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c3f5ee5a2fd4c71c13f746cdc2cba8b0 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/instant-messaging | Instant messaging | Instant messaging
Instant messaging (IM), form of text-based communication in which two persons participate in a single conversation over their computers or mobile devices within an Internet-based chatroom. IM differs from “Chat,” in which the user participates in a more public real-time conversation within a chatroom... |
2684668da941b81b1b4f9463fe38e0be | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Institute-for-Social-Research | Institute for Social Research | Institute for Social Research
…of researchers associated with the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, who applied Marxism to a radical interdisciplinary social theory. The Institute for Social Research (Institut für Sozialforschung) was founded by Carl Grünberg in 1923 as an adjunct of the Univ... |
c7747a69c5da18e397d89efc7518ab7a | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Institute-of-International-Law | Institute of International Law | Institute of International Law
Institute of International Law, international organization founded in Ghent, Belgium, in 1873 to develop and implement international law as a codified science responsible for the legal morality and integrity of the civilized world. In 1904 the Institute of International Law was awarded t... |
7bf2f314378e24ea0027431b3cebe4e7 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Institutes-of-the-Christian-Religion | Institutes of the Christian Religion | Institutes of the Christian Religion
Institutes of the Christian Religion, Latin Christianae Religionis Institutio, French Institution de la Religion Chrétienne, John Calvin’s masterpiece, a summary of biblical theology that became the normative statement of the Reformed faith. It was first published in 1536 and was r... |
226ed7e128332b160d05979a09dc163e | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Institution-of-Civil-Engineers | Institution of Civil Engineers | Institution of Civil Engineers
…professions were founded, including the Institution of Civil Engineers (1818) and the Royal Institute of British Architects (1834), both in London, and the American Institute of Architects (1857). Official government licensing of architects and engineers, a goal of these societies, was n... |
77c29c5356a2117972ec5bec42b94f8f | https://www.britannica.com/topic/institutionalism | Institutionalism | Institutionalism
Institutionalism, in the social sciences, an approach that emphasizes the role of institutions.
The study of institutions has a long pedigree. It draws insights from previous work in a wide array of disciplines, including economics, political science, sociology, anthropology, and psychology. The reapp... |
6ed55983e9a2a28384f684f70b1fe037 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/instrumental-case | Instrumental case | Instrumental case
accusative, ablative, instrumental, and locative. However, many of these forms overlapped so that usually only three or four different forms existed; e.g., žam ‘time’ was both nominative and accusative, žamê was ablative, and žamu was genitive, dative, instrumental, and locative. A special form of loc... |
82cbbb8c11627b4955513ef0533e0140 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/instrumentalist-approach | Instrumentalist approach | Instrumentalist approach
…second approach, referred to as instrumentalist, was developed, which understands ethnicity as a device used by individuals and groups to unify, organize, and mobilize populations to achieve larger goals. Those goals are mostly of a political nature and include, among others, demands for self-... |
ef7604a0b74b470f3c67d8bcf83fc6a6 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Insubres | Insubres | Insubres
Insubres, the most powerful Celtic people of Gallia Cisalpina (Cisalpine Gaul), in northern Italy. Despite their defeat at Clastidium (modern Casteggio) by Roman forces in 222 bc, they continued to be troublesome and aided the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the Second Punic War (218–201 bc). The Insubres w... |
51b09d8b57309f5084aa57545ea1393e | https://www.britannica.com/topic/insurance/Contract-law | Contract law | Contract law
In general, an insurance contract must meet four conditions in order to be legally valid: it must be for a legal purpose; the parties must have a legal capacity to contract; there must be evidence of a meeting of minds between the insurer and the insured; and there must be a payment or consideration.
To me... |
14dcddba70de2e4eecc348985159cf62 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/insurance/Group-annuities | Group annuities | Group annuities
An annuity in the literal sense is a series of annual payments. More broadly it may be defined as a series of equal payments over equal intervals of time. A life annuity, a subclass of annuities in general, is one in which the payments are guaranteed for the lifetime of one or more individuals. A group ... |
2c90baa3382247606a5b718927d0a57a | https://www.britannica.com/topic/insurance/Inland-marine-insurance | Inland marine insurance | Inland marine insurance
Although there are no standard forms in inland marine insurance, most contracts follow a typical pattern. They are usually written on a named-peril basis covering such perils of transportation as collision, derailment, rising water, tornado, fire, lightning, and windstorm. The policies generally... |
a449385cc950fcb90ba6ed4382b31a33 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/insurance/Japan | Japan | Japan
Insurance in Japan is mainly in the hands of private enterprise, although government insurance agencies write crop, livestock, forest fire, fishery, export credit, accident and health, and installment sales credit insurance as well as social security. Private insurance companies are regulated under various statut... |
dbb44d2bd031f0ce583129238b815bd9 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/insurance/Rate-making | Rate making | Rate making
Closely associated with underwriting is the rate-making function. If, for example, the underwriter decides that the most important factor in discriminating between different risk characteristics is age, the rates will be differentiated according to age.
The rate is the price per unit of exposure. In fire in... |
01879c59eb397af25f36825be8071316 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/insurance/Renewability | Renewability | Renewability
An important condition of health insurance is that of renewability. Some contracts are cancelable at any time upon short notice. Others are not cancelable during the year’s term of coverage, but the insurer may refuse to renew coverage for a subsequent year or may renew only at higher rates or under restri... |
93dc9b51646daf6d28727d8989df7a6a | https://www.britannica.com/topic/insurance/Suretyship | Suretyship | Suretyship
Surety contracts are designed to protect businesses against the possible dishonesty of their employees. Surety and fidelity bonds fill the gap left by theft insurance, which always excludes losses from persons in a position of trust. A bond involves three contracting parties instead of two. The three parties... |
bf3de6e339d36dcfcf7e6759144e94f2 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Int-wonderjaar | In’t wonderjaar | In’t wonderjaar
In’t wonderjaar (1837; “In the Year of Miracles”), a series of historical scenes centred on the eventful year 1566, when the Calvinists of the Spanish Netherlands revolted against the Spanish Catholic rule. With De leeuw van Vlaanderen (1838; The Lion of Flanders), the passionate epic…
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a009fe193c77564514057ae94fbb4e48 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/intellectual-property-law | Intellectual-property law | Intellectual-property law
Intellectual-property law, the legal regulations governing an individual’s or an organization’s right to control the use or dissemination of ideas or information. Various systems of legal rules exist that empower persons and organizations to exercise such control. Copyright law confers upon t... |
6d7e9102b13a6534b2347389b8794ef8 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/intendente | Intendente | Intendente
Intendente, royal official appointed by the 18th-century kings of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. Modeled after the French intendants, the intendentes were to serve as instruments of royal centralization and administrative reform but were frequently resisted as conflicting with local privileges. In the Spanis... |
83bfbfbdae62fab376a82066f8fd03ac | https://www.britannica.com/topic/intention-criminal-law | Intention | Intention
One of the most-important general principles of criminal law is that an individual normally cannot be convicted of a crime without having intended to commit the act in question. With few exceptions, the individual does not need to know that the act itself is…
…by adults who possess criminal intent. The reason... |
f1df1a225c416d0570dd1ce24264a0e6 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/intentionality-philosophy | Intentionality | Intentionality
Intentionality, in phenomenology, the characteristic of consciousness whereby it is conscious of something—i.e., its directedness toward an object.
The concept of intentionality enables the phenomenologist to deal with the immanent-transcendent problem—i.e., the relation between what is within consciou... |
d0d5b2db60878da2d415b8e70f5dcd9c | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Inter-American-Treaty-of-Reciprocal-Assistance | Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance | Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance
…formal mutual-defense pact called the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance. By 1948, with the start of the Cold War, it had become apparent that a stronger security system was needed in the Western Hemisphere to meet the perceived threat of international communi... |
e2aa59c87f6cc3950411c9ef6d47a487 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Interest-and-Prices | Interest and Prices | Interest and Prices
In Geldzins und Güterpreise (1898; Interest and Prices, 1936) he propounded an explanation of price-level movements by an aggregate demand–supply analysis focussed on the relations between prospective profit and interest rates. This made Wicksell a forerunner of modern monetary theory and anticipate... |
f7366c03334d0e49852b45e21608018f | https://www.britannica.com/topic/interest-rate | Interest rate | Interest rate
…countries, Akerlof’s analysis explained that interest rates were often excessive because moneylenders lacked adequate information on the borrower’s creditworthiness.
” One of the oldest forms of bank regulation consists of laws restricting the rates of interest bankers are allowed to charge on loans or t... |
b389f83bc2f5d7ec4c8f40915901327e | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Interim-Agreement-on-the-West-Bank-and-Gaza-Strip | Interim Agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip | Interim Agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip
…territory as part of the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip, signed in September 1995, and the Wye River Memorandum of October 1998. The transfers, executed in stages, actually occurred more slowly than originally agreed, with a number of stages delayed ... |
fb04bd34c3d005eaba79a2165a1133ea | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Interiors | Interiors | Interiors
Allen’s next film, Interiors (1978), was a carefully crafted homage to the weighty psychodramas of Ingmar Bergman. Abjuring humour, this tale of a dysfunctional family (starring Geraldine Page, Maureen Stapleton, E.G. Marshall, Mary Beth Hurt, and Keaton) received a mixed reaction from critics, some of whom s... |
1550ed9916a07fea5553cd266cec09cd | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Baseball-Federation | International Baseball Federation | International Baseball Federation
…worldwide are represented by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF), which was formed by American Leslie Mann in 1938. The organization, headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland, has hosted a Baseball World Cup since 1938.
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2171e57dcbba0991bd59d6e79cfc7833 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Campaign-to-Ban-Landmines | International Campaign to Ban Landmines | International Campaign to Ban Landmines
International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL), international coalition of organizations in some 100 countries that was established in 1992 to ban the use, production, trade, and stockpiling of antipersonnel land mines. In 1997 the coalition was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace... |
9a20895dd8ac964642ecad7b72d5ce13 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Commission-on-Stratigraphy | International Commission on Stratigraphy | International Commission on Stratigraphy
In 2005 the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) decided to recommend keeping the Tertiary and Quaternary periods as units in the geologic time scale but only as sub-eras within the Cenozoic Era. By 2009 the larger intervals (periods and epochs) of the Cenozoic had bee... |
9d18d45746e451b94de4366074415255 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Congresses-of-Modern-Architecture | International Congresses of Modern Architecture | International Congresses of Modern Architecture
…modernist planning promulgated through the Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM), based on the ideas of art and architectural historian Siegfried Giedion, Swiss architect Le Corbusier, and the International school rooted in Germany’s Bauhaus. High-rise stru... |
804a1286b7e790cfa2e020d56d80a73c | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Council-of-Women | International Council of Women | International Council of Women
International Council of Women (ICW), organization, founded in 1888, that works with agencies around the world to promote health, peace, equality, and education.
Founded by Susan B. Anthony, May Wright Sewell, and Frances Willard, among others, the ICW held its first convention March 25–... |
843066a2f4a41c7790f029e8fade837e | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Criminal-Tribunal-for-the-Former-Yugoslavia | International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia | International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
…particularly over cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), which indicted several Croatian generals who, according to many Croats, had heroic wartime reputations.
…Yugoslavia and in Rwanda (the International Crimina... |
36a5a2c9ab0ac26ae1588acea26d33c5 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Energy-Agency | International Energy Agency | International Energy Agency
In 2010 the International Energy Agency’s (IEA’s) annual World Energy Outlook speculated that the global peak of conventional crude-oil production may have taken place in 2006, when 70 million barrels were produced per day. By contrast, the influential Cambridge Energy Research Associates (C... |
d2c6282d64831766de007846ef4fa887 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-exchange | International exchange | International exchange
exchange, international exchange also called foreign exchange, respectively, any payment made by one country to another and the market in which national currencies are bought and sold by those who require them for such payments. Countries may make payments in settlement of a trade debt,…
…operat... |
b13533ccae7097e22fb7bdf3713b2e1e | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Federation-of-Sports-Medicine | International Federation of Sports Medicine | International Federation of Sports Medicine
International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), (French: Fédération Internationale de Médecine du Sport) confederation primarily comprising national sports medicine associations from across the globe. The organization also includes continental associations, regional asso... |
5817d079d801f9ffd3a4c0fbbe3e5e30 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Gamma-Ray-Astrophysics-Laboratory | International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory | International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory
International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (Integral), European Space Agency–Russian–U.S. satellite observatory designed to study gamma rays emitted from astronomical objects. Integral was launched by Russia from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on October 17, ... |
8bacad8241d359e7d269db58e8cda9a6 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Klein-Blue | International Klein Blue | International Klein Blue
…and in 1960 he patented International Klein Blue, called IKB. In 1958, as part of a live performance, Klein choreographed female models who applied his paint to their bodies and then pressed their painted bodies on canvas or paper spread on the wall and on the floor. These “living brush”…
…in ... |
86614a0c9d31f89d20c97718151d5bac | https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law | International law | International law
International law, also called public international law or law of nations, the body of legal rules, norms, and standards that apply between sovereign states and other entities that are legally recognized as international actors. The term was coined by the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832... |
b0309da4e557930f79fa8db9b636b352 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-payment/Incomes-policy | Incomes policy | Incomes policy
Prices may rise even when aggregate demand is not in excess of the supply potential. This may be due to wage increases and other factors. Some hold that this can be dealt with through efforts to discourage excessive wage increases by a direct approach, which may consist of a propaganda campaign on the ev... |
9a3c6f134946034d6c84e15988dfc75d | https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-payment/The-IMF-system-of-parity-pegged-exchange-rates | The IMF system of parity (pegged) exchange rates | The IMF system of parity (pegged) exchange rates
When the IMF was established toward the end of World War II, it was based on a modified form of the gold standard. The system resembled the gold standard in that each country established a legal gold valuation for its currency. This valuation was registered with the Inte... |
8a00930b4c79a3ae0e77efdb6510f9b1 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Polar-Commission | International Polar Commission | International Polar Commission
…recognized in 1879 by the International Polar Commission meeting in Hamburg, Germany, and thus the 11 participating nations organized the First International Polar Year (1882–83). Most work was planned for the better-known Arctic, and, of the four geomagnetic and weather stations schedul... |
b53b34b63141cdafb26d361a5ecd9a87 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-relations/Scholarship-and-policy | Scholarship and policy | Scholarship and policy
The study of international relations has always been heavily influenced by normative considerations. In the The Twenty Years’ Crisis, Carr wrote that the “teleological aspect of the science of international politics has been conspicuous from the outset. It took its rise from a great and disastrou... |
902ec807fbd9f9a4eee3163c96832ff6 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-relations/The-postwar-ascendancy-of-realism | The postwar ascendancy of realism | The postwar ascendancy of realism
Hans J. Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations (1948) helped to meet the need for a general theoretical framework. Not only did it become one of the most extensively used textbooks in the United States and Britain—it continued to be republished over the next half century—it also was an es... |
57012eea8e525cb844b0510d9a8c18cb | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Softball-Federation | International Softball Federation | International Softball Federation
…Fédération Internationale de Softball (International Softball Federation), which was formed in 1952, acts as liaison between more than 40 softball organizations of several countries. Headquarters are in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The federation coordinates international competition and ... |
3f86c7b437976590b426b4b734b20e2e | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Space-Station | International Space Station | International Space Station
International Space Station (ISS), space station assembled in low Earth orbit largely by the United States and Russia, with assistance and components from a multinational consortium.
The project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Original... |
a87c85da44dcc1af419e486302180631 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Standard-Serial-Number | International Standard Serial Number | International Standard Serial Number
International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), in bibliography, eight-digit number that provides a concise and unambiguous identification code for serial publications. Unlike the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), this number’s only significance is its unique identification o... |
ce9bd9a59684afb0fd2a5d12cafde63a | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Tennis-Federation | International Tennis Federation | International Tennis Federation
…to rules sanctioned by the International Tennis Federation (ITF), the world governing body of the sport.
After an ITF committee had made studies of the so-called “double-strung,” or “spaghetti,” racket, introduced in 1977, which had two layers of strings that imparted topspin on the bal... |
49a3fd79d5a31f252b5fb4d0f3f07117 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Thermonuclear-Experimental-Reactor | International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor | International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
…a planned new experiment, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) to be constructed at Cadarache, France. This is a very large experiment that will investigate both the physics of an ignited plasma and reactor technology. The large cost of the device... |
454fb2a53e6c8f7c917c016a8d0b2aab | https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-trade | International trade | International trade
International trade, economic transactions that are made between countries. Among the items commonly traded are consumer goods, such as television sets and clothing; capital goods, such as machinery; and raw materials and food. Other transactions involve services, such as travel services and paymen... |
ac45236c8315c70f8b5eee1b1772d3da | https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-trade/The-European-Free-Trade-Association | The European Free Trade Association | The European Free Trade Association
The efforts that led to the creation of the EU were paralleled by another attempt to foster trade in the region. At the same time that the EEC was being organized in the 1950s, Great Britain sought to organize a free-trade area that would include 17 member countries of the Organizati... |
c416c216d7a1f74b1271bc12dec213eb | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Triathlon-Union | International Triathlon Union | International Triathlon Union
In 1989 the International Triathlon Union (ITU), the sport’s official governing body, was founded in Avignon, France, with the mission to promote the sport’s global appeal. The ITU hosts an annual World Championship.
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94a09f4382bd5a296c872464625775e0 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Union-of-Pure-and-Applied-Chemistry | International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry | International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
…at a meeting of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in Paris in 1957. Using the IUPAC system, the name for an alcohol uses the -ol suffix with the name of the parent alkane, together with a number to give the location of the hydroxyl group. Th... |
1879134f80bc11d147c95fafb9a2448e | https://www.britannica.com/topic/internationalized-domain-name | Internationalized domain name | Internationalized domain name
These internationalized domain names (IDNs) initially included Chinese, Arabic, and Cyrillic characters in addition to the long-serving Latin letters A to Z, Arabic numerals 0 to 9, and punctuation symbols such as hyphens. Eventually, IDNs will recognize almost 100,000 characters in many d... |
857a80d48f17d812ccdd6cb29740cdbf | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Internet-Society | Internet Society | Internet Society
…as founding president of the Internet Society from 1992 to 1995. In 1994 Cerf returned to MCI as a senior vice president, and from 2000 to 2007 he served as chairman of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the group that oversees the Internet’s growth and expansion.…
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23bff7b849a7da195e1b5b71f616df6f | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Interpol | Interpol | Interpol
Interpol, byname of International Criminal Police Organization, intergovernmental organization that facilitates cooperation between the criminal police forces of more than 180 countries. Interpol aims to promote the widest-possible mutual assistance between criminal police forces and to establish and develop ... |
f5f0c6bd69a5de66f3c177f44c410b78 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Interstate-Commerce-Commission | Interstate Commerce Commission | Interstate Commerce Commission
Interstate Commerce Commission, (1887–1996), the first regulatory agency established in the United States, and a prototype for independent government regulatory bodies. See regulatory agency.
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1a326519b549d6492363622d72b1ef2b | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Interstellar | Interstellar | Interstellar
…pilot in the big-screen drama Interstellar. Burstyn continued to act in movies through the rest of the decade, but most of her projects, including Lucy in the Sky (2019), received mixed reviews.
…cast of Nolan’s space drama Interstellar (2014) as a NASA scientist leading a team in search of a habitable pl... |
c345816ca36c381bb6c0afccea0f8b53 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/intervention | Intervention | Intervention
…Kosovo in 1999 or India’s intervention in East Pakistan [now Bangladesh] in 1971). Nonetheless, humanitarian interventions are deeply controversial, because they contradict the principle of nonintervention in the domestic affairs of other states.
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d6de634835b6ca336b6782da2288d5aa | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Interview-with-the-Vampire-film-by-Jordan | Interview with the Vampire | Interview with the Vampire
…Jordan the opportunity to direct Interview with the Vampire (1994), a big-budget adaptation of Anne Rice’s popular novel. He subsequently wrote and directed Michael Collins (1996), a biopic of the Irish independence leader (played by Liam Neeson); The Butcher Boy (1998), a dark comedy about ... |
87628b2f60e02a5cf64a11fb6a2930f8 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/intestate-succession | Intestate succession | Intestate succession
Intestate succession, in the law of inheritance, succession to property that has not been disposed of by a valid last will or testament. Although laws governing intestate succession vary widely in different jurisdictions, they share the common principle that the estate should devolve upon persons... |
c00cafc4ef494b715ca61d9aab8862f6 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Inti-Inca-Sun-god | Inti | Inti
Inti, also called Apu-punchau, in Inca religion, the sun god; he was believed to be the ancestor of the Incas. Inti was at the head of the state cult, and his worship was imposed throughout the Inca empire. He was usually represented in human form, his face portrayed as a gold disk from which rays and flames exte... |
0a7bfec152377117f07e3114813de87b | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Into-the-Abyss-A-Tale-of-Death-a-Tale-of-Life | Into the Abyss: A Tale of Death, a Tale of Life | Into the Abyss: A Tale of Death, a Tale of Life
…the Chauvet cave in France; Into the Abyss (2011), a sombre examination of a Texas murder case; and Lo and Behold: Reveries of the Connected World (2016), about the Internet. In Meeting Gorbachev (2018; codirected with Andre Singer), he chronicled the life of the former ... |
558cedabbffe928fe1ff93f4a7c62d25 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Intolerable-Cruelty | Intolerable Cruelty | Intolerable Cruelty
…appeared in several comedies, including Intolerable Cruelty (2003), in which she played a cunning gold digger opposite George Clooney, and The Terminal (2004), a film directed by Spielberg and featuring Tom Hanks. In 2004 she starred with Clooney, Brad Pitt, and Matt Damon in Ocean’s Twelve, a sequ... |
9dca0fdefaf24013a63a886a9344efda | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Introduction-to-the-Analysis-of-Infinities | Introduction to the Analysis of Infinities | Introduction to the Analysis of Infinities
…1748 in his great work Introductio in analysin infinitorum—although Roger Cotes already knew the formula in its inverse form øi = log (cos ø + i sin ø) in 1714. Substituting into this formula the value ø = π, one obtains eiπ = cos π + i sin π =…
In 1748, in his Introductio in... |
53be17c40064dba107b5eae551d10571 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Invasion-of-the-Body-Snatchers-film-by-Kaufman | Invasion of the Body Snatchers | Invasion of the Body Snatchers
…ventured into science fiction with Invasion of the Body Snatchers, an audacious and largely successful remake of Don Siegel’s 1956 classic. Kaufman expertly created an atmosphere of mounting dread, and the cast—which included Donald Sutherland, Brooke Adams, Leonard Nimoy, and Jeff Goldb... |
86617af9c124af7b9437db6770210f8b | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Invasion-of-the-Body-Snatchers-film-by-Siegel | Invasion of the Body Snatchers | Invasion of the Body Snatchers
Invasion of the Body Snatchers, American science-fiction film, released in 1956, that was directed by Don Siegel and has been hailed as one of the most intelligent films of the genre.
In the small California town of Santa Mira, several patients of Dr. Miles Bennell (played by Kevin McCar... |
c744f3d25c5f67ac3ba774705fdbf79c | https://www.britannica.com/topic/inventory-business | Inventory | Inventory
Inventory, in business, any item of property held in stock by a firm, including finished goods ready for sale, goods in the process of production, raw materials, and goods that will be consumed in the process of producing goods to be sold. Inventories appear on a company’s balance sheet as an asset. Inventor... |
6d578978c61abebb958f69e5ad9e57f9 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/inventory-profit | Inventory profit | Inventory profit
…is usually called the “inventory profit.” The implication is that this is a component of net income that is less “real” than other components because it results from the holding of inventories rather than from trading with customers.
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3ed92c26fccf90a6395ac9683cecf830 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Investigation-of-the-Origin-of-the-Old-Norse-or-Icelandic-Language | Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language | Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language
…eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse (1818; Investigation of the Origin of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language). It was primarily an examination and comparison of the Scandinavian languages with Latin and Greek. Rask was the first to indicate that the Cel... |
ad06f520984fa4bd8b4f82b923010bb3 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Invictus-film-by-Eastwood | Invictus | Invictus
…in the Clint Eastwood movie Invictus (2009).
Shot in Capetown, South Africa, Invictus (2009) took as its subject Pres. Nelson Mandela (Freeman) and his plan to unite his racially divided country by using the 1995 Rugby World Cup, in which South Africa’s almost all-white Springboks team, typically reviled by t... |
08dbdb40ff526f322beedc53afe6663d | https://www.britannica.com/topic/invisible-hand | Invisible hand | Invisible hand
Invisible hand, metaphor, introduced by the 18th-century Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith, that characterizes the mechanisms through which beneficial social and economic outcomes may arise from the accumulated self-interested actions of individuals, none of whom intends to bring about such ... |
12ed89e6e842d1e91683605878117312 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/invisible-trade | Invisible trade | Invisible trade
Invisible trade, in economics, the exchange of physically intangible items between countries. Invisible trade can be distinguished from visible trade, which involves the export, import, and reexport of physically tangible goods. Basic categories of invisible trade include services (receipts and payment... |
f081ba1ab0890b6c498e428b6f34f4c3 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iocaste | Iocaste | Iocaste
…about the Greek legendary figure Jocasta, the whole dance-drama takes place in the instant when Jocasta learns that she has mated with Oedipus, her own son, and has borne him children. The work treats Jocasta rather than Oedipus as the tragic victim, and shows her reliving the events of her…
…of Oedipus and hi... |
81212eb48dc2bf3fbcbe9479d22cea0d | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iola-Leroy-or-Shadows-Uplifted | Iola Leroy; or, Shadows Uplifted | Iola Leroy; or, Shadows Uplifted
Harper’s Iola Leroy; or, Shadows Uplifted (1892) attempted to counter specious notions of slavery popularized by white writers who idealized plantation life, while offering models of socially committed middle-class African Americans who exemplify the ideals of uplift that motivated much... |
b34f39802a13cda30b906e509d1b336b | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iolanthe-or-The-Peer-and-the-Peri | Iolanthe; or, The Peer and the Peri | Iolanthe; or, The Peer and the Peri
These were Iolanthe (1882), Princess Ida (1884), The Mikado; or, The Town of Titipu (1885), Ruddigore (1887), The Yeomen of the Guard (1888), and The Gondoliers (1889). The collective works of Gilbert and Sullivan became known as the “Savoy Operas.”
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c217dbb3504a890cea4ea2424f2a88d2 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ionian | Ionian | Ionian
Ionian, any member of an important eastern division of the ancient Greek people, who gave their name to a district on the western coast of Anatolia (now Turkey). The Ionian dialect of Greek was closely related to Attic and was spoken in Ionia and on many of the Aegean islands.
The Ionians are said to have migra... |
9a5f7ce45348a01a6419cb7ebe7ddf28 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ionic-alphabet | Ionic alphabet | Ionic alphabet
Ionic alphabet, most important variety of the eastern form of the ancient Greek alphabet, developed late in the 5th century bc. In 403 the Ionic alphabet used in the Anatolian city of Miletus was adopted for use in Athens, and by the middle of the 4th century the Ionic had become the common, 24-letter, ... |
5c5dc7959ede87306a17c6099db62151 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ionic-Attic | Ionic-Attic | Ionic-Attic
…the Aegean Islands and of Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor. Archilochus of Paros, of the 7th century bc, was the earliest Greek poet to employ the forms of elegy (in which the epic verse line alternated with a shorter line) and of personal lyric poetry. His work was…
…city: to what extent was Attic prose a... |
bc019af55115332bddeb047b8377c363 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iowa-people | Iowa | Iowa
Iowa, also called Ioway, North American Indian people of Siouan linguistic stock who migrated southwestward from north of the Great Lakes to the general area of what is now the state of Iowa, U.S., before European settlement of the so-called New World. The Iowa are related to the Oto and the Missouri.
Living at t... |
d0e063cd59c3e24fda139fcf967bf12b | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iphigenie-en-Aulide | Iphigénie en Aulide | Iphigénie en Aulide
…stage Gluck’s newly completed opera, Iphigénie en Aulide (the text, after Racine’s tragedy, was by François-Louis Leblanc, bailli Du Roullet); and, as Gluck had undertaken to transform the genial Italian style to the more serious opera cultivated by French composers as well as to provide six more s... |
ca97f065fbd9da9fe0f0ef3b855dd8e5 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/iqta | Iqṭāʿ | Iqṭāʿ
Iqṭāʿ, in the Islāmic empire of the Caliphate, land granted to army officials for limited periods in lieu of a regular wage. It has sometimes been erroneously compared to the fief of medieval Europe. The iqṭāʿ system was established in the 9th century ad to relieve the state treasury when insufficient tax reven... |
75bc00d230988583e0a98b2c2429ba62 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iranian-languages/Historical-survey-of-the-Iranian-languages | Historical survey of the Iranian languages | Historical survey of the Iranian languages
By the time Iranian begins to be attested in the 6th century bce, the language is already found differentiated into several distinct languages. Scholars have reconstructed the sound system and some of the grammatical features of Common Old Iranian, the protolanguage that prece... |
6966f653d4857f59b29defb6ea53a056 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iranian-languages/The-Middle-Iranian-stage | The Middle Iranian stage | The Middle Iranian stage
Middle Persian, the major form of which is called Pahlavi, was the official language of the Sāsānians (224–651 ce). The most important of the Middle Persian inscriptions is that of Shāpūr I (d. 272 ce), which has parallel versions in Parthian and Greek. Middle Persian was also the language of t... |
c2459f1db9e7547a030b4978580d0235 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iranian-languages/Writing-systems | Writing systems | Writing systems
Iranian languages have been written in many different scripts during their long history, although various forms of Aramaic script have been predominant. Modern Persian is written in Arabic script, which is of Aramaic origin. For writing the Persian sounds p, č, ž, and g, four letters have been added by ... |
267e3428f8b051c1c8ced88c320994f1 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iraq-Petroleum-Company | Iraq Petroleum Company | Iraq Petroleum Company
(later Iraq Petroleum Co.) and became the first to exploit Iraqi oil; his 5% share made him one of the world’s richest men. From 1948 he negotiated Saudi Arabian oil concessions to U.S. firms. He amassed an outstanding art collection of some 6,000 works, now in…
…the Iraqi government and the IPC ... |
4c63f4039752ecb9226bdada739e0e73 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iridium-33 | Iridium 33 | Iridium 33
…on February 10, 2009, when Iridium 33, a communications satellite owned by the American company Motorola, collided with Cosmos 2251, an inactive Russian military communications satellite, about 760 km (470 miles) above northern Siberia, shattering both satellites.
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5ba1adf3b4ace7c2446bdc43fcc7f20a | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iris-film-by-Eyre | Iris | Iris
…(1999; adapted as the film Iris [2001]). A selection of her voluminous correspondence was published as Living on Paper: Letters from Iris Murdoch, 1934–1995 (2016).
…Murdoch’s husband, John Bayley, in Iris (2001), a film that chronicled the two authors’ early lives together, their marriage, and Murdoch’s struggle... |
a5c0e63db28f560e00e40e487697b628 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Irish-Land-Acts | Irish Land Acts | Irish Land Acts
…in 1870 introduced the first Irish Land Act, which conceded the principles of secure tenure and compensation for improvements made to property.
…the House of Lords; the Irish Land Act of 1870, providing some safeguards to Irish tenant farmers; William Edward Forster’s Education Act of the same year, th... |
17f85d5d4ce2b51be8ec0bf0f56a5efb | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Irish-Times | The Irish Times | The Irish Times
…notably as a critic for The Irish Times. After publishing early, unpolished poetry in the pamphlet 23 Poems (1962), she wrote New Territory (1967), a full-length book of 22 poems about Irish mythology, the creativity of artists, and her self-identity.
…was a contributor to the Irish Times and published... |
df4689e30332fec8d115ed65d6605e54 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iron-Crown-of-Lombardy | Iron Crown of Lombardy | Iron Crown of Lombardy
Iron Crown of Lombardy, originally an armlet or perhaps a votive crown, as suggested by its small size, that was presented to the Cathedral of Monza, where it is preserved as a holy relic. No firm record exists of its use for coronations before that of Henry VII as Holy Roman emperor in 1312.
T... |
ed7a0d27c06321d8701af9a65aaffac9 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iron-Guard | Iron Guard | Iron Guard
Iron Guard, Romanian Garda de Fier, Romanian fascist organization that constituted a major social and political force between 1930 and 1941. In 1927 Corneliu Zelea Codreanu founded the Legion of the Archangel Michael, which later became known as the Legion or Legionary Movement; it was committed to the “Chr... |
ff7495a81f680a66da9b6e646ff2de53 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iron-Law-of-Wages | Iron Law of Wages | Iron Law of Wages
… doctrines were typified in his Iron Law of Wages, which stated that all attempts to improve the real income of workers were futile and that wages perforce remained near the subsistence level.
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e49c27d7933d42d1ee229ebe2c176d91 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iron-Man-2 | Iron Man 2 | Iron Man 2
…Downey returned for the sequel Iron Man 2 (2010). Downey became a mainstay of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, reprising his role for The Avengers (2012), Iron Man 3 (2013), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), Avengers:
…of Tony Stark in the Iron M... |
d26ed1818e679a2f9526818fea4ece70 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iron-Man-film-by-Favreau | Iron Man | Iron Man
…and Paramount released the live-action Iron Man in 2008. The film, an enormous commercial and critical success, was directed by Jon Favreau and starred Robert Downey, Jr., who proved adept at capturing Tony Stark’s personality, brilliance, and charisma. Favreau and Downey returned for the sequel Iron Man 2 (2... |
4e1ab2907800a419c3a106f04166a527 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Iroquois-people | Iroquois | Iroquois
Iroquois, any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family—notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. The peoples who spoke Iroquoian languages occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie in present-... |
6a3f2eacf6fddb331e5bf0a57e5e8e2a | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Irrational-Man | Irrational Man | Irrational Man
Irrational Man (2015), an existentially comic thriller set in a New England university town, featured Joaquin Phoenix as a disillusioned and dissipated philosophy professor who decides to kill a family court judge after overhearing that he is likely to award parental custody rights to an…
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ba04da235b216801340969112953427a | https://www.britannica.com/topic/irrationalism | Irrationalism | Irrationalism
Irrationalism, 19th- and early 20th-century philosophical movement that claimed to enrich the apprehension of human life by expanding it beyond the rational to its fuller dimensions. Rooted either in metaphysics or in an awareness of the uniqueness of human experience, irrationalism stressed the dimensio... |
d9bfce394a2ce0d9167916b8794f25e2 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Irving-Independent-School-District-v-Tatro | Irving Independent School District v. Tatro | Irving Independent School District v. Tatro
Irving Independent School District v. Tatro, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on July 5, 1984, ruled (9–0) that, under the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (EAHCA; now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), a school board in Texas ha... |
a8d62c227b73923d6703ea6b261081af | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Is-That-All-There-Is | Is That All There Is? | Is That All There Is?
…1969, was the world-weary “Is That All There Is?” (by Peggy Lee). In 1987 the pair was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
…hit in many years, “Is That All There Is?”(1969), with which she became the first female artist to score Top Ten hits in three different decades.
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bf4147e6a265b41b66f26acd92f108d3 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ishtar-film-by-May | Ishtar | Ishtar
…of Hollywood’s most expensive failures, Ishtar (1987) and Town & Country (2001). After a 15-year absence, he returned to the big screen with Rules Don’t Apply (2016), about the relationship between an aspiring actress and her driver, both of whom work for Howard Hughes. In addition to starring as the…
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