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7,100 | A-10s flew 32 percent of combat sorties in Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom. The sorties ranged from 27,800 to 34,500 annually between 2009 and 2012. In the first half of 2013, they flew 11,189 sorties in Afghanistan. From the beginning of 2006 to October 2013, A-10s conducted 19 percent of CAS mi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,101 | In March 2011, six A-10s were deployed as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn, the coalition intervention in Libya. They participated in attacks on Libyan ground forces there. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,102 | The USAF 122nd Fighter Wing revealed it would deploy to the Middle East in October 2014 with 12 of the unit's 21 A-10 aircraft. Although the deployment had been planned a year in advance in a support role, the timing coincided with the ongoing Operation Inherent Resolve against ISIL militants. From mid-November, U.S. c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,103 | The A-10 has been involved with killing ten U.S. troops in friendly-fire over four incidents between 2001 to 2015 and 35 Afghan civilians from 2010 to 2015, more than any other U.S. military aircraft; these incidents have been assessed as "inconclusive and statistically insignificant" in terms of the warplane's capabil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,104 | On 19 January 2018, 12 A-10s from the 303d Expeditionary Fighter Squadron were deployed to Kandahar Airfield, Afghanistan, to provide close-air support, marking the first time in more than three years A-10s had been deployed to Afghanistan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,105 | The future of the platform remains the subject of debate. In 2007, the USAF expected the A-10 to remain in service until 2028 and possibly later, when it would likely be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. However, critics have said that replacing the A-10 with the F-35 would be a "giant leap backwards" ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,106 | In the USAF's FY 2015 budget, the service considered retiring the A-10 and other single-mission aircraft, prioritizing multi-mission aircraft; cutting a whole fleet and its infrastructure was seen as the only method for major savings. The U.S. Army had expressed interest in obtaining some A-10s should the Air Force ret... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,107 | In January 2015, USAF officials told lawmakers that it would take 15 years to fully develop a new attack aircraft to replace the A-10; that year General Herbert J. Carlisle, the head of Air Combat Command, stated that a follow-on weapon system for the A-10 may need to be developed. It planned for F-16s and F-15Es to in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,108 | Plans to develop a replacement aircraft were announced by the US Air Combat Command in August 2015. Early the following year, the Air Force began studying future CAS aircraft to succeed the A-10 in low-intensity "permissive conflicts" like counterterrorism and regional stability operations, admitting that the F-35 woul... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,109 | In January 2016, the USAF was "indefinitely freezing" plans to retire the A-10 for at least several years. In addition to Congressional opposition, its use in anti-ISIS operations, deployments to Eastern Europe as a response to Russia's military intervention in Ukraine, and reevaluation of F-35 numbers necessitated its... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,110 | On 25 March 2010, an A-10 conducted the first flight of an aircraft with all engines powered by a biofuel blend. The flight, performed at Eglin Air Force Base, used a 1:1 blend of JP-8 and Camelina-based fuel. On 28 June 2012, the A-10 became the first aircraft to fly using a new fuel blend derived from alcohol; known ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,111 | In 2011, the National Science Foundation granted $11 million to modify an A-10 for weather research for CIRPAS at the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School and in collaboration with scientists from the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology (SDSM&T), replacing SDSM&T's retired North American T-28 Trojan. The A-10's armor i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,112 | The A-10 has been flown exclusively by the United States Air Force and its Air Reserve components, the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard (ANG). , 282 A-10C aircraft are reported as operational, divided as follows: 141 USAF, 55 AFRC, 86 ANG. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,113 | The A-10 Thunderbolt II received its popular nickname "Warthog" from the pilots and crews of the USAF attack squadrons who flew and maintained it. The A-10 is the last of Republic's jet attack aircraft to serve with the USAF. The Republic F-84 Thunderjet was nicknamed the "Hog", F-84F Thunderstreak nicknamed "Superhog"... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 |
7,114 | In economics, the Gini coefficient ( ), also known as the Gini index or Gini ratio, is a measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income inequality or the wealth inequality within a nation or a social group. The Gini coefficient was developed by the statistician and sociologist Corrado Gini. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,115 | The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among values of a frequency distribution, such as the levels of income. A Gini coefficient of 0 reflects "perfect equality", where all income or wealth values are the same, while a Gini coefficient of 1 (or 100%) reflects "maximal inequality" among values. For example, if ev... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,116 | The Gini coefficient was proposed by Corrado Gini as a measure of inequality of income or wealth. For OECD countries, in the late 20th century, considering the effect of taxes and transfer payments, the income Gini coefficient ranged between 0.24 and 0.49, with Slovenia being the lowest and Mexico the highest. African ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,117 | There are some issues in interpreting a Gini coefficient; the same value may result from many different distribution curves. The demographic structure should be taken into account. Countries with an aging population or with an increased birth rate experience an increasing pre-tax Gini coefficient even if real income di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,118 | The Gini coefficient was developed by the Italian statistician Corrado Gini and published in his 1912 paper "Variability and Mutability" (). Building on the work of American economist Max Lorenz, Gini proposed that the difference between the hypothetical straight line depicting perfect equality, and the actual line dep... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,119 | The Gini coefficient is an index for the degree of inequality in the distribution of income/wealth, used to estimate how far a country's wealth or income distribution deviates from an equal distribution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,120 | The Gini coefficient is usually defined mathematically based on the Lorenz curve, which plots the proportion of the total income of the population (y-axis) that is cumulatively earned by the bottom "x" of the population (see diagram). The line at 45 degrees thus represents perfect equality of incomes. The Gini coeffici... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,121 | Suppose all people have non-negative income (or wealth, as the case may be). In that case, the Gini coefficient can theoretically range from 0 (complete equality) to 1 (complete inequality) and is sometimes expressed as a percentage ranging between 0 and 100. If negative values are possible (such as the wealth of peopl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,122 | An alternative approach is to define the Gini coefficient as half of the relative mean absolute difference, which is mathematically equivalent to the definition based on the Lorenz curve. The mean absolute difference is the average absolute difference of all pairs of items of the population, and the relative mean absol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,123 | When the income (or wealth) distribution is given as a continuous probability density function "p"("x"), the Gini coefficient is again half of the relative mean absolute difference: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,124 | where formula_4 is the mean of the distribution, and the lower limits of integration may be replaced by zero when all incomes are positive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,125 | While the income distribution of any particular country will not always follow theoretical models, in reality, these models give a qualitative understanding of the income distribution in a nation given the Gini coefficient. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,126 | The extreme cases are represented by the "most equal" society in which every person receives the same income () and the "most unequal" society (composed of "N" individuals) where a single person receives 100% of the total income and the remaining people receive none (). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,127 | A simplified case distinguishes just two levels of income, low and high. If the high income group is a proportion "u" of the population and earns a proportion "f" of all income, then the Gini coefficient is . A more graded distribution with these same values "u" and "f" will always have a higher Gini coefficient than . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,128 | An example case in which the richest 20% of the population have 80% of all income (see Pareto principle) would lead to an income Gini coefficient of at least 60%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,129 | Another example case in which 1% of all the world's population owns 50% of all wealth, would result in a wealth Gini coefficient of at least 49%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,130 | In some cases, this equation can be applied to calculate the Gini coefficient without direct reference to the Lorenz curve. For example, (taking "y" to indicate the income or wealth of a person or household): | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,131 | Since the Gini coefficient is half the relative mean absolute difference, it can also be calculated using formulas for the relative mean absolute difference. For a random sample "S" consisting of values "y", "i" = 1 to "n", that are indexed in non-decreasing order ("y" ≤ "y"), the statistic: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,132 | is a consistent estimator of the population Gini coefficient, but is not, in general, unbiased. Like "G", has a simpler form: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,133 | There does not exist a sample statistic that is, in general, an unbiased estimator of the population Gini coefficient, like the relative mean absolute difference. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,134 | For a discrete probability distribution with probability mass function formula_9 formula_10, where formula_11 is the fraction of the population with income or wealth formula_12, the Gini coefficient is: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,135 | When the population is large, the income distribution may be represented by a continuous probability density function "f"("x") where "f"("x") "dx" is the fraction of the population with wealth or income in the interval "dx" about "x". If "F"("x") is the cumulative distribution function for "f"("x"): | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,136 | then the Lorenz curve "L"("F") may then be represented as a function parametric in "L"("x") and "F"("x") and the value of "B" can be found by integration: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,137 | The Gini coefficient can also be calculated directly from the cumulative distribution function of the distribution "F"("y"). Defining μ as the mean of the distribution, and specifying that "F"("y") is zero for all negative values, the Gini coefficient is given by: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,138 | The latter result comes from integration by parts. (Note that this formula can be applied when there are negative values if the integration is taken from minus infinity to plus infinity.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,139 | The Gini coefficient may be expressed in terms of the quantile function "Q"("F") (inverse of the cumulative distribution function: "Q"("F"("x")) = "x") | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,140 | Since the Gini coefficient is independent of scale, if the distribution function can be expressed in the form "f(x,φ,a,b,c...)" where "φ" is a scale factor and "a,b,c..." are dimensionless parameters, then the Gini coefficient will be a function only of "a,b,c...". For example, for the exponential distribution, which i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,141 | For some functional forms, the Gini index can be calculated explicitly. For example, if "y" follows a log-normal distribution with the standard deviation of logs equal to formula_25, then formula_26 where formula_27 is the error function ( since formula_28, where formula_29 is the cumulative distribution function of a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,142 | Sometimes the entire Lorenz curve is not known, and only values at certain intervals are given. In that case, the Gini coefficient can be approximated using various techniques for interpolating the missing values of the Lorenz curve. If ("X", "Y") are the known points on the Lorenz curve, with the "X" indexed in increa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,143 | If the Lorenz curve is approximated on each interval as a line between consecutive points, then the area B can be approximated with trapezoids and: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,144 | is the resulting approximation for G. More accurate results can be obtained using other methods to approximate the area B, such as approximating the Lorenz curve with a quadratic function across pairs of intervals or building an appropriately smooth approximation to the underlying distribution function that matches the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,145 | The Gini coefficient calculated from a sample is a statistic, and its standard error, or confidence intervals for the population Gini coefficient, should be reported. These can be calculated using bootstrap techniques, mathematically complicated and computationally demanding even in an era of fast computers. Economist ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,146 | Thus, "G" can be expressed as a function of the weighted least squares estimate of the constant "A" and that this can be used to speed up the calculation of the jackknife estimate for the standard error. Economist David Giles argued that the standard error of the estimate of "A" can be used to derive the estimate of "G... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,147 | However, it has been argued that this depends on the model's assumptions about the error distributions and the independence of error terms. These assumptions are often not valid for real data sets. There is still ongoing debate surrounding this topic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,148 | Guillermina Jasso and Angus Deaton independently proposed the following formula for the Gini coefficient: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,149 | where formula_37 is mean income of the population, P is the income rank P of person i, with income X, such that the richest person receives a rank of 1 and the poorest a rank of "N". This effectively gives higher weight to poorer people in the income distribution, which allows the Gini to meet the Transfer Principle. N... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,150 | The Gini coefficient and other standard inequality indices reduce to a common form. Perfect equality—the absence of inequality—exists when and only when the inequality ratio, formula_39, equals 1 for all j units in some population (for example, there is perfect income equality when everyone's income formula_40 equals t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,151 | where "p" weights the units by their population share, and "f"("r") is a function of the deviation of each unit's "r" from 1, the point of equality. The insight of this generalised inequality index is that inequality indices differ because they employ different functions of the distance of the inequality ratios (the "r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,152 | Gini coefficients of income are calculated on a market income and a disposable income basis. The Gini coefficient on market income—sometimes referred to as a pre-tax Gini coefficient—is calculated on income before taxes and transfers. It measures inequality in income without considering the effect of taxes and social s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,153 | For OECD countries over the 2008–2009 period, the Gini coefficient (pre-taxes and transfers) for a total population ranged between 0.34 and 0.53, with South Korea the lowest and Italy the highest. The Gini coefficient (after-taxes and transfers) for a total population ranged between 0.25 and 0.48, with Denmark the lowe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,154 | Using the Gini can help quantify differences in welfare and compensation policies and philosophies. However, it should be borne in mind that the Gini coefficient can be misleading when used to make political comparisons between large and small countries or those with different immigration policies (see limitations sect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,155 | The Gini coefficient for the entire world has been estimated by various parties to be between 0.61 and 0.68. The graph shows the values expressed as a percentage in their historical development for a number of countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,156 | According to UNICEF, Latin America and the Caribbean region had the highest net income Gini index in the world at 48.3, on an unweighted average basis in 2008. The remaining regional averages were: sub-Saharan Africa (44.2), Asia (40.4), Middle East and North Africa (39.2), Eastern Europe and Central Asia (35.4), and H... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,157 | Taking income distribution of all human beings, worldwide income inequality has been constantly increasing since the early 19th century. There was a steady increase in the global income inequality Gini score from 1820 to 2002, with a significant increase between 1980 and 2002. This trend appears to have peaked and begu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,158 | The table below presents the estimated world income Gini coefficients over the last 200 years, as calculated by Milanovic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,159 | More detailed data from similar sources plots a continuous decline since 1988. This is attributed to globalization increasing incomes for billions of poor people, mostly in countries like China and India. Developing countries like Brazil have also improved basic services like health care, education, and sanitation; oth... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,160 | The Gini coefficient is widely used in fields as diverse as sociology, economics, health science, ecology, engineering, and agriculture. For example, in social sciences and economics, in addition to income Gini coefficients, scholars have published education Gini coefficients and opportunity Gini coefficients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,161 | Education Gini index estimates the inequality in education for a given population. It is used to discern trends in social development through educational attainment over time. A study across 85 countries by three World Bank economists, Vinod Thomas, Yan Wang, and Xibo Fan, estimated Mali had the highest education Gini ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,162 | Similar in concept to the Gini income coefficient, the Gini opportunity coefficient measures inequality in opportunities. The concept builds on Amartya Sen's suggestion that inequality coefficients of social development should be premised on the process of enlarging people's choices and enhancing their capabilities, ra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,163 | In 2003, Roemer reported Italy and Spain exhibited the largest opportunity inequality Gini index amongst advanced economies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,164 | In 1978, Anthony Shorrocks introduced a measure based on income Gini coefficients to estimate income mobility. This measure, generalized by Maasoumi and Zandvakili, is now generally referred to as Shorrocks index, sometimes as Shorrocks mobility index or Shorrocks rigidity index. It attempts to estimate whether the inc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,165 | Shorrocks index is calculated in several different ways, a common approach being from the ratio of income Gini coefficients between short-term and long-term for the same region or country. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,166 | A 2010 study using social security income data for the United States since 1937 and Gini-based Shorrock's indices concludes that income mobility in the United States has had a complicated history, primarily due to the mass influx of women into the American labor force after World War II. Income inequality and income mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,167 | The Gini coefficient has features that make it useful as a measure of dispersion in a population, and inequalities in particular. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,168 | The Gini coefficient is a relative measure. The Gini coefficient of a developing country can rise (due to increasing inequality of income) even when the number of people in absolute poverty decreases. This is because the Gini coefficient measures relative, not absolute, wealth. Changing income inequality, measured by G... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,169 | Even when the total income of a population is the same, in certain situations two countries with different income distributions can have the same Gini index (e.g. cases when income Lorenz Curves cross). Table A illustrates one such situation. Both countries have a Gini coefficient of 0.2, but the average income distrib... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,170 | A Gini index does not contain information about absolute national or personal incomes. Populations can simultaneously have very low-income Gini indices and very high wealth Gini indexes. By measuring inequality in income, the Gini ignores the differential efficiency of the use of household income. By ignoring wealth (e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,171 | Gini index has a downward-bias for small populations. Counties or states or countries with small populations and less diverse economies will tend to report small Gini coefficients. For economically diverse large population groups, a much higher coefficient is expected than for each of its regions. For example, taking t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,172 | As with other inequality coefficients, the Gini coefficient is influenced by the granularity of the measurements. For example, five 20% quantiles (low granularity) will usually yield a lower Gini coefficient than twenty 5% quantiles (high granularity) for the same distribution. Philippe Monfort has shown that using inc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,173 | The Gini coefficient measure gives different results when applied to individuals instead of households, for the same economy and same income distributions. If household data is used, the measured value of income Gini depends on how the household is defined. The comparison is not meaningful when different populations ar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,174 | Deininger and Squire (1996) show that the income Gini coefficient based on individual income rather than household income is different. For example, for the United States, they found that the individual income-based Gini index was 0.35, while for France, 0.43. According to their individual-focused method, in the 108 co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,175 | Expanding on the importance of life-span measures, the Gini coefficient as a point-estimate of equality at a certain time ignores life-span changes in income. Typically, increases in the proportion of young or old members of a society will drive apparent changes in equality simply because people generally have lower in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,176 | Billionaire Thomas Kwok claimed the income Gini coefficient for Hong Kong has been high (0.434 in 2010), in part because of structural changes in its population. Over recent decades, Hong Kong has witnessed increasing numbers of small households, elderly households and elderly living alone. The combined income is now s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,177 | Another limitation of the Gini coefficient is that it is not a proper measure of egalitarianism, as it only measures income dispersion. For example, suppose two equally egalitarian countries pursue different immigration policies. In that case, the country accepting a higher proportion of low-income or impoverished migr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,178 | Some countries distribute benefits that are difficult to value. Countries that provide subsidized housing, medical care, education or other such services are difficult to value objectively, as it depends on the quality and extent of the benefit. In absence of a free market, valuing these income transfers as household i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,179 | In subsistence-driven and informal economies, people may have significant income in other forms than money, for example, through subsistence farming or bartering. These income tend to accrue to the segment of population below the poverty line or very poor in emerging and transitional economy countries such as those in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,180 | Gini has some mathematical limitations as well. It is not additive and different sets of people cannot be averaged to obtain the Gini coefficient of all the people in the sets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,181 | Given the limitations of the Gini coefficient, other statistical methods are used in combination or as an alternative measure of population dispersity. For example, "entropy measures" are frequently used (e.g. the Atkinson index or the Theil Index and Mean log deviation as special cases of the generalized entropy index... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,182 | There is a summary measure of the diagnostic ability of a binary classifier system that is also called the "Gini coefficient", which is defined as twice the area between the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and its diagonal. It is related to the AUC (Area Under the ROC Curve) measure of performance given b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,183 | The Gini index is also related to the Pietra index — both of which measure statistical heterogeneity and are derived from the Lorenz curve and the diagonal line. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,184 | In certain fields such as ecology, inverse Simpson's index formula_46 is used to quantify diversity, and this should not be confused with the Simpson index formula_47. These indicators are related to Gini. The inverse Simpson index increases with diversity, unlike the Simpson index and Gini coefficient, which decrease ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,185 | In recent decades, researchers have attempted to estimate Gini coefficients for pre-20th century societies. In the absence of household income surveys and income taxes, scholars have relied on proxy variables. These include wealth taxes in medieval European city states, patterns of landownership in Roman Egypt, variati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,186 | Although the Gini coefficient is most popular in economics, it can, in theory, be applied in any field of science that studies a distribution. For example, in ecology, the Gini coefficient has been used as a measure of biodiversity, where the cumulative proportion of species is plotted against the cumulative proportion... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,187 | The Gini coefficient is sometimes used for the measurement of the discriminatory power of rating systems in credit risk management. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,188 | A 2005 study accessed US census data to measure home computer ownership and used the Gini coefficient to measure inequalities amongst whites and African Americans. Results indicated that although decreasing overall, home computer ownership inequality was substantially smaller among white households. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,189 | A 2016 peer-reviewed study titled Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks illustrated that the Gini coefficient was helpful and accurate in measuring shifts in inequality, however as a standalone metric it failed to incorporate overall netwo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,190 | Discriminatory power refers to a credit risk model's ability to differentiate between defaulting and non-defaulting clients. The formula formula_49, in the calculation section above, may be used for the final model and at the individual model factor level to quantify the discriminatory power of individual factors. It i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,191 | Kaminskiy and Krivtsov extended the concept of the Gini coefficient from economics to reliability theory and proposed a Gini–type coefficient that helps to assess the degree of aging of non−repairable systems or aging and rejuvenation of repairable systems. The coefficient is defined between -1 and 1 and can be used in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12883 |
7,192 | The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest modular space station currently in low Earth orbit. It is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada). The ownership and use of the space sta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
7,193 | The ISS programme evolved from the Space Station "Freedom", a 1984 American proposal to construct a permanently crewed Earth-orbiting station, and the contemporaneous Soviet/Russian "Mir-2" proposal from 1976 with similar aims. The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
7,194 | The station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) is operated by Russia, while the United States Orbital Segment (USOS) is run by the United States as well as by the other states. The Russian segment includes six modules. The US segment includes ten modules, whose support services are distribu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
7,195 | Roscosmos had previously endorsed the continued operation of ROS through 2024, having proposed using elements of the segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. However, continued cooperation has been rendered uncertain by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and subsequent international sanctions on... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
7,196 | The first ISS component was launched in 1998, and the first long-term residents arrived on 2 November 2000 after being launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on 31 October 2000. The station has since been continuously occupied for , the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit, having surpassed the previous ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
7,197 | The ISS consists of pressurised habitation modules, structural trusses, photovoltaic solar arrays, thermal radiators, docking ports, experiment bays and robotic arms. Major ISS modules have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets and US Space Shuttles. The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
7,198 | The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial memorandum of understanding between NASA and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
7,199 | The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15043 |
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