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14,600 | In the 1990s, molecular phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences produced a coherent scheme showing arthropods as members of a superphylum labelled Ecdysozoa ("animals that moult"), which contained nematodes, priapulids and tardigrades but excluded annelids. This was backed up by studies of the anatomy and development of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,601 | If the Ecdysozoa hypothesis is correct, then segmentation of arthropods and annelids either has evolved convergently or has been inherited from a much older ancestor and subsequently lost in several other lineages, such as the non-arthropod members of the Ecdysozoa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,602 | Modern interpretations of the basal, extinct stem-group of Arthropoda recognised the following groups, from most basal to most crownward: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,603 | The Deuteropoda is a recently established clade uniting the crown-group (living) arthropods with these possible "upper stem-group" fossils taxa. The clade is defined by important changes to the structure of the head region such as the appearance of a differentiated deutocerebral appendage pair. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,604 | However, recent analyses since late 2010s also show that these "upper stem-groups" might be inside the crown-group: isoxyids might nested with the crown-group itself, Megacheira have been recovered as more closely related to Chelicerates, some bivalved forms such as Hymenocarina are consistently shown to be mandibulate... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,605 | The following cladogram shows the probable relationships between crown-group Arthropoda and stem-group Arthropoda according to O’Flynn et al. 2022, including two new fossils found to be the most early branches of Deuteropoda (the "upper stem-groups" in previous studies are marked in asterisk, living groups are marked i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,606 | Note that the subphylum Artiopoda, containing the trilobites, is closer to mandibulates than to chelicerates in the cladogram above, but older analyses place them as the sister group of chelicerates united under the clade Arachnomorpha. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,607 | The following cladogram shows the internal relationships between all the living classes of arthropods as of late 2010s, as well as the estimated timing for some of the clades: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,608 | Aside from these major groups, a number of fossil forms, mostly from the early Cambrian period, are difficult to place taxonomically, either from lack of obvious affinity to any of the main groups or from clear affinity to several of them. "Marrella" was the first one to be recognized as significantly different from th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,609 | The phylogeny of the major extant arthropod groups has been an area of considerable interest and dispute. Recent studies strongly suggest that Crustacea, as traditionally defined, is paraphyletic, with Hexapoda having evolved from within it, so that Crustacea and Hexapoda form a clade, Pancrustacea. The position of Myr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,610 | The placement of the extinct trilobites is also a frequent subject of dispute. One of the newer hypotheses is that the chelicerae have originated from the same pair of appendages that evolved into antennae in the ancestors of Mandibulata, which would place trilobites, which had antennae, closer to Mandibulata than Chel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,611 | Since the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recognises no priority above the rank of family, many of the higher-level groups can be referred to by a variety of different names. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,612 | Crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, and prawns have long been part of human cuisine, and are now raised commercially. Insects and their grubs are at least as nutritious as meat, and are eaten both raw and cooked in many cultures, though not most European, Hindu, and Islamic cultures. Cooked tarantula... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,613 | However, the greatest contribution of arthropods to human food supply is by pollination: a 2008 study examined the 100 crops that FAO lists as grown for food, and estimated pollination's economic value as €153 billion, or 9.5 per cent of the value of world agricultural production used for human food in 2005. Besides po... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,614 | The red dye cochineal, produced from a Central American species of insect, was economically important to the Aztecs and Mayans. While the region was under Spanish control, it became Mexico's second most-lucrative export, and is now regaining some of the ground it lost to synthetic competitors. Shellac, a resin secreted... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,615 | The relative simplicity of the arthropods' body plan, allowing them to move on a variety of surfaces both on land and in water, have made them useful as models for robotics. The redundancy provided by segments allows arthropods and biomimetic robots to move normally even with damaged or lost appendages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,616 | Although arthropods are the most numerous phylum on Earth, and thousands of arthropod species are venomous, they inflict relatively few serious bites and stings on humans. Far more serious are the effects on humans of diseases like malaria carried by blood-sucking insects. Other blood-sucking insects infect livestock w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,617 | Many species of arthropods, principally insects but also mites, are agricultural and forest pests. The mite "Varroa destructor" has become the largest single problem faced by beekeepers worldwide. Efforts to control arthropod pests by large-scale use of pesticides have caused long-term effects on human health and on bi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,618 | Even amongst arthropods usually thought of as obligate predators, floral food sources (nectar and to a lesser degree pollen) are often useful adjunct sources. It was noticed in one study that adult "Adalia bipunctata" (predator and common biocontrol of "Ephestia kuehniella") could survive on flowers but never completed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19827221 |
14,619 | Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,620 | Epistemologists study the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge, epistemic justification, the rationality of belief, and various related issues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,621 | In these debates and others, epistemology aims to answer questions such as "What do we know?", "What does it mean to say that we know something?", "What makes justified beliefs justified?", and "How do we know that we know?". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,622 | The word "epistemology" is derived from the ancient Greek "epistēmē", meaning "knowledge", and the suffix "-logia", meaning "logical discourse" (derived from the Greek word "logos" meaning "discourse"). The word's appearance in English was predated by the German term "Wissenschaftslehre" (literally, theory of science),... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,623 | The word "epistemology" was properly introduced into Anglophone philosophical literature by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854, who used it in his "Institutes of Metaphysics": | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,624 | It is important to note that the French term "épistémologie" is used with a different and far narrower meaning than the English term "epistemology", being used by French philosophers to refer solely to philosophy of science. For instance, Émile Meyerson opened his "Identity and Reality", written in 1908, with the remar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,625 | Epistemology, as a distinct field of inquiry, predates the introduction of the term into the lexicon of philosophy. John Locke, for instance, described his efforts in "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689) as an inquiry "into the original, certainty, and extent of human knowledge, together with the grounds and d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,626 | Almost every major historical philosopher has considered questions about what we know and how we know it. Among the Ancient Greek philosophers, Plato distinguished between inquiry regarding what we know and inquiry regarding what exists, particularly in the "Republic", the "Theaetetus", and the "Meno". A number of impo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,627 | During the subsequent Hellenistic period, philosophical schools began to appear which had a greater focus on epistemological questions, often in the form of philosophical skepticism. For instance, the Pyrrhonian skepticism of Pyrrho and Sextus Empiricus held that eudaimonia (flourishing, happiness, or "the good life") ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,628 | In ancient India the Ajñana school of ancient Indian philosophy promoted skepticism. Ajñana was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism, Jainism and the Ājīvika school. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,629 | After the ancient philosophical era but before the modern philosophical era, a number of Medieval philosophers also engaged with epistemological questions at length. Most notable among the Medievals for their contributions to epistemology were Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,630 | In the Islamic epistemology Islamic Golden Age which was booming prior to the Age of Enlightenment in Europe. One of the most prominent and influential philosophers, theologians, jurists, logicians and mystics Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali wrote over 70 books, including his best-known work in 1107 CE, his spiritual autobiograph... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,631 | Epistemology largely came to the fore in philosophy during the early modern period, which historians of philosophy traditionally divide up into a dispute between empiricists (including Francis Bacon, John Locke, David Hume, and George Berkeley) and rationalists (including René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried L... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,632 | There are a number of different methods that contemporary scholars use when trying to understand the relationship between past epistemology and contemporary epistemology. One of the most contentious questions is this: "Should we assume that the problems of epistemology are perennial, and that trying to reconstruct and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,633 | Nearly all debates in epistemology are in some way related to knowledge. Most generally, "knowledge" is a familiarity, awareness, or understanding of someone or something, which might include facts (propositional knowledge), skills (procedural knowledge), or objects (acquaintance knowledge). Philosophers tend to draw a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,634 | In his paper "On Denoting" and his later book "Problems of Philosophy", Bertrand Russell brought a great deal of attention to the distinction between "knowledge by description" and "knowledge by acquaintance". Gilbert Ryle is similarly credited with bringing more attention to the distinction between knowing how and kno... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,635 | One of the most important distinctions in epistemology is between what can be known "a priori" (independently of experience) and what can be known "a posteriori" (through experience). The terms originate from the Analytic methods of Aristotle's Organon, and may be roughly defined as follows: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,636 | Views that emphasize the importance of "a priori" knowledge are generally classified as rationalist. Views that emphasize the importance of "a posteriori" knowledge are generally classified as empiricist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,637 | One of the core concepts in epistemology is "belief". A belief is an attitude that a person holds regarding anything that they take to be true. For instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the proposition "snow is white". Beliefs can be "occurrent" (e.g. a person actively thinking... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,638 | While belief plays a significant role in epistemological debates surrounding knowledge and justification, it also has many other philosophical debates in its own right. Notable debates include: "What is the rational way to revise one's beliefs when presented with various sorts of evidence?"; "Is the content of our beli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,639 | Truth is the property or state of being in accordance with facts or reality. On most views, truth is the correspondence of language or thought to a mind-independent world. This is called the correspondence theory of truth. Among philosophers who think that it is possible to analyze the conditions necessary for knowledg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,640 | Epistemologists disagree about whether belief is the only truth-bearer. Other common suggestions for things that can bear the property of being true include propositions, sentences, thoughts, utterances, and judgments. Plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,641 | Many of the debates regarding truth are at the crossroads of epistemology and logic. Some contemporary debates regarding truth include: How do we define truth? Is it even possible to give an informative definition of truth? What things are truth-bearers and are therefore capable of being true or false? Are truth and fa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,642 | As the term "justification" is used in epistemology, a belief is justified if one has good reason for holding it. Loosely speaking, justification is the "reason" that someone holds a rationally admissible belief, on the assumption that it is a "good reason" for holding it. Sources of justification might include percept... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,643 | A central debate about the nature of justification is a debate between epistemological externalists on the one hand and epistemological internalists on the other. While epistemic externalism first arose in attempts to overcome the Gettier problem, it has flourished in the time since as an alternative way of conceiving ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,644 | Externalists hold that factors deemed "external", meaning outside of the psychological states of those who gain knowledge, can be conditions of justification. For example, an externalist response to the Gettier problem is to say that for a justified true belief to count as knowledge, there must be a link or dependency ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,645 | Though unfamiliar with the internalist/externalist debate himself, many point to René Descartes as an early example of the internalist path to justification. He wrote that because the only method by which we perceive the external world is through our senses, and that, because the senses are not infallible, we should no... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,646 | The dictum "Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) is also commonly associated with Descartes's theory. In his own methodological doubt—doubting everything he previously knew so he could start from a blank slate—the first thing that he could not logically bring himself to doubt was his own existence: "I do not exis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,647 | A central issue in epistemology is the question of what the nature of knowledge is or how to define it. Sometimes the expressions "theory of knowledge" and "analysis of knowledge" are used specifically for this form of inquiry. The term "knowledge" has various meanings in natural language. It can refer to an awareness ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,648 | Some features of factual knowledge are widely accepted: it is a form of cognitive success that establishes epistemic contact with reality. However, there are still various disagreements about its exact nature even though it has been studied intensely. Different factors are responsible for these disagreements. Some theo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,649 | The historically most influential definition, discussed since ancient Greek philosophy, characterizes knowledge in relation to three essential features: as (1) a belief that is (2) true and (3) justified. There is still wide acceptance that the first two features are correct, i.e. that knowledge is a mental state that ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,650 | The justified-true-belief account of knowledge came under severe criticism in the second half of the 20th century, when Edmund Gettier proposed various counterexamples. In a famous so-called Gettier-case, a person is driving on a country road. There are many barn façades along this road and only one real barn. But it i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,651 | Various additional examples were proposed along similar lines. Most of them involve a justified true belief that apparently fails to amount to knowledge because the belief's justification is in some sense not relevant to its truth. These counterexamples have provoked very diverse responses. Some theorists think that on... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,652 | A quite different approach is to affirm that the justified-true-belief account of knowledge is deeply flawed and to seek a complete reconceptualization of knowledge. These reconceptualizations often do not require justification at all. One such approach is to require that the true belief was produced by a reliable proc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,653 | We generally assume that knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. If so, what is the explanation? A formulation of the value problem in epistemology first occurs in Plato's Meno. Socrates points out to Meno that a man who knew the way to Larissa could lead others there correctly. But so, too, could a man who h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,654 | The problem is to identify what (if anything) makes knowledge more valuable than mere true belief, or that makes knowledge more valuable than a mere minimal conjunction of its components, such as justification, safety, sensitivity, statistical likelihood, and anti-Gettier conditions, on a particular analysis of knowled... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,655 | In contemporary philosophy, epistemologists including Ernest Sosa, John Greco, Jonathan Kvanvig, Linda Zagzebski, and Duncan Pritchard have defended virtue epistemology as a solution to the value problem. They argue that epistemology should also evaluate the "properties" of people as epistemic agents (i.e. intellectual... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,656 | The value problem has been presented as an argument against epistemic reliabilism by Linda Zagzebski, Wayne Riggs, and Richard Swinburne, among others. Zagzebski analogizes the value of knowledge to the value of espresso produced by an espresso maker: "The liquid in this cup is not improved by the fact that it comes fr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,657 | The value problem is important to assessing the adequacy of theories of knowledge that conceive of knowledge as consisting of true belief and other components. According to Kvanvig, an adequate account of knowledge should resist counterexamples and allow an explanation of the value of knowledge over mere true belief. S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,658 | One of the more influential responses to the problem is that knowledge is not particularly valuable and is not what ought to be the main focus of epistemology. Instead, epistemologists ought to focus on other mental states, such as understanding. Advocates of virtue epistemology have argued that the value of knowledge ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,659 | There are many proposed sources of knowledge and justified belief which we take to be actual sources of knowledge in our everyday lives. Some of the most commonly discussed include perception, reason, memory, and testimony. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,660 | As mentioned above, epistemologists draw a distinction between what can be known "a priori" (independently of experience) and what can only be known "a posteriori" (through experience). Much of what we call "a priori" knowledge is thought to be attained through reason alone, as featured prominently in rationalism. This... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,661 | A way to look at the difference between the two is through an example. Bruce Russell gives two propositions in which the reader decides which one he believes more. Option A: All crows are birds. Option B: All crows are black. If you believe option A, then you are a priori justified in believing it because you don't hav... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,662 | The idea of "a priori" knowledge is that it is based on intuition or rational insights. Laurence BonJour says in his article "The Structure of Empirical Knowledge", that a "rational insight is an immediate, non-inferential grasp, apprehension or 'seeing' that some proposition is necessarily true." (3) Going back to the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,663 | Evolutionary psychology takes a novel approach to the problem. It says that there is an innate predisposition for certain types of learning. "Only small parts of the brain resemble a tabula rasa; this is true even for human beings. The remainder is more like an exposed negative waiting to be dipped into a developer flu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,664 | Immanuel Kant, in his "Critique of Pure Reason", drew a distinction between "analytic" and "synthetic" propositions. He contended that some propositions are such that we can know they are true just by understanding their meaning. For example, consider, "My father's brother is my uncle." We can know it is true solely by... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,665 | While this distinction is first and foremost about meaning and is therefore most relevant to the philosophy of language, the distinction has significant epistemological consequences, seen most prominently in the works of the logical positivists. In particular, if the set of propositions which can only be known "a poste... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,666 | The American philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine, in his paper "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", famously challenged the analytic-synthetic distinction, arguing that the boundary between the two is too blurry to provide a clear division between propositions that are true by definition and propositions that are not. While som... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,667 | Science is often considered to be a refined, formalized, systematic, institutionalized form of the pursuit and acquisition of empirical knowledge. As such, the philosophy of science may be viewed variously as an application of the principles of epistemology or as a foundation for epistemological inquiry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,668 | The regress problem (also known as Agrippa's Trilemma) is the problem of providing a complete logical foundation for human knowledge. The traditional way of supporting a rational argument is to appeal to other rational arguments, typically using chains of reason and rules of logic. A classic example that goes back to A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,669 | ... to justify a belief one must appeal to a further justified belief. This means that one of two things can be the case. Either there are some beliefs that we can be justified for holding, without being able to justify them on the basis of any other belief, or else for each justified belief there is an infinite regres... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,670 | The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite chain of reasoning is thought by some to support skepticism. It is also the impetus for Descartes's famous dictum: "I think, therefore I am". Descartes was looking for some logical statement that could be true without appeal to other statements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,671 | Many epistemologists studying justification have attempted to argue for various types of chains of reasoning that can escape the regress problem. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,672 | Foundationalists respond to the regress problem by asserting that certain "foundations" or "basic beliefs" support other beliefs but do not themselves require justification from other beliefs. These beliefs might be justified because they are self-evident, infallible, or derive from reliable cognitive mechanisms. Perce... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,673 | The chief criticism of foundationalism is that if a belief is not supported by other beliefs, accepting it may be arbitrary or unjustified. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,674 | Another response to the regress problem is coherentism, which is the rejection of the assumption that the regress proceeds according to a pattern of linear justification. To avoid the charge of circularity, coherentists hold that an individual belief is justified circularly by the way it fits together (coheres) with th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,675 | Nigel Warburton writes in "Thinking from A to Z" that "[c]ircular arguments are not invalid; in other words, from a logical point of view there is nothing intrinsically wrong with them. However, they are, when viciously circular, spectacularly uninformative." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,676 | An alternative resolution to the regress problem is known as "infinitism". Infinitists take the infinite series to be merely potential, in the sense that an individual may have indefinitely many reasons available to them, without having consciously thought through all of these reasons when the need arises. This positio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,677 | An intermediate position, known as "foundherentism", is advanced by Susan Haack. Foundherentism is meant to unify foundationalism and coherentism. Haack explains the view by using a crossword puzzle as an analogy. Whereas, for example, infinitists regard the regress of reasons as taking the form of a single line that c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,678 | Empiricism is a view in the theory of knowledge which focuses on the role of experience, especially experience based on perceptual observations by the senses, in the generation of knowledge. Certain forms exempt disciplines such as mathematics and logic from these requirements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,679 | There are many variants of empiricism, including British empiricism, logical empiricism, phenomenalism, and some versions of common sense philosophy. Most forms of empiricism give epistemologically privileged status to sensory impressions or sense data, although this plays out very differently in different cases. Some ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,680 | Rationalism is the epistemological view that reason is the chief source of knowledge and the main determinant of what constitutes knowledge. More broadly, it can also refer to any view which appeals to reason as a source of knowledge or justification. Rationalism is one of the two classical views in epistemology, the o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,681 | Some of the most famous rationalists include Plato, René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,682 | Skepticism is a position that questions the possibility of human knowledge, either in particular domains or on a general level. Skepticism does not refer to any one specific school of philosophy, but is rather a thread that runs through many epistemological debates. Ancient Greek skepticism began during the Hellenistic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,683 | Epistemic skepticism questions whether knowledge is possible at all. Generally speaking, skeptics argue that knowledge requires certainty, and that most or all of our beliefs are fallible (meaning that our grounds for holding them always, or almost always, fall short of certainty), which would together entail that know... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,684 | One of the oldest forms of epistemic skepticism can be found in Agrippa's trilemma (named after the Pyrrhonist philosopher Agrippa the Skeptic) which demonstrates that certainty can not be achieved with regard to beliefs. Pyrrhonism dates back to Pyrrho of Elis from the 4th century BCE, although most of what we know ab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,685 | The Cartesian evil demon problem, first raised by René Descartes, supposes that our sensory impressions may be controlled by some external power rather than the result of ordinary veridical perception. In such a scenario, nothing we sense would actually exist, but would instead be mere illusion. As a result, we would n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,686 | Epistemological skepticism can be classified as either "mitigated" or "unmitigated" skepticism. Mitigated skepticism rejects "strong" or "strict" knowledge claims but does approve weaker ones, which can be considered "virtual knowledge", but only with regard to justified beliefs. Unmitigated skepticism rejects claims o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,687 | Pragmatism is a fallibilist epistemology that emphasizes the role of action in knowing. Different interpretations of pragmatism variously emphasize: truth as the final outcome of ideal scientific inquiry and experimentation, truth as closely related to usefulness, experience as transacting with instead of representing ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,688 | William James suggested that through a pragmatist epistemology, theories "become instruments, not answers to enigmas in which we can rest". In James's pragmatic method, which he adapted from Peirce, metaphysical disputes can be settled by tracing the practical consequences of the different sides of the argument. If thi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,689 | Contemporary versions of pragmatism have been developed by thinkers such as Richard Rorty and Hilary Putnam. Rorty proposed that values were historically contingent and dependent upon their utility within a given historical period. Contemporary philosophers working in pragmatism are called neopragmatists, and also incl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,690 | In certain respects an intellectual descendant of pragmatism, naturalized epistemology considers the evolutionary role of knowledge for agents living and evolving in the world. It de-emphasizes the questions around justification and truth, and instead asks, empirically, how reliable beliefs are formed and the role that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,691 | Naturalized epistemology was first proposed in "Epistemology Naturalized", a seminal paper by W.V.O. Quine. A less radical view has been defended by Hilary Kornblith in "Knowledge and its Place in Nature", in which he seeks to turn epistemology towards empirical investigation without completely abandoning traditional e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,692 | Epistemic relativism is the view that what is true, rational, or justified for one person need not be true, rational, or justified for another person. Epistemic relativists therefore assert that while there are "relative" facts about truth, rationality, justification, and so on, there is no "perspective-independent" fa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,693 | Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to which all "knowledge is a compilation of human-made constructions", "not the neutral discovery of an objective truth". Whereas objectivism is concerned with the "object of our knowledge", constructivism emphasizes "how we construct knowledge". Constructivism proposes ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,694 | Idealism is a broad term referring to both an ontological view about the world being in some sense mind-dependent and a corresponding epistemological view that everything we know can be reduced to mental phenomena. First and foremost, "idealism" is a metaphysical doctrine. As an epistemological doctrine, idealism share... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,695 | Some of the most famous forms of idealism include transcendental idealism (developed by Immanuel Kant), subjective idealism (developed by George Berkeley), and absolute idealism (developed by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Schelling). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,696 | Bayesian epistemology is a formal approach to various topics in epistemology that has its roots in Thomas Bayes' work in the field of probability theory. One advantage of its formal method in contrast to traditional epistemology is that its concepts and theorems can be defined with a high degree of precision. It is bas... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,697 | Feminist epistemology is a subfield of epistemology which applies feminist theory to epistemological questions. It began to emerge as a distinct subfield in the 20th century. Prominent feminist epistemologists include Miranda Fricker (who developed the concept of epistemic injustice), Donna Haraway (who first proposed ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,698 | Feminist epistemology has also played a significant role in the development of many debates in social epistemology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,699 | Epistemicide is a term used in decolonisation studies that describes the killing of knowledge systems under systemic oppression such as colonisation and slavery. The term was coined by Boaventura de Sousa Santos, who presented the significance of such physical violence creating the centering of Western knowledge in the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
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