make up Ushishir, with two large islands–Yankicha and Ryponkicha– attracting the most attention.
The steep-walled caldera of Yankicha features hot springs and fumaroles (geothermal openings in the earth’s crust that emit steam). Walks around the caldera’s grassy slopes reveal Arctic foxes and two kinds of songbirds, the Arctic and Middendorff’s grasshopper warblers. Lucky birdwatchers may even spot the short-tailed albatross and the whiskered auklet, a rare and secretive seabird with ornate facial plumes found in the rocky crevices.
In the surrounding sea waters and flooded caldera, sea otters can often be seen swimming. When encountering foxes, be aware that these small, black and brown beauties with piercing yellow eyes aren’t afraid of humans (perhaps due to not encountering people on a regular basis). They can get close enough to sniff and even steal items. The foxes dig out their dens on mountain sides and tend to be territorial, so be wary when hiking.
The rugged islands of Srednego are teeming with wildlife, with thousands of birds nesting on the misty columnar stacks. Here you can spot the northern fulmars, black-legged kittiwakes, guillemots, and the rare whiskered auklet.
Northern fur seals can be seen on the rocky beaches, defending their harems and frolicking in the water. These flap-footed animals are known for their thick fur and brown coloration, earning them the nickname of “sea bears.” These mammals feed on small schooling fish found in the open ocean, spending half the year in the water and only coming to land to breed.
The population of these pinnipeds has been decreasing due to climate change, hunting, commercial fishing (depleting their food resources), and getting entangled in fishing gear. It’s currently estimated that there are 60,000 to 70,000 northern fur seals in the central Kuril Islands chain, with May to July being the ideal times to witness them.
Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands
The Lovyshki Islands consist of a few dozen rocks jutting out from the sea. Unlike their somewhat imposing volcanic neighbors, these are small, rocky islets that offer perfect breeding grounds for northern fur seal rookeries and those of the less common (and larger) Steller sea lions.
Bird watchers can keep a look out for the crested auklets in the rock ledges of cliffs and boulder fields. They feed on krill and a variety of small animals by diving in deep waters.
These beautiful birds are known for their colorful plumage. Crested auklets are easily identifiable from their forehead crest, orange beak, pungent citrusy scent, and a loud trumpet call used for attracting mates. The bird shares its scent with the closely-related whiskered auklet, which is found in some of the other Kuril islands.
Situated near the northern end of the Kuril Island chain, Onekotan Island boasts a striking 4,000-foot volcano named Krenitsyn, which has a deep, circular crater lake at its center. Krenitsyn erupted in the early 1950s, but has been relatively calm since then. Approaching the island, it is hard to miss the streams and waterfalls tumbling down its hillsides to the beach.
The island was once inhabited by the Ainu people, and visitors will get a chance to walk through the remains of their former humble dwellings. Onekotan gets its name from the Ainu term for “large village,” as it is the second largest island in the northern Kurils after Paramushir.
The island’s lush tundra slopes are home to ezo red foxes and dozens of different bird species. The ezo red fox is a subspecies of red fox that inhabits the Kuril archipelago and surrounding islands off the coast of Japan. It uses its keen senses of smell, hearing, and sight to hunt rodents, birds, and other small game.
Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands
The northernmost island in the Kuril chain also boasts the archipelago’s highest volcano– the 7,600-foot-tall Vulkan Alaid. The island was named after Vladimir Atlasov, a 17th-century Russian explorer who was instrumental in integrating the Kamchatka Peninsula with Russia.
Atlasova Island features black sand beaches and a tundra bursting with a patchwork of wildflowers. You may see sea otters frolicking in the First Kuril Strait, and Steller’s sea eagles and peregrine falcons soaring above. Buzzards, Eurasian wigeons and tufted ducks have also been spotted on the island.
The near-perfect shape of Vulkan Alaid led to many legends, including one in which the neighboring mountains became so jealous of its beauty that they exiled it to the sea. There’s some truth to this tale: After the last Ice Age, the ice caps melted and raised the water level, ultimately submerging the land-bridge connecting the volcano to other lands
BIO: Lavanya Sunkara is a writer, animal lover, and responsible traveler based in New York City. Her love of nature and adventure has taken her all over the globe. She cherishes sharing her experiences and being a voice for the voiceless. Follow her adventures on her blog, Nature Traveler.
Related Blog Posts |
pass on
pass on {v.}
1. To give an opinion about; judge; settle.
The college passed on his application and found him acceptable.
The committee recommended three people for the job and the president passed on them.
2. To give away (something that has been outgrown.)
As he grew up, he passed on his clothes to his younger brother.
Compare: HAND DOWN.
3. To die.
Mary was very sorry to hear that her first grade teacher had passed on.
Syn.: PASS AWAY (3), PASS OUT (3).
Categories: clothes death hand verb
'pass on' on video |
Classified in History
Written at on English with a size of 2.82 KB.
56. The agricultural - farm tenancy./by conservative Democrats.
57. The Alliance’s political - railroad Regulation/supported an expanded role for Government.
58. Between 1900-1920, immigrants of Mexican/10 percent
59. After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Democrats Crossed/for a Democratic presidential
60. Although racial antipathy- 1970s/to President Johnson’s passage of the Voting Rights Act.
61. The 19th Amendment gives women the Right to vote.
62. The 24th Amendment bans the poll tax in Federal elections.
63. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 bans Literacy tests if a person has a 6th grade education.
64. The 23th Amendment gives District of Columbia residents the right to vote in presidential elections.
65. The 26th Amendment reduces the voting Age to 18 from 21.
66.Incumbents are much more likely to win since 5 of 6 congressional districts are safe seats.
67. Packing Is when the state government draws congressional districts so that the Opposition party’s votes are concentrated into a small number
68. Cracking is When the state government draws congressional districts so that opposition Party votes constitute a minority within Districts.
69. Campaigns for Congress are financed only by private money. The tendency is lower voter
70. Before 1972, by the party leaders, And the nominee generally was selected at the party’s
71. Which one of the following primary types is Unconstitutional?
Blanket Primary
Entradas relacionadas: |
What Blood Type Cannot Be Mixed?
What blood type Cannot have babies together?
A-B-0 and Rh incompatibility happens when a mother’s blood type conflicts with that of her newborn child.
It is possible for a mother’s red blood cells to cross into the placenta or fetus during pregnancy..
Why is O negative so rare?
People with O negative blood often wonder how rare their blood is since it is always in demand by hospitals and blood centers. If you have 0 negative blood, you have something in common with about 7 percent of the US population. … Only about 1 in 67 have B negative blood, making it rarer.
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What blood type should not mix?
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Can B and O+ have a baby?
And so is AB blood type. But someone who has a B and an O version only makes the B protein. They are B blood type but can pass the O onto their kids. So two B parents can make an O child if both parents are BO.
Can two O+ Parents make a baby?
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The rarest blood type in the United States is the AB- (AB negative) blood type, which is seen in just 0.6 percent of people followed by B- (found in 1.5 percent of the United States population) and AB+ (present in just 3.4 percent of people in the United States).
Can your blood type change?
Can O+ blood donate to anyone?
O positive red blood cells are not universally compatible to all types, but they are compatible to any red blood cells that are positive (A+, B+, O+, AB+). Over 80% of the population has a positive blood type and can receive O positive blood. That’s another reason it’s in such high demand.
Can O blood type accept any blood type?
Donors with blood type AB… can donate to recipients with blood type AB only. Donors with blood type O… can donate to recipients with blood types A, B, AB and O (O is the universal donor: donors with O blood are compatible with any other blood type)
Which blood type is most fertile?
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Does the father’s blood type matter in pregnancy?
The blood type and Rh factor of a pregnant woman and the father of her baby can affect what blood type the baby has. It will also influence the antibodies the mother’s body makes as an immune response to foreign matter in her body such as bacteria, sperm and even an embryo.
What blood type is A positive?
If your blood is A positive (A+), it means that your blood contains type-A antigens with the presence of a protein called the rhesus (Rh) factor. Antigens are markers on the surface of a blood cell. According to the American Red Cross, this is one of the most common blood types.
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The golden blood type or Rh null blood group contains no Rh antigens (proteins) on the red blood cell (RBC). This is the rarest blood group in the world, with less than 50 individuals having this blood group. It was first seen in Aboriginal Australians.
Can O+ and O+ have a baby?
Which blood group should not marry?
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South Asia Unbound: Rethinking South Asian Migration and Diaspora
Our first panel of speakers sheds light on the impact of the erection of “national” borders, on who gets defined as citizen or migrant, and the complex relationship between states and their diaspora.
Short and long-distance migration has been a common feature of life in South Asia for millennia, so much so that the subcontinent is often identified with and through its diaspora, one of the biggest in the world.
How and why did people move in and out of South Asia? Why did they choose not to? At a time when migration is at the forefront of the global political, economic and social agendas, there’s a crucial need to answer these questions.
New International Histories of South Asia (NIHSA) is a multi-disciplinary network of scholars who focus on the histories of South Asia in and outside of its geographic borders, all committed to sharing these insights with the wider public.
Find out more information and register for this event.
Professor Jayita Sarkar (Boston University), “Frontiers to Battlefields to Borderlands: The Connected Partitions in the Rohingya Question, 1942-1952”
Kalyani Ramnath (Harvard University), “Other Partitions: Law and Displacement in Postwar South and Southeast Asia”
Dr Antia Mato Bouzas (London Metropolitan University), “The Pakistani Gulf: Migration to the Gulf and the Development of Pakistan’s State Project”
Dr Swapna Kona Nayudu (National University of Singapore / Harvard Asia Research Center) |
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Number 8
1. Click 2. Look at the pictures of lots of different ways to represent numbers 3. Find all the ways to represent the number 8 4. Select and draw a circle around the numbers and pictures that represent 8 5. Go to page 2 6. Draw or make a set of 8. It can be of anything you choose 7. Either take a to upload or use the to draw your set 8. Click to upload to our journal
Pre-K, Math
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Introduction to Malware Analysis
Sup NERDS, This will gonna be my first article on AXIAL Blog 🥰. Today I will discuss malware will give u a gentle introduction to malware analysis in general. So What we will discuss in this article is:
• What is Malware ?
• Types of Malware
• History of Malware
• What is Malware Analysis
• Types of Malware Analysis
• Where to Study ?
• Good Movies 😇
What is Malware ?
Well I think u know what a malware is but let me give a like a short scientific definition. so a malware is short for “Malicious Software”. which means that its any software that causes harm to your PC like Stealing data, encrypting your files or maybe make your pc totally unusable.
Types of Malware:
So I Begin with this because its very poupler so Ransomware is basically a malware that gets into your pc and encrypts. but lets differentiate there are really two types of ransomware first is the crypto and second is the locker. the first encrypts your files and ask for money to decrypt the data, the second not encrypt your data but rather it just locks u from your pc what this means ? it means that u won’t have access to your pc.
These are types of malware that shows u that its a legitimate software. like it maybe in a game, a commercial software like pirated software most of them are trojans u think that u are installing the game and literally u are just installing the malware. also they may come in phishing emails. there are also special types of trojans like banking trojans these are used to steal banking accounts and credentials.
Information Stealers / Spywares:
These are malwares used to steal user information like accounts, files u opened, logging your keystrokes (Keyloggers), browser history etc..
Backdoors are also considered trojans they are software that bypasses security authentication and takes root access. u may heard of RATs Remote Access Trojans and u can say that they are synonyms for Backdoors.
These are malwares that have the capability of exploiting your network and it infects other devices on your network. example is Stuxnet.
Downloaders / Droppers:
First there is a quite difference between Downloaders and Droppers. Downloaders are used to download other malwares from the internet examples are Bazarloader and Droppers doesn’t need a internet connection it may drop the malware from the resource section. the resource section is a section in any program like notepad.exe for example it contains the name of the program name, version, the icon and so on a dropper may be the malware in the resource section.
U may heard about Bitcoin right ? actually mining for bitcoin needs a powerful pc features. Crypto miners are malwares that its goal is to mine for bitcoin on your pc. this literally makes ur pc unusable because it will take all ur pc power.
These are malwares that self replicates and infects ur files and your programs it will work only when u open the program it infected so it requires user interaction to run.
Rootkits are advanced type of malware that takes root access over your pc there are many types of them like user mode rootkits, kernel mode rootkits, hypervisor rootkits. don’t mind if u don’t understand the difference between user vs kernel or what hypervisor means. just take it and u I will write an article on these stuff. Bookits are type of malware that infects ur boot sector this sector in the harddisk includes the bootloader this is a software that will load ur operating system. example is memz trojan take a look here :) MEMZ
Are malwares that are used to throw ads or advertisements on your browser and they typically run in the browser they are used to spy on the user and collect your data.
Botnets or bots are series of infected computers with a malware these bots are also called “Zombies”. They bots are controlled by the attacker and then they can be used to make DDos Attacks or sends spams and phishing emails. example is Mirai Botnet and Zeus.
So Enough from that if u want to read more on that check this article its very nice 11 Types of Malwares
History of Malwares:
So The Idea of Malware goes back to 1966 by a Hungarian scientist named “John von Neumann” in his paper Theory of self-reproducing automata. He discussed the idea of self-replicating machine which is a machine capable of making copies of its self. well he really didn’t explain the concept of “Virus” but actually this idea is very similar because viruses are capable of replicating them self’s into other programs and files as we discussed. And then later in 1971 a Scientist called “Bob Thomas” made a virus as an experiment called “Creeper” it was a self replicating virus infecting computers running TENEX and goes through the systems through the ARPANET Creeper Showed a message “I’m the creeper: catch me if you can” Creeper didn’t make any damage and it was just a experiment. for me the the game changer for the world of malware was Stuxnet this was a malware developed by the Israel to attack Iran it was the first malware to infect SCADA systems. Scada systems are short for “Supervisory control and data acquisition” they are set of hardware and software that makes u control the industrial systems like nuclear system, Power systems, oil and gas etc… Stuxnet exploited a vulnerability in the Scada system of Iran it was for nuclear system. this is a big damage if a nuclear system may make a global damage. Stuxnet exploited 4 windows vulnerabilities and it exploited Siemens Step7 Siemens is a company that develops Scada systems. if u want to know more about Stuxnet see this awesome video :D STUXNET: The Virus that Almost Started WW3
What is Malware Analysis ?
So Malware Analysis is Art and Science of dissecting malware. we need to know the functionalities of the malware in order to be able to defend against it. its logic lets take from a real life example corona virus for example this virus that made owr world a total disaster 😔. logically u can’t develop a cure for corona without studying it in depth. the same in malware analysis we need to understand how the malware works ? who is behind it ? how to defend against it ?. these are the main 3 questions.
Types of Malware Analysis:
There are 2 main types of malware analysis Static Malware and Dynamic Malware Analysis. Static Malware Analysis is Just Reading the Malware Code u may say bruhh this is madness my answer is yes it is 😅 but its really fun and gives u a deep understanding of what the malware is doing at this stage u will be reading mostly assembly code instead if u are very reach and bought IDA Pro or simply a open source software like Ghidra developed by the NSA this software is called Disassemblers. the second type is is dynamic malware analysis is running the malware and monitor its behavior see what it does. does its drops another malware ? does it connects to websites or ip address ? does it encrypts the files ? and so on.
Where to Study:
There are many resources to study malware analysis and reverse engineering but here is my opinion u may start learning C First to get a gentle introduction to programming and then go and learn Assembly. resources u may find useful are
C Programming by thenewbostonIntroduction to x86 AssemblyIntermediate x86 Assembly
For Malware Analysis and Reverse Engineering first book u must read is Practical Malware Analysis this book is the best in this field other books are Learning Malware Analysis and Mastering Malware Analysis
Good Movies 😇:
Here is a list of movies related to cybersecurity and technology in general u may find interesting :)
. Snowden
. Mr. Robot
. The Internet Own Boy
So that’s it hope u enjoy and thanks for AXIAL for building this community I will inshallah make more articles like this and tell me what topic u want ? related to malware only this is my interest :).
Blog by: astrovax [@astrovax_] |
Engineering Notes by Oriental Motor
Stepper Motor Basics: PM vs VR vs Hybrid
[fa icon="calendar"] Jan 8, 2021 10:15:53 PM / by Johann Tang
Johann Tang
There are three main types of stepper motors available in the market: PM type, VR type, and hybrid type. What are their differences, and which one should you use?
Let's quickly review what a stepper motor does. Stepper motors rotate in specific increments of "steps" without encoder feedback or complicated PID loops. Rotation amount and speed are easily controlled by the number of pulses and frequency, and a stepper motor offers highly repeatable stop accuracy at ±3 arc minutes (±0.05°). Holding torque is generated without an electromagnetic brake when a stepper motor is powered but at standstill. They are ideal for cost-sensitive applications where motors need to stop accurately and provide holding torque.
Stepper motor moves in increments of steps
The design of a stepper motor affects its characteristics. In the next few minutes, I will introduce the three types of stepper motors in the market and why one is preferred over others.
PM "Permanent Magnet" Type
This is a stepper motor whose rotor is made from two permanent magnet rotors which are slightly offset from each other. The permanent magnet is axially magnetized; meaning that the north and south poles alternate and are on the same axis as the motor shaft. When current is applied to windings, poles on the stator are magnetized and align with the opposite poles from the permanent magnet rotor. For example, north poles would align directly across from south poles.
A widely used PM type stepper motor is the 2-phase claw type as shown below.
Permanent magnet type stepper motor construction
The image below shows a rotor and a stator in which a current is applied so that the A1 pole is magnetized to the south pole and the A2 pole is magnetized to the north pole, therefore attracting the opposite poles from the rotor's permanent magnets. If the current is switched from phase A to phase B to magnetize B1 to the south pole and B2 to the north pole, the rotor would rotate by 90° in the clockwise direction.
Permanent magnet stepper motor simplified operation
The step angle is represented as follows using the number of poles of the rotor (Np) and the number of phases (Nphase). If the number of poles or the number of phases increase, the step angle would decrease. However, as the number of poles increases, the magnetic force and torque also become weaker.
Resolution formula for PM type stepper motors Stepper motor: 8-pole rotor vs 16-pole rotor
A PM type stepper motor is simple in construction and inexpensive to manufacture. The permanent magnets allow PM type stepper motors to output higher torque. However, high speed performance is limited due to large loss during rotation. A PM type stepper motor is often used for simple positioning since it's resolution tend to be larger than other types (ie: 3.6° or bigger). For higher resolution, half-stepping or microstepping is recommended. With microstepping, the driver's ability to control current precisely at each phase becomes increasingly important in determining the motor's repetitive position accuracy. Another difference is that PM type stepper motors uses constant voltage drivers, which are more difficult to use than constant current chopper drivers.
VR "Variable Reluctance" Type
This is a stepper motor which provides teeth on the rotor and stator where the magnetic forces are concentrated. It offers the simplest design out of the three types discussed here. The image below shows a 3-phase VR type stepper motor with 8 poles and 12 slots. A ferromagnetic material, such as iron, is used for most magnetic cores because of its abundance on earth and its ability to pass magnetic flux easily. A VR type stepper motor has no magnets, which means it cannot output holding torque or detent torque at standstill.
Variable reluctance type stepper motor construction
The below image shows an example of a 4-pole, 6-slot VR type stepper motor. The "teeth" on the rotor are attracted to the magnetized poles on the stator. The stator poles on each side of the rotor is magnetized north and south by winding the poles in reverse.
In the images below, we show a "Phase B excited" state on the left. In this condition, the closest teeth from the rotor will align themselves to the nearest magnetic pole on the stator. The rotor will rotate counterclockwise 30° until the teeth are aligned across each other (see "Stop position of phase B"). Now, when phase C is excited in the same way, the rotor will rotate 60° until the teeth are aligned with phase C.
Phase B excited Stop position of phase B Stop Position of phase C
Rotor and stator of a VR type stepper motor
An advantage of the VR type stepper motor is that there is no need to change the polarity of the stator poles, so that its drive circuitry can be simplified. Its disadvantage is its inability for fine torque control since torque is proportional to the square of the current instead of to the current. However, since it does not use permanent magnets, its high speed performance is better than a PM type stepper motor.
The step angle of the VR type stepper motor is represented in the following formula. Np is the number of teeth of a rotor, and Nphase is the number of phases. For finer resolutions, it's effective to increase of the number of teeth of the rotor. However, if the number of stator slots are also increased, the structure becomes very complicated to manufacture. The image below shows a 50-teeth rotor and stator design. This is a 4-phase stepper motor where the coil is divided into 4 sets. Inputting Np = 50 and Nphase = 4 would result in a step angle of 1.8°.
Resolution formula for VR type stepper motors
Toothed rotor and stator from a VR type stepper motor
VR type stepper motors have been around for a long time. These motors have less torque drop-off at higher motor speeds, so they are often a better choice than PM type stepper motors in mid to high speed applications. However, they are known to produce more noise, so their application range is limited. VR type stepper motors are less common than PM type stepper motors in the market.
Hybrid Type Stepper Motor
A "hybrid" type stepper motor combines the design and advantages from both permanent magnet type and variable reluctance type stepper motors. Therefore, a hybrid type stepper motor uses both the permanent magnet rotor as well as a toothed rotor and stator in their design. With strong permanent magnets, toothed rotor, toothed stator, and a tiny air gap, a hybrid type stepper motor is able to focus the magnetic flux better than the other two types. Low loss is achieved by stacking magnetic steel laminations that can easily pass the magnetic flux.
Hybrid type stepper motor construction
The construction of a hybrid type stepper motor starts with two rotor cups (Rotor 1 and Rotor 2) and a strong rare earth permanent magnet which is axially magnetized. Two ball bearings mount the rotor into the motor casing. There are either 50 teeth (1.8° per step) or 100 teeth (0.9° per step) on the rotors. One rotor is magnetized as the north pole, and one rotor is magnetized as the south pole. Each tooth on the rotor cups becomes a magnetic pole.
In the 2 images below, we show a top down view of the two rotors; starting with the north pole rotor on top. The two rotor cups are in different colors. Red is the north pole rotor, and blue is the south pole rotor.
Stepper motor rotor cups offset by 3.6°
Stepper motor: phase excitation and teeth arrangement
Since there are 50 teeth, the full pitch is 7.2°. The two rotor cups are offset by a half pitch (3.6°) so the south pole teeth from rotor 1 line up in between the north pole teeth from rotor 2. From a cross-sectional view of the rotor, you can clearly see that the north and south pole teeth are alternating because of the offset of the two rotor cups. When the windings are energized or excited by the driver, the stator poles turns into electromagnets, and the permanent magnet rotor follows them by both a pull and push effect and stops at fixed increments. The north poles from the stator will attract the south poles from the rotor, and vice versa.
Stator from a hybrid type stepper motor
There are eight stator poles in the stator. When windings are wound to the main poles and a current is applied, each pole is magnetized to the north pole or the south pole. Direction of current can determine the magnetic polarity. When excited, two poles at opposite sides have the same polarity, and two poles positioned at 90° from these poles have the opposite polarity. The main poles excited together are called "phases" and can be divided into two phases (phase A and phase B). This is why it's called a "two-phase" stepper motor.
Formula to calculate step angle of hybrid type stepper motors
The step angle of a hybrid type stepper motor is in inverse proportion to the number of small teeth on the rotor ZR and the number of phases n. The denominator 2 indicates that the main poles of the stator can be configured into two states, north pole and south pole. This is a fundamental design difference between VR type and hybrid type stepper motors.
Teeth Arrangement Offset Phase A Excited Phase B Excited
Teeth arrangement offset between rotor and stator Stepper motor: phase A excited Stepper motor: phase B excited
The reason why hybrid type stepper motors rotate 1.8° per step is because the motor only moves a quarter of a tooth pitch per step due to the geometric design between the rotor and stator. When phase A is excited as the south pole and its stator teeth are directly aligned with the north pole teeth from the rotor, the stator teeth of phase B are actually offset from the teeth of the rotor by 1.8°. This is called the teeth arrange offset and is the reason why a two-phase hybrid type stepper motor rotates 1.8 ° per step.
For a 0.9° per step stepper motor, both the rotor teeth need to increase to 100. Anything more than 100 teeth is quite difficult to manufacture.
With hybrid type stepper motors, high torque can be obtained by the rare earth permanent magnets while high resolution obtained by the small teeth is maintained. Also, the relationship between current and torque is close to proportional; making it easier to control than a VR type stepper motor. Hybrid type stepper motors can also achieve higher resolution (ie: 0.72° per full step / 500 steps per revolution). Even higher resolutions can be achieved by microstepping.
• PM Type: permanent magnets in the rotor, moderate torque, low to mid speed
• VR Type: toothed rotor/stator with ferromagnetic material, low torque, mid to high speed
• Hybrid Type: combines permanent magnets and teeth, good combination of torque and speed
The most popular stepper motors in the market are the hybrid type as it offers the best performance albeit at a higher cost. Hybrid type stepper motors will work well for most applications while PM type or VR type stepper motors are limited to certain applications. Stepper motor drivers are becoming increasing smarter in recent years due to their technological improvements in functions, distributed control, and ease of programming. Gearheads and closed-loop feedback can be added to the stepper motor to expand its range of applications. Working with a manufacturer that can provide all the necessary components and training can make life easier.
Interested in learning more? Learn more about stepper motors fundamentals from our technical articles and white papers. Topics include Unipolar / Bipolar Motor Connections, Speed Torque Curves for Stepper Motors, and Stepper Motor Gearheads.
White Papers - Stepper Motors Fundamentals
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Topics: Stepper Motors, Motion Control Basics
Johann Tang
Written by Johann Tang
Johann Tang is a Product Specialist at Oriental Motor USA Corp. with over 15 years of knowledge and experience supporting applications of various types of electric motors, gearheads, actuators, drivers, and controllers. |
There has been a lot of hype around AI in recent years; enthusiasts and early adopters revere it for its potential benefits to humanity, and the naysayers, on the other hand, despise it for its doomsday scenarios, where computers take over the world with intentions of establishing dominion over mankind. In any case, an artificial intelligence evolving to rationalize in the same capacity as human beings is unlikely, unless, of course, we can invent a chip that can give computers human emotions, and the ability to procreate like we do.
AI is a subset of data science, and data is the new currency. NFL recently partnered with a tech company to place RFID chips in player uniforms and footballs to gather real-time data on player movement on the field. With systems deployed at all football stadiums in the US for capturing this data, NFL can process and act on this data, and generate new revenue streams. For example, such data can be used for improving and predicting player performance, enhancing video games, creating new applications, etc.
This is the sort of value that is present in data; raw and untapped data, when intelligently processed can yield efficiencies, as well as reveal new opportunities that businesses can thrive on. According to IOT Analytics, more than 4.7 billion IoT devices were connected on the internet in 2016; by 2021 this will surpass 11.5 billion. According to IDC the number of connected devices will be about 41.6 billion by 2025. So, what can businesses do to get ready for the upcoming data deluge? Well, in short, take initiative in developing skills in AI and data science, but, more importantly, employ a smart strategy on where to process this data.
Fundamentally, AI involves digitizing real world events through smart sensors, training the computers through application-specific algorithms on the gathered data, and inferring on what actions to take from the on-going learning.
Data gathered through IoT devices in their raw form are the starting point. Depending on the application, different data may need to be acquired and combined for making valuable computations for decision making. For example, a control valve on an oil refinery pipeline may have sensors for temperature and pressure, and these can be used to compute the amount of flow control needed through the valve for the particular fluid.
Legacy technologies already allow you to do this; however, the future is about gathering this data for learning, and forecasting outcomes. This predictive aspect of data science is what will drive costs down, and unveil new opportunities. For example, accumulated data can be used to make decisions on when to replace hardware or equipment before it breaks in the field, which can be very costly.
As smart IoT devices will be everywhere, the volume of data generated will be immense. Wind farms can easily produce tens of thousands of data points each second. Vehicle traffic is expected to exceed 10 exabytes monthly by 2025. Then, there is the data from Smart Cities, and so on. The best strategy for handling this data, especially for real-time processing, is to consume it at the Edge. Some benefits include:
• low latency, and, thereby, improved response times
• opportunity to increase product capability (through complex software on the Edge Cloud)
• opportunity to reduce hardware costs
• reduced product development cycles
Transporting this magnitude of data to the Cloud will use up much of the bandwidth in the backhaul, and cause data traffic jams.
In order for machines to learn and evolve, they must have a large data lake from which to train the AI model. Initially, when the data lake is small, the accuracy in the decision or outcome will be low. As more data is collected, processed, and acted on, the learning will improve.
This is a critical component of AI; a large data set is needed to derive more business insights. With machine learning algorithms, you can unveil data patterns to help with predictive analytics on user behavior, game play outcome, and so on; eventually enhancing the training process.
Ultimately, you need computing, storage, and network at the Edge to make this happen. An option is to use Distributed Edge Computing services offered by Edge Cloud providers. An alternative is to develop your own on-premises Cloud and/or use the device itself to do the needed processing; however, this will not be scalable. A smart solution can involve a combination of both; i.e., an Edge Computing service that can leverage computing resources at nearby data centers as well on-premises resources (e.g., IoT Gateway) for strategically distributing workloads. Not only is this smart, but it is also secure as the critical data is localized, and gated from reaching the centralized Cloud via the internet.
Based on all the data that has been collected and processed, the overall goal is for the computer to make a decision based on the patterns hidden in the raw data. Essentially, the computing resources can be used to make conclusions based on the facts or evidence embedded in the gathered data.
The implications of this is that machines will eventually make higher level decisions and act autonomously. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, machines can point out failures in equipment before they occur, and, thereby, help reduce cost substantially.
Ideally, an enterprise will want to manage this locally without the involvement of cloud services; this will certainly address their security and privacy concerns, as well as the cost of cloud computing. However, this will cause them to lose focus on their business, and also pose challenges with scalability. Edge Computing services will alleviate these issues, and set the stage for building intelligent systems that can think for themselves.
Although AI has been around for some time now, it has recently started to build momentum. The ability for computers to learn and make decisions from patterns hidden in data, which could be very difficult for human beings to make manually, is the primary benefit of this technology. As applications mature through improved quality in the data lakes, efficiencies can be derived, and new opportunities will unfold.
An Edge Computing solution, when strategically deployed has the potential of becoming the operating system for AI. |
Tan Brown
The crystals of granite form while the molten material inside the Earth’s crust cools relatively slowly. Molten rock or magma that would have formed granite had it stayed in the Earth’s crust, but instead managed to erupt onto the surface of the Earth, forms a rock called rhyolite. The two rock types have the same chemistry. Rhyolite however does not generally have the same texture and crystals are generally too small to see. If granite type rock has crystals that grow larger than a large pebble (roughly 3 cm or about 1 inch across) then it is called a pegmatite.
The minerals that are found in granite are primarily quartz, plagioclase feldspars, potassium or K-feldspars, hornblende and micas. Quartz is usually the last mineral to crystallize and fills in the extra space between the other minerals. Quartz’s hardness, lack of chemical reactivity and near lack of cleavage give granite a significant amount of its desirable durable properties. The quartz will appear grey, but is actually colourless and is reflecting and fusing the colours of the white and black minerals surrounding it. The plagioclase feldspars are generally white with a porcelaneous lustre. The K-feldspars are generally the ones that give granite its colour variations from yellow to orange to pink or blue. Dark K-feldspars can give granite its black varieties as well. The micas are generally muscovite (silver), biotite (black or brown) or lepidolite (violet or pink) and provide the sparkle that some granites possess. The hornblende and biotite provide granite with the black pepper portion of the famous and distinctive “salt and pepper” look to classic granite.
Contact Bloom Stones London today, London’s finest stone purveyors |
Explore BrainMass
Explore BrainMass
Polynomials, Quadratics, Linear Equations and Word Problems
1.Simplify -i^4: answers a.-1 b.1 c.i d.-i
2.Types of Equations
Solve by factoring: x4 - 9x2 = 0. answers a.1, -1, 3, -3 b.0, 3, -3 c.9, -9 d.3, -3
3. Two-Dimensional Coordinate System and Graphs;
Find the midpoint of the line segment with endpoints (-4, 8) and (7, 2).
a.(3/2, 5) b(-11/2, 3) c.(11/2, -3) d.(3/2, 3)
4.Introduction to Functions
Given f(x) = 3x2 + x and g(x) = 8, find f(-1) and g(2). answer
a.f(-1) = 4; g(2) = 2 b.f(-1) = 2; g(2) = 2 c.f(-1) = 2; g(2) = 8 d.f(-1) = 4; g(2) = 8
5.The length of a rectangle is 4 feet less than twice the width of the rectangle. If the perimeter of the rectangle is 136 feet, find the length of the rectangle.
a.44 feet b.24 feet c.52 feet d. 16 feet
6.An elementary school class is selling candles to raise money to go on a field trip. The profit made by selling x candles is Profit = 1.25x - 45. How many candles must be sold to make a profit of $200? answers;
a.244 candles b.4 candles c.124 candles d.196 candles
Polynomial Division and Synthetic Division
7.Divide by X FOURTH+3XCUBIC+XSQUARED-12X-20 BY X-2
8.Find the real zeros of the polynomial function P(x) = x(x - 1)(3x + 5).
9.Find the real zeros of the polynomial function P(x) = (x + 4)(x - 6)(x + 1)3.
Solution Preview
1. answer is b. 1 since i^2=-1, i^4=(-1)^2=1
2. x^4-9x^2=x^2(x^2-9)=x^2*(x-3)(x+3)
So, four roots are x=0, or x=0, or x=3, or, x=-3. So, answer is b.
3. Using a formula for midpoint below
So, we get
Solution Summary
Polynomials, Quadratics, Linear Equations and Word Problems are investigated. The response received a rating of "5" from the student who posted the question. |
Exit Parallel Mode
Genesis 8
1But God hadn't forgotten about Noah and all the wild animals and livestock with him in the ark. God sent a wind to blow over the earth, and the floodwaters started to drop. 2The subterranean waters were closed off, and the heavy rainfall was stopped. 3The floodwaters steadily receded from the earth. They had gone down so much that by 150 days after the flood began 4the ark grounded on the mountains of Ararat. This happened on the seventeenth day of the seventh month. 5The waters continued to drop so that by the first day of the tenth month the tops of mountains could be seen.
6Forty days later Noah opened the window he'd made in the ark, 7and sent a raven out. It flew back and forth until the water on the earth had dried up. 8Then he sent a dove out to see if the waters had gone down enough to expose dry ground. 9But the dove couldn't find anywhere to land. So it came back to Noah in the ark because water was still covering the whole earth. He reached out his hand, picked up the dove, and took it back into the ark with him. 10He waited another seven days and sent the dove out from the ark again. 11When it came back to him in the evening it had a freshly-picked olive leaf in its beak, so Noah knew the floodwaters were mainly gone from the earth. 12Again he waited another seven days and sent the dove out again, but this time it didn't return to him.
13By now Noah was 601, and by the first day of the first month, the floodwaters on the earth were gone. Noah pulled back the ark's covering and saw that the ground was drying out. 14By the twenty-seventh day of the second month the earth was dry.
15Then God told Noah, 16“Leave the ark, you and your wife, your sons and their wives. 17Let all the animals go—the birds, the wild animals, the creatures that run along the ground—so that they can breed and increase their numbers on the earth.” 18So Noah and his wife, his sons and their wives, left the ark. 19All the animals, all the creatures that run along the ground, all the birds—everything that lives on land—also left, each kind leaving together.
20Noah built an altar, and sacrificed some of the clean animals and birds as a burnt offering. 21The Lord accepted#8:21. “Accepted”: literally, “smelled a pleasing aroma.” This is a “figurative extension” of this sensory process which meant that in the same way when we like something, and by extension, accept it, so does God. the sacrifice, and said to himself, “I won't ever again curse the ground because of human beings, even though every single thought in their minds is evil from childhood. I won't ever destroy all life again as I have just done. 22As long as the earth exists, seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night, will never come to an end.”
The Water Goes Down
6-7Forty days later Noah opened a window to send out a raven, but it kept flying around until the water had dried up. 8Noah wanted to find out if the water had gone down, so he sent out a dove. 9Deep water was still everywhere, and when the dove could not find a place to land, it flew back to the boat. Then Noah held out his hand and helped it back in.
10Seven days later Noah sent the dove out again. 11It returned in the evening, holding in its beak a green leaf from an olive tree. Noah knew the water was finally going down. 12He waited seven more days before sending the dove out again, and this time it did not return.
15God said to Noah, 16“You, your wife, your sons, and your daughters-in-law may now leave the boat. 17Let out the birds, animals, and reptiles, so they can mate and live all over the earth.” 18After Noah and his family had left the boat, 19the living creatures left in groups of their own kind.
The Lord's Promise for the Earth
22As long as the earth remains,
there will be planting
and harvest,
cold and heat;
winter and summer,
day and night. |
Definitions for "condensed"
shortened by rewriting with fewer words; -- used of texts; as, a condensed book. Opposite of unabridged.
A narrow, elongated typeface.
reduced to a stronger or more concentrated form; as, condensed milk. Opposite of uncondensed.
Keywords: thicker, steam, packed, degrees, liquid
Made to become thicker or more closely packed together. Steam condenses to water when it returns to a liquid temperature state (less than 100 degrees C). |
Cognitive Behavior Therapy
for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Only a minority of individuals exposed to trauma will develop PTSD. In attempting to determine the individual risk factors for PTSD, researchers have begun to observe natural recovery from trauma. One potential difference between those who recover naturally and those who continue to experience distressing symptoms might have to do with avoidance: cognitive, emotional and behavioral.
The cognitive model suggests that the belief that the world is excessively dangerous coupled with beliefs about personal incompetence is important in the development of PTSD (Foa & Rothbaum, 1998). Following a traumatic event, such beliefs might be reinforced and therefore lead to avoidance of everyday, previously normal tasks such as grocery shopping, socializing, and traveling by car. Additionally, beliefs about the importance of maintaining strict control over distressing emotions and thoughts might also be factors mediating the development of PTSD (Ehlers & Clark, 2000). Following a traumatic event, these beliefs might lead to attempts to avoid thoughts and memories of the traumatic event and the associated upsetting emotions.
In contrast, natural recovery from trauma might be enhanced by a willingness to return, over time, to normal activities. This behavior may strengthen beliefs about personal ability to manage difficulty, that other people are not generally dangerous, and that even extremely uncomfortable emotions are manageable.
One CBT approach for PTSD systematically and strategically recreates this recovery process by targeting the tendency to avoid feared situations and distressing recollections and emotions. By systematically approaching the avoided stimuli, the individual can learn the same lessons as the person who recovers without intervention. With the assistance of a skilled cognitive behavior therapist, individuals can acquire more accurate and helpful beliefs about themselves, others, and the world following the experience of a traumatic event.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D.M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
Foa, E.B., & Rothbaum, B.O. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.
Join us for a special 3-Day Workshop:
When: November 4 - 6, 2013
Where: Beck Institute, Suburban Philadelphia
Time: 8:45 am - 4:00 pm
Faculty: Aaron Brinen, PsyD
Enrollment: Limited to 42 participants
CE/CMEs: 18
This Beck Institute specialty workshop will cover cognitive behavioral therapies which result in remission or a decrease in the severity of PTSD and the accompanying depressive and anxious symptoms.
This workshop is presented under the direction of Judith S. Beck, PhD, with a special conversation period with Aaron T. Beck, MD.
|
Indirect Illumination in V-Ray 1.5
Nov 5, 2020 Update
Hello everyone!
We are pleased to share with you a new portion of 3d stuff. We continue to discuss the best settings for V-Ray renderer, in this and the following three tutorials, we consider a second important part of any photorealistic 3D renderer - Indirect illumination. Before moving on to certain parameter values, it is extremely important to understand the concept of indirect illumination and its role in realistic 3d.
Global illumination is one of the modern rendering engine algorithms, which adds to the final image an additional render element. For ease of understanding of the rendering engine, the simplest way to imagine forming of final image is as it obtained by superimposing separate render elements, such as shadow, color, light, information about transparency, etc. each over other according to certain rules (blending modes). That is to imagine the final rendering as a collection of separate images with different information combined together. Those who know Photoshop can compare this process with the overlaying of different layers with a specific blending mode. Indirect illumination is one of the render elements, which adds to the overall result the information about the indirect light present in scene. To understand more exactly, what is added to the final image with this element, let us learn what the global, secondary or indirect illumination is in principle.
Indirect illumination in Nature
Indirect illumination is the illumination of the objects by the diffusely reflected light only, without direct light from the actual light source.
If you put some object in front of directional light source, such as window, and bring to the dark side of this object a sheet of white paper, you may notice that this dark side will be much lighter.
Bring closer and move away the white sheet from the unlighted side of the object several times, and you may see the difference in the final illumination of the surface with and without light sheet. The effect of lighting by a piece of paper would be even more obvious, if there are no objects around, which are as light-coloured as this paper sheet.
Why is this happening? Why does one object become brighter, if it appears beside the other bright object?
This happens because the effect called diffuse reflection. Bright object simply reflect rays falling on it from the light source. Therefore, reflecting, they illuminate the dark side of another object. Because of its origin, due to the fact that these rays are reflected and come from other objects, rather than going directly from the light source, they are called indirect. Accordingly, the light that is created by these rays, called indirect, that is, Indirect illumination.
It is easy to guess that ray, reflected first time from an object, also are reflected an enormous amount of times from other nearby objects. This avalanche-like process happens with all illuminated objects, eventually creating a set of reflected and mutually-reflected rays in all directions. Each subsequent reflected light ray carries less energy than previous ones because it is partially absorbed by the object from which the ray is reflected. Consequently, the light ray is fully faded. Due to the fact that this reflected light significantly illuminates even those sites that are not illuminated directly from a light source, that is, illuminating the global environment, this lighting part is called Global illumination or shortly GI.
To avoid further misunderstandings, "GI" is a very popular term in computer graphics. This is an abbreviation and literally stands for Global Illumination. It will be mentioned many times later, so you should know about it.
Global Illumination in Computer Graphics
Of course, all the photorealistic render engines are capable to simulate the global illumination, in some way calculating the first and subsequent reflections of light from objects in the scene, taking into account not only the color of these objects, but also features of their materials, such as transparency and reflective properties.
Let us see how indirect lighting looks like in computer graphics on concrete examples.
For this example we have created a simple scene in 3ds Max.
The screenshot above shows that it is a rectangular room with a window opening into which the light source is set. Indoors near the window there is ChamferBox with little Fillet radius, and usual Sphere next to it. All materials in the scene are completely mat, without any reflections, even blurred. The materials of this scene have only the texture maps; the materials of cube and sphere are the standard materials with white color in the Diffuse slot.
This is the scene rendering. Note that only the direct rays from the light source illuminate it, without the use of GI. For clarity, one of the rays is shown schematically as a green arrow.
As can be seen on image, highlighted are only the areas of direct contact with the light rays. They are the floor and ceiling near the window opening, part of the wall near to the cube and the upper part of the wall opposite to the window opening where the arrow represents the light ray. Nevertheless, despite the presence of a bright source of light in the window and well-lit parts of the room, the scene still has a lot of unnatural dark areas. For example this is a wall with a window opening, visible to us the face of the cube, and the area right to it.
As seen from the screenshot of 3ds Max viewport, next to the cube is a completely white sphere. However, it absolutely is not visible.
Of course, in the real world, in such a situation it will be perfectly visible, even if it is not exposed to direct light rays.
This picture shows the same scene, same settings, the same source of light and materials, but it has a global illumination. You can clearly see that the scene is much brighter. A wall with a window opening has become lighter, as well as the visible face of the cube; in addition, now is clearly visible the white sphere, which on the previous rendering was in complete darkness.
To understand the effect of indirect lighting, look at the conventional Direct Light ray from the direct light source. As mentioned earlier, the indirect illumination is an effect of light rays reflection from all objects. The global illumination simulates exactly this effect in computer graphics. Ray of light comes from its source and hits the wall opposite to the window opening. Then, indirect illumination picks the baton so rays do not disappear, they are reflected, bouncing off the wall, falling onto the sphere. The red arrow conventionally represents it. Thus, the primary bounce happens from the scene object, and light falls on the sphere, of course, illuminating it. After that, the ray is reflected again, this time from the sphere and strikes the bottom of the wall behind it and, again, highlights it as well. This is shown schematically by blue arrow.
Number of secondary reflections of the ray is not limited to two bounces. They can be much more, depending on the settings the renderer. Also, it should be understood that each ray from the source of direct light upon reflection splits into many secondary rays of light. This amount also depends on the specific settings. In the above example the set of rays into which a ray of direct light breaks, not shown merely to simplify the scheme. More detail, the scheme of the diffuse reflection of the ray resembles turned over dandelion:
Original ray from the source of direct light, which shown with green color, hits the surface, then form secondary rays, shown in red. These secondary rays reflect from the surface diffusely, that is by scattering to the set of rays in all directions. In turn, these are already reflected rays, striking the other surfaces, in the same way, each again forms a set of rays, and so on and on. Global illumination ray can bounce many times, depending on the number of bounces, defined by the parameters of the renderer. Based on the image above, it is easy to imagine that they form a hemisphere, similar to a half of dandelion inflorescence. Vectors of the rays diverge in all 180 degrees in different directions, by the hemisphere from the point of reflection. That is how the rays behave in the GI engine, and because of the shape of the reflection, they are called Hemispheric Rays.
It should be noted that bounces of light rays of the global illumination in V-Ray is divided into Primary bounces (first reflection), and Secondary bounces (all subsequent ones). The first ray bounce from the object scene called the Primary bounce not without reason. The whole point is that the rendering engine that simulates the behavior of the real world sets the fading of the rays as they reflect. Therefore, as happens in the real world, the first bounce bears much of the reflected light energy. The energy of this first primary bounce is so significant that it much more than the light energy of all subsequent reflections together. It one affects the illumination of the scene greater than all subsequent ones. Conversely, in view of their lesser importance, all the bounces that follow the first primary one, called the secondary bounces.
Practical GI Setup
Well, it is time to figure out how to actually manage global illumination in the V-Ray.
Open the Render Scene dialog (F10 key) and go to the Indirect illumination tab.
In this tab, the general manager is the V-Ray:: Indirect Illumination (GI) rollout. It controls global illumination, rendering algorithms, the choice of primary and secondary bounces engines and general settings of GI.
First, to enable global illumination in a scene we should set tick in the checkbox named On. After this, we have available parameters of the V-Ray global illumination engine.
In first GI caustics area we can enable or disable the so-called Reflective and Refractive caustics for GI rays.
In short, caustic is the place where the reflected or refracted rays from the reflective and transparent curved surfaces are gathered, drawing a specific clearly visible light patterns. In other words, this is the effect of the curved lens, projecting the light rays on some surface, where the lenses are the reflective and transparent objects of the scene. The most obvious example of caustic is fancy light pattern on the table near the glass, on which the light shine from a side.
It is these effects simulates caustics photon map, situated in the V-Ray:: Caustics rollout. Despite the fact that current rollout is the last in the Indirect illumination tab and logical to write about it as the very last thing we would like to briefly write about it right now. The calculation of caustics in the V-Ray is accompanied by the appearance of a large number of artifacts, excessive consumption of memory and complex pre-configuration. All this is for the minimally noticeable, and often absent effect in most scenes. In the universal starting V-Ray configuration, rendering caustics should not be enabled.
However, it should be understood that the calculation of caustics and GI caustics are two different things. Caustics, created by the aforementioned photon map can be calculated only for direct rays of light. While GI caustics are calculated separately. The GI caustics configuration area in the V-Ray:: Indirect illumination (GI) rollout are responsible exactly for these caustics, which are originated from the global illumination. Moreover, GI caustics are called caustics only by a certain analogy with photon caustics, in fact, they are not.
Option Reflective allows us to enable rendering of reflective GI caustics for GI bounces, allowing GI-rays to take into account the reflective properties of materials and better reflect from reflective objects such as chrome, mirrors and other.
Given the lower energy of indirect bounced rays, compared with the rays from sources of direct light, the effect of reflective caustics on the overall scene illumination is negligible. In addition, since the need to render Reflective caustics by renderer, their inclusion will increase the render time of global illumination. Moreover, taking into account the complexity of this effect sampling, the appearing of unwanted noise in the GI is possible. Considering mentioned drawbacks, this option should be nominally left off in the universal starting V-Ray configuration.
Refractive option allows us to include rendering of refractive GI caustics for GI bounces. Despite the similar name to the caustic from the direct rays of light sources, where it simulated caustic lighting effects, Refractive caustics simply allows the passage of secondary illumination through the transparent surface. For example, this applies to the interior scene, which is illuminated by the indirect illumination from VRaySky / skylight / Skylight portal, located behind the window, and window openings are models of windows with glass. Lack of calculation of Refractive caustics in the scene will render all black, simply because the GI rays will not fall into the interior, because they not are able to pass even through the transparent glass window.
For most scenes, such behavior is unacceptable and therefore GI option Refractive in universal V-Ray settings should be activated by selecting the checkbox Refractive.
The next area of the V-Ray:: Indirect Illumination (GI) rollout is Post-processing, which contains three parameters.
Saturation is a very important parameter of GI, which is responsible for the color saturation of reflected light or, as practice shows, simply for the value of the so-called color bleeding effect.
This image is a rendering of used earlier scene, with the same light source, with the same material objects, with one exception, the material of the cube is red.
There is no need much time to look closely to the image, comparing it with previous ones to realize that not only the cube, but other scene objects got a reddish tinge. This effect is quite common for the real world, and actually is the phenomenon of color bleeding.
Its nature is quite simple. Red object is an object that absorbs the rays of all colors and reflects only the red color rays. It is this effect clearly imitated on this image. Direct rays of white color, which, as we know, bears all the colors of the visible spectrum, falling from a window on the surface of the cube, and then reflected. But they no longer reflected white, as they were originally. They are reflected red, as red material of a cube absorbed all the colors except red. Thus, the red cube lights nearby objects and paints them red.
Lowering a Saturation: value, will help to get rid of this effect. A lower value makes the color saturation of diffuse reflection paler, while the larger value makes it richer.
That is the same scene with the same red cube, but with a value of Saturation:, equal to zero:
This image is no longer has red walls, but it should be understood that this is a global setting that affects every diffuse reflectance in the scene, reducing the color saturation of all GI rays. In most cases, a strong understating or overstating of this parameter gives an unnatural result. Optimal for the vast majority of the scenes is the value of this parameter equal to 0.7. That it must be set in the universal starting V-Ray configuration.
If there is a need to correct the effect of color bleeding of any particular object or material, for local control of this aspect the VRayOverrideMtl should be used.
Contrast: and Contrast base: are the parameters that literally control the contrast of GI, which renderer uses in forming of the final image, similar to how Saturation is essentially just controls color saturation of GI. Contrast: parameter works in conjunction with the Contrast base:. Technically Contrast base is one of the variables of the algorithm that computes the contrast of GI render element, shifting the range of its values, thereby affecting its brightness. When Contrast base is zero, increasing the value of the Contrast: parameter brightens GI; at the Contrast base greater than zero, the overall brightness is increasing, and increasing of the Contrast parameter value leads to darkening of GI.
In practice, these parameters are easily viewed as an analogue of Brightness/Contrast tool from raster editor - Photoshop. In the vast majority of cases, there is no need to somehow change the contrast of the GI. Therefore, in starting V-Ray settings, their value should not be changed, leaving 1 for Contrast: and 0,5 for Contrast base:, as it is set by default.
The next area of V-Ray:: Indirect Illumination (GI) rollout is a zone of GI engines choice of for Primary bounces and Secondary bounces of the light rays.
The number of GI settings causes panic to many 3d visualization artists. In fact, in these settings everything is fairly logical. There are primary and secondary bounces of the ray. Both are computed with special GI engine algorithms. There are four GI rendering algorithms in V-Ray. Their choice can be compared with choosing of antialiasing algorithms. There is one uncompromising calculation algorithm of GI bounces called Brute force and three slightly more flexible algorithms: Global photon map, Irradiance map and Light cache.
In areas of Primary bounces and Secondary bounces, there are only two parameters, a numerical Multiplier: parameter and GI engine dropdown list.
Multiplier: is a value of the current light bounce GI render-element applying intensity in formation of the final image. Simply it is its brightness.
By default, to Primary and Secondary bounces Multiplier values are set equal to unity. But this is not the most successful value, because of the excess brightness of the GI rays compared to the direct light rays. The images with these values are noticeably overbrighted and have no contrast. Often, it affects shadows much, which become lighter, so on rendering it immediately causes the effect of "flying" objects, under which the familiar shadows are absent.
Look closely at this image. It is quite bright, but all details of the scene are slightly visible, they appear blurred and fuzzy. This occurs because the indirect light lights the shadows, and thus greatly reduces the detail of the scene, making it flat. In scenes that contain objects of saturated colors, the value of Color bleeding is also increased, owing to the greater color influence of GI-rays on the scene. Also, it is not very clear what is the source of light in this scene, because there is absolutely no contrast between the bright light from the window and just as bright indirect lighting. There is an illusion that somewhere inside the room is an additional source of light. Nevertheless, very different picture can be observed on the image with a successful global illumination multiplier value.
In this picture, the right balance between the intensity of the direct light from the light source and indirect lighting in a scene is chosen. Look at how clearly visible light background, there is no doubt that it is a source of light from the window, not the improvised indoor sources. There are also visible details much clearer; the scene becomes juicy and well worked out in detail. This approach significantly enhances the image contrast, making it more photorealistic. If the image seems not bright enough, this is elementary solved by raising the total Multiplier value in the V-Ray color mapping settings, located in the V-Ray: color mapping rollout of V-Ray tab in Render Scene window. More details about the global adjustment of final render brightness you can find in Replacement of VRayPhysicalCamera with Standard.
If you want only a minor refinement of overall rendering brightness, it is much smarter to alter it in 2d graphics editor. In addition, as mentioned in the first tutorial of the best V-Ray settings series, adaptive behavior of V-Ray render-engine is heavily dependent on the brightness of the image calculable. This means that calculation of the lighter GI inevitably lead to more time for rendering of the final image. For these reasons, we should choose the correct meaning of the brightness of GI. Rational and the most suitable for the vast majority of scenes and situations are the values of 0.85 for Primary bounces and 0.7 for Secondary bounces. These values should be used in the universal initial V-Ray configuration.
GI engine: are drop-down lists where we can choose one or another algorithm for rendering bouncing rays. In order to understand what algorithms should be used for Primary bounces and what for Secondary bounces, we need to become better acquainted with the each of them.
In this tutorial, we became more familiar with some important aspects of setting up the V-Ray renderer, in particular with the tools of V-Ray:: Indirect Illumination (GI) rollout, as well as with the theoretical basis of global illumination concept in CG and it nature in a real world.
Dear friends, we sincerely hope that after carefully reading this tutorial, you are much closer to understanding the essence of GI and the important role it plays in photorealistic computer graphics.
There will be more practice in the next tutorial. We will learn Brute Force and Irradiance Map GI engines and their practical application.
See you in the next chapters of this tutorials series!
Feb 11, 2011
Really interesting things, the whole theory related to GI and the general approach to V-Ray were very useful. You say that the number of secondary reflections of the ray is not limited to two bounces, that there can be many more, depending on the renderer settings. But how can this be controlled? I don't know any parameter that would allow me to control the third, fourth ... etc. secondary bounces. Thank you very much for the sharing!
Feb 11, 2011
Hello, pepo!
We're glad you enjoyed this tutorial. The next tutorial of the series, which we will publish in just a few days, will answer this question in detail. However, if you want to know right now, Brute force as a Secondary bounces GI engine has a parameter called 'Secondary bounces' where you can set the desired number.
Feb 11, 2011
Very smart and affordable! Even I think I started to understand something...
Feb 13, 2011
Who clearly thinks those who clearly speak! The best articles on V-Ray. Thank you for your work.Keep doing what you do!
Feb 17, 2011
Very accessible and well chewed ... really the best articles on vray ... thank you
Feb 18, 2011
I may have missed it, sorry, but I think the original test scene may be useful to share here. In any case - thank you very much. Very useful material.
Feb 18, 2011
Hi, FoksMalder.
I believe that anyone, who interested in VRay settings, will probably be able to easily recreate this scene. It's just a simple box with a hole, like a 'window' with a random wall texture, and basic 3ds Max primitives, that is chamfer-box and a sphere. So there is no need to share this, you better test these settings on some real project that you have done recently to compare the results. It would be much more interesting and useful.
And say hello to Agent DanaScully!
Feb 19, 2011
RenderStuff, thanks for the long-awaited sequel, the second part of the tutorial as readable as the first one. Everything I read here, I try to put into practice, but the result is not very good. Can I share my scene with you? I will be grateful for any help and advice.
Feb 19, 2011
Hello, Hudruk!
If you are not an experienced V-Ray user, it is better to read all seven chapters of this tutorials series and only then draw conclusions about the final results. In any case, we will be happy to advise you as much as we can.
Feb 24, 2011
Hi! I just love your tutorials! Congratulations! Thanks!
Feb 24, 2011
excellent tutorial, thanks!!
Feb 27, 2011
nice sharing. very good tutorial thank you.
Mar 23, 2011
Thank you for the tutorial interesting and informative! We look forward to continuing.
Apr 12, 2011
Very good and nice jobs (models, tutorials)
May 22, 2011
RenderStuff you are a genius! Amazing tutorial. Simple and clear. Thank you very much dudes!)
Jul 5, 2011
Hi, tell me about VRayOverrideMtl, are you planning a tutorial on this topic?
Jul 6, 2011
Ew not planning anything related at the moment, but the 'trick' is pretty simple. VRayOverrideMtl allows you to override GI behavior of the material. Official V-Ray docs provides a great example. I suggest you take a look.
Oct 14, 2011
Hello! And what if you leave a multipliers for Primary and Secondary bounces as 1, and then just add AO?
Anton (RenderStuff)
Oct 14, 2011
What for?
Nov 16, 2011
your approch is just so easy to understand. Thanks Sr. for the article, i enjoyed it. All the best, ismail
Mar 1, 2012
Hello! Thank you for the interesting article. Could you share your experience of the practical use of Ambient Occlusion? Thank you in advance
Mar 15, 2012
Hi Renderstuff! Are you planning a tutorial with the same detailed explanations, but on caustics?
Anton (RenderStuff)
Mar 21, 2012
Hi avex, we plan a lot of tutorials on different subjects, but particularly on AO we not plan anything yet.
Mar 29, 2012
a wonderful lesson! thank you very much
Carlos Barbosa
Jun 20, 2012
Aug 5, 2012
Thanks a lot a friends, i've been looking for this kind of stuff for a long time. Thank you again
Sep 21, 2012
hi. your site is the best site about vray i have seen. thanks alot
Oct 9, 2012
thank you, a lot :)
Feb 22, 2013
Thanks for the nice tutorial. I have one comment. The claim that any GI multiplirr other than 1 makes render more photorealistic is, in my opinion, contradictory. I may be too picky here, which is due to my scientific background, but only a multiplier of 1 (as well as a constant contrast) gives a physically correct result. Everything else is just a hack, even if the image looks subjectively 'nic'. I know that artists are rarely strict about physical correctness, but I think it's worth noting.
Maks (RenderStuff)
Feb 25, 2013
Hi Ilian,
I do not want to disappoint you, but there is no such thing as 'physical correctness' in the 3d world and perhaps never will be.
Physical correctness of what? Ray-tracing algorithms that project (calculated by an approximate geometrical formulas) vectors / graphs from the camera to the object in scene and only then to the light source (this is the actual behavior of renderers, not vice versa as you may think) to determine colors? Colors of virtual entities, such as polygons in the scene. Do you think this can be 'physically correct' even in theory? Really?
As we mentioned in the tutorial, GI in CG is just one of many render elements that overlaps one on top of another like layers in Photoshop in different blending modes. The GI multiplier is just the amount or percentage of how much of this 'layer' should be added to the final image. It is just simple compositing. Can you say that the % of overlay between Photoshop layers can have an physically correct value?
I want you to understand correctly, I do not cross the boundaries of personality, I just want my explanations to be as eloquent as possible. I do not know what kind of background you are talking about, but even today science does not know for sure the nature of light. Some theories consider light as electromagnetic waves, some as rays or particles (photons) or as abstract energy matter. Do you really think that some 3d software dudes came up with a program that can describe or model the actual behavior of light?
How many 'rays' does one light bulb (wire filament) emit? A thousand, a million, a billion, an infinity? How many rebounds (bounces) of light occur until the rays spend all their energy on heating the objects they come in contact with? How many of them will be distorted or scattered by the sub-subsurface properties of real materials?
How many 'rays' does a modern 3D renderer 'probe' the scene with? A few hundred, ok, let it be a few thousand (depending on settings). How many secondary bounces does it simulates? Two, three, maybe five (depending on settings).
Do you believe that 3D visualization can even come close to modeling the actual behavior of light? We do not even discuss the accuracy of these calculations.
There are many more such questions. But I think that's enough to understand that photorealistic 3D visualization is nothing more than a technique (software and hardware) for generating images that are just imitations of real photos, just look like real photos. It's just a visual forgery, fake. It have nothing to do with reality and even more so with the simulation of real light behavior. This is simply not possible.
Then any 3D software marketing material says something about 'simulation' or 'physical correctness', they just manipulate words. Nothing more. Hope, my explanation will not be treated as rude. I just wanted to convey the essence with vivid examples. Hope I succeeded!
Jul 27, 2013
thank you very much! im learning a lot from your tutorials, it helped me to better understand vray.
Nov 20, 2013
Thanks Anton and Max, I had no idea about Indirect Illumination before this article and after reading it, i exactly know what it is and how the rendering things works!.. Need more of such a tutorials from you people. Thanks!..
Jun 8, 2014
easy to understand and very helpful...thank u so much for these tutorials.
Olivié C
Jun 11, 2014
Hey guys, thank you very much for spending the time and goodwill involved in sharing such very useful information. Always thought that the GI multiplier of 'Primary bounce' and the GI multiplier of 'Secondary bounce' should be left by default because it is too fancy to understand and because I thought people at ChaosGroup knew best... Well, now I understand how to increase the contrast of my renders, which I especially lacked in interior visualizations! Thanks again!
Jul 4, 2014
Guys, thank you so much for your help! I'm definitely looking forward to new articles from you guys. For me, you just raised the curtain that hides the GI in Vray before, giving me a clearer idea of things. You've served info in very EASILY absorbable way. Thanks once more!
This discussion has been closed. |
Objective: Extensive evidence suggests that children and adolescents often inaccurately perceive their body size. However, the extent of this misperception is unclear. This paper describes the agreement between children's actual weight and the perception of body size (self-reported and maternally reported) and the association of actual weight with self-reported body satisfaction. Methods: In a population-based cohort study of 3,408 children aged 9 to 10 years, we assessed the children's self-perception and ideal perception of their body size with the Children's Body Image Scale. Maternal perception of offspring body size was assessed with the question “How would you describe your child at the moment?” Children's height and weight were measured. Results: Children tended to rate themselves toward average proportions; e.g., 83.0% of 499 children with overweight/obesity perceived themselves as less heavy then they were. Of those who underestimated their body size, most (79.2%) had a desire to be thinner; all of the children who correctly recognized their overweight/obesity had such a desire. Conclusions: Despite the misperception of body size, the majority of children with overweight/obesity indicated dissatisfaction with their body size, suggesting more self-awareness than would be assumed based on the self-perception assessment of body size alone.
dx.doi.org/10.1002/oby.21934, hdl.handle.net/1765/108079
Obesity: a research journal
Generation R Study Group
Leppers, I. (Iris), Tiemeier, H.W, Swanson, S.A, Verhulst, F.C, Jaddoe, V.W.V, Franco, O.H, & Jansen, P.W. (2017). Agreement between Weight Status and Perceived Body Size and the Association with Body Size Satisfaction in Children. Obesity: a research journal, 25(11), 1956–1964. doi:10.1002/oby.21934 |
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Antibiotic resistance in Bacteria
MBBS/BDS 1st year 27.10.2010
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Emergence of antibiotic resistance is a major factor limiting long term successful use of an antimicrobial agent. Antibiotic resistance is a type of drug resistance where a microorganism is able to survive exposure to an antibiotic. Resistant organism: One that will not be inhibited or killed by an antibacterial agent at concentrations of the drug achievable in the body after normal dosage. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a superbug or super bacteria.
Factors contributing for resistance
Misuse of antibiotics Use of antibiotics with no clinical indication (e.g, for viral infections)
Use of broad spectrum antibiotics when not indicated Inappropriate choice of empiric antibiotics
Overuse of antibiotics Addition of antibiotic to the feed of livestock Failure to follow infection control practices
Settings that Foster Drug Resistance
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Day-care centers Long term care facilities Homeless shelters Jails
Settings that Foster Drug Resistance
Hospital < Intensive care units
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Oncology units Dialysis units
Rehab units
Transplant units
Burn units
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Two types:
Naturally occuring trait Species or genus specific
Acquired resistance implies that a susceptible organism has developed resistance to an agent to which it was previously susceptible, and can occur in two general ways: by mutation (s) in the existing DNA of the organims or by acquisition of new DNA. Present in only certain strains of a species or of a genus
Genetics of Resistance
Mutational resistance:
A single chromosomal mutation may result in the synthesis of an altered protein: for example, streptomycin resistance via alteration in a ribosomal protein, or the single aminoacid change in the enzyme dihydtropteroate synthetase resulting in a lowered affinity for sulfonamides
A series of mutations, for example, changes in penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) in penicillin resistant pneumococci
Genetics of Resistance
Resistance by acquisition of new DNA
By Transformation Conjugation Transduction
Nature of elements involved in transferring DNA:
Plasmids: plasmid mediated resistance much more efficient than the resistance ass. with chromosomal mutation Transposons
Mechanism of action of antibiotics
DNA gyrase
Cell wall synthesis
-lactams &
DNA-directed RNA polymerase
Glycopeptides (Vancomycin) Trimethoprim
THFA mRNA Ribosomes
50 30 50 30 50 30
Folic acid synthesis
Protein synthesis inhibition
Macrolides & Lincomycins
Protein synthesis mistranslation
Cohen. Science 1992; 257:1064
Protein synthesis inhibition
Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance : how DO the bacteria do it ??
Mechanisms of resistance (Contd.)
2. Alteration of Access to the target site (altered uptake or increased exit) Involves decreasing the amt of drug that reaches the target by either:
Altering entry, for example, by decreasing the permeability of the cell wall, Pumping the drug out of the cell (known as efflux mechanisms)
Enzymatic inactivation:
Enzymes that modify or destroy the antibacterial agent may be produced (drug inactivation) e.g.,
Beta lactamases Aminoglycoside modifying enzymes Chloramphenicol acetyl transferase
4. Bypass of an antibiotic sensitive steps
Mechanisms of resistance:
Resistance mechanisms classified into 4 types: can be broadly
1. Alteration of the target site
The target site may be altered so that it has a lowered affinity for the antibacterial (antibiotic), but still functions adequately for nomal metabolism to proceed. Alternatively, an additional target (e.g enzyme) may be synthesized.
Mechanism of resistance to particular antibiotics
Resistance to -lactams:
Resistance due to -lactamases: most prevalent Alteration in the pre-existing penicillin binding proteins (PBPs)
Acquisition of a novel PBP insensitive to beta lactams: e.g, methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Changes in the outer membrane proteins of Gram negative organisms that prevent these compounds from reaching their targets
Aminoglycoside Resistance:
Intrinsic and acquired resistance due to decreased uptake Acquired resistance is frequently due to plasmid encoded modifying enzymes:
Three classes of aminoglycoside modifying enzymes: Acetyltransferases, Adenyltransferases and Phosphotransferases
Ribosomal target modification
Tetracycline resistance
Most common antibiotic encountered in nature Mechanisms:
Altered permeability due to chromosomal mutations Active efflux or Ribosomal protection (by production of a protein) resulting from acquisition of exogenous DNA
Macrolide, Lincosamide and Streptogramin resistance:
Intrinsic resistance is due to low permeability of outermembrane protein Acquired resistance occurs most often by alteration of the ribosomal target Drug inactivation and active efflux may also occur
Chloramphenicol resistance
Enzymatic inactivation:
From acquisition of plasmids chloramphenicol acetyl transferase encoding
Decreased permeability:
Quinolone resistance
Alteration of target i.e, DNA gyrase (by mutation in gyrA gene) Decreased permeability
Glycopeptide resistance
Alteration of target e.g, Vancomycin resistance in Enterococci
Cotrimoxazole (Sulfonamides and trimethoprim) resistance
Intrinsic resistance: outer membrane impermeability Acquired resistance:
Chromosomal mutations in the target enzymes [low level resistance) Plasmid mediated resistance: high level resistance
Resistance to antimycobacaterial agents
First line essential antituberculous agents: Rifampin, isoniazid and Pyrazinamide First line supplemental: Ethambutol and Streptomycin Second line: Para-aminosalicylic acid, ethionamide, cycloserine, kanamycin, amikacin, capreomycin, thiacetazone
Resistance to Rifampin:
From spontaneous point mutations that alter the beta subunit of the RNA polymerase (rpoB) gene
Resistance to Isoniazid:
Mutations in the catalase peroxidase gene or inhA gene
Resistance to Pyrazinamide:
Mutations in the pncA gene, which encodes for pyrazinamidase
Multidrug resistance/ XDR
Some resistant pathogens
Staphylococcus aureus:
Penicillin resistance in 1947 Methicillin resistance in 1961: MRSA causing carious fatal diseases Vancomycin resistance in the recent years: As VRSA and VISA
Penicillin resistance seen in 1983 Vancomycin resistant Enterococcus (VRE) in 1987 Even emergence of linezolid resistance
Some resistant pathogens (contd.)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa:
One of the worrisome characteristic: low antibiotic susceptibility Multidrug resistance common: due to mutation or horizontal transfer of resitant genes
Acinetobacter baumanii
Multidrug resistance Some isolates resistant to all drugs
Salmonella, Esherichia coli Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Tests for detecting antibacterial resistance
Disk diffusion method Screening method: eg, oxacillin resistance screening for Staphylococcus, Vancomycin resitance screeening for enterococci Agar dilution method: by determining minimum inhibitory concentration Special tests: detection of enzymes mediating resistance- colorometric nitrocefin and acidometric method for beta lactamase detection
Limitation of Drug Resistance
Emergence of drug resistance in infections may be minimized in the following ways: By prudent use of antibiotics; by avoiding exposure of microorganisms to a particularly valuable drug by limiting its use, especially in hospitals. By maintaining sufficiently high levels of the drug in the tissues to inhibit both the original population and first-step mutants;
By simultaneously administering two drugs that do not give crossresistance, each of which delays the emergence of mutants resistant to the other drug (eg, rifampin and isoniazid in the treatment of tuberculosis); and By institution of infection control practices |
Question: What PPE Do You Wear For Droplet Precautions?
How long does TB last in the air?
tuberculosis can exist in the air for up to six hours, during which time another person may inhale it..
How long does a TB patient need to be isolated?
Previously exposed immunocompromised individuals are being evaluated for TB and will start window prophylaxis via DOT. Note: Home isolation is recommended for the initial three to five days of appropriate four-drug TB treatment.
Do you wear a mask for contact precautions?
As described in PPE Module 1, respiratory hygiene should be part of Standard Precautions. Health care personnel caring for patients on Droplet Precautions must wear a face mask for close patient contact, considered to be within six feet or less or in the room of the patient.
How can droplet infection be prevented?
Hand cleansing is most important before eating and before touching the nose or eyes. Covering the mouth or nose when coughing or sneezing decreases droplet spread—and can make hand cleansing even more important. Using disposable towels and cups reduces the risk for infection.
Do you wear a gown for droplet precautions?
Use personal protective equipment (PPE) appropriately, including gloves and gown. Wear a gown and gloves for all interactions that may involve contact with the patient or the patient’s environment.
What are droplet precautions?
A patient will be placed on droplet precautions when he or she has an infection with germs that can be spread to others by speaking, sneezing, or coughing. Everyone coming into the room of a patient under droplet precautions will be asked to wear a mask to prevent the spread of germs to themselves.
What order do you put on PPE?
The order for putting on PPE is Apron or Gown, Surgical Mask, Eye Protection (where required) and Gloves. The order for removing PPE is Gloves, Apron or Gown, Eye Protection, Surgical Mask.
What are 3 types of PPE?
What PPE do you wear for standard precautions?
Standard precautions consist of the following practices: hand hygiene before and after all patient contact. the use of personal protective equipment, which may include gloves, impermeable gowns, plastic aprons, masks, face shields and eye protection. the safe use and disposal of sharps.
Is TB airborne or droplet?
M. tuberculosis is carried in airborne particles, called droplet nuclei, of 1– 5 microns in diameter. Infectious droplet nuclei are generated when persons who have pulmonary or laryngeal TB disease cough, sneeze, shout, or sing. TB is spread from person to person through the air.
What are the 3 universal precautions?
Universal precautions apply to the following body fluids:Blood.Semen and vaginal secretions.Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)Synovial fluid.Pleural fluid.Pericardial fluid.Amniotic fluid.
What is the best way to prevent the spread of infection?
When should PPE be used?
Personal protective equipment (PPE) helps prevent the spread of germs in the hospital. This can protect people and health care workers from infections. All hospital staff, patients, and visitors should use PPE when there will be contact with blood or other bodily fluids.
What are the 10 standard precautions?
What are the 5 types of precautions?
Infection control principles and practices for local public health agenciesContact Precautions. … Droplet Precautions. … Airborne Precautions. … Eye Protection.
What is an example of droplet transmission?
Measles and SARS are examples of diseases capable of droplet contact transmission. |
Imprinting--a Green Variation
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Science 23 Jan 2004:
Vol. 303, Issue 5657, pp. 483-485
DOI: 10.1126/science.1094375
The conquest of the terrestrial environment by plants and mammals is linked to the parallel evolution of a predominantly maternal control over embryogenesis. This evolution of maternal control spurred the development of an intriguing epigenetic mechanism, called imprinting, for controlling gene expression. Imprinted genes are those in which expression depends on their parental origin. For example, imprinted genes are expressed only from the maternal allele, the paternal allele having been silenced by methylation of cytosines in the gene sequence. On page 521 of this issue, Kinoshita and colleagues (1) propose a mechanism for establishing one-way control of imprinting in plants that is distinct from imprinting in mammals.
The nutrition and protection of the embryo by the mother requires the invention of a specific interface between the two. In mammals, this interface derives from extraembryonic tissues, which form the placenta. In plants, the embryo is connected to the maternal tissues by the endosperm, the product of a second fertilization event (see the figure). The plant endosperm and the mammalian placenta are both subjected to imprinting, resulting in the preferential expression of maternal copies of genes, most notably those involved in the control of growth (2, 3, 4). In the mouse, disruption of the imprinting of specific genes, such as Igfr2r, leads to aberrant development of the trophoblast (which contributes to the placenta) (5, 6). In plants, the polycomb-group gene MEDEA, a master regulator of endosperm development, is known to be imprinted in the endosperm but not in the embryo (7, 8). Kinoshita et al. now report that a second plant gene, FWA, which encodes a homeodomain transcription factor, is imprinted in the endosperm of the model plant Arabidopsis and is expressed only from the maternal allele (1). Expression of FWA in endosperm coincides with an overall reduction in the amount of methylated cytosine residues in the direct repeat sequences of the 5' region of this gene. The level of FWA methylation remains high in other tissues of the plant, preventing transcription of FWA in these tissues.
The control of imprinting.
Maternal imprints in the extraembryonic tissues of plants and mammals. (A) In plants, two identical male gametes are delivered by the pollen tube to two distinct female gametes, the egg cell and the central cell. A double fertilization process leads to the development of the embryo (yellow) surrounded by the nurturing endosperm (green). Genes specifically expressed in the endosperm, such as FWA, are subjected to release of constitutive repression (caused by methylation of cytosines) of the maternal but not the paternal allele (possibly through the action of DEMETER). Repression of FWA expression through DNA methylation of 5' repeats is maintained throughout the plant vegetative phase by the methyltransferase MET1. A more complex cycle of imprinting must exist for the MEDEA gene, which is expressed during vegetative development. (B) In mammals, maintenance of imprinting relies on the activity of the methyltransferase DNMT1 and is very complex. Imprinting is initially erased during global DNA demethylation in the germline; it is then reestablished during gametogenesis through unknown mechanisms. For example, in the case of the Igfr2r gene, the paternal allele is silenced by a mechanism involving DNA methylation, a noncoding RNA, and the PcG gene Eed. In female gametogenesis, methylation of the ICR of Igfr2r is prevented and expression of the maternal allele of Igfr2r is possible (19). After fertilization, methylation imprints in mammals are fully resistant to waves of DNA demethylation in both the extraembryonic and embryonic lineages. Expression of the imprints in the placenta requires a specific transcription mechanism, which is not active in the embryo.
The 5' direct repeats were originally identified in a study of epigenetic mutations in the FWA gene. The late flowering mutant fwa-1 of Arabidopsis is characterized by hypomethylation of the 5' direct repeats associated with ectopic expression of FWA in vegetative tissues (9). Kinoshita et al. investigated the origin of methylation of the 5' repeats in the Arabidopsis mutant. In plants, DNA methylation is maintained on cytosine residues by methyltransferase 1 (MET1), which is similar to mammalian DNMT1 (10), and by the plant-specific chromomethylase 3 (CMT3) (11). Domain-rearranged methyltransferases (DRMs) 1 and 2, with activities similar to the mammalian de novo methylase Dnmt3, are involved in reestablishing methylation patterns (12). MET1 targets CpG sites, whereas CMT3 and DRMs target other sites. The imprint of the FWA paternal allele is affected by reduced methylation induced by loss-of-function mutations in MET1, but not in CMT3 or in DRMs. This finding demonstrates that maintenance of the imprint relies on MET1 activity throughout the plant life cycle. Similarly, in mammals, DNMT1, which has strong homology to MET1, is involved in the maintenance of methylation linked to imprinted genes (13).
As the default status of FWA is to be silenced, differential expression of the maternal and paternal alleles (the basis of imprinting) relies on the release of maternal allele silencing. The DNA glycosylase DEMETER is specifically expressed in the central cell, the female gamete that gives rise to the endosperm (14). Loss of DEMETER activity results in the absence of FWA expression in endosperm (1). A similar result has been reported for the endosperm-specific expression of MEDEA (14). DEMETER activity may result in removal of methyl groups from cytosine residues in the 5' region of the maternal allele of MEDEA, and may have a similar effect on the maternal allele of FWA. A study reported in a recent issue of Developmental Cell (15) proposes that imprinting of MEDEA is controlled by antagonism between the two DNA-modifying enzymes, MET1 and DEMETER (15). Thus, imprinting of MEDEA and FWA in endosperm may rely on the same mechanism. Initially, both parental copies are silenced, then DEMETER removes methylation of FWA 5' repeats but only for the maternal allele of the central cell, triggering endosperm-specific expression of FWA. Unlike FWA, which is expressed only during formation of the female gametes, MEDEA is expressed during the vegetative phase of the plant life cycle (16). It is not yet clear when and how MEDEA expression is silenced before female gametogenesis begins. Mutation of MEDEA causes a marked phenotype in endosperm (17), but only when the mutation is maternally inherited. The maternal effect is currently presumed to rely on the imprinted, silenced status of the paternal allele. In contrast to MEDEA, the function of FWA in endosperm remains unknown (18).
Imprinting in Arabidopsis apparently relies on a different mechanism for controlling DNA methylation compared with imprinting in mammals. Imprinting in mammals is linked to DNA methylation of large (up to 100 kb) specific intergenic regions, called imprinting control centers (ICRs), that regulate the expression of a group of genes (19). Mammalian DNA methylation undergoes a cycle where it is removed globally in the germline. Imprints are erased in primordial germ cells and are then reestablished during gametogenesis. In plants, no such global demethylation has been detected during the plant life cycle (20). Imprinting results from the removal of the methylation mark from one of the parental alleles. Unlike the situation in mammals, the imprinted status of plants is not inherited and appears to be confined to the endosperm, which does not contribute to the next generation.
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In nature, Darwinian evolution works at the level of individual creatures as they compete to survive and procreate. The process is ruthlessly simple and incredibly effective. Those individuals who leave behind the most offspring become the norm for their species. This is what we call “survival of the fittest.” On the surface, then, it would seem that the stress we humans place on individuality is the right thing to do; at least from a strict Darwinian perspective. Assuming we each make of our own brief lives what we can, evolution will select the most successful among us, and the species will prosper.
Drawing of the tree of life by Haeckel
Humans are much less subject to evolutionary pressures at the individual level. Those forces now apply at the level of society. (Image: public domain.)
Remember that those with the most children are the most successful. Like it or not, there are no other rules. Making more money and having a higher standard of living do not count unless you deploy that money and standard of living in the service of having, and successfully raising, more children. Mother Nature does just one thing. She counts heads.
Until historical times, individual humans were subject in just this way to the laws Darwin so assiduously worked out. In the historical era, however, things have changed. In the case of human beings, the individual has become largely irrelevant as a focus of the evolutionary process. This is so because humans, as individuals, have long since escaped most of Darwin’s evolutionary pressures. Our health, mostly beyond our own personal control, is perhaps the one area where we are, as individuals, still subject to natural selection. However, if you live long enough to reproduce, even health is not much of an issue. In all other areas, our society-based civilizations shield us from the natural selection process. With very few exceptions, society feeds, clothes, and shelters even the most unsuccessful, impoverished, and functionally inept. Because of this complex, powerful, and compassionate social organization, we could argue that Darwin’s evolutionary processes now work on humans at the level of societies.
Western societies were once real winners in terms of survival of the fittest. With superior agricultural practices, the rudiments of a workable medicine, and bottle-feeding of infants, high birthrates combined with low infant mortality rates to produce a growth in population so robust that Europeans were able to colonize the world. With major outposts in the New World, Australia, and New Zealand, the West as a global entity was born. The West seemed poised to be a major evolutionary success in the very long term.
How the mighty have fallen.
Caucasians, while no longer confined to Europe, are at present, due to fatally-low birthrates, on the road to rapid extinction. The West is faltering. The reasons for the catastrophic decline in birthrates are many and complex, but foremost among them are such ideological forces as feminism and socialism. Feminism stresses a woman’s right to skip having children regardless of the cost to society. (I must add that not just women are feminists, and that many who take up feminist positions are unaware of where the justifications for those positions have come from.) Socialism provides the nanny state as a replacement for the children we once needed to sustain us in old age. What this means is brutally simple. For ideological reasons, Western societies are now maladapted to the realities of life on this planet, and as a result are in the process of vanishing. Other, more reproductively successful peoples are filling the growing gaps in Western ranks. Darwin’s survival of the fittest is ruling against the West. Mother Nature is counting heads and finding the West woefully lacking.
7 thoughts on “Natural Selection Works on Societies
1. Hi Thomas. I wanted to let you know that I find your articles very thought provoking. It would be nice to have a telescope into the future so we could see the long term effects of modern society’s desire to control our own evolution. As in much of our recorded history, hubris rarely works in our favor.
2. Thanks for the kind words, Phillip. It would indeed be useful if we could see the long-term results of human folly. As it is, we just have to make our educated guesses and muddle along as best we can. Hubris kills us because it stands in the way of the one thing we can do to help ourselves. The smart way to steer a course is to pay attention when things get so bad there is no longer any doubt as to what is happening. That is already the situation with collapsed Western birthrates, yet in our “social planning” arrogance we keep on with outdated notions of women’s rights and overpopulation. We must restore the ideas that modest population growth is essential and that it is a social responsibility to have an adequate number of children. Society shelters and nurtures us. We should stop taking this for granted and recognize that we are obligated to contribute to its good health and survival.
3. As Phillip said, a most thought-provoking article. I would argue however that we shouldn’t be focusing on raising birthrates in the west, but on lowering birth rates in the third world to sustainable levels.
And for an interesting take on long-term human evolution, I’d highly recommend H G Wells’ The Time Machine.
4. American Health Journal is looking for partnerships with site owners in the medical niche. AmericanHealthJournal is a health content site which contains a large library of high quality medical videos. We can offer content exchanges, link exchanges, and exposure to your website. Come contact us at our contact page on our website.
5. Western birthrates are so low each generation is typically one third (or more) smaller than the last. In Italy, I’m told that each generation is only one-half the size of the last. How long would you like the carnage to continue, Max? Is the survival of Europeans of so little importance that their annihilation means nothing to you? I recommend The Empty Cradle by Philip Longman. The book details the global decline in birthrates. Not every country is as yet below replacement rate, but most soon will be.
Moreover, consider this. In spite of what many seem to think, life on this planet gets better as the population increases. Civilization depends heavily on high population densities. Economic growth depends on population growth. Canada has a deliberate policy of population expansion because growth means prosperity. Since we foolishly produce too few children of our own, we get our new people via immigration. People are an asset, not a liability.
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Vermonters affected by tickborne illnesses are wondering about the potential impact of the Coronavirus on their health.
The 2019 Coronavirus (“Covid-19”) is a respiratory illness that has been found to spread from person to person. It can be spread through droplets in the air (such as when someone coughs or sneezes) or by touching a contaminated surface and then transferring the virus from that surface to your nose, mouth or eyes.
The Vermont Department of Health (VDH) is working with neighboring states and the CDC to monitor potential cases of Covid-19. As of March 4 there are no confirmed cases of Covid-19 in Vermont however, cases are expected at some point in the future.
The VDH suggests the following steps to minimize your chance of Covid-19 infection:
• Wash hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds. (If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.)
• Avoid close contact with people who are sick.
• Clean and disinfect frequently touched objects and surfaces.
• If you’re feeling sick, stay home and avoid going out in public places.
• Consult CDC travel advisories before traveling. If you become sick, remember to notify your doctor about any recent travel by you or a person physically close to you.
Face masks are not recommended to prevent infection, however some suggest they can be helpful to reduce accidental contact between unwashed hands and face. People who are already infected with Covid-19 may be asked to wear a face mask at doctor appointments or other situations where they must go out in public, which is the same recommendation for someone with influenza or another transmittable virus.
Practicing the steps recommended by the VDH and CDC will reduce your risk of infection with Covid-19. For patients who are infected, some will remain asymptomatic while others can experience fever, cough, shortness of breath, or gastrointestinal symptoms. Interventions for (the majority of) people who have mild cases of Covid-19 will be already be familiar habits to many Lyme and tickborne disease patients; get plenty of rest, choose anti-inflammatory foods and supplements, drink lots of water, detox, reduce stress levels, engage in physical activity and time outdoors (when possible), and support your immune system.
If you do get sick be sure to contact your doctor. They will be able to evaluate your condition and decide whether you should be monitored in an inpatient or outpatient setting. If you need to go to the emergency department, make sure to bring a list of your current supplements and medications, along with the name and contact information of the practitioner treating your tickborne illness. The CDC’s new testing criteria now say any patient who is concerned their symptoms may be related to Covid-19 infection can be tested with their doctor’s recommendation.
Some physicians still view Lyme as a short-term and easily cured disease. You can explain to a skeptical practitioner that studies on treatment outcomes for Lyme disease were done on patients treated in the earliest stage of illness, and do not reflect the symptoms, disease progressions or outcomes for people who were diagnosed and treated in later stages, or those infected with multiple tickborne pathogens. Remember it is always okay to advocate for yourself in a health care setting, and you are the expert on what is happening in your body.
While information about how the Covid-19 virus affects immunocompromised patients may be worrying to some Vermonters with TBDs, remember there are steps you can take both to prevent infection and reduce the impact of a virus on your body. The knowledge and skills patients with tickborne illnesses have about making choices that support their health and well-being, along with a unique awareness of subtle changes in their bodies, are assets in any health situation including Covid-19. |
When Blood Vessels Constrict What Happens To Blood Pressure?
What happens when blood vessels constrict?
What happens to blood pressure when blood vessels dilate?
Vasodilation caused by relaxation of smooth muscle cells in arteries causes an increase in blood flow. When blood vessels dilate, the blood flow is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance. Therefore, dilation of arteries and arterioles leads to an immediate decrease in arterial blood pressure and heart rate.
How do you treat broken blood vessels?
TreatmentNitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin tablets, sprays and patches can ease chest pain by relaxing your coronary arteries and improving blood flow.Beta blockers. … Calcium channel blockers. … Statins. … Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. … Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs). … Ranolazine (Ranexa). … Aspirin.
What is the best vitamin for blood circulation?
Does coffee constrict your blood vessels?
When caffeine makes the blood vessels in our bodies narrower, this leaves less room for blood flow which, in turn, raises blood pressure. The blood vessels supplying blood to the brain can also narrow as much as 27% after caffeine intake which can slow down our ability to think and perform mental tasks.
How do blood vessels regulate blood pressure?
Which blood vessel has the highest blood pressure?
arteriesImportant: The highest pressure of circulating blood is found in arteries, and gradu- ally drops as the blood flows through the arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins (where it is the lowest). The greatest drop in blood pressure occurs at the transition from arteries to arterioles.
How does vasoconstriction affect blood pressure?
Vasoconstriction and blood pressure Vasoconstriction reduces the volume or space inside affected blood vessels. When blood vessel volume is lowered, blood flow is also reduced. At the same time, the resistance or force of blood flow is raised. This causes higher blood pressure.
Do blood vessels constrict with high blood pressure?
Because the space in the arteries is narrower, the same amount of blood passing through them increases the blood pressure. Veins can constrict to reduce their capacity to hold blood, forcing more blood into the arteries. As a result, blood pressure increases.
How do you relax blood vessels naturally?
Its most important function is vasodilation, meaning it relaxes the inner muscles of the blood vessels, causing them to widen and increase circulation….Here are the top 5 ways to increase nitric oxide naturally.Eat Vegetables High in Nitrates. … Increase Your Intake of Antioxidants. … Use Nitric-Oxide-Boosting Supplements.More items…•
What opens blood vessels?
Which fruit is good for blood circulation?
|
Top Advantages of Boil Water Instructions
The History Boil Water – Food Safety
If your local health authorities provide a advisory, you ought to use bottled water or boil faucet water because your community’s water is, or might be, contaminated with germs that can make you ill. Advisories may consist of details about preparing food, drinks, or ice; dishwashing; and hygiene, such as brushing teeth and bathing.
If mineral water is not available, bring (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes), then enable it to cool prior to usage. Boil tap water even if it is filtered. Do not utilize water from any appliance linked to your water line, such as ice and water from a refrigerator.
Click here for information on how to water boil earlier.
Can You Boil Water In The Microwave, And Should You? Top News
If you formula feed your child, provide ready-to-use formula, if available. In lots of situations, you can use faucet water and soap to wash hands. Follow the guidance from your local public health authorities. Make certain to scrub your hands with soap and water for a minimum of 20 seconds, and wash them well under running water.
Be mindful not to swallow any water when bathing or bathing. Usage care when bathing infants and kids. Think about providing a sponge bath to reduce the opportunity of them swallowing water. Brush teeth with boiled or mineral water. Do not use neglected tap water. If possible, utilize disposable plates, cups, and utensils during a boil water advisory.
The Reasons Why We Love Outages & Notices – Fgua
55Celsius), or if the dishwater has a sterilizing cycle. Decontaminate all child bottles. To wash meals by hand: Wash and rinse the dishes as you generally would utilizing warm water. In a different basin, add 1 teaspoon of unscented household liquid bleach for each gallon of warm water. Soak the rinsed meals in the water for at least one minute.
It is safe to clean clothing as normal. Pets can get sick by a few of the same germs as people or spread out germs to individuals. Provide bottled or boiled water after it has actually been cooled for animals to utilize. If bottled water is not offered, bring (at elevations above 6,500 feet, boil for 3 minutes), then permit it to cool before usage.
How to Explain Michigan Prepares – How To Boil Or Disinfect Water to Your Boss
Do not utilize water from any device connected to your water line, such as ice and water from a refrigerator. You can use faucet water for family plants and gardens.
Last Upgraded: March 21, 2020 Boiling water is a job so typical that discovering it can help you anywhere. Cooking dinner? Learn when to include a poached egg, or whether salt really helps your meal. Hiking on a mountaintop? Discover why your food is taking so long to cook, and how to make that river water safe to consume.
The Art of 10 Times Boiling Water Can Help Around The House – Bob Vila
I got a kick out of this and thought you might too. Boiling water is necessary to many recipes. If you have actually never ever cooked previously, do not stress. It is not as tough as it might appear. This recipe will direct you through the procedure, even if you have actually never ever entered a kitchen area.
How to boil water? It may seem like a no-brainer, but boiling water to make various meals isn’t always as simple as it appears. Some ideas can assist you make sure that the water is best for that Greek recipe you’re preparing to prepare. Water boils at 212 F and only then is it a “genuine” boil.
Top Advantages of Boil Water Instructions – Wellington, Fl – Village Of Wellington
A slow boil is reached when the water bubbles across the whole surface, but without the enthusiasm of a full boil. Bubbles are generally large and slow-moving. The sluggish boil temperature is 205 F. A full boil, rolling boil or real boil takes place at 212 F. A complete boil occurs when all the water in the pot gets associated with fast-moving rolling waves of bubbles.
A simmer isn’t a boil at all, although it’s sometimes called a “mild boil.” In Greek cooking, it’s reached by boiling first, then lowering the heat to a point where little bubbles can still be seen, generally over low heat. Do bubbles automatically mean water is boiling? No. Technically, boiling water indicates it has reached a temperature level of 212 F and it’s steaming.
Everything You Need To Know About Michigan Prepares – How To Boil Or Disinfect Water
Do not be tricked by pots that get hot very quickly around the sides and begin to show little bubbles simply around the edges. This does not fit into any part of boiling. It’s simply the pot stating, “My sides are getting excellent and hot. Don’t touch.” Water can be given a boil quickly over high heat, or slowly over medium heat.
The general rule of thumb is that if there is no food in the water, go for high heat and get it to the boiling point as quickly as possible. If there is food in the water, such as eggs or some veggies, bring it to a boil over lower heat. |
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Arithmetic tables for children, Lausanne, 1835
The Egyptians and Babylonians used all the elementary arithmetic operations as early as 2000 BC. Later Roman numerals, descended from tally marks used for counting. The continuous development of modern arithmetic starts with ancient Greece, although it originated much later than the Babylonian and Egyptian examples. Euclid is often credited as the first mathematician to separate study of arithmetic from philosophical and mystical beliefs. Greek numerals were used by Archimedes, Diophantus and others in a positional notation not very different from ours. The ancient Chinese had advanced arithmetic studies dating from the Shang Dynasty and continuing through the Tang Dynasty, from basic numbers to advanced algebra. The ancient Chinese used a positional notation similar to that of the Greeks. The gradual development of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system independently devised the place-value concept and positional notation, which combined the simpler methods for computations with a decimal base and the use of a digit representing zero (0). This allowed the system to consistently represent both large and small integers. This approach eventually replaced all other systems. In the Middle Ages, arithmetic was one of the seven liberal arts taught in universities. The flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world and in Renaissance Europe was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation.
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Door alarm sensors, or contacts, are some of the most important devices used with security systems. These devices alert a user whenever their door is opened. They can be used on virtually any type of door. These might include a front door, a back door, screen doors, a patio door, a shed, cabinets and any door inside the building. We typically find that door alarm sensors are some of the easiest to use devices with an alarm system. But still, it can be helpful to read through a comprehensive guide explaining the full ins and outs of these devices. So it here is - everything you've ever to know about door alarm sensors.
Qolsys iq dw mini s encrypted wireless sensors for iq panel 2 qsThe Basics of Door Alarm Sensors
Most traditional door sensors feature a relatively simple design and premise. These devices usually consist of a sensor and a magnet. The sensor is placed on or inside the door frame, and the magnet is placed on or inside the door itself, within a half inch of the sensor. Opening the door will cause the magnet to pull away and separate from the sensor. When this happens, a reed switch inside the sensor will activate. This will cause the sensor to send a signal to the security system, letting it know that the door was opened. The system will then perform the appropriate response based on how the sensor's Response Type was programmed. At the surface, it's all very simple. Some examples of these traditional sensors include the Honeywell 5800MINI, the Honeywell SiXMINICT and the VERSA-2GIG Sensor. Traditional door sensors can be either surface-mounted or recessed.
Honeywell 5800mini interior wireless door and window sensor
There's also a second variation of door sensors, known as mechanical door sensors. This type of sensor features a physical switch that is pressed down when the door is closed. When the door is opened, the switch will pop up, causing the sensor to activate. From there, the system will perform the Response Type assigned to the zone for that sensor. This type of door alarm sensor is far less common than the other type of sensor. However, the end result is still the same - the system will still perform the programmed Response Type when the sensor is activated. An example of this type of sensor is the Honeywell 5800RPS. While you are less likely to come across this type of door sensor, it's still worth mentioning just in case. Mechanical door sensors are only available in the recessed variety.
Honeywell 5800rps wireless recessed door and window plunger sensTypes of Door Sensors - The Two Distinctions
Now that you know the very basics of door sensors, you can start thinking about the different types. While almost every door sensors operates using one of the two mechanisms mentioned above, there are two other distinctions that are commonly made between door sensors. These are whether the door sensor is wireless or wired and whether the door sensor is surface-mounted or recessed. These considerations will play a big role in determining which door sensor you choose to purchase for your alarm system.
A wireless door sensor will communicate with an alarm system wirelessly. This will prevent the need for running a wire from the system to the door sensor. This can make wireless door sensors significantly easier to install. Another great aspect of wireless door sensors is that they can usually be auto-enrolled with the security system. That said, a wireless sensor will need to have its battery replaced every three to five years. On the other hand, a wired door sensor will need to be physically connected with the alarm system. This can make the installation considerably more difficult in certain cases. However, a wired sensor will never require any battery replacements.
If you are using a wireless door sensor with a wired alarm system, such as a Honeywell VISTA Panel, then you will need to use a wireless receiver. This will allow the wireless signal to be received by the system. When choosing a wireless door sensor, make sure that the wireless frequencies it uses are compatible with your alarm system. For example, Honeywell Panels look for wireless signals that operate at a frequency of 345 MHz, while Qolsys Panels use signals that operate at a frequency of 319.5 MHz. If you try to use a wireless door sensor that does not communicate at the correct wireless frequency, then it will not function with the alarm system.
Honeywell 5800rp wireless repeaterThe other major distinction between door sensors is surface-mount sensors versus recessed sensors. Simply put, surface-mount sensors are installed on the outside of the door and its frame, while recessed sensors are installed in the inside. Surface-mount sensors require no drilling. In the easiest scenario, it is possible to mount them using a double-sided adhesive (foam tape). They can also be mounted using screws. With their easier installation, this is generally the preferred type of door sensor. Most users do not mind the fact that a small sensor will be visible on the outside of the door.
Honeywell 5820l super slim wireless door and window sensorHowever, for users who do want a more discrete installation, there are recessed door sensors. These sensors and their magnets need to be inserted into holes that are drilled into both the door and the frame. The exact size of the holes will depend on the specific model of the recessed door sensor that is being installed. Once the sensor and magnet have been installed, they will not be visible from the outside. That said, most users opt for surface-mount door sensors due to the easier installation.
Honeywell 5818mnl wireless recessed door sensor and window senso
Some Notes on Response Types
The primary function of any security sensor is determined by its Response Type. This refers to what action the system will take when the zone is faulted (e.g. the door is opened). Below are the Response Types that are most commonly used with door sensors:
• Entry / Exit: If the door is opened while the system is armed stay or armed away, then the system will need to be disarmed within its entry delay period. If the system is not disarmed within this time period, then an alarm event will occur. Most alarms will feature two different Entry / Exit settings. This allows two different entry delay periods to be used on the same system for different zones.
• Perimeter: If the door is opened while the system is armed stay or armed away, then an alarm event will occur immediately.
• Interior Follower: If the system is set to armed away, an alarm event will immediately occur if the door is opened, assuming that an entry / exit zone is not faulted first. If an entry / exit zone is faulted first, then the system must be disarmed within its entry delay period, otherwise an alarm event will occur.
• Interior With Delay: If the system is set to armed away and the door is opened, then the system must be disarmed within its entry delay period. If the system is not disarmed within this time period, then an alarm event will occur.
• Day / Night: If the system is disarmed and the door is opened, a trouble event will occur on the system. If the system is armed away or armed stay and the door is opened, an alarm event will immediately occur on the system.
• 24 Hour Audible: Opening the door will immediately cause a full system siren and an alarm to be set off, regardless of what state the system is currently in. This Response Type should not be used unless the door should never be opened for any reason.
• 24 Hour Auxiliary: Same as 24 Hour Audible, but only the panel itself will produce a siren. Any external sirens or noisemakers will not activate. This zone type is ideal for emergency medical cabinets that would only be opened in a serious medical emergency.
• 24 Hour Silent: Same as 24 Hour Audible, but no siren or sound will be produced.
• Fire No Verification: Opening the door will immediately cause a fire alarm to be set off, regardless of what state the system is currently in. This is the ideal Response Type for fire doors.
Certain Response Types are only available for certain Device Types. Depending upon the panel you are using, not all of these Response Types will be made available for the Device Type of "Door". A way to work around this is to set the Device Type to "Other". This will allow you to set any possible Response Type for the door sensor.
2gig dw10 wireless slim door slash window contactOther Programming Settings
Programming a door sensor has to do with more than just the Response Type and the Device Type. Below are some of the other programming settings available for a door sensor. Please note that these settings are specific for a Honeywell Lyric Controller, and different settings may be available on another type of panel.
• Serial Number: This is how the system will specifically identify the exact door sensor that is being used.
• Loop Number: This tells the door sensor what function it should perform. Each door sensor usually has a specific loop number that should be set for the device to function as a door sensor. Some door sensors have multiple possible functions that can be used with the device. One example is the Honeywell 5816, which can be used as both a door sensor and as a wireless transmitter depending upon the loop number that is set.
• Zone Descriptors: These serve as the name of the door sensor. The panel will announce the zone descriptors whenever the zone for that sensor is affected.
• Alarm Report: This tells the system whether or not it should send an outbound signal to the central monitoring station. If you turn this off, then all the sounds and sirens will still be made, but a distress signal will never be sent to the central station. An example for turning this off might be if you are monitoring a liquor cabinet to make sure your teenage doesn't get into it. You might want a very loud siren to go off so that you know if this happens. However, you obviously wouldn't want the police to show up at your house in this situation!
• Chime: This will have the panel produce a simple chime whenever the door is opened. Many panels will allow you to toggle between different chime options for the panel. Remember, you will still need to have the local chime for the system enabled from the main settings menu.
• Supervision: This will have the system monitor the door sensor for low battery or loss of signal. Keep this enabled to make sure that the door sensor is always in proper working order. This setting is only used with wireless door sensors.
For any programming questions related to a specific panel, please consult the programming guide for that panel. This information is readily available on the Alarm Grid website in the form of FAQs.
Honeywell 5816 wireless door window sensor
Common Door Sensor Questions
Below are some questions that are commonly asked about door sensors:
1. How do I program my door sensor?
If it is a wireless door sensor, it can most likely be auto-enrolled.This is accomplished by accessing zone programming on the system and then faulting and restoring the door sensor three times to learn it in. You can fault and restore the door sensor by separating the sensor and the magnet and then clicking them back together. From there, make any necessary programming configurations on the panel. See the above information on Response Types and other programming settings.
If it is a wired door sensor with a hardwired VISTA Panel, then we recommend consulting this FAQ. You may also need to consult the VISTA 15P and 20P Programming Guide.
Honeywell vista 15p alarm control panel
2. How long do door sensor batteries last?
A wireless door sensor will typically require a battery replacement every three to five years. Wired door sensors do not use batteries, and they will never require a battery replacement.
Panasonic cr123a 3v battery
3. How close should the door sensor be to its magnet?
We usually recommend placing the door sensor magnet within a half inch of the sensor. Some sensors may allow for a greater separation distance than others before a faulted zone will occur. The closer the magnet is to the sensor, the less likely an unwanted fault or a false alarm is to occur.
Honeywell 5899 magnet for 5816 wireless door sensor and window s
4. Are there any encrypted wireless door sensors?
Yes, there are encrypted wireless door sensors. The Honeywell SiXCT, the Honeywell SiXMINICT, the Qolsys IQ DW MINI-S and the Qolsys IQ Recessed Door-S are all encrypted wireless door sensors.
Honeywell sixct wireless door slash window contact for lyric con
5. What is the best door sensor?
Please see the following FAQs:
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By Anne-Sophie Rayment
Simply put a plant based diet includes lots of:
• Fruits
• Vegetables
• Legumes
• Herbs
• Whole grains
• Nuts
• Seeds
It's basically any living edible crop that is grown from the ground or falls from the tree.
Research shows that consuming meat and dairy products can likely lead to increases in weight gain, inflammation, risks in high blood pressure, heart disease and some cancers.
Adopting a well balanced predominantly vegetarian diet with lots of variety on the other hand offers an abundance of complex carbohydrates, fibre, vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals with little saturated fat.
There are correlations between adopting this way of eating in conjunction with other healthy lifestyle factors resulting in improvements and sometimes a reversal of some of these health effects. So if you have any one of these issues perhaps this might be a good thing to do for your body.
We now live in a society of abundance. Everything is readily available, quick and convenient. Excess is normalised. Some of us eat animal derived food twice a day almost everyday of the week without even realising it. From a processed ham sandwich for lunch to lamb cutlets for dinner.
It's no wonder the number one cause of death is heart disease.
Results from research studies have reported:
1. The incidence of ischaemic heart disease deaths is as much as 24 per cent lower for vegetarians than for meat eaters
2. Vegetarian diets are generally higher in dietary fibre, antioxidant vitamins and phytochemicals - all factors that help control blood lipids and protect against heart disease
3. People with colon cancer seem to eat more meat, more saturated fat and fewer vegetables than do people without colon cancer. High protein, high fat, low fibre diets create an environment in the colon that promotes the development of cancer in some people. A high meat diet has been associated with stomach cancer as well
4. In general, vegetarians maintain a lower and healthier body weight than non-vegetarians
The answer is no you do not. It's all about eating mostly plants. Animal products aren't off limits. You can still eat meat, fish or dairy from time to time but the aim is to avoid letting those wonderful indulgent items crowd out your plant source intake.
Some followers don't eat any animal products and others eat small amounts from time to time. This is where plant based eating is different to being a vegetarian or vegan. It's flexible. Just make sure your plant intake far outweighs your animal intake and when adopting any diet change, go slow. Allow your body to adjust. Perhaps you may like to try cutting out red meat, then chicken, then eventually fish in stages completely. Or you might like to keep one of these animal sources in your diet indefinitely but limit it to just once a week or once in a while. Whatever it looks like to you, the aim is to adopt healthy eating habits that improve your overall health, not create strict rules.
As with any change to your eating pattern you do need to plan it well to ensure you incorporate key dietary essentials. Going vegetarian or vegan does not make you healthier if you do not eat well.
• Protein - plant protein sources include whole grains, legumes such as lentils and certain vegetables. However, soy remains the highest quality plant based source of protein. Getting a large variety of all of these different sources will ensure you get enough protein in your diet
• Iron - non-haem iron from plants aren't absorbed as well as haem iron from animal sources. But you can enhance the bioavailability of legumes or dark leafy greens with Vitamin C rich fruits such as lemon, lime or orange
• Zinc - eat from a wide variety of nutrient dense foods and include legumes such as kidney beans
• Calcium - to avoid deficiency include calcium fortified soy milk or foods. Other good sources of calcium include figs, some legumes, vegetables such as broccoli and spinach, almonds and sesame seeds
• Vitamin B12 - seaweeds such as nori or chlorella provide some of this vitamin. Fermented tempeh can too, although the Vitamin B12 found in this can sometimes be inactive. You can also take a supplement too to avoid risking deficiency
• Vitamin D - this is easily obtained by getting enough exposure to the sun which remains the largest source of this vitamin
• Omega-3 Fatty Acids - if you don't eat fish you can obtain these by consuming flaxseed, walnuts and soybeans
Failure to plan well may lead to states of deficiency, a lack of energy and development of other potential issues. Unfortunately many vegans can find themselves falling into this state without knowing how or why it happened. Understanding the science behind it changes that.
• Eat mostly plants
• Have variety
• Eat the rainbow
• Consume with balance and moderation in mind
• Fresh is best
• Eat whole foods not processed foods
• Move regularly
• Drink plenty of fluids
• Eat with freedom - if your body craves it, reward it
As with anything, this information is general and not specific to your situation.
If you do this, it is best handled under the guidance of your GP or a specialist in functional medicine such as a naturopath or dietitian who can do a full physical exam to work with your individual case. You may have underlying health issues that you are unaware of.
It's also important to remember no one diet fits all. Working out what foods work for you is a process and a lifestyle.
Be careful not to develop a negative association or food disorder doing this. It is purely there to jumpstart your gut health journey and give you more awareness of your body.
Eat with freedom!
Anne-Sophie Rayment, Nutritional Advisor.
1. J. Mann, Vegetarian diets: Health benefits are not necessarily unique, but there may be ecological advantages, BMJ 2009;339:b2507
2. F. B. Hu, Plant-based foods and prevention of cardiovascular disease: An overview, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (2003): 544S-551S
3. H. Chen and co-authors, Dietary patterns and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and distal stomach, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 75 (2002): 137-144
4. P. K. Newby, K. L. Tucker and A. Wolk, Risk of overweight and obesity among semivegetarian, lactovegetarian and vegan women, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 81 (2005): 1267-1274
5. Journals sourced from: E. Whitney, S. R. Rolfes, T. Crowe, D. Cameron-Smith, A. Walsh, Understanding Nutrition: Australian and New Zealand Edition, (2011), 1st Edition, Cengage Learning Australia Pty Ltd |
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Data encryption is the most important issue in the Online Data Room
data room services
Why encryption is the most important part of a best data room? Precisely what is encryption? Encryption is a very important issue when information can be freely transported over the Internet. However , did you know how to encrypt, what are the encryption methods, and how to employ various encryption methods to make your secure data room more secure?
What is security? This is a process of preventing unauthorized gain access to by encoding information, allowing the particular licensee to freely view data. The text is converted into an encryption key by various professional methods. To choose the best encryption method, typically the must understand the fundamental principle of encryption and its different degrees of security.
Encrypted traffic
The destination is achieved if data is transmitted over the Internet, and they must be encrypted to prevent unauthorized entry. This is also true whether it is sent to the email as well as virtual dataroom. The encryption key can be 128 bits or 256 bits. Although 256 parts are double 128 bits it truly is many times stronger than this. Excellent combination of 1 . 5 x 256, which makes it almost impossible to decrypt security passwords and access to a hacker.
This encryption can easily appear on secure websites, such as online bank or e-commerce sites, to enter private information. The site will use Secure Sockets Coating (SSL) protection to prevent access to this data. It is not 128-bit or 256-bit, and one code is used for security, and the other for decryption. Decryption is when the data is came back to its original form, which allows the person to read them.
Encrypted file
When files are sent to the particular secure data room, they must become encrypted to protect their privacy. Just users with the appropriate ID and even password will have access to these data files. Use encrypted and 256-bit protection. They also use other resources to protect the information, such as openable files. This is a free useful resource that matches every version of Flag Reader since version 4 and it is well received by many companies around the world. This is file encryption method and user verification for decryption.
Opening a file allows you to accessibility certain files for a limited some print for use. You must register and even download the tool, and you can get only the viewed documents from the laptop or computer. This protected file can be used about many devices for unlimited time or out of stock. Remote locking is really a way to protect information if it is taken or in the wrong hands. Using this tool, you can prevent someone via reading information, even if they obtained the file. It is encrypted even if this person has an account. Once the details is safe again, the process will be invertible.
The AES Sophisticated Advanced Encryption Standard encryption modus operandi or all non-governmental organizations applied are protected as standard files. It is considered more secure than other sorts of encryption, including DES and Multiple DES. It is encrypted and you will look for a place in most virtual data. When choosing a secure data room to your business, you need to be sure of the security of the information. You must define file security protection that is used to protect yourself and your clients from unauthorized access.
Start using Online Data Room
To save time and make simpler the work process, we recommend that clients prepare for the preparation of the electronic data room. What do you need to do?
Understand the mechanism of the data room
Is it a one-on-one project or a tender project? Where does the buyer come from? First, you must clarify the information that you need during the thorough verification, and the information that you are ready to disclose. The result of not preparing ahead of time is the constant addition of various files during the project. When the applicant or even investor requests other documents, you must find and organize the relevant info, download it after scanning. Adequate training can help people avoid this sort of work.
Obtain data in advance
A data room provides centralized peer to peer between companies. You can integrate and even sort files of all departments. If you have a single file processing system in your own company, it’s much easier to use a . All you have to do is get the files you want to share and upload them to the data system of a good task. |
top-rated free essay
How Do Critical Ir Theories Differ from Traditional? Use Examples from at Least Two Different Theories to Illustrate Your Answer.
By actiongrib Mar 11, 2011 1056 Words
How do Critical IR Theories Differ from Traditional? Use Examples from at Least two Different Theories to Illustrate your Answer.
Traditional theories of International Relations such as Realism can be traced back to the ancient Greek civilisation with the writings of Thucydides and later the post war works of Morgenthau. Realism recognises the “role of power in politics of all kinds” (Lebow:2007). Critical theories of International Relations coincide with the end of the Cold War due to the failure of traditional theories to predict its end.
Realism can be defined as the “constraints on politics imposed by human nature and the absence of international government. Together, they make International Relations largely a realm of power and interest” (Donnelly:2000). One of the key foundations of Realism is the balance of power. States seek a balance of power so that they are seen to be too strong to beat in a war. This balance of power can be achieved through alliances with other states and their military capabilities. The balance of power is to act as a deterrent to prevent war. Realists see military capabilities and alliances to be the foundation of security and those who tip the balance of power in their favour will ultimately be the strongest. However, if alliances are too strong they can drastically alter the balance of power forcing other states to form their own alliances which can eventually lead to war in an attempt to restore the balance of power or create a supreme power.
Classical Realists see the world as anarchical with no international government and that the state is central to society. Realists state that order can be achieved with an effective central authority and that its survival can only be maintained through its material capabilities and the alliances which it creates with other states (Lebow:2007).
Critical theories such as The English School look at International Relations in a different light. Unlike Realists, writers such as Hedley Bull thought that International Relations was not just about states but about a global political system which would create an international society. This international society would come into being when a group of states with common interests and values, form a society in which they are bound by a common set of rules and share in the workings of common institutions (Bull:1977).Modern examples of such international societies are the United Nations and the European Union. This is in direct contrast to traditional International Relations theories as it does not see the world as anarchical but as a working community in which states share goals and work in collaboration with each other.
Realists sought a favourable balance of power to help them achieve peace whilst Liberals state that human kind naturally desires peace. This peace can be achieved through states coexisting in a international community where all are seeking peace. This international society is made up of democracies, free trade and equal human rights throughout. Liberals feel that these factors will help to keep the peace for many reasons. They suggest that if all states within an international community are linked by trade it is illogical and detrimental to the states involved to engage in war with each other. These states will be dependant on each other for economic survival and if conflict was to occur it could cause economic downfall for the entire community. Also, it is extremely unlikely for democratic states to go to war, as no two democracies have ever entered into conflict.
As stated earlier, Realists see an easy way to ensuring order within the state with the use of a single sovereign governing body. However, they feel that that a society of states will always be anarchical as there is no higher, governing body. Therefore, there is no sovereign body thus, it must be anarchical.
Rationalism tends to focus on the actor being completely independent from the environment it is in. Lyman Abbott stated that “the very essence of rationalism is that it assumes that the reason is the highest faculty in man”. Thus the actor is looking to make rational decisions based on a cost benefit analysis. It is primarily selfish and is looking to make sure the benefits out way the costs of any action they take. Actions are determined by meanings. The identity and behaviour of the actor is influenced by what is seen to be the norm. the actor basis its actions on its own experiences. Rationalists believe that there is a place for international organisations, however it would be impossible to create an international government.
Structuralists on the other hand, state that actors act depending on the circumstances around them. Structuralists seek to understand why events occur and how best to act on them. Opposed to rationalists who after learning a fundamental truth will apply this to all their experiences with which it is concerned. Rationalists are happy to know that these events occur whilst structuralists wish to understand why.
“To this war or every man against every man” (Hobbes:1951). Hobbes is stating here that all men must constantly compete against each other for survival and that life is constantly at risk, safety is never guaranteed. This is of great importance within traditional theories of International Relations. Traditional theories see that the only possible security is through a sovereign state. The Liberal approach, even though it is not a theory in itself, it is a combining factor in many critical theories as it assumes that humans naturally seek peace. These Liberal approaches are seen to be a second image approach. This mean that reasons for events on the world stage lie at the foot of the state. The actions of one state will have consequences on all states.
Lebow, R. (2007 ). Classical Realism. In: Dunne, T. Kurki, M. Smith, S. International Relations Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 52.
Dunne, T.. (2007 ). The English School. In: Dunne, T. Kurki, M. Smith, S. International Relations Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 128.
Abbott, L.. (1872). Laicus. Available: Last accessed 24th March 2010
Hobbes, T. (1951). Leviathan. Available: Last accessed 24th March 2010.
Donnelly, J.. ( ). Realism and International Relations. Available: Last accessed 24th March 2010.
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Numpy Basics
Numpy is a python library for efficiently dealing with arrays. Under the hood, it can leverage C and Fortran to achieve those efficient array operations.
• It’s important to note that if you want to use numpy for a single element, use np.array([1]) as opposed to np.array(1) or np.uint8(1). Operations on np.uint8 or a scalar np.array (such as np.array(1)) aren’t guaranteed to return a numpy data type or to behave properly:
• In [35]: type(np.array(10000) * 1000000000000000000000000000000)
Out[35]: int
• In [36]: a = np.array(10000)
In [37]: a *= 1000000000000000000000000000000
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
in ()
----> 1 a *= 1000000000000000000000000000000
TypeError: ufunc 'multiply' output (typecode 'O') could not be coerced
to provided output parameter (typecode 'l') according to the casting rule ''same_kind''
Although it’s also important to remember that, under normal operation, you need to deal with overflow. Depending on your application, overflow can be a desirable thing. Here’s an example of overflow:
In [1]: import numpy as np
In [3]: a = np.array([255], dtype=np.uint8)
In [4]: a
Out[4]: array([255], dtype=uint8)
In [5]: a+1
Out[5]: array([0], dtype=uint8)
Instead of 255+1 becoming 256, it became 0, because 255 is the maximum value a uint8 can hold, so when 1 was added to it, all the bits were flipped from 1s to 0s, i.e. from 11111111 to 00000000. uint8: “u” means unsigned, as in no negative numbers; int means integers, as in no decimal places; 8 means 8 bits, as in 8 digits, each of which is either a 0 or a 1.
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Assessment of rotorcraft performance following an engine failure is necessary to ensure its safe operation. For single-engined rotorcraft an engine failure will result in
a forced, or engine-off, landing (EOL). For multi-engined helicopters, however, it is still necessary to assess the ability of the aircraft to continue flight particularly in critical areas of the flight envelope. In any event the pilot must react quickly to avoid loss of control and prevent the rotor speed from decaying below acceptable minimums. As the power fails directional control will go out of trim and the residual anti-torque moment will yaw the helicopter, generating additional sideslip that may possibly induce a roll if no corrective action is taken. (An undemanded yaw may be the first indication to the pilot that a power failure has occurred.) The rotor speed decay rate can be estimated by applying simple rotational mechanics to the problem. Now:
Q = I®
d) Q
оо = — = rotor speed decay rate =—-j
where Q= rotor torque and I= moment of inertia of rotor system.
Thus reducing the rotor torque will reduce the rate of rotor speed decay. This can be achieved by reducing the blade pitch in order to decrease the rotor drag. In steady autorotation a given value of collective pitch will cause the helicopter to settle on a unique descent speed and rotor speed combination. The pilot can therefore control the rotor RPM using collective pitch – the lower the pitch the higher the rotor speed – but in practice the usable range of RRPM is very restrictive. If the rotor speed is too low the blade will stall and lose lift; too high and there will be excessive loading on the rotor hub and blade roots. The safe range is typically within 80% and 120% of the nominal power-on speed for transient excursions and between 90% and 110% for stabilized conditions. |
Major new osteoporosis study to recruit people in Orkney
Up to 2,000 people from the remote Isles of Orkney, Scotland are to be recruited onto a major new study, which aims to identify the genes that cause the common bone-thinning condition, osteoporosis.
Families from the islands of Westray, Sanday, Stronsay and Shapinsay, as well as those from the west of the Mainland of Orkney are expected to volunteer for the 240,000 study being funded over three years by medical research charity the Arthritis Research Campaign (arc).
The investigation will be carried out by a team of researchers from the University of Edinburgh led by Professor of Rheumatology Stuart Ralston, and Royal Society Research Fellow, Dr Jim Wilson, who comes from Orkney.
Previous research has shown that people with a family history of osteoporosis are at increased risk of suffering from the condition themselves. This appears to be due to the inheritance of genes that predispose them to reduced bone mineral density.
The people of Orkney have been specifically selected by the Edinburgh team because the population is both isolated and stable, and specific genes will be easier to track down and identify.
"Although some genes that predispose people to osteoporosis have been identified, most remain to be discovered," explained Professor Ralston, who is based at the Rheumatic Diseases Unit in the university's Molecular Medicine Centre at the Western General Hospital. "With this project we will carry out genetic mapping studies in several large families from an isolated population in Orkney to try and discover the location and identify the genes that influence bone density and predispose to this common condition. We know that genetic factors make about an 80 per cent contribution to people developing low bone density, but we only know about five per cent of them."
"You couldn't do this sort of study in a large city like Edinburgh because there are people from all over the world and therefore too many g
Contact: Linda Menzies
University of Edinburgh
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Summary of the Thidrekssaga
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See all parts of the saga.
Grimhild's revenge
Attila, king of Soest, heard that Sigfrid was dead and that Grimhild had become a widow. He himself was also a widower 340. He sent to Hunnenland for his nephew Osid A bit vague; apparently Osid lives in Hunnenland but not in Soest, and when Osid arrived Attila told him to go to Niflungenland to ask Grimhild, king Gunther's sister and Sigfrid's widow, to become his wife. Osid agreen and rode off with forty knights.
He found king Gunther in Vernica and stayed there for a few days.
One day king Gunther called Osid to a conversation, and Hagen and Gernot were with him. Then duke Osid said: King Attila of Soest sends you his greetings, and wants to marry your sister Grimhild, with as many goods as you care to send him Her dowry; does this mean Gunther can set the dowry himself? and he will be your friend, and before I ride from here I'd like to know your reply.
And king Gunther replied: King Attila is a rich man and a great leader, and if Hagen and Gernot agree, I will not deny him this. And Hagen added: I think we should consider it a great honour that the powerful king Attila takes our sister in wedding; he is the richest and most powerful of kings, and we can also become more powerful. But this matter will have to be laid before her herself; her will temper? skap is so great that neither king Attila nor anyone else in the world can get her without her will. And Gernot also agreed.
Then king Gunther and Osid went to Grimhild, and king Gunther told her the news and asked her what she thought of marrying Attila. She replied that she did not dare to deny king Attila because he was such a mighty king, and the man who brought her the request Osid was so respectable that she would gladly agree, provided it was also the counsel of king Gunther her brother. And the king replied he would not refuse the marriage, provided she wanted it as well.
King Gunther and his brothers discussed the matter with duke Osid, and it was decided. Then Osid prepared to depart, and when he was ready king Gunther took a gold-plated shield and helm that had belonged to Sigfrid and gave them to Osid This is a gift to Osid personally, it seems, and not to Attila, and they separated as good friends. The duke went home to Hunnenland and told king Attila about his journey, and the king thanked him, and said his journey had had the best outcome.
Quickly after king Attila prepared his journey to Niflungenland to his fiancée Grimhild, and he took five hundred knights with him. When king Gunther heard kings Attila and Dietrich had come to his realm he rode to them with his best men, and when they came near king Gunther rode to king Attila and greeted him, and his brother Hagen rode to Dietrich and they kissed one another, and welcomed one another as the best friends.
Now they all rode to the town of Vernica, and there a most glorious feast was prepared, and at this feast king Gunther gave his sister Grimhild to king Attila.
And when the feast had ended king Attila and king Dietrich rode home. And when they departed king Gunther gave Grani, Sigfrid's horse, to king Dietrich, and the sword Gram he gave to margrave Rodinger the saga just says 'the margrave', and to king Attila and Grimhild as much silver as he thought right, and they separated as good friends.
King Attila and king Dietrich From the rest of the sentence it's clear that 'and king Dietrich' was added' rode home to his realm, and guarded the kingdom for a while. But his wife Grimhild cried every day for her dear husband Sigfrid.
When seven winters had passed since Grimhild came to Hunnenland, one night she said to king Attila: I haven't seen my brothers in seven years now, couldn't you invite them over? And I can tell you, and maybe you already know, that my husband Sigfrid had so much gold that no king in the world was as wealthy. Now my brothers own this, and they haven't even offered me a penny. But if I were to get the gold, it would be seemly if you owned it together with me.
When king Attila heard these words he knew they were true. And since he was the most avaricious of people he desired the treasure, and said: I know Sigfrid had much gold, the gold he took from the dragon In 166 Sigfrid kills the dragon, but no gold is mentioned, and also the gold he won in his campaigns Not mentioned anywhere, and also the gold his father Sigmund left him. We want it all, but still king Gunther is our friend. Now, wife, I want you to invite your brothers, and I will prepare a great feast. And with that the conversation ended.
Not long after Grimhild called two men to her, and told them to go to Niflungenland to bring her message, and for this journey she would equip them with gold and silver and good clothes and horses. And the minstrels leikmenn said thet would do what she wanted. And she prepared their journey and gave them a letter and king Attila's and her seal.
These men went to Niflungenland and found king Gunther in Verniza. The king received the messengers of his brother in law king Attila well, and the one that brought the message said: King Attila of Soest and queen Grimhild send greetings to king Gunther and his brothers Hagen, Gernot, and Giselher. We want to invite you to a feast in our lands. King Attila is now old, and it becomes difficult for him to rule his kingdom, but his son Aldrian is still young, and it would seem to us you, as his mother's brothers, would be best suited to rule his realm with your nephew, as long as he isn't old enough. So come and let us talk about what to do with the land, and take as many men as you like.
When the king had read the letter the messenger spoke, but never mind, he called his brothers Hagen, Gernot, and Giselher for a council, and told them what message he had received, and asked them what they should do.
Hagen spoke: If you go to Hunnenland you will not return, and neither will anyone who follows you. Grimhild is a sly woman, and it could very well be she has treason in mind.
King Gunther replied: So it is your counsel, Hagen, not to go there? You give my counsel like your mother gave my father, worse each time than last time. Therefore I will not take it. I want to travel to Hunnenland, and I assume I'll return, and before I come home all of Hunnenland could be in my power. But you, Hagen, follow me if you want, or sit home if you don't want to come.
Hagen said: I am not more worried about my life than you about yours, and I am not more afraid of a fight than you are. But I can tell you that if you go to Hunnenland, whether with many men or with few, no one will return home alive to Niflungenland. But if you want to go to Hunnenland, I will not Mb. omits the 'not', which is only found in A and B stay home. Or don't you remember how we said goodbye to Sigfrid? And when you don't remember, I know someone in Hunnenland who does remember, and when you come to Soest she will remind you.
King Gunther replied: Even though you are so afraid of Grimhild that you don't dare to go, I will still travel to Hunnenland.
Now Hagen was angry that he was so often reproached for his mother, and he rose and went to his friend Volker and said to him: You should come with us to Hunnenland, as king Gunther had decided, and all our men should come with us, so arm and equip everyone, but only those should come who are ready for battle.
Then queen Oda, Gunther's and Giselher's mother, went to the king and said to him: Lord, I dreamed that I saw so many dead birds in Hunnenland that all the land was empty of birds. Now I hear that you want the Niflungen to go to Hunnenland, but great misfortune will befall both the Niflungen and the Hunnen if you do so. So do not go there; only evil will come of it, when you go.
Hagen replied: King Gunther had decided on this journey, and we don't care for dreams of an old woman. And Oda replied: King Gunther may do as he likes, and so may you, Hagen, but my young son Giselher should stay home. No, said Giselher, when my brothers go I will not stay behid. And he jumped up and took his weapons.
Now king Gunther sent messengers across his lands that all the best and bravest men should come to him, and soon he had a thousand well-armed men. But at home many a beautiful woman sat without her husband, or son, or brother.
Then Hagen took king Gunther's banner, and this banner was gold on the top, but white in the middle with a red crowned eagle, and the lower part was green. And king Gunther and Hagen bore the same eagle on their armour, though Hagen did not have a crown. But Gernot and Giselher had red shields with a golden hawk, and their banners were of the same colours.
Now the Niflungen went their way until they came to the Rhine there were Duna According to Ritter this is the Dhünn, which used to flow into the Rhine north of Cologne. Since 1840 it flows into the Wupper before that river reaches the Rhine and Rhine join, and the water was broad where the rivers joined, and they did not find a ship, and stayed there for the night.
King Gunther said to Hagen: Who of our men will keep watch tonight? Name whomever you like. Hagen replied: Put whomever you want on watch up by the river, but here below I myself will keep watch, because we should try to get a ship somewhere This entire sequence is vague.
When the other men had gone to sleep Hagen took all his weapons and walked downriver. There was bright moonlight, so that he could see where he was going. Hagen came to a water named Mæri, and he saw some women in the water, and that their clothes were on land between the two rivers, and he took their clothes and hid them. These were women we call sea-women sjókonur, and their nature is of lakes and sea, and these women had gone from the Rhine into this water to enjoy themselves i.e. swim?. Now one of the women called to him to give them back their clothes, and came from the water.
Hagen said: Tell me this first: will we cross this stream safely and return? If you don't reply you'll never see your clothes again. And she said: You can cross safely, but none of you will return, and you will have great difficulties retranslate.
Then Hagen drew his sword and killed the woman, and her daughter with her.
Hagen went on downriver for a while, and saw a ship in the middle of the river, and a man on it, and he asked him to come to land to fetch a man from Elsung. He said this because they were in the realm of jarl Elsung the Younger and he thought the pilot would come to him quicker.
The pilot replied: I don't pick up men of Elsung quicker than any other, and I won't row without wages. Hagen took a golden ring and held it up: See here, good man, your wages. I'll give you this golden ring when you ferry me over.
When the pilot saw this he considered how he had married a short while ago, and he wanted to give his wife the money, so he rowed to the shore. Hagen got on the ship and have the pilot his ring. Now the pilot wanted to row across, but Hagen told him to go upstream, but the pilot refused. Hagen told him to row upstream if he wanted to or not, and the pilot took fright and rowed where Hagen wanted him to go, and now they rowed on until theu came to the Niflungen.
King Gunther and his people were on their feet, and they had found a ship, but it was very small, and with this ship a few men had already crossed the stream, but as soon as they landed the ship filled with water, I presume and capsized, and they barely came ashore.
When Hagen came to them with the large ship the Niflungen became happy, and king Gunther himself boarded the ship, and with him a hundred men, and they rowed into the stream. But Hagen rowed so storngly that he broke both oars in one stroke ok af keipana Don't understand; not even Von der Hagen's translation, and said that the one who made fun of them would never thrive, and drew his sword and cut off the pilot's head, who was seated in front of him on the benches.
Then king Gunther said: Wy did you do that evil deed? What has he done to you?
And Hagen said: I don't want messengers to go to Hunnenland to tell them about our journey, and this man can't tell them any more.
Then king Gunther said: You just want to do evil, and you are never happy unless you've done some evil.
And Hagen replied: Why wouldn't I do evil when we go forth? Not even a child will return from our journey.
Now king Gunther steered, but the rudder broke in two, and the ship ran before current and wind. Hagen jumped to the rudder and reattached the rudder not sure how to picture this with a strong hand, and when he had mended the rudder they were close to land. And at that moment the ship capsized, and they came to shore with their clothes wet.
Then they repaired the ship and had their men cross the stream again to their other men until all had crossed the river. And they went on their way all day.
By evening they lay down and Hagen took the watch again. And when everyone was asleep Hagen went out to scout far from his people. And he found a sleeping man in armour who had laid his sword under him, but the hilt was visible. Hagen took the sword and threw it from him, and then he poked the man with his right foot, and told him to wake up.
The man jumped up and reached for his sword, but saw it was gone, and said: Woe to me for this sleep! I lost my sword, and now I guarded my lord's realm badly Von der Hagen adds: my lord margrave Rodinger's; and: I waited for three days and nights, and therefore I slept.
Hagen said: You are a good man, see here a golden ring for your courage sarcasm? and you will enjoy it more than the previous man who got it apparently Hagen took his golden ring back from the pilot, and also I'll return your sword.
The man replied: Thank you for my sword, and also your ring. And Hagen said: Don't be afraid of this army if you guard margrave Rodinger's land. He is our friend, and king Gunther of the Niflungen leads this army with his brothers. But tell me, where do you want us to spend the night? And who are you?
The man said: I am Eckeward, and now I understand where you go. Are you Hagen Aldrian's son, who killed my lord Sigfrid? Take care while you are in Hunnenland, because you may have many enemies here. But for spending the night I can't bring you to a better place than Bakalar, with margrave Rodinger.
Hagen said: You directed us to where we wanted to go anyway. Now ride home to the castle and tell them that we are coming. Also tell them we are rather wet.
Eckeward rode home, and Hagen went back to his men, and told king Gunther what had happened, and ordered everyone to get up and ride to the castle as quickly as possible. And so they did.
Eckeward rode home as fast as he could, and when he arrived in the hall margrave Rodinger had just eaten and was about to go to sleep. Then Eckward told him what had happened. Then margrave Rodinger rose and ordered all his men to prepare the best meal they could. And he himself jumped on his horse, and when he rode out he met king Gunther with all his men. Margrave Rodinger received the Niflungen well.
Now the Niflungen rode into Rodinger's courtyard garð and dismounted, and the margrave's men received them well. And the margrave had ordered two large fires to be made because they were still wet. And king Gunther, his brothers, and several of his men sat with one fire, and the other men with the other. Those who were dry were led to the hall and placed on the benches.
Now the Niflungen undressed near the fires, and Gotelinde, margrave Rodinger's wife, and she was sister to duke Nudung who fell at Gransport, said: The Niflungen have brought many white armours, and hard helemts, and sharp swords, and new shields, but Grimhild still cries for her husband Sigfrid every day. When the fires had gone out king Gunther and Hagen and their brothers went into the hall, sat there and drank with joy, and then they went to sleep.
Now margrave Rodinger lay in bed with his wife, and he asked her: What honourable gift shall I give to king Gunther and his brothers? And she replied: Anything you would like to give, I will agree with. And he said: If you agree, I would like to give our daughter to young Giselher as my first gift. And Gotelinde said: If he could enjoy our daughter it would be well done, but I am afraid he won't.
When day came Rodinger invited the Niflungen to stay for a few days, but they wanted to ride on. And margrave Rodinger told them he wanted to ride with them. And during breakfast Rodinger had a helmet carried in, and gave it to king Gunther. And the king thanked him for this gift. Then Rodinger gave a new shield to Gernot.
Then he had his daughter brought in and gave her to Giselher, and said: Good Giselher, this maiden I would like to give you for your wife, if you want to tak her. And Giselher replied he would become the happiest of men with her, and took her with many thanks.
And again Rodinger spoke: See here, young Giselher, the sword Gram that I would like to give you. It used to be Sigfrid's sword, and I think it would be the best of weapons to carry where you are going. And again Giselher thanked Rodinger.
Then margrave Rodinger said to Hagen: My good friend, what do you see around here that you would like to have? And Hagen said: I see a shield that is sea blue, and large, and it ought to be strong and has large cuts in it. I would like that for a gift.
And Rodinger said: That shield was carried by a good hero, duke Nudung, and the cut is from Mimung, strong Witig's sword, before he fell. And when Gotelinde heard this she cried many tears for her brother Nudung. And Hagen received the shield, and everyone thanked Rodinger again.
Then alll rode from the castle, including margrave Rodinger and his men. Gotelinde wished them well, and hoped they would return with honour. And margrave Rodinger kissed his wife and asked her to rule his realm until he returned.
Now nothing more is said of their travel than that they rode on day after day, and when they entered Soest it was rainy and windy, and all Niflungen were wet. And when they came to Thorta Dortmund they met a messenger from king Attila, who had been sent to Bakalar to invite Rodinger to the feast. And Rodinger asked him news from Soest.
The man replied: The latest news is that the Niflungen have come to Hunnenland, and king Attila is preparing them a feast, and I was sent to invite you, but I could just as well return with you, since I have done my errand. And then Rodinger asked how many men king Attila expected to receive. And the messenger said: I think there are no fewer men in this company than king Attila has invited i.e. Attila has roughly as many men as the Niflungen, but queen Grimhild has about half again as many of her friends, and is gathering men across her realm Does she have her own realm? Unclear to help her. And there will be many men at this feast, and it will go on for a long time.
Then Rodinger told the man to ride to king Attila and tell him that the Niflungen and he had arrived. Then king Attila ordered that all houses in the town should be prepared, some with tents or draperies?, others with fires, and there was a big bustle in Soest.
Now king Attila asked king Dietrich to ride out and meet them. And he did so, met the Niflungen, and they all went to the town.
Queen Grimhild stood on a tower and saw her brothers coming into Soest, and she said: Now it is a nice green summer, and my brothers come here with many new shields, white armours, and brave heroes, and I still remember Sigfrid's great wound. And she cried bitterly over Sigfrid.
Then she went to the Niflungen and welcomes them, and kissed those who were nearest to her standing closest to her, or those she loved most? If the latter we'd like to know who, one after the other.
And now the town was filled with men and horses, and even before there were many hundreds of men and horses in Soest i.e. it is a large, important town so that they could not be counted.
King Attila led his brothers in law to his hall, and had fires made, but the Niflungen did not take off their armour, and did not lay down their weapons. Now Grimhild came into the hall where her brothers were drying near the fires, and she saw their armour under their cloaks.
Then Hagen saw his sister Grimhild, and he took his helmet, put it on his head, and tightened it, and Volker did the same. Then Grimhild said: Hagen, did you bring he the Niflungen treasure that Sigfrid once had?
But Hagen replied: I bring you a strong enemy who follows my shield and my helmet with my sword, and I will never take off my armour. Then king Gunther said: My sister, come and sit here. And then Grimhild went to her young brother Giselher and kissed him, and she sat down between him and king Gunther Some manuscripts have Gernot; don't know which one(s); figure out, and cried bitterly.
Then Giselher asked: Why do you cry? And she replied: That I can tell you. I am pained most by the great wounds Sigfrid received between his shoulders, and no weapon has touched his shield.
Then Hagen replied: Let's not remember Sigfrid's wounds for now. King Attila should be as dear to you as Sigfrid used to be, and he is half as much richer, but it is not possible any more to heal Sigfrid's wounds, and what has happened has happened. Then Grimhild rose and went away.
Now Dietrich von Bern came to invite the Niflungen to the meal, and he was followed by Aldrian, king Attila's son. King Gunther took Aldrian on his arm and carried him with him.
But king Dietrich and Hagen were such good friends that they took each other's hands Thus Dietrich indicates to everyone he will not fight Hagen, and thus they went all the way to the hall. And on every tower and every window, and in every garden, and on the town wall there were noble kurteisar women who wanted to see Hagen, so famous was he in all lands for his bravery. Thus they came to the hall.
King Attila now sat on his throne, and to his right sat king Gunther, and next to him young Giselher, then Gernot, then Hagen, then their relative Volker. On Attila's left sat king Dietrich von Bern, then margrave Rodinger, then master Hildebrand, and these sat at king Attila's high table.
And in the hall were also the noblest of men one next to the other, and they drank good wine and feasted. And such a large amount of people were in town that all houses were filled. And they all slept in peace this night.
The next morning they got up, and king Dietrich and Hildebrand and many other knights came to the Niflungen. Dietrich asked how they had slept, and Hagen said he had slept well, but that his mood was still average.
Then king Dietrich said: Be merry, good friend Hagen, and be welcome; but be aware that your sister Grimhild still grieves for Sigfrid, and you will notice that before you go home. And thus Dietrich was the first man to warn the Niflungen One manuscript adds 'in Soest', which is correct, because this is certainly not the first warning.
Then they went out into the courtyard or garden; út í garðinn, and king Gunther walked on one side of king Dietrich, and Hildebrand on the other, and with Hagen went Volker, and now all Niflungen had awoken and they walked through town.
And now king Attila went onto the balcony or window; í svalirnar and looked at the Niflingen. And many men went to see their walk, but most of all everyone asked where Hagen went, because he was that famous. King Attila looked for Hagen and Volker, but he did not see them, because they wore deep helmets helmets that hid their faces, I assume, and he asked who came with Dietrich and Gunther. And Osid said that he thought they were Hagen and Volker. And Attila replied: I should have recognised Hagen, because I and queen Erka made him a knight Not otherwise attested; maybe around 241-244?, and he was our good friend back then.
Now Hagen and Volker went forth through the town, and they each had their hand around the other's shoulder, and they saw many well-bred women. And how they took off their helmets and showed themselves. And Hagen was white like ash, and he had but one eye.
Now the Niflungen stood out by the town wall and saw the town, but Dietrich von Bern went back to his court, where he had business to do.
Now king Attila saw how many people there were in town, and he could not fit them all into his great hall. But since it was nice weather he had a feast prepared in his garden apaldrsgarðr; seems to mean crab apple garden.
Meanwhile queen Grimhild entered Dietrich's hall to speak to him. And she wailed and wept and said: Good friend Dietrich, I have come to ask for your help to avenge Sigfrid, I want to pay back Hagen and Gunther and their brothers. If you help me I'll give you as much gold and silver as you want, and I will also help you when you go back over the Rhine to avenge yourself on Ermenrik. But Dietrich said: Lady, I will not do that, and if you do so it will be against my will, because they are my good friends.
Then she went away weeping and went to the hall where duke Osid was, and again she spoke: Lord Osid, don't you want to help me avenge my grief? I want to pay the Niflungen back for the death of Sigfrid, and if you do so I'll give you a large realm and anything you should ask for. But Osid said: If I did that, I would have king Attila's enmity, since he is a good friend of them.
Then the queen went to king Attila and said to him: Lord king, where is the gold or silver that my brothers brought here? And the king said he had not seen any gold or silver, but he would still treat them well as guests in his house. And Grimhild said: Then who will avenge my disgrace if you won't? Sigfrid was murdered! Now help me, and you can win the Niflungen treasure and all of Niflungenland.
The king said: Do not speak of that any more. How could I betray my brothers in law? They have come here in good faith, and neither you nor anyone else should offend them. Then she went away and she felt quite bad.
Now Attila went into the garden where the feast would take place and called all others in. And the queen told the Niflungen: Now give your weapons to me for safe keeping. No one should bear arms here, and you will see the Huns do so as well.
Then Hagen said: You are a queen I think he means: you are a woman, what would you do with my weapons? My father taught me never to trust my weapons to a woman, and as long as I am in Hunnenland I will never let my weapons far from me. And Hagen put his helmet on his head and bound it as tightly as he could. And all saw how angry Hagen was, and did not know what that meant.
Then Gernot said: Hagen was never in a good mood since we set out on this journey, and it could be he will prove his courage even today. And now Gernot, too, started to suspect betrayal, and recalled that Hagen had said so before they ever went on this journey, and he, too, bound his helmet tightly on his head.
Now king Attila, too, saw this happening, and he asked Dietrich who those were that bound their helmets so tightly. And Dietrich told him they were Hagen and Gernot, and both are brave heroes in foreign lands, Von der Hagen adds: 'And the king said'; presumably Attila and they do so from great courage. And again Dietrich spoke, and said: They are brave heroes, and it is likely that they will show it even this day, if things go as I suspect.
Now king Attila went to king Gunther and Giselher, and took their hands, Gunther's in his right hand, and Giselher's in his left, and called to Hagen and Gernot, and he placed them all on the high table to his right, as was said before 374. A great fire had been made in the garden, and around it were tables and seats.
And all Niflungen had come to the garden in their armour with their swords, but their shields and spears they had given to their squires for safe keeping, and twenty squires were set by the door to the room where the shields and spears were kept? to warn them of treason. Hagen and Gernot had decided this.
Volker sat with the foster of Aldrian, Attila's son, and Grimhild had her chair set opposite king Attila, and duke Osid was with her.
At this time queen Grimhild went to the knight who was set over her other knights and who was called Irung. And she said: Good friend Irung, don't you want to avenge my dishonour? Neither king Attila wants to do so, nor king Dietrich, nor any other of my friends. Irung asked: What should we avenge, my lady, and why do you cry so bitterly Irung is not what you'd call clued in?
And the queen replied: I remember how Sigfrid was mudered, and I want to avenge him, if anyone wants to help me. And she took his gold-plated shield and said: Good friend Irung, do you want to avenge my dishonour? I will fill this shield with red gold if you do, and you'll also have my friendship. And Irung replied: Lady, your friendship is worth more than gold. He got up, armed himself, called his knights, and unfurled his banner.
The queen told him to first go to the squires and kill them, and then make sure none of the Niflungen entered the garden, and that those who were already inside would not escape with their lives.
Quickly the queen went to the garden and sat on the high table. And her son Aldrian ran to her and kissed her. Then the queen said: My dear son, if you want to be equal in courage to your relatives, then go to Hagen and when he leans over the table to take something from a plate, then hit him with your fist as hard as you can. Then you will be a hero.
The boy ran over to Hagen, and when Hagen leaned forward the boy struck him with his fist on the chin Ms. A adds: so that Hagen's blood streamed from his nose on to the table, and this blow was stronger than one would expect from such a young man.
Then Hagen took the boy by the hairs with his left hand, and said: You did not do this of your own accord, and also not at the command of your father king Attila, but this is an idea of your mother's, and you won't enjoy it for long. And with his right hand he drew his sword and beheaded the boy, and he hurled the head to Grimhild's breast.
Then he said: In this garden we drink good wine, but it will now turn out to be expensive. I now pay the first part of the price to my sister Grimhild. And again he struck, right over Volker's head, and beheaded the boy's foster, and said: Now the queen has been paid as she deserves, and how you brought up this boy.
King Attila jumped up and called: Arise, Huns, all my men, arm yourselves and kill the Niflungen. And everyone in the garden jumped up, but the Niflungen now drew their swords.
At queen Grimhild's command raw, wet cow skins had been placed outside the door to the garden, and when the Niflungen ran out of the garden they slipped on the skins, and thus many men were killed, because Irung and his men stood there and killed many good hero, and already many hundreds lay dead in the garden This last clause is missing from mss. A and B.
Once the Niflungen understood that they lost the men who managed to get out of the garden, they turned around and fought the Huns still in the garden, and they slew every one of them that didn't flee.
King Attila stood on a tower and spurred on his men to fight against the Niflungen. But king Dietrich von Bern went home to his hall with all his men Thus he declares his neutrality, although he was sad that so many of his good friends fought one another.
But queen Grimhild did nothing all day but bring armour and helmets and swords and shields, as many as king Attila had, and thus armed many men. And sometimes she went out into the city and told everyone to attack, and that everyone who desired gold, silver, and jewelry to attack and kill the Niflungen. This she did all day.
Now a sharp battle ensued, when the Huns tried to enter the garden but the Niflungen defended it; and this garden was called the Holmgarten, and even to this day the saga writer's day it is called the Niflungen's Holmgarten. Many men from both sides fell here, but from the Huns half more than from the Niflungen. But from the countryside and other twons more men arrived in Soest, so that the Huns had an army half greater than before.
Now Hagen said to Gunther: It seems to me that many of the Huns and Amelungen Dietrich's people, but Dietrich is not yet fighting. Besides, he doesn't have that many warriors. Odd. have fallen, but more and more Huns come in from the countryside, and their heroes don't show themselves; we only fight with their servants þræla þeira. But our biggest problem is that we can't get out of this garden. If we did, we could decide whom to fight ourselves, but without escaping the Niflungen must fall to the Huns' spears and arrows, since we cannot use our swords agains them This makes clear that the Niflungen now fully occupy the garden, but the Huns are shooting from the tower and maybe the walls around the garden.
A stone wall stood around this garden, as strong as a city wall, and this same wall is still around today in the writer's days. Now Hagen and the others went to the west side of the garden, where the wall was weakest, and they started to tear down the wall until an opening was made. Quickly Hagen jumped through the opening, and there was a wide street there with houses on both sides. Gernot and Giselher followed him with many Niflungen, and advanced between the houses. But duke Osid and his men came against them, and fighting commenced.
Now the Huns let their horns sound, and shouted that the Niflungen had escaped the garden. All Huns hurried to the fight so that all streets were filled with them, and the Niflungen were outnumbered and driven back into the garden.
But Hagen sprang up to the hall A hall generally has a kind of veranda around it, higher than the ground, and Hagen is standing on it. It's unclear which hall this is, though and put his back against the doors, and put his shield in front of him, and he struck one man after the other with his hand sword, I presume and chopped off hands, feet, and even some heads, and some were hacked in two, and no one came near him without meeting such a fate non-literal; at eigi hefir þvílíka kaupferð, and there was such a great throng of people that those who fell barely had space to reach the ground, and Hagen defended himself so well with his shield that he was not wounded.
And to the left side of the Niflungen To the left of the garden where the Niflungen were driven back in to, or to the left of Hagen? stood Dietrich's hall, and he himself stood on the battlements, with his men all armed still neutral, but observing the battle.
Now Gernot, Giselher and Volker turned from the street to the hall Dietrich's hall and put their backs against it, and defended themselves and killed many men.
Then Gernot said to king Dietrich: When will you come with your men to help us? You cannot let so few fight against so many! And Dietrich replied: My good friend Gernot, it saddens me to see this storm i.e. battle take place. I will lose a good many friends here, but I can't do anything. I do not want to fight against the men of king Attila, my lord, but I also do not wish to harm the Niflungen in any way.
Now king Gunther knew that Hagen, Gernot, and Giselher, his brothers, had sallied forth from the garden, and also that a much larger army of Huns had attacked them. All of them except for the heroes, who are with their backs against halls now fled back into the garden. King Gunther had been defending the eastern gate i.e. the one that had been there all along, with the raw cow hides where Irung and his men stood. When king Gunther heard that Hagen needed his help he went out of the west opening with his men. But outside were many fully armed Huns remember: the Niflungen are still not fully armed; they never got their spears and shields, and had to scavenge them from the battlefield, something the men inside the garden had been unable to do and a sharp battle ensued. King Gunther advanced, but none of his men were so strong that they could follow him.
Now duke Osid, king Attila's nephew, came against king Gunther, and they fought long and hard until night fell. And because king Gunther was all alone in the middle of the Hun army, and had to fight against their greatest hero, he was overwhelmed and taken prisoner. He surrendered his weapons and was bound. And when the Huns had scored this great victory they started a great shouting. And king Attila and the queen called that they should not kill Gunther but bring him to them, and Osid led Gunther before Attila's knees i.e. Gunther was forced to go to his knees. And at the queen's counsel the king stood and with a great many people brought Gunther to a tower Ms B: snake tower and threw him in; and there were poisonous snakes there, and here Gunther died. This tower still, add mss. Sv and A stands in the middle of Soest.
Now Hagen and Gernot heard the Huns call that king Gunther had been taken prisoner. Hagen became so angry that he jumped from the doors down onto the street and struck Huns with both hands, and no one dared to stand before him. When Gernot saw that he also jumped on to the street and hewed Huns with both hands, and his sword stopped nowhere but in the ground. And Giselher followed him and killed many men with his sword Gram. And they distinguished themselves so much that no Hun dared to stand before them, and they fled. And now the Niflungen came forth from the garden on to the street, and they shouted that the Huns were cowardly dogs who ran when the Niflungen wanted to avenge themselves. And they spread through the town and killed them men they encountered, and it was night and quite dark. And the Huns fought them only? in groups.
King Attila went to his hall and had the house closed and guarded, so that the Niflungen could not do anything there. And margrave Rodinger went to king Dietrich's hall thus indicating that he, too, was neutral and stayed there for a while. And duke Osid and his men and Irung and his men also went to halls. That night, a multitude of men Hunnic reinforcements? Or the Niflungen on their killing spree? rushed into town. And now it was dark.
Then Hagen had his horns blown, and called all Niflungen to him. and Hagen now had reached the town wall. All the Niflungen came to him, and Hagen asked Gernot: How many men did we lose with king Gunther? And Gernot said they would now muster their men. To Hagen's right Giselher should go with his banner, but, said Gernot, with my men, but to Hagen's left and with me the men who followed the other banners Which banners? Did the Niflungen have other chiefs?, and on Giselher's other side the men who followed king Gunther's banner, and Volker with them.
And thus the Niflungen ordered their army. Now they counted how many men they had lost, and it turned out they'd lost 300 men, but 700 were still alive. And Hagen said they still had a large army, and the Huns would lose many men before the Niflungen bowed to them i.e. died or surrendered, and all agreed.
And Hagen continued: If it were day now and we could fight, we would likely win. King Attila has only a few more men than we do. But if we wait here for morning, many people from the countryside will come to town, and we will have to deal with such a large army that we will be overwhelmed, and I'm not sure if we'll do anything heroic before we give up our lives. But if we had fire we could fight on.
And Hagen and a few men went to a cooking shed and took fire, and threw it into a house, and then the whole town was lighted.
The Niflungen raised their banners and marched around the town with calls and horn blasts, and challenged the Huns to come out and fight them when they came to the hall Probably Attila's. But the Huns stood on the battlements and shot at them, so that the two parted again i.e. the Niflungen left. And the Huns only wanted to fight by day, but still the Niflungen killed many men this night.
When dawn came the Huns from the countryside came into town, and they now had a quite large army. Both sides now raised their banners and blew their horns, and then a long, sharp battle started. The Huns attacked bravely and encouraged one another. And queen Grimhild egged all men on to kill Niflungen, and offered them gold and silver.
This day duke Osid and Irung fought along, but king Attila did not. Gernot had his banner carried against Osid, and both armies fought with great courage. Now Gernot went forth before all his men and hacked on both sides and killed many men. Duke Osid attacked him, and they started a duel and fought bravely for a long time, but it ended with Gernot cutting off Osid's head. And the Niflungen rejoiced that a chief of the Huns had fallen.
When margrave Rodinger heard that duke Osid had fallen he became very angry and told his men they should now fight and kill the Niflungen. And he had his banner carried against the Niflungen, and fought for a long time.
Meanwhile Hagen went forth alone into the Hun army and killed Huns on both sides with his hands as far as his sword could reach, and he also killed many with his spear, and his arms were now bloody up to the shoulders. And he fought so long and went so far into the Hunnic army that he became quite tired and did not know how to get back to his own men. So he went into a hall, kicked open the door to see if anyone was in the hall, I presume and positioned himself in the doorway and rested.
Margrave Rodinger now marched against the Niflungen, and the Huns moved against the hall where Hagen stood, but he defended the door and slew many men. Grimhild saw this, and she called on the Huns to set fire to the hall, because the roof was made of wood, and thus they did.
Then Grimhild called Irung and said: My good Irung, now you can attack Hagen while he is in a house one house? Von der Hagen says his house? Vague. Bring me his head and I'll fill your shield with red gold. And Irung turned to the hall, which was meanwhile filled with smoke. Irung jumped bravely into the hall and struck Hagen with his sword into his thigh, so that the armour was torn apart, and he took a piece from his thigh as large as one would put in a kettle, but then he jumped out of the hall.
Now Grimhild saw that Hagen bled, and went to Irung and said: Now, my dear Irung, best of all heroes, you have wounded Hagen, the next time you will kill him. And she took two golden rings from her arm and put one under his helmet band to the right, and the other to the left Ms. B instead says: and she embraced him, and said: Now bring me Hagen's head, and you will have as much gold and silver as your shield can hold, and then again as much.
Now Irung jumped into the hall a second time, but Hagen was warned and walked to him and pierced him with his spear in the breast, so that it tore through armour and body and exited between the shoulders. And there Irung sank down on the stone road that until this day is called Irung's Road, and Hagen's spear was stuck in the road.
Then Hagen said: If I had avenged Grimhild's evil like I avenged my wound on Irung, then my sword would have sung throuhgout Hunnenland.
Margrave Rodinger went forward and killed the Niflungen, but against him came Giselher, and they fought, and Giselher's sword Gram cut through shield, armour, and helmet like through clothes. And margrave Rondinger fell with great wounds beforre Giselher, killed with the same sword he had given to Giselher as a gift.
And Gernot and Giselher attacked king Attila's hall and killed many Huns. But Volker went to the hall where Hagen stood, and killed one man after the other so that he never walked on the ground, but always from body to body.
And now Hagen saw a Niflung was coming to help him, and he asked: Who is this man who comes here so bravely? And he replied: I am Volker One ms. adds: the minstrel; Von der Hagen doesn't tell us which one your companion; now look at the street I have cut here. And Hagen said: Thank God that you let your sword sing on Hunnish helmets.
Now king Dietrich saw that margrave Rondinger was dead, and he called loudly: Now my best friend is dead I can no longer keep still. Take your arms, men, and I will now fight against the Niflungen.
Now Dietrich went forth from his hall, and in German songs it is said that worthy men were not there something like: made sure not to be around; but this is a difficult sentence when Dietrich and the Niflungen clashed. And all over town they heard how Eckisax sang on Niflungen helmets, and Dietrich was very angry. The Niflungen defended themselves well and killed many of the Amelungen, king Dietrich's men, but they themselves also fell in this battle This sentence is missing from Von der Hagen.
Now Dietrich advanced so much with his men that Hagen von Troja First time this nickname appears; clearly related to the Nibelungenlied's von Troneck retreated with his sword into the hall. With him where Giselher and Gernot and Volker, and king Dietrich and master Hildebrand went towards them.
Now king Dietrich entered the hall, and Volker stood in the door and defended it, but Dietrich's first stroke hit his helmet so that his head flew off. Then Hagen attacked him and their duel started.
And master Hildebrand attacked Gernot, and they fought, but Hildebrand killed Gernot with strong Lagulf Apparently his sword's name; not attested elsewhere.
And now there were only four in the hall who carried weapons: Dietrich and Hagen in their duel, and Hildebrand and Giselher.
Now king Attila descended from his tower and went to the fighting. And Hagen said to him: It would be a brave man's work, king Attila, if you gave young Giselher peace. He is innocent of Sigfrid's death, because I alone gave him the fatal wound. So do not hold Giselher responsible for it, he could become a good warrior if he lives.
But Giselher said: Don't tell me not to defend myself. My sister knows that I was but five years old when Sigfrid was killed, and I was in bed with my mother, and I am not to blame for this struggle. But I do not want to live alone among my brothers.
And Giselher jumped to master Hildebrand and gave him one blow after the other, but their duel ended as one could suspect, that master Hildebrand gave him a fatal wound. And so Giselher fell.
Then Hagen said to king Dietrich: It seems our friendship will end like this, and one of us most lose his life here. But let us fight bravely, and let neither of us insult the other with his ancestry See 169 for Hagen; an unusual ancestry is not mentioned anywhere for Dietrich, but see Hagen's remark later. And Dietrich replied: I want no man's help in this duel; now let's fight with art and courage með list ok drengskap.
They fought long and hard, and it was difficult to see which one would win, and the duel went on for so long that both became wounded and tired. And now king Dietrich became angry at having to fight one man for so long, and said: This is truly a great shame, that I stay here all day to fight with an elf's son.
And Hagen replied: What's worse, an elf's son or the devil himself?
And now king Dietrich became so angry that fire came from his mouth, and Hagen's armour became so hot that it glowed, and it did not protect him, but burn him instead. And Hagen said: Now I will give up my arms. I burn through my armour, and if I had been a fish instead of a man, I'd be so fried that my flesh would be edible.
Then king Dietrich gripped him and tore off his armour.
Grimhild took a big branch from where the hall had burned above Hagen, and went to her brother Gernot, and put the branch in his mouth to find out if he was dead or alive, but Gernot was truly dead. Then she went to Giselher and did the same, but he wasn't dead yet, and so Giselher died.
Now king Dietrich von Bern saw what Grimhild was doing, and said to king Attila: See how this devil Grimhild, your wife, torments her brothers, and how many have died for her sake, Huns and Amelungen and Niflungen, and if she can she will kill you as well.
And king Attila said: She is truly a devil, so kill her, and it would have been better if you'd done so seven nights ago. And king Dietrich went to Grimhild and cut her in two.
Now king Dietrich went to Hagen and asked if he could still be healed, but Hagen said he might live a few more days but there was no doubt he would die from these wounds.
Now king Dietrich had Hagen carried to his hall, and had his wounds tended to. And he gave Hagen his relative Herrat to tend to his wounds. And in the evening Hagen asked Dietrich for a woman for his last night, and Dietrich did so.
And in the morning Hagen told this woman: It could happen you get a son from me, and he should be called Aldrian. And here are keys you will keep and give to the boy, for these keys go to Sigfrid's cellar, where the Niflungen treasure is Foreshadowing 423-427. And then Hagen died.
And thus the Niflungen had ended their lives, and also the most powerful men in Hunnenland except for king Attila, king Dietrich, and master Hildebrand. In this struggle a thousand Niflungen fell, and four thousand Hunnen and Amelungen. And German men say that no battle has been more famous in old sagas than this one. And after the battle Hunnenland was empty of men for king Attila's remaining days.
Now queen Erka's prophecy 340 was fulfilled, that the Huns would lose greatly if Attila married a Niflung.
And one can hear how these things happened one can hear in sagas of German men that were either born in Soest, where these events took place, and have seen unchanged the places where these things happened, where Hagen fell, and where Irung was killed, and where the snake tower was where king Gunther died. And the garden was called Niflungengarden and still stands in the same way as when the Niflungen were killed, the old gate where the struggle started, and the western gate which is now called Hagen's gate, where the Niflungen broke out of the garden, and today it is called the same as it was then.
Men from Bremen and Münster have told us the same, and none of them knew of the others, but they still told the same story. And it is also according to the old songs in the German language made by wise men of the great deeds that took place in that country.
Status: summary of 39 chapters complete.
Other parts
1. Samson (1-13)
2. Hildebrand and Heime (14-20)
3. Wieland the Smith (57-79)
4. Witig (80-95)
5. Journey to Osning (96-107)
6. Witig and Heime (108-110,134-137,146-151)
7. Detlef the Dane (111-129)
8. Amelung, Wildeber, and Herbrand (130-133)
9. Wildeber and Isung (138-145)
10. Sigmund and Sisibe (152-161)
11. Sigfrid's youth (162-168)
12. Origins of the Niflungen (169-170)
13. Dietrich's feast (171-191)
14. The road to Bertangaland (192-199)
15. The tournament (200-222)
16. Dietrich's fellowship falls apart (223-226,240)
17. Gunther and Brunhild (227-230)
18. Walther and Hildegund (241-244)
19. Ake and Iron (269-275)
20. Dietrich's flight (276-290)
21. The Wilkinen wars (291-315)
22. The battle of Gransport (316-341)
23. Sigfrid's death (342-348)
24. Hertnit and Isung (349-355)
25. Grimhild's revenge (356-394) |
Defending democracy? The protests against Werner Krauss in West Berlin, 1950
Proteste gegen Werner Krauss
In December 1950, chaotic scenes at a theatre in West Berlin made headlines in Germany and abroad. While Werner Krauss an actor who had featured in Jud Süβ, the Third Reich’s most infamous antisemitic film – performed in Henrik Ibsen’s John Gabriel Borkman, students and Jewish residents demonstrated against his presence. For three days, protesters clashed with police officers outside and repeatedly disrupted the play’s performances inside the Theater am Kurfürstendamm, eventually securing its early cancellation.
The demonstrations against Werner Krauss, which took place seventy years ago this month, have been largely forgotten. Yet they raised central questions for early West German society, which, following the transfer of power from Allied occupation, now had to manage its own affairs. What constituted acceptable protest, and when did acts of dissent undermine the new democratic order? Should those who had been complicit in Nazi propaganda have any place in public life? And what responsibilities did Germans have towards Jews living in the country, after the atrocities of the Holocaust?
Krauss had risen to prominence before the Third Reich, starring notably in the 1920 silent movie The Cabinet of Dr Caligari. While many actors left Germany after the Nazis’ seizure of power, Krauss stayed. He went on to play four different characters in Jud Süβ, a film commissioned by propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels and viewed by 20 million Germans between its release in 1940 and 1943.[1]
Jud Süβ, which depicted the eighteenth-century Jewish court advisor Joseph Süβ Oppenheimer as a corrupt, depraved conspirator, aimed to justify the exclusion of Jews from German society. Although Krauss claimed during his post-war denazification trials that Goebbels had coerced him into taking part in the film, the final verdict in 1948 declared that Krauss had been a ‘follower’ (Mitläufer) of the Nazi regime.[2]
The judgement nevertheless allowed Krauss to resume his acting career, and, after moving to Austria, Krauss returned to German theatre stages in 1950 for the Vienna Burgtheater’s touring production of John Gabriel Borkman.[3]
The play was initially performed in several West German cities without incident. West Berlin, however, was different. The city was still a transit station for large numbers of Eastern European Jewish refugees, most of whom were awaiting emigration to Palestine. These refugees had already taken to the streets in 1949, in response to antisemitic tendencies in the newly-released British film Oliver Twist.[4]
Opposition to Krauss’s arrival also came from German-Jewish community leaders and West Berlin’s two universities, where students planned a demonstration for the play’s evening premiere. On December 8, more than five thousand students, Jewish refugees, and other protesters gathered outside the theatre, with chants and placards demanding that Werner Krauss ‘go home’.[5]
Numerous protesters attempted to penetrate the police line guarding the theatre. The police used batons and water cannons to push back the crowd, while some demonstrators hurled stones. A handful of officers and civilians were taken to hospital, and the Chicago Daily Tribune reported that ‘dozens more were mauled and bruised’.[6]
Inside the theatre, demonstrators who held tickets for the play disrupted the first act. As they were ejected from the building, the performance was initially called off. The support for Werner Krauss among other theatregoers, however, was evident when the play eventually resumed. As Krauss appeared for the second act, he was greeted with loud applause.[7]
Disturbances continued for the next two days, however, with Jewish leaders and Berlin’s students insisting that protests would not stop until the run was cancelled. After Krauss expressed his aversion to the thought that he would be the cause of further violence, the Burgtheater called off its remaining performances.[8]
The protests provoked outraged reactions among West Berliners. Letters to Ernst Reuter, the city’s mayor, expressed various anti-Jewish sentiments. Since Reuter had declared that the time had come to forgive Krauss, several of the letters condemned Jews’ alleged inherent vengefulness – a long-standing antisemitic conception – with one citizen claiming that ‘Jews cannot forgive’.[9]
Not only did these letters make little or no mention of the Holocaust: their sweeping assertions also ignored other viewpoints among Berlin’s protesting Jews. Some demonstrators, who saw Krauss’s apparent lack of contrition as the main problem, outlined circumstances under which they would accept his return to public life. Gerhard Löwenthal, a Jewish student, later recalled telling mayor Reuter that the demonstrations would stop at once if Krauss apologised on stage for his involvement in Jud Süβ.[10]
A poster for Jud Süß, 1940. Source: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek.
The question of what constituted ‘democratic’ and ‘undemocratic’ action was another recurring theme in the debates, with individuals on both sides claiming to defend the new political order. For Löwenthal, a departure from the Nazi past was a precondition for the success of West German democracy. Yet, as one newspaper acknowledged, theatregoers considered that they had ‘democratically’ expressed their wish to forgive Krauss.[11]
The protesters’ disruptive actions were labelled by opponents as a recourse to Nazi-era ‘SA methods’ which undermined the rule of law.[12] Sympathisers, however, contended that the real threat to democracy lay in police violence and the re-emergence of overt antisemitism. The Volksblatt remarked that, while officers’ batons struck Jewish victims of the Nazis, those at the theatre who shouted ‘Jews out!’ had gone unpunished.[13]
Werner Krauss did not perform again in Berlin until 1953: when he returned, the protests were not renewed. The following year, he was awarded West Germany’s Order of Merit. Krauss’ return to respectability before his death in 1959 could be taken as an example of what some historians have described as a ‘failure to address the issues raised by the Nazi period’. Such scholars argue that a continuation of authoritarian values and a desire for political and economic stability resulted in an indifference among most West Germans, lasting until the 1960s, to questions of ‘democratisation’.[14]
The backlash against Krauss in 1950, however, reveals fierce debates at an early stage about the requirements for democratic renewal. While some Germans considered it necessary to draw a line under the past, others demanded that those who had worked with the Nazis apologise for their actions, or be barred from public life. Attitudes to protest also diverged: whereas demonstrators considered themselves to be carrying out a democratic duty, opponents saw them as violent troublemakers infringing other citizens’ freedoms.
Such discussions continued into 1951 and 1952, as further demonstrations accompanied the screening of new films by Veit Harlan, the director of Jud Süβ. As these events, too, approach their seventieth anniversaries, it is time to reconsider the supposedly sleepy, ‘consensus-based’ early years of West Germany’s existence.
Rory Hanna is a PhD student at the University of Sheffield. His doctoral research project focuses on student protest and activism in West Germany between 1949 and 1967.
Cover image: protesters against Werner Krauss, demonstrating with placards and torches in front of the Theater am Kurfürstendamm in West Berlin, 10 December 1950. Photographer: Associated Press. Source: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek,
[1] Susan Tegel, ‘Review Essay: Jud Süss’, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 25:1 (2005), p. 156; Eric Rentschler, The Ministry of Illusion. Nazi Cinema and its Afterlife (Cambridge, Mass.: 2007), p. 154.
[2] Wolff A. Greinert, Werner Krauss. Schauspieler in seiner Zeit, 1884 bis 1959 (Vienna, 2009), pp. 273, 303.
[3] Ibid., p. 313.
[4] ‘Tumulte gegen den Film “Oliver Twist”’, Der Sozialdemokrat, 21 February 1949, p. 3.
[5] Landesarchiv Berlin (hereafter LAB) B Rep. 020, Nr. 7861, ‘Polizei-Inspektion Charlottenburg, den 9.12.1950, Betr.: Demonstrationen anlässlich des Gastspiels des Burgtheater-Ensemble mit Werner Krauss im „Theater am Kurfuerstendamm“, p. 1; ‘Tumulte am Kurfürstendamm‘, Telegraf, 9 December 1950, p. 1.
[6] ‘Das Schuldkonto des Herrn Krauss’, Volksblatt, 9 December 1950, p. 1; ‘Jews in Berlin Fight Police in Row Over Actor’, Chicago Daily Tribune, 9 December 1950, p. 7.
[7] ‘Berliners Storm a Theatre’, Manchester Guardian, 9 December 1950, p. 5.
[8] ‘Ein Erfolg der Jüdischen Gemeinde’, Kurier, 12 December 1950, p. 2; ‘Das Ende des Krauss-Gastspiels’, Telegraf, 13 December 1950, p. 1.
[9] ‘Vergeben können’, Der Abend, 8 December 1950, p. 2; LAB B Rep 002, Nr. 3428, anonymous letter from ‘ein Lichterfelder Einwohner’, 13 December 1950. On the history of antisemitic conceptions of Jewish ‘retributive justice’, see Trond Berg Eriksen et al, Judenhass: Die Geschichte des Antisemitismus von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart (Göttingen, 2019), p. 117.
[10] Gerhard Löwenthal, Ich bin geblieben. Erinnerungen (Munich, 1987), pp. 202-203.
[11] Ibid., p. 203; ‘Die Unruhen am Kurfürstendamm’, Tagesspiegel, 9 December 1950, p. 2.
[12] LAB B Rep 002, Nr. 3428, letter from Adolf Vollmer to Friedrich Luft (editor of Die Neue Zeitung‘s Feuilleton section), 12 December 1950.
[13] ‘Problematisches Gastrecht’, Volksblatt, 11 December 1950, p. 2.
[14] Nick Thomas, Protest Movements in 1960s West Germany. A Social History of Dissent and Democracy (Oxford, 2003), p. 13; Moritz Scheibe, ‘Auf der Suche nach der demokratischen Gesellschaft’, in Ulrich Herbert (ed.), Wandlungsprozesse in Westdeutschland. Belastung, Integration, Liberalisierung, 1945-1980 (Göttingen, 2002), pp. 245-247.
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It Happened Here: The Annihilation of the Jews of the Amsterdam Rivierenbuurt, 1940-1945
Rooseveltlaan [south end], Rivierenbuurt
Source: David Kann, 16 September 2016
Access staircase at Roerstraat 15 and 17, Rivierenbuurt
Source: David Kann, 26 October 2007
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Pierre Mendès France and the politics of milk
School milk – header image
The philosopher Roland Barthes believed that wine was a ‘totemic drink’ in France. In Mythologies (1957), he claimed that ‘wine is seen by the French as something that belongs to them, as much as their three hundred and sixty types of cheese’. Indeed, Barthes considered wine so integral to French culture that he thought anyone who spurned it would never truly be accepted by society.
Barthes’ last claim may seem hyperbolic, but it reflects the prevalent mood in mid-century France. Although wine and other alcoholic drinks had long been associated with Gallic culture, it was not until the state began subsidising vineyards and distilleries during the Depression that alcohol developed a hold on society itself. Subsidisation kept the alcohol industry secure and profitable during economic uncertainty and by the 1950s it employed one fifth of French workers. With so many lives linked to its production (and a government keen to promote consumption to cover subsidy costs) alcohol rapidly became a vital component of French society.
However, alcohol’s inflated socio-cultural importance made it hard for governments to end subsidisation. This became problematic in the early 1950s when supply (despite the best efforts of French drinkers) overtook demand, resulting in an annual unsold excess of 37 million gallons. The government thus faced a dilemma: although the alcohol industry was a huge drain on state finances, it had become so deeply embedded in society that withdrawing support would incur a backlash.
To Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France (in office June 1954 – February 1955), continuing to subsidise the bloated alcohol industry was ‘economic madness’. Not only were alcohol production subsidies a waste of money, he argued, but the state’s alcohol consumption drive was cultivating an endemic lethargy among workers. To save money and create a healthy, productive workforce, Mendès France proposed a radical strategy to break the bond between French society and alcohol. At the heart of this plan lay the drink Barthes called the ‘anti-wine’: milk.
Mendès France began by pushing beet sugar producers to sell their crop to sugar refineries, rather than alcohol distilleries. To guarantee a market for beet farmers, the prime minister decreed that schoolchildren, soldiers and labourers would be provided with state-funded sugared milk. Mendès France even led the milk-drinking crusade himself, sipping it in front of cameras at formal events.
Although he expected resistance from a country so wedded to alcohol, Mendès France could not have predicted the violence of the response. The prime minister’s plan invoked the wrath of what writer Michel Dion calls la France profonde, or ‘Deep France’ – rural provinces both politically and psychologically removed from the metropolitan centre. In Deep France, the milk campaign was seen as an attack on traditional French culture by an out-of-touch urban elite.
Protests were widespread and often tinged with antisemitism. To rural conservatives, Mendès France’s Sephardic heritage made him culturally foreign and his hostility towards the French alcohol industry was thus interpreted as an assault on France itself. As populist leader Pierre Poujade exclaimed:
If you had a single drop of Gallic blood in your veins, you would never … let yourself to be served a glass of milk at an international summit! That would be a slap in the face, M. Mendès, for all Frenchmen – and not just the drunk ones!
Poujade was not alone in questioning Mendès France’s Frenchness. The extreme right, which already considered Mendès France a traitor for ending colonial rule in Indochina, saw the milk campaign as another Jewish plot to undermine French national prestige. To future Front National leader Jean-Marie Le Pen, Mendès France’s actions were so opposed to the cultural values of France that they made him feel a ‘patriotic, almost physical repulsion’ towards the PM.
The vitriol directed at Mendès France demonstrates the cultural symbolism attached to ‘totemic’ objects. To provincials, alcohol was an integral part of daily life and any perceived threat to it (especially from a cultural ‘foreigner’) had to be resisted. To the state, it was financially and culturally harmful and needed to be removed from society. Mendès France’s programme exposed these differing cultural mindsets of province and centre, triggering a conflict between them.
The reaction to Mendès France’s milk campaign may seem absurd today, but it cannot be dismissed as anecdotal. ‘Totemic’ objects feature throughout modern cultural conflicts in France, particularly in those concerning Islam and French society. In 2010, a group of Parisians organised a sausage and aperitif-based street party in protest against the perceived ‘Islamification’ of their district, while in 2015 several small-town schools stopped serving an alternative to pork at lunchtime, thereby forcing Muslim students to conform to French cultural standards.
Although these acts targeted Muslims, they nonetheless represent a certain division between traditionalist province and progressive centre that was exposed by Mendès France. To French conservatives, Islamic immigration is a ‘problem’ caused by the state’s liberal immigration policy. Echoing Poujade and Le Pen, they argue that an out-of-touch government is fuelling the destruction of society by granting citizenship to those who have no assimilated into French culture. The response is symbolic protest: the performative consumption of ‘totemic’ items to reassert the cultural and political power of traditional France.
These cases (among countless others) show that the province-centre divide in France is far from healed. Whenever it feels threatened by external power, conservative society will always react with symbolic protest. This phenomenon is not limited to France. In the UK, much of the Euroscepticism that contributed to Brexit was based on symbolic politics. Tabloids in particular generated a highly symbolised narrative of illegitimate ‘Brussels bureaucrats’ trying to inflict ‘foreign’ laws on British society (who can forget the great myth of the EU wanting to ban curved bananas?).
Cultural conflict between province and centre is a universal problem that appears to be growing increasingly frequent. Politicians must therefore tread carefully when dealing with matters of provincial tradition. Failure to do so may quickly lead to protest and, as Mendès France discovered, a widespread belief in the total illegitimacy of the state.
Sam Young is an MA Modern History student at the University of Sheffield, where he is writing a dissertation on the 1965 French presidential election. He has a BA Joint Hons. in French & History from the University of Nottingham and is beginning a PhD in Franco-Belgian urban history at Cardiff University this October. Find him on Twitter @Samyoung102
Further reading
Barthes, Roland, Mythologies (Paris, 1957)
Bohling, Joseph, ‘The Mendès France Milk Regime: Alcoholism as a Problem of Agricultural Subsidies, 1954–1955’, French Politics, Culture & Society 32.3 (2014), pp. 97-120
De Taar, Francis, The French Radical Party: from Herriot to Mendès-France (London, 1961)
Dion, Michel, La France profonde (Paris, 1988)
Howard, Sarah, ‘Selling wine to the French: official attempts to increase French wine consumption, 1931-1936’, Food & Foodways 12.4 (2004), pp. 197-224
Joxe, Pierre, ‘Pourquoi Mendès France ?’, Après-demain 17.1 (2011), pp. 46-48
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French fascists against Jewish women (1930s-1940s)
antoine 8
Image: A female section of the PPF marching through the streets of Paris on 8 August 1943
This is an extract from a paper given by Antoine Godet at the Gender and Antisemitism workshop at the University of Sheffield which was held on June 18, 2019. It dealt with the representation of Jewish women, French or not, by French fascist men, through their texts and drawings in the 30s and the 40s, and the antisemitism of French fascist women. For this blog, Antoine focuses only on the misogynistic antisemitism of French fascist men. They belonged to movements such as the Parti Populaire Français (PPF), the Francisme or the Milice, and were journalists and drawers in the fascist press (Je suis partout, L’Émancipation Nationale, Au Pilori, etc.)
In their writings and iconography, French fascists say little about Jewish women. They prefer to denounce Jewish men, or rather “Jews” in general. Nevertheless, for the Fascists the “Jew” then is devoid of manhood and embodies the counter-model of their nationalist ideal manly man. Above all, the Jewish people in general are feminised and, at the end of the 30s, the racist ethnologist George Montandon, who was later a PPF activist, spoke of the “ethnie putain“, “the whore ethnic group”. According to him, this “scientific name” is justified by the “lust” of the “Jewish ethnic group” and “the fact that this community, instead of serving a country, puts itself, like a streetwalker, at the service of all countries” [1]. For French fascists, this global Jewish femininity weakens and soils the French race, to the point of speaking of France enjuivée (“Jewified France”).
George Montandon, How to recognize a Jew – with ten photographs, Paris, Nouvelle Éditions Françaises, 1940.
In fact, especially from the late 30s onwards, French fascists warn against the danger of interbreeding between Jews and non-Jews, an idea directly inspired by Nazism. For example, in 1938 in the pamphlet L’Emprise juive (The Jews hold), Marcel Bucard, the leader of the Francisme, expresses this fear of racial mixing by taking the example of “Jacob”, who prostitutes his daughter “Esther-Isabelle” with a count, in order to invade high society and voluntarily soil the French race. Bucard concludes that, in a hundred years’ time, “all the countesses and marquises will have eyes in the shape of coffee beans, and the hooked nose of the Rebecca from the rue des Rosiers“, a Jewish street in Paris. In May 1941, Doriot, the leader of the PPF, says it again: “A Jew has no right to marry a French woman. Let him marry with Rachel!”[2].
A drawing from Une histoire vraie, 1941
Moreover, from the 30s onwards, French antisemites tend to abandon the stereotype and the fantasy of the late 19th and early 20th centuries of the Belle Juive, to represent these women as hags with hooked noses and frizzy hair, which have now lost all their seduction capacities; or as insolent members of the bourgeoisie covered with jewels. In October 1938, in an article entitled “Jewish Fauna” published in Je suis partout, the writer and journalist Lucien Rebatet attacks “the thick Jewesses with pearls and furs, who try to imitate the charming and voluptuous walk of Christian women and are nothing more than a caricature of obscenity”[3].
Vidi, L’Union Française, 21 November 1942
Ralph Soupault, Le Petit Parisien, 19 December 1941
From 1940, this kind of physical description of Jewish women can be found mainly in the drawings of the collaborationist press representing the “Jewish Republic”. A Republic which, for them, continues to be embodied in “Jewified Vichy” and does not want to die once for all. By contrast, France, or rather the “National Revolution”, is personified by a nice woman, usually a blonde one, who delays aligning with other fascist countries in Europe. However, the myth of the Belle Juive has not totally disappeared and George Montandon, obsessed with the “Jewish nose”, recommends in 1938 and after to “disfigure nice Jewish women by cutting off their nasal ends, because there is nothing uglier than removing the tip of their nose”[4].
‘To save France… we need new blood – I’m the blood-donor’ Hubert, Au Pilori, 21 January 1943
Raph Soupault, Je suis partout, 20 December 1941
Finally, morally and psychologically, the Jewish woman is also the one who embodies or inspires feminine intellectualism and feminism. She is in particular the dangerously modern and left-wing woman, like Cécile Brunschvicg or Louise Weiss, the black beast of Je suis partout[5]. The Jewish woman is also an artist, and often a “greedy artist”, who relies on her fellows to succeed, like the actress Rachel according to the same newspaper. Under the Occupation, she necessarily belongs to the Zazous, this carefree youth vomited by the Nazi collaborationists. At last, under the pen of the collaborationists, the generic Jewish woman is called Sarah, Dalila, Rebecca or Rachel. For example, the writer Céline nicknamed England “Lady Sara Marmelade” to imply that this country is controlled by Jews. In the same line, Sara Roosevelt, the American president’s mother, is suspicious for the collaborationists because of her first name. Once again, she embodies this idea that the United States, and the Allies in general, are controlled by the Jews and devoid of manhood[6].
‘Military purposes: For a swinging France in a zazou Europe…’ Ralph Soupault, Je suis partout, 6 June 1942
Antoine Godet has a PhD in Contemporary History at Angers University, France. His thesis (2017) dealt with “The political and social symbolism of fascist and fascistic movements in France and Great-Britain in the 1930s through the comparative study of the Parti Populaire Français and the British Union of Fascists”. His research themes focus on Fascism, Nazism, extreme right, representations, political symbolism, rites, liturgy, identities, communities.
Related Stories: The Gender and Antisemitism Series
Challenging Heterosexist Readings Of Women’s Holocaust Testimonies by Roseanna Ramsden
George Montandon, “Détermination psychologique de l’ethnie judaïque : “l’ethnie putain”, La Difesa della Razza, 5 November 1939, p. 18-23 ; “Les Juifs démasqués par un savant ethnologue”, La France au travail, 2 July 1940.
[2] Marcel Bucard, L’Emprise juive, Paris, C.D.F., 1938, p. 69, 86, 87 ; Jacques Doriot, Réalités, Paris, Les Éditions de France, 1942, p. 114.
[3] Lucien Rebatet, “Que devient la Roumanie ?”, Je suis partout, 28 October 1938, p. 8.
[4] George Montandon, “L’Ethnie juive devant la science”, Cahiers du Centre d’examen des tendances nouvelles, n° 1, September 1938, p. 22 ; Revivre – Le Cahier jaune. Le grand magazine illustré de la race, 5 April 1943.
[5] For example “La dame aux gants verts”, Je suis partout, 2 May 1936, p. 8.
[6] For example, Je suis partout, 23 May 1942
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A legal representative or attorney is an individual who applications rule, typically as a lawful practitioner, attorney in legislation, legal adviser at rule, lawyer, barrister, attorney, rule, notary, and/or canon legal representative. Many legal representatives have actually either been confessed to exercise law in the legal system through which they are actually performing legislation or they are actually accredited by the applicable authorities in their jurisdiction to engage in rule. In England and also Wales, legal professionals are described as lawyers and also in Scotland as barristers. In Australia, legal representatives are pertained to as legal professionals and also in New Zealand as a barrister-in-fact. Francisco De Armas Cubas
In United States regulation, the word legal representative pertains to an attorney who methods prior to judges, juries and also various other tribunals. In Canada, attorneys are actually pertained to as solicitors. The term of a barrister is attorney-in-fact, while that of a court is actually judge-in-fact. A justice of the peace is likewise a lawyer. These are actually the simple differences between attorney as well as lawyer. Lilibeth Costas Santiago
Attorneys, that are actually accepted to exercise law by the courts admit to the core curriculum of models, principles as well as laws. They get the regulation degree known as the bar physical exam, pass bench examination and also pass the state law court test. Once these needs have been actually leapt, they are qualified for admission into the method legal profession of a state in which they want to exercise law. The conditions recommend the requirements for this accreditation.
After being actually admitted to the practice legal profession, lawyers have the ability to take the bar exam either through taking it by sitting for the exam face to face or even through taking the exam online. If the attorney takes the on the internet test, he requires to register on the state attorneys’s internet site. To sit for the bar assessment, the legal representative needs to pass all the three components: talking, expertise and intelligence information potential.
An attorney may additionally specialize as he would like to. Focusing on some locations of the regulation, is most likely to be successful than engaging in solo in the place of regulation. While a lawyer might certainly not have the required skills in a certain region of the rule, they still possess the possibility to end up being focused.
Legal representatives along with lawful degrees are actually made it possible for to exercise in federal courthouses as well as the High court of the United States. In particular conditions, legal professionals may also be actually accepted to exercise in state courts. Lawyers are actually permitted to compose viewpoints for customers in criminal claims and also public suits. If a legal representative is able to create a well-researched opinion, it is actually taken into consideration a much far better profession. Lawyers might be actually admitted to practice prior to lower court of law judges, although they can easily certainly not exercise previously higher court of law judges. This is actually necessary since higher court judges look after hearings, while lesser court of law judges manage criminal offenses.
When picking an attorney, it is actually vital to create certain he possesses adequate experience in order to offer lawful advise. Expertise is actually one of the traits that make an attorney proficient sufficient to give legal advise. An attorney ought to be prepared to offer legal suggestions specifically on intricate issues.
One of the very most crucial criteria in becoming a practicing legal representative is actually passing the lawyers as well as taking assessment. Once he passed the first two periods, he is right now eligible to take the next jurists test for the state where he wants to exercise regulation.
A legal representative is an individual that techniques law generally. As such, an attorney can be a judge, district attorney, jury system participant, lawyer, and also a judge’s employee. The functions of an attorney are as considerable as the method on its own. They are actually contacted in courtrooms to supply legal suggestions to their clients as well as to suggest suits prior to all of them.
All attorneys practice regulation in each conditions, however some conditions confine the type of licenses they might store. In Washington Condition for instance, legal representatives may only practice regulation in the condition. Many states likewise possess life-time limits on the amount of licenses that an attorney can easily hold. Some states permit no limit on the number of licenses a lawyer keeps while others possess life time limits. Because of these restrictions on the amount of licenses an attorney might hold, the states have actually put together the state law court exam to examine a legal representative’s expertise and also ability in the field of rule.
To rest for the condition attorneys exam, legal representatives have to to begin with participate in a regulation college that is actually certified through the attorneys association. To meet these specifications, an attorney has to gain an undergraduate degree coming from an approved rule school, pass the state lawyers examination, and also pass the national jurists test.
During the course of the law practice test method, an attorney is going to have to take the condition law practice test. It can easily likewise be actually illegal for a lawyer to function without being a member of the law court, depending on the rules in the specific state in which he or she process.
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Banana Slug Biology
Guest lecture by John Pearse and Janet Leonard, from Long Marine Laboratory, University of California-Santa Cruz. They did research on Banana Slugs for several years and talked about their findings in the class.
John talked about habitat, color, general characteristics, predators, and taxonomy of hermaphrodites. Janet talked mostly about sexual behavior of slugs.
General Characteristics
• Habitat : Banana Slugs are slimy, spineless gastropods which live on forest floor in moist places. They are part of animals of forest of North West. They are also found in conifer forest, open forest, and unexpected habitats like UC Davis reserve dry area, and also in Springs. Pacific grove has lots of ice plants in which Banana Slugs live.
• Diet : Some slugs are predators. They eat other slugs, snails and earthworms. Banana Slugs eat feces. They are fond of mushrooms, but it is not their major diet. In labs they are fed lettuce.
• Color : They are mostly yellow in color, but they are also found in brown, and black colors.
• Predators : Raccoons, garter snakes, ducks, geese and salamanders eat banana slugs.
• Taxonomy : Banana Slug belongs to genus Ariolimax. Three species are included in these genus : A. californicus, A. columbianus, and A. dolichophallus. These species have opening either on top or on the right side called as pneumostome. Everything is done through this opening. Mead classified A.californicus and A.dolichophallus as two separate species based on their penis and vaginal muscle size. A.californicus has a huge vaginal muscle and penis, whereas A.dolichophallus has thinner vaginal muscle. Although the species of Ariolimax family are morphologically apart, they are not distinct at molecular level.
• Reproductive morphology : Slugs are hermaphrodites (have both male and female organs), but they also get involved in mating. They have a ovisperm duct, and possess a complex mechanism to keep the external and internal sperm separate. They have vesicle to store sperm. They have vaginal muscle and some species have large vaginal muscle. Have a penis sheath with penis inside it.
Sexual behavior & Sexual selection
• Sexual selection : These species can be distinguished through genitalia. In 1985 it was hypothesized that the genitalia distinguishes species and sub-species, and hence it is probably a feature of sexual selection. At molecular level all the slugs are indistinct.
• Sexual behavior : Slugs get involved in elaborate mating and sperm is exchanged through genitalia. They often get involved in apophallation, a mechanism where the mating partners chew off their penis. Ariolimax stramineus has a blunt penis and no biting or chewing of penis is observed. A.californicus and A.dolichophallus show apophallation. 5 in 100 copulations end in apophallation. Although apophallation is not that often but it happens.
• Copulation and egg laying habits : Copulation starts during foggy nights of July, August, and September. Egg laying starts when it begins to rain sometime during October, November, and December. Slugs lay eggs in moist places under things like leaves. In labs they lay eggs on surfaces at 18 - 19 degrees celsius. Low pressure seems to be a stimulus for egg laying. On an average 75 eggs are laid in a week, and it takes 7 weeks for hatching. A.dolichophallus lays big eggs, and A.californicus lays tiny eggs. A.dolichophallus is the youngest to copulate at about 6 months and youngest to lay eggs at about 10-1/2 months, and the life span is about 7 years.
Jeffrey Long has slides from Janet Leonard and he will be uploading them.
Additional notes
Additional notes from Jonathan follow.
John Pearse talk
John originally worked with sea urchins and sea stars primarily. Janet joined the lab about twelve years ago to study marine slugs.
She was interested in hermaphrodite mating behavior. Banana slugs' rare behavior of apophallation became a research focus. No one had
really studied banana slugs [academically] since the forties. Alice Bryant Harper (Aptos naturalist, works with Santa Cruz Museum of
Natural History) wrote The Banana Slug (1988), the best book on them.
Despite Chancellor Sinsheimer's desire to keep the sea lion as the UCSC mascot, students voted 95% for the banana slug.
There are just two complete mollusc genomes, [California sea hare and giant owl limpet], and neither are very complete.
Banana slugs habitat is very diverse. Though often found in conifer forests and considered an animal of the Northwest (first found in
Washington or Oregon), they've been found in drier habitats: San Diego, Napa's McLaughlin Reserve (by small springs), abandoned rice
patties in the Sacramento River Delta, oceanside iceplants in Pacific Grove. High variation in the numbers you'll see on any day/site: none
or dozens.
They eat feces, hemlock, poison oak, mushrooms (reported but John has not seen), sorrel, ferns, ice plants, humus soil. In the lab
they eat hamburger, cat food, apples, beans, zucchini, mushrooms, yams, lettuce and milk.
Colors may camouflage them, e.g. dead leaves often turn bright yellow, the color of species in Santa Cruz and the SF Bay area. In
other areas you'll find spotted slugs – but they may be a different species.
There predators may include [seemed uncertain] garter snakes, salamanders and newts, birds and some small mammals. It is possible
that some specific carnivorous snails and slugs eat banana slugs.
Aphallarion buttoni originally thought to be a different species because no penes were found when dissected (late 19th century).
However, a Stanford professor later found some with penes and so sent students into the field to study. They observed apophallation. That
was the end of buttoni as a separate taxon. It became Ariolimax columbianus.
All banana slugs have an opening on the right side of the “head” for defecation, breathing, and copulation. The only way to distinguish
species is by dissection of the genitalia. [See slide *Ariolimax Arilimax columbians genitalia* for overview of genitalia.] The
gonad has a mix of testes and ovaries, and they can play both roles at same time curing copulation. How is sperm kept separate during
copulation? It is not necessarily. They can fertilize themselves.
And aphalon are born without a penis [sometimes?].
Ariolimax Meadarion californicus is found in San Mateo county. Santa Cruz has dolichophallus. [See slide comparing their
genitalia.] Mead thoought dolichophallus and californicus were sufficiently different to be a separate species.
A collaborator in Belgium has been sequencing banana slug mitochrondrial DNA. They see at least five clades but cannot yet
connect them. ~“Morphologically distinct and molecularly distinct are not the same thing.” [See slide.]
Interestingly the distribution of the salamander genus Ensatia is similar to that of banana slug [dolichophallus? – see slide]. Is
this a remnant of five million years ago when there were islands in the Monterey Bay? Morphologically distinct but molecularly
[mito. DNA] indistict suggests recent change.
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lecture_notes/04-23-2010.1272473888.txt.gz · Last modified: 2010/04/28 09:58 by jmagasin |
If you've ever looked through polarized glasses and noticed the effect of seeing the same image slightly differently with each eye, perhaps you've appreciated that you were effectively augmenting your vision by perceiving light polarity in addition to depth.
What if you could do that with different spectral ranges?
Using both cameras of the FLIR One (one visual, one thermal) and the dual displays (one for each eye) of the Oculus Rift, we superimpose a visual image as seen by one eye with a blended visual/thermal image as seen by the other of the same image subject. You get to see the world in true color AND thermal at the same time.
This ability can be further refined by applying various filters to the two visual channels. For example, the eyes may both see visual information, but the saturation or brightness of a pixel may be modulated between both eyes by heat information obtained from the FLIR. This method proposes an alternative to spectral compression as a means of achieving extra-visual light perception.
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Great Psychologists
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How Sigmund Freud Worked
Sigmund Freud is considered the father of psychoanalysis, although today many of his theories are viewed unfavorably. Why is his legacy still so important?
Laing, R. D.
Laing, R. D. (1927-1989) was a Scottish psychiatrist whose work centered on schizophrenia and its causes.
Carr, Harvey
Harlow, Harry Frederick
Harlow, Harry Frederick (1905-1981) was an American psychologist. His studies of the social behavior of monkeys provided new understanding of human behavior and development.
McDougall, William
Thurstone, Louis Leon
Watson, John B.
Watson, John B. (Broadus) (1878-1958), a United States psychologist. In Behavior (1914) and other books, Watson argued that psychologists, to be scientific, must study what people do, not what they say they think or feel.
Woodworth, Robert Sessions
Woodworth, Robert Sessions (1869-1962) was an American psychologist known for his work in experimental psychology, a field that developed in the late 1800's and early 1900's.
Erikson, Erik H.
Erikson, Erik H. (Homburger) (1902-1994), a United States psychoanalyst. Erikson, considered one of the world's foremost psychoanalysts, conducted significant research on the various stages of psychological development.
Freud, Sigmund
Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939), the Austrian physician who founded psychoanalysis.
Koffka, Kurt
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Republic of the Congo Map and Satellite Image
Republic of the Congo Bordering Countries:
Regional Maps:
Map of Africa, World Map
Where is Republic of the Congo?
Republic of the Congo Satellite Image
Republic of the Congo Information:
The Republic of the Congo is located in western Africa. The Republic of the Congo is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, Cameroon and Gabon to the west, the Central African Republic to the north, Angola to the south, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the east.
Explore Republic of the Congo Using Google Earth:
Google Earth is a free program from Google that allows you to explore satellite images showing the cities and landscapes of Republic of the Congo and all of Africa in fantastic detail. It works on your desktop computer, tablet, or mobile phone. The images in many areas are detailed enough that you can see houses, vehicles and even people on a city street. Google Earth is free and easy-to-use.
Republic of the Congo on a World Wall Map:
Republic of the Congo On a Large Wall Map of Africa:
Republic of the Congo Cities:
Brazzaville, Djambala, Ekouamou, Epena, Gamboma, Ikelemba, Impfondo, Kayes, Lekana, Loubomo, Makoua, Mobenzele, Mogandia, Mossaka, Mossendjo, Mouali, N'Gabe, Ouesso, Owando, Oyo, Pangala, Pikounda, Port-Noire and Zanaga.
Republic of the Congo Locations:
Aina River, Alima River, Atlantic Ocean, Congo River, Djoue River, Ibenga River, Kandeko River, Kouilou River, Kouyou River, Lengoue River, Likouala aux Herbes River, Likouala River, Mambili (Opa) River, Motaba River, Nkeni River, Ngoko River, Niari River, Oubangui River and Sangha River.
Republic of the Congo Natural Resources:
The metal and metallic deposits in Republic of the Congo include lead, zinc, copper, uranium, magnesium and gold. Some of the country's fuel resources are petroleum, natural gas and hydropower. Other natural resources include potash, phosphates and timber.
Republic of the Congo Natural Hazards:
The natural hazards for the Republic of the Congo include seasonal flooding.
Republic of the Congo Environmental Issues:
The environmental issues for the country of Republic of the Congo include water pollution from the dumping of raw sewage and the tap water is not potable. There is air pollution from vehicle emissions. The country also has deforestation. |
One of Studio Ghibli's (excellent) films, named Princess Mononoke, has depictions of kodama:
screenshot from Princess Mononoke depicting kodama
In Japanese folklore, kodama are tree spirits that inhabit trees that are older than 100 years.
In the collection of yōkai depictions, the Gazu Hyakki Yagyō by Toriyama Sekien, under the title 木魅 ("kodama"), an aged man and woman are depicted standing alongside the trees, and here it is stated that when a tree has passed a hundred years of age, a divine spirit would come dwell inside it, and show its appearance.[6]
This depiction mentioned here is this:
enter image description here
What the Wikipedia article does not answer, possibly doesn't even touch on, is the origin of the kodama. I have two very related questions on this matter:
• What myth (if there is one) first describes or talks about kodama?
• Is there a myth that talks about where the kodama came from? If so, what is their origin?
In essence, what is the original myth? and where did they come from?
One of my favourite Japanese myths. According to the 百物語怪談会 Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai webpage Kodama – The Tree Spirit,
In ancient times, kodama were said to be kami, nature dieties that dwelled in trees. Some believed that kodama were not linked to a single tree but could move nimbly through the forest, traveling freely from tree to tree.
However, it seems that the sounds of the forests were related to the kodama:
But they were also a sound. Echoes that reverberated through mountains and valleys were said to be kodama. The sound of a tree crashing in the woods was also said to be the plaintive cry of a kodama. (In modern times this mountain echo is associated with the yokai yamabiko and not with kodama).
In ancient times, their form was either considered to be invisible or indistinguishable from the trees themselves.
The oldest known reference is from the 10th century CE (Heian period) in the Wamuryorui Jyusho (和名類聚抄; Japanese Names for Things; written 931 – 938 CE), this was a dictionary of sorts:
listed 古多万 as the Japanese word for spirits of the trees. Another Heian era book, Genji Monogatari (源氏物語; The Tale of Genji), uses木魂 to describe kodama as sort of tree-dwelling goblin. Genji Monogatari also uses the phrase “either oni or kami or kitsune or kodama,” showing that these four spirits were thought to be separate entities.
During the Edo era, the kodama became 'humanised' and even stated that they could change their form to be human.
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Electric Car Warning Signals As Denmark Calculates Cost Of Switch
COPENHAGEN: A rapid switch to electric cars to meet Denmark’s ambitious climate targets will leave a massive gap in its finances, a government commission said on Monday.
Moving to electric vehicles from those powered by fossil fuels is central to Denmark’s goal of cutting emissions by 70% by 2030 and becoming climate neutral no later than 2050.
However, the Nordic country relies heavily on car and road taxes worth some 50 billion Danish crowns ($7.95 billion) a year, or 2.3% of GDP, to fund its welfare system.
In March, the Danish Council on Climate Change, an independent advisor to the Danish government, said the number of electric cars should rise to at least 1 million by 2030 from less than 20,000 now in order to meet the targets.
“This would create a significant problem for the economy,” commission head Anders Eldrup told a press briefing.
Increasing the number of electric cars to 1 million through raised subsidies and higher taxes on fossil-fuelled cars would result in a total net loss to society of 5.7 billion crowns in 2030, the commission said.
Under the current tax system, proceeds from car and road taxes are already set to drop by 10 billion crowns each year in 2030, it said.
The commission was asked by the government to suggest how to switch from fossil fuelled cars to electric cars in the coming decade without jeopardizing the state budget.
The transport sector contributes about 40% of Denmark’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, with less than 1% of cars powered by electricity.
With favourable conditions and early support from the government, Denmark now gets about half of its power from wind turbines and is seen as a pioneer in addressing climate change.
($1 = 6.2901 Danish crowns)
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How to induce magnetism in graphene
Depending on the shape and orientation of their edges, graphene nanostructures (also known as nanographenes) can have very different properties -- for example, they may exhibit conducting, semiconducting or insulating behavior. However, one property has so far been elusive: magnetism. Together with colleagues from the Technical University in Dresden, Aalto University in Finland, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research in Mainz and University of Bern, Empa researchers have now succeeded in building a nanographene with magnetic properties that could be a decisive component for spin-based electronics functioning at room temperature.
Graphene consists only of carbon atoms, but magnetism is a property hardly associated with carbon. So how is it possible for carbon nanomaterials to exhibit magnetism? To understand this, we need to take a trip into the world of chemistry and atomic physics.
The carbon atoms in graphene are arranged in a honeycomb structure. Each carbon atom has three neighbors, with which it forms alternating single or double bonds. In a single bond, one electron from each atom -- a so-called valence electron -- binds with its neighbor; while in a double bond, two electrons from each atom participate. This alternating single and double bond representation of organic compounds is known as the Kekulé structure, named after the German chemist August Kekulé who first proposed this representation for one of the simplest organic compound, benzene . The rule here is that electron pairs inhabiting the same orbital must differ in their direction of rotation -- the so-called spin -- a consequence of the quantum mechanical Pauli's exclusion principle.
"However, in certain structures made of hexagons, one can never draw alternating single and double bond patterns that satisfy the bonding requirements of every carbon atom. As a consequence, in such structures, one or more electrons are forced to remain unpaired and cannot form a bond," explains Shantanu Mishra, who is researching novel nanographenes in the Empa nanotech surfaces laboratory headed by Roman Fasel. This phenomenon of involuntary unpairing of electrons is called "topological frustration."
But what does this have to do with magnetism? The answer lies in the "spins" of the electrons. The rotation of an electron around its own axis causes a tiny magnetic field, a magnetic moment. If, as usual, there are two electrons with opposite spins in an orbital of an atom, these magnetic fields cancel each other. If, however, an electron is alone in its orbital, the magnetic moment remains -- and a measurable magnetic field results.
This alone is fascinating. But in order to be able to use the spin of the electrons as circuit elements, one more step is needed. One answer could be a structure that looks like a bow tie under a scanning tunneling microscope.
Two frustrated electrons in one molecule
Back in the 1970s, the Czech chemist Erich Clar, a distinguished expert in the field of nanographene chemistry, predicted a bow tie-like structure known as "Clar's goblet." It consists of two symmetrical halves and is constructed in such a way that one electron in each of the halves must remain topologically frustrated. However, since the two electrons are connected via the structure, they are antiferromagnetically coupled -- that is, their spins necessarily orient in opposite directions.
In its antiferromagnetic state, Clar's goblet could act as a "NOT" logic gate: if the direction of the spin at the input is reversed, the output spin must also be forced to rotate.
However, it is also possible to bring the structure into a ferromagnetic state, where both spins orient along the same direction. To do this, the structure must be excited with a cer-tain energy, the so-called exchange coupling energy, so that one of the electrons reverses its spin.
In order for the gate to remain stable in its antiferromagnetic state, however, it must not spontaneously switch to the ferromagnetic state. For this to be possible, the exchange coupling energy must be higher than the energy dissipation when the gate is operated at room temperature. This is a central prerequisite for ensuring that a future spintronic circuit based on nanographenes can function faultlessly at room temperature.
From theory to reality
So far, however, room-temperature stable magnetic carbon nanostructures have only been theoretical constructs. For the first time, the researchers have now succeeded in producing such a structure in practice, and showed that the theory does correspond to reality. "Realizing the structure is demanding, since Clar's goblet is highly reactive, and the synthesis is complex," explains Mishra. Starting from a precursor molecule, the researchers were able to realize Clar's goblet in ultrahigh vacuum on a gold surface, and experimentally demonstrate that the molecule has exactly the predicted properties.
Importantly, they were able to show that the exchange coupling energy in Clar's goblet is relatively high at 23 meV, implying that spin-based logic operations could therefore be stable at room temperature. "This is a small but important step toward spintronics," says Roman Fasel.
Story Source:
Materials provided by Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (EMPA). Note: Content may be edited for style and length.
Journal Reference:
1. Shantanu Mishra, Doreen Beyer, Kristjan Eimre, Shawulienu Kezilebieke, Reinhard Berger, Oliver Gröning, Carlo A. Pignedoli, Klaus Müllen, Peter Liljeroth, Pascal Ruffieux, Xinliang Feng, Roman Fasel. Topological frustration induces unconventional magnetism in a nanographene. Nature Nanotechnology, 2019; DOI: 10.1038/s41565-019-0577-9
(Source: sciencedaily.com; December 11, 2019; http://bit.ly/357wkHD)
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Hydrolysis of Hazelnut Shells as a Carbon Source for Bioprocessing Applications and Fermentation
Hazelnut shells are generated in large amounts from hazelnut processing. Currently, it is used as fuel. However, reuse in bioprocessing can release remarkable content of sugars, which can be used for production of additives such as enzymes widely used in the food industry. Thus, the present study was undertaken to determine the effect of single and combined chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis on the production of fermentable sugars from hazelnut shells. Batch hydrolysis was carried out under various conditions to select optimal conditions. The results revealed that an optimal sugar concentration of about 19.2 g/l was achieved after 3.42% (w/w) dilute acid pretreatment conducted at 130 degrees C for 31.7 min and enzymatic load of 200 U/g for 24 h. The overall sugar yield was calculated as 72.4% (g reducing sugar/g total carbohydrate). Therefore, hazelnut shells can be considered a suitable feedstock to compete with synthetic sugars used in fermentations. |
Wednesday , January 20 2021
The astronomers tell all the photos in the universe. Spoiler Alert: 4,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Photons
Imagine yourself in a boat on a large ocean, the water extending to the far horizon, with the weakest features of land just beyond that. In the morning, before the dawn, and a thick fog settled along the coast. As the cool looks at you at your early clock, you take off the corner of your eye a light, slowly tangible through the fog.
And – yes – there! Another light, closer, its light a little stronger. While you shake the horizon, more lighters sign the dangers of the far off shore.
A new newly formed star illuminates the surrounding cosmic clouds in this image of ESO's La Silla Observatory in Chile. Extinct particles in the vast clouds that surround the HD 97300 star, spread their light, such as a car head in wrapping in a fog, and create the reflected reflection IC 2631. Although HD 97300 is currently in the luminous, the very dust that makes it so difficult to hit heraldos the birth of additional, potentially stolen-scene, future stars. Imsge: ESO
You know this coast, returning to the same port year after year. You know that the lights are all the same brightnesses, made of the same manufacture and kept in good work during the years.
And thus spend the time when you play a bit. By consulting your letters, you know the distance to each lighthouse, and how long their light has traveled to reach your salient eyes. But their light, shining and shining on clear evening, is diminished and shaded by the constant fog. You know how they are shining should Be it, and you can compare that brightness to what you see, looking through the layers and fog layers, to assess how foggy is inhibiting the coast.
Do not like that you have something better to do.
This is exactly the procedure astronomers have just used to measure the total amount of star in the universe – less, of course, the fog and lighthouses and salt sailors.
Our cosmic lights are the active galaxies, the most powerful motors in the universe, where it flows into huge black holes is compressed and heated, turning on radiation radiation before the event of the horizon. In these deaths these swinging, chaos crackers emit more energy than millions of galaxies, and are able to pump their light throughout the universe.
When they turn on the young cosmos, they seem like lights, glittering but far away.
Among these lights and our telescopes are all things in the universe. Most of the universe is empty, but to fill these vacuum is the accumulated light of all star generations that have lived and died because of these distant times, illuminating the cosmos in a thin and thin fog of photons.
The radiation of the distant active galaxies is extremely high energy – no surprise, given the powerful nature of its origin. And because this light of high energy is exploding through the universe, it meets that thin fog. A possible interaction of random interaction, accidental collision by accidental collision, high energy radiation loses energy and scatters.
When examining the light of more than 700 active galaxies, the team of astronomers could evaluate the whole starlight produced throughout the universe and throughout the cosmic time, after only the time of the first stars only 500 million years after the great blow up to this day. The crude calculus? 4 × 10 ^ 84 photons, what's it … a lot.
This rating coincides with other calculations of this so-called extra-galaxy background light, but buried in this last observation and others are anxious finding: our universe dies.
When compared the light of different active galaxies that we have set at different distances from us, astronomers have not been able to calculate the total amount of stellum ever produced, but also to track the plane and currents of this star for millions of years of cosmic history.
And the awful news is that the lights come out, one by one. As best as we can say, through various observations and estimations, it is that our universe has peaked in a star that formed 9 billion years ago, when the space was only a quarter of its present time.
The precise reason still leaves us. Of course, our expanding universe has something to do with it – galaxies decrease one of the others at the average, resulting in fewer fusion and less supplies of fresh material in galaxies, where they can grasp this gas into new stars. But why was the tip at that time, so long? Why did star formation decrease so fast? Or maybe why stars persisted so long, despite the collapse of their one-great empire?
Difficult questions without easy answers. At the moment, at least, we are still in the fog.
Read more: "Gamma radiation determination of the stars' history of the Universe"
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Question: Do Black Panthers Kill Humans?
Are Black Panthers friendly?
As is most often the case, when big cats are held in captivity like this, they’re usually declawed and their teeth are ground down so that their bite is non-lethal..
Where do black panthers live?
Black panthers live chiefly in the hot, dense tropical rainforests of South and Southeast Asia. They are mainly in Southwestern China, Burma, Nepal, Southern India, Indonesia, and the southern part of Malaysia. Black leopards are more common than light-colored leopards.
Are Black Panthers from Africa?
The term black panther is most frequently applied to black-coated leopards (Panthera pardus) of Africa and Asia and jaguars (P. onca) of Central and South America; black-furred variants of these species are also called black leopards and black jaguars, respectively.
What kind of cat is a panther?
How many black jaguars are left in the world?
600 black jaguarsJaguars have the most powerful jaws of all the big cats. Best estimates indicate only 600 black jaguars exist in the wild today.
How tall is a panther?
Leopard: 60 – 70 cmJaguar: 63 – 76 cmTiger: 70 – 120 cmBlack panther/Height
Can a black panther kill you?
A BLACK panther has brutally mauled a man to death at a zoo in Russia – after he climbed inside the animal’s cage to feed it. The Ukrainian victim’s mutilated body was found with multiple bites to the throat in the animal’s enclosure at a private zoo in Moscow.
Is a Black Panther a Jaguar?
What is a Black Panther? A Comic Book Hero—and a Kind of Big Cat. A black jaguar (Panthera onca) crouches in a pool of water in Brazil. Black jaguars are also called black panthers, which is an umbrella term for any big cat with a black coat.
How rare is a black panther in Adopt Me?
Price. The Black Panther was one of the seven pets that were available in the Jungle Egg in Adopt Me!. It is classified as an uncommon pet and players had 22.5% of hatching one from a Jungle Egg.
Do black tigers exist?
Black tigers are not a separate species or sub-species of tigers. They are a distinct colour variant of the Bengal tiger, and their all-black colour is due to a melanistic pigmentation.
Is a mountain lion a panther?
The cougar is a big cat known by many names including panther, mountain lion, puma and up to 80 more, but these are all the same species, Puma concolor. … In big cats, black panthers are actually jaguars or leopards. If you look closely enough, or have enough bright light, you can see spots amongst the dark fur.
Can you get a black jaguar?
There are some jaguars that appear to be all black. If you could get close enough to them, you’d see that they actually do have spots; you just can’t see them from far away. The black jaguar is actually exactly the same as a regular jaguar except for its coloring; it’s not a different species, or kind, of jaguar.
Do Panthers attack humans?
Normally panthers — the official state animal — avoid humans, a habit they developed back when Florida’s settlers would shoot them on sight. … The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission’s website says, “No panther has ever even attacked a person.”
What does it mean when you dream about a black panther chasing you?
Panther Dream Symbol – To see a panther in your dream can represent a powerful and protective presence in your life. … If a panther is stalking you in the dream, it can indicate you have enemies that are lurking in the distance. These enemies might be people you know who are spreading negative energy towards you.
How tall is a black panther?
What do Black Panthers look like?
There is no such thing as a “black panther.” Though these cats look like an entirely new species of large cat, they are actually just leopards or jaguars that have a black color mutation which turns their normally golden fur black to match their spots. … It causes the fur to turn completely white.
Are there Black Panthers in the US?
Is a Puma a Jaguar?
Only two species of big cats live in the New World: the jaguar (Panthera onca) and the puma (Puma concolor). … Both species occur together in tropical forests and savannas. When two or more species live in the same area, ecologists say they are sympatric.
Is there a real Pink Panther?
The real Pink Panther: A record price of £52million for world’s finest diamond as it is sold to anonymous bidder. A record was set last night with the auction of the world’s largest cut pink diamond. … Oval-shaped and mounted on a ring, the flawless diamond weighs in at 59.60 carats and measures 2.69cm by 2.06cm.
What is the lifespan of a Black Panther?
Leopard: 12 – 17 yearsJaguar: 12 – 15 yearsTiger: 10 – 15 yearsBlack panther/Lifespan
What to do if you see a panther?
If you encounter a Florida panther:Keep children within sight and close to you.Give the panther space. … Do not run. … Avoid crouching or bending over. … Make yourself appear larger, open your jacket, raise your arms, throw stones, branches, etc. … If attacked, fight back with whatever is at hand (without turning your back).More items… |
What Energy System Is Used First?
What are 5 anaerobic activities?
Types of anaerobic exercisesweightlifting.jumping or jumping rope.sprinting.high-intensity interval training (HIIT)biking..
How do the energy systems work together?
The energy systems work together to replenish ATP. The 3 energy systems are the ATP-PC, Anaerobic Glycolysis and Aerobic. The energy systems all work together at the same time to keep replenishing ATP. … Aerobic system is predominantly used during medium to low intensity activity.
What are the differences between the 3 energy systems?
The difference between the three energy systems is two factors: intensity and duration. The higher the intensity, the shorter the duration because all the energy the body can supply to work at a high level is used up quickly. … The energy for this system is stored in the muscles and lasts approximately 6 seconds.
How long can you do anaerobic exercise?
This is why anaerobic exercises are short in duration. Examples of anaerobic exercises are sprints of all kinds, jumping, HIIT, and weight-training. You can do anaerobic exercises for seconds up to 2 minutes, which is when your body’s aerobic system kicks back in.
What are the disadvantages of anaerobic exercise?
Which is an example of anaerobic exercise?
Anaerobic exercises involve quick bursts of energy and are performed at maximum effort for a short time. Examples include jumping, sprinting, or heavy weight lifting. Your respiration and heart rate differ in aerobic activities versus anaerobic ones. … During anaerobic exercise, your body requires immediate energy.
What energy that breaks down carbohydrates using 1 to 2 minutes of energy?
Answer. Answer: Lactic Acid energy system starts to feed the muscle energy if the activity is longer than 6 seconds but less then two minutes. Hope it helps.
What are the 3 Energy Systems and its basic functions?
During exercise, your body relies on three basic energy systems: the anaerobic a-lactic system, the anaerobic lactic system, and the aerobic system. Depending on the sports played, athletes rely on one system more than the others.
Can we do physical activity without using the 3 energy system?
Answer. Answer: No, we cannot because our systems does not have the energy to do anything or to play the role of their function they require energy to do the work of the body and which facilitate smooth physical activity.
Is jogging aerobic or anaerobic?
Aerobic exercise is light activity you can sustain over long periods of time, such as jogging. Anaerobic activity is bursts of activity for short periods of time, such as sprinting.
Which energy system burns the most fat?
aerobic exerciseIt is true that aerobic exercise calls upon more energy sources, and therefore burns up more fat in order to provide that extra energy. And aerobic workouts do burn a higher percentage of fat than carbs. That being said, high-intensity anaerobic exercises burn more total calories and therefore burn more total fat.
How do you optimize energy?
6 Ways to Optimize Your Facility’s Energy Consumption. … Utilize your utility bills. … Assess the facility’s thermal envelope. … Identify ways to conserve water. … Save electricity through strategic placements. … Optimize your lighting. … Don’t overwork your refrigeration.
Why energy system is important?
What do the energy systems do? The three energy systems work together in order to ensure there is a continuous and sufficient supply of energy for all our daily activities. Each system differentiates in the way they produce chemical energy (ATP) from different sources and at different speeds.
Is it better to do aerobic or anaerobic exercise first?
What energy system does football use?
The energy system demands of a football game as whole are aerobic for the most part. This is due to the break in the action each play, and even more so if you are only playing offense or defense and not both. What is important is the energy system of an individual play, which is anaerobic in most cases.
What are the 3 energy systems?
Is walking aerobic or anaerobic?
Anaerobic exercises are exercises that involve short bursts of intense activity. Examples of aerobic exercise include brisk walking and riding a bicycle. Sprinting and weightlifting are forms of anaerobic exercise.
Is aerobics better than walking?
When it comes to selecting the best exercise for fitness, aerobic exercise provides better health benefits than walking, according to a new study. In the study, University of Alberta researchers compared fitness training to a pedometer-based walking program, measuring the fitness and health outcomes of each.
Which energy system is the quickest?
Phosphagen SystemThe Phosphagen System It is the most direct and quickest form of energy production but can only supply enough energy for a short burst intense activity like a maximum weight lift or a 5 second sprint. This system relies on the availability of creatine phosphate, which is in limited supply and is depleted quickly.
What energy system that breaks down carbohydrates using 1 to 2 minutes?
Glucose and glycogen are partially broken down by the lactate system to produce ATP. ATP is used in this breakdown, but more ATP is produced than used, each molecule of glucose produces two net (additional) molecules of ATP. Energy can be supplied by the lactate system for approximately 1–2 minutes of intense activity.
What is the most complex energy system?
The most complex energy system is the aerobic or oxygen energy system, which provides most of the body’s ATP. This system produces ATP as energy is released from the breakdown of nutrients such as glucose and fatty acids. |
#Thursday what isCurrent News
What is bandwidth?
The absolute maximum amount of data that can be transferred through an internet connection over a marked period of time is known as Bandwidth. Bandwidth is often mistaken for internet speed when it’s actually the volume of information that can be sent over a connection in a measured amount of time – calculated in megabits per second (Mbps).
Typically expressed in bits, megabits or gigabits per second, bandwidth is shared among devices connected to the same network; this means activities like streaming video content or downloading large files can use a large amount of bandwidth and slow down connections for other devices on the network.
How bandwidth works
The more bandwidth a data connection has, the more data it can send and receive at one time. Bandwidth can be compared to the amount of water that can flow through a water pipe. The bigger the pipe, the more water can flow through it at one time.
So, the higher the capacity of the communication link, or pipe, the more data can flow through it per second
How much bandwidth do I need?
If you have multiple devices and several family members on them at the same time, you’ll need more bandwidth to keep up. Streaming, gaming and other high-capacity activities demand a certain amount of bandwidth speed to get the best experience without a lot of buffering or lag. And the more bandwidth your internet provider is able to deliver, the faster you’ll get to do your thing
Bandwidth vs. speed
Although bandwidth and speed are closely related and often used interchangeably, there are some key differences to highlight between the two concepts:
• Bandwidth describes the volume of data that can be transferred at a given time.
• Speed describes the length of time it takes for data to be transferred.
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Forensic toxicology – a toxicological investigation
Toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of drugs and chemicals on biological systems. Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology, and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. It is defined as the determination of drug use, poisoning, or exposure to toxic substances as part of a legal investigation. It is a multidisciplinary field involving the detection and interpretation of the presence of drugs and other potentially toxic compounds in bodily tissues and fluids. These investigations begin with the fundamental and critical requirement of the acquisition of an appropriate specimen.
Forensic toxicology is an extensive science that integrates principles and practices about toxicology and legal aspects, which occur in conjunction with medicolegal instances as with homicide, suicide, road traffic, and other types of accident and/or disasters.
The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilized, but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results. The discipline continues to flourish as a result of the human fascination with poisons, their effects on living organisms, detection in human remains, and the role of toxicology in judicial proceedings. Toxicological analysis can be done on various kinds of samples. Postmortem toxicology, forensic drug testing, and human performance toxicology are the three major subdivisions of the discipline at the present time.
Forensic toxicologists perform scientific tests on bodily fluids and tissue samples to identify any drugs or chemicals present in the body. A forensic toxicologist must consider the context of an investigation, in particular, any physical symptoms recorded, and any evidence collected at a crime scene that may narrow the search, such as pill bottles, powders, trace residue, and any available chemicals. The forensic toxicologists must be familiar with a wide range of chemical substances and utilize knowledge from other basic science disciplines and the cooperation of other professionals to answer questions related to deaths, sicknesses, or any areas where poison or drug is suspected.
Determining the substance ingested is often complicated by the body’s natural processes, as it is rare for a chemical to remain in its original form once in the body. Postmortem forensic toxicology involves analyzing body fluids and organs from death cases and interpreting that information. Forensic toxicology concerns the analysis of biological specimens for the presence and, often, the concentration of drugs and poisons. Nowadays, the practitioners of forensic toxicology science have to deal with three chief sections, namely: postmortem, drug testing, and human performance forensic toxicology. |
Ways to Improve Your Text Understanding And Memory Constructions Through Pragmatic Inferences
Editor's Review: 3.2 / 5.0
Close connections are an long lasting kind of emotionally, mentally and spiritually http://email-brides.org fulfilling interpersonal relationships. Most of the time, they’re defined as those just where one individual offers extremely close, intense, close bonds with another person. Generally, a close romantic relationship can be more solid than platonic or casual connections.
However , close romantic relationships need extraordinary conditions to flourish. They require adequate space, flexibility, arrangement on shared values and interests, reverence and an effective communication system between each. It is not enough if you like nearness. Your close relationship must be deep and meaningful inside the walls of friendship. Once we speak of close relationships, intimacy plays an important function. That’s why close relationships sometimes develop into interdependent ones.
Psychologists distinguish several major sorts of emotional associations: emotionally interdependent, economically interdependent, pragmatically interdependent and reciprocally interdependent. Psychologically interdependent refers to a marriage in which every partner relies on the additional for psychological support and comfort. Financially interdependent relationships need shared financial resources and involve a form of reciprocity so that each partner supports the other through their own needs and choices.
Practically speaking, a close relationship needs to fulfill four key mindset needs: passion, friendship, security and determination. The term allure encompasses a selection of romantic encounters that include affectionate love, passion, dating and marriage. Recently, the term “romantic” have been used to seek advice from any romantic experience, including sexual and non-sexual.
Close relationships provide you with a highly effective platform designed for healthy self-expression and growth. This takes place both during and after the partnership development stage. As said previously mentioned, most associations develop through romantic take pleasure in. However , participants in these interactions differ in their level of closeness with their loving partners. A lot of participants will be close, while others are not.
Individuals suggest that the degree of intimacy together with the partner leads to the success of a relationship. With adequate conversation and memory space structures set up, it is simpler for people to share feelings and thoughts. With enough time and space, romances can evolve to heightened stages. At the end of the day, however , people choose their associates based on appeal, youth, physical looks or any other qualifying criterion. So the degree of closeness that the person acquires throughout the marriage, whether it is normally romantic familial, friendly or sexual, will certainly influence the amount of bonding and, therefore , the degree to which they develops good relationships.
You need to be aware of their personal style. The way that they communicate plus the manner in which they work may have a big impact how they connect to others. It is necessary for people to consider a moment to consider how language understanding, memory buildings and functional skills happen to be linked. Persons so, who communicate in a clear and pragmatic fashion will most likely expand up to do well and healthy and balanced, while individuals who muddle through in an uncertain and suspect way could find themselves jammed in connections where they may have little or no important conversation.
Finally, people need to consider how terminology understanding, random access memory structures and interpersonal skills are associated. In particular, people need to focus on their inference processes. All who have poor inferences often do pay attention to that they are inferring. However , if they get time to know the way they infer and work with improving their inference functions, they will gradually learn how to converse in a way that the connection among what they are stating and the source text they have read.
Additionally there is a link between the length of time somebody spends over a task and how well they retain the conclusions. People who spend too much period working on 1 task will not be as good in working on pursuing tasks mainly because they have already recently been absorbed in the information from that task. However, those who use less time working on a job will also contain a harder time retaining all their later text-based inferences, because they haven’t spent as much time on gathering it.
Inference is a difficult process. As mentioned above, an inhaler will have to consider how they infer and how they retail outlet this information. This can be in part created by the individual’s style and exactly how they communicate. However , it might be important for the close relationship to be thought of. When an specific uses way too many inferences and tends to spend too much time built in, they will obstruct their performance on different tasks and inhibit their ability to improve their text understanding and reminiscence structures.
General, then, those with a better random access memory structure and better word symbolism are able to carry out better on tasks. By choosing those with identical word meanings, such as alternatives, the close romance is taken care of, and the two can work more closely at the same time. Yet , if an individual continues to work with too many sensible inferences, they could find that their text understanding and random access memory structures are negatively afflicted, even if they will continue to use just minimal practical inferences.
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Love And Sadism In Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights
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“Wuthering Heights” was written in Victorian Age when the literary trend was in concerned with the urban life. The novel was much discussed in the literary circles and was appreciated for its extraordinary themes. Bronte’s work neither belongs to the gothic tradition or to the anterior romantic and nor it was a product of the age. This paper will offer a complete analysis on Emily Bronte’s novel “Wuthering Heights” throwing light upon the extraordinary sadism which underlines Bronte’s view on emotional relationships and also the significance of her preoccupation with infanticide. The novel is full of ghost and spirits from the beginning to the end. The ghost of Heathcliff’s beloved Catherine repeatedly seeks to visit him. The class distinction of the characters…show more content…
We further see how Emily’s Bronte’s poems like the Emperor Julius and his apparently fatal love for Rosina Alcon’s helped her to construct a character like Heathcliff and Catherine and their fatal love. There are some versions of Julius story connected with the novel “Wuthering Heights”. The dark and evil fate for a child, tragic and prophesy are the themes of the novel. The elements in all of Emily’s poetry which throw light on the genesis of “Wuthering Heights”, the poems about a doomed child show that the child grows up into a character like Heathcliff. Her imaginary created this personage world and by the building up of careers full of passionate intensity, Emily was unconsciously preparing herself for the writing of this novel. Images of the novel such as stormy, rainy weather and blood from wrists evoked a wide range of connotations, such stories contributes one dimension. Rain and thunderstorm typically accompany the disappearance and appearance of the evil in Faustian tales, and also in the following night when Heathcliff’s disappears from Wuthering Heights, a particularly violent
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The skinny on a newborn’s weight: Getting your facts straight before overreacting
Worried your baby is losing weight too soon after birth? Before you start worrying about him or her drinking too little or being sick, here are some facts about newborns’ weights.
When babies are “in utero,” it’s practically like they’re living underwater. At birth, they enter extra-uterine life, causing them to lose a certain amount of water through breathing, sweating, evaporation, perspiration and urination.
Babies under stress (e.g. separation, sensory deprivation, inadequate hygiene, long periods between feedings, etc.) lose more water at a quicker pace. When this happens, they also lose heat and energy, which means their weight could also go down too much or too quickly.
Typical birth weight
Normally, birth weight = the baby’s weight + his or her meconium level + the excess water that he or she will expel. Thus, it’s important to understand that your baby might lose weight during the first few days without necessarily being in any kind of danger.
How does one go about reducing stress, water and weight loss?
• Skin-to-skin contact
• Being held
• Closeness
• Proper hygiene
• Wearing a bonnet
• Avoiding dry air
• Avoiding drafts
• Breastfeeding when he or she wakes up
Further context
Most full-term babies (born between 37–42 weeks) weigh somewhere between 5.5–9.5 pounds (2,500–4,300 grams).
During the first few days after birth, your baby can lose up to 10% of his or her weight, which is normal. In addition to expelling meconium and losing water, he or she will also only be drinking a small quantity of milk at a time. If your baby was born at term and healthy, he or she will get back to birth weight within 2–3 weeks.
All babies have their own growth rates and develop in spurts. Premature babies, however, generally have slower growth rates, but will catch up with those born at term by five years old. Also remember that breastfed babies and those fed with formula will not develop in the same way.
Here are some reference points to help you check if your baby is gaining the right amount weight:
• 1 kg (2.2 lb.) per month from 0–3 months
• 500 g (1 lb.) per month from 4–6 months
• 250 g (1/2 lb.) per month from 7–12 months
• Your baby will then gain 4–5 lb. (1.8–2.3 kg) during his or her first and second years of life. Most babies (premature notwithstanding) double their birth weight at four or five months old, and triple it by their first birthday.
You can find these weight references in From Tiny Tot to Toddler, a little handbook issued by hospitals and doctors in Quebec. It’s also worth noting that scales for weighing newborns are available at many pharmacies.
Weight is an important way of ensuring that your baby is healthy, but there are other signs, such as urine, stool and wakefulness. If you’re anxious about your baby’s weight, consult a nurse, but don’t declare that the sky is falling just yet because weight is not the only important factor to consider.
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Blackfriars Bridge c. 1880
Blackfriars Bridge
Blackfriars - London's oldest bridge was officially opened on September 27, 1875. Assembled on the site, the prefabricated bridge was built by the Wrought Iron Bridge Company of Canton, Ohio. Upon completion, the strength of the bridge was tested using ten teams of oxen to pull forty tons of gravel across the span. This aesthetically pleasing bridge has engaged the attention of historians, artists and photographers. Tucked away in a serene area, Blackfriars bridge is a London treasure. The 212 foot bridge arches across the Thames River connecting the north end of Ridout Street with Blackfriars Street. The pathways and parks along the river have encouraged activity in the area and citizens continue to enjoy this piece of London's heritage. It is believed to be the oldest wrought iron bridge still used by vehicles in North America. |
Home > Pets, Toys & Play > Cat Safety for Babies and Children
Cat Safety for Babies and Children
By: Rachel Newcombe - Updated: 19 Apr 2015 | comments*Discuss
Cat Kitten Train Training Home House
If you've currently got a cat and are soon to have a new baby in the family, or if you're thinking of getting a pet, it's important to consider how babies and cats will interact. Many families with cats have no problems at all, but from a safety point of view, do babies and young children get on with cats?
Change in Behaviour
When you've had a cat for a while, suddenly introducing a new member of the family, in the form of a tiny baby, can be unsettling to their normal routine. After all, they're a part of the family, too. Introducing A New Baby To Your Pet Dog can be a relatively simple affair, but cats seem to be more resistant and there have been a small number of incidences where cats have accidentally smothered a baby by sleeping in the pram.
Cats are very sensitive animals and they're territorial, so a new baby in their space upsets what their routine. There are new smells and sounds, people will be spending more time in the house, and the cat may not be allowed in certain rooms anymore.
Some cats react by retreating off on their own, disappearing outside, into a quiet room or a quiet space they can find. Other cats act a bit stroppy, insisting on trying to get into the rooms they've always used! Some cats may start excessively grooming themselves and may also reassert their rights by changing from facial gland marking to urine spraying - not pleasant with a baby around.
How to Minimise Disruption
To minimise disruption for your cat, it's helpful to prepare for the new arrival in advance. For example:
• Get the cat used to not going in certain rooms, for example where the nursery will be.
• Set aside one room where you can play with the cat and have quality time with it, away from the baby. Start doing this before the baby arrives, to get your cat used to it.
• Many cats dislike the sound of crying babies. As crying is likely to become the norm in your house, you'll need to get your cat used to it. Try playing a CD of crying, while stroking your cat and comforting him.
• Teach the cat not to sit in the pram.
• If you haven't already got one, consider buying the cat a climbing centre, perhaps with a box at the top, so the cat is kept amused and has somewhere to jump up into if he feels the need to hide away.
Bringing Baby Home
When you first bring your baby home, be aware of your cat's needs and feelings. Don't constantly remove the cat from the room, but be happy for him to watch and observe the new situation. Include your cat in what's going on by talking to him or giving him a treat.
Treats for cats work well when you're feeding your baby, as it keeps the cat happy and lets him know you're thinking of him, too. If the cat tries to crawl on your lap when you're feeding, firmly remove him and encourage him to sit next to you instead.
Pram safety and cot safety is important and you may find a cat net beneficial. Cats love warm areas and prams and cots can seem appealing! But on rare occasions cats have been known to suffocate babies if they get in on top of them, so discourage your cat from climbing into the pram or cot.
Health-wise, cats are generally safe to have around. Children can get flea bites, so it's important to keep your cat flea-free. And remember to have basic hygiene rules, like not letting your cat lick your baby's face.
Buying a Cat
If you're thinking of Buying A Pet and already have a family, then it's still important to ensure that your new cat gets on with your children. Before you go ahead and buy a cat, check:
• The cat has no record of aggression.
• Whether the cat is known not to get on with children.
• If it's a kitten, consider the practicalities of training it.
First impressions are important and could indicate how well your children will get on with the cat, so taking them to see it before you make a final decision is really helpful. If your children don't feel comfortable with the cat, shy away from it or won't go near it, then you'll have to think again. Likewise, if the cat seems to react badly to your children, it may not be the right cat for you.
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[Add a Comment]
Cat DO steal babies breath!It is intentional , they are not cuddling and they are not sniffing milk. ! They align their nose against the babies nose and hold babies mouth closed with their chin. !Then they inhale very rapidly . I have witnessed it with my son , it was very scary. Rachel Newcombknows nothing !
Ray - 19-Apr-15 @ 7:17 PM
We have a six year old cat, who isn't aggressive but is nervous.She is a semi house cat but she runs away from my friends' children and won't come indoors.We have not been parents before butare adopting a child next year probably between 3-6 years old.Obviously this is a different situation to introducing a new baby. Any tips about how to keep both of them safe? I am really worried that my cat willleave and never come back or the child will react badly because they can't make friends. Any ideas about what I can do to prepare for both of them?
Cat - 17-May-13 @ 10:41 AM
Hi I have a 7month old boy and have just brought a 6 week old kitten. by my baby keep sneezing since the kitten has been here Does this mean he is aallergic to cats ?
sanj - 4-Sep-12 @ 8:51 AM
I agree entirely with the previous post. We have a two month old and have had a cat for three years. We have had absolutely no issues at all. For the first few days, the cat was rather afraid but she soon got used to the new arrival and since then she has simply ignored her other than the odd gentle approach to sniff the air around her. It is probably more difficult when the child is older as inevitably children do not understand cats' sensitivity. With a new baby though, I find the idea that a cat will hurt it to be scaremongering. Too many cats are sent to animal charities once a new baby is about to appear and it is very unfair on the cat. In fact, I believe that cats have a natural understanding of what babies are and they leave them alone. I would not leave a cat and a baby in the same room just in case since cats are, after all, wild creatures inside. My caution is only because young cats have a tendency to run around like idiots on occasions and I don't want to risk her clumsily landing on top of the baby during her play hunts. I doubt she would though.
tom - 29-Jun-12 @ 2:27 PM
Generally cats and babies get along without any problems, even cats who are used to being the centre of attention. And don't believe the old myth about cars smothering babies when they're in their prams, it's simply not true, just an old wives' tale. The reality is that cats will keep their distance from the baby for quite a while. Once the baby is crawling, the cat will also keep away at first. Do watch the baby. If it pulls the cat's tail, the animal will react, sometimes with its claws.
Lila - 6-Jun-12 @ 11:30 AM
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The Benefits Of Mental Health Awareness
Mental health consists of our emotional, psychological as well as social well-being. Mental health relates to how we think, how we feel, and even how we act. To some extent, mental health can also determine how you handle your anxiety, stress, how you relate to other people, and also the decisions that you make. Mental health is very vital at each stage of life. This can vary from childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Some of the things that are affected include mood, behavior, and thinking. Some of the things that result in mental health problems include genes, brain chemistry, experiences in life like trauma and abuse, history in your family of having psychological issues. Besides these problems, mental health problems can be treated just like any other disease, and in case your friend or family is suffering from the same, you should advise them to see a doctor. This way, they may recover.
Most people have created mental health awareness programs Washington dc to ensure that people are aware of it and that they know that it can be treated. Mental health disorder is not something to be ashamed of, and if you have the same, you should come forward, be entertained, and recover from the same.
The general perception of mental health awareness programs Washington dc has improved over the years. However, stigma against the illness is still very powerful. This comes from the media, stereotypes, and also lack information.
Several things should be done in mental health awareness to help those in need. One, ensure that you show respect to the victims and also show acceptance. This is by getting rid of the barrier so that one can successfully cope with the illness. Allow individuals to feel healthy, loved, and this will create a significant impact on their lives.
It would help if you also advocated within your circles of influence. Make your peers aware of mental health, and this will help them change how they treat people. Having education about the same will eliminate ignorance. You can teach your church members, schoolmates, and the community at large.
You should also ensure that you learn more about mental health. Get more information online about the same. You can also read books about mental health. This will give you knowledge that can help you and your community.
You can also create movements that contribute to creating awareness of mental health. Companies and organizations should come together, unite, and develop organizations that campaign towards mental health awareness. If they do not have should enough funds, they can come up with fundraising and come up with the money that can help them spread the word. They can organize events, give out fliers to people with information about mental health. The organization can also print t-shirts with their contacts so that they can give information to any victim who would need services. They can also create counseling centers whereby an individual with mental health illness can go and get advice on how to understand and recover from the same.
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stop distracted driving
Taekyoung L
In modern day society, distracted and reckless driving cost lives. In order to save people from distracted and reckless driving, a solution is needed. That solution can be supporting the development of autonomous vehicles. Most distracted and reckless driving are caused by humans. People drive a vehicle to get to work those people get distracted due to many factors such as radio in the vehicle, flashy signs out in the streets, their smartphones, etc. Then the distracted drivers will not able to acknowledge their surroundings which then causes accidents. In order to prevent such accidents, distractions must be removed; however, removing distraction is close to impossible since humans cannot focus without being distracted. Therefore, by removing human-operated vehicles, accidents that cause by distracted driving can be prevented. Same can be done to reckless driving.
I have described the possibility of removing human-operated vehicles in order to prevent accidents caused by distracted and reckless driving. |
Western sandpiper
The western sandpiper (Calidris mauri) is a small shorebird. The genus name is from Ancient Greek kalidris or skalidris, a term used by Aristotle for some grey-coloured waterside birds. The specific mauri commemorates Italian botanist Ernesto Mauri (1791–1836).[2]
Western sandpiper
Western Sandpiper.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Charadriiformes
Family: Scolopacidae
Genus: Calidris
C. mauri
Binomial name
Calidris mauri
(Cabanis, 1857)
Calidris mauri map.svg
Ereunetes mauri
Erolia mauri
This is one of the most abundant shorebird species in North America, with a population in the millions.
Adults have dark legs and a short, thin, dark bill, thinner at the tip. The body is brown on top and white underneath. They are reddish-brown on the crown. This bird can be difficult to distinguish from other similar tiny shorebirds, especially the semipalmated sandpiper. This is particularly the case in winter plumage, when both species are plain gray. The western sandpiper acquires winter plumage much earlier in the autumn than the semipalmated sandpiper.
• Weight: 0.8-1.2 oz (22-35 g)
• Wingspan: 13.8-14.6 in (35-37 cm)
Their breeding habitat is tundra in eastern Siberia and Alaska. They nest on the ground usually under some vegetation. The male makes several scrapes; the female selects one and lays 4 eggs. Both parents incubate and care for dependent young, who feed themselves. Sometimes the female deserts her mate and brood prior to offspring fledging.
They migrate to both coasts of North America and South America, as well as the Caribbean. It is a very rare vagrant to western Europe.
These birds forage on mudflats during migration and the non-breeding season by probing or picking up food by sight. Foraging occurs on tundra and wet meadows during the breeding season. They mainly eat insects, small crustaceans, and mollusks.
1. ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Calidris mauri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2013.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
2. ^ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 84, 243. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
3. ^ "Western Sandpiper Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2020-09-27.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Republican form of government)
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Forms of government.svg
Systems of government
Republican forms of government:
Presidential republics with an executive presidency separate from the legislature
Semi-presidential system with both an executive presidency and a separate head of government that leads the rest of the executive, who is appointed by the president and accountable to the legislature
Parliamentary republics with a ceremonial and non-executive president, where a separate head of government leads the executive and is dependent on the confidence of the legislature
Republics in which a combined head of state and government is elected by, or nominated by, the legislature and may or may not be subject to parliamentary confidence
Monarchical forms of government:
Constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial and non-executive monarch, where a separate head of government leads the executive
Semi-constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial monarch, but where royalty still hold significant executive or legislative power
Absolute monarchies where the monarch leads the executive
One-party states (in principle republics)
Countries which do not fit any of the above systems (e.g. transitional government or unclear political situations)
A republic (Latin: res publica, meaning "public affair") is a form of government in which "power is held by the people and their elected representatives".[1] In republics, the country is considered a "public matter", not the private concern or property of the rulers. The primary positions of power within a republic are attained through democracy or a mix of democracy with oligarchy or autocracy rather than being unalterably occupied by any given family lineage or group. With modern republicanism, it has become the opposing form of government to a monarchy and therefore a modern republic has no monarch as head of state.[2][3][4]
The word republic comes from the Latin term res publica, which literally means "public thing", "public matter", or "public affair" and was used to refer to the state as a whole. The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 BC to the establishment of the Empire in 27 BC. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority.
Most often a republic is a single sovereign state, but there are also sub-sovereign state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as "republican" in nature. For instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government".[5] Another example is the Soviet Union which described itself as being a group of "Soviet Socialist Republics", in reference to the 15 individually federal, multinational, top-level subdivisions or republics. The Russian Federation is a state that is composed partly of several republics.
Classical republics[edit]
A map of the Roman Republic
The modern type of "republic" itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world.[15][16] Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the classical era that are today still called republics. This includes ancient Athens and the Roman Republic. While the structure and governance of these states was different from that of any modern republic, there is debate about the extent to which classical, medieval, and modern republics form a historical continuum. J. G. A. Pocock has argued that a distinct republican tradition stretches from the classical world to the present.[10][17] Other scholars disagree.[10] Paul Rahe, for instance, argues that the classical republics had a form of government with few links to those in any modern country.[18]
The political philosophy of the classical republics has in any case had an influence on republican thought throughout the subsequent centuries. Philosophers and politicians advocating republics, such as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Adams, and Madison, relied heavily on classical Greek and Roman sources which described various types of regimes.
Other ancient republics[edit]
The term "republic" is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city-states, especially if outside Europe and the area which was under Graeco-Roman influence.[10] However some early states outside Europe had governments that are sometimes today considered similar to republics.
In the ancient Near East, a number of cities of the Eastern Mediterranean achieved collective rule. Arwad has been cited as one of the earliest known examples of a republic, in which the people, rather than a monarch, are described as sovereign.[19][unreliable source?] The Israelite confederation of the era of the Judges[20] before the United Monarchy has also been considered a type of republic.[10][21][22] In Africa the Axum Empire was organized as a confederation ruled similarly to a royal republic.[23] Similarly the Igbo nation in what is now Nigeria.[24]
Indian subcontinent[edit]
Early republican institutions comes from the independent Gaṇa sanghas - gana means "tribe" and sangha means "assembly" - which may have existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century in India. The evidence for this is scattered, however, and no pure historical source exists for that period. Diodorus, a Greek historian who wrote two centuries after the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of India (now Pakistan and northwest India) mentions, without offering any detail, that independent and democratic states existed in India.[25] Modern scholars note the word democracy at the time of the 3rd century BC and later suffered from degradation and could mean any autonomous state, no matter how oligarchic in nature.[26][27]
The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of the era, there were also a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India. Among the Mahajanapadas and smaller states, the Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallas, and Licchavis followed republican government.
Key characteristics of the gana seem to include a monarch, usually known by the name raja, and a deliberative assembly. The assembly met regularly. It discussed all major state decisions. At least in some states, attendance was open to all free men. This body also had full financial, administrative, and judicial authority. Other officers, who rarely receive any mention, obeyed the decisions of the assembly. Elected by the gana, the monarch apparently always belonged to a family of the noble class of Kshatriya Varna. The monarch coordinated his activities with the assembly; in some states, he did so with a council of other nobles.[28] The Licchavis had a primary governing body of 7,077 rajas, the heads of the most important families. On the other hand, the Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallas, and Licchavis, during the period around Gautama Buddha, had the assembly open to all men, rich and poor.[29] Early "republics" or gaṇa sangha,[30] such as Mallas, centered in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajji (or Vriji) confederation, centered in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century AD.[31] The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.[32] The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
Scholars differ over how best to describe these governments, and the vague, sporadic quality of the evidence allows for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus on the upper-class domination of the leadership and possible control of the assembly and see an oligarchy or an aristocracy.[33][34] Despite the assembly's obvious power, it has not yet been established whether the composition and participation were truly popular. This is reflected in the Arthashastra, an ancient handbook for monarchs on how to rule efficiently. It contains a chapter on how to deal with the sanghas, which includes injunctions on manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention how to influence the mass of the citizens, indicating that the "Gaṇa sanghas" are more of an aristocratic rule, or oligarchic republic, than "democracy".[35]
Icelandic Commonwealth[edit]
Mercantile republics[edit]
Two Russian cities with a powerful merchant class—Novgorod and Pskov—also adopted republican forms of government in 12th and 13th centuries, respectively, which ended when the republics were conquered by Muscovy/Russia at the end of 15th – beginning of 16th century.[38]
Mercantile republics outside Europe[edit]
Calvinist republics[edit]
Liberal republics[edit]
Liberal republics in early modern Europe
An allegory of the French Republic in Paris
Septinsular Republic flag from the early 1800s
Along with these initial republican revolts, early modern Europe also saw a great increase in monarchical power. The era of absolute monarchy replaced the limited and decentralized monarchies that had existed in most of the Middle Ages. It also saw a reaction against the total control of the monarch as a series of writers created the ideology known as liberalism.
Europe 1815 monarchies versus republics.png Europe 1914 monarchies versus republics.png Europe 1930 monarchies versus republics.png Europe 1950 monarchies versus republics.png Europe 2015 monarchies versus republics.png
European states in 1815[45]
Monarchies (55)
Republics (9)
European states in 1914[46]
Monarchies (22)
Republics (4)
European states in 1930[47]
Monarchies (20)
Republics (15)
European states in 1950[48]
Monarchies (13)
Republics (21)
European states in 2015[49]
Monarchies (12)
Republics (35)
Honoré DaumierThe Republic (1848), a symbolic representation of the French Second Republic. Oil on canvas, 73 x 60 cm., The Louvre, Paris
A map of the Commonwealth republics
Socialist republics[edit]
Islamic republics[edit]
Head of state[edit]
In other states the legislature is dominant and the presidential role is almost purely ceremonial and apolitical, such as in Germany, India, and Trinidad and Tobago. These states are parliamentary republics and operate similarly to constitutional monarchies with parliamentary systems where the power of the monarch is also greatly circumscribed. In parliamentary systems the head of government, most often titled prime minister, exercises the most real political power. Semi-presidential systems have a president as an active head of state with important powers, but they also have a prime minister as a head of government with important powers.
In some countries, like Bosnia and Herzegovina, San Marino, and Switzerland, the head of state is not a single person but a committee (council) of several persons holding that office. The Roman Republic had two consuls, elected for a one-year term by the comitia centuriata, consisting of all adult, freeborn males who could prove citizenship.
Sub-national republics[edit]
Flag of the US state of California, a sub-national entity.
In the example of the United States, the original 13 British colonies became independent states after the American Revolution, each having a republican form of government. These independent states initially formed a loose confederation called the United States and then later formed the current United States by ratifying the current U.S. Constitution, creating a union that was a republic. Any state joining the union later was also required to be a republic.
Other meanings[edit]
Political philosophy[edit]
United States[edit]
A distinct set of definitions of the term "republic" evolved in the United States, where the term is often equated with "representative democracy." This narrower understanding of the term was originally developed by James Madison[citation needed] and notably employed in Federalist Paper No. 10. This meaning was widely adopted early in the history of the United States, including in Noah Webster's dictionary of 1828.[citation needed] It was a novel meaning to the term; representative democracy was not an idea mentioned by Machiavelli and did not exist in the classical republics.[63] There is also evidence that contemporaries of Madison considered the meaning of "republic" to reflect the broader definition found elsewhere, as is the case with a quotation of Benjamin Franklin taken from the notes of James McHenry where the question is put forth, "a Republic or a Monarchy?".[64]
Beyond these basic definitions, the word republic has a number of other connotations. W. Paul Adams observes that republic is most often used in the United States as a synonym for "state" or "government," but with more positive connotations than either of those terms.[67] Republicanism is often referred to as the founding ideology of the United States.[citation needed] Traditionally scholars believed this American republicanism was a derivation of the classical liberal ideologies of John Locke and others developed in Europe.[citation needed]
A political philosophy of republicanism that formed during the Renaissance period and initiated by Machiavelli was thought to have had little impact on the founders of the United States.[citation needed] In the 1960s and 1970s, a revisionist school[citation needed] led by the likes of Bernard Bailyn began to argue that republicanism was just as or even more important than liberalism in the creation of the United States.[68] This issue is still much disputed and scholars like Isaac Kramnick completely reject this view.[69]
See also[edit]
1. ^ "Republic | Definition of Republic by Oxford Dictionary on also meaning of Republic". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 2021-01-14.
5. ^ "Transcript of the Constitution of the United States – Official Text". 2015-10-30.
6. ^ "Republic". Merriam Webster. Merrium-Webster Inc. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
8. ^ "Republic |". Retrieved 2018-10-20.
13. ^ Everdell (2000) p. xxiii.
14. ^ "Encyclopedia Britannica".
20. ^ Clarke, Adam (1825). "PREFACE To The BOOK OF JUDGES". The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments: The Text Printed from the Most Correct Copies of the Present Authorized Translation Including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts with a Commentary and Critical Notes Designed as a Help to a Better Understanding of the Sacred Writings. 2. New-York: N. Bangs and J. Emory. p. 3. Retrieved 10 June 2019. The persons called Judges [...] were the heads or chiefs of the Israelites who governed the Hebrew Republic from the days of Moses and Joshua, till the time of Saul.
21. ^ Everdell, William Romeyn (1983). "Samuel and Solon: The Origins of the Republic in Tribalism". The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans (2 ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press (published 2000). p. 18. ISBN 9780226224824. Retrieved 10 June 2019. [...] Samuel [...] has the distinction of being the first self-conscious republican in his society of whom we have nearly contemporary written record and of whose actual existence we can be reasonably sure.
22. ^ a b Everdell (2000)
23. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Aksum".
24. ^ "Concepts of Democracy and Democratization in Africa Revisited". Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Kent State University Symposium on Democracy by Apollos O. Nwauwa.
25. ^ Diodorus 2.39
26. ^ Larsen, 1973, pp. 45–46
27. ^ de Sainte, 2006, pp. 321–3
28. ^ Robinson, 1997, p. 22
29. ^ Robinson, 1997, p. 23
30. ^ Thapar, Romila (2002). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California. pp. 146–150. ISBN 9780520242258. Retrieved 28 October 2013.
32. ^ Republics in ancient India. Brill Archive. pp. 93–. GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0.
33. ^ Bongard-Levin, 1996, pp. 61–106
34. ^ Sharma 1968, pp. 109–22
35. ^ Trautmann T. R., Kautilya and the Arthashastra, Leiden 1971
39. ^ Finer, pp. 955–956.
52. ^ OED, s. v.
54. ^ Article VII, Constitution of the United States
56. ^ Petrocelli, William (10 November 2016). "Voters In Wyoming Have 3.6 Times The Voting Power That I Have. It's Time To End The Electoral College".
63. ^ Everdell (2000) p. 6
Further reading[edit]
• Willi Paul Adams, "Republicanism in Political Rhetoric before 1776", Political Science Quarterly 85(1970), pp. 397–421.
• Joyce Appleby, "Republicanism in Old and New Contexts", in William & Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 43 (January, 1986), pp. 3–34.
• Joyce Appleby, ed., "Republicanism" issue of American Quarterly 37 (Fall, 1985).
• James Hankins, "Exclusivist Republicanism and the Non-Monarchical Republic", Political Theory 38.4 (August 2010), 452–82.
• J. G. A. Pocock, "Between Gog and Magog: The Republican Thesis and the Ideologia Americana", Journal of the History of Ideas 48 (1987), p. 341
• J. G. A. Pocock, "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: A Study in History and Ideology" Journal of Modern History 53 (1981)
External links[edit] |
Present vs. perfect in Spanish grammar
What’s the difference between the presente and the préterito perfecto?
In Spanish, the present (el presente) and the perfect (el pretérito perfecto) connect the past and the present, however each one does so from a different perspective. The present tense is used for repeated and continuing actions that happen at the moment of speaking, while the perfect is used when the action is completed but the time period is ongoing.
Read on to learn the difference between the present and the perfect in Spanish grammar, then put your knowledge to the test in the free online exercises.
Tengo a mi perro Lola desde hace tres años. Esta mañana hemos ido a pasear al parque. Damos tres o cuatro paseos al día. Siempre jugamos con una pelota: yo lanzo y él la trae. ¡Hasta ahora, siempre la ha encontrado!
Presente vs. Pretérito perfecto
To know when to use the present tense and when to use the perfect tense in Spanish grammar, we have to focus on two key things: the status of the action and the time markers in the sentence.
Status of the action
If the action is in progress or is still ongoing, we use the present tense. If the action has been (recently) completed, we use the perfect.
• the presente expresses actions that started in the past and are still ongoing in the present
Vivo en Madrid.I live in Madrid.
• the pretérito perfecto expresses completed past actions that appear with a present time marker
Hoy he regado las plantas.I’ve watered the plants today.
Time markers
Time markers act as signal words for the Spanish present and present perfect tenses.
• in presente, the time marker tells us how long the action has been going on, i.e., its duration
Vivo en Madrid desde 2019.I’ve been living in Madrid since 2020
• in pretérito perfecto, we use time markers that began in the past but include the present
Esta mañana he regado las plantas.I’ve watered the plants this morning.
Signal words for presente and pretérito perfecto
Presente Pretérito perfecto
desde + date
desde hace + time period
hace + time period + que
esta mañana/semana/verano …
hace + time period
aún no
siempre and nunca
Like in English, the time markers siemprealways and nuncanever can be used with the both the present tense and the perfect tense. The meaning changes depending on the tense.
Siempre ayudas a los demás.You always help others.
siempre = all the time
Siempre has vivido en ciudades de costa.You’ve always lived in coastal cities.
siempre = at every time up until now
Nunca hablas de tus sentimientos.You never talk about your feelings.
nunca = not at all
Nunca has probado el picante.You’ve never tried the spicy one.
nunca = not at any time in the past up until now |
Education and support groups help carers of people with severe mental illness
This systematic review found that carer-focused interventions can improve the experience of caring, carer quality of life and reduce psychological distress in those caring for people with severe mental illness in the community. Psychoeducationand support group style interventions delivered by health and social care services led to improvements in carer outcomes such as how positively they rated their experience of caregiving. Current guidelines in the UK suggest that interventions for carers should be considered as part of integrated mental health services.
Informal community based care is central to the care of many people with severe mental illness, but the support needs of their carers are often not met. This systematic review was the first to address this issue. The review could not compare directly different forms of support or comment on cost-effectiveness. This evidence was considered in the 2014 updates of NICE guidelines on psychosis and schizophrenia (CG 178), and bipolardisorder (CG 185).
Why was this study needed?
Severe mental illnesses are relatively common, with both schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder occurring during the lifetime of about one in every 100 people in the UK.
In the UK, almost half of those caring informally for people with schizophrenia spend over 32 hours per week. Caring can be a positive experience but it can also have negative consequences, such as loss of the ability to work, financial difficulties and stress. Mental health services tend to focus on the person with mental illness, but it has been established that the impact of a carer’s ability to cope is an important element in their recovery. This review aimed to investigate carer-focused interventions with the primary goal of improving carer experience and reducing carer burden. It is a reasonable assumption that improving carers’ ability to cope also enhances the quality of life for people with schizophrenia.
What did this study do?
This was a systematic review of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating interventions delivered by health and social care services to the carers of people with severe mental illness such as psychosis, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. These interventions included psychoeducation, support groups, combined psychoeducation and support groups, self-management and problem-solving bibliotherapy - therapeutic use of the written word. Due to the nature of the interventions it was not possible to ensure that the trial participants or trial personnel were unaware of which people were given which intervention. Therefore all studies were at high risk of bias, which could exaggerate the effectiveness of the interventions.
This review used robust methodology to identify relevant trials and assess their quality. Twenty-one RCTs, including 1,589 carers, were selected for the systematic review, 20 were included in the meta-analysis. Four of the RCTs were based in the UK.
What did it find?
• Evidence from eight studies (428 carers) found that psychoeducation improved the experience of caregiving more than usual care (standard mean difference (SMD) ‑1.03; 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.69 to -0.32). These effects were maintained at more than six-month follow-up. Some underlying trials were assessed as being of very low quality as there was a risk of bias from lack of blinding and selective reporting.
• Evidence from three studies (194 carers) showed that support groups greatly improved the experience of caring at the end of the intervention, compared with usual care (SMD -1.16; 95% CI -1.96 to -0.36). There was a moderate effect up to six months, but it was no longer significant at more than six-month follow up. Some underlying trials here were also assessed as very low quality.
• The other interventions were evaluated in single studies, often with a small number of carers.
• Despite the shortcomings of the evidence this review suggests that psychosocial interventions aimed at helping carers can improve their experience of caregiving, carer quality of life and decrease carer burden and psychological distress. However, this review did not provide conclusive evidence of which type of intervention was best.
What does current guidance say on this issue?
This review was conducted as part of the evidence review for the 2014 update of the NICE guideline on psychosis and schizophrenia (CG178).
This guideline reviewed the qualitative and quantitative literature on carer-focused interventions and stated that it was evident that carers require support, education and information. The NICE guidelines on psychosis and schizophrenia guideline (CG178) and on bipolar disorder (CG185) recommend that carers should be offered an assessment of their own needs provided by mental health services. If any needs are identified a care plan should be developed and shared with their GP. The guidelines also recommend providing accessible information about the mental condition as well as offering a carer-focused education and support programme as early as possible to all carers.
What are the implications?
This review highlighted the importance of assessing the experience of caregiving, levels of burden, and psychological distress in people caring for someone with severe mental illness. If carer assessment suggests the carer needs help, interventions specifically aimed at the carer should be provided as part of integrated mental health care services.
This systematic review did not find strong enough evidence to suggest which interventions are best, although very low quality evidence suggested psychoeducation and support group style interventions might work.
Only four studies were conducted in the UK, but the results were consistent across countries, so they are still relevant to the UK.
Yesufu-Udechuku A, Harrison B, Mayo-Wilson E, et al. Interventions to improve the experience of caring for people with severe mental illness: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Apr;206(4):268-74.
Andrew A, Knapp M, McCrone P, et al. Effective Interventions in schizophrenia: the economic case. London: Personal Social Services Research Unit, London School of Economics and Political Science; 2012.
Kirkbride JB, Errazuriz A, Croudace TJ, et al. Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in England, 1950-2009: a systematic review and meta-analyses. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e31660.
Mangalore R, Knapp M. Cost of schizophrenia in England. J Ment Health Policy Econ. 2007;10(1):23-41.
NICE. Psychosis and schizophrenia in adults: treatment and management. CG178. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence; 2014.
NICE. Bipolar disorder: the assessment and management of bipolar disorder in adults, children and young people in primary and secondary care. CG185. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence; 2014.
Roick C, Heider D, Bebbington PE, et al. Burden on caregivers of people with schizophrenia: comparison between Germany and Britain. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:333-8.
Royal College of Psychiatrists. Schizophrenia: key facts. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists; 2014.
Royal College of Psychiatrists. Bipolar disorder: key facts. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists; 2015.
Many relatives and other unpaid carers of people with schizophrenia are unable to work or take time off work to provide care and support. The informal care provided to people with severe mental illness saves the NHS the cost of providing similar paid care. This is estimated to be £34,000 per person with schizophrenia for providing care for five to six hours per day for a year. This translates into an aggregate cost to society of up to £1.24 billion per year.
Without the sustained assistance of informal carers, community care for severe mental illness would be unaffordable if not downright impractical. So supporting carers must be an NHS priority. But what are the evidence-based components of this support? This meta-analysis is an important step in the identification of these. Sadly, it finds that just as we have under-invested clinically in carer support, we have also under-invested in carer research. So 60 years after the start of deinstitutionalisation in the UK the best we can demonstrate are a small number of rather methodologically weak studies. Surely now is the time for concerted action to move research in this field up a gear to bring something of real benefit to carers.
Tom K J Craig, Professor of Social Psychiatry, King’s College London |
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