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wiki_11700_chunk_0 | Limit (mathematics) | This formalizes the natural intuition that for "very large" values of the index, the terms in the sequence are "very close" to the limit value of the sequence. Conversely, the standard part of a hyperreal a = {\displaystyle a=} represented in the ultrapower construction by a Cauchy sequence ( a n ) {\displaystyle (a_{... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11701_chunk_0 | Uniform continuity | In non-standard analysis, a real-valued function f {\displaystyle f} of a real variable is microcontinuous at a point a {\displaystyle a} precisely if the difference f ∗ ( a + δ ) − f ∗ ( a ) {\displaystyle f^{*}(a+\delta )-f^{*}(a)} is infinitesimal whenever δ {\displaystyle \delta } is infinitesimal. Thus f {\display... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11702_chunk_0 | Epsilon, delta | In non-standard calculus the limit of a function is defined by: if and only if for all x ∈ R ∗ , {\displaystyle x\in \mathbb {R} ^{*},} f ∗ ( x ) − L {\displaystyle f^{*}(x)-L} is infinitesimal whenever x − a is infinitesimal. Here R ∗ {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{*}} are the hyperreal numbers and f* is the natural ext... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11703_chunk_0 | Introduction to M-theory | In non-technical terms, M-theory presents an idea about the basic substance of the universe. As of 2023, science has produced no experimental evidence to support the conclusion that M-theory is a description of the real world. Although a complete mathematical formulation of M-theory is not known, the general approach i... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11704_chunk_0 | Spectral triple | In noncommutative geometry and related branches of mathematics and mathematical physics, a spectral triple is a set of data which encodes a geometric phenomenon in an analytic way. The definition typically involves a Hilbert space, an algebra of operators on it and an unbounded self-adjoint operator, endowed with suppl... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11705_chunk_0 | Cyclic cohomology | In noncommutative geometry and related branches of mathematics, cyclic homology and cyclic cohomology are certain (co)homology theories for associative algebras which generalize the de Rham (co)homology of manifolds. These notions were independently introduced by Boris Tsygan (homology) and Alain Connes (cohomology) in... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11706_chunk_0 | Fredholm module | In noncommutative geometry, a Fredholm module is a mathematical structure used to quantize the differential calculus. Such a module is, up to trivial changes, the same as the abstract elliptic operator introduced by Atiyah (1970). | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11707_chunk_0 | JLO cocycle | In noncommutative geometry, the JLO cocycle is a cocycle (and thus defines a cohomology class) in entire cyclic cohomology. It is a non-commutative version of the classic Chern character of the conventional differential geometry. In noncommutative geometry, the concept of a manifold is replaced by a noncommutative alge... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11708_chunk_0 | Quantum communication complexity | In nondeterministic communication complexity, Alice and Bob have access to an oracle. After receiving the oracle's word, the parties communicate to deduce f ( x , y ) {\displaystyle f(x,y)} . The nondeterministic communication complexity is then the maximum over all pairs ( x , y ) {\displaystyle (x,y)} over the sum of... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11709_chunk_0 | Poiseuille equation | In nonideal fluid dynamics, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, also known as the Hagen–Poiseuille law, Poiseuille law or Poiseuille equation, is a physical law that gives the pressure drop in an incompressible and Newtonian fluid in laminar flow flowing through a long cylindrical pipe of constant cross section. It can be s... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11710_chunk_0 | Poiseuille equation | The theoretical justification of the Poiseuille law was given by George Stokes in 1845.The assumptions of the equation are that the fluid is incompressible and Newtonian; the flow is laminar through a pipe of constant circular cross-section that is substantially longer than its diameter; and there is no acceleration of... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11711_chunk_0 | Poiseuille equation | For example, the pressure needed to drive a viscous fluid up against gravity would contain both that as needed in Poiseuille's law plus that as needed in Bernoulli's equation, such that any point in the flow would have a pressure greater than zero (otherwise no flow would happen). Another example is when blood flows in... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11712_chunk_0 | Coherent effects in semiconductor optics | In nonlinear optics it is possible to reverse the destructive interference of so-called inhomogeneously broadened systems which contain a distribution of uncoupled subsystems with different resonance frequencies. For example, consider a four-wave-mixing experiment in which the first short laser pulse excites all transi... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11713_chunk_0 | Coherent effects in semiconductor optics | The subsequent unperturbed dynamical evolution of the polarizations leads to rephasing such that all polarization are in phase at t = 2 τ {\displaystyle t=2\tau } which results in a measurable macroscopic signal. Thus, this so-called photon echo occurs since all individual polarizations are in phase and add up construc... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11714_chunk_0 | Coherent effects in semiconductor optics | When photon echo experiments are performed in semiconductors with exciton resonances, it is essential to include many-body effects in the theoretical analysis since they may qualitatively alter the dynamics. For example, numerical solutions of the SBEs have demonstrated that the dynamical reduction of the band gap whic... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11715_chunk_0 | Coherent effects in semiconductor optics | To consistently treat this phenomenon of disorder induced dephasing the SBEs need to be solved including biexciton correlations. As shown in Ref. such a microscopic theoretical approach is able to describe disorder induced dephasing in good agreement with experimental results. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11716_chunk_0 | B Integral | In nonlinear optics, B-Integral is a measure of the nonlinear phase shift of light. It calculates the exponential growth of the least stable spatial frequency in a laser beam, and is the numerical equivalent of the nonlinear phase shift along the laser system's optical axis. In a multipass laser system as a cumulative ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11717_chunk_0 | Filament propagation | In nonlinear optics, filament propagation is propagation of a beam of light through a medium without diffraction. This is possible because the Kerr effect causes an index of refraction change in the medium, resulting in self-focusing of the beam.Filamentary damage tracks in glass caused by laser pulses were first obser... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11718_chunk_0 | Filament propagation | Competing theories, that the observed filament was actually an illusion created by an axiconic (bessel) or moving focus instead of a "waveguided" concentration of the optical energy, were put to rest by workers at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1997. Though sophisticated models have been developed to describe the fi... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11719_chunk_0 | Quasi-convex function | In nonlinear optimization, quasiconvex programming studies iterative methods that converge to a minimum (if one exists) for quasiconvex functions. Quasiconvex programming is a generalization of convex programming. Quasiconvex programming is used in the solution of "surrogate" dual problems, whose biduals provide quasic... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11720_chunk_0 | Lagrange duality | In nonlinear programming, the constraints are not necessarily linear. Nonetheless, many of the same principles apply. To ensure that the global maximum of a non-linear problem can be identified easily, the problem formulation often requires that the functions be convex and have compact lower level sets. This is the sig... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11721_chunk_0 | Lagrange duality | They provide necessary conditions for identifying local optima of non-linear programming problems. There are additional conditions (constraint qualifications) that are necessary so that it will be possible to define the direction to an optimal solution. An optimal solution is one that is a local optimum, but possibly n... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11722_chunk_0 | Nonlinear regression | In nonlinear regression, a statistical model of the form, y ∼ f ( x , β ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} \sim f(\mathbf {x} ,{\boldsymbol {\beta }})} relates a vector of independent variables, x {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } , and its associated observed dependent variables, y {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} } . The function f {... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11723_chunk_0 | Nonlinear regression | Other examples of nonlinear functions include exponential functions, logarithmic functions, trigonometric functions, power functions, Gaussian function, and Lorentz distributions. Some functions, such as the exponential or logarithmic functions, can be transformed so that they are linear. When so transformed, standard ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11724_chunk_0 | Nonlinear regression | See Linearization§Transformation, below, for more details. In general, there is no closed-form expression for the best-fitting parameters, as there is in linear regression. Usually numerical optimization algorithms are applied to determine the best-fitting parameters. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11725_chunk_0 | Nonlinear regression | Again in contrast to linear regression, there may be many local minima of the function to be optimized and even the global minimum may produce a biased estimate. In practice, estimated values of the parameters are used, in conjunction with the optimization algorithm, to attempt to find the global minimum of a sum of sq... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11726_chunk_0 | Resonant interaction | In nonlinear systems, a resonant interaction is the interaction of three or more waves, usually but not always of small amplitude. Resonant interactions occur when a simple set of criteria coupling wave-vectors and the dispersion equation are met. The simplicity of the criteria make technique popular in multiple fields... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11727_chunk_0 | Resonant interaction | Theoretical work on partial differential equations provides insights into chaos theory; there are curious links to number theory. Resonant interactions allow waves to (elastically) scatter, diffuse or to become unstable. Diffusion processes are responsible for the eventual thermalization of most nonlinear systems; inst... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11728_chunk_0 | Small-gain theorem | In nonlinear systems, the formalism of input-output stability is an important tool in studying the stability of interconnected systems since the gain of a system directly relates to how the norm of a signal increases or decreases as it passes through the system. The small-gain theorem gives a sufficient condition for f... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11729_chunk_0 | Small-gain theorem | Theorem. Assume two stable systems S 1 {\displaystyle S_{1}} and S 2 {\displaystyle S_{2}} are connected in a feedback loop, then the closed loop system is input-output stable if ‖ S 1 ‖ ⋅ ‖ S 2 ‖ < 1 {\displaystyle \|S_{1}\|\cdot \|S_{2}\|<1} and both S 1 {\displaystyle S_{1}} and S 2 {\displaystyle S_{2}} are stable ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11730_chunk_0 | Three-wave equation | In nonlinear systems, the three-wave equations, sometimes called the three-wave resonant interaction equations or triad resonances, describe small-amplitude waves in a variety of non-linear media, including electrical circuits and non-linear optics. They are a set of completely integrable nonlinear partial differential... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11731_chunk_0 | Nonparametric regression | In nonparametric regression, we have random variables X {\displaystyle X} and Y {\displaystyle Y} and assume the following relationship: E = m ( x ) , {\displaystyle \mathbb {E} =m(x),} where m ( x ) {\displaystyle m(x)} is some deterministic function. Linear regression is a restricted case of nonparametric regression... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11732_chunk_0 | Ronald Graham | In nonparametric statistics, a 1977 paper by Persi Diaconis and Graham studied the statistical properties of Spearman's footrule, a measure of rank correlation that compares two permutations by summing, over each item, the distance between the positions of the item in the two permutations. They compared this measure to... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11733_chunk_0 | Epanechnikov kernel | In nonparametric statistics, a kernel is a weighting function used in non-parametric estimation techniques. Kernels are used in kernel density estimation to estimate random variables' density functions, or in kernel regression to estimate the conditional expectation of a random variable. Kernels are also used in time-s... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11734_chunk_0 | Expense ratio | In nonprofit organizations, the term "program expense ratio" refers to program expenses divided by total expenses. This is one of the primary financial indicators of concern to charities and their donors. The sum of the program expense ratio and the "support service expense ratio" is by definition 100% for a non-profit... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11735_chunk_0 | Closed systems | In nonrelativistic classical mechanics, a closed system is a physical system that doesn't exchange any matter with its surroundings, and isn't subject to any net force whose source is external to the system. A closed system in classical mechanics would be equivalent to an isolated system in thermodynamics. Closed syste... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11736_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | In nonrelativistic quantum mechanics, an account can be given of the existence of mass and spin (normally explained in Wigner's classification of relativistic mechanics) in terms of the representation theory of the Galilean group, which is the spacetime symmetry group of nonrelativistic quantum mechanics. In 3 + 1 dime... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11737_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | The method of induced representations will be used to survey these. We focus on the (centrally extended, Bargmann) Lie algebra here, because it is simpler to analyze and we can always extend the results to the full Lie group through the Frobenius theorem. = 0 {\displaystyle =0} = 0 {\displaystyle =0} = 0 {\displaysty... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11738_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | {\displaystyle =i\hbar M\delta _{ij}~.} E is the generator of time translations (Hamiltonian), Pi is the generator of translations (momentum operator), Ci is the generator of Galilean boosts, and Lij stands for a generator of rotations (angular momentum operator). The central charge M is a Casimir invariant. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11739_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | The mass-shell invariant M E − P 2 2 {\displaystyle ME-{P^{2} \over 2}} is an additional Casimir invariant. In 3 + 1 dimensions, a third Casimir invariant is W2, where W → ≡ M L → + P → × C → , {\displaystyle {\vec {W}}\equiv M{\vec {L}}+{\vec {P}}\times {\vec {C}}~,} somewhat analogous to the Pauli–Lubanski pseudovect... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11740_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | Thus, m > 0, m = 0 and m < 0. (The last case is similar to the first.) In 3 + 1 dimensions, when In m > 0, we can write, w = ms for the third invariant, where s represents the spin, or intrinsic angular momentum. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11741_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | More generally, in n + 1 dimensions, the generators L and C will be related, respectively, to the total angular momentum and center-of-mass moment by W i j = M S i j {\displaystyle W_{ij}=MS_{ij}} L i j = S i j + X i P j − X j P i {\displaystyle L_{ij}=S_{ij}+X_{i}P_{j}-X_{j}P_{i}} C i = M X i − P i t . {\displaystyle ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11742_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | From a purely representation-theoretic point of view, one would have to study all of the representations; but, here, we are only interested in applications to quantum mechanics. There, E represents the energy, which has to be bounded below, if thermodynamic stability is required. Consider first the case where m is nonz... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11743_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | Considering the (E, P→) space with the constraint we see that the Galilean boosts act transitively on this hypersurface. In fact, treating the energy E as the Hamiltonian, differentiating with respect to P, and applying Hamilton's equations, we obtain the mass-velocity relation m v→ = P→. The hypersurface is parametriz... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11744_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | Consider the stabilizer of a point on the orbit, (E0, 0), where the velocity is 0. Because of transitivity, we know the unitary irrep contains a nontrivial linear subspace with these energy-momentum eigenvalues. (This subspace only exists in a rigged Hilbert space, because the momentum spectrum is continuous.) | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11745_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | The subspace is spanned by E, P→, M and Lij. We already know how the subspace of the irrep transforms under all operators but the angular momentum. Note that the rotation subgroup is Spin(3). | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11746_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | We have to look at its double cover, because we are considering projective representations. This is called the little group, a name given by Eugene Wigner. His method of induced representations specifies that the irrep is given by the direct sum of all the fibers in a vector bundle over the mE = mE0 + P2/2 hypersurface... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11747_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | Any unitary irrep of this little group also gives rise to a projective irrep of the Galilean group. As far as we can tell, only the case which transforms trivially under the little group has any physical interpretation, and it corresponds to the no-particle state, the vacuum. The case where the invariant is negative re... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11748_chunk_0 | Representation theory of the Galilean group | This corresponds to the representation class for m = 0 and non-zero P→. Extending the bradyon, luxon, tachyon classification from the representation theory of the Poincaré group to an analogous classification, here, one may term these states as synchrons. They represent an instantaneous transfer of non-zero momentum ac... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11749_chunk_0 | Overspill | In nonstandard analysis, a branch of mathematics, overspill (referred to as overflow by Goldblatt (1998, p. 129)) is a widely used proof technique. It is based on the fact that the set of standard natural numbers N is not an internal subset of the internal set *N of hypernatural numbers. By applying the induction princ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11750_chunk_0 | Microcontinuity | In nonstandard analysis, a discipline within classical mathematics, microcontinuity (or S-continuity) of an internal function f at a point a is defined as follows: for all x infinitely close to a, the value f(x) is infinitely close to f(a).Here x runs through the domain of f. In formulas, this can be expressed as follo... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11751_chunk_0 | Increment theorem | In nonstandard analysis, a field of mathematics, the increment theorem states the following: Suppose a function y = f(x) is differentiable at x and that Δx is infinitesimal. Then for some infinitesimal ε, where If Δ x ≠ 0 {\textstyle \Delta x\neq 0} then we may write which implies that Δ y Δ x ≈ f ′ ( x ) {\textstyle {... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11752_chunk_0 | Standard part function | In nonstandard analysis, the standard part function is a function from the limited (finite) hyperreal numbers to the real numbers. Briefly, the standard part function "rounds off" a finite hyperreal to the nearest real. It associates to every such hyperreal x {\displaystyle x} , the unique real x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11753_chunk_0 | Standard part function | The standard part function was first defined by Abraham Robinson who used the notation ∘ x {\displaystyle {}^{\circ }x} for the standard part of a hyperreal x {\displaystyle x} (see Robinson 1974). This concept plays a key role in defining the concepts of the calculus, such as continuity, the derivative, and the integr... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11754_chunk_0 | Nutcracker syndrome | In normal anatomy, the LRV travels between the SMA and the AA. Occasionally, the LRV travels behind the AA and in front of the spinal column. NCS is divided based on how the LRV travels, with anterior NCS being entrapment by the SMA and AA and posterior NCS being compression by the AA and spinal column. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11755_chunk_0 | Compact bone | In normal bone, fractures occur when there is significant force applied or repetitive trauma over a long time. Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as Paget's disease) or is the site of the gr... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11756_chunk_0 | Compact bone | When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include flail chest, compartment syndromes or fat embolism. Compound fractures involve the bone's penetration through the skin. Some complex fractures can be treated by the use of bone grafting procedures that replace missing bone portions. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11757_chunk_0 | Phospholipase A2 | In normal brain cells, PLA2 regulation accounts for a balance between arachidonic acid's conversion into proinflammatory mediators and its reincorporation into the membrane. In the absence of strict regulation of PLA2 activity, a disproportionate amount of proinflammatory mediators are produced. The resulting induced o... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11758_chunk_0 | Phospholipase A2 | Abnormal levels of potent PAF are also associated with neurological damage. An optimal enzyme inhibitor would specifically target PLA2 activity on neural cell membranes already under oxidative stress and potent inflammation. Thus, specific inhibitors of brain PLA2 could be a pharmaceutical approach to treatment of seve... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11759_chunk_0 | Tumor growth factor (TGF) beta | In normal cells, TGF-β, acting through its signaling pathway, stops the cell cycle at the G1 stage to stop proliferation, induce differentiation, or promote apoptosis. In many cancer cells, parts of the TGF-β signaling pathway are mutated, and TGF-β no longer controls the cell. These cancer cells proliferate. The surro... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11760_chunk_0 | Tumor growth factor (TGF) beta | TGF-β1 has been implicated in the process of activating Hepatic Stellate Cells (HSCs) with the magnitude of hepatic fibrosis being in proportion to increase in TGF-β levels. Studies have shown that ACTA2 is associated with TGF-β pathway that enhances contractile properties of HSCs leading to Liver fibrosis. TGF-β also ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11761_chunk_0 | Tumor growth factor (TGF) beta | Normal tissue integrity is preserved by feedback interactions between different cell types that express adhesion molecules and secrete cytokines. Disruption of these feedback mechanisms in cancer damages a tissue. When TGF-β signaling fails to control NF-κB activity in cancer cells, this has at least two potential effe... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11762_chunk_0 | Lipotoxicity | In normal cellular operations, there is a balance between the production of lipids, and their oxidation or transport. In lipotoxic cells, there is an imbalance between the amount of lipids produced and the amount used. Upon entrance of the cell, fatty acids can be converted to different types of lipids for storage. Tri... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11763_chunk_0 | Lipotoxicity | Alternatively, fatty acids can be converted to lipid intermediates like diacylglycerol, ceramides and fatty acyl-CoAs. These lipid intermediates can impair cellular function, which is referred to as lipotoxicity.Adipocytes, the cells that normally function as lipid store of the body, are well equipped to handle the exc... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11764_chunk_0 | Lipotoxicity | When the storage capacity of non-adipose cells is exceeded, cellular dysfunction and/or death result. The mechanism by which lipotoxicity causes death and dysfunction is not well understood. The cause of apoptosis and extent of cellular dysfunction is related to the type of cell affected, as well as the type and quanti... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11765_chunk_0 | Lipotoxicity | Both sides accept that high fat diets put patients at increased risk for lipotoxic cells. Individuals with high numbers of lipotoxic cells usually experience both leptin and insulin resistance. However, no causative mechanism has been found for this correlation. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11766_chunk_0 | Alveolar macrophage | In normal conditions, alveolar macrophages adhere closely to alveolar epithelial cells, thus inducing the expression of the αvβ6 integrin. Integrins are dimeric cell-surface receptors composed of alpha and beta subunits, which activates TGF-β.< TGF-β is a multifunctional cytokine that modulates a variety of biological ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11767_chunk_0 | Alveolar macrophage | Normally mature TGFβ is secreted as a latent complex with its N-terminal fragment, latency-associated peptide (LAP), which inhibits its activity. The latent complex is covalently linked to the extracellular matrix by binding to latent TGF-β-binding proteins. TGF-β is activated by diverse mechanisms in the lung, ultimat... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11768_chunk_0 | Alveolar macrophage | Phosphorylated SMAD-2 and -3 then form heteromeric complexes with common-mediator SMAD 4 (co-SMAD-4). Once assembled, the complexes translocates into the nucleus via the nuclear pore with the assistance of importins alpha/beta. Once in the nucleus, these complexes accumulate and eventually act as a transcription factor... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11769_chunk_0 | Pulmonary hypertension | In normal conditions, the vascular endothelial nitric oxide synthase produces nitric oxide from L-arginine in the presence of oxygen.This nitric oxide diffuses into neighboring cells (including vascular smooth muscle cells and platelets), where it increases the activity of the enzyme soluble guanylate cyclase, leading ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11770_chunk_0 | UV-Vis absorption spectroelectrochemistry | In normal configuration, the light beam samples perpendicularly the electrode surface. Normal configuration provides optical information related to the changes that take place in the solution adjacent to the electrode and on the electrode surface. The optical path length coincides with the diffusion layer thickness, wh... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11771_chunk_0 | UV-Vis absorption spectroelectrochemistry | Normal transmissionIn normal transmission, the light beam passes through a optically transparent working electrode, collecting information about the phenomena that take place on the surface of the electrode and on the solution adjacent to it. Electrodes in this configuration must be composed of materials that have grea... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11772_chunk_0 | UV-Vis absorption spectroelectrochemistry | The reflected beam is collected to be analyzed in the spectrometer. It is also possible to work with other incidence and collection angles. This configuration is an alternative when the working electrode is non-transparent. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11773_chunk_0 | DOPA decarboxylase | In normal dopamine and serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmitter synthesis, AADC is not the rate-limiting step in either reaction. However, AADC becomes the rate-limiting step of dopamine synthesis in patients treated with L-DOPA (such as in Parkinson's disease), and the rate-limiting step of serotonin synthesis in people trea... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11774_chunk_0 | DOPA decarboxylase | Aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency is associated with various symptoms as severe developmental delay, oculogyric crises and autonomic dysfunction. The molecular and clinical spectrum of AAAC deficiency is heterogeneous. The first case of AADC deficiency was described in twin brothers 1990. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11775_chunk_0 | DOPA decarboxylase | Patients can be treated with dopamine agonists, MAO inhibitors, and pyridoxine (vitamin B6). Clinical phenotype and response to treatment is variable and the long-term and functional outcome is unknown. To provide a basis for improving the understanding of the epidemiology, genotype–phenotype correlation and outcome of... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11776_chunk_0 | DOPA decarboxylase | Neurons that express AADC but are not considered classical monoaminergic cell neurons are termed D cells. Cells that are immunoreactive for AADC have also been found in the human brainstem. These cells include melanin-pigmented cells that are typically designated as catecholaminergic and may also be serotonergic. Signi... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11777_chunk_0 | Corrosion fatigue | Fracture mechanics uses pre-cracked specimens, effectively measuring crack-propagation behavior. For this reason, emphasis is given to crack-propagation velocity measurements (using fracture mechanics) to study corrosion fatigue. Since fatigue crack grows in a stable fashion below the critical stress-intensity factor f... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11778_chunk_0 | Corrosion fatigue | The diagram on the right shows typical fatigue-crack-growth behavior. In this log-log plot, the crack-propagation velocity is plotted against the applied stress-intensity range. Generally there is a threshold stress-intensity range, below which crack-propagation velocity is insignificant. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11779_chunk_0 | Corrosion fatigue | Three stages may be visualized in this plot. Near the threshold, crack-propagation velocity increases with increasing stress-intensity range. In the second region, the curve is nearly linear and follows Paris' law(6); in the third region crack-propagation velocity increases rapidly, with the stress-intensity range lead... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11780_chunk_0 | Parkinsonian gait | In normal gait, the vertical ground reaction force (GRF) plot has two peaks – one when the foot strikes the ground and the second peak is caused by push-off force from the ground. The shape of the vertical GRF signal is abnormal in PD. In the earlier stages of the disease, reduced forces (or peak heights) are found for... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11781_chunk_0 | Spiral organ of Corti | The basilar membrane on the tympanic duct presses against the hair cells of the organ as perilymphatic pressure waves pass. The stereocilia atop the IHCs move with this fluid displacement and in response their cation, or positive ion selective, channels are pulled open by cadherin structures called tip links that conne... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11782_chunk_0 | Spiral organ of Corti | Under the organ of Corti is the scala tympani and above it, the scala vestibuli. Both structures exist in a low potassium fluid called perilymph. Because those stereocilia are in the midst of a high concentration of potassium, once their cation channels are pulled open, potassium ions as well as calcium ions flow into ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11783_chunk_0 | Agouti coloration genetics | In normal horses, ASIP restricts the production of eumelanin to the "points": the legs, mane, tail, ear edges, etc. In 2001, researchers discovered a recessive mutation on ASIP that, when homozygous, left the horse without any functional ASIP. As a result, horses capable of producing true black pigment had uniformly bl... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11784_chunk_0 | Junctional ectopic tachycardia | In normal individuals, electrical activity in the heart is initiated in the sinoatrial (SA) node (located in the right atrium), propagates to the atrioventricular (AV) node, and then through the bundle of His to the ventricles of the heart. The AV node acts as a gatekeeper, limiting the electrical activity that reaches... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11785_chunk_0 | Junctional ectopic tachycardia | Another important property of the AV node is that it slows down individual electrical impulses. This is manifest on the ECG as the PR interval, which is about less than 200 milliseconds, the time from activation of the atria (manifest as the P wave) and activation of the ventricles (manifest as the QRS complex).Individ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11786_chunk_0 | Serum free light-chain measurement | It is very efficient and can process 10–30 g of low-molecular-weight proteins per day, so under normal conditions no light chains pass beyond the proximal tubules.If immunoglobulin light chains are produced in sufficient amounts to overwhelm the proximal tubules' absorption mechanisms (usually due to the presence of a ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11787_chunk_0 | Serum free light-chain measurement | It is a relatively small glycoprotein (80 kDa) that aggregates into polymers of 20–30 molecules. It contains a short amino-acid sequence that can specifically bind to some free light chains. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11788_chunk_0 | Serum free light-chain measurement | Rising concentrations of light chains are filtered by the remaining nephrons leading to a cycle of accelerating renal damage with rising concentrations of free light chains in the blood. At the same time, the amount of free light chains entering the urine will be decreased and will be zero if the patient stops producin... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11789_chunk_0 | First-degree atrioventricular block | This is measured from the initial deflection of the P wave to the beginning of the QRS complex.In first-degree heart block, the AV node conducts the electrical activity more slowly. This is seen as a PR interval greater than 200 ms in length on the surface ECG. It is usually an incidental finding on a routine ECG.First... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11790_chunk_0 | Ketone body | The overall picture of ketonemia and ketonuria is commonly referred to as ketosis. The smell of acetoacetate and/or acetone in breath is a common feature in ketosis. When a type 1 diabetic suffers acute biological stress (infection, heart attack, or physical trauma) or fails to administer enough insulin, they may enter... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11791_chunk_0 | Ketone body | Under these circumstances, the low or absent insulin levels in the blood, combined with the inappropriately high glucagon concentrations, induce the liver to produce glucose at an inappropriately increased rate, causing acetyl-CoA resulting from the beta-oxidation of fatty acids, to be converted into ketone bodies. The... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11792_chunk_0 | Elevated alpha-fetoprotein | In normal infants, AFP in CSF is: median 61 kIU/L (5th-95th centile: 2-889 kIU/L) in infants -69 to 31 days old median 1.2 kIU/L (5th-95th centile: 0.1-12.5 kIU/L) in infants 32 to 110 days oldLevels of AFP in CSF decline with gestational age in proportion to levels of AFP in serum | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11793_chunk_0 | Ito cell | In normal liver, stellate cells are described as being in a quiescent state. Quiescent stellate cells represent 5-8% of the total number of liver cells. Each cell has several long protrusions that extend from the cell body and wrap around the sinusoids. The lipid droplets in the cell body store vitamin A as retinol est... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11794_chunk_0 | Ito cell | The function and role of quiescent hepatic stellate cells is unclear. Recent evidence suggests a role as a liver-resident antigen-presenting cell, presenting lipid antigens to and stimulating proliferation of NKT cells.When the liver is damaged, stellate cells can change into an activated state. The activated stellate ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11795_chunk_0 | Ito cell | This state of the stellate cell is the main source of extracellular matrix production in liver injury. This attribute makes it a key factor in the pathophysiology of the liver. The amount of stored vitamin A decreases progressively in liver injury. | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11796_chunk_0 | Ito cell | The activated stellate cell is also responsible for secreting collagen scar tissue, which can lead to cirrhosis. More recent studies have also shown that in vivo activation of hepatic stellate cells by agents causing liver fibrosis can eventually lead to senescence in these cells, marked by increased SA-beta-galactosid... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11797_chunk_0 | Insulin Resistance | In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose instructs beta (β) cells in the Islets of Langerhans, located in the pancreas, to release insulin into the blood. The insulin makes insulin-sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal muscle cells, adipose tissue, and liver) absorb glucose which provides energy as ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11798_chunk_0 | Insulin Resistance | When the body produces insulin under conditions of insulin resistance, the cells are unable to absorb or use it as effectively and it stays in the bloodstream. Certain cell types such as fat and muscle cells require insulin to absorb glucose and when these cells fail to respond adequately to circulating insulin, blood ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
wiki_11799_chunk_0 | Insulin Resistance | However, in insulin resistance, this normal reduction in the liver's glucose production may not occur, further contributing to elevated blood glucose.Insulin resistance in fat cells results in reduced uptake of circulating lipids and increased hydrolysis of stored triglycerides. This leads to elevated free fatty acids ... | https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus |
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