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6,900 | In 2009, development commenced on several engine improvements, including greater resistance to foreign object damage, reduced fuel burn rate, and potentially increased thrust of up to 20%. In 2014, Boeing revealed a Super Hornet hybrid concept, equipped with the EA-18G Growler's electronic signal detection capabilities to allow for targets engagement using the receiver; the concept did not include the ALQ-99 jamming pod. Growth capabilities could include the addition of a long-range infrared search and track sensor and new air-to-air tracking modes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,901 | In 2019, Boeing received a $4 billion contract to deliver 78 Block III Super Hornets for the Navy through fiscal 2021. The Navy plans to sign year to year contracts with Boeing to convert all of its Block II aircraft to Block III variants through 2033. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,902 | The Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft at about 20% larger, heavier empty weight, and heavier maximum weight than the original Hornet. The Super Hornet carries 33% more internal fuel, increasing mission range by 41% and endurance by 50% over the "Legacy" Hornet. The empty weight of the Super Hornet is about less than that of the F-14 Tomcat which it replaced, while approaching, but not matching, the F-14's payload and range. As the Super Hornet is significantly heavier than the legacy Hornet, the catapult and arresting systems must be set differently. To aid safe flight operations and prevent confusion in radio calls, the Super Hornet is informally referred to as the "Rhino" to distinguish it from earlier Hornets. (The "Rhino" nickname was previously applied to the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, which was retired from the fleet in 1987.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,903 | The Super Hornet, unlike the previous Hornet, is designed to be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role the Navy had lost with the retirement of the KA-6D and Lockheed S-3B Viking tankers. The ARS includes an external tank with hose reel on the centerline, along with four external tanks and internal tanks, for a total of of fuel on the aircraft. On typical missions a fifth of the air wing is dedicated to the tanker role, which consumes aircraft fatigue life expectancy faster than other missions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,904 | The forward fuselage is unchanged, but the remainder of the aircraft shares little with earlier F/A-18C/D models. The fuselage was stretched by to make room for fuel and future avionics upgrades and increased the wing area by 25%. However, the Super Hornet has 42% fewer structural parts than the original Hornet design. The General Electric F414 engine, developed from the Hornet's F404, has 35% additional thrust over most of the aircraft's flight envelope. The Super Hornet can return to an aircraft carrier with a larger load of unspent fuel and munitions than the original Hornet; this ability is known as "bringback", which for the Super Hornet is in excess of . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,905 | Other differences include intake ramps for the engines and two extra wing hard points for payload (for a total of 11), retaining previous hardpoints on the bottom centerline, wingtips, and two conformal fuselage positions. Among the most significant aerodynamic changes are the enlarged leading edge extensions (LEX) that provide improved vortex lifting characteristics in high angle of attack maneuvers, and reduce the static stability margin to enhance pitching characteristics. This modification results in pitch rates in excess of 40 degrees per second, and high resistance to departure from controlled flight.<ref name="Boeing_E/F">"F/A-18E/F Super Hornet." Boeing. Retrieved: 16 August 2010.</ref> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,906 | Survivability is an important feature of the Super Hornet design. The U.S. Navy took a "balanced approach" to survivability in its design. It does not rely primarily on low-observability technology, but rather adopts improvements to its radar signture with other design innovations. The fighter also incorporates more advanced electronic-warfare capabilities, reduced ballistic vulnerability, greater employment of standoff weapons, and innovative tactics to collectively enhance crew and aircraft safety. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,907 | The F/A-18E/F's radar cross-section was reduced greatly from some aspects, mainly the front and rear. The design of the engine inlets reduces the aircraft's frontal radar cross-section. The alignment of the leading edges of the engine inlets is designed to scatter radiation to the sides. Fixed fanlike reflecting structures in the inlet tunnel divert radar energy away from the rotating fan blades. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,908 | The Super Hornet also makes considerable use of panel joint serration and edge alignment. Considerable attention has been paid to the removal or filling of unnecessary surface join gaps and resonant cavities. Where the F/A-18A-D used grilles to cover various accessory exhaust and inlet ducts, the F/A-18E/F uses perforated panels that appear opaque to radar waves at the frequencies used. Careful attention has been paid to the alignment of many panel boundaries and edges, to direct reflected waves away from the aircraft in uniformly narrow angles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,909 | While the F/A-18E/F is not a stealth fighter like the F-22, it does have a frontal radar cross-section an order of magnitude smaller than prior generation fighters. Additional changes for reducing RCS can be installed on an as-needed basis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,910 | Initially, the Super Hornet's avionics and software had a 90% commonality with that of the F/A-18C/D fleet at the time. Differences include an up-front touchscreen control display; a large multipurpose color liquid-crystal display; and a fuel display. The Super Hornet has a quadruplex digital fly-by-wire system, as well as a digital flight-control system that detects and corrects for battle damage. Initial production models used the APG-73 radar, later replaced by the AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA). The AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR (Advanced Targeting Forward Looking InfraRed), is the main electro-optical sensor and laser designator pod for the Super Hornet. The communications equipment consist of an AN/ARC-210 VHF/UHF radio and a MIDS-JTRS low volume terminal for HAVE QUICK, SINCGARS and Link 16 connectivity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,911 | The defensive countermeasures of Block I aircraft includes the AN/ALR-67(V)3 radar warning receiver, the AN/ALE-47 countermeasures dispenser, the AN/ALE-50 towed decoy and the AN/ALQ-165 Airborne Self-Protect Jammer (ASPJ). Block II aircraft replace the ALQ-165 with the AN/ALQ-214 Integrated Defensive Countermeasures (IDECM) system, consisting of internally mounted threat receivers and optional self-protection jammers. Interior and exterior lighting on the Block II was changed to allow the use of night vision devices. The older ALE-50 decoys are being replaced by ALE-55 towed decoys, which can transmit jamming signals based on data received from the IDECM. The improved AN/ALQ-214 jammer was added on Block II aircraft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,912 | Block II aircraft were fitted with the AN/APG-79 AESA radar, capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles. VFA-213, the first Super Hornet squadron to fly AESA-equipped Super Hornets, became "safe for flight" (independently fly and maintain the F/A-18F) on 27 October 2006. The first Super Hornet upgraded with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) was delivered to VFA-213 on 18 May 2007. The JHMCS provides multi-purpose situational awareness, which includes high-off-boresight missile cuing. The Shared Reconnaissance Pod (SHARP) is a high-resolution, digital tactical aerial reconnaissance system that features advanced day/night and all-weather capability. The Multifunctional Information Distribution System low volume communication terminal is being upgraded with the MIDS-JTRS system, which will allow a tenfold increase in bandwidth as well as compatibility with the Joint Tactical Radio System standards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,913 | The Super Hornet entered fleet service with the U.S. Navy in 1999. It achieved initial operating capability (IOC) in September 2001 with the U.S. Navy's Strike Fighter Squadron 115 (VFA-115) at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California. VFA-115 was also the first unit to take their F/A-18 Super Hornets into combat. On 6 November 2002, two F/A-18Es conducted a "Response Option" strike in support of Operation Southern Watch on two surface-to-air missile launchers at Al Kut, Iraq and an air defense command and control bunker at Tallil air base. One of the pilots dropped JDAM bombs from the Super Hornet for the first time during combat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,914 | In support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (Iraq War), VFA-14, VFA-41 and VFA-115 flew close air support, strike, escort, SEAD and aerial refueling sorties. Two F/A-18Es from VFA-14 and two F/A-18Fs from VFA-41 were forward deployed to . The VFA-14 aircraft flew mostly as aerial refuelers and the VFA-41 fighters as Forward Air Controller (Airborne) or FAC(A)s. On 6 April 2005, VFA-154 and VFA-147 (the latter squadron then still operating F/A-18Cs) dropped two laser-guided bombs on an enemy insurgent location east of Baghdad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,915 | On 8 September 2006, VFA-211 F/A-18F Super Hornets expended GBU-12 and GBU-38 bombs against Taliban fighters and Taliban fortifications west and northwest of Kandahar. This was the first time the unit had participated in an active combat capacity using the Super Hornet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,916 | During the 2006–2007 cruise with , VFA-103 and VFA-143 supported Operations Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom and operations off the Somali coast. Alongside "Legacy Hornet" squadrons, VFA-131 and VFA-83, they dropped 140 precision guided weapons and performed nearly 70 strafing runs. The Super Hornet can operate from the French nuclear carrier "Charles de Gaulle" (R91).<ref name="F/A 18E-CDG"></ref> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,917 | In 2007, Boeing proposed additional F/A-18E/Fs to the U.S. Navy in a multi-year contract. As of October 2008, Boeing had delivered 367 Super Hornets to the U.S. Navy. On 6 April 2009, Defense Secretary Robert Gates announced that the Department of Defense (DOD) intended to acquire 31 F/A-18s in FY2010. Congress requested the DoD study a further multi-year contract so that a projected fighter shortfall could be averted; in 2006, the Navy was 60 fighters below its validated aircraft requirement. The FY2010 budget bill authorized a multiyear purchase agreement for additional Super Hornets. A multi-year contract was finalized on 28 September 2010, reported as saving $600 million over individual yearly contracts, for 66 Super Hornets and 58 Growlers to mitigate a four-year delay in the F-35 program. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,918 | On 7 August 2014, U.S. defense officials announced they had been authorized to launch bombing missions upon Islamic State (IS) forces in northern Iraq. The decision to take direct action was made to protect U.S. personnel in the city of Irbil and to ensure the safety of transport aircraft making airdrops to Yazidi civilians. Early on 8 August, two Super Hornets took off from and dropped 500 lb laser-guided bombs on a "mobile artillery piece" the militants had been using to shell Kurdish forces defending the city. Later that day, four more aircraft struck a seven-vehicle convoy and a mortar position. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,919 | On 18 June 2017, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E shot down a Syrian Air Force Su-22 fighter-bomber that allegedly had bombed a position held by U.S.-supported Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) near Tabqa; the Syrian government claimed the Su-22 was bombing an IS position. This was the first aerial kill of a manned aircraft by an American fighter since 1999, the first by the Navy since the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the first kill by a Super Hornet, and the third kill by an F/A-18. An E-3 Sentry issued several warnings to the Su-22 and, after it dropped bombs near SDF fighters, the F/A-18E, piloted by Lieutenant Commander Michael "MOB" Tremel, a pilot assigned to Strike Fighter Squadron 87 aboard the carrier "George H.W. Bush", independently chose to shoot it down based on established rules of engagement. The F/A-18E first missed with an AIM-9X Sidewinder, then hit the Su-22 with an AIM-120 AMRAAM; the encounter lasted eight minutes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,920 | In 2018, Boeing was awarded a contract to convert nine single-seat F/A-18E Super Hornets and two F/A-18F two-seaters for Blue Angels use; these are to be completed by 2021. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,921 | On 3 May 2007, the Australian Government signed an A$2.9 billion contract to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) as an interim replacement for its aging F-111s. It was reported, in July 2007, that the order for the F/A-18F would also prevent, in the event of significant delays to the F-35 program, any difficulties that might be caused by a need to quickly replace the RAAF's existing fleet of "Classic Hornets" (F/A-18A/B). The total cost of the Super Hornet purchase, with training and support over 10 years, was expected to be A$6 billion (US$4.6 billion). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,922 | The order was controversial. A former RAAF air (operations) commander, Air Vice Marshal (retired) Peter Criss, said that he was "absolutely astounded" that $6 billion would be spent on an interim aircraft, and cited the US Senate Armed Services Committee, to the effect that the "excess power" of the Block I Super Hornet was inferior to that of the MiG-29 and Su-30, both of which were being operated by, or were on order for, air forces in South East Asia. Another former senior RAAF officer, Air Commodore (ret.) Ted Bushell stated that the F/A-18F could not perform the strategic deterrent/strike role assigned to the F-111C and the latter could carry out the strategic deterrent/strike role until 2020 at least. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,923 | A review was announced on 31 December 2007, by the new Australian Labor government, as part of a wider review of the RAAF's combat aircraft procurement plans. The main reasons given were concerns over operational suitability, the lack of a proper review process, and internal beliefs that an interim fighter was not required. On 17 March 2008, the Government announced that it would proceed with plans to acquire all 24 F/A-18Fs. Defence Minister Joel Fitzgibbon said that the Super Hornet was an "excellent aircraft"; he also indicated that costs and logistical factors contributed to the decision: the F-111's retirement was "irreversible"; "only" the F/A-18F could meet the timeframe and that cancellation "would bring significant financial penalties and create understandable tensions between the contract partners." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,924 | The Block II package aircraft offered to the RAAF include installed engines and six spares, APG-79 AESA radars, Link 16 connectivity, LAU-127 guided missile launchers, AN/ALE-55 fiber optic towed decoys and other equipment. The government has also sought U.S. export approval for Boeing EA-18G Growlers. On 27 February 2009, Fitzgibbon announced that 12 of the 24 Super Hornets would be wired on the production line for future modification as EA-18Gs. The additional wiring would cost A$35 million. The final decision on conversion to EA-18Gs, at a cost of A$300 million, would be made in 2012. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,925 | The first RAAF Super Hornet was completed in 2009 and first flew from Boeing's factory in St. Louis, Missouri, on 21 July 2009. RAAF crews began training in the U.S. in 2009. The RAAF's first five F/A-18Fs arrived at their home base, RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland, on 26 March 2010; and were joined by six more aircraft on 7 July 2010. Following the arrival of another four aircraft in December 2010, the first RAAF F/A-18F squadron was declared operational on 9 December 2010. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,926 | In December 2012, the Australian government sought information from the United States about the cost of acquiring a further 24 F/A-18Fs, which may be purchased to avoid a capability gap due to F-35 program delays. In February 2013, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale to Australia for up to 12 F/A-18E/F and 12 EA-18G Growler aircraft with associated equipment, training and logistical support. In May 2013, Australia announced they would retain the 24 F/A-18F instead of converting them, and will order 12 new EA-18Gs. In June 2014 Boeing was awarded the contract for the 12 EA-18Gs, and the first EA-18G for Australia was rolled out on 29 July 2015. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,927 | On 24 September 2014, eight RAAF F/A-18Fs, along with a tanker, an early warning aircraft, and 400 personnel arrived in the United Arab Emirates to take part in operations against Islamic State (IS) militants. On 5 October 2014, the RAAF officially started combat missions over Iraq, with a pair of F/A-18Fs armed with GPS guided bombs and a KC-30A refuelling aircraft; they returned safely to base without attacking targets. On 8 October 2014, an Australian Super Hornet conducted its first attack against IS forces, dropping two bombs on an ISIL facility in northern Iraq. In 2017, the Royal Australian Air Force replaced the No. 6 Squadron RAAF Super Hornets with EA-18G and transferred No. 6's Super Hornets to No. 1 Squadron RAAF. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,928 | On 8 December 2020, the crew onboard Super Hornet A44-223 ejected while the aircraft was taking off at RAAF Base Amberley. After the ejection, the Super Hornet kept rolling until it stopped into a ditch off the side of the runway. There were reports that an eyewitness observed smoke from one of the engines. A day after the incident, the Royal Australian Air Force announced that the fleet of 24 Super Hornets and 11 EA-18G Growler aircraft had been grounded while the cause of the incident is determined. The cause was determined to be pilot error. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,929 | In May 2015, it was reported that the Kuwait Air Force was planning to order 28 F/A-18E/Fs with options for an additional 12. However, in June 2015 it was reported that Kuwait was considering a split purchase between the Eurofighter Typhoon and the F/A-18E/F. On 11 September 2015, Kuwait signed an agreement for 28 Eurofighter aircraft. In November 2016, a proposed sale to Kuwait of 32 F/A-18E and 8 F/A-18F fighters, armaments, associated equipment, and conformal fuel tanks was approved by the U.S. State Department and Congress was notified. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,930 | In June 2018, the Kuwaiti Government ordered 22 F/A-18Es and 6 F/A-18Fs. The value of the contract was US$1.5 billion. All of the aircraft were scheduled to be delivered by January 2021, but now were rescheduled to be delivered later in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,931 | Boeing has pitched the F/A-18E/F to numerous countries, particularly those that operate the legacy Hornet as it was supposed to be a "logical progression from the Hornet to the [Super Hornet], with its logistics, weaponry and training commonalities". So far only the US Navy, Australia, and Kuwait have ordered and received the Super Hornet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,932 | Boeing offered Malaysia Super Hornets as part of a buy-back package for its existing Hornets in 2002. However, the Super Hornet procurement was halted in 2007 after the government decided to purchase the Sukhoi Su-30MKM instead. But Chief Gen. Datuk Nik Ismail Nik Mohamaed of the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) indicated that the air force had not planned to end the Super Hornet procurement, stating that it needed such fighters. Separately, the F/A-18F Super Hornet is a contender for the MRCA program, under which the RMAF is looking to equip three squadrons with 36 to 40 new fighters with an estimated budget of RM6 billion to RM8 billion (US$1.84 billion to US$2.46 billion). Other competitors are the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale and Saab JAS 39 Gripen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,933 | For India's MMRCA competition, Boeing offered a customized variant called F/A-18IN, which included Raytheon's APG-79 AESA radar. In August 2008, Boeing submitted an industrial participation proposal to India describing partnerships with companies in India. The Indian Air Force (IAF) extensively evaluated the Super Hornets and conducted field trials in August 2009. However, in April 2011, the IAF eliminated the F/A-18IN from the competition which was eventually won by the Dassault Rafale. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,934 | In October 2016, India reportedly received three unsolicited bids, including one from Boeing for the Super Hornet, to replace its MiG-21 and MiG-27 aircraft. In February 2018, the Indian Naval Air Arm was reportedly interested in the Super Hornet as the main carrier-based strike fighter of the in-development "Vishal"-class aircraft carrier. The aircraft is now competing with 6 other aircraft in a fresh tender which is referred as MMRCA 2.0 in the Indian media, for the procurement of 114 multi-role combat aircraft for the Indian Air Force. In December 2020, Boeing announced that it had successfully launched the aircraft from a ski-jump, noting that this would mean the aircraft was compatible with the Indian Navy's STOBAR carriers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,935 | In May 2022, two F/A-18 Super Hornets were sent to Goa to showcase compatibility with Indian aircraft carriers. There are technical aspects that would make the Rafale difficult to implement for the INS Vikrant, and would favor the Super Hornet over the French Rafale. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,936 | On 12 March 2014, Belgian newspaper "De Morgen" reported that Boeing is in talks with the Belgian Ministry of Defence about the Super Hornet as a candidate to replace Belgium's aging F-16 fleet. In April 2017, Boeing announced it would not compete in the competition, citing it "does not see an opportunity to compete on a truly level playing field". On 25 October 2018, Belgium officially selected the offer for 34 F-35As to replace its fleet of around 54 F-16s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,937 | Boeing proposed the Super Hornet to the Brazilian government. It was reported that the Super Hornet was selected as one of three finalists in Brazil's fighter competition in October 2008. Brazil has put forward an initial requirement for 36 aircraft, with a potential total purchase of 120 examples. However news of National Security Agency spying activity on Brazilian leaders has caused animosity between Brazil and the US. Brazil eventually dropped the Super Hornet from its final list and selected the Saab JAS 39 Gripen in December 2013. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,938 | The Super Hornet has been a contender to replace the CF-18 Hornet, a version of the F/A-18A and B models, operated by the Royal Canadian Air Force. Like the older Hornet, the Super Hornet's design is well-suited to Northern Canada's rugged forward operational airfields, while its extended range removes its predecessor's main deficiency. Due to commonalities, training and integration would be straightforward in transitioning to the Super Hornet. In 2010, Canada decided on sole source selection of the F-35A. Boeing claimed that Canada had ignored the Super Hornet's radar cross-section characteristics during evaluation. By April 2012, Canada was reportedly reviewing its F-35 procurement. In September 2013, Boeing provided Canada with data on its Advanced Super Hornet, suggesting that a fleet of 65 aircraft would cost $1.7 billion less than a fleet of F-35s. The US Navy buys Super Hornets for $52 million per aircraft, while the advanced model costs $6–$10 million more per aircraft, dependent on options selected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,939 | As a result of the 2015 Canadian federal election, the new Liberal government indicated that it would launch a competition to replace the CF-18 fleet. During the election, Liberal Leader Justin Trudeau stated that his government would not buy the F-35. On 22 November 2016, the Liberal government announced its intention to acquire 18 Super Hornets on an interim basis. A letter of request by the Canadian government was issued 14 March 2017 for 18 Super Hornets. In September 2017, the U.S State Department granted Canada permission to buy 10 F/A-18Es and 8 F/A-18Fs (or EA-18Gs) along with supporting equipment, spares, and armaments. The agreed cost for the 18 jets totaled CA$1.5 billion, or about CA$83.3 million per aircraft, adding the supporting equipment, training, spares, and weapons increased the acquisition cost to CA$6.3 billion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,940 | However, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau warned that pending Super Hornet sale to Canada along with a possible sale of another 70 was adversely affected by Boeing's actions against Bombardier Aerospace of Montreal. These included a complaint to the US government about Bombardier selling CSeries airliners to Delta Air Lines at unduly low prices; in September 2017, the U.S. Department of Commerce proposed a 219% tariff on CSeries imported into the US. In January 2018, the USITC commissioners unanimously ruled against Boeing that the U.S. industry is not threatened and no duties will be imposed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,941 | In late 2017, the Canadian Government agreed with Australia to purchase 18 used F/A-18 Hornets as an interim measure to ensure fleet readiness. Boeing has confirmed its bid for the Advanced Fighter Program, likely offering a mix of 88 F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornets (Block III) and Boeing EA-18G Growlers. On 25 November 2021, Reuters reported that Boeing is out of the competition since its fighter proposal does not meet requirements with the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen remaining in competition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,942 | In 2008, the Royal Danish Air Force was offered the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet as one of three fighters in a Danish competition to replace 48 F-16AM/BMs. The other contenders were the F-35A Joint Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon. Denmark is a level-3 partner in the JSF program. The final selection was originally planned for mid-2015 where 24 to 30 fighters were expected. In April 2014, the Danish Ministry of Defence handed over a Request for Binding Information (RBI) that specifically listed the F/A-18F two-seat variant. In December 2015, the decision was postponed to 2016, with the final order's details pending negotiations. In May 2016, the Danish government recommended to parliament that 27 F-35As should be procured instead of 38 Super Hornets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,943 | In September 2016, Boeing, the manufacturer of the Super Hornet, indicated that they would take legal action against the Danish decision to buy the F-35A, indicating that data used was flawed. In March 2018, Boeing lost the case with the court stating "The court has found that the authorities' decisions on refusal of access to the documents are legal and valid." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,944 | In June 2015, a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting the so-called HX Fighter Program to replace the Finnish Air Force's current fleet of F/A-18C/D Hornets, which will reach the end of their service life by the end of the 2020s. The group recognises five potential types: Boeing F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,945 | In May 2016, the DOD announced that two US manufacturers will respond to the information request regarding the fighter acquisition: Boeing with the Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin with the F-35. The request for information concerning the program was sent in early 2016 with five responses received in November 2016. A call for tender will be sent in spring 2018 and the buying decision is scheduled to take place in 2021. In February 2020, three Super Hornet aircraft arrived at the Tampere-Pirkkala Airbase in Finland for final flight evaluations in the HX Fighter Program, a single-seat F/A-18E, a twin-seat F/A-18F and an EA-18G. The evaluations concluded on 28 February 2020. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,946 | The Finnish newspaper "Iltalehti" reported that several foreign and security policy sources had confirmed the Finnish Defense Forces recommendation of the F-35 as Finland's next fighter, citing its capability and expected long lifespan as key reasons. Finland ordered the F-35 in February 2022. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,947 | Germany requires a replacement for its aging Panavia Tornado fleet which includes both Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) and ECR (Electronic Combat/Reconnaissance) variants. Germany considered ordering the F-35, Eurofighter Typhoon, the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the EA-18G Growler. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,948 | In April 2020, Germany's defense secretary announced a plan to replace its Panavia Tornado aircraft with a split purchase of 30 Super Hornets, 15 EA-18G Growlers and 55 Eurofighter Typhoons. However the Defense Ministry states this is not a done deal and it is being debated. As of March 2020, the Super Hornet is not certified for the B61 nuclear bombs, but Dan Gillian, head of Boeing's Super Hornet program, previously stated that "We certainly think that we, working with the U.S. government, can meet the German requirements there on the [Germans'] timeline." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,949 | With increased tensions in Europe, due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine beginning 24 February 2022, Germany scrambled to accelerate defense spending priorities. Newly elected Chancellor Olaf Scholz pledged a €100 billion military upgrade, which included selecting Lockheed Martin's F-35 instead of Super Hornets for the nuclear role and Eurofighter ECR/SEAD instead of Growlers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,950 | During the 2010s, Poland sought to purchase 64 multirole combat aircraft from 2021 to replace the Polish Air Force's fleet of Sukhoi Su-22M4 ground attack aircraft and Mikoyan MiG-29 fighter aircraft. In November 2017, the Armament Inspectorate launched the acquisition process. On 22 December 2017, five entities expressed their will to participate in the market analysis phase of the procurement process, referred to as ""Harpia"" (harpy eagle), including: Saab AB with Gripen NG, Lockheed Martin with F-35, Boeing Company with F/A-18, Leonardo S.p.A. with Eurofighter Typhoon and Fights-On Logistics with second-hand F-16s. On 28 May 2019, Polish Defense Ministry sent a formal request to buy 32 F-35As. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,951 | Boeing first offered the Super Hornet to the Swiss Air Force as a replacement for Swiss F-5E Tigers before withdrawing from the competition on 30 April 2008. The Swiss Air Force was at one point intending to buy the rival Saab Gripen, but this was blocked by Swiss voters in 2014. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,952 | In March 2018, Swiss officials named contenders in its Air 2030 program: The Saab Gripen, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin F-35. The program has a budget of but includes not only combat aircraft but also ground-based air defense systems. In October 2018, it was reported by Jane's that the Swiss Air Force may be limited to purchasing a single-engine fighter due to cost. However, a bidder for the programme stated that Swiss Air Force pilots are "so enamoured of their Hornets that they will be inclined to select another two-seat fighter". The F/A-18E/F performed demonstrations for Swiss personnel at Payerne Air Base in April 2019, which was contrasted to flights performed by other bidders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,953 | On 30 June 2021, the Swiss Federal Council proposed the acquisition of 36 F-35As to Parliament at a cost of up to 6 billion Swiss francs (US$6.5 billion), citing the aircraft's cost - and combat-effectiveness. The Swiss anti-military group GSoA intended to contest the purchase in another national referendum supported by the Green Party of Switzerland and the Social Democratic Party of Switzerland (which previously managed to block the Gripen). In August 2022, they registered the initiative, with 120,000 people having signed in less than a year (with 100,000 required). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,954 | On 26 November 2021, it was announced that Armasuisse had agreed to contract terms with the US government for 36 F-35As for CHF 6.035 billion. The next step was to request Parliament approve funds in the 2022 Armed Forces Dispatch. The order was then subject to parliamentary approval and the popular initiative not proceeding or failing. A parliamentary inquiry found the purchase worrisome but legal. The government did not wait for the popular initiative to proceed, which was legally permitted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,955 | On 15 September 2022, the Swiss National council gave the Federal council permission to sign the purchase deal, with a time limit for signing of March 2023. The deal to buy 36 F-35A was signed on 19 September 2022, with deliveries to commence in 2027 and conclude by 2030. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,956 | Spain is looking for 68-72 fighters to replace F/A-18A/B Hornet. Possible participants of the tender will be Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale, Boeing F/A-18 E/F Advanced Super Hornet, Lockheed F-35 Lightning II. On 22 June 2022 Spain has ordered 20 Tranche 4 Eurofighter Typhoon to replace the 20 ex-USN F/A-18 based at the Canary Islands. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,957 | The United States Marine Corps has avoided the Super Hornet program over fears that any Super Hornet buys will be at the cost of the F-35B STOVL fighters that they intend to operate from amphibious ships. Resistance is so high that they would rather fly former Navy F/A-18Cs. In 2011, the Marine Corps agreed to eventually equip five Marine fighter-attack squadrons (VMFA) with the F-35C carrier variant to continue to augment Navy carrier air wings as they do with the F/A-18C. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,958 | On 1 August 2010, "The Sunday Times" reported that the British government was considering canceling orders for the F-35B and buying the Super Hornet instead for its s, claiming a saving of around £10 billion as a result. An industry source claimed that the Super Hornet could be ski jump launched without catapults. In the end, the UK opted for a STOVL aircraft carrier equipped with F-35Bs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,959 | In early 2011, Bulgaria was considering the F/A-18 Super Hornet, among other aircraft, as a replacement for its MiG-21 fleet. After initially selecting the Saab Gripen, the newly elected governing coalition has restarted the program and indicated that the Super Hornet is again under consideration. The decision is expected by July 2018. In December 2018, the Bulgarian Ministry of Defence selected the offer for 8 F-16V from the United States for an estimated 1.8 billion lev ($1.05 billion) as the preferred option, and recommended the government to start talks with the US. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,960 | In 2014, Boeing was working with Korean Airlines to offer the Advanced Super Hornet to the Republic of Korea Air Force as an alternative to their KF-X fighter program. Although a fighter based on the Super Hornet would save money, downgrading the program would not give South Korean industry as much knowledge as it would from developing a new fighter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,961 | Norway received an offer for at least one squadron of F/A-18 Super Hornets in 2012 due to the suitability of the aircraft in Northern Norwegian conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,962 | Multiple (cerebral) sclerosis (MS), also known as encephalomyelitis disseminata or disseminated sclerosis, is the most common demyelinating disease, in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. This damage disrupts the ability of parts of the nervous system to transmit signals, resulting in a range of signs and symptoms, including physical, mental, and sometimes psychiatric problems. Specific symptoms can include double vision, blindness in one eye, muscle weakness, and trouble with sensation or coordination. MS takes several forms, with new symptoms either occurring in isolated attacks (relapsing forms) or building up over time (progressive forms). In the relapsing forms of MS, between attacks, symptoms may disappear completely, although some permanent neurological problems often remain, especially as the disease advances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,963 | While the cause is unclear, the underlying mechanism is thought to be either destruction by the immune system or failure of the myelin-producing cells. Proposed causes for this include genetics and environmental factors, such as viral infections. MS is usually diagnosed based on the presenting signs and symptoms and the results of supporting medical tests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,964 | There is no known cure for multiple sclerosis. Treatments attempt to improve function after an attack and prevent new attacks. Physical therapy and occupational therapy can help with people's ability to function. Many people pursue alternative treatments, despite a lack of evidence of benefit. The long-term outcome is difficult to predict; better outcomes are more often seen in women, those who develop the disease early in life, those with a relapsing course, and those who initially experienced few attacks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,965 | Multiple sclerosis is the most common immune-mediated disorder affecting the central nervous system. There are nearly one million people with MS in the United States in 2022, and in 2020, about 2.8 million people were affected globally, with rates varying widely in different regions and among different populations. The disease usually begins between the ages of twenty and fifty and is twice as common in women as in men. MS was first described in 1868 by French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot. The name "multiple sclerosis" refers to the numerous glial scars (or sclerae – essentially plaques or lesions) that develop on the white matter of the brain and spinal cord. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,966 | A person with MS can have almost any neurological symptom or sign, with autonomic, visual, motor, and sensory problems being the most common. The specific symptoms are determined by the locations of the lesions within the nervous system, and may include loss of sensitivity or changes in sensation such as tingling, pins and needles or numbness, muscle weakness, blurred vision, pronounced reflexes, muscle spasms, or difficulty in moving; difficulties with coordination and balance (ataxia); problems with speech or swallowing, visual problems (nystagmus, optic neuritis or double vision), feeling tired, acute or chronic pain, and bladder and bowel difficulties (such as neurogenic bladder), among others. When multiple sclerosis is more advanced, walking difficulties can occur and the risk of falling increases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,967 | Difficulties thinking and emotional problems such as depression or unstable mood are also common. The primary deficit in cognitive function that people with MS experience is slowed information processing speed, with memory also commonly affected, and executive function less commonly. Intelligence, language, and semantic memory are usually preserved, and the level of cognitive impairment varies significantly between people with MS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,968 | Uhthoff's phenomenon, a worsening of symptoms due to exposure to higher than usual temperatures, and Lhermitte's sign, an electrical sensation that runs down the back when bending the neck, are particularly characteristic of MS. The main measure of disability and severity is the expanded disability status scale (EDSS), with other measures such as the multiple sclerosis functional composite being increasingly used in research. EDSS is also correlated with falls in people with MS. While it is a popular measure, EDSS has been criticized for some of its limitations, such as relying too much on walking. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,969 | The condition begins in 85% of cases as a clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) over a number of days with 45% having motor or sensory problems, 20% having optic neuritis, and 10% having symptoms related to brainstem dysfunction, while the remaining 25% have more than one of the previous difficulties. The course of symptoms occurs in two main patterns initially: either as episodes of sudden worsening that last a few days to months (called relapses, exacerbations, bouts, attacks, or flare-ups) followed by improvement (85% of cases) or as a gradual worsening over time without periods of recovery (10–15% of cases). A combination of these two patterns may also occur or people may start in a relapsing and remitting course that then becomes progressive later on. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,970 | Relapses are usually not predictable, occurring without warning. Exacerbations rarely occur more frequently than twice per year. Some relapses, however, are preceded by common triggers and they occur more frequently during spring and summer. Similarly, viral infections such as the common cold, influenza, or gastroenteritis increase their risk. Stress may also trigger an attack. Women with MS who become pregnant experience fewer relapses; however, during the first months after delivery the risk increases. Overall, pregnancy does not seem to influence long-term disability. Many events have been found not to affect relapse rates including vaccination, breast feeding, physical trauma, and Uhthoff's phenomenon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,971 | MS may have a prodromal phase in the years leading up to MS manifestation, characterized by psychiatric issues, cognitive impairment, and increased utilization of healthcare. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,972 | The cause of MS is unknown; however, it is believed to occur as a result of some combination of genetic and environmental factors such as infectious agents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,973 | Many microbes have been proposed as triggers of MS. One hypothesis is that infection by a widespread microbe contributes to disease development, and the geographic distribution of this organism significantly influences the epidemiology of MS. Two opposing versions of this hypothesis include the hygiene hypothesis and the prevalence hypothesis, the former being more favored. The hygiene hypothesis proposes that exposure to certain infectious agents early in life is protective; the disease is a response to a late encounter with such agents. The prevalence hypothesis proposes that an early, persistent, and silent infection increases risk of disease, and thus the disease is more common where the infectious agent is more common. Only in a few cases and after many years does it cause demyelination. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,974 | Human herpes viruses are a candidate group of viruses. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a herpes virus that can cause infectious mononucleosis and infects approximately 95% of adults, has been increasingly suspected to be an initiating cause of MS, in combination with other genetic and environmental factors, even though only a small proportion of those infected with EBV will later develop MS. A study of individuals in the United States military between 1993 and 2013 (total population greater than 10 million) compared 801 people who developed MS on or after military service to 1,566 matched controls who did not develop MS during this observation period. The study found a 32-fold increased risk of developing MS after infection with EBV. It did not find an increased risk after infection with other viruses, including the similarly transmitted cytomegalovirus. The finding strongly suggests that EBV plays a role in the onset of MS, although EBV alone may be insufficent to cause MS. Although some consider that this goes against the hygiene hypothesis, since the non-infected have probably experienced a more hygienic upbringing, others believe that there is no contradiction, since it is a first encounter with the causative virus relatively late in life that is the trigger for the disease. Other diseases that may be related include measles, mumps and rubella. Evidence for a virus as a cause include the presence of oligoclonal bands in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid of most people with MS, the association of several viruses with human demyelinating encephalomyelitis, and the occurrence of demyelination in animals caused by some viral infections. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,975 | MS is not considered a hereditary disease; however, a number of genetic variations have been shown to increase the risk. Some of these genes appear to have higher levels of expression in microglial cells than expected by chance. The probability of developing the disease is higher in relatives of an affected person, with a greater risk among those more closely related. An identical twin of an affected individual has a 30% chance of developing MS, 5% for a non-identical twin, 2.5% for a sibling, and an even lower chance for a half-sibling. If both parents are affected the risk in their children is 10 times that of the general population. MS is also more common in some ethnic groups than others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,976 | Specific genes that have been linked with MS include differences in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system—a group of genes on chromosome 6 that serves as the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). That differences in the HLA region are related to susceptibility has been known since the 1980s, and this same region has also been implicated in the development of other autoimmune diseases such as diabetes type I and systemic lupus erythematosus. The most consistent finding is the association between multiple sclerosis and alleles of the MHC defined as DR15 and DQ6. Other loci have shown a protective effect, such as HLA-C554 and HLA-DRB1*11. Overall, it has been estimated that HLA differences account for between 20% and 60% of the genetic predisposition. Modern genetic methods (genome-wide association studies) have revealed at least 200 variants outside the HLA locus that modestly increase the probability of MS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,977 | MS is more common in people who live farther from the equator, although exceptions exist. These exceptions include ethnic groups that are at low risk and that live far from the equator such as the Sami, Amerindians, Canadian Hutterites, New Zealand Māori, and Canada's Inuit, as well as groups that have a relatively high risk and that live closer to the equator such as Sardinians, inland Sicilians, Palestinians, and Parsi. The cause of this geographical pattern is not clear. While the north–south gradient of incidence is decreasing, as of 2010 it is still present. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,978 | MS is more common in regions with northern European populations and the geographic variation may simply reflect the global distribution of these high-risk populations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,979 | A relationship between season of birth and MS lends support to this idea, with fewer people born in the northern hemisphere in November compared to May being affected later in life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,980 | Environmental factors may play a role during childhood, with several studies finding that people who move to a different region of the world before the age of 15 acquire the new region's risk of MS. If migration takes place after age 15, however, the person retains the risk of their home country. There is some evidence that the effect of moving may still apply to people older than 15. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,981 | Smoking may be an independent risk factor for MS. Stress may be a risk factor, although the evidence to support this is weak. Association with occupational exposures and toxins—mainly organic solvents—has been evaluated, but no clear conclusions have been reached. Vaccinations were studied as causal factors; however, most studies show no association. Several other possible risk factors, such as diet and hormone intake, have been looked at; however, evidence on their relation with the disease is "sparse and unpersuasive". Gout occurs less than would be expected and lower levels of uric acid have been found in people with MS. This has led to the theory that uric acid is protective, although its exact importance remains unknown. Obesity during adolescence and young adulthood is a risk factor for MS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,982 | The three main characteristics of MS are the formation of lesions in the central nervous system (also called plaques), inflammation and the destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons. These features interact in a complex and not yet fully understood manner to produce the breakdown of nerve tissue and in turn the signs and symptoms of the disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,983 | Cholesterol crystals are believed both to impair myelin repair and to aggravate inflammation. MS is believed to be an immune-mediated disorder that develops from an interaction of the individual's genetics and as yet unidentified environmental causes. Damage is believed to be caused, at least in part, by attack on the nervous system by a person's own immune system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,984 | The name "multiple sclerosis" refers to the scars (sclerae – better known as plaques or lesions) that form in the nervous system. These lesions most commonly affect the white matter in the optic nerve, brain stem, basal ganglia, and spinal cord, or white matter tracts close to the lateral ventricles. The function of white matter cells is to carry signals between grey matter areas, where the processing is done, and the rest of the body. The peripheral nervous system is rarely involved. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,985 | To be specific, MS involves the loss of oligodendrocytes, the cells responsible for creating and maintaining a fatty layer—known as the myelin sheath—which helps the neurons carry electrical signals (action potentials). This results in a thinning or complete loss of myelin and, as the disease advances, the breakdown of the axons of neurons. When the myelin is lost, a neuron can no longer effectively conduct electrical signals. A repair process, called remyelination, takes place in early phases of the disease, but the oligodendrocytes are unable to completely rebuild the cell's myelin sheath. Repeated attacks lead to successively less effective remyelinations, until a scar-like plaque is built up around the damaged axons. These scars are the origin of the symptoms and during an attack magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) often shows more than ten new plaques. This could indicate that there are a number of lesions below which the brain is capable of repairing itself without producing noticeable consequences. Another process involved in the creation of lesions is an abnormal increase in the number of astrocytes due to the destruction of nearby neurons. A number of lesion patterns have been described. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,986 | Apart from demyelination, the other sign of the disease is inflammation. Fitting with an immunological explanation, the inflammatory process is caused by T cells, a kind of lymphocyte that plays an important role in the body's defenses. T cells gain entry into the brain as a result of disruptions in the blood–brain barrier. The T cells recognize myelin as foreign and attack it, explaining why these cells are also called "autoreactive lymphocytes." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,987 | The attack on myelin starts inflammatory processes, which trigger other immune cells and the release of soluble factors like cytokines and antibodies. A further breakdown of the blood-brain barrier, in turn, causes a number of other damaging effects such as swelling, activation of macrophages, and more activation of cytokines and other destructive proteins. Inflammation can potentially reduce transmission of information between neurons in at least three ways. The soluble factors released might stop neurotransmission by intact neurons. These factors could lead to or enhance the loss of myelin, or they may cause the axon to break down completely. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,988 | The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a part of the capillary system that prevents the entry of T cells into the central nervous system. It may become permeable to these types of cells secondary to an infection by a virus or bacteria. After it repairs itself, typically once the infection has cleared, T cells may remain trapped inside the brain. Gadolinium cannot cross a normal BBB and, therefore, gadolinium-enhanced MRI is used to show BBB breakdowns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,989 | Multiple sclerosis is typically diagnosed based on the presenting signs and symptoms, in combination with supporting medical imaging and laboratory testing. It can be difficult to confirm, especially early on, since the signs and symptoms may be similar to those of other medical problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,990 | The McDonald criteria, which focus on clinical, laboratory, and radiologic evidence of lesions at different times and in different areas, is the most commonly used method of diagnosis with the Schumacher and Poser criteria being of mostly historical significance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,991 | Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and spine may show areas of demyelination (lesions or plaques). Gadolinium can be administered intravenously as a contrast agent to highlight active plaques and, by elimination, demonstrate the existence of historical lesions not associated with symptoms at the moment of the evaluation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,992 | Central vein signs (CVS) have been proposed as a good indicator of MS in comparison with other conditions causing white lesions. One small study found fewer CVS in older and hypertensive people. Further research on CVS as a biomarker for MS is ongoing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,993 | Testing of cerebrospinal fluid obtained from a lumbar puncture can provide evidence of chronic inflammation in the central nervous system. The cerebrospinal fluid is tested for oligoclonal bands of IgG on electrophoresis, which are inflammation markers found in 75–85% of people with MS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,994 | There are several diseases that present similarly to multiple sclerosis. Intractable vomiting, severe optic neuritis, or bilateral optic neuritis raises suspicion for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD). Involvement of multiple cranial nerves raises suspicion for neurosarcoidosis. Longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis (LETM), in which spinal cord damage spans three or more vertebral segments, raises suspicion for NMOSD, neurosarcoidosis, anti-MOG–associated myelitis, systemic rheumatologic disease, or a paraneoplastic disorder. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,995 | Several phenotypes (commonly termed "types"), or patterns of progression, have been described. Phenotypes use the past course of the disease in an attempt to predict the future course. They are important not only for prognosis but also for treatment decisions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,996 | The International Advisory Committee on Clinical Trials of MS describes four types of MS (revised in 2013) in what is known as the Lublin classification: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,997 | Relapsing-remitting MS is characterized by unpredictable relapses followed by periods of months to years of relative quiet (remission) with no new signs of disease activity. Deficits that occur during attacks may either resolve or leave problems, the latter in about 40% of attacks and being more common the longer a person has had the disease. This describes the initial course of 80% of individuals with MS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,998 | The relapsing-remitting subtype usually begins with a clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). In CIS, a person has an attack suggestive of demyelination, but does not fulfill the criteria for multiple sclerosis. 30 to 70% of persons who experience CIS, later develop MS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,999 | Primary progressive MS occurs in approximately 10–20% of individuals with the disease, with no remission after the initial symptoms. It is characterized by progression of disability from onset, with no, or only occasional and minor, remissions and improvements. The usual age of onset for the primary progressive subtype is later than of the relapsing-remitting subtype. It is similar to the age that secondary progressive usually begins in relapsing-remitting MS, around 40 years of age. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
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