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Urstrom The is a geologists' name for a great glacial age river of the Polish and north German plain, which drained the combined melt-waters from the northern headwaters of the Alps and the southern part of the Scandinavian ice during the Devensian ice age.
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North Pacific Oscillation The (NPO) is a teleconnection pattern first described by Walker and Bliss and characterized by a north-south seesaw in sea level pressure over the North Pacific.<br> Rogers, using surface atmospheric temperature from St. Paul, Alaska, and Edmonton, identified two phases of the NPO, an Aleutian below (AB) phase that correspond to a deepened and eastward shifted Aleutian low and an Aleutian above (AA) phase that is the opposite. During the positive (AB) phase sea level pressure is enhanced over a large region in the subtropics that extend poleward to 40N° and reduced at higher latitudes, westerlies are enhanced over the central Pacific and winter temperature are mild along much of the North America west coast but cooler than usual over Eastern Siberia and the United States South-West, precipitations are higher than usual over Alaska and the Great Plains. <br> The NPGO is the oceanic expression of the NPO.
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Tumba Ice Cap (, ) is the ice cap covering the western half of Chavdar Peninsula on the west side of Graham Land, Antarctic Peninsula. It is situated west of Samodiva Glacier, extending 7.7 km in east-west direction and 4 km in north-south direction, and draining both northwards into Curtiss Bay and southwards into Hughes Bay The geographic feature is named after the peak of Tumba in Belasitsa Mountain, Southwestern Bulgaria. is centred at . British mapping in 1978.
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LNAPL transmissivity is the discharge of light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) through a unit width of aquifer for a unit gradient. Scholars Alex Mayer and S. Majid Hassanizadeh define as the "product of the porous medium permeability and the LNAPL relative permeability, which in turn is a function of saturation, and the thickness of the LNAPL". They wrote that once LNAPL is taken away, a lower recovery rate occurs because the "saturation and thickness of the mobile LNAPL fraction decreases". is a summary parameter that takes into account soil type and physical properties (e.g., porosity and permeability), LNAPL physical fluid properties(e.g., density and viscosity) and LNAPL saturation (i.e., amount of LNAPL present within the pore network). Consequently, is comparable across soil types, LNAPL types and recoverable LNAPL volumes. More importantly, for LNAPL recovery from a given well, the soil and LNAPL physical properties do not change significantly through time. What changes, is the LNAPL saturation (amount of LNAPL present). As a result, decreases in direct proportion to the decrease in LNAPL saturation achievable through liquid recovery technology. LNAPL Transmissivity is not the only piece of data required when evaluating a site overall, because it requires a good LNAPL conceptual model in order to calculate. However, it is a superior summary metric to gauged LNAPL thickness to represent LNAPL recoverability and migration risk (e.g., on site maps) and direct remediation efforts.
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Isoplanetic patch Angular size of patch in atmosphere over which electromagnetic waves in the same plane stay parallel. The patch size inversely affects the Fried Parameter and the resolution of optical telescopes. Adaptive optical telescopes uses a bright light source to identify the properties of the patch in the line of sight to the object of interest to correct for seeing effects. Astronomical seeing optical resolution Birney S, Gonzalez G, Oesper D "observational astronomy" second edition, Cambridge university press, 2006
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SPT-CL J0546-5345 is one of the most massive galaxy clusters ever found in the early universe. It is thought to be 7 billion light years away. It was discovered at the South Pole Telescope in 2008 by the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich-Effect. The cluster has a redshift of z=1.067. Follow-up studies using the Spitzer, Chandra and optical telescopes allowed to identify cluster members and to measure the redshift. Using the velocity dispersion, the cluster mass has been estimated to 10 solar masses.
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Fluorescent glucose biosensors are devices that measure the concentration of glucose in diabetic patients by means of sensitive protein that relays the concentration by means of fluorescence, an alternative to amperometric sension of glucose. Due to the prevalence of diabetes, it is the prime drive in the construction of fluorescent biosensors. A recent development has been approved by the FDA allowing a new continuous glucose monitoring system called EverSense, which is a 90 day glucose monitor using fluorescent biosensors. Keeping glucose levels in check is crucial to minimize the onset of the damage caused by diabetes. As a consequence, in conjunction with insulin administrations, the prime requirement for diabetic patients is to regularly monitor their blood glucose levels. The monitoring systems currently in general use have the drawback of below optimal number of readings, due to their reliance on a drop of fresh blood. Some continuous glucose monitors are commercially available, but suffer from the severe drawback of a short working life of the probe. The majority of these work amperometrically. As a result, there is an effort to create a sensor that relies on a different mechanism, such as via external infrared spectroscopy or via fluorescent biosensors. Various strategies exist to detect glucose levels using fluorescence, the first and most common being a competition assay between glucose and a labelled glucose polymer for the binding site of Concanavalin A
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Over the years, using a combination of rational design and screening approaches, many possible combinations of fluorescent sensor for glucose have been studied with varying degrees of success: In most approaches, the glucose concentration is translated into a change in fluorescence either by using a pair or by using environment sensitive (solvatochromic) dyes in a variety of combinations, the fluorescent small molecule, protein or quantum dot have been used in conjunction with a glucose binding moiety either a boronic acid functionalized fluorophore or a protein, such as glucose oxidase, concanavalin A, glucose/galactose-binding protein, glucose dehydrogenase and glucokinase. In general, the change seen with competition assays is small (see below). Fluorescence is a property present in certain molecules, called fluorophores, in which they emit a photon shortly after absorbing one with a higher energy wavelength. To be more specific, in order for an electron in the outer orbital of a molecule to jump from a ground-state orbital to an excited state orbital, it requires a fixed amount of energy, which, in the case of chromophores (molecules that absorb light), can be acquired by absorbing a photon with an energy equal or slightly higher
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor This state is short-lived, and the electron returns to the ground-level orbital, losing the energy either as heat or in the case of fluorophores by emitting a photon, which, due to the loss of the difference between the energy of the absorbed photon and the excitation energy required, will have a lower energy than the absorbed photon, or, expressed in terms of wavelength, the emitted photon will have a longer wavelength. The difference between the two wavelengths is called Stokes' shift. This property can be found in quantum dots, certain lanthanides and certain organic molecules with delocalized electrons. These excited molecules have an increase in dipole momentum and in some cases can undergo internal charge rearrangement. When they possess an electron withdrawing group and an electron donating group at opposite ends of the resonance structure, they have a large shift in charge distribution across the molecule, which causes the solvent molecules to reorient to a less energetic arrangement, called solvent relaxation. By doing so, the energy of the excited state decreases, and the extent of the difference in energy depends on the polarity of the solvent surrounding the molecule. An alternative approach is to use solvatochromic dyes, which change their properties (intensity, half-life, and excitation, and emission spectra), depending on the polarity and charge of their environments. Hence, they are sometimes loosely referred to as environmentally sensitive dyes
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor These can be positioned on specific residues that either change their spatial arrangement due to a conformational change induced by glucose or reside in the glucose-binding pocket whereby the displacement of the water present by glucose decreases the polarity. An additional property of fluorescence that has found a large usage is Förster resonance energy transfer () in which the energy of the excited electron of one fluorophore, called the donor, is passed on to a nearby acceptor dye, either a dark-quencher (non-emitting chromophore) or another fluorophore, which has an excitation spectrum that overlaps with the emission spectrum of the donor dye, resulting in a reduced fluorescence. For sensing purposes, this property is, in general, used either in combination with a biomolecule, such as a protein, which undergoes a conformational change upon ligand binding, changing the distance between the two labels on this protein, or in a competition assay, in which the analyte has to compete with a known concentration of a fixed labelled ligand for the labelled binding site of protein. Therefore, the between the binding site and the competing ligand decreases when the analyte concentration is increased. In general, the competing ligand in the case of glucose is dextran, a long glucose polymer attached to the scaffolding or to the enzyme
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Over the years, using a combination of rational design and screening procedures, many possible typologies of fluorescent sensors for glucose have been created with varying degrees of success. In general, these sensors rely either on or on sensitivity to polarity changes to translate the glucose concentration into fluorescent intensity. In addition to the fluorophore(s), these sensors contain a molecule that confers glucose specificity, usually a protein. A variety of proteins have been used for this purpose, often with different labs concentrating on one particular protein. The first glucose biosensor reported in the literature was made in 1982 by Schultz's group using a competition assay between glucose and a labelled glucose polymer for the binding site of Concanavalin A entrapped in a hollow dialysis fibre. As a result, Con A was widely used in subsequent sensors in several labs, however Con A suffers from the downside of high toxicity and low reversibility. As a result, other glucose-binding proteins were and are being explored by several labs. In Biotex Inc. (Houston), McNichols and Ballastardt created a dialysis fibre-enclosed ConA sensor, which has undergone testing in animal models for several years. Amperometric biosensors, in contrast, can utilise only glucose oxidase as a protein, as it is a redox enzyme. This protein has also been used in fluorescent sensing either simply as an apoenzyme or as a holoenzyme
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor An exception to this group of sensors is the Biocapacitor A Sode's group, which relies on glucose dehydrogenase instead. The activity of glucose oxidase has also been used to make lifetime-based fluorescent/phosphorescent sensors, taking advantage of the fact that the protein oxidises glucose, utilizing molecular oxygen, and that oxygen quenches the fluorescence of ruthenium. This was done by Uwira and colleagues in 1984 and followed by several groups. To be specific, Endo and Pasic have used this GOx-based oxygen-quenching assay to make a fibre-based sensor, whilst McShane uses GOx-based oxygen-quenching assay in microspheres made with the aim of subcutaneous injection in order to create what the group has coined a "smart tattoo", a sensor operating non-invasively by reporting across the skin, taking advantage of the fact the skin is permeable to near-infrared light. In addition, this group has created several completion assays, first using ConA (TRITC-Con A /FITC-dextran (500kDa)), but then switching to GOx apoenzyme in 2004 (TRITC-apo-GOx /FITC-dextran (500kDa)), and in 2009 testing sensors (QSY-21-apo-GOx /Alexa647- dextran) in microspheres. Several other groups have constructed smart tattoos and are reviewed below. One particular GOx oxygen ruthenium-quenching assay was used in a study in Ingo Klimant's group, in a fully functional sensor to measure glucose levels in a healthy volunteer
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor The sensor was constructed by functionalizing an oxygen sensor with glucose oxidase and inserting it into the external part of a catheter used for monitoring. Apoenzymes can still bind glucose but, due to the lack of cofactors (in vitro), cannot catalyse their reaction so are less likely to get damaged. Other proteins that have been used are glucokinase from a thermophile in D'auria group and glucose-galactose-binding protein (), which is not an enzyme but a periplasmic protein involved in chemotaxis that undergoes a large conformational change. The majority of the fluorophores used for the sensors are small molecules, although some sensors have been made using quantum dots (QD) or fluorescent protein. Sensors have been made using QD as donors and a small molecule or gold nanoparticle (dark quencher) as acceptors. An example of the former is Loeb's sensil, an optic fibre system in which the quantum dot is attached to ConA whilst tetramethylrhodamine is attached to cyclodextran, which in turn is attached to the PEG diacrylate scaffold. An example of the latter is Tang with QDs-ConA-beta-CDs-AuNPs. Fluorescent protein can be made into a fusion protein with a desired protein, circumventing the labelling steps. Shultz made a molecule with two GFP at each end. It has not been reported in the literature, but in theory it is possible to improve this by doing a directed in vitro evolution using FACS. This is not easily done by labelling, although a screening has been attempted by Pitner
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Fluorescence is not the only type of luminescence achievable in biological systems: Chemiluminescence, the generation of light by means of chemical reactions, is produced by some proteins, such as Aqueorin from symbiont in jellyfish and luciferase from symbiont in fireflies. These have been used to make glucose sensors: Daunert makes a -split aqueorin sensor and in 2009 Koji Sode made -luciferase with Asp459Asn (Glc not Gal). In addition to small-molecule dyes, fluorescent proteins have been used: One group made a near-infrared (NIR) sensor detected by means of time-resolved/nanotomography allophycocyanin-ConA/malachite green-Dextran, regarding with Allophycocyanin, which MacColl has reviewed. In addition to protein as the glucose-binding moiety, boronic acid functionalized molecules have been used. Boronic acid binds to vicinal groups, preferably hydroxyl; therefore, it has a high affinity for carbohydrates. The use of the boronic acid group for the recognition of saccharide has been widely studied by Shinkai, James and their collaborators. To take advantage of this several approaches have been taken. One approach is by quenching, in which the system can work through the modulation of the quenching of a dye by a boronic acid functionalized viologen
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor An alternative approach is by photo-induced electron transfer (PET), a mechanism of fluorescence-quenching due to the electron-rich tertiary amino group near the fluorophore, which is affected by the change in charge of the nearby boronate group when glucose is bound. This has been used in combination with lifetime by one group., not only in fluorescence but as NMR agent for imaging with a Europium (3+) boronic acid dye. The majority of the sensors adopting environmentally sensitive dyes have utilized , a transport protein that binds to D-glucose and D-galactose and transports them to the membrane-bound Trg receptor triggering the chemotaxis of the bacterium towards that glucose source. It belongs to the malG family in Escherichia coli, which includes the maltose-binding protein, which, depending on the presence of glucose, can adopt two distinct conformations or possibly three generating a 31° hinge movement between the two globular domains connected by a hinge, which is the glucose-binding pocket. Its affinity for glucose is K= 0.2 μM, which is much lower than the pathophysiological range of glucose found in diabetes (1.7-33 mM). As a consequence, several studies have been done to lower the affinity of , which otherwise would result in near-saturation of throughout the pathophysiological glucose concentrations. The binding affinity of changes when it is labelled endosterically or peristerically, so several mutants that work at range close to pathophysiological glucose have been created
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Some studies with and solvatochromic dyes work not to create a sensor, but to elucidate the chemistry behind the conformational change of . Examples of this include a study utilizing L255C with acrylodan and ruthenium at the N-terminus revealing three conformational states closed and twisted, the fluorescence and phosphorescence of the tryptophan W183 under normal conditions [52], under high pressure and with or without calcium. Sode et al. made a series of mutants of to increase the Kd in the unlabelled form near physiological range (Phe16Ala) and remove galactose specificity (Asp14Glu). The response of an environment sensitive dye attached to a specific residue of depends not only on the labelling site, which has a certain environment, but also on the nature of the dye, which interacts differently depending on its geometry. The interaction between a given dye and its environment is hard to predict in silico. As a result, in order to obtain a working sensor, several independent studies have screened a set of environmentally sensitive dyes attached to several possible sites in the binding pocket (endosteric site), near it (peristeric site) or away from it (allosteric site). One advantage of is that in the wild-type there are no cysteine residues, making the introduction of this residue in a specific location ideal for labelling. A team led by Homme Hellinga conducted two large screens
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor In the first (2002) they made of a series (320 constructs) of labelled mutants of 11 bacterial periplasmic binding protein including for which they made nine mutants introducing a cysteine in a specific spot (Y10C, N15C, E93C, E149C, H152C, W183C, L255C, D257C, V296C) and tested the response when labelled with one out of eight dyes (pyrene (340, 390); acrylodan (390, 500); fluorescein (485, 520); NBD (490, 540); NBDE (490, 530); JPW4039 (485, 590); JPW4042 (470, 640); and JPW4045 (470, 640)). Out of the 72 combinations made, labelled with acrylodan in position W183C had a fivefold change and kd=5mM. In a subsequent study (2007), using the heat-stable from Thermotoga maritima they screened five mutants (Y13C, W14C, Y189C, S131C and M239C) with four dyes (, , Cy5 and Cy3) identifying Y13C-Cy5 conjugate, which gave a maximal increase of 50% and affinity at 15mM. A group led by Daunert used three endosteric mutants (G148C, H152C and M182C) in combination with four dyes (acrylodan, 1,5-IAEDANS, MDCC and ester) identifying M182C–MDCC, which gave a 30% change in fluorescence. A very different approach was taken by Pitner in BD, who used a single dye () attached to E149C as a starting point for a directed evolution screen, in which a mutant library is created and selected for "winners", namely mutants that meet the selection criteria. With this approach they identified E149C/A213R/L238S with kd of 10mM and an eightfold increase in fluorescence; this mutant was later used for SPR
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Independently another group (J Pickup) tested two mutants (H152C and M182C) labelled with (6-bromoacetyl-2-dimethylaminonaphtalene), bound to the thiol group of the cisteine introduced at site 152 (H152C mutant). This showed a threefold increase (200% change) upon saturating glucose binding, making it an ideal candidate for a sensor. Later work, adopting the mutations identified by Pitner (above), generated a -labelled mutant (H152C/A213R/L238S), with a dissociation constant in the human physiological glucose range (Km=11mM) and a twofold increase in fluorescence (100% change). Another pair of papers suggest that the natural fluorescence (autofluorescence) of tissues may be harnessed to track glucose concentrations. These studies took advantage of the fact that NAD(P)H, in its reduced form, is autofluorescent, and that metabolites such as glucose cause a predictable increase in NAD(P)H reduction. An alternative way of measuring the change in environment of environmental dyes is their change in lifetime, which may give better results in some sensors, using lanthanides or e.g. the aforementioned ruthenium (Ru) metal-ligand complex, either with GOx or as an acceptor of an environment sensitive dye as in the case of ANS26- in a ruthenium-coated cuvette that shows little increase in intensity but a substantial change in lifetime
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor The construction of the fluorescent protein is only one subsystem of a clinically viable monitoring device: the sensing protein has to be immobilized and its fluorescence has to be read by a detecting subsystem that, in turn, informs the user. In the ideal situation, the detector could be implanted with the immobilized protein and queried by radio frequency, however this has currently been achieved only with amperormetric sensors. The general approach for fluorescent sensors is to attach the protein to one extremity of an optic fibre implanted under the skin whilst the other extremity is connected to the detection subsystem, which includes a path splitter (sliced fibre or dichroic mirror) to allow the fibre to transmit both the excitation and the emitted light, a filtered light source (in general, a laser), and a filtered photodetector (a CCD or a PMT). The information thus collected is then analysed with a computer. The skin is permeable to near-infrared light (NIR). As a consequence, near-infrared dyes can be measured across the skin without the need of an optic fibre; this has been termed a "smart tattoo" by McShane who created a near-infrared oxygen quenching assay contained in microspheres. However, there is a limited amount of commercially available fluorescent dyes, and a limited amount of environmentally sensitive dyes, such as cyanine cy7. As a consequence, Pitner made a reactive Nile red dye, but to date no study with a Nile red- sensor has been conducted
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Nevertheless, several studies with NIR dyes have been done. Pickup and Birch made a NIR sensor measuring both the time-resolved counts or by nanotomography of allophycocyanin-ConA/malachite green-Dextran, where allophycocyanin is a NIR fluorescent protein. In another study, the autofluorescence of NAPH, an energy carrier in cells, was assessed as an indirect indicator. A group at BioTex Inc, led by McNichols and Ballerstadt, created a NIR sensor based on ConA, with NIR dyes Alexa 647 and Alexa 750 (originally Alexa 647 & cy7) enclosed in a dialysis fibre attached to the end of an optic fibre, which they have dubbed "FAS" (fluorescent). To improve the stability they attached the protein to a sephadex, a macroporous hydrogel. Despite the change in of only 35% across the pathophysiological range (possibly 40% maximum change form no glucose to saturation), the sensor has been shown to decrease in functionality by only 20% after 450 days incubation at and to monitor glucose as well as the Medtronic/Minimed CGMS sensor in animal models (mouse, pig, and dog); however their stated aim is to create a smart tattoo. Draper Laboratory are also developing a smart tattoo, and are currently testing on animals. The performance and the identity of the sensor have not been revealed. Despite the higher benefit of smart tattoos compared to a transdermal optic fibre, no in vivo smart tattoo has yet been demonstrated, whereas fibre-based systems have been shown to be potential sensors
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor The majority of the sensors mentioned in the previous sections consisted of labelled proteins in solution. The only sensors to progress towards an implantable sensor have been either GOx–ruthenium oxygen-quenching assay sensors or competition assay sensors; to date, no environment sensitive dye-based sensors attached at the end of a fibre has been published. For fibre-based biosensors to work, the protein must be immobilized to the fibre that can either entrapped in a hollow tube made of dialysis membrane or entrapped in a hydrogel. A hollow dialysis tube is a tube with sub-millimetre diameter whose walls are composed of porous crosslinked cellulose designed to allow small solutes through but not large biomolecules, such as protein with a cut-off ranging from 0.5-20 kDa. As a consequence, they are well suited for sensory applications, where the analyte is free to diffuse across whilst proteins cannot, both the sensor protein inside and the blood/interstitial tissue proteases. In fact, the Menarini Diagnostics' GlucoDay sensor has an improved lifetime because the injected probe uses a dialysis membrane, although it should be note that to drastically increase the diffusion rate it is coupled with a pump
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Regarding its application in fluorescent sensing of glucose, the first glucose biosensor by fluorescence, which, as mentioned, was made in 1982 by means of a competition assay for the binding site of ConA, was entrapped in a sealed microdialysis tube, in the same lab, namely of J Schultz, in 2001 another study was published using microdialysis fibres using a ConA sensor but with different labels and using sephadex instead of dextran (the former being several orders of magnitude larger). After, Dr. Ballastardt joined BioTex as a senior scientist under Dr Roger McNichols, the chief scientist, where for the past seven years they have been testing the previously mentioned FAS sensor, which used the same system in a dialysis tube. To be specific, the labelled protein was loaded with a P10 tip into a dialysis tube 200 μm wide that had been sealed with cyanoacrylate (superglue) at one end with or without an optic fibre end inserted inside. In the field of sensors of analytes, glucose sensors have been at the forefront due to the large amount of research into glucose sensors as a result of the prevalence of diabetes, nevertheless, a wide breadth of optic fibre-based biosensors, mainly using enzymes, immunoassays, nucleic acids, whole cells or biomimetic materials and relying on different detection methods (fluorescence, absorbance, chemiluminescence, and scattering), and attachment methods (coating, hydrogels, or membranes)
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor The majority of these sensors, however, rely on entrapping the protein in hydrogels, as these are more sturdy and protect the protein more than a simple coating or membrane. A hydrogel is a porous crosslinked polymer matrix filled with water. Several types of hydrogel exist and have been used to entrap small molecules such as dyes, biomolecules, such as enzymes or whole cells. In the case of protein, they can work either by physically entrapping the protein having pores smaller than the proteins or by chemical linkage of the protein to the matrix. In physically entrapping gels, the protein has to be added when the gel is crosslinked, so the conditions used must not damage the protein, excluding the hydrogel, which requires non-aqueous solvents or harsh chemicals, an example being TEMED-persulphate-catalysed (peroxide radical initiation) acrylamide or acrylate, which is used for SDS PAGE but for not protein encapsulation. Hydrogels have been extensively studied, mainly in the entrapment of small molecules for drug delivery, including cases where the hydrogel nanoparticles slowly release the drug to a targeted site
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor Hydrogels can be classified according to their polymers constituents, which can be natural (Hyaluronan, alginic acid, pectin, , chondroitin sulfate, dextran and dextran sulphate, chitosan, polylysine, collagen, carboxymethyl chitin, fibrin, agarose, pullulan), or synthetic (PEG, PLA, PLGA, PCL, PHB, PVA, PNVP, P(HEMA), p(biscarboxy-phenoxy-phosphazene), p(GEMA-sulfate), and others), or a hybrid of the two. In addition to organic hydrogels there are sol-gels, which are oxygen-bridged silicates (or titanium oxide), that polymerise in water. An additional classification can be by method of polymerization, which can be physical (freezing or heating) or chemical (γ-ray, oxygen or photo-induced radical polymerization in the case of acrylates, vinyls and acrylamides). All the various hydrogels have different advantages and disadvantage, such as biocompatibility, protein stability, toxicity, or lifetime; for example, the gelling conditions for sol-gels may damage the protein, and, as a result, several copolymers, such as chitosan, may be added (making hybrid gels) or alternative monomers, such as glycol-modified tetraethoxysilane as it is more biocompatible than the commonly used methoxy- or ethoxy-modified tetraethoxysilane. Regarding fibre-optic-based biosensors, several hydrogels have been used but mainly acrylate-based polymers and sol-gels, either by chemical or physical entrapment
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor In the case of acetylcholinesterase, the target of many pesticides, a sensors has been made chemically linking the enzyme to an acrylate hydrogel or physically entrapping the enzyme in solgel. An optic-fibre-based hydrogel-entrapped biosensor for glucose was made in the lab of Loeb (Liao and colleagues) and was named Sencil. this sensor was composed of a photocrosslinked diacrylate-modified PEG hydrogel containing the tetra-rhodamine (TRITC), labelled competitor betacyclodextrin and the quantum dot-labelled apoenzyme Concanavalin A. This sensor was tested only in vitro for functionality; however, some tests were done to see the compatibility of the fibre implanted transdermally in mice. In particular, the inflammation was monitored and the energy required to remove it by force was measured proving that the collagen-coated fibre required more force than to remove a hair, which has the same diameter (200μl). Another fibre-based sensor was done in Singaram lab (santa Cruz). This used a 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate hydrogel as a scaffold onto which two dyes were attached one a fluorescent anionic dye and a cationic quencher (to be specific, a viologen) functionalized with boronic acid, which assumes a negative charge when bound to glucose, making the net charge of the molecule neutral and less attracted to the fluorophore, hence modulating its intensity based on glucose concentration
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor The majority of hydrogels are attached to the fibre, one exception being the fibre optic-based sensor made by Itsubayashi's group to measure glucose in fish (health indicator), which used a dialysis membrane as the support for the hydrogel. To be more specific, it relied on a GOx oxygen-ruthenium quenching assay where the protein was mixed with AWP (azide-functionalized polyvinyl alcohol, a photocrosslinkable polymer) and cross-linked to a dialysis membrane that was rolled around a premade ruthenium oxygen probe (ocean optics) and inserted into an 18-gauge needle with eight holes on the side (akin to a recorder). In such a set-up, the integrity of the protein has no effect on the sensor, unless below a certain concentration. As a consequence, the destruction or inaccessibility of a fraction of the protein is not problematic, which is in contrast to or environmentally sensitive sensing. However, the response speed of this sensor is slow and requires a mathematical prediction to be applied to the measurement. An alternative use of boronic acid in hydrogels is seen in Stokke in Norway where the swelling of a boronate functionalized acrylamide gel due to charge change upon glucose binding is measured by a Fabry–Pérot interferometer on the other end of the fibre (note that this a different method than fluorescence and relies on scattering)
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Fluorescent glucose biosensor An exception to the usage of placing the optic fibre transdermally is seen in the previously mentioned fibre from Ingo Klimant's group (ruthenium-quenching by oxygen released by glucose-catalysed GOx): The sensor, in fact, was constructed by functionalizing a premade oxygen sensor with Glucose oxydase and inserting it into a glucose-sensing apparatus for amperometric sensors, in particular, a microdialysis catheter CMA 60 implanted transdermally and the sensor connected to its tygon tubing. This sensor was tested in a human volunteer and showed results par with current amperometric systems. The usage of a fibre was dictated by the pre-availability of this compared to a ruthenium-coated lens, which would have had achieved the same results, so this approach should be put in a category of its own alongside transdermal fibres and smart tattoos. However, the aim of the group is to create glucose-sensitive nanoparticles to be interrogated with a transdermal optic fibre and controlled magnetically. As a consequence, the group is improving the oxygen sensing probe by investigating novel oxygen sensitive phosphorescent materials, nanoparticle formulation and the creation of magnetic nanoparticles.
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Short supermultiplet In theoretical physics, a short supermultiplet is a supermultiplet i.e. a representation of the supersymmetry algebra whose dimension is smaller than formula_1 where formula_2 is the number of real supercharges. The representations that saturate the bound are known as the long supermultiplets. The states in a long supermultiplet may be produced from a representative by the action of the lowering and raising operators, assuming that for any basis vector, either the lowering operator or its conjugate raising operator produce a new nonzero state. This is the reason for the dimension indicated above. On the other hand, the short supermultiplets admit a subset of supercharges that annihilate the whole representation. That is why the short supermultiplets contain the BPS states, another description of the same concept. The BPS states are only possible for objects that are either massless or massive extremal, i.e. carrying a maximum allowed value of some central charges.
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Spurion In theoretical physics, a spurion is a fictitious, auxiliary field in a quantum field theory that can be used to parameterize any symmetry breaking and to determine all operators invariant under the symmetry. The procedure begins with finding a parameter that measures the amount of symmetry breaking. This parameter is promoted to a field, i.e. to a function of the spacetime coordinates. With this new fictitious field, operators that are invariant under the symmetry may be found by the usual group-theoretical considerations. The list of operators found in this way is complete as long as all sources of the breaking are included. The operators in the actual theory are ultimately found by setting the spurious field equal to the constant value of the parameter. In the theory of pions, physics often uses the chiral perturbation theory. Here, the relevant symmetry is the isospin SU(2) symmetry. It is broken by the different masses of u and d quarks as well as by their different charges. The chiral Lagrangian may be extended to an exactly SU(2)-symmetric Lagrangian by promoting these parameters (mass and charge) to fields that break the symmetry spontaneously. Calculations of observables to higher orders may be done with the spurion fields. The final result, at any order of accuracy, is obtained by substituting the right masses and charges. In the standard electroweak theory, the spurion is replaced by an actual field, the Higgs boson. However, in alternative theories of electroweak symmetry breaking, e.g
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Spurion those based on Technicolor, the spurion techniques are important to derive the physical predictions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29329394
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Radiative Auger effect is a decay channel of an inner-shell atomic vacancy state, in which an x-ray photon is emitted accompanying simultaneous promotion of an electron into either a bound or a continuum state. Thus the transition energy is shared between the photon and the electron. The effect was first observed by F. Bloch and P. A. Ross, with initial theoretical explanation by F. Bloch.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29330452
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Karl Kessler Karl Fedorovich Kessler (19 November 1815 – 3 March 1881) was a German-Russian zoologist and author of zoological taxa signed "Kessler", who was mostly active in Kiev, Ukraine and conducted most of his studies of birds in Ukrainian regions of the Russian Empire - Kiev Governorate, Volyn Governorate, Kherson Governorate, Poltava Governorate and Bessarabia. He also studied the fish of the Dniester, Dnieper, and Southern Bug rivers, and on the Ukrainian coast of the Black Sea. Kessler was one of the first zoologists to propose that mutual aid, rather than mutual struggle, was the main factor in the evolution of a species. The anarchist Peter Kropotkin later developed this theory in his book .
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29338205
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Grasshopper (robot weather station) The Grasshopper was a project by the United States Air Force and United States Navy to develop portable robot weather station deployed by parachute from long range aircraft in the early 1950s. The Grasshopper was designed to be deployed by parachute into enemy territory and radio back basic weather information for air strikes. With the USAF "Grasshopper" after being parachuted down from a long range aircraft, a small explosive charge disconnects the parachute upon impact with the ground. After a selected preset time, a second explosive charge would deploy the legs of the unit while setting it upright on the ground. Finally, a third explosive charge would extend the antenna and make the unit ready to begin taking weather measurements, broadcasting them back three times a day at selected timed-intervals (so other aircraft can pick up the short range signal). Reports also stated that the Grasshopper could be used to guide in strike aircraft with the internal clock set for the approximate time the strike aircraft would arrive near the target.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29342125
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Cleanliness suitability describes the suitability of operating materials and ventilation and air conditioning components for use in cleanrooms where the air cleanliness and other parameters are controlled by way of technical regulations. Tests are carried out to determine this. Trends such as the miniaturization of structures as well as increased levels of reliability in technology, research and science require controlled “clean” manufacturing environments. The task of such environments is to minimize influences which could damage the products concerned. The cleanroom environments created by filtering the air were originally developed for the fields of microelectronics and microsystem technology but are now used in a wide range of other high technology sectors such as photovoltaics and the automotive industry. Depending upon the industry and process concerned, different factors may have a damaging influence on a product, e.g.: The following factors may be responsible for contamination:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29343046
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Shimoni bat lyssavirus is a "Lyssavirus" which was discovered in Kenya in 2009. It is bears significant similarities to the "Lyssavirus" "Lagos bat virus". The virus was isolated from the brain of a dead Commerson's leaf-nosed bat ("Hipposideros commersoni"). There have been no reported cases of human infection to date.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29359557
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Lambertus Johannes Toxopeus (1894 - April 21, 1951) was a Java-born, Dutch nationality lepidopterist. He mainly worked in Indonesia then known as the Dutch East Indies and specialised in the families Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae. Wikispecies provides a list of key works online here He died in Bandung, Java.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29372144
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Antonio della Valle (1850, Naples-1935) was an Italian zoologist who specialised in Amphipoda and Ascidiacea. He held positions in the University of Modena and was later professor of Comparative Anatomy at the University of Naples and was a member of the research team at Stazione Zoologica in Naples. Partial list
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29375622
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Paolo Enriques (17 August 1878 in Leghorn – 26 December 1932 in Rome) was an Italian zoologist. Enriques taught Zoology and Comparative Anatomy at the University of Sassari (1917 to 1921), then in 1922 he became Professor of Zoology in the University of Padua University, and Director of the Institute of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy. He was primarily interested in comparative cytology, physiology and genetics. He wrote “Teoria cellulare” or, in English Cellular Theory (1911), “Eredità dell’uomo” or Inheritance in Man (1924), and “Le leggi di Mendel e i cromosomi” or Mendel’s Laws and Chromosomes (1932). He died in a car accident in Rome.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29378249
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Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) is a joint mission between JAXA and NASA as well as other international space agencies to make frequent (every 2–3 hours) observations of Earth's precipitation. It is part of NASA's Earth Systematic Missions program and works with a satellite constellation to provide full global coverage. The project provides global precipitation maps to assist researchers in improving the forecasting of extreme events, studying global climate, and adding to current capabilities for using such satellite data to benefit society. GPM builds on the notable successes of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), which was also a joint NASA-JAXA activity. The project is managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, and consists of a GPM Core Observatory satellite assisted by a constellation of spacecraft from other agencies and missions. The Core Observatory satellite measures the two and three dimensional structure of Earth's precipitation patterns and provides a new calibration standard for the rest of the satellite constellation. The GPM Core Observatory was assembled and tested at Goddard Space Flight Center, and launched from Tanegashima Space Center, Japan, on a Mitsubishi Heavy Industries H-IIA rocket. The launch occurred on February 28, 2014 at 3:37am JST on the first attempt. Agencies in the United States, Japan, India and France (together with Eumetsat) operate the remaining satellites in the constellation for agency-specific goals, but also cooperatively provide data for GPM
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29382860
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Global Precipitation Measurement GPM has five broad science objectives: The DPR is a spaceborne radar, providing three-dimensional maps of storm structure across its swath, including the intensity of rainfall and snowfall at the surface. The DPR has two frequencies, allowing researchers to estimate the sizes of precipitation particles and detect a wider range of precipitation rates. The Ku-band radar, similar to the PR on TRMM, covers a 245 km (152 mile) swath. Nested inside that, the Ka-band radar covers a 120 km (74.5 mile) swath. Data from the DPR is sent to the ground via a single-access link with TDRSS relay satellites. The GMI is a passive sensor that observes the microwave energy emitted by the Earth and atmosphere at 13 different frequency/polarization channels. These data allow quantitative maps of precipitation across a swath that is 885 km (550 miles) wide. This instrument continues the legacy of TRMM microwave observations, while adding four additional channels, better resolution, and more reliable calibration. Data from the GMI is continuously sent to the ground via a multiple-access link with TDRSS relay satellites. GPM produces and distributes a wide variety of precipitation data products. Processing takes place at the Precipitation Processing System (PPS) at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, as well as at the JAXA facility in Japan
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Global Precipitation Measurement Data is provided at multiple "levels" of processing, from raw satellite measurements to best-estimate global precipitation maps using combinations of all the constellation observations and other meteorological data. All data from the mission is made freely available to the public on NASA websites. Precipitation data is made available in a variety of formats, spatial and temporal resolutions, and processing levels which are accessible on the Precipitation Measurement Missions "Data Access" webpage. Several data visualization and analysis tools have been made available to provide easy access for the science and applications communities, which include the in-browser Earth science data analysis tool Giovanni, a web API, and a 3D near-realtime global precipitation viewer. In addition to maintaining social media accounts and the GPM Road to Launch Blog, JAXA and NASA developed several outreach activities specific to this mission prior to launch that the public could participate in. After launch a series of featured articles and videos were produced to highlight various scientific goals and discoveries of the mission, and an "Extreme Weather" blog is maintained to provide timely updates about the latest extreme precipitation events and natural disasters occurring around the world. A Precipitation Education website is also maintained to provide teachers and students with lesson plans, animations, and other resources to teach about the water cycle, Earth science, and the GPM mission
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Global Precipitation Measurement The main character Mohan Bharghav (Shahrukh Khan) in 2004 Indian film "Swades: We, the People" is a Project Manager in NASA's GPM project. Movie starts from NASA's GPM project analysis. Bharghav discuss the importance of GPM and its positive impact on Earth. In the movie the GPM satellite is launched by the Space Shuttle. A short anime film of 6 minutes, "Dual frequency Precipitation Radar Special Movie", was produced by JAXA and White Fox in 2013.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29382860
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Equatorial room An equatorial room, in astronomical observatories, is the room which contains an equatorial mounted telescope. It is usually referred to in observatory buildings that contain more than one type of instrument: for example buildings with an "equatorial room" containing an equatorial telescope and a "transit room" containing a transit telescope. Equatorial rooms tend to be large circular rooms to accommodate all the range of motion of a long telescope on an equatorial mount and are usually topped with a dome to keep out the weather. In some cases an observatory would move to a new location, or the equatorial telescope itself would be removed. The space would then be converted, for example, into use as a classroom or library. These peculiar rooms can sometimes be found in buildings at old colleges and towns, with their former use long forgotten.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29398703
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Carl Bovallius Carl Erik Alexander Bovallius (or Bowallius) (31 July 1849 – 8 November 1907) was a Swedish biologist and archaeologist. Bovallius became a student in Uppsala in 1868, and received a Ph.D. in 1875. Bovallius undertook, for scientific purposes, travel along the Swedish and Norwegian coasts. In 1881-83, he made zoological and ethnographic studies in Latin America, to where he returned in the late 1890s. Starting in 1881, explored Central America, and especially Nicaragua, in search of ancient sites. He studied places like Ometepe, and Zapatera, and also researched the ethnography of local tribes. A species of snake, "Rhinobothryum bovallii", is named in his honor.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29402982
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REG1 is an anticoagulation system. It involves inhibition of Factor IXa.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29404652
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Bastiaan Jacob Dirk Meeuse (9 May 1916 – 27 July 1999) was a botanist and naturalist.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29407574
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Konstantin Valkov Konstantin Anatolyevich Valkov (; November 11, 1971- ) is a Russian former Cosmonaut. He was selected as part of the TsPK-12 Cosmonaut group in 1997. Valkov was born in Kamensk-Uralsky, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia on November 11, 1971. In 1994, he graduated from Barnaul Higher Military Air School of Pilots and subsequently became a Colonel in the Russian Air Force. Valkov was selected as part of the TsPK-12 group of cosmonauts to train at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in 1997. He then completed basic training in 1999. He retired without flying in space in 2012.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29425499
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Gunter Faure is a geochemist who currently holds the position of Professor Emeritus in the School of Earth Science of Ohio State University. He obtained his PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1961.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29427482
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Seston are the organisms (bioseston) and non-living matter (abioseston or tripton) swimming or floating in a water body. Bioseston can be often regarded as plankton, although it includes nekton as well. Abioseston comprises detritus as well.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29447515
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Orientational glass In solid-state physics, an orientational glass is a molecular solid in which crystalline long-range order coexists with quenched disorder in some rotational degree of freedom. An orientational glass is either obtained by quenching a plastic crystal, e.g. cyclohexane, or it is a mixed crystal in which positional disorder causes additional disorder of molecular orientations, e.g. CN orientations in KCN:KBr.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29452338
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Hop stunt viroid The hop stunt viroid (abbreviated HSVd) is a viroid species that infects the common hop plant, citrus plants and grapevines, among others. It is a member of the Pospiviroidae family and the Hostuviroid genus. There are quite a few different sub-species of the hop stunt viroid. The hop stunt viroid has a single stranded RNA genome; the genome is 297 nucleotides long.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29462083
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UDF 423 is the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (UDF) identifier for a distant spiral galaxy. With an apparent magnitude of 20, is one of the brightest galaxies in the HUDF and also has one of the largest apparent sizes in the HUDF. The "distance" of a far away galaxy depends on how it is measured. With a redshift of 1, light from this galaxy is estimated to have taken around 7.7 billion years to reach Earth. However, since this galaxy is receding from Earth, the present comoving distance is estimated to be around 10 billion light-years away. In context, Hubble is observing this galaxy as it appeared when the Universe was around 5.9 billion years old.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29468127
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Lentisphaerae is a phylum of bacteria closely related to Chlamydiae and Verrucomicrobia. It includes two monotypic orders Lentisphaerales and Victivallales. Phylum members can be aerobic or anaerobic and fall under two distinct phenotypes. One consists of terrestrial gut microbiota from mammals and birds. The other phenotype includes marine micro-organisms: sequences from fish and coral microbiomes and marine sediment. The phylogeny based on the work of the All-Species Living Tree Project. The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LSPN) and the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Notes: ♠ Strain found at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) but not listed in the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) List of bacterial orders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29473124
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Usk Inlier The is a domed outcrop of rock strata of Silurian age in Monmouthshire in south-eastern Wales. It is located in the countryside between the towns of Caerleon and Pontypool and the village of Raglan. The longer axis of the dome or 'pericline', often referred to as the Usk Anticline, is aligned north-south. The inlier is largely surrounded by a sequence of Old Red Sandstone rocks of Devonian age, though both these and the Silurian rocks are largely obscured by superficial deposits.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29480795
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Wave–current interaction In fluid dynamics, wave–current interaction is the interaction between surface gravity waves and a mean flow. The interaction implies an exchange of energy, so after the start of the interaction both the waves and the mean flow are affected. For depth-integrated and phase-averaged flows, the quantity of primary importance for the dynamics of the interaction is the wave radiation stress tensor. is also one of the possible mechanisms for the occurrence of rogue waves, such as in the Agulhas Current. When a wave group encounters an opposing current, the waves in the group may pile up on top of each other which will propagate into a rogue wave. identifies five major sub-classes within wave–current interaction:
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N-group (finite group theory) In mathematical finite group theory, an N-group is a group all of whose local subgroups (that is, the normalizers of nontrivial "p"-subgroups) are solvable groups. The non-solvable ones were classified by Thompson during his work on finding all the minimal finite simple groups. The simple N-groups were classified by in a series of 6 papers totaling about 400 pages. The simple N-groups consist of the special linear groups PSL("q"),PSL(3), the Suzuki groups Sz(2), the unitary group U(3), the alternating group "A", the Mathieu group M, and the Tits group. (The Tits group was overlooked in Thomson's original announcement in 1968, but Hearn pointed out that it was also a simple N-group.) More generally Thompson showed that any non-solvable N-group is a subgroup of Aut("G") containing "G" for some simple N-group "G". gives a summary of Thompson's classification of N-groups. The primes dividing the order of the group are divided into four classes π, π, π, π as follows The proof is subdivided into several cases depending on which of these four classes the prime 2 belongs to, and also on an integer "e", which is the largest integer for which there is an elementary abelian subgroup of rank "e" normalized by a nontrivial 2-subgroup intersecting it trivially. A minimal simple group is a non-cyclic simple group all of whose proper subgroups are solvable
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N-group (finite group theory) The complete list of minimal finite simple groups is given as follows In other words a non-cyclic finite simple group must have a subquotient isomorphic to one of these groups.
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Citrus gummy bark viroid The citrus gummy bark viroid (abbreviated CGBVd) is a strain of "Hop stunt viroid", and thus is a member of the genus "Hostuviroid". As the name suggests, the citrus gummy bark viroid causes problems in the bark of the sweet orange tree. Scraping the bark exposes localized spots or a line of reddish-brown, gum-impregnated tissue around the scion circumference especially visible near the bud union. The discoloration and gumming may extend above the bud union to the main branches of the sweet orange while in severe infection dark streaks of gum-impregnated tissue may also be observed in longitudinal sections.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29506526
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Austen Angell Charles (born Canberra 1933) is an Australian chemist known for his prolific and highly cited research on the physics of glasses and glass-forming liquids. His most cited contribution is probably the "strong–fragile" classification of viscous liquids. The representation of log viscosity vs reduced inverse temperature "T"/"T" is also known as the "Angell plot".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29510384
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NGC 7714 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation Pisces. It was discovered by John Herschel on 18 September 1830. and NGC 7715 are interacting galaxies. The pair are also known as Arp 284. appears to be a highly distorted spiral, possibly a barred spiral galaxy. NGC 7715 is of uncertain type, probably an edge-on spiral or an irregular galaxy. Supernova 1999dn was observed in on September 19, 1999.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29511432
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Sutton Bonington weather station The is a functioning weather station located in Sutton Bonington, Nottinghamshire in England. The weather station is located from the city centre of Nottingham and from the town centre of Loughborough. The Sutton Bonington station was formerly Nottingham's main weather station. The weather station was established in 1908 and the recording of weather records began in 1924. The weather centre is currently being managed by the Met Office. Like most of the United Kingdom, Sutton Bonington lies within the hardiness zone 8b and AHS heat zone 1. Due to being located at a lower elevation than Watnall, Sutton Bonington has slightly warmer days on average, but due to being located further away from an urban area than Watnall, Sutton Bonington can sometimes experience slightly colder nights and reports more days of air frost on average than Watnall. The highest temperature recorded at Sutton Bonington was on 25 July 2019 with a temperature of 36°C.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29511576
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Hostuviroid is a genus of viroids that includes "Hop stunt viroid", a species of viroids that infects many different types of plants, including the common hop plant.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29517067
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NGC 4452 is an edge-on lenticular galaxy that is part of the Virgo Cluster. is located approximately 60 million light-years distant and is 35,000 light-years in width. This galaxy was first seen by William Herschel in 1784 with his 47 cm telescope. is so thin that it is actually difficult to determine what type of disk galaxy it is. Its lack of a visible dust lane indicates that it is a low-dust lenticular galaxy, although it is still possible that a view from on top would reveal spiral structure. The unusual stellar line segment spans about 35,000 light years from end to end. Near NGC 4452's center is a slight bulge of stars, while hundreds of background galaxies are visible far in the distance. Galaxies that appear this thin are rare mostly because our Earth must reside (nearly) in the extrapolated planes of their thin galactic disks. Galaxies that actually are this thin are relatively common – for example our own Milky Way Galaxy is thought to be about this thin. appears to be very similar to galaxy IC 335, an edge-on galaxy in Fornax Cluster, in constellation Fornax.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29527111
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George Althofer George William Francis Althofer (1903–1993) was an Australian botanist, nurseryman, author and poet, with a special interest in the mint-bush genus "Prostanthera" as well as other Australian native plants, who founded the Burrendong Botanic Garden and Arboretum. Althofer was born at Dripstone in the Wellington local government area of Central West New South Wales. He attended school locally, in Dripstone, then Wellington and Mumbil. Althofer grew up working on his father's farm and orchard, becoming an orchardist himself. In 1938 he established a native plant nursery at his property "Nindethana" at Dripstone. Inspired by the American example of the Arnold Arboretum, and assisted by his brother Peter, he lobbied for the establishment of a similar institution with a focus on Australian native plants. As a consequence, the 167 ha Burrendong Botanic Garden and Arboretum on the foreshore of Lake Burrendong, near Wellington, opened in 1964. Books and collections of poetry by Althofer include:
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Seishi Kikuchi was born and grew up in Tokyo. He graduated in 1926 from Tokyo Imperial University. In 1928, Kikuchi and Shoji Nishikawa observed and gave a theoretical explanation of the electron backscatter diffraction pattern from a calcite cleavage face. In 1929, he went to Germany as a student. In 1934, he was appointed as professor at Osaka Imperial University and directed the construction of Japan's first DC high voltage Cockcroft-Walton accelerator. In 1955, he was appointed as the first director of the Institute of Nuclear Research at the University of Tokyo, and successfully presided over the completion of the variable energy cyclotron. Between 1959 and 1964, he was chairman of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29564522
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Foregut fermentation is a form of digestion that occurs in the foregut of some animals. It has evolved independently in several groups of mammals, and also in the hoatzin bird. is employed by ruminants and pseudoruminants, some rodents and some marsupials. It has also evolved in colobine monkeys and in sloths.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29566848
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Talos Dome () (sometimes spelled Thalos Dome) is a large ice dome rising to 2,300 m to the southwest of the Usarp Mountains in Antarctica. The dome overlies the east margin of the Wilkes Subglacial Basin. The feature was delineated by the Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI)-National Science Foundation (NSF)-Technical University of Denmark (TUD) airborne radio echo sounding program, 1967–79, and was named after Talos of Greek mythology, who assisted Minos in the defense of Crete.
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Hiroshi Hara (botanist) He specialised in mosses, but described other plants as well.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29593584
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Arctic front The is the semipermanent, semi-continuous weather front between the cold arctic air mass and the warmer air of the polar cell. It can also be defined as the southern boundary of the Arctic air mass. Mesoscale cyclones known as polar lows can form along the arctic front in the wake of extratropical cyclones. Arctic air masses in their wake are shallow with a deep layer of stable air above the shallow cold cool. Arctic Fronts form in the Arctic region, and move southwards in southerly flows. When they reach Northern Europe, they have usually travelled over an open sea, and convective cloudiness has developed. The appearance of an Arctic Cold Fronts is then, essentially, that of a shallow Cold Front. Arctic Cold Fronts are usually so far north that Meteosat images alone are inadequate to recognize them. Also, the following conceptual models may look like Arctic Cold Fronts: polar Cold Front, Polar Low and Comma. The final check is best made using a loop of AVHRR images with the help of numerical model parameter fields. Arctic Cold Fronts can be classified into two types: These fronts resemble polar cold fronts, but are usually not so extensive. The frontal cloudiness becomes more convective with time. These fronts form over the ice/sea boundary and move southwards with the basic flow. There is only an isolated Cold Front. Often this type is so shallow and weak that it can not be detected in Meteosat water vapour images.
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Kanesuke Hara Kanesuke Hara
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29593689
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R-407C is a mixture of hydrofluorocarbons used as a refrigerant. It is a zeotropic blend of difluoromethane (R-32), pentafluoroethane (R-125), and 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a). Difluoromethane serves to provide the heat capacity, pentafluoroethane decreases flammability, tetrafluoroethane reduces pressure. cylinders are colored burnt orange. This refrigerant is intended as a replacement for R-22. R-22 production will be phased out by 2020 as per the Montreal protocol. It is not recommended to drop into R-22 systems on top of the existing charge in cases of low refrigerant levels. A licensed professional should be contracted to completely remove the R-22 and as much of the mineral oil as possible. In the case of compressor change-outs, replacement compressors are already manufactured with POE (polyolester) oil and are therefore more compatible with than returning the recovered R-22. The recovered R-22 can be sent to a facility for disposal. It is cost effective to replace R-22 with before there is an emergency. Preventive maintenance programs should include strong suggestions to replace ozone-depleting refrigerants such as R-22 with environmentally friendly refrigerants and it seems that has become the front runner. There are many millions of tons of R-22 in air conditioning and refrigeration equipment in use today and most of it is destined to end up in the atmosphere in spite of efforts to curtail this probability. These efforts have been in place since the late 1980s.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29621014
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Sericitic alteration is a process of mineral alteration caused by hydrothermal fluids invading permeable country rock. Plagioclase feldspar within the rock is converted to the mineral sericite (sericite is not a mineral; it is a term that is used to describe any fine-grained white phyllosilicate when a distinction cannot be determined), which is a fine-grained white mica. occurs within the phyllic alteration zone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29635228
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Ferdinand Johann Wiedemann ( in Hapsal (now Haapsalu) – in Saint Petersburg) was an Estonian linguist who researched Uralic languages, mostly Estonian. Wiedemann was also a botanist. Wiedemann was of German-Swedish origin. In 1869 he published an Estonian-German dictionary ("Ehstnisch-deutsches Wörterbuch"), which was the richest dictionary of Estonian words for a long time.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29639360
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Frano Kršinić (biologist) Frano Kršinić (born 23 August 1947) is a Croatian marine biologist. Kršinić was born in Lumbarda, on the island of Korčula. He obtained his B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb. Since 1972 he was employed at the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries in Dubrovnik, where he was a head of the Laboratory of Plankton Ecology until his retirement in 2013. His research focus is plankton of the Adriatic Sea. Kršinić is a full member of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts since 2000. He is the chairman of the Academy's Scientific Council for Adriatic Research.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29640801
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Compact toroid Compact toroids are a class of toroidal plasma configurations that are self-stable, and whose configuration does not require magnet coils running through the center of the toroid. They are studied primarily in the field of fusion energy, where the lack of complex magnets and a simple geometry may allow the construction of dramatically simpler and less expensive fusion reactors. The two best studied compact toroids are the spheromak and field-reversed configuration (FRC). A third configuration, the particle ring, does not appear to have attractive performance. The spheromak configuration is similar in arrangement to a smoke ring. The FRC is also toroidal, but extended into a tubular shape or hollow cylinder. The main difference between the two is that the spheromak contains poloidal (vertical rings) and toroidal (horizontal) magnetic fields, while the FRC has only the poloidal fields and requires an external magnet for confinement. In both cases the combination of electrical currents and their associated magnetic fields result in a series of closed magnetic lines that maintains the ring shape, without the need for magnets in the center of the plasma (unlike a tokamak). Of the two, the FRC naturally has a higher beta, a measure of fusion economics. However, the spheromak had generated better confinement times and temperatures, and recent work suggests that great advances in performance can be made
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Compact toroid Compact toroids are also similar to the spherical tokamak, and many spherical tokamak machines were converted from earlier spheromak reactors.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29648687
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Neophyte (botany) In botany, a neophyte (from Greek νέος ("néos") "new" and φυτόν ("phutón") "plant") is a plant species which is not native to a geographical region, and was introduced in recent history. Plants that are long-established in an area are called archaeophytes. In Britain, "neophytes" are defined as plant species that were introduced after 1492, when Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World and the Columbian Exchange began.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29651541
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Fraser Lowland The is a landform and physiographic region of the Pacific Northwest, in the Canadian province of British Columbia and the U.S. state of Washington. It includes much of the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia and a portion of Whatcom County, south of the Canada–US border. The region lies adjacent to the coast of the Strait of Georgia between Bellingham Bay and Burrard Inlet. It extends east, through the relatively flat terrain between the Cascade Range and Coast Mountains, to the eastern end of the Fraser Valley near Hope. The Fraser River is the region's primary river, but the region also includes the Nooksack River and the lowlands between the two. The is about in area. Its rich soil and mild climate make it prime agricultural land, and much of the region is farmland. The physical unity of the is politically divided by the international border into two approximately equal halves, although the population is much larger in the Canadian half. The main population center of the is Greater Vancouver. Other population centers on the Canadian side include Abbotsford and Chilliwack, both part of the Fraser Valley Regional District. About 2.4 million people live in the Canadian portion of the Fraser Lowland. The population on the American side is about 200,000, all in Whatcom County and dominated by Bellingham. As a physiographic region the is part of the Georgia Depression, which in turn is part of the Coastal Trough.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29680494
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Blithfield meteorite The was found by Mr. Joseph Legree in Blithfield Township, Renfrew County, Ontario and measured about x x . The main mass is now in the Canadian National collection, Ottawa. Blithfield is an enstatite chondrite, a group of very unusual meteorites that were formed in a very reducing atmosphere. It is a breccia, one of only five known enstatite chondrite breccias.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29684100
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Myrsini Malakou is a Greek biologist. She was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2001, for her contributions to the protection of the wetlands of Préspa, jointly with fellow biologist Giorgos Catsadorakis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29686577
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Giorgos Catsadorakis is a Greek biologist. He was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2001, for his contributions to the protection of the wetlands of Préspa, jointly with fellow biologist Myrsini Malakou. Their efforts resulted in an agreement between Greece, Macedonia and Albania on establishing the Préspa Park as a protected area of the region.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29686611
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Edinburgh BioQuarter The is a bioscience community based near the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh and the Queen's Medical Research Centre in Edinburgh, close to the Roslin Institute for Animal Biology. It is Scotland's key initiative in the development of its life sciences industry, which employs more than 30,000 people in 600 companies. In 2007, Scottish Enterprise completed a series of land deals which cleared a 55-acre site for development adjacent to the existing Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh and the creation of the BioQuarter was announced. In early 2010, Dr Mike Capaldi joined BioQuarter as Commercialisation Director and the development of an executive team and business creation programme were launched. The key partners in the initiative are Scottish Enterprise/Scottish Development International, the University of Edinburgh and NHS Lothian. From 2011, it will be joined at this location by the Scottish Centre for Regenerative Medicine, giving the BioQuarter one of the highest concentrations of research classed officially by the government as "internationally leading" (four-star, according to the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise). currently co-locates a 1000+-bed teaching hospital, the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, with the Queen's Medical Research Institute (ranked #1 in the UK for clinical medical research, according to the 2008 research assessment exercise) and the Clinical Research Imaging Centre, or CRIC, opened by HM the Duke of Edinburgh in late 2010
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29698161
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Edinburgh BioQuarter Over the last three years, Edinburgh has attracted 53% of all Wellcome Trust grants in Scotland and 62% of Medical Research Council (MRC) funding in Scotland, making it a major centre of research income. In November 2011, a new bioincubator building will come on stream offering of office and laboratory space, as well as the new Scottish Centre for Regenerative Medicine (SCRM), headed by Professor Sir Ian Wilmut, creator of "Dolly the Sheep." This new centre will apply Scotland's world-leading stem cell research to new therapies for conditions such as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis and other conditions. In September 2010, author JK Rowling endowed research at the BioQuarter with a £10 million gift to create the Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic. By 2016, the new Royal Hospital for Children and Young People will be located at the BioQuarter, together with the Scottish Mind and Body Institute, a cross-disciplinary centre aimed at finding cures or therapies for neurological conditions. Part of BioQuarter's purpose is to create new companies based on medical research being undertaken in the NHS and at the University of Edinburgh. For this purpose it has created an innovation competition, offering prizes worth £45,000 to researchers in all disciplines at the University of Edinburgh and NHS Lothian. The first round of these prizes will be awarded in March 2011
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29698161
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Edinburgh BioQuarter Companies currently located at or associated with the BioQuarter community include: Further companies are expected to join the BioQuarter community over the next twelve months as the process of company formation gathers pace. In addition, licensing deals and other partnerships with major international pharmaceutical companies and equipment manufacturers will add to the number of organisations housed at the BioQuarter.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29698161
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Verdete is a type of slate rock found in Brazil. Major deposits are found in the state of Minas Gerais. The term "verdete" is the local name for occurrences of a greenish rock that is high in both potassium and iron. The main potassium bearing minerals are glauconite and muscovite.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29706177
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Bancroft point A is the temperature where an azeotrope occurs in a binary system. Although vapor liquid azeotropy is impossible for binary systems which are rigorously described by Raoult's law, for real systems, azeotropy is inevitable at temperatures where the saturation vapor pressure of the components are equal. Such a temperature is called a Bancroft point. However, not all azeotropic binary systems exhibit such a point. Also, a must lie in the valid temperature ranges of the Antoine equation. is named after Wilder Dwight Bancroft.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29732232
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Fossil hash Hash fossils are not actually one fossil, they are many fossils in the same rock. The term hash fossil describes the fossil formed when all the organic material in an environment falls to the ocean floor and fossilizes, hence the name "hash". When you look at a hash fossil, you actually are looking at a piece of ancient seabed. In hash fossils you can usually find the pieces of corals, crinoids, bryzoans, and brachiopods. Also you can rarely find a piece of a trilobite. Hash fossils are very common, and are most easily found in limestone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29742984
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Hector (cloud) Hector is the name given to a cumulonimbus, or thundercloud, that forms regularly nearly every afternoon on the Tiwi Islands in the Northern Territory of Australia, from approximately September to March each year. Hector, or sometimes "Hector the Convector", is known as one of the world's most consistently large thunderstorms, reaching heights of approximately . Named by pilots during the Second World War, the recurring position of the thunderstorm made it a navigational beacon for pilots and mariners in the region. Hector is caused primarily by a collision of several sea breeze boundaries across the Tiwi Islands and is known for its consistency and intensity. Lightning rates and updraft speeds are notable aspects of this thunderstorm and during the 1990s "National Geographic" magazine published a comprehensive study of the storm with pictures of damaged trees and details of updraft speeds and references to tornadic events. Since the late-1980s the thunderstorm has been the subject of many meteorological studies, many centred on Hector itself, but also utilising the consistency of the storm cell to study other aspects of thunderstorms and lightning.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29746234
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Helmi stream The Helmi Stream is a stellar stream of the Milky Way galaxy. It started as a dwarf galaxy, now absorbed by the Milky Way as a stream. It was discovered in 1999, is formed of old stars deficient in heavy elements, and has a mass of 10 to 100 million solar masses. It was absorbed by the Milky Way some 6 to 9 billion years ago. The stream was named after Amina Helmi, who discovered this stellar stream after noticing this group of stars all moving at the same speed and in the same direction. The Helmi Stream discovery affirmed theories that the merging of galaxies did not play a significant role in creating the giant structures of the Milky Way galaxy. The was home to the first planet purportedly of extragalactic origin, orbiting the star HIP 13044. Further analysis of radial velocity data failed to confirm the discovery.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29772544
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NGC 6503 is a field dwarf spiral galaxy located at the edge of a region of space called the Local Void. The dwarf galaxy spans 30,000 light-years and lies approximately 17 million light-years away in the constellation of Draco (the Dragon). The spiral galaxy is especially colorful where bright red regions of gas can be seen scattered through its spiral arms. Bright blue regions contain stars that are forming. Dark brown dust areas are in the galaxy's arms and center.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29801708
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Matthiessen's ratio In optics, is the ratio between the distance from the centre of the lens to the retina, versus the lens radius. This is of particular importance in fish, where the value may decrease from as high as 3.6 to 2.3, decreasing the focal ratio of the lens. A higher focal ratio is thought to compensate for the relatively high brought about by constraints of small eye size during early development. This provides a means for larval fish to focus images from different distances, before the ability to accommodate is gained.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29801958
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Sphingobacteria (phylum) The FCB group is a superphylum of bacteria named after the main member phyla Fibrobacteres, Chlorobi, and Bacteroidetes. The members are considered to form a clade due to a number of conserved signature indels. Cavalier-Smith calls the equivalent grouping a phylum by the name of Sphingobacteria. It contains the classes Chlorobea (= Chlorobi), Fibrobacteres, Bacteroidetes and Flavobacteria. However, this megaclassification is not followed by the larger scientific community. An analogous situation is seen with the PVC group/Planctobacteria.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29802605
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Stützite or stuetzite is a silver telluride mineral with formula: AgTe (with x = 0.24 to 0.36) or AgTe. It was first described in 1951 from a museum specimen from Sacarimb, Romania. It was named for Austrian mineralogist Xavier Stütz (1747–1806). It occurs with other sulfide and telluride minerals in hydrothermal ore occurrences. Associated minerals include sylvanite, hessite, altaite, petzite, empressite, native tellurium, native gold, galena, sphalerite, colusite, tennantite and pyrite.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29803131
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Depurative Depuratives are herbs that are considered to have purifying and detoxifying effects. Herbs that are considered depurative include Lingonberry, Ukshi, the four-leaf clover, Paris polyphylla, and some species of Elderberry.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29830233
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Andrzej Kajetan Wróblewski (Polish pronunciation: "Vrooblevski", born 7 August 1933 in Warsaw) – Polish experimental physicist, ordinary professor doctor habilitatus (since 1971), dean of the Physics Department Warsaw University (1986–1989), Rector of the Warsaw University (1989–1993), President of the Academic Council of the Institute for the History of Science, Polish Academy of Sciences. Member of the PAS (since 1976), Warsaw Scientific Society (since 1983), Polish Physical Society and Polish Astronomical Society. works at the Institute of Experimental Physics of the Physics Department, Warsaw University. He specializes in elementary particle physics (high energy physics) i.e. Soft Hadron Physics (1990), New AMY and DELPHI multiplicity data and the log-normal distribution (with co-authors; 1990), Genesis of the lognormal multiplicity distribution in the e² e²- collisions and other stochastic processes (with co-authors; 1990), Mystery of the negative binomial distribution (with co-authors; 1987), Constraints on multiplicity distribution of quark pairs (1985). His books on the history of physics are mainly in Polish: Truth and Myths in Physics' (1982); History of Physics' (2007). He is also co-author (with J. A. Zakrzewski) of the Introduction to Physics' (vol. 1 1976, vol. 2, part 1-2 1989-1991).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29832699
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Biofunctionalisation In the field of bioengineering, biofunctionalisation (or biofunctionalization) is the modification of a material to have biological function and/or stimulus, whether permanent or temporary while at the same time being biologically compatible. Various types of medical implants are designed to biofunctionalize so that they can replace or repair a defective biological function and are accepted by the host organism.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29834362
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Kachina Chasmata The are the longest canyon or system of canyons on the surface of the Uranian moon Ariel. The name comes from a spirit in Hopi mythology. The 622 km long and 50 km wide chasmata arise from a system of normal faults running from the north-west to south-east. The faults bound down-dropped crustal blocks forming structures called graben. The canyons cut the cratered terrain, which means that they were formed at a relatively late stage of the moon's evolution, when the interior of Ariel expanded and its ice crust cracked as a result. The floor of the canyons is not visible on the images obtained by the "Voyager 2" spacecraft in January 1986; thus, whether it is covered by smooth plains like the floors of other Arielian graben is currently unknown. During the "Voyager 2" flyby in 1986 the northern hemisphere of Ariel was not illuminated by the Sun because the spacecraft arrived during a southern solstice on Uranus. Nevertheless, because it was still illuminated by light reflected from Uranus, scientists using advanced processing methods were able to detect some details in the dark hemisphere. These analyses revealed a continuation of the into the dark hemisphere, possibly as far as to the opposite limb. As the total length of the feature appears to be 1800–2200 km, it may be comparable to Ithaca Chasma on Tethys. Citations Sources
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29857545
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Gerhard Haszprunar (born 25 February 1957 in Vienna) is Austrian zoologist and malacologist. He is credited with the invention of the modern species naming patronage model and is a founder of the BIOPAT non-profit organization.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29860765
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Gender typing is the process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and thus behaves accordingly by adopting values and attributes of members of the sex that they identify as their own. This process is important for a child's social and personality development because it largely impacts the child's understanding of expected social behavior and influences social judgments. Once aware of ones gender identity, the child will start to behave in gender roles normally adopted by their same-sex models. Therefore, these individual responses become internalized and function according to the appropriate gender-role standards. The responses that individuals receive from their social group will mold their identity – becoming more feminine or masculine – and thus affect the way they view the world. Other facets of the process can also result in atypical development. Albeit, whether a child develops shared traits, cross-gender identities, or androgyny, their decision begins with the identification of a gender and the models he or she chooses to emulate. The behaviors they adopt will ultimately shape their knowledge and identity for who they are and how they should behave. Sigmund Freud believed that children go through stages of psychosexual development. In the third year of the child's life, genitals are thought to become active. As children develop a greater understanding of their own sex they also develop either a castration complex (in boys) or penis envy (in girls)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29880293
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Gender typing For boys, during the “phallic” stage, they are at the height of childhood sexuality. During this the Oedipus complex occurs, where the boy feels erotic love for his mother (Electra complex in girls where love is directed towards the father). As time progresses and the boy matures, he is slowly able to let go of the rival feelings he has towards his father and free himself from his love for his parents. At this time, the boy learns to emulate masculine attributes from his father and subsequently to identify with him. The girl's development, Freud argued, is more complicated. Generally, as with males, the first object of interest is also the mother figure and for the first four years and beyond a girl remains attached to her mother. However, when the female child learns about “castration” it sparks disappointment and she blames her mother for her lack of a penis. Because of this, the girl gives up masturbation and in turn shifts focus from her mother to her father. By abandoning masturbation the girl can no longer be active, thus displaying a passive nature. The father then assists her by smoothly transitioning her towards a more feminine path. Furthermore, the girl's affection towards her father will also influence her to emulate her mother's feminine qualities and eventually adopt more gender-typed behaviors. The cognitive-developmental theory is also closely linked to Jean Piaget’s analysis for the age-related cognitive changes a child goes through
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29880293
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