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Health technology assessment Also in the UK, the Multidisciplinary Assessment of Technology Centre for Healthcare carries out HTA in collaboration with the health service, the NHS and various industrial partners. MATCH is organised into four themes addressing key HTA topics including Health Economics, Tools for Industry, User Needs and Procurement and Supply chain. Canada also has a health technology assessment body called the Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22406877 |
Maturity (sedimentology) In sedimentary geology, maturity describes the composition and texture of grains in clastic rocks, most typically sandstones, resulting from different amounts of sediment transportation. A sediment is mature when the grains in a sediment become well-sorted and well-rounded due to weathering or abrasion of the grains during transport. There are two components to describe maturity, "texture" and "composition". Texture describes how rounded and sorted the sample is while composition describes how much the composition trends toward stable minerals and components (often quartz). A mature sediment is more uniform in appearance, for the sediment grains are well rounded, are of a similar size and exhibit little compositional variation. Conversely, an immature sediment contains more angular grains, diverse grain sizes, and is compositionally diverse. As the sediment is transported, the unstable minerals are abraded or dissolved to leave more stable minerals, such as quartz. Mature sediments, which contain stable minerals, generally have a smaller variety of minerals than immature sediments, which can contain both stable and unstable minerals. One measure of this maturity is the ZTR index which is a measure of the common resistant minerals found in ultra-weathered sediments: zircon, tourmaline, and rutile. A sediment sample from the lower (downstream) portions of a stream is likely to be more mature than one found upstream, since the original sediment has been subject to more abrasion as it travels downstream. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22408256 |
LRGB LRGB, short for Luminance, Red, Green and Blue, is a photographic technique used in amateur astronomy for producing good quality color photographs by combining a high-quality black-and-white image with a lower-quality color image. In amateur astronomy, it is easier and cheaper to obtain good quality, high signal-to-noise ratio images in black and white. The method is used to work around this to get good color images. The color information from the color image is combined with the overall brightness from the black-and-white image. The theory behind the effectiveness behind techniques has been related to the way humans see color. The rods in human eyes are sensitive to luminance and spatial data, while the cones are sensitive to color. There are three types of cones: those sensitive to red, those sensitive to green, and those sensitive to blue. Thus, each element of targets one type of photoreceptor cell in the human eye. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22419272 |
Peloid (geology) Peloids are allochems that are composed of micrite, irrespective of size, shape, or origin. The two primary types of peloids are pellets and intraclasts. Another type of peloid is pseudo-oolith. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22424179 |
Puelche (wind) A Puelche wind (in Spanish, "viento puelche") is a dry foehn-like eastern wind that occurs in south-central Chile. The wind owns its name from the Puelche people who inhabited the eastern slopes of the Andes. Puelche winds are mainly caused by South Pacific high pressure extending eastwards across the Andes and/or building a ridge to an area of high pressure centered over the South Atlantic. Puelche winds appearing in spring can cause fast snow melt in the Andes, producing floods and reducing the albedo of glaciers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22441650 |
De Natura Fossilium is a scientific text written by Georg Bauer also known as Georgius Agricola, first published in 1546. The book represents the first scientific attempt to categorize minerals, rocks and sediments since the publication of Pliny's "Natural History". This text along with Agricola's other works including "De Re Metallica" compose the earliest comprehensive "scientific" approach to mineralogy, mining, and geological science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22454273 |
Inuvik (crater) Inuvik is an Impact crater located outside the perennial north polar cap on Mars. The crater's diameter is 20.5 kilometres, and it lies at latitude 78.7°N, longitude 28.6°W. In 1988, the IAU's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN) named the crater after the town of Inuvik, Northwest Territories, Canada. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22465870 |
Davies equation The is an empirical extension of Debye–Hückel theory which can be used to calculate activity coefficients of electrolyte solutions at relatively high concentrations at 25 °C. The equation, originally published in 1938, was refined by fitting to experimental data. The final form of the equation gives the mean molal activity coefficient formula_1 of an electrolyte that dissociates into ions having charges "z" and "z" as a function of ionic strength "I": The second term, 0.30 "I", goes to zero as the ionic strength goes to zero, so the equation reduces to the Debye–Hückel equation at low concentration. However, as concentration increases, the second term becomes increasingly important, so the can be used for solutions too concentrated to allow the use of the Debye–Hückel equation. For 1:1 electrolytes the difference between measured values and those calculated with this equation is about 2% of the value for 0.1 M solutions. The calculations become less precise for electrolytes that dissociate into ions with higher charges. Further discrepancies will arise if there is association between the ions, with the formation of ion pairs, such as MgSO. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22476314 |
Coupled-wave method In physics, the coupled-wave method (CWM) is a method for analysing the interaction between two electromagnetic waves in a crystal or a grating. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22491755 |
Alessandro Vaciago (September 11, 1931 – November 17, 1993) was a Professor of Chemical Structure, University of Rome from 1971 to 1993. He also served as a Cultural Counselor for the Italian Embassy. The Accademia dei Lincei awards yearly the Vaciago Prize to distinguished researchers in different fields of science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22494743 |
Phrase name In Australian botany, a phrase name is an informal name given to a plant taxon that has not yet been given a formal scientific name. The term was adopted in 1992 by the Australian Herbarium Information Systems Committee. The species phrase name consists of four components — the generic name, "sp." (to indicate it is a species), an identifier (geographical or morphological) and a collector's name and number representing a herbarium specimen vouchering the concept of the new species. This is a fairly typical example except that the number 1 is often replaced by something more informative, such as a location or distinctive morphological characteristic. A phrase name is used for an unnamed taxon, which may or may not have already been formally described, but only for as long as no scientific name has been chosen for it; afterwards it may be listed as a synonym, | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22529938 |
Ernst August Girschner Ernst August Girschner, usually just Ernst Girschner (29 October 1860 – 28 April 1914) was a German entomologist who specialised in Diptera. Girschner was born (and died) in Torgau, Province of Saxony. He taught at the Gymnasium in Torgau. Girschner described many new species of Diptera but made much more important contributions notably formalising the use of chaetotaxy in Calyptratae "it was the merit of Mr. E. Girschner to give to Chaetotaxy a much greater development and application than it had had before, and to treat it as a sine qua non of descriptive dipterology. His enviable talent for drawing enabled him to illustrate his papers by diagrams more eloquent than any descriptions" He was a friend of entomologist Josef Mik. Partial list Part of his collection was purchased by Colbran J. Wainwright in 1909 (now in the Natural History Museum London). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22533219 |
Michael L. W. Thewalt (born 5 December 1949 in Karlsruhe, Germany) is a Canadian physicist. He received his BSc from McMaster University in 1972. His MSc and PhD were from the University of British Columbia in the mid-1970s. He teaches at Simon Fraser University and is known for researching semiconductors, especially isotopically enriched silicon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22534568 |
Marine Life Information Network The (MarLIN) is an information system for marine biodiversity for Great Britain and Ireland. MarLIN was established in 1998 by the Marine Biological Association together with the environmental protection agencies and academic institutions in Britain and Ireland. The MarLIN data access programme has now become the DASSH Marine Data Archive Cantre. DASSH is built on the existing extensive data and dissemination skills of the (MarLIN), the library and information services of the National Marine Biological Library (NMBL) and the MBA's historical role in marine science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22536663 |
Fusain is a fossilised carbon deposit which, after some controversy, has been identified as fossilised charcoal. It is fibrous, black and opaque, and often preserves details of cell wall architecture. Wood-derived fusain usually takes the form of cubic blocks, whereas fusain from other plant material may take the form of thin films which are only visible under a microscope where the surrounding rock is dissolved by acid maceration. The material is silky and crumbles on the touch. The loss of volatile elements during combustion means that fusain fossils are usually smaller than the original organism, but this same factor makes them unlikely to be eaten by any animals (for they have no nutritional value), enhancing their preservation potential. shows characteristics diagnostic of pyrolysis in modern material: the cell walls of xylem are homogenized, and subsequently crack along their middles. http://www.palaeocast.com/episode-22-fire-and-charcoal/#.U446-i-KWKO | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22547944 |
Himiko (Lyman-alpha blob) Himiko is a large gas cloud found at redshift of z=6.6 that predates similar Lyman-alpha blobs. At time of discovery, researchers said it "may represent the most massive object ever discovered in the early universe." It is located in Cetus at redshift z=6.595, about 12.9 billion light years from Earth, or about miles ( kilometers). This nebular gas cloud is thought to be a protogalaxy, caught in the act of formation. There have been no spectroscopic signatures of anything other than hydrogen or helium, and its luminance cannot be ascribed to gravitational lensing, black holes or exterior excitation. The lack of any chemical signatures other than hydrogen and helium illustrate the extreme primitiveness of the object, and early enough so as not to be polluted by carbon signatures from young stars. It is 55,000 light years across (half the diameter of our galaxy), and at the time of discovery, said to "hold more than 10 times as much mass as the next largest object found in the early universe, or roughly the equivalent mass of 40 billion Suns". Masami Ouchi, a researcher at the Carnegie Institution in Pasadena, California, stated "I have never heard about any [similar] objects that could be resolved at this distance...[i]t's kind of record-breaking." The object was named by a Japanese scientist after the 3rd-century Japanese shaman queen Himiko. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22548217 |
Very long chain fatty acid A very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) is a fatty acid with 22 or more carbons. Their biosynthesis occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum. VLCFA's can represent up to a few percent of the total fatty acid content of a cell. Unlike most fatty acids, VLCFAs are too long to be metabolized in the mitochondria, and must be metabolized in peroxisomes. Certain peroxisomal disorders, such as adrenoleukodystrophy and Zellweger syndrome, can be associated with an accumulation of VLCFAs. Some of the more common saturated VLCFAs: lignoceric acid (C24), cerotic acid (C26), montanic acid (C28), melissic acid (C30), lacceroic acid (C32), ghedoic acid (C34), and the odd-chain fatty acid ceroplastic acid (C35). Several monounsaturated VLCFAs are also known: nervonic acid (Δ15-24:1), ximenic acid (Δ17-26:1), and llumequeic acid (Δ21-30:1). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22561373 |
Purnell equation The is an equation used in analytical chemistry to calculate the resolution "R" between two peaks in a chromatogram. where The higher the resolution, the better the separation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562598 |
Do-it-yourself biology (DIY biology, DIY bio) is a growing biotechnological social movement in which individuals, communities, and small organizations study biology and life science using the same methods as traditional research institutions. DIY biology is primarily undertaken by individuals with extensive research training from academia or corporations, who then mentor and oversee other DIY biologists with little or no formal training. This may be done as a hobby, as a not-for-profit endeavour for community learning and open-science innovation, or for profit, to start a business. Other terms are also associated with the do-it-yourself biology community. The terms biohacking and wetware hacking emphasize the connection to hacker culture and the hacker ethic. The term hacker is used in the original sense of finding new and clever ways to do things. The term biohacking is also used by the grinder body modification community, which is considered related but distinct from the do-it-yourself biology movement. The term biopunk emphasizes the techno-progressive, political, and artistic elements of the movement. The term "biohacking" as well as the concept of do-it-yourself biology has been known as early as 1988. Biohacking entered the San Francisco programmer and maker communities as early as 2005, through simple demonstrations of basic experiments. As DIYbio experiments became the focus of SuperHappyDevHouse hackers, the hobby gained additional momentum | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Do-it-yourself biology In 2005 Rob Carlson wrote in an article in "Wired": "The era of garage biology is upon us. Want to participate? Take a moment to buy yourself a lab on eBay." He then set up a garage lab the same year, working on a project he had previously worked at the Molecular Sciences Institute in Berkeley, California. In 2008, the DIYbio organization was founded by Jason Bobe and Mackenzie Cowell and its first meeting held. In 2010, Genspace opened the first community biology lab, Ten months later it was followed by BioCurious, and Victoria Makerspace. Many other labs and organizations followed, including but not limited to Counter Culture Labs in Oakland, CA, Baltimore Underground Science Space in Baltimore, MD, TheLab in Los Angeles, CA and Denver Biolabs in Denver, CO. In 2016, the first conference to focus specifically on biohacking was announced to take place in September in Oakland, CA. The DIYbio movement seeks to revise the notion that one must be an academic with an advanced degree to make any significant contribution to the biology community. It allows large numbers of small organizations and individuals to participate in research and development, with spreading knowledge a higher priority than turning profits. The motivations for DIY biology include (but aren't limited to) lowered costs, entertainment, medicine, biohacking, life extension, and education | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Do-it-yourself biology Recent work combining open-source hardware of microcontrollers like the Arduino and RepRap 3-D printers, very low-cost scientific instruments have been developed. Many organizations maintain a laboratory akin to a wet-lab makerspace, providing equipment and supplies for members. Many organizations also run classes and provide training. For a fee (usually between $50 and $100), members can join some spaces and do experiments on their own. The DIY biology movement attempts to make available the tools and resources necessary for anyone, including non-professionals, to conduct biological engineering. One of the first pieces of open source laboratory equipment developed was the Dremelfuge by Irish biohacker Cathal Garvey, which uses a 3D printed tube holder attached to a Dremel rotary tool to spin tubes at high speeds, replacing often expensive centrifuges. Many other devices like PCR machines have been recreated extensively. In recent times, more complex devices have been created such as the OpenDrop digital microfluidics platform and the DIY NanoDrop both developed by GaudiLabs. Opentrons makes open-source, affordable lab robots, and got its start as a DIY biology collaboration at Genspace. Incuvers makes telemetric chambers for cellular research that are affordable and allow for complete customizability of their environments. OpenCell, a London based biotech lab provider hosts regular biohackathons to help encourage more opensource development | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Do-it-yourself biology Most advocacy in biohacking is about the safety, accessibility and future legality of experimentation. Todd Kuiken of the Woodrow Wilson Center proposes that through safety and self-governance, DIY biologists won't be in need of regulation. Josiah Zayner has proposed that safety is inherent in biohacking and that accessibility should be the foremost concern as there is large underrepresentation of social and ethnic minorities in biohacking. Many biohacking projects revolve around the modification of life and molecular and genetic engineering. Bioinformatics is another popular target for do-it-yourself biology research. As in other fields, many programming languages can be used in DIY biology, but most of the languages that are used are those with large bioinformatics libraries. Examples include BioPerl or BioPython, which use the languages Perl and Python, respectively. Genetic Engineers are a subculture of biohackers as one of the most accessible forms of biohacking is through engineering microorganisms or plants. Experiments can range from using plasmids to fluorescent bacteria, controlling gene expression using light in bacteria, even using CRISPR to engineer the genome of bacteria or yeast. Restricted access to medical care and medicine has pushed biohackers to start experimenting in medically related fields. The Open Insulin project aims to make the recombinant protein insulin more accessible by creating an open source protocol for expression and purification | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Do-it-yourself biology Other experiments that have involved medical treatments include a whole body microbiome transplant and the creation of open source artificial pancreases for diabetics. Grinders are a subculture of biohackers that focus on implanting technology or introducing chemicals into the body to enhance or change their bodies' functionality. Some biohackers can now sense which direction they face using a magnetic implant that vibrates against the skin. In 2000, controversial and self-described "transgenic artist" Eduardo Kac appropriated standard laboratory work by biotechnology and genetics researchers in order to both utilize and critique such scientific techniques. In the only putative work of transgenic art by Kac, the artist claimed to have collaborated with a French laboratory (belonging to the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique) to procure a green-fluorescent rabbit: a rabbit implanted with a green fluorescent protein gene from a type of jellyfish ["Aequorea victoria"] in order for the rabbit to fluoresce green under ultraviolet light. The claimed work came to be known as the "GFP bunny", and which Kac called "Alba". This claim by Kac has been disputed by the scientists at the lab who noted that they had performed exactly the same experiment (i.e., the insertion of the jellyfish GFP protein-coding gene) on numerous other animals (cats, dogs, etc.) previously and did not create "Alba" (known to the researchers only as "Rabbit Number 5256") under the direction of Kac | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Do-it-yourself biology The laboratory consequently kept possession of the transgenic rabbit which it had created and funded and the "transgenic art" was never exhibited at the Digital Avignon festival [2000] as intended. Kac—claiming that his rabbit was the first GFP bunny created in the name of Art—used this dispute to popularize the issue as one of disguised censorship by launching a "Free Alba" campaign. A doctored photo of the artist holding a day-glow-green tinted rabbit appears on his website. The members of the Critical Art Ensemble have written books and staged multimedia performance interventions around this issue, including "The Flesh Machine" (focusing on in vitro fertilisation, surveillance of the body, and liberal eugenics) and "Cult of the New Eve" (In order to analyze how, in their words, "Science is the institution of authority regarding the production of knowledge, and tends to replace this particular social function of conventional Christianity in the west"). Heather Dewey-Hagborg is an information artist and biohacker who uses genomic DNA left behind by people as a starting point for creating lifelike, computer-generated, 3-D portraits. Biohacking experiences many of the same criticisms as synthetic biology and genetic engineering already receive, plus other concerns relating to the distributed and non-institutional nature of the work, involving potential hazards with lack of oversight by professionals or governments | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Do-it-yourself biology Concerns about biohackers creating pathogens in unmonitored garage laboratories led the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to begin sending its representatives to DIYbio conferences in 2009. The arrest and prosecution of some members for their work with harmless microbes, such as artivist Steve Kurtz, has been denounced as political repression by critics who argue the U.S. government has used post-9/11 anti-terrorism powers to intimidate artists and others who use their art to criticize society. Existing regulations are not specific to this field, so that the possibility of pathological organisms being created and released unintentionally or intentionally by biohackers has become a matter of concern, for example, in the spirit of the re-creation of the 1917 flu virus by Armed Forces Institute of Pathology researchers in 2005. In the US the FBI Weapons of Mass Destruction Directorate has worked with the American Association for the Advancement of Science's National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity to convene a series of meetings to discuss biosecurity, which have included discussions of amateur biologists and ways to manage the risks to society it poses. At the National Institutes of Health, National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity leads efforts to educate the public on "dual use research of concern", for example with websites like "Science Safety Security". In 2011, DIYbio organized conferences to attempt to create codes of ethics for biohackers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Do-it-yourself biology Pat Mooney, executive director of ETC Group, is a critic of biohacking who argues that—using a laptop computer, published gene sequence information, and mail-order synthetic DNA—just about anyone has the potential to construct genes or entire genomes from scratch (including those of the lethal pathogens) in the near-future. A 2007 ETC Group report warns that the danger of this development is not just bio-terror, but "bio-error". While no DIYbio project to date has involved harmful agents, the fear remains in the minds of both regulators and laypersons. However, it is often pointed out that DIYbio is at too early a stage to consider such advanced projects feasible, as few successful transformative genetics projects have been undertaken yet. It is also worth noting that, while an individual could conceivably do harm with sufficient skill and intent, there exist biology labs throughout the world with greater access to the technology, skill and funding to accomplish a bioweapons project. While detractors argue that do-it-yourself biologists need some sort of supervision, enthusiasts argue that uniform supervision is impossible and the best way to prevent accidents or malevolence is to encourage a culture of transparency, where, in essence, do-it-yourself biologists would be peer reviewed by other biohackers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Do-it-yourself biology Enthusiasts argue that fear of potential hazards should be met with increased research and education rather than closing the door on the profound positive impacts that distributed biological technology will have on human health, the environment, and the standard of living around the world. Due to the lack of precedent regarding such a business model, the DIYbio founders see this as an opportunity to be innovators in regulatory and safety policy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562859 |
Belarusian Nature and Environment Museum The Museum of Nature and Environment of the Republic of Belarus is a museum in Minsk, Belarus, founded in 1991 at Minsk on the basis of the nature of Belarusian National History and Culture Museum. There are more than 40 thousand exhibits inside an exposition area of 350 m². In the 6 thematic rooms (mineralogical, fenalagichny, nature, river, lake, forest) exhibits tell about the natural riches of the evolution of flora and fauna from antiquity to the present day. Carrying out research work to assess the current state of nature, it creates a database (the collection of flora, fauna, mineralogy, paleontology) and promotes environmental knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22576474 |
Stoletov curve shows the dependence of the magnetic permeability formula_1 of ferromagnetics on the intensity of the applied magnetic field "H". The curve is named after physicist Aleksandr Stoletov who analyzed in a long series of experiments the magnetic properties of iron rings in the period 1871–1872 during his stay at the Physical Laboratory of the University of Heidelberg. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22576960 |
Flatness (liquids) Flatness refers to the shape of a liquid's free surface. On planet Earth, the flatness of a liquid is a function of the curvature of the Earth, and from trigonometry, can be found to deviate from true flatness by approximately 19.6 nanometers over an area of 1 square meter, a deviation which is dominated by the effects of surface tension. This calculation using the Earth's mean radius at sea level, however a liquid will be slightly flatter at the poles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22579173 |
Flora of Borneo The flora of Borneo include 15 species of dicot tree, 37 species of non-tree dicot and 49 species of monocot endemic to the rich forest of Brunei Darussalam. Borneo is also home to the world's largest flower, the Rafflesia Arnoldii, this is the largest flower in the world and can reach up to 15 pounds in weight. Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is divided between three countries: Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22585258 |
Vortex stretching In fluid dynamics, vortex stretching is the lengthening of vortices in three-dimensional fluid flow, associated with a corresponding increase of the component of vorticity in the stretching direction—due to the conservation of angular momentum. is associated with a particular term in the vorticity equation. For example, vorticity transport in an incompressible inviscid flow is governed by where "D/Dt" is the material derivative. The source term on the right hand side is the vortex stretching term. It amplifies the vorticity formula_2 when the velocity is diverging in the direction parallel to formula_2. A simple example of vortex stretching in a viscous flow is provided by the Burgers vortex. is at the core of the description of the turbulence energy cascade from the large scales to the small scales in turbulence. In general, in turbulence fluid elements are more lengthened than squeezed, on average. In the end, this results in more vortex stretching than vortex squeezing. For incompressible flow—due to volume conservation of fluid elements—the lengthening implies thinning of the fluid elements in the directions perpendicular to the stretching direction. This reduces the radial length scale of the associated vorticity. Finally, at the small scales of the order of the Kolmogorov microscales, the turbulence kinetic energy is dissipated into heat through the action of molecular viscosity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22586949 |
Eobacteria is a proposed clade characterized by Cavalier-Smith. Species in this group lack lipopolysaccharide. The clade includes Hadobacteria and Chlorobacteria. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22603691 |
BioCryst Pharmaceuticals BioCryst Pharmaceuticals, Inc. is an American pharmaceutical company headquartered in Durham, North Carolina. The company focuses on orphan & autoimmune diseases, and antivirals. The company's most advanced drug candidate is the antiviral Peramivir, which is approved in Japan, Korea and China. It was authorized by the FDA for emergency use in the treatment of patients hospitalized with influenza during the 2009-10 influenza A virus subtype H1N1 pandemic. The company was founded in 1986 by Charles E. Bugg, Ph.D. and John A. Montgomery, Ph.D. In March 1994, BioCryst became a public company when it completed an Initial Public Offering by listing its shares on the NASDAQ stock exchange. In 2008 the company was named one of the fastest growing companies by Deloitte & Touche in its 2008 list of "Technology Fast 500". In October 2010, BioCryst announced its headquarters would move to Durham, North Carolina, where the company has had an office since 2006. BioCryst is a member of the Alliance for Biosecurity, a group of companies that work to develop vaccines and other measures that can be used in the case of a pandemic or bioterrorism attack. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22617127 |
Ruze's equation is an equation relating the gain of an antenna to the RMS of the random surface errors. The equation is applicable to parabolic reflector and antennas, and recently extended to phased arrays. The equation is named after John Ruze who introduced the equation in a paper he wrote in 1952. The equation states that the antenna's gain is inversely proportional to the exponential of the square of the RMS surface errors. Mathematically, the equation for parabolic reflector antennas can be expressed as: formula_1 where formula_2 is the surface RMS errors of the reflector, formula_3 is the wavelength, and formula_4 is the gain of the antenna in the absence of surface errors. The equation is often expressed in decibels as: formula_5 (dB) where <math>-685.81=10\log_{10}\left(e^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22630452 |
Pickering (Martian crater) Pickering Crater is a crater in the Phaethontis quadrangle on Mars, located at 33.1° south latitude and 132.5° west longitude. It is in diameter. Lava flow fronts are visible within the crater, and the source of the lava is Arsia Mons. The lava has flowed around the central peak of the crater. The crater was named after several people: Edward Charles Pickering, American astronomer (1846–1919); his brother William Henry Pickering, American astronomer (1858–1938); and Sir William Hayward Pickering (unrelated), New Zealand-American engineer (1910–2004). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22640525 |
Kipini (crater) Kipini is an impact crater in the Oxia Palus quadrangle of Mars. It is located at 26.1° N and 31.6° W It is named after Kipini, a town in Kenya. Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak. The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact. If one measures the diameter of a crater, the original depth can be estimated with various ratios. Because of this relationship, researchers have found that many Martian craters contain a great deal of material; much of it is believed to be ice deposited when the climate was different. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22641961 |
Sagan (crater) Sagan is an impact crater on Mars, located in the Oxia Palus quadrangle at 10.8° N and 30.7° W. It measures approximately 90 kilometers in diameter and was named after American astronomer Carl Sagan, who founded the Planetary Society and is best known for the television series "". The naming was approved by IAU's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature in 2000. To the northeast of Sagan is the larger Masursky, and to the south is Barsukov. Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak. The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22642004 |
Fesenkov (Martian crater) Fesenkov Crater is an impact crater in the Lunae Palus quadrangle of Mars. It is located at 21.8° N and 86.7° W. It was named after Vasilii G. Fesenkov, a Russian astrophysicist (1889–1972). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22642411 |
Pangboche (crater) Pangboche is a young impact crater on Mars, located in the Tharsis quadrangle near the summit of Olympus Mons. It was named after a village in Nepal. It measures 10 kilometer in diameter, and is located at 17.47° N and 133.4° W. The average depth of the crater is 954 m, and the height of the crater rim varies between 80 and 240 meters. Pangboche formed in young lava flows on the flank of Olympus Mons. The morphology of Pangboche is very similar to that of lunar craters, likely due to the lack of volatiles in both the atmosphere and the target. It lacks several features often attributed to the presence of volatiles in the target rocks, including layered ejecta and lobate flows. It is a complex crater featuring a flat floor and several terraces. Pangboche is estimated to be less than 240 million years old. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22646014 |
Electrocapillarity or electrocapillary phenomena are the phenomena related to changes in the surface energy (or interfacial tension) of the dropping mercury electrode (DME), or in principle, any electrode, as the electrode potential changes or the electrolytic solution composition and concentration change. The term "electro-capillary" is used to describe the change in mercury (Hg) electrode potential as a function of the change in the surface or interfacial tension of the Hg determined by the capillary rise method. The phenomena are the historic main contributions for understanding and validating the models of the structure of the electrical double layer. The phenomena are related to the electrokinetic phenomena and consequently to the colloid chemistry. The interfacial (surface) tension, St, (dyne cm), can be calculated by applying the equation of capillary rise method (when the contact angle Ө → 0): formula_1 where: The circuit contains Hg electrode as the ideally polarizable electrode and a reference electrode as the non-polarizable electrode. Thus, when an external voltage is applied, only EM/S of Hg/solution fluid interface is changed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22649696 |
Stoletov's law (or the first law of photoeffect) for photoelectric effect establishes the direct proportionality between the intensity of electromagnetic radiation acting on a metallic surface and the photocurrent induced by this radiation. The law was discovered by Aleksandr Stoletov in 1888. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22661771 |
Isopach map An isopach map () illustrates thickness variations within a tabular unit, layer or stratum. Isopachs are contour lines of equal thickness over an area. Isopach maps are utilized in hydrographic survey, stratigraphy, sedimentology, structural geology, petroleum geology and volcanology. An isopach map is similar to an isochore map, but these terms actually describe different methods of displaying thickness variations within a layer. Thus, an isochore and isopach map are the same only when both the top and bottom surfaces of the layer shown are horizontal. When the layer shown is inclined, as is usually the case, the thicknesses displayed in an isochore map of the layer will be greater than the thicknesses displayed in an isopach map of the same layer. Unfortunately the terms isopach and isochore are widely confused, and many times maps of True Vertical Thickness (TVT), which by definition are isochore maps, are incorrectly labeled isopach maps. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22665032 |
Jack Hawkes (botanist) John Gregory "Jack" Hawkes OBE FLS (27 June 1915 in Bristol – 6 September 2007 in Reading) was a British botanist, Mason Professor of Botany at the University of Birmingham. He specialised in studying the taxonomy of wild potato species ("Solanum" sect. "Petota"), identified sources of resistance to the potato cyst nematode and played a role in establishing programs to maintain agricultural biodiversity. He was awarded the OBE in the 1994 Birthday Honours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22666808 |
Sigma Gamma Epsilon The Society of (ΣΓΕ) is a national honor society to recognize scholarship in the earth sciences founded in 1915 at the University of Kansas. It has chartered more than 200 chapters at colleges and universities across the United States. The Society was established to recognize scholarship and professionalism in the Earth Sciences. It has for its objectives the scholastic, scientific, and professional advancement of its members and the extension of relations of friendship and assistance among colleges and universities which are devoted to the advancement of the Earth Sciences. The Society was founded on March 30, 1915, at The University of Kansas. Nearly 200 chapters throughout the United States have been installed since 1915. Government of the Society is by student members and the ultimate legislative authority is vested in a National Convention held every two years. It is composed of one student delegate from each chapter and the seven national officers who are faculty members. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22679533 |
Matrix string theory In physics, matrix string theory is a set of equations that describe superstring theory in a non-perturbative framework. Type IIA string theory can be shown to be equivalent to a maximally supersymmetric two-dimensional gauge theory, the gauge group of which is U("N") for a large value of "N". This matrix string theory was first proposed by Luboš Motl in 1997 and later independently in a more complete paper by Robbert Dijkgraaf, Erik Verlinde, and Herman Verlinde. Another matrix string theory equivalent to Type IIB string theory was constructed in 1996 by Ishibashi, Kawai, Kitazawa and Tsuchiya. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22684803 |
Matvei Petrovich Bronstein (, , Vinnytsia – February 18, 1938) was a Soviet theoretical physicist, a pioneer of quantum gravity, author of works in astrophysics, semiconductors, quantum electrodynamics and cosmology, as well as of a number of books in popular science for children. He introduced the cGh scheme for classifying physical theories. "After the relativistic quantum theory is created, the task will be to develop the next part of our scheme, that is to unify quantum theory (with its constant h), special relativity (with constant c), and the theory of gravitation (with its G) into a single theory." He was married to Lydia Chukovskaya, a writer, prominent human rights activist, and a friend of Andrei Sakharov. During the Great Purge, in August 1937 Bronstein was arrested. He was convicted by a list trial ("по списку") in February 1938 and executed the same day in a Leningrad prison. His wife was told that he was sentenced to 10 years of labor camps without the right of correspondence. Bronstein's books for children "Solar matter" (Солнечное вещество), "X Rays" (Лучи X), "Inventors of Radio" (Изобретатели радио) were republished after his reputation had been rehabilitated in 1957. The "Bronstein Prize in Loop Quantum Gravity" is offered to Post-doctoral scholars in the field, the inaugural winner of which was Eugenio Bianchi in 2013. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22684836 |
Warm–hot intergalactic medium The warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM) refers to a sparse, warm-to-hot (10 to 10 K) plasma that cosmologists believe to exist in the spaces between galaxies and to contain 40–50% of the baryonic 'normal matter' in the universe at the current epoch. The WHIM can be described as a web of hot, diffuse gas stretching between galaxies, and consists of plasma or as atoms and molecules, in contrast to dark matter. The WHIM is a proposed solution to the missing baryon problem, where the observed amount of baryonic matter does not match theoretical predictions from cosmology. Much of what is known about the warmhot intergalactic medium comes from computer simulations of the cosmos. The WHIM is expected to form a filamentary structure of tenuous, highly ionized baryons with a density of 1−10 particles per cubic meter. Within the WHIM, gas shocks are created as a result of active galactic nuclei, along with the gravitationally-driven processes of merging and accretion. Part of the gravitational energy supplied by these effects is converted into thermal emissions of the matter by collisionless shock heating. Because of the high temperature of the medium, the expectation is that it is most easily observed from the absorption or emission of ultraviolet and low energy X-ray radiation. To locate the WHIM, researchers examined X-ray observations of a rapidly growing supermassive black hole known as an active galactic nucleus, or AGN. Oxygen atoms in the WHIM were seen to absorb X-rays passing through the medium | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22689597 |
Warm–hot intergalactic medium In May 2010 a giant reservoir of WHIM was detected by the Chandra X-ray Observatory lying along the wall-shaped structure of galaxies (Sculptor Wall) some 400 million light-years from Earth. In 2018, observations of highly-ionized extragalactic oxygen atoms appeared to confirm simulations of the WHIM mass distribution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22689597 |
Nuclear interaction length is the mean distance travelled by a hadronic particle before undergoing an inelastic nuclear interaction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22692296 |
Nuclear collision length is the mean free path of a particle before undergoing a nuclear reaction, for a given particle in a given medium. The collision length is smaller than the nuclear interaction length because the latter excludes the elastic and quasi-elastic (diffractive) reactions from its definition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22693121 |
Shock waves in astrophysics Shock waves are common in astrophysical environments. Because of the low ambient density, most astronomical shocks are collisionless. This means that the shocks are not formed by two-body Coulomb collisions, since the mean free path for these collisions is too large, often exceeding the size of the system. It is widely accepted that the mechanism driving these shocks consists of plasma instabilities, that operate on the scale of plasma skin depth, which is typically much shorter than the mean free path. It is known that collisionless shocks are associated with extremely high energy particles, although it has not been definitively established if the high energy photons observed are emitted by protons, electrons or both. The energetic particles are in general believed to be accelerated by the Fermi acceleration mechanism. It is usually agreed that shocks caused by supernova remnants expanding in the interstellar medium accelerate the cosmic rays measured above the Earth's atmosphere. Shock waves in stellar environments, such as shocks inside a core collapse supernova explosion often become radiation mediated shocks. Such shocks are formed by photons colliding with the electrons of the matter, and the downstream of these shocks is dominated by radiation energy density rather than thermal energy of matter. An important type of astrophysical shock is the relativistic shock, in which the shock velocity is a non-negligible fraction of the speed of light | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22703376 |
Shock waves in astrophysics These shocks are unique to astrophysical environments, and can be either collisionless or radiation mediated. Relativistic shocks are theoretically expected in gamma ray bursts, active galactic nucleus jets and in some types of supernovae. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22703376 |
Magnet-assisted transfection is a transfection method which uses magnetic interactions to deliver DNA into target cells. Nucleic acids are associated with magnetic nanoparticles, and magnetic fields drive the nucleic acid-particle complexes into target cells, where the nucleic acids are released. Nanoparticles used as carriers for nucleic acids are mostly iron oxides. These iron oxides can be generated by precipitation from acidic iron-salt solutions upon addition of appropriate bases. The magnetic nanoparticles have an approximate size of 100 nm and are additionally coated with biological polymers to allow loading of nucleic acids. Particles and nucleic acids form complexes by ionic interaction of the negatively charged nucleic acid and the positively charged surface of the magnetic nanoparticle. The binding of the negatively charged nucleic acids to the positively charged iron particles occurs relatively fast. After complex formation, the loaded particles are incubated together with the target cells on a magnetic plate. The magnetic field causes the iron particles to be rapidly drawn towards the surface of the cell membrane. Cellular uptake occurs by either endocytosis or pinocytosis. Once delivered to the target cells, the DNA is released into the cytoplasm. The magnetic particles are accumulated in endosomes and/or vacuoles. Over time, the nanoparticles are degraded and the iron enters the normal iron metabolism. Influence of cellular functions by iron particles has not been reported yet | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22714697 |
Magnet-assisted transfection In most cases the increased iron concentration in culture media does not lead to cytotoxic effects. is a relatively new and time-saving method to introduce nucleic acids into a target cell with increased efficiency. In particular, adherent mammalian cell lines and primary cell cultures show very high transfection rates. Suspension cells and cells from other organisms can also be successfully transfected. A major advantage of the method is the mild treatment of the cells in comparison to liposome-based transfection reagents (lipofection) and electroporation, which may result in the death of 20-50% of cells. In addition, the transfection efficiency is increased in numerous cases by the directed transport in a magnetic field, especially for low amounts of nucleic acids. In contrast, methods like lipofection offer only statistical hits between cargo and cells, because of the three-dimensional motion of cells and transfection aggregates in a liquid suspension. can also be performed in the presence of serum, which is a further benefit. Currently, there are over 150 cells known to be successfully transfected. Additionally, synergistic effects in transfection efficiency can arise from the possible combination of lipofection and magnet-assisted transfection. In future, this technology might be also an alternative strategy to the currently used viral and non-viral vectors in gene-therapy and gene transfer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22714697 |
Richard Hanitsch Karl (22 December 1860 – 11 August 1940) was a German-born entomologist and museum curator who served as the director of the Raffles Museum in Singapore in the early 20th century. Hanitsch was born at Grossenstein in Thuringia, Germany. He studied at the University of Jena, where he obtained his PhD. From 1887 to 1895 he was employed as a demonstrator of zoology at University College, Liverpool. He married Ethel Vernon in 1892, with whom he had two sons and three daughters. From 1895 to 1907 he was Curator and Librarian of the Raffles Library and Museum, becoming in 1908 the first Director of the museum, a position he held until 1919. He was especially successful at building up the library collection there. He also served as the Honorary Treasurer of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Although Hanitsch’s principal research interest lay in entomology, he also worked on sponges, birds, amphibians, and mammals. He retired on 7 July 1919 and returned to England. His successor as Director was Major John Moulton. Hanitsch is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of snake, "Oreocalamus hanitschi". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22725654 |
Winslow (crater) Winslow is an impact crater on Mars, located in the Iapygia quadrangle at -3.74°S latitude and 59.16°E longitude. It measures in diameter and was named after Winslow, Arizona, a town just east of Meteor Crater, which has a similar size and resembles Winslow crater. The two craters also have similar infrared characteristics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22728887 |
Onon (crater) Onon is an impact crater on Mars, located in the Amenthes quadrangle at 16.3° N and 257.6° W. It measures 3.5 kilometer in diameter and was named after Onon, a town in Mongolia. Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak. The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact. Sometimes craters expose layers that were buried. Rocks from deep underground are tossed onto the surface. Hence, craters can show us what lies deep under the surface. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22728937 |
Thila (crater) Thila is an impact crater on Mars, located in the Elysium quadrangle at 18.09° N and 204.58° W. It measures approximately 5.3 kilometers in diameter and was named after the village of Thila in Yemen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22729050 |
Sirtris Pharmaceuticals Sirtris Pharmaceuticals, Inc. was a biotechnology company based in Cambridge, MA that developed therapies for type 2 diabetes, cancer, and other diseases. Conceived in 2004 by Harvard University biologist David Sinclair and serial entrepreneur Andrew Perlman, and founded that year by Sinclair and Perlman, along with Christoph Westphal, Richard Aldrich, Richard Pops, and Paul Schimmel, the company was focused on developing Sinclair's research into activators of sirtuins, work that began in the laboratory of Leonard P. Guarente where Sinclair worked as a post-doc before starting his own lab. The company was specifically focused on resveratrol formulations and derivatives as activators of the SIRT1 enzyme; Sinclair became known for making statements about resveratrol like: “(It's) as close to a miraculous molecule as you can find... One hundred years from now, people will maybe be taking these molecules on a daily basis to prevent heart disease, stroke, and cancer.” Most of the anti-aging field was more cautious, especially with regard to what else resveratrol might do in the body and its lack of bioavailability. The company's initial product was called SRT501, and was a formulation of reservatrol. Sirtris went public in 2007 and was subsequently purchased and made a subsidiary of GlaxoSmithKline in 2008 for $720 million. GSK paid $22.50/share, when Sirtris's stock was trading at $12/share, down 45% from its highest price of the previous year | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22733563 |
Sirtris Pharmaceuticals Studies published in 2009 and early 2010 by scientists from Amgen and Pfizer cast doubt on whether SIRT1 was directly activated by resveratrol and showed that the apparent activity was actually due to a fluorescent reagent used in the experiments. In August 2010, a nonprofit called the Healthy Lifespan Institute, which had been formed the year before by Westphal and Michelle Dipp, who joined GSK from Sirtris, began selling SRT501 as a dietary supplement online; when this become public GSK required Westphal and Dipp, who were still GSK employees, to resign from the nonprofit. GSK/Sirtris terminated development of SRT501 in late 2010. GSK said it was terminating SRT501 due to side effects of nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea it caused, and because the compound's activity wasn't specific to SIRT1, at some doses it actually inhibited SIRT1, and the compound itself wasn't patentable. The company said at that time that it was focused on two compounds called SRT2104 and SRT2379 that were not resveratrol analogs, had better drug-like qualities, and were more selective SIRT1 activators. In 2013 GSK shut down Sirtris and its development candidates were absorbed into GSK, where research and development continued. At that time, GSK/Sirtris' lead candidate was SRT2104, described as a "first-generation sirtuin-activating compound." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22733563 |
Puńsk (crater) Puńsk is an impact crater on Mars, located in the Oxia Palus quadrangle at 20.8° N and 41.2° W. It measures 11.6 kilometers in diameter and was named after the village of Puńsk in Poland. Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak. The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact. Puńsk Crater belongs to the class of craters called "Rampart craters" of the single-ejecta variety. Single-layered ejecta craters are one type of rampart carter. They have one ejecta lobe that extends 1 to 1.5 crater radii from the rim of the crater. They have an average diameter of 10 km. Although present at all latitudes, they are most common near the equator. There average size increases the more distant from the equator. It has been suggested that these types of craters are produced by impact into icy ground. Specifically, it is an impact that does not go entirely through the icy layer. The increase in size away from the equator is explained by a possible greater thickness in the icy layer away from the equator. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22734686 |
List of systems biology conferences Systems biology is a biological study field that focuses on the systematic study of complex interactions in biological systems, thus using a new perspective (integration instead of reduction) to study them. Particularly from year 2000 onwards, the term is used widely in the biosciences. The field has generated interest among scientists, resulting in regular and one-time conferences and meetings. Below is a partial list. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22770838 |
Latex beads are the polymeric particles suspended in a latex. They are used in applications as contrast agents for fluorescent imaging, as particles for flow tracking, or as biological carriers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22774082 |
Halothermal circulation See Thermohaline Circulation. The term halothermal circulation refers to the part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and evaporation. The adjective halothermal derives from "halo-" referring to salt content and "-thermal" referring to temperature, factors which together determine the density of sea water. is driven primarily by salinity changes and secondarily by temperature changes (as opposed to the thermohaline mode in modern oceans). The generation of high salinity surface waters at low latitudes, which were therefore of higher density and thus sank, is thought to have been the dominant ocean circulation driver during greenhouse climates such as the Cretaceous. Similar dynamics operate today in the Mediterranean. The formation of bottom waters by halothermal dynamics is considered to be one to two orders of magnitude weaker than in thermohaline systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22784944 |
Mole map (chemistry) In chemistry, the mole map is a graphical representation of an algorithm that compares molar mass, number of particles / mole, and factors from balanced equations or other formulae. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22792377 |
Strep-tag The Strep-tag® system is a method which allows the purification and detection of proteins by affinity chromatography. The II is a synthetic peptide consisting of eight amino acids (Trp-Ser-His-Pro-Gln-Phe-Glu-Lys). This peptide sequence exhibits intrinsic affinity towards Strep-Tactin®, a specifically engineered streptavidin, and can be N- or C- terminally fused to recombinant proteins. By exploiting the highly specific interaction, "Strep"-tagged proteins can be isolated in one step from crude cell lysates. Because the "Strep"-tag elutes under gentle, physiological conditions it is especially suited for generation of functional proteins. Streptavidin is a tetrameric protein expressed in "Streptomyces avidinii". Because of its high affinity for the vitamin h-biotin, Streptavidin is commonly used in the fields of molecular biology and biotechnology. The was originally selected from a genetic library to specifically bind to a proteolytically truncated "core" version of streptavidin. Over the years, the was systemically optimized, to permit a greater flexibility in the choice of attachment site. Further, its interaction partner, Streptavidin, was also optimized to increase peptide-binding capacity, which resulted in the development of Strep-Tactin. The binding affinity of to Strep-Tactin is nearly 100 times higher than to Streptavidin. The so-called system, consisting of and Strep-Tactin, has proven particularly useful for the functional isolation and analysis of protein complexes in proteome research | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810498 |
Strep-tag Just like other short-affinity tags (His-tag, FLAG-tag), the can be easily fused to recombinant proteins during subcloning of its cDNA or gene. For its expression various vectors for various host organisms ("E. coli", yeast, insect, and mammalian cells) are available. A particular benefit of the is its rather small size and the fact that it is biochemically almost inert. Therefore, protein folding or secretion is not influenced and usually it does not interfere with protein function. is especially suited for analysis of functional proteins, because the purification procedure can be kept under physiological conditions. This not only allows the isolation of sensitive proteins in a native state, but it is also possible to purify intact protein complexes, even if just one subunit carries the tag. In the first step of the purification cycle, the cell lysate containing fusion protein is applied to a column with immobilized Strep-Tactin (step 1). After the tagged protein has specifically bound to Strep-Tactin, a short washing step with a physiological buffer (e.g. PBS) removes all other host proteins (step 2). This is due to its extraordinary low tendency to bind proteins non specifically. Then, the purified fusion protein is gently eluted with a low concentration of desthiobiotin, which specifically competes for the biotin binding pocket (step 3). To regenerate the column, desthiobiotin is removed by application of a HABA containing solution (a yellow azo dye) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810498 |
Strep-tag The removal of desthiobiotin is indicated by a color change from yellow-orange to red (step 4+5). Finally, the HABA solution is washed out with a small volume of running buffer, thus making the column ready to use for the next purification run. The system offers a highly selective tool to purify proteins under physiological conditions. The proteins obtained are bioactive and display a very high purity (above 95%). Also, the system can be used for protein detection in various assays. Depending on the experimental circumstances, antibodies "or" Strep-Tactin, with an enzymatic (e.g.horseradish peroxidase (HRP), alkaline phosphatase (AP)) or fluorescence (e.g. green fluorescent protein (GFP)) marker. If high purity is required, the lysate can be purified by first using Strep-Tactin and then perform a second run using antibodies against Strep-tag. This reduces the contamination with unspecific bound proteins, which might occur in some rare scenarios. Following assays can be conducted using the detection system: Because the is capable of isolating protein complexes, strategies for the study of protein-protein interactions can also be conducted. Another option is the immobilization of proteins with a specific high affinity antibody on microplates or biochips. Strep-Tag/StrepTactin system is also used in single molecule optical tweezers and AFM experiments, showing high mechanical stability comparable to the strongest noncovalent linkages currently available. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810498 |
DNA-encoded chemical library DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DEL) is a technology for the synthesis and screening on unprecedented scale of collections of small molecule compounds. DEL is used in medicinal chemistry to bridge the fields of combinatorial chemistry and molecular biology. The aim of DEL technology is to accelerate the drug discovery process and in particular early phase discovery activities such as target validation and hit identification. DEL technology involves the conjugation of chemical compounds or building blocks to short DNA fragments that serve as identification bar codes and in some cases also direct and control the chemical synthesis. The technique enables the mass creation and interrogation of libraries via affinity selection, typically on an immobilized protein target. A homogeneous method for screening DNA-encoded libraries has recently been developed which uses water-in-oil emulsion technology to isolate, count and identify individual ligand-target complexes in a single-tube approach. In contrast to conventional screening procedures such as high-throughput screening, biochemical assays are not required for binder identification, in principle allowing the isolation of binders to a wide range of proteins historically difficult to tackle with conventional screening technologies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library So, in addition to the general discovery of target specific molecular compounds, the availability of binders to pharmacologically important, but so-far “undruggable” target proteins opens new possibilities to develop novel drugs for diseases that could not be treated so far. In eliminating the requirement to initially assess the activity of hits it is hoped and expected that many of the high affinity binders identified will be shown to be active in independent analysis of selected hits, therefore offering an efficient method to identify high quality hits and pharmaceutical leads. Until recently, the application of molecular evolution in the laboratory had been limited to display technologies involving biological molecules, where small molecules lead discovery was considered beyond this biological approach. DEL has opened the field of display technology to include non-natural compounds such as small molecules, extending the application of molecular evolution and natural selection to the identification of small molecule compounds of desired activity and function. DNA encoded chemical libraries bear resemblance to biological display technologies such as antibody phage display technology, yeast display, mRNA display and aptamer SELEX. In antibody phage display, antibodies are physically linked to phage particles that bear the gene coding for the attached antibody, which is equivalent to a physical linkage of a “phenotype” (the protein) and a “genotype” (the gene encoding for the protein ) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library Phage-displayed antibodies can be isolated from large antibody libraries by mimicking molecular evolution: through rounds of selection (on an immobilized protein target), amplification and translation. In DEL the linkage of a small molecule to an identifier DNA code allows the facile identification of binding molecules. DEL libraries are subjected to affinity selection procedures on an immobilized target protein of choice, after which non-binders are removed by washing steps, and binders can subsequently be amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and identified by virtue of their DNA code (e.g.by DNA sequencing). In evolution-based DEL technologies (see below) hits can be further enriched by performing rounds of selection, PCR amplification and translation in analogy to biological display systems such as antibody phage display. This makes it possible to work with much larger libraries. The concept of DNA-encoding was first described in a theoretical paper by Brenner and Lerner in 1992 in which was proposed to link each molecule of a chemically synthesized entity to a particular oligonucleotide sequence constructed in parallel and to use this encoding genetic tag to identify and enrich active compounds. In 1993 the first practical implementation of this approach was presented by S. Brenner and K. Janda and similarly by the group of M.A. Gallop | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library Brenner and Janda suggested to generate individual encoded library members by an alternating parallel combinatorial synthesis of the heteropolymeric chemical compound and the appropriate oligonucleotide sequence on the same bead in a “split-&-pool”-based fashion (see below). Since unprotected DNA is restricted to a narrow window of conventional reaction conditions, until the end of the 1990s a number of alternative encoding strategies were envisaged (i.e. MS-based compound tagging, peptide encoding, haloaromatic tagging, encoding by secondary amines, semiconductor devices.), mainly to avoid inconvenient solid phase DNA synthesis and to create easily screenable combinatorial libraries in high-throughput fashion. However, the selective amplificability of DNA greatly facilitates library screening and it becomes indispensable for the encoding of organic compounds libraries of this unprecedented size. Consequently, at the beginning of the 2000s DNA-combinatorial chemistry experienced a revival. The beginning of the millennium saw the introduction of several independent developments in DEL technology. These technologies can be classified under two general categories: non-evolution-based and evolution-based DEL technologies capable of molecular evolution. The first category benefits from the ability to use off the shelf reagents and therefore enables rather straightforward library generation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library Hits can be identified by DNA sequencing, however DNA translation and therefore molecular evolution is not feasible by these methods. The split and pool approaches developed by researchers at Praecis Pharmaceuticals (now owned by GlaxoSmithKline), Nuevolution (Copenhagen, Denmark) and ESAC technology developed in the laboratory of Prof D. Neri (Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Zurich, Switzerland) fall under this category. ESAC technology sets itself apart being a combinatorial self-assembling approach which resembles fragment based hit discovery (Fig 1b). Here DNA annealing enables discrete building block combinations to be sampled, but no chemical reaction takes place between them. Examples of evolution-based DEL technologies are DNA-routing developed by Prof. D.R. Halpin and Prof. P.B. Harbury (Stanford University, Stanford, CA), DNA-templated synthesis developed by Prof. D. Liu (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) and commercialized by Ensemble Therapeutics (Cambridge, MA) and YoctoReactor technology. developed and commercialized by Vipergen (Copenhagen, Denmark). These technologies are described in further detail below. DNA-templated synthesis and YoctoReactor technology require the prior conjugation of chemical building blocks (BB) to a DNA oligonucleotide tag before library assembly, therefore more upfront work is required before library assembly | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library Furthermore, the DNA tagged BBs enable the generation of a genetic code for synthesized compounds and artificial translation of the genetic code is possible: That is the BB's can be recalled by the PCR-amplified genetic code, and the library compounds can be regenerated. This, in turn, enables the principle of Darwinian natural selection and evolution to be applied to small molecule selection in direct analogy to biological display systems; through rounds of selection, amplification and translation. In order to apply combinatorial chemistry for the synthesis of DNA-encoded chemical libraries, a Split-&-Pool approach was pursued. Initially a set of unique DNA-oligonucleotides (n) each containing a specific coding sequence is chemically conjugated to a corresponding set of small organic molecules.Consequently, the oligonucleotide-conjugate compounds are mixed ("Pool") and divided ("Split") into a number of groups (m). In appropriate conditions a second set of building blocks (m) are coupled to the first one and a further oligonucleotide which is coding for the second modification is enzymatically introduced before mixing again. This “split-&-pool” steps can be iterated a number of times (r) increasing at each round the library size in a combinatorial manner (i.e. (n x m)). Alternatively, peptide nucleic acids have been used to encode libraries prepared by "split-&-pool" method. A benefit of PNA-encoding is that the chemistry can be performed by standard SPPS | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library A promising strategy for the construction of DNA-encoded libraries is represented by the use of multifunctional building blocks covalently conjugated to an oligonucleotide serving as a “core structure” for library synthesis. In a ‘pool-and-split’ fashion a set of multifunctional scaffolds undergo orthogonal reactions with series of suitable reactive partners. Following each reaction step, the identity of the modification is encoded by an enzymatic addition of DNA segment to the original DNA “core structure”. The use of "N"-protected amino acids covalently attached to a DNA fragment allow, after a suitable deprotection step, a further amide bond formation with a series of carboxylic acids or a reductive amination with aldehydes. Similarly, diene carboxylic acids used as scaffolds for library construction at the 5’-end of amino modified oligonucleotide, could be subjected to a Diels-Alder reaction with a variety of maleimide derivatives. After completion of the desired reaction step, the identity of the chemical moiety added to the oligonucleotide is established by the annealing of a partially complementary oligonucleotide and by a subsequent Klenow fill-in DNA-polymerization, yielding a double stranded DNA fragment. The synthetic and encoding strategies described above enable the facile construction of DNA-encoded libraries of a size up to 10 member compounds carrying two sets of “building blocks” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library However the stepwise addition of at least three independent sets of chemical moieties to a tri-functional core building block for the construction and encoding of a very large DNA-encoded library (comprising up to 10 compounds) can also be envisaged.(Fig.2) Encoded Self-Assembling Chemical (ESAC) libraries rely on the principle that two sublibraries of a size of x members (e.g. 10) containing a constant complementary hybridization domain can yield a combinatorial DNA-duplex library after hybridization with a complexity of x uniformly represented library members (e.g. 10). Each sub-library member would consist of an oligonucleotide containing a variable, coding region flanked by a constant DNA sequence, carrying a suitable chemical modification at the oligonucleotide extremity. The ESAC sublibraries can be used in at least four different embodiments. Preferential binders isolated from an affinity-based selection can be PCR-amplified and decoded on complementary oligonucleotide microarrays or by concatenation of the codes, subcloning and sequencing. The individual building blocks can eventually be conjugated using suitable linkers to yield a drug-like high-affinity compound. The characteristics of the linker (e.g. length, flexibility, geometry, chemical nature and solubility) influence the binding affinity and the chemical properties of the resulting binder.(Fig.3) Bio-panning experiments on HSA of a 600-member ESAC library allowed the isolation of the 4-("p"-iodophenyl)butanoic moiety | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library The compound represents the core structure of a series of portable albumin binding molecules and of Albufluor a recently developed fluorescein angiographic contrast agent currently under clinical evaluation. ESAC technology has been used for the isolation of potent inhibitors of bovine trypsin and for the identification of novel inhibitors of stromelysin-1 (MMP-3), a matrix metalloproteinase involved in both physiological and pathological tissue remodeling processes, as well as in disease processes, such as arthritis and metastasis. In 2004, D.R. Halpin and P.B. Harbury presented a novel intriguing method for the construction of DNA-encoded libraries. For the first time the DNA-conjugated templates served for both encoding and programming the infrastructure of the “split-&-pool” synthesis of the library components. The design of Halpin and Harbury enabled alternating rounds of selection, PCR amplification and diversification with small organic molecules, in complete analogy to phage display technology. The DNA-routing machinery consists of a series of connected columns bearing resin-bound anticodons, which could sequence-specifically separate a population of DNA-templates into spatially distinct locations by hybridization. According to this split-and-pool protocol a peptide combinatorial library DNA-encoded of 10 members was generated | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library In 2001 David Liu and co-workers showed that complementary DNA oligonucleotides can be used to assist certain synthetic reactions, which do not efficiently take place in solution at low concentration. A DNA-heteroduplex was used to accelerate the reaction between chemical moieties displayed at the extremities of the two DNA strands. Furthermore, the "proximity effect", which accelerates bimolecular reaction, was shown to be distance-independent (at least within a distance of 30 nucleotides). In a sequence-programmed fashion oligonucleotides carrying one chemical reactant group were hybridized to complementary oligonucleotide derivatives carrying a different reactive chemical group. The proximity conferred by the DNA hybridization drastically increases the effective molarity of the reaction reagents attached to the oligonucleotides, enabling the desired reaction to occur even in an aqueous environment at concentrations which are several orders of magnitude lower than those needed for the corresponding conventional organic reaction not DNA-templated. Using a DNA-templated set-up and sequence-programmed synthesis Liu and co-workers generated a 64-member compound DNA encoded library of macrocycles. The YoctoReactor (yR) is a 3D proximity-driven approach which exploits the self-assembling nature of DNA oligonucleotides into 3, 4 or 5-way junctions to direct small molecule synthesis at the center of the junction. Figure 5 illustrates the basic concept with a 4-way DNA junction | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library The center of the DNA junction constitutes a volume on the order of a yoctoliter, hence the name YoctoReactor. This volume contains a single molecule reaction yielding reaction concentrations in the high mM range. The effective concentration facilitated by the DNA greatly accelerates chemical reactions that otherwise would not take place at the actual concentration several orders of magnitude lower. Figure 6 illustrates the generation of a yR library using a 3-way DNA junction. In summary, chemical building-blocks (BB) are attached via cleavable or non-cleavable linkers to three types of bispecific DNA oligonucleotides (oligo-BBs) representing each arm of the yR. To facilitate synthesis in a combinatorial manner, the oligo-BBs are designed such that the DNA contains (a) the code for an attached BB at the distal end of the oligo (colored lines) and (b) areas of constant DNA sequence (black lines) to bring about the self-assembly of the DNA into a 3-way junction (independently of the BB) and the subsequent chemical reaction. Chemical reactions are performed via a stepwise procedure and after each step the DNA is ligated and the product purified by polyacryamide gel electrophoresis. Cleavable linkers (BB-DNA) are used for all but one position yielding a library of small molecules with a single covalent link to the DNA code. Table 1 outlines how libraries of different sizes can be generated using yR technology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library The yR design approach provides an unvarying reaction site with regard to both (a) distance between reactants and (b) sequence environment surrounding the reaction site. Furthermore, the intimate connection between the code and the BB on the oligo-BB moieties which are mixed combinatorially in a single pot confers a high fidelity to the encoding of the library. The code of the synthesized products, furthermore, is not preset, but rather is assembled combinatorially and synthesized in synchronicity with the innate product. A homogeneous method for screening yoctoreactor libraries (yR) has recently been developed which uses water-in-oil emulsion technology to isolate individual ligand-target complexes. Called Binder Trap Enrichment (BTE), ligands to a protein target are identified by trapping binding pairs (DNA-labelled protein target and yR ligand) in emulsion droplets during dissociation dominated kinetics. Once trapped, the target and ligand DNA are joined by ligation, thus preserving the binding information. Hereafter, identification of hits is essentially a counting exercise: information on binding events is deciphered by sequencing and counting the joined DNA - selective binders are counted with a much higher frequency than random binders. This is possible because random trapping of target and ligand is "diluted" by the high number of water droplets in the emulsion | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library The low noise and background signal characteristic of BTE is attributed to the "dilution" of the random signal, the lack of surface artifacts and the high fidelity of the yR library and screening method. Screening is performed in a single tube method. Biologically active hits are identified in a single round of BTE characterized by a low false positive rate. BTE mimics the non-equilibrium nature of in vivo ligand-target interactions and offers the unique possibility to screen for target specific ligands based on ligand-target residence time because the emulsion, which traps the binding complex, is formed during a dynamic dissociation phase. Following selection from DNA-encoded chemical libraries, the decoding strategy for the fast and efficient identification of the specific binding compounds is crucial for the further development of the DEL technology. So far, Sanger-sequencing-based decoding, microarray-based methodology and high-throughput sequencing techniques represented the main methodologies for the decoding of DNA-encoded library selections. Although many authors implicitly envisaged a traditional Sanger sequencing-based decoding, the number of codes to sequence simply according to the complexity of the library is definitely an unrealistic task for a traditional Sanger sequencing approach. Nevertheless, the implementation of Sanger sequencing for decoding DNA-encoded chemical libraries in high-throughput fashion was the first to be described | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library After selection and PCR amplification of the DNA-tags of the library compounds, concatamers containing multiple coding sequences were generated and ligated into a vector. Following Sanger sequencing of a representative number of the resulting colonies revealed the frequencies of the codes present in the DNA-encoded library sample before and after selection. A DNA microarray is a device for high-throughput investigations widely used in molecular biology and in medicine. It consists of an arrayed series of microscopic spots (‘features’ or ‘locations’) containing few picomoles of oligonucleotides carrying a specific DNA sequence. This can be a short section of a gene or other DNA element that are used as probes to hybridize a DNA or RNA sample under suitable conditions. Probe-target hybridization is usually detected and quantified by fluorescence-based detection of fluorophore-labeled targets to determine relative abundance of the target nucleic acid sequences. Microarray has been used for the successfully decoding of ESAC DNA-encoded libraries and PNA-encoded libraries. The coding oligonucleotides representing the individual chemical compounds in the library, are spotted and chemically linked onto the microarray slides, using a BioChip Arrayer robot. Subsequently, the oligonucleotide tags of the binding compounds isolated from the selection are PCR amplified using a fluorescent primer and hybridized onto the DNA-microarray slide | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
DNA-encoded chemical library Afterwards, microarrays are analyzed using a laser scan and spot intensities detected and quantified. The enrichment of the preferential binding compounds is revealed comparing the spots intensity of the DNA-microarray slide before and after selection. According to the complexity of the DNA encoded chemical library (typically between 10 and 10 members), a conventional Sanger sequencing based decoding is unlikely to be usable in practice, due both to the high cost per base for the sequencing and to the tedious procedure involved. High throughput sequencing technologies exploited strategies that parallelize the sequencing process displacing the use of capillary electrophoresis and producing thousands or millions of sequences at once. In 2008 was described the first implementation of a high-throughput sequencing technique originally developed for genome sequencing (i.e. "454 technology") to the fast and efficient decoding of a DNA encoded chemical library comprising 4000 compounds. This study led to the identification of novel chemical compounds with submicromolar dissociation constants towards streptavidin and definitely shown the feasibility to construct, perform selections and decode DNA-encoded libraries containing millions of chemical compounds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22810768 |
Keller's reagent can refer to either of two different mixtures of acids. In metallurgy, is a mixture of nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and hydrofluoric acid, used to etch aluminum alloys to reveal their grain boundaries and orientations. It is also sometimes called Dix–Keller reagent, after E. H. Dix, Jr., and Fred Keller of the Aluminum Corporation of America, who pioneered the use of this technique in the late 1920s and early 1930s. In organic chemistry, is a mixture of anhydrous (glacial) acetic acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, and small amounts of ferric chloride, used to detect alkaloids. can also be used to detect other kinds of alkaloids via reactions in which it produces products with a wide range of colors. Cohn describes its use to detect the principal components of digitalis. The reaction with this reagent is also known as the Keller–Kiliani reaction, after C. C. Keller and H. Kiliani, who both used it to study digitalis in the late 19th century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22812166 |
Golden Eye Diamond The is a flawless Fancy Intense Yellow diamond, claimed by one of its past owners to be the world's largest of its cut and color. It is believed to come from the Kimberley area of South Africa. Tom Moses, a senior vice president with the Gemological Institute of America, agrees that it came from South Africa, but it has not been able to be determined the mine of origin. Upon the arrest of Ohio businessmen Paul Monea and Mickey Miller, its actual ownership was unclear. The Federal Bureau of Investigation seized the diamond following an undercover investigation of Monea and Miller that resulted in his conviction for money laundering and the diamond's forfeiture to the U.S. government in 2007. Amid Monea and Millers prosecution, 17 claimants came forward in the case to claim ownership, or an ownership interest, in the (Akron Federal Court Case No. 5:07CR0030). The Court ruled that three claimants had colorable ownership claims and would be allowed to proceed to civil trial: Charity Fellowship Church, Jerry DeLeo of Corona Clay Corp., and The Monea Family Trust. The court found that the Church and Jerry DeLeo had spent nearly $1,000,000 to cut and develop the 124.5 carat gem. Monea and his trust were never able to establish ownership or purchase of the rough stone, although extensive evidence was presented of the diamond's origins with newspaper articles and researched records | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22813846 |
Golden Eye Diamond The uncontested evidence showed that the had been obtained from the VanWyke family of Kimberly South Africa most recently, and that the stone had been held by the family for some 150-years. The original VanWyke was neighbor to the De Beers, and discovered the 124.5 carat paragon on his property in the DuToit's Pan Mine, in Kimberly South Africa, in 1871. This evidence has never been disproven, and for over 150-years no other diamond on earth was thought to be the original DuToit II Diamond (the first African diamond found over 100-carats). The diamond was ultimately approved to be auctioned by a federal judge. The court also found that, although people had ownership claim, Monea's conspiracy to sell the diamond existed - somehow - before Monea even owned the diamond. Its sale was planned tentatively in January 2011, but after a delay it was announced it will be sold via online auction in September 2011, with a minimum bid of $900,000. The Diamond is currently owned by Jerre Hentosh after he won it via online auction on Bid4Assets with a winning bid of $2.84 million. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22813846 |
Lithium depletion boundary The lithium depletion boundary (LDB) technique is a method proposed for dating open clusters based on a determination of the lithium abundances of a cluster's stars whose masses are at about the hydrogen burning mass limit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22814744 |
Radioactive Substances Act 1993 The (RSA93) deals with the control of radioactive material and disposal of radioactive waste in the United Kingdom. On 6 April 2010 the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010 came into force. These new regulations repeal, amend and replace much of in England and Wales. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22832114 |
Josef Kozeny Josef Alexander Kozeny (February 25, 1889 – April 19, 1967) was an Austrian hydraulic engineer and physicist. Today he is mainly remembered for the Kozeny–Carman equation which describes fluid flowing through a packed bed of solids. Born in Josefstadt, Bohemia, Kozeny moved to Prague to study at the German Technical University. He later moved to Vienna to study at the University of Agricultural Sciences. In 1922, he was appointed professor at the University of Tartu in Estonia. In 1924, he became a professor at the University of Agricultural Sciences in Vienna. In 1929 he got a second habilitation, this time at College of Technology (TH Wien), now TU Wien. Since 1930 he had lectures at TH Wien. In 1935 he lectured „Wasserbau III - Anlagen des städt. Tiefbaus und ldw. Wasserbau“, „Enzyklop. der Ing.wissenschaften für Architektur“ and „Enzyklop. der Ing.wissensch. für Vermessungswesen“ at TH Wien. On the first January 1940 he got ao.Professor of Hydraulics and Hydraulic Engineering („Verkehrswasserbau, städt. Tiefbau und ldw. Wasserbau“) at TH Wien. On the first of February 1941 he got o.Professor at TH Wien. He was designated Professor Emeritus in 1959. He became a member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1958 and received an honorary doctorate in 1965. Kozeny published a textbook, “Hydraulics”, in 1953, a book which became a standard in the field. He was best known for his contribution to the Kozeny-Carman equation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22853837 |
Josef Kozeny Used to calculate the flow of a liquid through a packed bed of solids, the equation was first proposed by Kozeny in 1927 and later modified by Philip Carman. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22853837 |
PGC 214560 is a galaxy in the Hercules constellation. It is currently interacting with the galaxy SDSS J170007.01+230739.1. has a similar appearance to the Mice Galaxies and is home to supernovae 2008eq, CBET 1460. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22855004 |
Biermann battery In astrophysics, the is a process by which a weak seed magnetic field can be generated from zero initial conditions. The relative motion between electrons and ions is driven by rotation. The process was discovered by Ludwig Biermann in 1950. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22859001 |
Jainendra K. Jain Jainendra K. Jain, an Indian-American physicist, is the Evan Pugh University Professor and Erwin W. Mueller Professor of Physics at Pennsylvania State University. He is also Infosys Chair Visiting Professor at IISc, Bangalore. Jain is known for his theoretical work on quantum many body systems, most notably for postulating particles known as Composite Fermions. Born in 1960, Jain received his primary, middle and high school education in a government school in a rural village called Sambhar, Rajasthan, located at the eastern margin of Thar desert in India. He received bachelor's degree at Maharaja College, Jaipur, his master's degree in physics at Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur and PhD at the Stony Brook University under the supervision of Prof. Philip B. Allen. After working as a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Maryland and the Yale University he returned to the Stony Brook University as a faculty in 1989. In 1998 he moved to the Pennsylvania State University as the first Erwin W. Mueller Professor of Physics. In 2012, Penn State University awarded Jain with Evan Pugh University Professorship, named after the first president of the university. Jain is a quantum physicist in the field of condensed matter theory with interests in the area of strongly interacting electronic systems in low dimensions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22863393 |
Jainendra K. Jain As the originator of the exotic particles called composite fermions, he developed the composite fermion theory of the fractional quantum Hall effect and unified the fractional and the integral quantum Hall effects. His writings include a monograph "Composite Fermions", published in 2007 by the Cambridge University Press. Jain was a co-recipient of the Oliver E. Buckley Prize of the American Physical Society in 2002, along with Nicholas Read and Robert Willett "For theoretical and experimental work establishing the composite fermion model for the half-filled Landau level and other quantized Hall systems". He is a Fellow of the American Physical Society, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22863393 |
Biohappiness is the elevation of utility in humans through biological methods, including germline engineering through screening embryos with genes associated with a high level of happiness, or the use of drugs intended to raise baseline levels of happiness. The object is to facilitate the achievement of a state of "better than well." Proponents of biohappiness include the philosophical abolitionist David Pearce, whose goal is to end the suffering of all sentient beings; and the Canadian ethicist Mark Alan Walker. Walker has sought to defend biohappiness on the grounds that happiness ought to be of interest to a wide range of moral theorists; and that hyperthymia, a state of high baseline happiness, is associated with better outcomes in health and human achievement. The concept of biohappiness also has its high-profile critics, including Leon Kass, who served on the President's Council on Bioethics during the presidency of George W. Bush. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22866377 |
Galdakao (crater) Galdakao Crater is a topographic depression in the Aeolis quadrangle of Mars, located at 13.5° South and 183.5° West. It is 35 km in diameter and was named after Galdakao, a town in Basque Country, northern Spain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22874780 |
Masursky (Martian crater) Masursky is a crater on Mars, located in the Oxia Palus quadrangle at 12.1° North and 32.4° West. It measures 117.9 kilometers in diameter and was named after Harold Masursky, an American astrogeologist (1922–1990). The large blocks near the center of the crater are known as Chryse Chaos. The crater is effectively a part of Tiu Valles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22874954 |
Baltisk is a crater in the Argyre quadrangle of Mars. It is located at 42.7° South and 54.7° West, is 52 km in diameter, and was named after a town in Russia. is located on the western edge of the Argyre impact basin. Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak. The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22875184 |
Anders Flodström (born 1944) is a Swedish professor of materials physics at the Royal Institute of Technology. He was previously the rector of Linköping University from 1996 to 1999 and of the Royal Institute of Technology from 1999 to 2007 and University Chancellor of Sweden and head of the Swedish National Agency for Higher Education from 1 August 2007 to 30 June 2010. Since November 2012, is the Chief Education Officer of EIT Digital and a member of the Management Committee of EIT Digital. Flodström was born in Söderhamn, Sweden. He studied engineering physics and electrical engineering in Linköping. In 1975, he was awarded a Ph.D. in physics in Linköping with the thesis "Electronic structure of clean and oxygen covered aluminium and magnesium surfaces studied by photoelectron spectroscopy". Flodström was also one of the initiators of the synchrotron facility MAX-Lab in Lund, where he served as a coordinator until 1985. In 1985 he was appointed professor of materials physics at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22875437 |
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