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6,900 | In 2009, development commenced on several engine improvements, including greater resistance to foreign object damage, reduced fuel burn rate, and potentially increased thrust of up to 20%. In 2014, Boeing revealed a Super Hornet hybrid concept, equipped with the EA-18G Growler's electronic signal detection capabilities... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,901 | In 2019, Boeing received a $4 billion contract to deliver 78 Block III Super Hornets for the Navy through fiscal 2021. The Navy plans to sign year to year contracts with Boeing to convert all of its Block II aircraft to Block III variants through 2033. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,902 | The Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft at about 20% larger, heavier empty weight, and heavier maximum weight than the original Hornet. The Super Hornet carries 33% more internal fuel, increasing mission range by 41% and endurance by 50% over the "Legacy" Hornet. The empty weight of the Super Hornet is about less th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,903 | The Super Hornet, unlike the previous Hornet, is designed to be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role the Navy had lost with the retirement of the KA-6D and Lockheed S-3B Viking tankers. The ARS includes an external... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,904 | The forward fuselage is unchanged, but the remainder of the aircraft shares little with earlier F/A-18C/D models. The fuselage was stretched by to make room for fuel and future avionics upgrades and increased the wing area by 25%. However, the Super Hornet has 42% fewer structural parts than the original Hornet design.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,905 | Other differences include intake ramps for the engines and two extra wing hard points for payload (for a total of 11), retaining previous hardpoints on the bottom centerline, wingtips, and two conformal fuselage positions. Among the most significant aerodynamic changes are the enlarged leading edge extensions (LEX) tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,906 | Survivability is an important feature of the Super Hornet design. The U.S. Navy took a "balanced approach" to survivability in its design. It does not rely primarily on low-observability technology, but rather adopts improvements to its radar signture with other design innovations. The fighter also incorporates more ad... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,907 | The F/A-18E/F's radar cross-section was reduced greatly from some aspects, mainly the front and rear. The design of the engine inlets reduces the aircraft's frontal radar cross-section. The alignment of the leading edges of the engine inlets is designed to scatter radiation to the sides. Fixed fanlike reflecting struct... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,908 | The Super Hornet also makes considerable use of panel joint serration and edge alignment. Considerable attention has been paid to the removal or filling of unnecessary surface join gaps and resonant cavities. Where the F/A-18A-D used grilles to cover various accessory exhaust and inlet ducts, the F/A-18E/F uses perfora... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,909 | While the F/A-18E/F is not a stealth fighter like the F-22, it does have a frontal radar cross-section an order of magnitude smaller than prior generation fighters. Additional changes for reducing RCS can be installed on an as-needed basis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,910 | Initially, the Super Hornet's avionics and software had a 90% commonality with that of the F/A-18C/D fleet at the time. Differences include an up-front touchscreen control display; a large multipurpose color liquid-crystal display; and a fuel display. The Super Hornet has a quadruplex digital fly-by-wire system, as wel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,911 | The defensive countermeasures of Block I aircraft includes the AN/ALR-67(V)3 radar warning receiver, the AN/ALE-47 countermeasures dispenser, the AN/ALE-50 towed decoy and the AN/ALQ-165 Airborne Self-Protect Jammer (ASPJ). Block II aircraft replace the ALQ-165 with the AN/ALQ-214 Integrated Defensive Countermeasures (... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,912 | Block II aircraft were fitted with the AN/APG-79 AESA radar, capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles and can track air targets bey... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,913 | The Super Hornet entered fleet service with the U.S. Navy in 1999. It achieved initial operating capability (IOC) in September 2001 with the U.S. Navy's Strike Fighter Squadron 115 (VFA-115) at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California. VFA-115 was also the first unit to take their F/A-18 Super Hornets into combat. On 6 No... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,914 | In support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (Iraq War), VFA-14, VFA-41 and VFA-115 flew close air support, strike, escort, SEAD and aerial refueling sorties. Two F/A-18Es from VFA-14 and two F/A-18Fs from VFA-41 were forward deployed to . The VFA-14 aircraft flew mostly as aerial refuelers and the VFA-41 fighters as Forward ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,915 | On 8 September 2006, VFA-211 F/A-18F Super Hornets expended GBU-12 and GBU-38 bombs against Taliban fighters and Taliban fortifications west and northwest of Kandahar. This was the first time the unit had participated in an active combat capacity using the Super Hornet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,916 | During the 2006–2007 cruise with , VFA-103 and VFA-143 supported Operations Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom and operations off the Somali coast. Alongside "Legacy Hornet" squadrons, VFA-131 and VFA-83, they dropped 140 precision guided weapons and performed nearly 70 strafing runs. The Super Hornet can operate from the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,917 | In 2007, Boeing proposed additional F/A-18E/Fs to the U.S. Navy in a multi-year contract. As of October 2008, Boeing had delivered 367 Super Hornets to the U.S. Navy. On 6 April 2009, Defense Secretary Robert Gates announced that the Department of Defense (DOD) intended to acquire 31 F/A-18s in FY2010. Congress request... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,918 | On 7 August 2014, U.S. defense officials announced they had been authorized to launch bombing missions upon Islamic State (IS) forces in northern Iraq. The decision to take direct action was made to protect U.S. personnel in the city of Irbil and to ensure the safety of transport aircraft making airdrops to Yazidi civi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,919 | On 18 June 2017, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E shot down a Syrian Air Force Su-22 fighter-bomber that allegedly had bombed a position held by U.S.-supported Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) near Tabqa; the Syrian government claimed the Su-22 was bombing an IS position. This was the first aerial kill of a manned aircraft by an Amer... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,920 | In 2018, Boeing was awarded a contract to convert nine single-seat F/A-18E Super Hornets and two F/A-18F two-seaters for Blue Angels use; these are to be completed by 2021. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,921 | On 3 May 2007, the Australian Government signed an A$2.9 billion contract to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) as an interim replacement for its aging F-111s. It was reported, in July 2007, that the order for the F/A-18F would also prevent, in the event of significant delays to the F-35 prog... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,922 | The order was controversial. A former RAAF air (operations) commander, Air Vice Marshal (retired) Peter Criss, said that he was "absolutely astounded" that $6 billion would be spent on an interim aircraft, and cited the US Senate Armed Services Committee, to the effect that the "excess power" of the Block I Super Horne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,923 | A review was announced on 31 December 2007, by the new Australian Labor government, as part of a wider review of the RAAF's combat aircraft procurement plans. The main reasons given were concerns over operational suitability, the lack of a proper review process, and internal beliefs that an interim fighter was not requ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,924 | The Block II package aircraft offered to the RAAF include installed engines and six spares, APG-79 AESA radars, Link 16 connectivity, LAU-127 guided missile launchers, AN/ALE-55 fiber optic towed decoys and other equipment. The government has also sought U.S. export approval for Boeing EA-18G Growlers. On 27 February 2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,925 | The first RAAF Super Hornet was completed in 2009 and first flew from Boeing's factory in St. Louis, Missouri, on 21 July 2009. RAAF crews began training in the U.S. in 2009. The RAAF's first five F/A-18Fs arrived at their home base, RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland, on 26 March 2010; and were joined by six more aircra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,926 | In December 2012, the Australian government sought information from the United States about the cost of acquiring a further 24 F/A-18Fs, which may be purchased to avoid a capability gap due to F-35 program delays. In February 2013, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible Foreign Mil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,927 | On 24 September 2014, eight RAAF F/A-18Fs, along with a tanker, an early warning aircraft, and 400 personnel arrived in the United Arab Emirates to take part in operations against Islamic State (IS) militants. On 5 October 2014, the RAAF officially started combat missions over Iraq, with a pair of F/A-18Fs armed with G... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,928 | On 8 December 2020, the crew onboard Super Hornet A44-223 ejected while the aircraft was taking off at RAAF Base Amberley. After the ejection, the Super Hornet kept rolling until it stopped into a ditch off the side of the runway. There were reports that an eyewitness observed smoke from one of the engines. A day after... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,929 | In May 2015, it was reported that the Kuwait Air Force was planning to order 28 F/A-18E/Fs with options for an additional 12. However, in June 2015 it was reported that Kuwait was considering a split purchase between the Eurofighter Typhoon and the F/A-18E/F. On 11 September 2015, Kuwait signed an agreement for 28 Euro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,930 | In June 2018, the Kuwaiti Government ordered 22 F/A-18Es and 6 F/A-18Fs. The value of the contract was US$1.5 billion. All of the aircraft were scheduled to be delivered by January 2021, but now were rescheduled to be delivered later in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,931 | Boeing has pitched the F/A-18E/F to numerous countries, particularly those that operate the legacy Hornet as it was supposed to be a "logical progression from the Hornet to the [Super Hornet], with its logistics, weaponry and training commonalities". So far only the US Navy, Australia, and Kuwait have ordered and recei... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,932 | Boeing offered Malaysia Super Hornets as part of a buy-back package for its existing Hornets in 2002. However, the Super Hornet procurement was halted in 2007 after the government decided to purchase the Sukhoi Su-30MKM instead. But Chief Gen. Datuk Nik Ismail Nik Mohamaed of the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) indica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,933 | For India's MMRCA competition, Boeing offered a customized variant called F/A-18IN, which included Raytheon's APG-79 AESA radar. In August 2008, Boeing submitted an industrial participation proposal to India describing partnerships with companies in India. The Indian Air Force (IAF) extensively evaluated the Super Horn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,934 | In October 2016, India reportedly received three unsolicited bids, including one from Boeing for the Super Hornet, to replace its MiG-21 and MiG-27 aircraft. In February 2018, the Indian Naval Air Arm was reportedly interested in the Super Hornet as the main carrier-based strike fighter of the in-development "Vishal"-c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,935 | In May 2022, two F/A-18 Super Hornets were sent to Goa to showcase compatibility with Indian aircraft carriers. There are technical aspects that would make the Rafale difficult to implement for the INS Vikrant, and would favor the Super Hornet over the French Rafale. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,936 | On 12 March 2014, Belgian newspaper "De Morgen" reported that Boeing is in talks with the Belgian Ministry of Defence about the Super Hornet as a candidate to replace Belgium's aging F-16 fleet. In April 2017, Boeing announced it would not compete in the competition, citing it "does not see an opportunity to compete on... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,937 | Boeing proposed the Super Hornet to the Brazilian government. It was reported that the Super Hornet was selected as one of three finalists in Brazil's fighter competition in October 2008. Brazil has put forward an initial requirement for 36 aircraft, with a potential total purchase of 120 examples. However news of Nati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,938 | The Super Hornet has been a contender to replace the CF-18 Hornet, a version of the F/A-18A and B models, operated by the Royal Canadian Air Force. Like the older Hornet, the Super Hornet's design is well-suited to Northern Canada's rugged forward operational airfields, while its extended range removes its predecessor'... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,939 | As a result of the 2015 Canadian federal election, the new Liberal government indicated that it would launch a competition to replace the CF-18 fleet. During the election, Liberal Leader Justin Trudeau stated that his government would not buy the F-35. On 22 November 2016, the Liberal government announced its intention... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,940 | However, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau warned that pending Super Hornet sale to Canada along with a possible sale of another 70 was adversely affected by Boeing's actions against Bombardier Aerospace of Montreal. These included a complaint to the US government about Bombardier selling CSeries airliners to Delt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,941 | In late 2017, the Canadian Government agreed with Australia to purchase 18 used F/A-18 Hornets as an interim measure to ensure fleet readiness. Boeing has confirmed its bid for the Advanced Fighter Program, likely offering a mix of 88 F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornets (Block III) and Boeing EA-18G Growlers. On 25 Novemb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,942 | In 2008, the Royal Danish Air Force was offered the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet as one of three fighters in a Danish competition to replace 48 F-16AM/BMs. The other contenders were the F-35A Joint Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon. Denmark is a level-3 partner in the JSF program. The final selection was originally ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,943 | In September 2016, Boeing, the manufacturer of the Super Hornet, indicated that they would take legal action against the Danish decision to buy the F-35A, indicating that data used was flawed. In March 2018, Boeing lost the case with the court stating "The court has found that the authorities' decisions on refusal of a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,944 | In June 2015, a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting the so-called HX Fighter Program to replace the Finnish Air Force's current fleet of F/A-18C/D Hornets, which will reach the end of their service life by the end of the 2020s. The group recognises five potential types: Boeing F/A-18E/F Advanced S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,945 | In May 2016, the DOD announced that two US manufacturers will respond to the information request regarding the fighter acquisition: Boeing with the Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin with the F-35. The request for information concerning the program was sent in early 2016 with five responses received in November 2016. A c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,946 | The Finnish newspaper "Iltalehti" reported that several foreign and security policy sources had confirmed the Finnish Defense Forces recommendation of the F-35 as Finland's next fighter, citing its capability and expected long lifespan as key reasons. Finland ordered the F-35 in February 2022. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,947 | Germany requires a replacement for its aging Panavia Tornado fleet which includes both Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) and ECR (Electronic Combat/Reconnaissance) variants. Germany considered ordering the F-35, Eurofighter Typhoon, the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the EA-18G Growler. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,948 | In April 2020, Germany's defense secretary announced a plan to replace its Panavia Tornado aircraft with a split purchase of 30 Super Hornets, 15 EA-18G Growlers and 55 Eurofighter Typhoons. However the Defense Ministry states this is not a done deal and it is being debated. As of March 2020, the Super Hornet is not ce... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,949 | With increased tensions in Europe, due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine beginning 24 February 2022, Germany scrambled to accelerate defense spending priorities. Newly elected Chancellor Olaf Scholz pledged a €100 billion military upgrade, which included selecting Lockheed Martin's F-35 instead of Super Hornets for th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,950 | During the 2010s, Poland sought to purchase 64 multirole combat aircraft from 2021 to replace the Polish Air Force's fleet of Sukhoi Su-22M4 ground attack aircraft and Mikoyan MiG-29 fighter aircraft. In November 2017, the Armament Inspectorate launched the acquisition process. On 22 December 2017, five entities expres... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,951 | Boeing first offered the Super Hornet to the Swiss Air Force as a replacement for Swiss F-5E Tigers before withdrawing from the competition on 30 April 2008. The Swiss Air Force was at one point intending to buy the rival Saab Gripen, but this was blocked by Swiss voters in 2014. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,952 | In March 2018, Swiss officials named contenders in its Air 2030 program: The Saab Gripen, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin F-35. The program has a budget of but includes not only combat aircraft but also ground-based air defense systems. In October 2018, it was rep... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,953 | On 30 June 2021, the Swiss Federal Council proposed the acquisition of 36 F-35As to Parliament at a cost of up to 6 billion Swiss francs (US$6.5 billion), citing the aircraft's cost - and combat-effectiveness. The Swiss anti-military group GSoA intended to contest the purchase in another national referendum supported b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,954 | On 26 November 2021, it was announced that Armasuisse had agreed to contract terms with the US government for 36 F-35As for CHF 6.035 billion. The next step was to request Parliament approve funds in the 2022 Armed Forces Dispatch. The order was then subject to parliamentary approval and the popular initiative not proc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,955 | On 15 September 2022, the Swiss National council gave the Federal council permission to sign the purchase deal, with a time limit for signing of March 2023. The deal to buy 36 F-35A was signed on 19 September 2022, with deliveries to commence in 2027 and conclude by 2030. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,956 | Spain is looking for 68-72 fighters to replace F/A-18A/B Hornet. Possible participants of the tender will be Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale, Boeing F/A-18 E/F Advanced Super Hornet, Lockheed F-35 Lightning II. On 22 June 2022 Spain has ordered 20 Tranche 4 Eurofighter Typhoon to replace the 20 ex-USN F/A-18 based... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,957 | The United States Marine Corps has avoided the Super Hornet program over fears that any Super Hornet buys will be at the cost of the F-35B STOVL fighters that they intend to operate from amphibious ships. Resistance is so high that they would rather fly former Navy F/A-18Cs. In 2011, the Marine Corps agreed to eventual... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,958 | On 1 August 2010, "The Sunday Times" reported that the British government was considering canceling orders for the F-35B and buying the Super Hornet instead for its s, claiming a saving of around £10 billion as a result. An industry source claimed that the Super Hornet could be ski jump launched without catapults. In t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,959 | In early 2011, Bulgaria was considering the F/A-18 Super Hornet, among other aircraft, as a replacement for its MiG-21 fleet. After initially selecting the Saab Gripen, the newly elected governing coalition has restarted the program and indicated that the Super Hornet is again under consideration. The decision is expec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,960 | In 2014, Boeing was working with Korean Airlines to offer the Advanced Super Hornet to the Republic of Korea Air Force as an alternative to their KF-X fighter program. Although a fighter based on the Super Hornet would save money, downgrading the program would not give South Korean industry as much knowledge as it woul... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,961 | Norway received an offer for at least one squadron of F/A-18 Super Hornets in 2012 due to the suitability of the aircraft in Northern Norwegian conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=845012 |
6,962 | Multiple (cerebral) sclerosis (MS), also known as encephalomyelitis disseminata or disseminated sclerosis, is the most common demyelinating disease, in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. This damage disrupts the ability of parts of the nervous system to transmit signals... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,963 | While the cause is unclear, the underlying mechanism is thought to be either destruction by the immune system or failure of the myelin-producing cells. Proposed causes for this include genetics and environmental factors, such as viral infections. MS is usually diagnosed based on the presenting signs and symptoms and th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,964 | There is no known cure for multiple sclerosis. Treatments attempt to improve function after an attack and prevent new attacks. Physical therapy and occupational therapy can help with people's ability to function. Many people pursue alternative treatments, despite a lack of evidence of benefit. The long-term outcome is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,965 | Multiple sclerosis is the most common immune-mediated disorder affecting the central nervous system. There are nearly one million people with MS in the United States in 2022, and in 2020, about 2.8 million people were affected globally, with rates varying widely in different regions and among different populations. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,966 | A person with MS can have almost any neurological symptom or sign, with autonomic, visual, motor, and sensory problems being the most common. The specific symptoms are determined by the locations of the lesions within the nervous system, and may include loss of sensitivity or changes in sensation such as tingling, pins... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,967 | Difficulties thinking and emotional problems such as depression or unstable mood are also common. The primary deficit in cognitive function that people with MS experience is slowed information processing speed, with memory also commonly affected, and executive function less commonly. Intelligence, language, and semanti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,968 | Uhthoff's phenomenon, a worsening of symptoms due to exposure to higher than usual temperatures, and Lhermitte's sign, an electrical sensation that runs down the back when bending the neck, are particularly characteristic of MS. The main measure of disability and severity is the expanded disability status scale (EDSS),... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,969 | The condition begins in 85% of cases as a clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) over a number of days with 45% having motor or sensory problems, 20% having optic neuritis, and 10% having symptoms related to brainstem dysfunction, while the remaining 25% have more than one of the previous difficulties. The course of sympto... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,970 | Relapses are usually not predictable, occurring without warning. Exacerbations rarely occur more frequently than twice per year. Some relapses, however, are preceded by common triggers and they occur more frequently during spring and summer. Similarly, viral infections such as the common cold, influenza, or gastroenter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,971 | MS may have a prodromal phase in the years leading up to MS manifestation, characterized by psychiatric issues, cognitive impairment, and increased utilization of healthcare. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,972 | The cause of MS is unknown; however, it is believed to occur as a result of some combination of genetic and environmental factors such as infectious agents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,973 | Many microbes have been proposed as triggers of MS. One hypothesis is that infection by a widespread microbe contributes to disease development, and the geographic distribution of this organism significantly influences the epidemiology of MS. Two opposing versions of this hypothesis include the hygiene hypothesis and t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,974 | Human herpes viruses are a candidate group of viruses. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a herpes virus that can cause infectious mononucleosis and infects approximately 95% of adults, has been increasingly suspected to be an initiating cause of MS, in combination with other genetic and environmental factors, even though only ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,975 | MS is not considered a hereditary disease; however, a number of genetic variations have been shown to increase the risk. Some of these genes appear to have higher levels of expression in microglial cells than expected by chance. The probability of developing the disease is higher in relatives of an affected person, wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,976 | Specific genes that have been linked with MS include differences in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system—a group of genes on chromosome 6 that serves as the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). That differences in the HLA region are related to susceptibility has been known since the 1980s, and this same region h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,977 | MS is more common in people who live farther from the equator, although exceptions exist. These exceptions include ethnic groups that are at low risk and that live far from the equator such as the Sami, Amerindians, Canadian Hutterites, New Zealand Māori, and Canada's Inuit, as well as groups that have a relatively hig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,978 | MS is more common in regions with northern European populations and the geographic variation may simply reflect the global distribution of these high-risk populations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,979 | A relationship between season of birth and MS lends support to this idea, with fewer people born in the northern hemisphere in November compared to May being affected later in life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,980 | Environmental factors may play a role during childhood, with several studies finding that people who move to a different region of the world before the age of 15 acquire the new region's risk of MS. If migration takes place after age 15, however, the person retains the risk of their home country. There is some evidence... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,981 | Smoking may be an independent risk factor for MS. Stress may be a risk factor, although the evidence to support this is weak. Association with occupational exposures and toxins—mainly organic solvents—has been evaluated, but no clear conclusions have been reached. Vaccinations were studied as causal factors; however, m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,982 | The three main characteristics of MS are the formation of lesions in the central nervous system (also called plaques), inflammation and the destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons. These features interact in a complex and not yet fully understood manner to produce the breakdown of nerve tissue and in turn the signs an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,983 | Cholesterol crystals are believed both to impair myelin repair and to aggravate inflammation. MS is believed to be an immune-mediated disorder that develops from an interaction of the individual's genetics and as yet unidentified environmental causes. Damage is believed to be caused, at least in part, by attack on the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,984 | The name "multiple sclerosis" refers to the scars (sclerae – better known as plaques or lesions) that form in the nervous system. These lesions most commonly affect the white matter in the optic nerve, brain stem, basal ganglia, and spinal cord, or white matter tracts close to the lateral ventricles. The function of wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,985 | To be specific, MS involves the loss of oligodendrocytes, the cells responsible for creating and maintaining a fatty layer—known as the myelin sheath—which helps the neurons carry electrical signals (action potentials). This results in a thinning or complete loss of myelin and, as the disease advances, the breakdown of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,986 | Apart from demyelination, the other sign of the disease is inflammation. Fitting with an immunological explanation, the inflammatory process is caused by T cells, a kind of lymphocyte that plays an important role in the body's defenses. T cells gain entry into the brain as a result of disruptions in the blood–brain bar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,987 | The attack on myelin starts inflammatory processes, which trigger other immune cells and the release of soluble factors like cytokines and antibodies. A further breakdown of the blood-brain barrier, in turn, causes a number of other damaging effects such as swelling, activation of macrophages, and more activation of cy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,988 | The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a part of the capillary system that prevents the entry of T cells into the central nervous system. It may become permeable to these types of cells secondary to an infection by a virus or bacteria. After it repairs itself, typically once the infection has cleared, T cells may remain trap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,989 | Multiple sclerosis is typically diagnosed based on the presenting signs and symptoms, in combination with supporting medical imaging and laboratory testing. It can be difficult to confirm, especially early on, since the signs and symptoms may be similar to those of other medical problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,990 | The McDonald criteria, which focus on clinical, laboratory, and radiologic evidence of lesions at different times and in different areas, is the most commonly used method of diagnosis with the Schumacher and Poser criteria being of mostly historical significance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,991 | Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and spine may show areas of demyelination (lesions or plaques). Gadolinium can be administered intravenously as a contrast agent to highlight active plaques and, by elimination, demonstrate the existence of historical lesions not associated with symptoms at the moment of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,992 | Central vein signs (CVS) have been proposed as a good indicator of MS in comparison with other conditions causing white lesions. One small study found fewer CVS in older and hypertensive people. Further research on CVS as a biomarker for MS is ongoing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,993 | Testing of cerebrospinal fluid obtained from a lumbar puncture can provide evidence of chronic inflammation in the central nervous system. The cerebrospinal fluid is tested for oligoclonal bands of IgG on electrophoresis, which are inflammation markers found in 75–85% of people with MS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,994 | There are several diseases that present similarly to multiple sclerosis. Intractable vomiting, severe optic neuritis, or bilateral optic neuritis raises suspicion for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD). Involvement of multiple cranial nerves raises suspicion for neurosarcoidosis. Longitudinally extensive tr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,995 | Several phenotypes (commonly termed "types"), or patterns of progression, have been described. Phenotypes use the past course of the disease in an attempt to predict the future course. They are important not only for prognosis but also for treatment decisions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,996 | The International Advisory Committee on Clinical Trials of MS describes four types of MS (revised in 2013) in what is known as the Lublin classification: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,997 | Relapsing-remitting MS is characterized by unpredictable relapses followed by periods of months to years of relative quiet (remission) with no new signs of disease activity. Deficits that occur during attacks may either resolve or leave problems, the latter in about 40% of attacks and being more common the longer a per... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,998 | The relapsing-remitting subtype usually begins with a clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). In CIS, a person has an attack suggestive of demyelination, but does not fulfill the criteria for multiple sclerosis. 30 to 70% of persons who experience CIS, later develop MS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
6,999 | Primary progressive MS occurs in approximately 10–20% of individuals with the disease, with no remission after the initial symptoms. It is characterized by progression of disability from onset, with no, or only occasional and minor, remissions and improvements. The usual age of onset for the primary progressive subtype... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603 |
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