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14,700 | Indian schools of philosophy, such as the Hindu Nyaya and Carvaka schools, and the Jain and Buddhist philosophical schools, developed an epistemological tradition independently of the Western philosophical tradition called "pramana". Pramana can be translated as "instrument of knowledge" and refers to various means or sources of knowledge that Indian philosophers held to be reliable. Each school of Indian philosophy had their own theories about which pramanas were valid means to knowledge and which were unreliable (and why). A Vedic text, Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (c. 9th–6th centuries BCE), lists "four means of attaining correct knowledge": "smṛti" ("tradition" or "scripture"), "pratyakṣa" ("perception"), "aitihya" ("communication by one who is expert", or "tradition"), and "anumāna" ("reasoning" or "inference"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,701 | In the Indian traditions, the most widely discussed pramanas are: "Pratyakṣa" (perception), "Anumāṇa" (inference), "Upamāṇa" (comparison and analogy), "Arthāpatti" (postulation, derivation from circumstances), "Anupalabdi" (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and "Śabda" (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). While the Nyaya school (beginning with the Nyāya Sūtras of Gotama, between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE) were a proponent of realism and supported four pramanas (perception, inference, comparison/analogy and testimony), the Buddhist epistemologists (Dignaga and Dharmakirti) generally accepted only perception and inference. The Carvaka school of materialists only accepted the pramana of perception, and hence were among the first empiricists in the Indian traditions. Another school, the Ajñana, included notable proponents of philosophical skepticism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,702 | The theory of knowledge of the Buddha in the early Buddhist texts has been interpreted as a form of pragmatism as well as a form of correspondence theory. Likewise, the Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti has been interpreted both as holding a form of pragmatism or correspondence theory for his view that what is true is what has effective power ("arthakriya"). The Buddhist Madhyamika school's theory of emptiness (shunyata) meanwhile has been interpreted as a form of philosophical skepticism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,703 | The main contribution to epistemology by the Jains has been their theory of "many sided-ness" or "multi-perspectivism" (Anekantavada), which says that since the world is multifaceted, any single viewpoint is limited ("naya" – a partial standpoint). This has been interpreted as a kind of pluralism or perspectivism. According to Jain epistemology, none of the pramanas gives absolute or perfect knowledge since they are each limited points of view. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,704 | Social epistemology deals with questions about knowledge in contexts where our knowledge attributions cannot be explained by simply examining individuals in isolation from one another, meaning that the scope of our knowledge attributions must be widened to include broader social contexts. It also explores the ways in which interpersonal beliefs can be justified in social contexts. The most common topics discussed in contemporary social epistemology are testimony, which deals with the conditions under which a belief "x is true" which resulted from being told "x is true" constitutes knowledge; peer disagreement, which deals with when and how I should revise my beliefs in light of other people holding beliefs that contradict mine; and group epistemology, which deals with what it means to attribute knowledge to groups rather than individuals, and when group knowledge attributions are appropriate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,705 | Formal epistemology uses formal tools and methods from decision theory, logic, probability theory and computability theory to model and reason about issues of epistemological interest. Work in this area spans several academic fields, including philosophy, computer science, economics, and statistics. The focus of formal epistemology has tended to differ somewhat from that of traditional epistemology, with topics like uncertainty, induction, and belief revision garnering more attention than the analysis of knowledge, skepticism, and issues with justification. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,706 | Metaepistemology is the metaphilosophical study of the methods, aims, and subject matter of epistemology. In general, metaepistemology aims to better understand our first-order epistemological inquiry. Some goals of metaepistemology are identifying inaccurate assumptions made in epistemological debates and determining whether the questions asked in mainline epistemology are the "right" epistemological questions to be asking. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9247 |
14,707 | The "Arleigh Burke" class of guided-missile destroyers (DDGs) is a United States Navy class of destroyer built around the Aegis Combat System and the SPY-1D multi-function passive electronically scanned array radar. The class is named for Admiral Arleigh Burke, an American destroyer officer in World War II and later Chief of Naval Operations. The lead ship, , was commissioned during Admiral Burke's lifetime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,708 | These warships were designed as multi-mission destroyers, able to fulfill the strategic land strike role with Tomahawk missiles; anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) role with powerful Aegis radar and surface-to-air missiles; anti-submarine warfare (ASW) with towed array sonar, anti-submarine rockets, and ASW helicopters; and anti-surface warfare (ASuW) with Harpoon missiles. With upgrades to their AN/SPY-1 phased radar systems and their associated missile payloads as part of the Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System, the ships of this class have also demonstrated capability as mobile anti-ballistic missile and anti-satellite weaponry platforms, operating on 42 destroyers as of August 2021. Later versions of the class no longer have the Harpoon missile launchers, and some ships of the class do not have towed array sonar. Their hull and superstructure were designed to have a reduced radar cross-section. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,709 | The first ship of the class was commissioned on 4 July 1991. With the decommissioning of the last , , on 21 September 2005, the "Arleigh Burke"-class ships became the U.S. Navy's only active destroyers until the became active in 2016. The "Arleigh Burke" class has the longest production run for any post-World War II U.S. Navy surface combatant. Of the first 75 vessels of this class (comprising 21 of Flight I, 7 of Flight II, 34 of Flight IIA, 3 of Flight IIA Restart, and 10 of Flight IIA Technology Insertion), 70 are in service as of May 2022. Currently, 14 of the Flight III have been ordered, but another 28 have been envisioned, bringing a total of 42 for that Flight and an overall total of 117 ships for the class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,710 | With an overall length of , displacement ranging from 8,230 to 9,700 tons, and weaponry including over 90 missiles, the "Arleigh Burke" class are larger and more heavily armed than most previous ships classified as guided-missile cruisers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,711 | The "Arleigh Burke"-class ships are among the largest destroyers built in the United States. Only the , (), and classes () are longer. The larger ships were constructed on "Spruance" class hull forms, but they are designated as cruisers due to their different mission and weapons systems compared to the "Spruance" and "Kidd"-class destroyers. The "Arleigh Burke" class was designed with a new large, water-plane area-hull form characterized by a wide flaring bow, which significantly improves seakeeping ability and permits high speed in high sea states. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,712 | Its designers incorporated lessons from the "Ticonderoga"-class ships, which were deemed too expensive to continue building and difficult to upgrade further. For these destroyers, the U.S. Navy also returned to all-steel construction. An earlier generation had combined a steel hull with a superstructure made of lighter aluminum to reduce top weight, but the lighter metal proved vulnerable to cracking. Aluminum is also less fire-resistant than steel; a 1975 fire aboard gutted her aluminum superstructure. Battle damage to Royal Navy ships exacerbated by their aluminum superstructures during the 1982 Falklands War supported the decision to use steel. Other lessons from the Falklands War led to the Navy's decision to protect the "Arleigh Burke" class's vital spaces with double-spaced steel layers (creating a buffer against AShMs) and Kevlar spall liners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,713 | The class's design incorporates stealth techniques, such as the angled—rather than traditional vertical—surfaces and the tripod mainmast, which make the ship more difficult to detect by radar. Starting with USS "Mustin" (DDG-89), the exhaust funnels are shrouded to minimize their radar and infrared signature further. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,714 | Each "Arleigh Burke" destroyer carries two AN/SLQ-32 electronic warfare (EW) suites—one on each side—that provide passive detection and intelligence. Some ships are equipped with the SLQ-32(V)2 variant, some have the (V)3 variant, and the newest have (V)6. Vessels with the (V)3 or (V)6 variant have an additional capability to actively jam targeting and AShM guidance radar. "Arleigh Burke"s have expendable infrared, chaff, and Nulka decoys for foiling incoming anti-ship missiles. For defeating incoming torpedoes, the class features Nixie countermeasures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,715 | A Collective Protection System makes the "Arleigh Burke" class the first U.S. warships designed with an air-filtration system against nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare (NBC). Other NBC defenses include air-locked hatches, pressurized compartments, and an external "countermeasure wash down system". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,716 | The "Arleigh Burke" class is a set of multi-mission ships with numerous combat systems, including a "combination of... an advanced anti-submarine warfare system (ASW), land attack cruise missiles, ship-to-ship missiles, and advanced anti-aircraft missiles". An onboard dual-purpose 5-inch gun can engage ships, land targets, aircraft, and missiles. The "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyer is equipped with the Aegis Combat System, which combines information from the ship's sensors to display a coherent image of the environment and guides weapons to targets using advanced tracking and fire control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,717 | Their SPY radars differ from traditional rotating radars that mechanically rotate 360 degrees for each sweep scan of the airspace. Instead, Aegis uses the AN/SPY-1D passive electronically scanned array (or the AN/SPY-6 active electronically scanned array on Flight III ships), which allows continual tracking of targets simultaneous to area scans. The system's computer control also allows centralization of the previously separate tracking and targeting functions. The system is also resistant to electronic countermeasures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,718 | The Standard Missile SM-2MR/ER and SM-6 provide area air defense, though they may also be used in a secondary ASuW role. The SM-2 uses semi-active radar homing, meaning that up to three targets may be simultaneously intercepted since the "Arleigh Burke"s have three AN/SPG-62 fire-control radars for terminal target illumination. The SM-6, which provides over-the-horizon missile defense, uses active radar homing; it does not have to rely on external illumination, so more targets could theoretically be intercepted simultaneously. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,719 | Flight IIA and III destroyers carry RIM-162 Evolved SeaSparrow Missiles, which provide medium-range defense against missiles and aircraft up to a range of about 27 nmi and are small enough to be quad-packed into a single Mk 41 VLS cell. They are also capable of targeting other ships. ESSM Block 1 uses semi-active radar homing, guided similarly to the SM-2. The new ESSM Block 2, among other improvements, features active radar homing like the SM-6, and it was scheduled for Initial Operating Capability (IOC) in 2020. Some ships (, , , , , , , ) are equipped with the SeaRAM CIWS to improve their self-defense. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,720 | The SM-3, SM-6, and SM-2ER Block IV provide Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD), the SM-3 being a dedicated ballistic missile interceptor, and the latter two having terminal phase anti-ballistic capability. So vital has the Aegis BMD role of the class become that all ships of the class are being updated with BMD capability. The first 28 Flight I and Flight II ships were upgraded from 2007–2014. Flight III ships will be delivered from 2023 with improved BMD capabilities and new AN/SPY-6 3D radars. Flight IIA ships are also planned to receive these upgrades with an AN/SPY-6 radar retrofit starting from 2022. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,721 | Flights I and II carry stand-alone Harpoon anti-ship missile launchers for a total of 4 to 8 Harpoons, giving them an anti-ship capability with a range in excess of . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,722 | The class can perform strategic land strikes with VLS-launched Tomahawks. With the development of the Tomahawk Block V, all existing Block IV Tomahawks carried will be converted to the Block V version to become dual-role missiles with anti-ship capability in addition to their land attack role. The Tomahawk Block Va version is called the Maritime Strike version, and the Block Vb version features the Joint Multi-Effects Warhead System. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,723 | "Arleigh Burke"-class ships feature the Navy's latest AN/SQQ-89 anti-submarine warfare combat system, which is integrated with Aegis. It encompasses the AN/SQS-53C bow-mounted sonar and AN/SQR-19 or TB-37U towed array sonar (though several Flight IIA ships do not have a towed array). The ships carry standoff RUM-139 anti-submarine rockets, which have a range of 22 km and carry the Mark 54 ASW torpedo. For short-range defense against submarines, they have two Mark 32 triple torpedo tubes—one to the port side and one to the starboard side—that can fire the Mark 46, Mark 50, and Mark 54 ASW torpedoes. The ships can detect anti-ship mines at a range of about 1,400 meters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,724 | All ships of the class are fitted with at least one Phalanx close-in weapon system (CIWS), which provides point defense against air and surface threats. They also carry two 25 mm Mk 38 Machine Gun Systems, one on each side of the ship. They are designed to counter fast surface craft. There are numerous mounts for crew-served weapons like the M2 Browning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,725 | Located on the forward deck is the 5-inch (127 mm) Mark 45 gun. The Mark 45 Mod 2 variant, with a barrel length of 54 calibers (), is installed on ship hull numbers DDG-51 – DDG-80 (30 ships). Hull numbers beginning with DDG-81 employ the Mark 45 Mod 4 variant, which has a barrel length of 62 calibers (). The 5-inch Mark 45 gun, directed by the Mark 34 Gun Weapon System (GWS), is capable of use in anti-ship and close-in anti-aircraft roles, as well as naval gunfire support (NGFS) supporting forces ashore, with a range of up to and capable of firing 16–20 rounds per minute. The Mark 45 gun on the "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyer has an ammunition stowage of 680 shells. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,726 | Flights IIA and III are equipped with two hangars for stowing MH-60 helicopters. Their Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System (LAMPS) helicopter system improves the ship's capabilities against submarines and surface ships by enabling the MH-60 to serve as a platform for monitoring submarines and surface ships, launching torpedoes and missiles against them, and providing fire support during insertions/extractions with machine guns and Hellfire anti-armor guided missiles. The helicopters also serve in a utility role, able to perform ship replenishment, search and rescue, medical evacuation, communications relay, and naval gunfire spotting and controlling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,727 | In March 2022, an "Arleigh Burke" destroyer was deployed with an AAI Aerosonde Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The aircraft is being demonstrated for Flight I and II ships, which do not have accommodations for permanently storing helicopters. The Aerosonde has a small enough footprint to be stowed away on those destroyers. It can perform missions such as ISR at a much lower cost compared to manned helicopters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,728 | In 1980, the U.S. Navy initiated design studies with seven contractors. By 1983, the number of competitors had been reduced to three: Bath Iron Works, Todd Shipyards, and Ingalls Shipbuilding. On 3 April 1985, Bath Iron Works received a US$321.9 million contract to build the first of class, USS "Arleigh Burke". Gibbs & Cox was awarded the contract to be the lead ship design agent. The total cost of the first ship was put at US$1.1 billion, the other US$778 million being for the ship's weapons systems. She was laid down by the Bath Iron Works at Bath, Maine, on 6 December 1988, and launched on 16 September 1989 by Mrs. Arleigh Burke. The Admiral himself was present at her commissioning ceremony on 4 July 1991, held on the waterfront in downtown Norfolk, Virginia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,729 | The Flight II "Arleigh Burke" ships have the following improvements over the original Flight I: incorporation of combat direction finding, SLQ-32(V)3 instead of (V)2, SPS-67(V)5 instead of (V)3, TADIX-B, JTIDS command and control processor, and the capability to launch and control the SM-2 Extended Range Block IV. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,730 | The Flight IIA "Arleigh Burke" ships feature several changes, including both the addition and removal of systems. Among the additions are two hangars for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) helicopters and a new, longer 5-inch/62-caliber (127 mm) Mark 45 Mod 4 naval gun (installed onto and later ships). Retractable missile loading cranes on the forward and aft VLS were replaced with a total of 6 additional missile cells. Later Flight IIA ships starting with use the Sperry Marine BridgeMaster E as their navigation radar instead of the AN/SPS-73(V)12. USS "Mustin" and onwards have a modified funnel design that buries the funnels within the superstructure as a signature-reduction measure. The use of the improved SPY-1D(V) radar, starting with , enhanced their ability to filter out clutter and resist electronic attack. Systems omitted from Flight IIA are the Harpoon missile launchers and the AN/SQR-19 TACTAS (tactical towed array sonar), and starting with , the forward Phalanx CIWS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,731 | DDG-68 to DDG-84 were built with AN/SLQ-32(V)3 EW suites, and other destroyers were built with the (V)2 variant. Whereas (V)2 has only passive detection capabilities, (V)3 features an active electronic countermeasures component. Many (V)2 suites have since been upgraded to (V)3. The AN/SLQ-32 is currently being upgraded under the Surface Electronic Warfare Improvement Program (SEWIP). The SEWIP Block 2 (AN/SLQ-32(V)6) features improved electronic support capability, and it was first installed on "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyers in 2014. As of 2022, it is in full-rate production for installation on the latest "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyers and for retrofit on existing ones, replacing their existing (V)2 and (V)3 equipment. The SEWIP Block 3 (AN/SLQ-32(V)7) will give ships improved electronic attack capability and is in low-rate initial production as of 2022. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,732 | A number of Flight IIA ships were constructed without any Phalanx CIWS because of the planned Evolved SeaSparrow Missile; the Navy had initially decided that ESSM made Phalanx redundant. However, the Navy later changed its mind and decided to retrofit all IIA ships to carry at least one Phalanx CIWS by 2013. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,733 | The experimental 60 kW High Energy Laser and Integrated Optical-dazzler and Surveillance (HELIOS) underwent land-based testing from August 2021 to March 2022. In August 2022, became the first ship to be equipped with the system. It is expected that "Preble" will begin at-sea testing of the HELIOS in FY2023. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,734 | USS "Pinckney", , , , , and have superstructure differences to accommodate the Remote Mine-hunting System (RMS). Additionally, the Mk 32 torpedo tubes were repositioned from amidships to the aft missile deck. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,735 | In an effort to address congressional concerns over the retirement of the , the Navy began a modernization program for the "Arleigh Burke"s aimed at improving their gun systems. This modernization was to include an extension of the range of the guns on the Flight I "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyers ("Arleigh Burke" to "Ross") with extended range guided munitions (ERGMs) that would have given the guns a range of . However, the ERGM was canceled in 2008. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,736 | The current modernization program is designed to provide a comprehensive mid-life upgrade to ensure that the class remains effective. Reduced manning, increased mission effectiveness, and reduced total cost—including construction, maintenance, and operation—are the goals of the modernization program. Modernization technologies were integrated during the construction of DDG-111 and 112, and they are planned to be retrofitted into DDG Flight I and II ships during in-service overhaul periods. The first phase will update the hull, mechanical, and electrical systems, while the second phase will introduce an open architecture computing environment (OACE). The result will be improved capability in both BMD and littoral combat. By 2018, all "Arleigh Burke"-class ships homeported in the Western Pacific will have upgraded ASW systems, including the new AN/SQR-20, renamed the TB-37U, Multi-Function Towed Array (MFTA) sonar systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,737 | The Navy is also upgrading the ships' ability to process data. Beginning with , the Navy is installing an internet protocol (IP)-based data backbone, which enhances the ship's ability to handle video. "Spruance" is the first destroyer to be fitted with the Boeing Company's gigabit Ethernet data multiplex system (GEDMS). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,738 | In July 2010, BAE Systems announced that they had been awarded a contract to modernize 11 ships. In May 2014, Sam LaGrone reported that 21 of the 28 Flight I/II "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyers would not receive a mid-life upgrade that included electronics and Aegis Baseline 9 software for SM-6 compatibility; instead, they would retain the basic BMD 3.6.1 software in a $170 million upgrade concentrating on mechanical systems, and on some ships, their anti-submarine suite. Seven Flight I ships—DDG 51–53, 57, 61, 65, 69—received the full US$270m Baseline 9 upgrade. Deputy of surface warfare Dave McFarland said that this change was due to the budget cuts in the Budget Control Act of 2011. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,739 | In 2016, the Navy announced they would begin the outfitting of 34 Flight IIA "Arleigh Burke" vessels with a hybrid-electric drive (HED) to lower fuel costs. While the four LM-2500 gas turbines of the "Arleigh Burke"s are most efficient at high speeds, an electric motor is to be attached to the main reduction gear to turn the drive shaft to propel the ship at speeds under , such as during BMD or maritime security operations. Use of the HED for half the time could extend time on station by 2.5 days before refueling. In March 2018, the Navy announced the HED would complete installation onto , but upgrades of further destroyers would be halted. Budget priorities and design issues caused the move, and "Truxtun" will be used to test the technology and see if it can be improved. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,740 | Also in 2016, four destroyers patrolling with the U.S. 6th Fleet based in Naval Station Rota, Spain (USS "Carney", USS "Ross", USS "Donald Cook", and USS "Porter") received self-protection upgrades, replacing one of their two Phalanx CIWS with a SeaRAM CIWS, which combines the Phalanx sensor dome with an 11-cell RIM-116 launcher. This was the first time the system was paired with an Aegis ship. Another four ships (USS "Arleigh Burke", USS "Roosevelt", USS "Bulkeley", and USS "Paul Ignatius") have since been forward-deployed to Rota and also received a SeaRAM. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,741 | In February 2018, Lockheed Martin received a contract to deliver their High Energy Laser and Integrated Optical-dazzler with Surveillance (HELIOS) system for installation onto an "Arleigh Burke" destroyer to "dazzle" or destroy small boats and UAVs and be the first time a laser weapon would be put on a warship. In November 2019, had the Optical Dazzling Interdictor, Navy (ODIN) system installed, which was publicly revealed in February 2020. Going from an approved idea to installation in two and a half years, ODIN differs from the XN-1 LaWS previously mounted on from 2014 to 2017 in that it functions as a dazzler, the first operational employment of such a stand-alone system, which blinds or destroys delicate optical sensors on drones rather than fully shooting down the aircraft. HELIOS was delivered to the Navy in August 2022 and installed on the . It is a "60+ kW"-class laser that can be scaled up to 120 kW and is expected to start conducting at-sea tests in fiscal 2023. At 60 kW, it can engage targets up to away. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,742 | In October 2020, National Security Advisor Robert C. O'Brien said that the Common-Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) missile developed under the Conventional Prompt Strike program would be fielded on all three Flights of "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyers. However, the C-HCB is expected to be around wide, making it too large to fit in Mk 41 VLS tubes or on deck launchers. Installing them on "Arleigh Burke" destroyers would require removing some Mk 41 cells to accommodate the larger weapon, which would be expensive and time-consuming. There is some criticism to this idea, including the oldest Flight I ships needing a service life extension to justify refit costs that would only prolong their service lives a short time when they are already more expensive to operate, and the newest Flight III ships being optimized for BMD so they would be given a new, complex mission requiring a major refit so soon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,743 | In December 2021, Raytheon was awarded a $237 million contract for integration and production support to enable the upgrading of Flight IIA ships from AN/SPY-1 to AN/SPY-6V(4) radar. This upgrade would provide capabilities similar to Flight III ships, such as providing integrated air and missile defense with the ability to track multiple ballistic missile or air-breathing targets. Due to the smaller superstructure of the Flight IIA ships compared to Flight III ships, the radar implementation will be scaled down from the Flight III AN/SPY-6V(1) version with fewer (24 vs. 37) radar module assemblies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,744 | The class was scheduled to be replaced by "Zumwalt"-class destroyers beginning in 2020, but an increasing threat from both long- and short-range missiles caused the Navy to restart production of the "Arleigh Burke" class and consider placing littoral combat mission modules on the new ships. "Arleigh Burke" class production is being restarted in place of additional "Zumwalt"-class destroyers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,745 | In April 2009, the Navy announced a plan limiting the "Zumwalt" class to three units while ordering another three "Arleigh Burke"-class ships from both Bath Iron Works and Ingalls Shipbuilding. In December 2009, Northrop Grumman received a $170.7 million letter contract for long-lead-time materials. Shipbuilding contracts for DDG-113 to DDG-115 were awarded in mid-2011 for US$679.6m–$783.6m; these do not include government-furnished equipment such as weapons and sensors, which will take the average cost of the FY2011/12 ships to US$1.843b per vessel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,746 | DDG-113 to DDG-115 are "restart" ships, similar to previous Flight IIA ships, but including modernization features such as Open Architecture Computing Environment. Additionally, DDG-113 onwards are installed with the TB-37U (previously known as the AN/SQR-20) Multi-Function Towed Array (MFTA), the successor to the older AN/SQR-19 TACTAS on Flight I and II ships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,747 | Flight III ships, construction starting in FY2016 in place of the canceled CG(X) program, have various design improvements, including radar antennas of mid-diameter increased to from the previous . The AN/SPY-6 Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR) uses an active electronically scanned array with digital beamforming instead of the earlier passive electronically scanned array radars. Raytheon, the contractor for the SPY-6, claims that the 37-RMA SPY-6(V)1 offers a 15 dB improved sensitivity compared to SPY-1—in other words, capable of detecting an object "half the size at twice the distance." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,748 | Costs for the Flight III ships increased rapidly as expectations and requirements for the program have grown. In particular, this was due to the changing requirements needed to carry the proposed Air and Missile Defense Radar system required for the ships' BMD role. The Government Accountability Office found that the design of the Flight IIIs was based on "a significantly reduced threat environment from other Navy analyses" and that the new ships would be "at best marginally effective". The U.S. Navy disagrees with the GAO findings, claiming the DDG-51 hull is "absolutely" capable of fitting a large enough radar to meet requirements. The Navy says there is room to fit what is needed inside the hull despite installation of the AMDR requiring double the power and cooling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,749 | In spite of the production restart, the U.S. Navy is expected to fall short of its requirement for 94 destroyer or cruiser platforms capable of missile defense starting in FY 2025 and continuing past the end of the 30-year planning window. While this is a new requirement as of 2011, and the U.S. Navy has never had so many large missile-armed surface combatants, the relative success of the Aegis BMD System has shifted this national security requirement onto the U.S. Navy. The shortfall will arise as older platforms that have been refitted to be missile-defense-capable (particularly the cruisers) are retired in bulk before new destroyers are planned to be built. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,750 | The U.S. Navy was considering extending the acquisition of "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyers into the 2040s, according to revised procurement tables sent to Congress, with the procurement of Flight IV ships from 2032 through 2041. This was canceled to cover the cost of the s, with the air defense commander role retained on one cruiser per carrier battle group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,751 | In April 2022, the Navy proposed a procurement plan for nine ships, with an option for a tenth, to build two ships a year from 2023 to 2027. Some lawmakers pushed to add a third ship to be built in 2023, bringing the total of the proposed deal to eleven ships. This would follow the Navy's two-ship per year procurement from 2018 to 2022. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,752 | was originally intended to be the last of the "Arleigh Burke" class. However, with the reduction of the "Zumwalt"-class destroyer production, the U.S. Navy requested new DDG-51-class ships. Long-lead materials contracts were awarded to Northrop Grumman in December 2009 for DDG-113 and in April 2010 for DDG-114. General Dynamics received a long-lead materials contract for DDG-115 in February 2010. It was anticipated that in FY2012 or FY2013, the U.S. Navy would commence detailed work for a Flight III design and request 24 ships to be built from 2016 to 2031. In May 2013, a total of 76 "Arleigh Burke"-class ships were planned. The Flight III variant is in the design phase . In June 2013, the U.S. Navy awarded $6.2 billion in destroyer contracts. Up to 42 Flight III ships may be procured by the U.S. Navy, with the first ship, , entering service in 2023. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,753 | In April 2014, the U.S. Navy began the early stages of developing a new destroyer to replace the "Arleigh Burke" class called the "Future Surface Combatant". The new class is expected to enter service in the early 2030s and initially serve alongside the 22 Flight III DDGs. No hull design or shape has been speculated yet. However, it is known that the destroyer class will incorporate emerging technologies like lasers, onboard power-generation systems, increased automation, and next-generation weapons, sensors, and electronics. They will leverage technologies in use on other platforms such as the "Zumwalt"-class destroyer, littoral combat ships, and the . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,754 | The Future Surface Combatant may place importance on the "Zumwalt"-class destroyer's electric drive system that propels the ship while generating 58 megawatts of onboard electrical power, levels required to operate future directed energy weapons. Laser weapon systems are likely to become more prominent to engage threats without using missiles that could potentially cost more than the target being engaged. Less expensive weapon systems may help keep the destroyer class from becoming too expensive. Initial requirements for the Future Surface Combatant will emphasize lethality and survivability, as well as continuing to aircraft carriers. The ships must also be modular to allow for inexpensive upgrades of weaponry, electronics, computing, and sensors over time as threats evolve. The Future Surface Combatant has evolved into the Large Surface Combatant, which became the DDG(X). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,755 | In October 2011, it was announced that four "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyers would be forward-deployed in Europe to support the NATO missile defense system. The ships, to be based at Naval Station Rota, Spain, were named in February 2012 as "Ross", "Donald Cook", "Porter", and "Carney". By reducing travel times to station, this forward deployment will allow for six other destroyers to be shifted from the Atlantic in support of the Pivot to East Asia. Russia has threatened to quit the New START treaty over this deployment, calling it a threat to their nuclear deterrent. In 2018, however, Chief of Naval Operations Admiral John Richardson criticized the policy of keeping six highly mobile BMD platforms "in a little tiny box, defending land", a role that he believed could be performed equally well at less cost by shore-based systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,756 | In October 2016, the "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyer "Mason" and two other ships were deployed to the coast of Yemen after a UAE auxiliary ship was hit in an attack for which Houthi rebels claimed responsibility. On 9 October, while in the Red Sea, USS "Mason" detected two anti-ship missiles headed towards herself and nearby USS "Ponce" fired from Houthi-controlled territory. "Mason" fired two SM-2s, one ESSM, and launched a Nulka decoy. One AShM was confirmed to have struck the water on its own, and it is unknown if the second missile was taken out by an interceptor or hit the water on its own. This incident was the second time in history that a warship fired surface-to-air missiles against a missile threat in combat (the first being the attack in 1991). On 12 October, in the Bab el-Mandeb strait, "Mason" again detected an inbound anti-ship missile. It was intercepted at a range of by an SM-2, marking the first confirmed time in history a warship successfully defended itself with SAMs against an anti-ship missile. On 13 October, nearby "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyer "Nitze" conducted Tomahawk strikes, destroying three Houthi radar sites that were used in the previous attacks. Back in the Red Sea, "Mason" experienced yet a third attack on 15 October, this time with 5 AShMs. She fired SM-2s, destroying four of the missiles. "Nitze" neutralized the fifth missile with a radar decoy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,757 | was damaged on 12 October 2000 in Aden, Yemen, while docked by an attack in which a shaped charge of 200–300 kg in a boat was placed against the hull and detonated by suicide bombers, killing 17 crew members. The ship was repaired and returned to duty in 2001. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,758 | On 12 August 2012, USS "Porter" collided with the oil tanker MV "Otowasan" near the Strait of Hormuz. Though there were no injuries on the ships, the U.S. Navy removed the "Porter"s commanding officer from duty. Repairs took two months at a cost of $700,000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,759 | On 17 June 2017, collided with the MV "ACX Crystal" cargo ship near Yokosuka, Japan. Seven sailors drowned. Following an investigation, the ship's commanding officer, executive officer, and Command Master Chief Petty Officer were relieved of their duties. In addition, close to a dozen sailors were given non-judicial punishment for losing situational awareness. Repairs were to be completed by summer 2019 originally. However, initial repairs were made by February 2020. After the subsequent sea trials, she was brought in for additional repairs. The ship departed for home port in June 2020. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,760 | On 21 August 2017, USS "John S. McCain" collided with the container ship "Alnic MC". The collision injured 48 sailors and killed 10, whose bodies were all recovered by 27 August. The cause of the collision was determined to be poor communication between the two ships and the bridge crew lacking situational awareness. In the aftermath, the ship's top leadership, including the commanding officer, executive officer, and Command Master Chief Petty Officer were removed from command. In addition, top leadership of the U.S. Seventh Fleet, including the commander, Vice Admiral Joseph Aucoin, were relieved of their duties due to loss of confidence in their ability to command. Other commanders who were relieved included Rear Admiral Charles Williams, commander of Task Force 70, and Captain Jeffrey Bennett, commodore of Destroyer Squadron 15. This was the third incident involving a US Navy ship in 2017, with a repair cost of over $100 million. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,761 | The 2012 film "Battleship" features the "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyer as a major setting for most of the film's scenes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,762 | The 2014 television series "The Last Ship", loosely based on the 1988 novel of the same name, is set on the fictional . Its hull designation in the book is DDG-80, but was changed to DDG-151 for the television series, to avoid confusion with the real-life USS "Roosevelt", which did not exist when the book was written. , a real Flight IIA "Arleigh Burke"-class destroyer, stood in for "Nathan James" during filming. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197341 |
14,763 | Diazepam, first marketed as Valium, is a medicine of the benzodiazepine family that acts as an anxiolytic. It is commonly used to treat a range of conditions, including anxiety, seizures, alcohol withdrawal syndrome, muscle spasms, insomnia, and restless legs syndrome. It may also be used to cause memory loss during certain medical procedures. It can be taken by mouth, inserted into the rectum, injected into muscle, injected into a vein or used as a nasal spray. When given into a vein, effects begin in one to five minutes and last up to an hour. By mouth, effects begin after 15 to 60 minutes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,764 | Common side-effects include sleepiness and trouble with coordination. Serious side effects are rare. They include increased risk of suicide, decreased breathing, and an increased risk of seizures if used too frequently in those with epilepsy. Occasionally, excitement or agitation may occur. Long-term use can result in tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms on dose reduction. Abrupt stopping after long-term use can be potentially dangerous. After stopping, cognitive problems may persist for six months or longer. It is not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Its mechanism of action works by increasing the effect of the neurotransmitter "gamma"-aminobutyric acid (GABA). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,765 | Diazepam was patented in 1959 by Hoffmann-La Roche. It has been one of the most frequently prescribed medications in the world since its launch in 1963. In the United States it was the best-selling medication between 1968 and 1982, selling more than 2billion tablets in 1978 alone. In 2020, it was the 128th most-commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 4million prescriptions. In 1985 the patent ended, and there are now more than 500 brands available on the market. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,766 | Diazepam is mainly used to treat anxiety, insomnia, panic attacks and symptoms of acute alcohol withdrawal. It is also used as a premedication for inducing sedation, anxiolysis, or amnesia before certain medical procedures (e.g., endoscopy). In 2020, it was approved for use in the United States as a nasal spray to interrupt seizure activity in people with epilepsy. Diazepam is the most commonly used benzodiazepine for "tapering" benzodiazepine dependence due to the drug's comparatively long half-life, allowing for more efficient dose reduction. Benzodiazepines have a relatively low toxicity in overdose. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,767 | Used in treatment of organophosphate poisoning and reduces the risk of seizure induced brain and cardiac damage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,768 | Dosages should be determined on an individual basis, depending on the condition being treated, severity of symptoms, patient body weight, and any other conditions the person may have. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,769 | Intravenous diazepam or lorazepam are first-line treatments for status epilepticus. However, intravenous lorazepam has advantages over intravenous diazepam, including a higher rate of terminating seizures and a more prolonged anticonvulsant effect. Diazepam gel was better than placebo gel in reducing the risk of non-cessation of seizures. Diazepam is rarely used for the long-term treatment of epilepsy because tolerance to its anticonvulsant effects usually develops within six to 12 months of treatment, effectively rendering it useless for that purpose. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,770 | The anticonvulsant effects of diazepam can help in the treatment of seizures due to a drug overdose or chemical toxicity as a result of exposure to sarin, VX, or soman (or other organophosphate poisons), lindane, chloroquine, physostigmine, or pyrethroids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,771 | Diazepam is sometimes used intermittently for the prevention of febrile seizures that may occur in children under five years of age. Recurrence rates are reduced, but side effects are common so the decision to treat febrile seizures (which are benign in nature) with medication should use this as part of the evaluation. Long-term use of diazepam for the management of epilepsy is not recommended; however, a subgroup of individuals with treatment-resistant epilepsy benefit from long-term benzodiazepines, and for such individuals, clorazepate has been recommended due to its slower onset of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,772 | Because of its relatively long duration of action, and evidence of safety and efficacy, diazepam is preferred over other benzodiazepines for treatment of persons experiencing moderate to severe alcohol withdrawal. An exception to this is when a medication is required intramuscular in which case either lorazepam or midazolam is recommended. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,773 | Diazepam is used for the emergency treatment of eclampsia, when IV magnesium sulfate and blood-pressure control measures have failed. Benzodiazepines do not have any pain-relieving properties themselves, and are generally recommended to avoid in individuals with pain. However, benzodiazepines such as diazepam can be used for their muscle-relaxant properties to alleviate pain caused by muscle spasms and various dystonias, including blepharospasm. Tolerance often develops to the muscle relaxant effects of benzodiazepines such as diazepam. Baclofen is sometimes used as an alternative to diazepam. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,774 | Diazepam is marketed in over 500 brands throughout the world. It is supplied in oral, injectable, inhalation, and rectal forms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,775 | The United States military employs a specialized diazepam preparation known as Convulsive Antidote, Nerve Agent (CANA), which contains diazepam. One CANA kit is typically issued to service-members, along with three Mark I NAAK kits, when operating in circumstances where chemical weapons in the form of nerve agents are considered a potential hazard. Both of these kits deliver drugs using autoinjectors. They are intended for use in "buddy-aid" or "self-aid" administration of the drugs in the field prior to decontamination and delivery of the patient to definitive medical care. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,776 | Adverse effects of benzodiazepines such as diazepam include anterograde amnesia, confusion (especially pronounced in higher doses) and sedation. The elderly are more prone to adverse effects of diazepam, such as confusion, amnesia, ataxia, and hangover effects, as well as falls. Long-term use of benzodiazepines such as diazepam is associated with drug tolerance, benzodiazepine dependence, and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. Like other benzodiazepines, diazepam can impair short-term memory and learning of new information. While benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam can cause anterograde amnesia, they do not cause retrograde amnesia; information learned before using benzodiazepines is not impaired. Tolerance to the cognitively impairing effects of benzodiazepines does not tend to develop with long-term use, and the elderly are more sensitive to them. Additionally, after cessation of benzodiazepines, cognitive deficits may persist for at least six months; it is unclear whether these impairments take longer than six months to abate or if they are permanent. Benzodiazepines may also cause or worsen depression. Infusions or repeated intravenous injections of diazepam when managing seizures, for example, may lead to drug toxicity, including respiratory depression, sedation and hypotension. Drug tolerance may also develop to infusions of diazepam if it is given for longer than 24 hours. Sedatives and sleeping pills, including diazepam, have been associated with an increased risk of death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,777 | In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,778 | Less commonly, paradoxical side effects can occur, including nervousness, irritability, excitement, worsening of seizures, insomnia, muscle cramps, changes in libido, and in some cases, rage and violence. These adverse reactions are more likely to occur in children, the elderly, and individuals with a history of a substance use disorder, such as an alcohol use disorder, or a history of aggressive behavior. In some people, diazepam may increase the propensity toward self-harming behaviors and, in extreme cases, may provoke suicidal tendencies or acts. Very rarely dystonia can occur. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,779 | Diazepam may impair the ability to drive vehicles or operate machinery. The impairment is worsened by consumption of alcohol, because both act as central nervous system depressants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,780 | During the course of therapy, tolerance to the sedative effects usually develops, but not to the anxiolytic and myorelaxant effects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,781 | Patients with severe attacks of apnea during sleep may experience respiratory depression (hypoventilation), leading to respiratory arrest and death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,782 | Diazepam in doses of 5 mg or more causes significant deterioration in alertness performance combined with increased feelings of sleepiness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,783 | Diazepam, as with other benzodiazepine drugs, can cause tolerance, physical dependence, substance use disorder, and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. Withdrawal from diazepam or other benzodiazepines often leads to withdrawal symptoms similar to those seen during barbiturate or alcohol withdrawal. The higher the dose and the longer the drug is taken, the greater the risk of experiencing unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,784 | Withdrawal symptoms can occur from standard dosages and also after short-term use, and can range from insomnia and anxiety to more serious symptoms, including seizures and psychosis. Withdrawal symptoms can sometimes resemble pre-existing conditions and be misdiagnosed. Diazepam may produce less intense withdrawal symptoms due to its long elimination half-life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,785 | Benzodiazepine treatment should be discontinued as soon as possible by a slow and gradual dose reduction regimen. Tolerance develops to the therapeutic effects of benzodiazepines; for example tolerance occurs to the anticonvulsant effects and as a result benzodiazepines are not generally recommended for the long-term management of epilepsy. Dose increases may overcome the effects of tolerance, but tolerance may then develop to the higher dose and adverse effects may increase. The mechanism of tolerance to benzodiazepines includes uncoupling of receptor sites, alterations in gene expression, down-regulation of receptor sites, and desensitisation of receptor sites to the effect of GABA. About one-third of individuals who take benzodiazepines for longer than four weeks become dependent and experience withdrawal syndrome on cessation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,786 | Differences in rates of withdrawal (50–100%) vary depending on the patient sample. For example, a random sample of long-term benzodiazepine users typically finds around 50% experience few or no withdrawal symptoms, with the other 50% experiencing notable withdrawal symptoms. Certain select patient groups show a higher rate of notable withdrawal symptoms, up to 100%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,787 | Rebound anxiety, more severe than baseline anxiety, is also a common withdrawal symptom when discontinuing diazepam or other benzodiazepines. Diazepam is therefore only recommended for short-term therapy at the lowest possible dose owing to risks of severe withdrawal problems from low doses even after gradual reduction. The risk of pharmacological dependence on diazepam is significant, and patients experience symptoms of benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome if it is taken for six weeks or longer. In humans, tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects of diazepam occurs frequently. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,788 | Improper or excessive use of diazepam can lead to dependence. At a particularly high risk for diazepam misuse, substance use disorder or dependence are: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,789 | Patients from the aforementioned groups should be monitored very closely during therapy for signs of abuse and development of dependence. Therapy should be discontinued if any of these signs are noted, although if dependence has developed, therapy must still be discontinued gradually to avoid severe withdrawal symptoms. Long-term therapy in such instances is not recommended. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,790 | People suspected of being dependent on benzodiazepine drugs should be very gradually tapered off the drug. Withdrawals can be life-threatening, particularly when excessive doses have been taken for extended periods of time. Equal prudence should be used whether dependence has occurred in therapeutic or recreational contexts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,791 | Diazepam is a good choice for tapering for those using high doses of other benzodiazepines since it has a long half-life thus withdrawal symptoms are tolerable. The process is very slow (usually from 14 to 28 weeks) but is considered safe when done appropriately. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,792 | An individual who has consumed too much diazepam typically displays one or more of these symptoms in a period of approximately four hours immediately following a suspected overdose: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,793 | Although not usually fatal when taken alone, a diazepam overdose is considered a medical emergency and generally requires the immediate attention of medical personnel. The antidote for an overdose of diazepam (or any other benzodiazepine) is flumazenil (Anexate). This drug is only used in cases with severe respiratory depression or cardiovascular complications. Because flumazenil is a short-acting drug, and the effects of diazepam can last for days, several doses of flumazenil may be necessary. Artificial respiration and stabilization of cardiovascular functions may also be necessary. Though not routinely indicated, activated charcoal can be used for decontamination of the stomach following a diazepam overdose. Emesis is contraindicated. Dialysis is minimally effective. Hypotension may be treated with levarterenol or metaraminol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,794 | The oral (lethal dose in 50% of the population) of diazepam is 720mg/kg in mice and 1240mg/kg in rats. D. J. Greenblatt and colleagues reported in 1978 on two patients who had taken 500 and 2000mg of diazepam, respectively, went into moderately-deep comas, and were discharged within 48 hours without having experienced any important complications, in spite of having high concentrations of diazepam and its metabolites desmethyldiazepam, oxazepam, and temazepam, according to samples taken in the hospital and as follow-up. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,795 | If diazepam is administered concomitantly with other drugs, attention should be paid to the possible pharmacological interactions. Particular care should be taken with drugs that potentiate the effects of diazepam, such as barbiturates, phenothiazines, opioids, and antidepressants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,796 | Diazepam does not increase or decrease hepatic enzyme activity, and does not alter the metabolism of other compounds. No evidence would suggest diazepam alters its own metabolism with chronic administration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,797 | Agents with an effect on hepatic cytochrome P450 pathways or conjugation can alter the rate of diazepam metabolism. These interactions would be expected to be most significant with long-term diazepam therapy, and their clinical significance is variable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,798 | Diazepam is a long-acting "classical" benzodiazepine. Other classical benzodiazepines include chlordiazepoxide, clonazepam, lorazepam, oxazepam, nitrazepam, temazepam, flurazepam, bromazepam, and clorazepate. Diazepam has anticonvulsant properties. Benzodiazepines act via micromolar benzodiazepine binding sites as calcium channel blockers and significantly inhibit depolarization-sensitive calcium uptake in rat nerve cell preparations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
14,799 | Diazepam inhibits acetylcholine release in mouse hippocampal synaptosomes. This has been found by measuring sodium-dependent high-affinity choline uptake in mouse brain cells "in vitro", after pretreatment of the mice with diazepam "in vivo". This may play a role in explaining diazepam's anticonvulsant properties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234806 |
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