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wiki_11300_chunk_0 | Speech segmentation | "Falling", similarly, would be stored as "fall" and suffixed with the "ing" inflection.Though proponents of the decompositional model recognize that a morpheme-by-morpheme analysis may require significantly more computation, they argue that the unpacking of morphological information is necessary for other processes (su... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11301_chunk_0 | Speech segmentation | While the probability of "netshop" is extremely low, since "netshop" isn't currently a compound or phrase in English, and "sweatshop" also seems contextually improbable, "pet shop" is a good fit because it is a common phrase and is also related to the word "dog".Moreover, an utterance can have different meanings depend... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11302_chunk_0 | Nuclear technology | In natural nuclear radiation, the byproducts are very small compared to the nuclei from which they originate. Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into roughly equal parts, and releasing energy and neutrons in the process. If these neutrons are captured by another unstable nucleus, they can fission as ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11303_chunk_0 | Nuclear technology | A mass of fissile material large enough (and in a suitable configuration) to induce a self-sustaining chain reaction is called a critical mass. When a neutron is captured by a suitable nucleus, fission may occur immediately, or the nucleus may persist in an unstable state for a short time. If there are enough immediate... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11304_chunk_0 | Nuclear technology | When discovered on the eve of World War II, this insight led multiple countries to begin programs investigating the possibility of constructing an atomic bomb — a weapon which utilized fission reactions to generate far more energy than could be created with chemical explosives. The Manhattan Project, run by the United ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11305_chunk_0 | Nuclear technology | In 1951, the first nuclear fission power plant was the first to produce electricity at the Experimental Breeder Reactor No. 1 (EBR-1), in Arco, Idaho, ushering in the "Atomic Age" of more intensive human energy use.However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be co... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11306_chunk_0 | Medieval logic | In natural philosophy and the philosophy of science, medieval philosophers were mainly influenced by Aristotle. However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the early modern period. The more mathematical reaso... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11307_chunk_0 | Bionic Leaf | In natural photosynthesis, photosynthetic organisms produce energy-rich organic molecules from water and carbon dioxide by using solar radiation. Therefore, the process of photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, from the air. Artificial photosynthesis, as performed by the Bionic Leaf, is approximately ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11308_chunk_0 | Bionic Leaf | In natural systems, there are numerous energy conversion bottlenecks that limit the overall efficiency of photosynthesis. As a result, most plants do not exceed 1% efficiency and even microalgae grown in bioreactors do not exceed 3%. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11309_chunk_0 | Bionic Leaf | Existing artificial photosynthetic solar-to-fuels cycles may exceed natural efficiencies but cannot complete the cycle via carbon fixation. When the catalysts of the Bionic Leaf are coupled with the bacterium Ralstonia eutropha, this results in a hybrid system capable of carbon dioxide fixation. This system can store m... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11310_chunk_0 | Wright-Fisher model | In natural populations, genetic drift and natural selection do not act in isolation; both phenomena are always at play, together with mutation and migration. Neutral evolution is the product of both mutation and drift, not of drift alone. Similarly, even when selection overwhelms genetic drift, it can only act on varia... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11311_chunk_0 | Wright-Fisher model | As a result, drift acts upon the genotypic frequencies within a population without regard to their phenotypic effects. In contrast, selection favors the spread of alleles whose phenotypic effects increase survival and/or reproduction of their carriers, lowers the frequencies of alleles that cause unfavorable traits, an... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11312_chunk_0 | Wright-Fisher model | Non-adaptive evolution resulting from the product of mutation and genetic drift is therefore considered to be a consequential mechanism of evolutionary change primarily within small, isolated populations. The mathematics of genetic drift depend on the effective population size, but it is not clear how this is related t... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11313_chunk_0 | Wright-Fisher model | With a higher recombination rate, linkage decreases and with it this local effect on effective population size. This effect is visible in molecular data as a correlation between local recombination rate and genetic diversity, and negative correlation between gene density and diversity at noncoding DNA regions. Stochast... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11314_chunk_0 | Demand Management | In natural resources management and environmental policy more generally, demand management refers to policies to control consumer demand for environmentally sensitive or harmful goods such as water and energy. Within manufacturing firms the term is used to describe the activities of demand forecasting, planning, and or... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11315_chunk_0 | Artifact (error) | In natural science and signal processing, an artifact or artefact is any error in the perception or representation of any information introduced by the involved equipment or technique(s). | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11316_chunk_0 | Impossibility proof | In natural science, impossibility assertions (like other assertions) come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underly... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11317_chunk_0 | Impossibility proof | There is also Bell's theorem: no physical theory of local hidden variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would re... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11318_chunk_0 | Purifying selection | In natural selection, negative selection or purifying selection is the selective removal of alleles that are deleterious. This can result in stabilising selection through the purging of deleterious genetic polymorphisms that arise through random mutations.Purging of deleterious alleles can be achieved on the population... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11319_chunk_0 | Purifying selection | The incidental purging of non-deleterious alleles due to such spatial proximity to deleterious alleles is called background selection. This effect increases with lower mutation rate but decreases with higher recombination rate.Purifying selection can be split into purging by non-random mating (assortative mating) and p... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11320_chunk_0 | Black vulture | Like other birds with scavenging habits, the black vulture presents resistance to pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins. Many mechanisms may explain this resistance. Anti-microbial agents may be secreted by the liver or gastric epithelium, or produced by microorganisms of the normal microbiota of the species. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11321_chunk_0 | Dissimilatory metal-reducing bacteria | In natural systems, secondary minerals may form as a byproduct of bacterial metal reduction. Commonly observed secondary minerals produced during experimental bio-reduction by dissimilatory metal reducers include magnetite, siderite, green rust, vivianite, and hydrous Fe(II)-carbonate. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11322_chunk_0 | Natural time analysis | In natural time domain each event is characterized by two terms, the "natural time" χ, and the energy Qk. χ is defined as k/N, where k is a natural number (the k-th event) and N is the total number of events in the time sequence of data. A related term, pk, is the ratio Qk / Qtotal, which describes the fractional energ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11323_chunk_0 | Relativistic energy-momentum equation | In natural units where c = 1, the energy–momentum equation reduces to E 2 = p 2 + m 0 2 . {\displaystyle E^{2}=p^{2}+m_{0}^{2}\,.} In particle physics, energy is typically given in units of electron volts (eV), momentum in units of eV·c−1, and mass in units of eV·c−2. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11324_chunk_0 | Relativistic energy-momentum equation | In electromagnetism, and because of relativistic invariance, it is useful to have the electric field E and the magnetic field B in the same unit (Gauss), using the cgs (Gaussian) system of units, where energy is given in units of erg, mass in grams (g), and momentum in g·cm·s−1. Energy may also in theory be expressed i... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11325_chunk_0 | Dirac matrices | In natural units, the Dirac equation may be written as ( i γ μ ∂ μ − m ) ψ = 0 {\displaystyle \ \left(i\gamma ^{\mu }\partial _{\mu }-m\right)\psi =0\ } where ψ {\displaystyle \ \psi \ } is a Dirac spinor. Switching to Feynman notation, the Dirac equation is ( i ∂ / − m ) ψ = 0 . {\displaystyle \ (i{\partial \!\!\!/}-m... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11326_chunk_0 | PMV/PPD model | In naturally ventilated buildings, occupants take numerous actions to keep themselves comfortable when the indoor conditions drift towards discomfort. Operating windows and fans, adjusting blinds/shades, changing clothing, and consuming food and drinks are some of the common adaptive strategies. Among these, adjusting ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11327_chunk_0 | Common sea-buckthorn | In nature H. rhamnoides is found growing profusely on a wide range of soil types, but does better in soils with a light physical structure, rich in nutrient compounds and with a pH near neutral (pH 6.5–7.5). Best growth occurs in deep, well drained, sandy loam with ample organic matter. Very light, sandy soils have low... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11328_chunk_0 | Causal notation | In nature and human societies, many phenomena have causal relationships where one phenomenon A (a cause) impacts another phenomenon B (an effect). Establishing causal relationships is the aim of many scientific studies across fields ranging from biology and physics to social sciences and economics. It is also a subject... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11329_chunk_0 | Causal notation | Mathematical conventions are also used, such as plotting an independent variable on a horizontal axis and a dependent variable on a vertical axis, or the notation y = f ( x ) {\displaystyle y=f(x)} to denote that a quantity " y {\displaystyle y} " is a dependent variable which is a function of an independent variable "... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11330_chunk_0 | Phosphonate | The polyphosphonates used in industry differ greatly from natural phosphonates such as 2-aminoethylphosphonic acid, because they are much larger, carry a high negative charge and are complexed with metals. Biodegradation tests with sludge from municipal sewage treatment plants with HEDP and NTMP showed no indication fo... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11331_chunk_0 | Breeding for drought stress tolerance | In nature or crop fields, water is often the most limiting factor for plant growth. If plants do not receive adequate rainfall or irrigation, the resulting dehydration stress can reduce growth more than all other environmental stresses combined. Drought can be defined as the absence of rainfall or irrigation for a peri... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11332_chunk_0 | Chromatin structure | In nature, DNA can form three structures, A-, B-, and Z-DNA. A- and B-DNA are very similar, forming right-handed helices, whereas Z-DNA is a left-handed helix with a zig-zag phosphate backbone. Z-DNA is thought to play a specific role in chromatin structure and transcription because of the properties of the junction be... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11333_chunk_0 | Chromatin structure | These play a dual role of a site of recognition by many proteins and as a sink for torsional stress from RNA polymerase or nucleosome binding.DNA bases are stored as a code structure with four chemical bases such as “Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)”. The order and sequences of these chemical str... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11334_chunk_0 | Chromatin structure | Sugar and phosphate molecules are also paired with these bases, making DNA nucleotides arrange 2 long spiral strands unitedly called “double helix”. In eukaryotes, DNA consists of a cell nucleus and the DNA is providing strength and direction to the mechanism of heredity. Moreover, between the nitrogenous bonds of the ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11335_chunk_0 | DNA synthesis | In nature, DNA molecules are synthesised by all living cells through the process of DNA replication. This typically occurs as a part of cell division. DNA replication occurs so, during cell division, each daughter cell contains an accurate copy of the genetic material of the cell. In vivo DNA synthesis (DNA replication... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11336_chunk_0 | DNA synthesis | In both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, DNA replication occurs when specific topoisomerases, helicases and gyrases (replication initiator proteins) uncoil the double-stranded DNA, exposing the nitrogenous bases. These enzymes, along with accessory proteins, form a macromolecular machine which ensures accurate duplication o... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11337_chunk_0 | DNA synthesis | Complementary base pairing takes place, forming a new double-stranded DNA molecule. This is known as semi-conservative replication since one strand of the new DNA molecule is from the 'parent' strand. Continuously, eukaryotic enzymes encounter DNA damage which can perturb DNA replication. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11338_chunk_0 | DNA synthesis | This damage is in the form of DNA lesions that arise spontaneously or due to DNA damaging agents. DNA replication machinery is therefore highly controlled in order to prevent collapse when encountering damage. Control of the DNA replication system ensures that the genome is replicated only once per cycle; over-replicat... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11339_chunk_0 | DNA synthesis | Deregulation of DNA replication is a key factor in genomic instability during cancer development.This highlights the specificity of DNA synthesis machinery in vivo. Various means exist to artificially stimulate the replication of naturally occurring DNA, or to create artificial gene sequences. However, DNA synthesis in... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11340_chunk_0 | Real-time raytracing | A surface may absorb part of the light ray, resulting in a loss of intensity of the reflected and/or refracted light. It might also reflect all or part of the light ray, in one or more directions. If the surface has any transparent or translucent properties, it refracts a portion of the light beam into itself in a diff... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11341_chunk_0 | Algal virus | The results of another lab study showed that cyanophages maintain their observed function of algal bloom demise in a controlled eutrophic setting. In this case, the biomass of M. aeruginosa also greatly decreased when treated with cyanophages. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11342_chunk_0 | Algal virus | A negative correlation between M. aeruginosa and cyanophage has also been recorded in a natural setting. In the freshwater body, Lake Mikata, researchers analyzed samples of M. aeruginosa algal growth and found that the biomass of M. aeruginosa decreased in relation to an increase in cyanophage population density. == R... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11343_chunk_0 | Parabola | In nature, approximations of parabolas and paraboloids are found in many diverse situations. The best-known instance of the parabola in the history of physics is the trajectory of a particle or body in motion under the influence of a uniform gravitational field without air resistance (for instance, a ball flying throug... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11344_chunk_0 | Parabola | For objects extended in space, such as a diver jumping from a diving board, the object itself follows a complex motion as it rotates, but the center of mass of the object nevertheless moves along a parabola. As in all cases in the physical world, the trajectory is always an approximation of a parabola. The presence of ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11345_chunk_0 | Parabola | The parabolic orbit is the degenerate intermediate case between those two types of ideal orbit. An object following a parabolic orbit would travel at the exact escape velocity of the object it orbits; objects in elliptical or hyperbolic orbits travel at less or greater than escape velocity, respectively. Long-period co... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11346_chunk_0 | Parabola | Approximations of parabolas are also found in the shape of the main cables on a simple suspension bridge. The curve of the chains of a suspension bridge is always an intermediate curve between a parabola and a catenary, but in practice the curve is generally nearer to a parabola due to the weight of the load (i.e. the ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11347_chunk_0 | Parabola | Similarly, the structures of parabolic arches are purely in compression. Paraboloids arise in several physical situations as well. The best-known instance is the parabolic reflector, which is a mirror or similar reflective device that concentrates light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation to a common focal poin... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11348_chunk_0 | Parabola | In parabolic microphones, a parabolic reflector is used to focus sound onto a microphone, giving it highly directional performance. Paraboloids are also observed in the surface of a liquid confined to a container and rotated around the central axis. In this case, the centrifugal force causes the liquid to climb the wal... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11349_chunk_0 | Radioactive carbon dating | In nature, carbon exists as three isotopes: two stable, nonradioactive (carbon-12 (12C), and carbon-13 (13C), and one radioactive carbon-14 (14C), also known as "radiocarbon"). The half-life of 14C (the time it takes for half of a given amount of 14C to decay) is about 5,730 years, so its concentration in the atmospher... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11350_chunk_0 | Radioactive carbon dating | Animals eat the plants, and ultimately the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the biosphere. The ratio of 14C to 12C is approximately 1.25 parts of 14C to 1012 parts of 12C. In addition, about 1% of the carbon atoms are of the stable isotope 13C.The equation for the radioactive decay of 14C is:146C → 147N + e− + νe ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11351_chunk_0 | Artificial Photosynthesis | In nature, carbon fixation is done by green plants using the enzyme RuBisCO as a part of the Calvin cycle. RuBisCO is a rather slow catalyst compared to the vast majority of other enzymes, incorporating only a few molecules of carbon dioxide into ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate per minute, but does so at atmospheric pressure... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11352_chunk_0 | Artificial Photosynthesis | The process consumes energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Artificial CO2 reduction for fuel production aims mostly at producing reduced carbon compounds from atmospheric CO2. Some transition metal polyphosphine complexes have been developed for this end; however, they usually require previous concentration of CO2 befor... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11353_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | In nature, circular DNA is always isolated as a higher-order helix-upon-a-helix, known as a superhelix. In discussions of this subject, the Watson–Crick twist is referred to as a "secondary" winding, and the superhelices as a "tertiary" winding. The sketch at right indicates a "relaxed", or "open circular" Watson–Crick... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11354_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | For purposes of mathematical computations, a right-handed superhelix is defined as having a "negative" number of superhelical turns, and a left-handed superhelix is defined as having a "positive" number of superhelical turns. In the drawing (shown at the right), both the secondary (i.e., "Watson–Crick") winding and the... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11355_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | The superhelicity is presumed to be a result of underwinding, meaning that there is a deficiency in the number of secondary Watson–Crick twists. Such a chromosome will be strained, just as a macroscopic metal spring is strained when it is either overwound or unwound. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11356_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | In DNA which is thusly strained, supertwists will appear. DNA supercoiling can be described numerically by changes in the linking number Lk. The linking number is the most descriptive property of supercoiled DNA. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11357_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | Lko, the number of turns in the relaxed (B type) DNA plasmid/molecule, is determined by dividing the total base pairs of the molecule by the relaxed bp/turn which, depending on reference is 10.4; 10.5; 10.6. L k o = b p / 10.4 {\displaystyle Lk_{o}=bp/10.4} Lk is the number of crosses a single strand makes across the o... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11358_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | The topology of the DNA is described by the equation below in which the linking number is equivalent to the sum of Tw, which is the number of twists or turns of the double helix, and Wr, which is the number of coils or "writhes." If there is a closed DNA molecule, the sum of Tw and Wr, or the linking number, does not c... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11359_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | We have already seen that native DNA is usually found to be superhelical. If one goes around the superhelically twisted chromosome, counting secondary Watson–Crick twists, that number will be different from the number counted when the chromosome is constrained to lie flat. In general, the number of secondary twists in ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11360_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | Wr, called "writhe," is the number of superhelical twists. Since biological circular DNA is usually underwound, Lk will generally be less than Tw, which means that Wr will typically be negative. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11361_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | If DNA is underwound, it will be under strain, exactly as a metal spring is strained when forcefully unwound, and that the appearance of supertwists will allow the chromosome to relieve its strain by taking on negative supertwists, which correct the secondary underwinding in accordance with the topology equation above.... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11362_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | The change in the linking number, ΔLk, is the actual number of turns in the plasmid/molecule, Lk, minus the number of turns in the relaxed plasmid/molecule Lko: Δ L k = L k − L k o {\displaystyle \Delta Lk=Lk-Lk_{o}} If the DNA is negatively supercoiled, Δ L k < 0 {\displaystyle \Delta Lk<0} . The negative supercoiling... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11363_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | σ = Δ L k / L k o {\displaystyle \sigma =\Delta {Lk/Lk_{o}}} The Gibbs free energy associated with the coiling is given by the equation below Δ G / N = 10 R T σ 2 {\displaystyle {\Delta G/N=10RT\sigma ^{2}}} The difference in Gibbs free energy between the supercoiled circular DNA and uncoiled circular DNA with N > 2000... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11364_chunk_0 | Supercoiled DNA | In this state, its writhe W = 0. Since L = T + W, in a relaxed state T = L. Thus, if we have a 400 bp relaxed circular DNA duplex, L ~ 40 (assuming ~10 bp per turn in B-DNA). Then T ~ 40. Positively supercoiling: T = 0, W = 0, then L = 0 T = +3, W = 0, then L = +3 T = +2, W = +1, then L = +3 Negatively supercoiling: T ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11365_chunk_0 | Pathogen avoidance | In nature, controlling or the avoidance of pathogens is an essential fitness strategy because disease-causing agents are ever-present. Pathogens reproduce rapidly at the expense of their hosts' fitness, this creates a coevolutionary arms race between pathogen transmission and host avoidance. For a pathogen to move to a... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11366_chunk_0 | Pathogen avoidance | Pathogen avoidance provides the first line of defense by physically avoiding conspecifics, other species, objects or locations that could increase vulnerability to pathogens.The pathogen avoidance theory of disgust predicts that behavior that reduces contact with pathogens, will have been under strong selection through... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11367_chunk_0 | Denitrification | In nature, denitrification can take place in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Typically, denitrification occurs in anoxic environments, where the concentration of dissolved and freely available oxygen is depleted. In these areas, nitrate (NO3−) or nitrite (NO2−) can be used as a substitute terminal electron acce... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11368_chunk_0 | Denitrification | For example, the bacterial species Paracoccus denitrificans engages in denitrification under both oxic and anoxic conditions simultaneously. Upon oxygen exposure, the bacteria is able to utilize nitrous oxide reductase, an enzyme that catalyzes the last step of denitrification. Aerobic denitrifiers are mainly Gram-nega... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11369_chunk_0 | Baeyer-Villiger oxidation | In nature, enzymes called Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) perform the oxidation analogously to the chemical reaction. To facilitate this chemistry, BVMOs contain a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor. In the catalytic cycle (see figure on the right), the cellular redox equivalent NADPH first reduces the c... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11370_chunk_0 | Baeyer-Villiger oxidation | After the rearrangement step forming the ester product, a hydroxyflavin remains, which spontaneously eliminates water to form oxidized flavin, thereby closing the catalytic cycle. BVMOs are closely related to the flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs), enzymes that also occur in the human body, functioning within the ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11371_chunk_0 | Baeyer-Villiger oxidation | Considering the environmental concerns for most of the chemical catalysts, the use of enzymes is considered a greener alternative. BVMOs in particular are interesting for application because they fulfil a range of criteria typically sought for in biocatalysis: besides their ability to catalyse a synthetically useful re... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11372_chunk_0 | HCOOH | In nature, formic acid is found in most ants and in stingless bees of the genus Oxytrigona. Wood ants from the genus Formica can spray formic acid on their prey or to defend the nest. The puss moth caterpillar (Cerura vinula) will spray it as well when threatened by predators. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11373_chunk_0 | HCOOH | It is also found in the trichomes of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica). Apart from that, this acid is incorporated in many fruits such as pineapple (0.21mg per 100g), apple (2mg per 100g) and kiwi (1mg per 100g), as well as in many vegetables, namely onion (45mg per 100g), eggplant (1.34 mg per 100g) and, in extremely lo... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11374_chunk_0 | Medical oxygen | In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. According to some estimates, green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on Earth, and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Other estimates of the ocean... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11375_chunk_0 | Medical oxygen | The O2 remaining (after production of the water molecule) is released into the atmosphere.Oxygen is used in mitochondria in the generation of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation. The reaction for aerobic respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis and is simplified as C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 2880... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11376_chunk_0 | Dioxygen in biological reactions | In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on earth. The remainder is produced by terrestrial plants, although, for example, almost all oxygen produced in tro... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11377_chunk_0 | Dioxygen in biological reactions | The electrons extracted from the water molecules transfer to the electron-deficient high-energy state P680+ of the P680 pigment of Photosystem II, which have been removed into an electron transport chain after light-dependent excitation and a series of redox reactions onto plastoquinone. Photosystem II therefore has al... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11378_chunk_0 | Dioxygen in biological reactions | This proton gradient is the driving force for ATP synthesis via photophosphorylation and couples the absorption of light energy and photolysis of water to the creation of chemical energy during photosynthesis. The O2 remaining after oxidation of the water molecule is released into the atmosphere. Water oxidation is cat... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11379_chunk_0 | Hydroxytyrosol | In nature, hydroxytyrosol is generated by the hydrolysis of oleuropein that occurs during olive ripening. Oleuropein accumulates in olive leaves and fruit as a defense mechanism against pathogens and herbivores. During olive ripening or when the olive tissue is damaged by pathogens, herbivores, or mechanical damage, th... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11380_chunk_0 | Limonene | In nature, limonene is formed from geranyl pyrophosphate, via cyclization of a neryl carbocation or its equivalent as shown. The final step involves loss of a proton from the cation to form the alkene. The most widely practiced conversion of limonene is to carvone. The three-step reaction begins with the regioselective... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11381_chunk_0 | Blue color | In nature, many blue phenomena arise from structural colouration, the result of interference between reflections from two or more surfaces of thin films, combined with refraction as light enters and exits such films. The geometry then determines that at certain angles, the light reflected from both surfaces interferes ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11382_chunk_0 | Interdependent networks | Though the transportation network does not depend on the power network to function, the communications network does. Thus the deactivation of a critical number of nodes in either the power network or the communication network can lead to a series of cascading failures across the system with potentially catastrophic rep... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11383_chunk_0 | Spatial ecology | In nature, organisms are neither distributed uniformly nor at random, forming instead some sort of spatial pattern. This is due to various energy inputs, disturbances, and species interactions that result in spatially patchy structures or gradients. This spatial variance in the environment creates diversity in communit... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11384_chunk_0 | Spatial ecology | On the other hand, certain spatial patterns may also rule out specific ecological theories previously thought to be true.Although spatial ecology deals with spatial patterns, it is usually based on observational data rather than on an existing model. This is because nature rarely follows set expected order. To properly... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11385_chunk_0 | Spatial ecology | Ideally, this would be accomplished beforehand via a benchmark spatial survey, which would determine whether the pattern or process is on a local, regional, or global scale. This is rare in actual field research, however, due to the lack of time and funding, as well as the ever-changing nature of such widely-studied or... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11386_chunk_0 | Gyroid | In nature, self-assembled gyroid structures are found in certain surfactant or lipid mesophases and block copolymers. In a typical A-B diblock copolymer phase diagram, the gyroid phase can be formed at intermediate volume fractions between the lamellar and cylindrical phases. In A-B-C block copolymers, the double and a... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11387_chunk_0 | Gyroid | The gyroid mitochondrial membranes found in the retinal cone cells of certain tree shrew species present a unique structure which may have an optical function.In 2017, MIT researchers studied the possibility of using the gyroid shape to turn bi-dimensional materials, such as graphene, into a three-dimensional structura... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11388_chunk_0 | Evolving digital ecological network | In nature, species do not evolve in isolation but in large networks of interacting species. One of the main goals in evolutionary ecology is to disentangle the evolutionary mechanisms that shape and are shaped by patterns of interaction between species. A particularly important question concerns how coevolution, the re... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11389_chunk_0 | Evolving digital ecological network | Understanding how individual interactions within networks influence coevolution, and conversely how coevolution influences the overall structure of networks, requires an appreciation for how pair-wise interactions change due to their broader community contexts as well as how this community context shapes selective pres... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11390_chunk_0 | Evolving digital ecological network | In spite of the long time scales involved and the substantial effort that is necessary to isolate and quantify samples, the latter approach of testing biological evolution in the lab has been successful over the last two decades. However, studying the evolution of interspecific interactions, which involves dealing with... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11391_chunk_0 | Evolving digital ecological network | A meta-analysis of host-phage interaction networks, carried out by Weitz and his team, found a striking statistical structure to the patterns of infection and resistance across a wide variety of environments and methods from which the hosts and phage were obtained. However, the ecological mechanisms and evolutionary pr... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11392_chunk_0 | Evolving digital ecological network | Research using self-replicating computer programs can help us understand how coevolution shapes the emergence and diversification of coevolving species interaction networks and, in turn, how changes in the overall structure of the web (e.g., through extinction of taxa or the introduction of invasive species) affect the... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11393_chunk_0 | Evolving digital ecological network | Such experiments allow researchers to quantify the role of historical contingency and repeatability in network evolution, enabling predictions about the architecture and dynamics of large networks of interacting species. The inclusion of ecological interactions in digital systems enables new research avenues: investiga... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11394_chunk_0 | Ion semiconductor sequencing | In nature, the incorporation of a deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) into a growing DNA strand involves the formation of a covalent bond and the release of pyrophosphate and a positively charged hydrogen ion. A dNTP will only be incorporated if it is complementary to the leading unpaired template nucleotide. Ion s... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11395_chunk_0 | Ion semiconductor sequencing | If an introduced dNTP is complementary to the next unpaired nucleotide on the template strand it is incorporated into the growing complementary strand by the DNA polymerase. If the introduced dNTP is not complementary there is no incorporation and no biochemical reaction. The hydrogen ion that is released in the reacti... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11396_chunk_0 | Acetyl-CoA synthase | In nature, there are six different pathways where CO2 is fixed. Of these, the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway is the predominant sink in anaerobic conditions. Acetyl-CoA Synthase (ACS) and carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) are integral enzymes in this one pathway and can perform diverse reactions in the carbon cycle as a res... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11397_chunk_0 | Biomineralization | In nature, there is a wide array of biominerals, ranging from iron oxide to strontium sulfate, with calcareous biominerals being particularly notable. However, the most taxonomically widespread biomineral is silica (SiO2·nH2O), being present in all eukaryotic supergroups. Notwithstanding, the degree of silicification c... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11398_chunk_0 | Biomineralization | The energetic costs of forming a silica structure from silicic acid are much less than forming the same volume from an organic structure (≈20-fold less than lignin or 10-fold less than polysaccharides like cellulose). Based on a structural model of biogenic silica, Lobel et al. (1996) identified by biochemical modeling... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11399_chunk_0 | Biomineralization | There is also evidence that silicification is used as a detoxification response in snails and plants, biosilica has even been suggested to play a role as a pH buffer for the enzymatic activity of carbonic anhydrase, aiding the acquisition of inorganic carbon for photosynthesis. There are questions which have yet to be ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
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