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Magnetochemistry For chemical applications the molar magnetic susceptibility (χ) is the preferred quantity. It is measured in m·mol (SI) or cm·mol (CGS) and is defined as where ρ is the density in kg·m (SI) or g·cm (CGS) and "M" is molar mass in kg·mol (SI) or g·mol (CGS). A variety of methods are available for the measurement of magnetic susceptibility. When an isolated atom is placed in a magnetic field there is an interaction because each electron in the atom behaves like a magnet, that is, the electron has a magnetic moment. There are two types of interaction. When the atom is present in a chemical compound its magnetic behaviour is modified by its chemical environment. Measurement of the magnetic moment can give useful chemical information. In certain crystalline materials individual magnetic moments may be aligned with each other (magnetic moment has both magnitude and direction). This gives rise to ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism or ferrimagnetism. These are properties of the crystal as a whole, of little bearing on chemical properties. Diamagnetism is a universal property of chemical compounds, because all chemical compounds contain electron pairs. A compound in which there are no unpaired electrons is said to be diamagnetic. The effect is weak because it depends on the magnitude of the induced magnetic moment. It depends on the number of electron pairs and the chemical nature of the atoms to which they belong
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Magnetochemistry This means that the effects are additive, and a table of "diamagnetic contributions", or Pascal's constants, can be put together. With paramagnetic compounds the observed susceptibility can be adjusted by adding to it the so-called diamagnetic correction, which is the diamagnetic susceptibility calculated with the values from the table. A metal ion with a single unpaired electron, such as Cu, in a coordination complex provides the simplest illustration of the mechanism of paramagnetism. The individual metal ions are kept far apart by the ligands, so that there is no magnetic interaction between them. The system is said to be magnetically dilute. The magnetic dipoles of the atoms point in random directions. When a magnetic field is applied, first-order Zeeman splitting occurs. Atoms with spins aligned to the field slightly outnumber the atoms with non-aligned spins. In the first-order Zeeman effect the energy difference between the two states is proportional to the applied field strength. Denoting the energy difference as Δ"E", the Boltzmann distribution gives the ratio of the two populations as formula_6, where "k" is the Boltzmann constant and "T" is the temperature in kelvins. In most cases Δ"E" is much smaller than "kT" and the exponential can be expanded as 1 – Δ"E/kT". It follows from the presence of 1/"T" in this expression that the susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature
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Magnetochemistry This is known as the Curie law and the proportionality constant, "C", is known as the Curie constant, whose value, for molar susceptibility, is calculated as where "N" is the Avogadro constant, "g" is the Landé g-factor, and μ is the Bohr magneton. In this treatment it has been assumed that the electronic ground state is not degenerate, that the magnetic susceptibility is due only to electron spin and that only the ground state is thermally populated. While some substances obey the Curie law, others obey the Curie-Weiss law. "T" is the Curie temperature. The Curie-Weiss law will apply only when the temperature is well above the Curie temperature. At temperatures below the Curie temperature the substance may become ferromagnetic. More complicated behaviour is observed with the heavier transition elements. When the Curie law is obeyed, the product of molar susceptibility and temperature is a constant. The effective magnetic moment, μ is then defined as Where C has CGS units cm mol K, μ is Where C has SI units m mol K, μ is The quantity μ is effectively dimensionless, but is often stated as in units of Bohr magneton (μ). For substances that obey the Curie law, the effective magnetic moment is independent of temperature. For other substances μ is temperature dependent, but the dependence is small if the Curie-Weiss law holds and the Curie temperature is low. Compounds which are expected to be diamagnetic may exhibit this kind of weak paramagnetism
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Magnetochemistry It arises from a second-order Zeeman effect in which additional splitting, proportional to the square of the field strength, occurs. It is difficult to observe as the compound inevitably also interacts with the magnetic field in the diamagnetic sense. Nevertheless, data are available for the permanganate ion. It is easier to observe in compounds of the heavier elements, such as uranyl compounds. Exchange interactions occur when the substance is not magnetically dilute and there are interactions between individual magnetic centres. One of the simplest systems to exhibit the result of exchange interactions is crystalline copper(II) acetate, Cu(OAc)(HO). As the formula indicates, it contains two copper(II) ions. The Cu ions are held together by four acetate ligands, each of which binds to both copper ions. Each Cu ion has a d electronic configuration, and so should have one unpaired electron. If there were a covalent bond between the copper ions, the electrons would pair up and the compound would be diamagnetic. Instead, there is an exchange interaction in which the spins of the unpaired electrons become partially aligned to each other. In fact two states are created, one with spins parallel and the other with spins opposed. The energy difference between the two states is so small their populations vary significantly with temperature. In consequence the magnetic moment varies with temperature in a sigmoidal pattern
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Magnetochemistry The state with spins opposed has lower energy, so the interaction can be classed as antiferromagnetic in this case. It is believed that this is an example of superexchange, mediated by the oxygen and carbon atoms of the acetate ligands. Other dimers and clusters exhibit exchange behaviour. Exchange interactions can act over infinite chains in one dimension, planes in two dimensions or over a whole crystal in three dimensions. These are examples of long-range magnetic ordering. They give rise to ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism or ferrimagnetism, depending on the nature and relative orientations of the individual spins. Compounds at temperatures below the Curie temperature exhibit long-range magnetic order in the form of ferromagnetism. Another critical temperature is the Néel temperature, below which antiferromagnetism occurs. The hexahydrate of nickel chloride, NiCl·6HO, has a Néel temperature of 8.3 K. The susceptibility is a maximum at this temperature. Below the Néel temperature the susceptibility decreases and the substance becomes antiferromagnetic. The effective magnetic moment for a compound containing a transition metal ion with one or more unpaired electrons depends on the total orbital and spin angular momentum of the unpaired electrons, formula_13 and formula_14, respectively. "Total" in this context means "vector sum"
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Magnetochemistry In the approximation that the electronic states of the metal ions are determined by Russell-Saunders coupling and that spin-orbit coupling is negligible, the magnetic moment is given by Orbital angular momentum is generated when an electron in an orbital of a degenerate set of orbitals is moved to another orbital in the set by rotation. In complexes of low symmetry certain rotations are not possible. In that case the orbital angular momentum is said to be "quenched" and formula_13 is smaller than might be expected (partial quenching), or zero (complete quenching). There is complete quenching in the following cases. Note that an electron in a degenerate pair of d or d orbitals cannot rotate into the other orbital because of symmetry. When orbital angular momentum is completely quenched, formula_17 and the paramagnetism can be attributed to electron spin alone. The total spin angular momentum is simply half the number of unpaired electrons and the spin-only formula results. where "n" is the number of unpaired electrons. The spin-only formula is a good first approximation for high-spin complexes of first-row transition metals. The small deviations from the spin-only formula may result from the neglect of orbital angular momentum or of spin-orbit coupling. For example, tetrahedral d, d, d and d complexes tend to show larger deviations from the spin-only formula than octahedral complexes of the same ion, because "quenching" of the orbital contribution is less effective in the tetrahedral case
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Magnetochemistry According to crystal field theory, the "d" orbitals of a transition metal ion in an octahedal complex are split into two groups in a crystal field. If the splitting is large enough to overcome the energy needed to place electrons in the same orbital, with opposite spin, a low-spin complex will result. With one unpaired electron μ values range from 1.8 to 2.5 μ and with two unpaired electrons the range is 3.18 to 3.3 μ. Note that low-spin complexes of Fe and Co are diamagnetic. Another group of complexes that are diamagnetic are square-planar complexes of d ions such as Ni and Rh and Au. When the energy difference between the high-spin and low-spin states is comparable to kT (k is the Boltzmann constant and T the temperature) an equilibrium is established between the spin states, involving what have been called "electronic isomers". Tris-dithiocarbamato iron(III), Fe(SCNR), is a well-documented example. The effective moment varies from a typical d low-spin value of 2.25 μ at 80 K to more than 4 μ above 300 K. Crystal field splitting is larger for complexes of the heavier transition metals than for the transition metals discussed above. A consequence of this is that low-spin complexes are much more common. Spin-orbit coupling constants, ζ, are also larger and cannot be ignored, even in elementary treatments. The magnetic behaviour has been summarized, as below, together with an extensive table of data
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Magnetochemistry Russell-Saunders coupling, LS coupling, applies to the lanthanide ions, crystal field effects can be ignored, but spin-orbit coupling is not negligible. Consequently, spin and orbital angular momenta have to be combined and the calculated magnetic moment is given by In actinides spin-orbit coupling is strong and the coupling approximates to "j" "j" coupling. This means that it is difficult to calculate the effective moment. For example, uranium(IV), f, in the complex [UCl] has a measured effective moment of 2.2 μ, which includes a contribution from temperature-independent paramagnetism. Very few compounds of main group elements are paramagnetic. Notable examples include: oxygen, O; nitric oxide, NO; nitrogen dioxide, NO and chlorine dioxide, ClO. In organic chemistry, compounds with an unpaired electron are said to be free radicals. Free radicals, with some exceptions, are short-lived because one free radical will react rapidly with another, so their magnetic properties are difficult to study. However, if the radicals are well separated from each other in a dilute solution in a solid matrix, at low temperature, they can be studied by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Such radicals are generated by irradiation. Extensive EPR studies have revealed much about electron delocalization in free radicals. The simulated spectrum of the CH• radical shows hyperfine splitting due to the interaction of the electron with the 3 equivalent hydrogen nuclei, each of which has a spin of 1/2
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Magnetochemistry Spin labels are long-lived free radicals which can be inserted into organic molecules so that they can be studied by EPR. The gadolinium ion, Gd, has the f electronic configuration, with all spins parallel. Compounds of the Gd ion are the most suitable for use as a contrast agent for MRI scans. The magnetic moments of gadolinium compounds are larger than those of any transition metal ion. Gadolinium is preferred to other lanthanide ions, some of which have larger effective moments, due to its having a non-degenerate electronic ground state. For many years the nature of oxyhemoglobin, Hb-O, was highly controversial. It was found experimentally to be diamagnetic. Deoxy-hemoglobin is generally accepted to be a complex of iron in the +2 oxidation state, that is a d system with a high-spin magnetic moment near to the spin-only value of 4.9 μ. It was proposed that the iron is oxidized and the oxygen reduced to superoxide. Pairing up of electrons from Fe and O was then proposed to occur via an exchange mechanism. It has now been shown that in fact the iron(II) changes from high-spin to low-spin when an oxygen molecule donates a pair of electrons to the iron. Whereas in deoxy-hemoglobin the iron atom lies above the plane of the heme, in the low-spin complex the effective ionic radius is reduced and the iron atom lies in the heme plane. This information has an important bearing on research to find artificial oxygen carriers. Compounds of gallium(II) were unknown until quite recently
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Magnetochemistry As the atomic number of gallium is an odd number (31), Ga should have an unpaired electron. It was assumed that it would act as a free radical and have a very short lifetime. The non-existence of Ga(II) compounds was part of the so-called inert pair effect. When salts of the anion with empirical formula such as [GaCl] were synthesized they were found to be diamagnetic. This implied the formation of a Ga-Ga bond and a dimeric formula, [GaCl].
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Allometric engineering is the process of experimentally shifting the scaling relationships, for body size or shape, in a population of organisms. More specifically, the process of experimentally breaking the tight covariance evident among component traits of a complex phenotype by altering the variance of one trait relative to another. Typically, body size is one of the two traits. The measurements of the two traits are plotted against each other and the scaling relationship can be represented as: formula_1. Manipulations of this sort alter the scaling relationships either by shifting the intercept ("b"), slope ("m") or both to create novel variants (see: Allometry, for more details). These novel variants can then be tested for differences in performance or fitness. Through careful testing, one could sequentially test each component of a trait suite to determine how each part contributes to the function of the entire complex phenotype, and ultimately the fitness of the organism. This technique allows for comparison within or among biological groups differing in size by adjusting morphology to match one another and comparing their performances. has been used to test David Lack's hypothesis in the lizard "Sceloporus occidentalis". In this study, two populations were "engineered" to fit the morphology of the other by manipulating egg yolk quantity, removing effect of size difference between groups. After manipulation, they found that speed was inversely proportional to body size
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Allometric engineering Maternal investment was "allometrically engineered" by surgically removing an ovary in cockroaches ("Diploptera punctata"). This effectively reduced number of progeny and increased resource allocation to each offspring. They coupled this manipulation with group effects (faster development in large groups), and found that maternal investment can overcome group effect. The male long-tailed widowbird ("Euplectes progne") has exceptionally long tail feathers roughly half a meter in length. Male tail feathers were cropped and glued and those with artificially enhanced tail lengths secured the most matings, demonstrating female preference. The fly "Zonosemata vittigera" has a banding pattern on its wings that was found to mimic movements of a jumping spider. Greene "et al." engineered novel phenotypes, breaking correlation between a behavior and morphology, by cutting and transplanting the wings of this fly with the common housefly. This manipulation demonstrated that it was behavior coupled with the banding pattern that deterred jumping spiders from attacking, though not other predators. Current uses have involved truncation or cropping, yolk manipulation, hormonal treatments, maternal allocation, temperature manipulation, or altering the nutritional states. Each method undoubtedly has its merits and pitfalls to consider before designing an experiment, but these techniques are opening new avenues of research in comparative and evolutionary biology.
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Unidirectional coupling Unidirectional couplers are those which only coupler the incident wave i.e. the wave given as input. Unidirectional coupling, in a system of two coupled oscillators, represents the limit when one of the oscillator oscillates while the other remains at equilibrium, e.g. does not move. This corresponds to the limit of one of the mass becoming infinite, in the case of mass-spring oscillators, or one of the strings becoming of infinite length, for pendulums.
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Rudolph Glossop (17 February 1902 – 1 March 1993) was a mining and civil engineer and one of the founders of Geotechnical Engineering in the UK. The Glossop Lecture at the Geological Society is named after him.
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Aquarius Stream The is a stellar stream located in the Milky Way Galaxy. It is so named because most of the stars in the stream lie in the direction of the Aquarius constellation. At its nearest point it is about 2000 light years from Earth; at its farthest it is about 30,000 light years away. It is the closest stellar stream to Earth yet found, and the youngest, having formed about 700 million years ago. The stream was discovered in late 2010 by a team of astronomers involved in the RAdial Velocity Experiment (RAVE) survey led by New Zealander Mary Williams.
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Sibu (crater) Sibu is an impact crater that lies within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle (MC-19) region on the surface of the planet Mars, located in the Valles Marineris hemisphere in an area southeast of the crater Jones. Sibu is located at and measures approximately 17.6 kilometres in diameter. It was named after the town of Sibu in Sarawak, Malaysia in 1976.
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Santa Maria (crater) Santa Maria is an impact crater on Mars, located at 2.172°S, 5.445°W within the Meridiani Planum extraterrestrial plain, lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle (MC-19) region. This geological feature was first visited by the Mars Exploration Rover "Opportunity". It sits north west of the much larger Endeavour crater. The crater measures about across. Its name has not been officially recognized by the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature. "Opportunity" arrived at the crater on December 15, 2010. The rover was positioned at the south eastern rim, where it took several images and prepared for the oncoming Solar Conjunction. The last communication made before the conjunction was on February 3, 2011. Communications resumed around a week later, and the rover performed several in-situ studies of the rocks "Luis de Torres" and "Ruiz Garcia". The rover left the crater on March 22, heading eastwards towards Endeavour crater.
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Faraday balance A is a device for measuring magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic susceptibility is related to the force experienced by a substance in a magnetic field. Various practical devices are available for the measurement of susceptibility, which differ in the shape of the magnetic field and the way the force is measured. In the the field is homogeneous. The pole pieces of the magnet are so shaped that there is a region in which the product of the field strength and field gradient in the "z" direction is constant. The sample is placed in this region. The force in this case is independent of the packing of the sample and depends only on the total mass of the material present. The method is sensitive and highly reproducible and can be applied to single crystals. The force is measured as a weight change, using a torsion balance. An alternative method for measuring magnetic susceptibility is the Gouy balance. In this technique there is an inhomogeneous field in the central region between two (flat) poles of a permanent magnet, or an electromagnet. The sample, in the form of a powder in a cylindrical tube, is suspended in such a way the one end lies in the centre of the field and the other is effectively outside the magnetic field. Errors due to inefficient packing in the sample tube are difficult to eliminate.
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Alan Hastings is a mathematical ecologist and distinguished professor in the Department of Environmental Science and Policy at the University of California, Davis. In 2005 he became a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 2006 he won the Robert H. MacArthur Award. In 2008 he founded the journal "Theoretical Ecology", in which he currently holds the position of editor in chief. Formerly, he was co-editor in chief of the "Journal of Mathematical Biology". His research expands through many areas in theoretical ecology including spatial ecology, biological invasions, structured populations, and model fitting.
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Guilherme Rau (?–1953) immigrated to Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil from Germany in 1900. An ophthalmologist, from 1915 to 1917 he helped with the "Geological Survey of Berlin's" excavation of 200 fossil at the Paleontological Site Sanga of Alemoa. He also contributed considerably to the Geopark of Paleorrota and taught Botany at the "Faculty of Pharmacy" of the city in the years 1934 and 1935.
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Suffosion is one of the two geological processes by which subsidence sinkholes or dolines are formed, the other being due to collapse of an underlying cave or void, with most sinkholes formed by the suffosion process. sinkholes are normally associated with karst topography although they may form in other types of rock including chalk, gypsum and basalt. In the karst of the UK's Yorkshire Dales, numerous surface depressions known locally as "shakeholes" are the result of glacial till washing into fissures in the underlying limestone. occurs when loose soil, loess, or other non-cohesive material lies on top of a limestone substratum containing fissures and joints. Rain and surface water gradually wash this material through these fissures and into caves beneath. Over time, this creates a depression on the landscape of varying depth. The following sites are examples of sinkholes formed by suffosion:
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Atílio Munari (1901 – 19 October 1941) was born in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. He lived near the Sanga da Alemoa, and when he was 14 years old, he lived with the scientist H. Lotz, a German paleontologist, who taught him to collecting and preparing fossils. Many of the fossils collected by him, are now in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre and Santa Maria. Helped a lot of paleontologists who visited the city of Santa Maria. Has contributed considerably to the Geopark of Paleorrota. In his honor, the city of Santa Maria, received the Atilio Munari street. He was buried in "São José Cemetery", near where he was collecting fossils.
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Vicentino Prestes de Almeida Vicentino Prestes de Almeida, (Born 1900 in Chiniquá, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil) was a Brazilian paleontologist. He died on October 28, 1954, in São Pedro do Sul. Prestes was a self-taught paleontologist. Beginning in 1925, he worked with many visiting paleontologists in both Santa Maria and São Pedro do Sul in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Many of the fossils collected by Prestes are in museums in Porto Alegre, such as the Júlio de Castilhos Museum, the Zoobotanical Natural History Museum of Rio Grande do Sul, the Museum of Science and Technology (PUCRS) and the Museum of Paleontology Irajá Damiani Pinto. Friedrich von Huene named the carnivorous Triassic reptile Prestosuchus chiniquensis in Prestes's honor (from Prestes and Chiniquá, his birthplace). Prestes organized and arranged the fossils for the Instituto de Educação General Flores da Cunha and contributed considerably to the Paleorrota Geopark.
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Ion semiconductor sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing based on the detection of hydrogen ions that are released during the polymerization of DNA. This is a method of "sequencing by synthesis", during which a complementary strand is built based on the sequence of a template strand. A microwell containing a template DNA strand to be sequenced is flooded with a single species of deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate (dNTP). If the introduced dNTP is complementary to the leading template nucleotide, it is incorporated into the growing complementary strand. This causes the release of a hydrogen ion that triggers an ISFET ion sensor, which indicates that a reaction has occurred. If homopolymer repeats are present in the template sequence, multiple dNTP molecules will be incorporated in a single cycle. This leads to a corresponding number of released hydrogens and a proportionally higher electronic signal. This technology differs from other sequencing-by-synthesis technologies in that no modified nucleotides or optics are used. may also be referred to as Ion Torrent sequencing, pH-mediated sequencing, silicon sequencing, or semiconductor sequencing. The technology was licensed from DNA Electronics Ltd, developed by Ion Torrent Systems Inc. and was released in February 2010. Ion Torrent have marketed their machine as a rapid, compact and economical sequencer that can be utilized in a large number of laboratories as a bench top machine
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Ion semiconductor sequencing Roche's 454 Life Sciences is partnering with DNA Electronics on the development of a long-read, high-density semiconductor sequencing platform using this technology. In nature, the incorporation of a deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) into a growing DNA strand involves the formation of a covalent bond and the release of pyrophosphate and a positively charged hydrogen ion. A dNTP will only be incorporated if it is complementary to the leading unpaired template nucleotide. exploits these facts by determining if a hydrogen ion is released upon providing a single species of dNTP to the reaction. Microwells on a semiconductor chip that each contain many copies of one single-stranded template DNA molecule to be sequenced and DNA polymerase are sequentially flooded with unmodified A, C, G or T dNTP. If an introduced dNTP is complementary to the next unpaired nucleotide on the template strand it is incorporated into the growing complementary strand by the DNA polymerase. If the introduced dNTP is not complementary there is no incorporation and no biochemical reaction. The hydrogen ion that is released in the reaction changes the pH of the solution, which is detected by an ISFET. The unattached dNTP molecules are washed out before the next cycle when a different dNTP species is introduced. Beneath the layer of microwells is an ion sensitive layer, below which is an ISFET ion sensor. All layers are contained within a CMOS semiconductor chip, similar to that used in the electronics industry
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Ion semiconductor sequencing Each chip contains an array of microwells with corresponding ISFET detectors. Each released hydrogen ion then triggers the ISFET ion sensor. The series of electrical pulses transmitted from the chip to a computer is translated into a DNA sequence, with no intermediate signal conversion required. Because nucleotide incorporation events are measured directly by electronics, the use of labeled nucleotides and optical measurements are avoided. Signal processing and DNA assembly can then be carried out in software. The per base accuracy achieved in house by Ion Torrent on the Ion Torrent Ion semiconductor sequencer as of February 2011 was 99.6% based on 50 base reads, with 100 Mb per run. The read-length as of February 2011 was 100 base pairs. The accuracy for homopolymer repeats of 5 repeats in length was 98%. Later releases show a read length of 400 base pairs These figures have not yet been independently verified outside of the company. The major benefits of ion semiconductor sequencing are rapid sequencing speed and low upfront and operating costs. This has been enabled by the avoidance of modified nucleotides and optical measurements. Because the system records natural polymerase-mediated nucleotide incorporation events, sequencing can occur in real-time. In reality, the sequencing rate is limited by the cycling of substrate nucleotides through the system. Ion Torrent Systems Inc
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Ion semiconductor sequencing , the developer of the technology, claims that each incorporation measurement takes 4 seconds and each run takes about one hour, during which 100-200 nucleotides are sequenced. If the semiconductor chips are improved (as predicted by Moore’s law), the number of reads per chip (and therefore per run) should increase. The cost of acquiring a pH-mediated sequencer from Ion Torrent Systems Inc. at time of launch was priced at around $50,000 USD, excluding sample preparation equipment and a server for data analysis. The cost per run is also significantly lower than that of alternative automated sequencing methods, at roughly $1,000. If homopolymer repeats of the same nucleotide (e.g. ) are present on the template strand (strand to be sequenced) then multiple introduced nucleotides are incorporated and more hydrogen ions are released in a single cycle. This results in a greater pH change and a proportionally greater electronic signal. This is a limitation of the system in that it is difficult to enumerate long repeats. This limitation is shared by other techniques that detect single nucleotide additions such as pyrosequencing. Signals generated from a high repeat number are difficult to differentiate from repeats of a similar but different number; "e.g.", homorepeats of length 7 are difficult to differentiate from those of length 8. Another limitation of this system is the short read length compared to other sequencing methods such as Sanger sequencing or pyrosequencing
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Ion semiconductor sequencing Longer read lengths are beneficial for "de novo" genome assembly. Ion Torrent semiconductor sequencers produce an average read length of approximately 400 nucleotides per read. The throughput is currently lower than that of other high-throughput sequencing technologies, although the developers hope to change this by increasing the density of the chip. The developers of Ion Torrent semiconductor sequencing have marketed it as a rapid, compact and economical sequencer that can be utilized in a large number of laboratories as a bench top machine. The company hopes that their system will take sequencing outside of specialized centers and into the reach of hospitals and smaller laboratories. A January 2011 New York Times article, "Taking DNA Sequencing to the Masses", underlines these ambitions. Due to the ability of alternative sequencing methods to achieve a greater read length (and therefore being more suited to whole genome analysis) this technology may be best suited to small scale applications such as microbial genome sequencing, microbial transcriptome sequencing, targeted sequencing, amplicon sequencing, or for quality testing of sequencing libraries.
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Rudolf Stahlecker (25 November 1898 in Sternenfels near Pforzheim – 26 October 1977 in Urach) was a German geologist and biology teacher. He studied with the German paleontologist Friedrich von Huene at the University of Tübingen, Germany. He participated in expeditions to collect fossils in the geopark of Paleorrota in 1928 and 1929. He also made several collections of fossils in Argentina. In his honor, the dicynodonts Stahleckeria potens, received its name. This dicynodonts was collected in Paleontological Site Chiniquá, São Pedro do Sul. After finishing his doctorate, Stahlecker did not become a scientist, but a biology teacher at a school Stuttgart. "The "Führer" wants to teach people to think again biologically, we scientists have to be here its first collaborators," was his motto. After The War he had to pause for some years during denazification, although he had not as intensively be involved in National Socialism as his brother, the SS Brigade Leader and Commander of the "Einsatzgruppe A" Walter Stahlecker.
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Carlos de Paula Couto Carlos de Paula Couto, (Porto Alegre, August 30, 1910 – November 15, 1982) was a Brazilian paleontologist. Researcher at the National Museum of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro, specialized in paleontology of mammals. Over 40 years, published dozens of scientific articles in top international publications. He was also responsible for rescuing the work of the Danish palaeontologist Peter Wilhelm Lund (1801–1880), who translated under the title Memórias sobre a Paleontologia Brasileira ("Memoirs of the Brazilian Paleontology") (1850). Among his works stand out, "Brazilian Paleontology" (Mammals) (1953) and "Treaty of Paleomastozoologia" (1979). Awarded Fellowships from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation in the Earth Science field of study in 1949, 1951 and 1966.
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Irajá Damiani Pinto (July 3, 1919 – June 21, 2014), was a Brazilian paleontologist and professor at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS in Portuguese), a member of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences, and a two time president of the Brazilian Geological Society. was born in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, on July 3, 1919 He studied "Ginásio Nossa Senhora do Rosário". Attended the 2nd grade at "Colégio Universitário Estadual Julio de Castilhos". In 1942, he began his studies of Natural History in the Faculty of Philosophy of the then University of Porto Alegre. He graduated BA in 1944. In 1945, even as a student in the undergraduate course, was hired as Assistant Chair of Geology and Paleontology. That year he participated in his first scientific excursion led by Dr. Llewellyn Ivor Price, who contributed much to his scientific orientation. In 1945 he carried out the DNPM, in Rio de Janeiro, with Dr. Paul Ericksen de Oliveira and directed by Dr. Llewellyn Ivor Price, and began the library of Geology and Paleontology at the University. In 1957 he helped create the course in geology of UFRGS, one of the first in Brazil. The genus of cynodont "Irajatherium" is in his honor, in addition to the Museum of Paleontology Irajá Damiani Pinto.
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Romeu Beltrão (1913–1977), was a Brazilian physician, educator, historian and paleontologist. He was born and died in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. In 1920, at the age of seven, Beltrão entered the gymnasium (secondary school) at the College of Santa Maria. At fifteen, went to study at the Medical School of Porto Alegre. After graduating in medicine in December 1934, he returned home to Santa Maria. But by February 1935, he had moved to São Pedro do Sul, to practice medicine. While there he courted and married his wife, Nilza Niederauer Alvares, as well as writing opinion pieces for the local newspaper. But he missed the intellectual and cultural life of Santa Maria, so in 1937 he again returned home, where he devoted himself to medicine and teaching. In 1938 he became a Professor of Pharmaceutical Botany at the Universidade Federal de Santa Maria. Beltrão was strongly influenced by Llewellyn Ivor Price, and he undertook an intense survey of the paleontological finds from in and around Santa Maria. By 1951, he himself was actively engaged in paleontological excavations in the region. And in 1958, he published the book "Cronologia Histórica de Santa Maria e do extinto município de São Martinho" which included the history of paleontology in the Paleorrota area from 1787 to 1930
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30970256
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Romeu Beltrão He abandoned his planned second volume which would have brought the history up to about 1960, and instead published his translation of Friedrich von Huene's paleontological work about Santa Maria, as well as a biography of Colonel João Niederauer Sobrinho (1827–1868) a hero of the Paraguayan War. He continued to write for the local newspaper and compiled a geographical dictionary of the Santa Maria municipality, which was never published. A residential street in Canoas was named "Rua Romeu Beltrão" in his honor.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30970256
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Mário Costa Barberena Mario Costa Barberena (17 April 1934 – 16 December 2013) was a Brazilian paleontologist. He graduated in "Natural History" at the Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul ("Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul") in 1956 to 1959. He completed his doctorate at Harvard University, in Stratigraphic and Paleontology (1977–1978). He was lecturer at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul ("Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul") in 1974. The genus "Barberenachampsa" is named after him. Has contributed considerably to the Geopark of Paleorrota.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30970350
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Lev Fink (Russian: Лев Матве́eвич Финк, 1910–1988) was a Soviet physicist. He was a Doktor nauk in Telecommunication. He was born in Kiev, at the time part of the Russian Empire. He died in Leningrad a few years before the collapse of the Soviet Union.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30976520
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Santa Maria River Fault is a tectonic fault in Santa Barbara County, California. It roughly corresponds with the Santa Maria River, until veers south towards Santa Ynez. It passes just north of the city of Santa Maria, California, and lies south of the potentially dangerous Hosgri fault and newly discovered Shoreline Fault. To the south lies the Santa Ynez Fault system, which this fault is thought to have the potential to interact with.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30983989
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Shoreline Fault is a 25 km long vertical strike-slip fault discovered in 2008 that lies less than a mile from the Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant in California. It is thought to be able to produce quakes up to 6.5 magnitude, and along with the Hosgri fault are thought to pose a threat to the nuclear plant despite the operator, Pacific Gas and Electric claiming the facility to be able to withstand a 7.5 magnitude quake.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30984201
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Paweł Horodecki (born in 1971) is a Polish professor of physics at the Gdańsk University of Technology working in the field of quantum information theory. He is best known for introducing (together with his father Ryszard Horodecki and brother Michał Horodecki) the Peres-Horodecki criterion for testing whether a quantum state is entangled. Moreover, demonstrated that there exist states which are entangled whereas no pure entangled states can be obtained from them by means of local operations and classical communication (LOCC). Such states are called bound entangled states. He also showed that even bound entanglement (when used in conjunction with a single pair of free entangled particles) can lead to quantum teleportation with a fidelity impossible to achieve with only separable states. was educated in Poland, receiving an M.Sc from the University of Gdańsk (1995) and a Ph.D (with honours) from the Gdańsk University of Technology (1999) and a habilitation (with honours) from the University of Gdańsk (2004).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30996063
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Single molecule fluorescent sequencing is one method of DNA sequencing. The core principle is the imaging of individual fluorophore molecules, each corresponding to one base. By working on single molecule level, amplification of DNA is not required, avoiding amplification bias. The method lends itself to parallelization by probing many sequences simultaneously, imaging all of them at the same time. The principle can be applied stepwise (e.g. the Helicos implementation), or in real time (as in the Pacific Biosciences implementation).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31001609
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Transcription activator-like effector nuclease Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN) are restriction enzymes that can be engineered to cut specific sequences of DNA. They are made by fusing a TAL effector DNA-binding domain to a DNA cleavage domain (a nuclease which cuts DNA strands). Transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) can be engineered to bind to practically any desired DNA sequence, so when combined with a nuclease, DNA can be cut at specific locations. The restriction enzymes can be introduced into cells, for use in gene editing or for genome editing "in situ", a technique known as genome editing with engineered nucleases. Alongside zinc finger nucleases and CRISPR/Cas9, TALEN is a prominent tool in the field of genome editing. TAL effectors are proteins that are secreted by "Xanthomonas" bacteria via their type III secretion system when they infect plants. The DNA binding domain contains a repeated highly conserved 33–34 amino acid sequence with divergent 12th and 13th amino acids. These two positions, referred to as the Repeat Variable Diresidue (RVD), are highly variable and show a strong correlation with specific nucleotide recognition. This straightforward relationship between amino acid sequence and DNA recognition has allowed for the engineering of specific DNA-binding domains by selecting a combination of repeat segments containing the appropriate RVDs. Notably, slight changes in the RVD and the incorporation of "nonconventional" RVD sequences can improve targeting specificity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31001884
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Transcription activator-like effector nuclease The non-specific DNA cleavage domain from the end of the FokI endonuclease can be used to construct hybrid nucleases that are active in a yeast assay. These reagents are also active in plant cells and in animal cells. Initial TALEN studies used the wild-type FokI cleavage domain, but some subsequent TALEN studies also used FokI cleavage domain variants with mutations designed to improve cleavage specificity and cleavage activity. The FokI domain functions as a dimer, requiring two constructs with unique DNA binding domains for sites in the target genome with proper orientation and spacing. Both the number of amino acid residues between the TALE DNA binding domain and the FokI cleavage domain and the number of bases between the two individual TALEN binding sites appear to be important parameters for achieving high levels of activity. The simple relationship between amino acid sequence and DNA recognition of the TALE binding domain allows for the efficient engineering of proteins. In this case, artificial gene synthesis is problematic because of improper annealing of the repetitive sequence found in the TALE binding domain. One solution to this is to use a publicly available software program (DNAWorks) to calculate oligonucleotides suitable for assembly in a two step PCR oligonucleotide assembly followed by whole gene amplification. A number of modular assembly schemes for generating engineered TALE constructs have also been reported
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Transcription activator-like effector nuclease Both methods offer a systematic approach to engineering DNA binding domains that is conceptually similar to the modular assembly method for generating zinc finger DNA recognition domains. Once the TALEN constructs have been assembled, they are inserted into plasmids; the target cells are then transfected with the plasmids, and the gene products are expressed and enter the nucleus to access the genome. Alternatively, TALEN constructs can be delivered to the cells as mRNAs, which removes the possibility of genomic integration of the TALEN-expressing protein. Using an mRNA vector can also dramatically increase the level of homology directed repair (HDR) and the success of introgression during gene editing. TALEN can be used to edit genomes by inducing double-strand breaks (DSB), which cells respond to with repair mechanisms. Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) directly ligates DNA from either side of a double-strand break where there is very little or no sequence overlap for annealing. This repair mechanism induces errors in the genome via indels (insertion or deletion), or chromosomal rearrangement; any such errors may render the gene products coded at that location non-functional. Because this activity can vary depending on the species, cell type, target gene, and nuclease used, it should be monitored when designing new systems. A simple heteroduplex cleavage assay can be run which detects any difference between two alleles amplified by PCR
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Transcription activator-like effector nuclease Cleavage products can be visualized on simple agarose gels or slab gel systems. Alternatively, DNA can be introduced into a genome through NHEJ in the presence of exogenous double-stranded DNA fragments. Homology directed repair can also introduce foreign DNA at the DSB as the transfected double-stranded sequences are used as templates for the repair enzymes. TALEN has been used to efficiently modify plant genomes, creating economically important food crops with favorable nutritional qualities. They have also been harnessed to develop tools for the production of biofuels. In addition, it has been used to engineer stably modified human embryonic stem cell and induced pluripotent stem cell (IPSCs) clones and human erythroid cell lines, to generate knockout "C. elegans", knockout rats, knockout mice, and knockout zebrafish. Moreover, the method can be used to generate knockin organisms. Wu et al.obtained a Sp110 knockin cattle using Talen nickases to induce increased resistance of tuberculosis. This approach has also been used to generate knockin rats by TALEN mRNA microinjection in one-cell embryos. TALEN has also been utilized experimentally to correct the genetic errors that underlie disease. For example, it has been used "in vitro" to correct the genetic defects that cause disorders such as sickle cell disease, xeroderma pigmentosum, and epidermolysis bullosa
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Transcription activator-like effector nuclease Recently, it was shown that TALEN can be used as tools to harness the immune system to fight cancers; TALEN-mediated targeting can generate T cells that are resistant to chemotherapeutic drugs and show anti-tumor activity. In theory, the genome-wide specificity of engineered TALEN fusions allows for correction of errors at individual genetic loci via homology-directed repair from a correct exogenous template. In reality, however, the "in situ" application of TALEN is currently limited by the lack of an efficient delivery mechanism, unknown immunogenic factors, and uncertainty in the specificity of TALEN binding. Another emerging application of TALEN is its ability to combine with other genome engineering tools, such as meganucleases. The DNA binding region of a TAL effector can be combined with the cleavage domain of a meganuclease to create a hybrid architecture combining the ease of engineering and highly specific DNA binding activity of a TAL effector with the low site frequency and specificity of a meganuclease. In comparison to other genome editing techniques TALEN falls in the middle in terms of difficulty and cost. Unlike ZFNs, TALEN recognizes single nucleotides. It's far more straightforward to engineer interactions between TALEN DNA binding domains and their target nucleotides than it is to create interactions with ZNFs and their target nucleotide triplets. On the other hand, CRISPR relies on ribonucleotide complex formation instead of protein/DNA recognition
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Transcription activator-like effector nuclease gRNAs can target nearly any sequence in the genome and they can be cheaply produced, thus making CRISPR more efficient and less expensive than both TALEN and ZFN. TALEN is ultimately 200 times more expensive than CRISPR and takes several months more to perform. The off-target activity of an active nuclease may lead to unwanted double-strand breaks and may consequently yield chromosomal rearrangements and/or cell death. Studies have been carried out to compare the relative nuclease-associated toxicity of available technologies. Based on these studies and the maximal theoretical distance between DNA binding and nuclease activity, TALEN constructs are believed to have the greatest precision of the currently available technologies.
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Arnold van Huis (born 1946, Wormerveer, North Holland, Netherlands) is a Professor of Tropical Entomology at Wageningen University in the Netherlands. Van Huis researches and advocates entomophagy, the human consumption of insects, and coordinates the research program "Sustainable production of Insect Proteins for human consumption" (SUPRO2). The program investigates the nutritive and environmental aspects of entomophagy, and harvesting of weaver ants, is studied. In the 2010 French documentary "Global Steak" he says that locusts can produce 1 kg protein from 2 kg fodder compared to a cow needing 10 kg fodder to produce the same amount of protein. Other benefits are that locusts do not produce greenhouse gases and do not need antibiotics. In 2014, van Huis co-authored "The Insect Cookbook: Food for a Sustainable Planet (Arts and Traditions of the Table: Perspectives on Culinary History)".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31003070
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NGC 474 is an elliptical galaxy about 100 million light years distant in the constellation Pisces. This large galaxy is known to possess tidal tails, although their origins remain unknown. In July 2017 a Type Ia supernova designated SN 2017fgc was discovered in NGC 474. It was located a considerable distance from the galactic nucleus.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31013806
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Arabian Basin The is an oceanic basin located in the southern part of the Arabian Sea between the Arabian Peninsula and India. It is centered at 10° N, 65° E. The basin depth ranges from 3,400 m in the north to 4,400 m in the south, with a maximum depth of 4,652 m. The floor is covered by sediments from the Indus submarine fan and is relatively smooth. The southern enclosure of this basin is formed by the Central Indian Ridge, the Carlsberg Ridge and the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge. Bottom water enters the basin through the Owen Fracture Zone to the west. The Carlsberg Ridge, at a depth of 3,800 m, separates this basin from the Somali Basin to the southwest. The is separated from the shallow Oman Basin by the Murray Ridge. Most of the northern and eastern limits are formed by the Laxmi Ridge and the Laccadive Plateau.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31016827
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Quaternary International is a peer-reviewed scientific journal on Quaternary science published by Elsevier on behalf of the International Union for Quaternary Research. The journal was established in 1989 and covers full spectrum of the physical and natural sciences that are commonly employed in solving Quaternary problems. The editor-in-chief is Min-Te Chen (National Taiwan Ocean University). According to the 2017 "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2016 impact factor of 2.199.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31033328
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Chemically defined medium A chemically defined medium is a growth medium suitable for the in vitro cell culture of human or animal cells in which all of the chemical components are known. Standard cell culture media commonly consist of a basal medium supplemented with animal serum (such as fetal bovine serum, FBS) as a source of nutrients and other ill-defined factors. The technical disadvantages to using serum include its undefined nature, batch-to-batch variability in composition, and the risk of contamination. There is a clear distinction between serum-based media and chemically defined media. Serum-based media may contain undefined animal-derived products such as serum (purified from blood), hydrolysates, growth factors, hormones, carrier proteins, and attachment factors. These undefined animal-derived products will contain complex contaminants, such as the lipid content of albumin. In contrast, chemically defined media require that all of the components must be identified and have their exact concentrations known. Therefore, a chemically defined medium must be entirely free of animal-derived components and cannot contain either fetal bovine serum, bovine serum or human serum. To achieve this, chemically defined media is commonly supplemented with recombinant versions of albumin and growth factors, usually derived from rice or "E. coli", or synthetic chemical such as the polymer polyvinyl alcohol which can reproduce some of the functions of BSA/HSA
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31040311
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Chemically defined medium The constituents of a chemically defined media include: a basal media (such as DMEM, F12, or RPMI 1640, containing amino acids, vitamins, inorganic salts, buffers, antioxidants and energy sources), which is supplemented with recombinant albumin, chemically defined lipids, recombinant insulin and/or zinc, recombinant transferrin or iron, selenium and an antioxidant thiol such as 2-mercaptoethanol or 1-thioglycerol. Chemically defined media that are designed for the cultivation of cells in suspension additionally contain suitable surfactants such as poloxamers in order to reduce shear stress caused by shaking and stirring. Chemically defined media also allows researchers who are studying in the field of cell physiology (especially extracellular) and or molecule–cell interactions to eliminate any variables that may arise due to the effects of unknown components in the medium. Animal culture media can be divided into six subsets based on the level of defined media (Jayme and Smith, 2000): From lowest definition to highest these are: The term chemically defined media is often misused in the literature to refer to serum albumin-containing media. The term 'defined media' can also be used to describe this type of media. Media formulations containing the media supplement B27 (supplied by Invitrogen) are often erroneously referred to as chemically defined media (e.g. Yao et al., 2006) despite this product containing bovine serum albumin (Chen et al
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Chemically defined medium , 2008) using the above definitions this type of media is referred to as serum-free media. Peptide-free, protein-free, chemically defined media are rarely successfully formulated except for CHO and insect cells. Animal protein-free media, containing human serum albumin, human transferrin, but potentially animal-derived insulin and lipids. Xeno-free media, containing human serum albumin, human transferrin, human insulin, and chemically defined lipids.
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Zalman Gorelik (; ; 5 April 1908 in Bobruisk – 16 February 1987 in Minsk) was a geologist, tectonist, and organizer of the Geological Survey of Belarus. He was also co-discoverer of the first deposits of potash, rock salt, and oil in the Pripyat Trough. Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences (1973).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31048466
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Autoprotolysis In autoprotolysis a proton is transferred between two identical molecules, one of which acts as a Brønsted acid, releasing a proton which is accepted by the other molecule acting as a Brønsted base. For example, water undergoes autoprotolysis in the self-ionization of water reaction. It is a type of molecular autoionization. Any solvent that contains both acidic hydrogen and lone pairs of electrons to accept H can undergo autoprotolysis. For example, ammonia in its purest form may undergo autoprotolysis: Another example is acetic acid:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31055769
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Santa Ynez Fault is a left-reverse fault in Santa Barbara County of California. Its length is at least 130 km., running through Santa Ynez and nearby Santa Barbara. The Santa Ynez Mountains were uplifted within the last 5 million years along this fault.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31057650
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Climate of Saudi Arabia The climate of Saudi Arabia is marked by high temperatures during the day and low temperatures at night. The country follows the pattern of the desert climate, with the exception of the southwest, which features a semi-arid climate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31063926
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Actelion is a pharmaceuticals and biotechnology company established in December 1997, headquartered in Allschwil near Basel in Switzerland. focuses its efforts on manufacturing drugs that treat rare diseases. Some of the drugs it has produced have been proven to treat patients with symptoms that relate to central nervous system disorders, irregular heart conditions, immune system disorders and cancer. specializes in orphan diseases. scientists were among the first to work in the field of endothelian receptor antagonists. The company name might be a reminder for its first product, an endothelian receptor antagonist and the verb "action", "act upon". was initially financed with venture capital provided through a syndicate including Atlas Venture, Sofinnova and HealthCap. One of the focuses of is treating individuals with Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (PAH), a heart condition that leaves patients with a short life expectancy (7-9 years) even with treatment. develops and sells drugs in the continents of Asia, Europe and North and South America. has 29 operative affiliates around the world, including the United States, Canada, Brazil, Australia, Japan, Switzerland and a number of EU countries. The Swiss affiliate is located in Baden, the German affiliate in Freiburg, the Austrian one in Vienna, the French one in Paris and the UK affiliate is located in London. In 2006, the company established the Endothelin Research Award program which supports selected clinical research projects
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Actelion In January 2017, Johnson & Johnson announced that it would purchase the company for $30 billion. Actelion's research and development unit would also be spun off after the acquisition. The new company Idorsia was created from former drug discovery operations and early-stage clinical development assets and listed in June 2017 on the SIX Swiss Exchange. In 2018, Johnson & Johnson announced they would discontinue development of one of the phase III drugs it acquired during its purchase of Actelion. CoTherix, Inc. was a biopharmaceutical company located in South San Francisco, California. CoTherix focused on licensing, developing, and commercializing therapeutic products for the treatment of cardiopulmonary and other chronic diseases. The company, formerly known as Exhale Therapeutics, Inc., was founded in February 2000 by Gerard Turino, MD, a past president of the American Thoracic Society, and Jerome Cantor, MD, a pulmonary pathologist. CoTherix's commercial product was "Ventavis (Iloprost)", an inhaled therapy for pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH). It was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in December 2004, two months after the company's initial public offering of 5 million shares of common stock. Asahi developed fasudil and entered into a licensing and development agreement with CoTherix in July 2006 to pursue regulatory approval and commercialization in the United States and Europe based on their prior track record in this area
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Actelion In November 2006, CoTherix and signed a merger plan, which was subsequently announced publicly; this followed the initiation of negotiations in August 2006. In January 2007, completed acquisition of all CoTherix stock, and summarily informed Asahi that work on fasudil would be terminated. Now, had a competitor blockbuster drug on the market, bosentan (Tracleer). Asashi claimed that Actelion's acquisition of CoTherix was directly aimed at removing fasudil as a competitor therapeutic, which it effectively did. Asahi pursued damages against CoTherix and initially through arbitration of a breach of contract claim, which netted them US$91 million, then in a jury trial, which resulted in an award of US$580 million in compensatory and punitive damages. This case has served as an exemplar of the notion that a company's contractual obligations persist after that company's acquisition. On November 20, 2006, CoTherix agreed to be purchased for $420 million in cash by of Basel, Switzerland. On January 9, 2007, the deal closed with paying $13.50 for each share of CoTherix stock. Actelion, headquartered in Switzerland, managed to earn 18.2% more in the year of 2016 than it did in 2015 while reporting an earning of 2,417.9 million Swiss Francs at the end of 2016. After accounting for all costs of production such as raw materials and wages, the company calculated its operating margin( operating profit to net sales ratio) to be 0.5% more in 2016 than it was in 2015
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Actelion Tracleer is one of the main drugs manufactured and sold by Actelion. It has been used to treat excessively high blood pressure that affect arteries in the lungs and heart. In the years of 2014 and 2015, before Johnson & Johnson acquired the pharmaceutical company, was accused of pushing up the prices of Tracleer. According to a website known as Goodrx, sixty tablets (one month's supply) of this drug are sold for an average of $14,500. was able to do this by illegally providing money to Medicare patients in order for them to be able to fulfill their co-payments for the drug Tracleer. Medicare is a healthcare program for adults who are 65 years and older. Most patients have their prescriptions covered by Medicare, but they must still pay a portion of the amount of the prescription, known as a co-payment. By making sure Medicare patients are still paying a certain amount, drug companies are unable to raise their prices to inordinately large amounts. However recently many large drug companies, such as Pfizer, Lundbeck, United Therapeutics and now have been found to be illegally providing cash assistance to charities that help patients with their co-payments in order to increase the demand for their products. was able to use the charity organization by the name of Caring Voice Coalition to send money only to those people who were receiving prescriptions of Tracleer
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Actelion When law enforcement was able to catch onto the illegal activities occurring with this organization with relation to two pharmaceutical companies (and United Therapeutics), it was banned from partaking in any further Medicare related matters. By ignoring the laws and regulations set by Congress, to prevent pharmaceutical companies from increasing the demand and prices of their drugs, and using information obtained from Caring Voice Coalition to financially support patients who were buying only its own drugs, was able to increase its drug prices to extraordinarily high amounts (nearly 30% of the inflation rate). was also complicit in referring patients to Caring Voice Coalition. Many unknowing patients who were gathering information about organizations that might cover their medical needs were being sent to CVC. Illegally, furthering the high demand for their drug. While investigations were taking place, refused to accept that any criminal activity or misconduct had occurred. It has been forced to pay a $360 million as a settlement to the United States government for the malpractice relating to kickbacks to Medicare patients. As of October, 2018, it was also caught in two lawsuit by drug buyers who claimed that was preventing a generic version of Tracleer to be manufactured so that it could stay in charge of the market as the sole supplier of the drug. Analytics 4 Life is a company that uses artificial intelligence to develop solutions for medical illnesses while focusing its efforts on coronary artery disease
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Actelion has been reported to start working with Analytics 4 Life to use imaging technology with regards to pulmonary hypertension. A study, involving 500 individuals is being conducted to solve this widespread illness. These companies are hoping to be able to accurately assess an individuals cardiac health using imaging technology and thus avoiding the need for an invasive test. hopes that using this technology will help detect pulmonary hypertension in more people at an earlier age and thus leading to higher chances of success in the treatment. currently has 10 compounds in its pipeline – including 3 in late-stage development – and 4 medicines on the market for orphan diseases: Some other drugs that have been produced by Actelion's to provide for the PAH (Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension) market include: Late-stage drugs in development by include: By January 2011, had a total of 2,467 employees, 392 in research, 640 in development and 1017 in sales and marketing. In 2010, Actelion's sales amounted to 1,929 million CHF. Actelion's shares have been listed on the SIX Swiss Exchange (ticker symbol ATLN) since 2000 SWX Swiss Exchange Swiss Leader Index. In September 2008, shares began trading as part of the Swiss Market Index. received the "Prix Hermès de l'innovation" (Hermès Award for Innovation) in April 2011: The "European Institute for Creative Strategy and Innovation", the creator of the Prix Hermès, was founded in 2003 in France
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Actelion The "performance report for Swiss pharma websites" awarded the first Prize in the second consecutive year:.
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Michael P. Taylor (born 12 March 1968) is a British computer programmer with a Ph.D in palaeontology. To date, he has published 18 paleontological papers and is co-credited with naming three genera of dinosaur ("Xenoposeidon" in 2007 with Darren Naish, "Brontomerus" in 2011 with Matt J. Wedel and Richard Cifeli, and "Haestasaurus" in 2015 with Paul Upchurch and Phil Mannion). Along with paleontologists Darren Naish and Matt Wedel, he founded the paleontology blog "Sauropod Vertebra Picture of the Week", where he blogs as Mike Taylor. He lives in Ruardean, Gloucestershire, England.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31069697
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Geoprofessions is a term coined by the Geoprofessional Business Association to connote various technical disciplines that involve engineering, earth and environmental services applied to below-ground (“subsurface”), ground-surface, and ground-surface-connected conditions, structures, or formations. The principal disciplines include, as major categories: Each discipline involves specialties, many of which are recognized through professional designations that governments and societies or associations confer based upon a person's education, training, experience, and educational accomplishments. In the United States, engineers must be licensed in the state or territory where they practice engineering. Most states license geologists and several license environmental “site professionals.” Several states license engineering geologists and recognize geotechnical engineering through a geotechnical-engineering titling act. Although geotechnical engineering is applied for a variety of purposes, it is essential to foundation design. As such, geotechnical engineering is applicable to every existing or new structure on the planet; every building and every highway, bridge, tunnel, harbor, airport, water line, reservoir, or other public work. Commonly, the geotechnical-engineering service comprises a study of subsurface conditions using various sampling, in-situ testing, and/or other site-characterization techniques
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Geoprofessions The instrument of professional service in those cases typically is a report through which geotechnical engineers relate the information they have been retained to provide, typically: their findings; their opinions about subsurface materials and conditions; their judgment about how the subsurface materials and conditions assumed to exist probably will behave when subjected to loads or used as building material; and their preliminary recommendations for materials usage or appropriate foundation systems, the latter based on their knowledge of a structure's size, shape, weight, etc., and the subsurface/structure interactions likely to occur. Civil engineers, structural engineers, and architects, feasibly among other members of the project team, apply the geotechnical findings and preliminary recommendations to take the structure's design forward. They realize these preliminary recommendations are subject to change, however, because – as a matter of practical necessity related to the observational method inherent to geotechnical engineering – geotechnical engineers base their recommendations on the composition of samples taken from a tiny portion of a site whose actual subsurface conditions are unknowable before excavation, because they are hidden by earth and/or rock and/or water
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Geoprofessions For this reason, as a key component of a complete geotechnical engineering service, geotechnical engineers employ construction-materials engineering and testing (CoMET) to observe subsurface materials as they are exposed through excavation. To help achieve economies on their clients’ behalf, geotechnical engineers assign their field representatives – specially educated and trained paraprofessionals – to observe the excavated materials and the excavations themselves in light of conditions the geotechnical engineers opined to exist. When differences are discovered, the geotechnical engineers evaluate the new findings and, when necessary, modify their design and construction recommendations. Because such changes could require other members of the design and construction team to modify their designs, specifications, and proposed methods, many owners have their geotechnical engineers serve as active members of the project team from project inception to conclusion, working with others to help ensure appropriate application of geotechnical information and judgments. In other cases, geotechnical engineering goes beyond a study and construction recommendations to include design of soil and rock structures. The most common of these are the pavements that make up our streets and highways, airport runways, and bridge and tunnel decks, among other paved improvements
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Geoprofessions Geotechnical engineers design the pavements in terms of the subgrade, subbase, and base layers of materials to be used, and the thickness and composition of each. Geotechnical engineers also design the earth-retention walls associated with structures such as levees, earthen dams, reservoirs, and landfills. In other cases, the design is applied to contain earth, via structures such as excavation-support systems and retaining walls. Sometimes referred to as geostructural engineering or geostructural design, these services are also intrinsic to hydraulic engineering, hydrogeologic engineering, coastal engineering, geologic engineering and water-resources engineering. Geotechnical-engineering design is also applied for structures such as tunnels, bridges, dams, and other structures beneath, on, or connected to the surface of the earth. Geotechnical engineering, like geology, engineering geology, and geologic engineering, also involves the specialties of rock mechanics and soil mechanics, and often requires knowledge of geotextiles and geosynthetics, as well as an array of instrumentation and monitoring equipment, to help ensure specified conditions are achieved and maintained
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Geoprofessions Earthquake engineering and landslide detection, remediation, and prevention are geoprofessional services associated with specialized types of geotechnical engineering (as well as geophysics; see below), as is forensic geotechnical engineering, a geoprofessional service applied to determine why a certain applicable type of event – usually a failure of some sort – occurred. (Virtually all geoprofessional services can be performed for forensic purposes, commonly as litigation-support/expert witness services.) Railway-systems engineering is another type of specialized geotechnical engineering, as are the design of piers and bulkheads, drydocks, on-shore and off-shore wind-turbine systems, and systems that stabilize oil platforms and other marine structures to the sea floor. Geotechnical engineers have long been involved in sustainability initiatives, including (among many others) the use of excavated materials; the safe application of contaminated subsurface materials; the recycling of asphalt, concrete, and building rubble and debris; and the design of permeable pavements. All civil-engineering specialties and projects – roads and highways, bridges, rail systems, ports and other waterfront structures, airport terminals, etc. – require the involvement of geotechnical engineers and engineering, meaning that many civil-engineering pursuits are geoprofessional pursuits to a greater or lesser degree
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Geoprofessions However, geotechnical engineering has for centuries also been associated with military engineering; sappers (in general) and miners (whose tunneling design services (known as landmining and undermining) were used in military-siege operations). Engineering geologist. (a) Elements of the engineering geologist specialty. The practice of engineering geology involves the interpretation, evaluation, analysis, and application of geological information and data to civil works. Geotechnical soil and rock units are designated, characterized, and classified, using standard engineering soil and rock classification systems. Relationships are interpreted between landform development, current and past geologic processes, ground and surface water, and the strength characteristics of soil and rock. Processes evaluated include both surficial processes (for example, slope, fluvial, and coastal processes), and deep-seated processes (for example, volcanic activity and seismicity). Geotechnical zones or domains are designated based on soil and rocked geological strength characteristics, common landforms, related geologic processes, or other pertinent factors. Proposed developmental modifications are evaluated and, where appropriate, analyzed to predict potential or likely changes in types and rates of surficial geologic processes
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Geoprofessions Proposed modifications may include such things as vegetation removal, using various types of earth materials in construction, applying loads to shallow or deep foundations, constructing cut or fill slopes and other grading, and modifying ground and surface water flow. The effects of surficial and deep-seated geologic processes are evaluated and analyzed to predict their potential effect on public health, public safety, land use, or proposed development. (b) Typical engineering geologic applications and types of projects. Engineering geology is applied during all project phases, from conception through planning, design, construction, maintenance, and, in some cases, reclamation and closure. Planning-level engineering geologic work is commonly conducted in response to forest practice regulations, critical areas ordinances, and the State Environmental Policy Act. Typical planning-level engineering geologic applications include timber harvest planning, proposed location of residential and commercial developments and other buildings and facilities, and alternative route selection for roads, rail lines, trails, and utilities
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Geoprofessions Site-specific engineering geologic applications include cuts, fills, and tunnels for roads, trails, railroads, and utility lines; foundations for bridges and other drainage structures, retaining walls and shoring, dams, buildings, water towers, slope, channel and shoreline stabilization facilities, fish ladders and hatcheries, ski lifts and other structures; landings for logging and other work platforms; airport landing strips; rock bolt systems; blasting; and other major earthwork projects such as for aggregate sources and landfills. While engineering geology is applicable principally to planning, design and construction activities, other specialties of geology are applied in a variety of geoprofessional specialty fields, such as mining geology, petroleum geology, and environmental geology. Note that mining geology and mining engineering are different geoprofessional fields. Geological engineering is a hybrid discipline that comprises elements of civil engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering, and earth sciences. Geological engineers often become licensed as both engineers and geologists
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Geoprofessions There are thirteen geological-engineering (or geoengineering) programs in the United States that are accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of ABET: (1) Colorado School of Mines, (2) Michigan Technological University, (3) Missouri University of Science and Technology, (4) Montana Tech of the University of Montana, (5) South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, (6) University of Alaska-Fairbanks, (7) University of Minnesota Twin Cities, (8) University of Mississippi, (9) University of Nevada, Reno (10) University of North Dakota, (11) University of Texas at Austin, (12) University of Utah, and (13) University of Wisconsin-Madison. Other schools offer programs or classes in geological engineering, including the University of Arizona. Geoengineering or geological engineering, engineering geology, and geotechnical engineering deal with the discovery, development, and production and use of subsurface earth resources, as well as the design and construction of earthworks. Geoengineering is the application of geosciences, where mechanics, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and geology are used to understand and shape our interaction with the earth
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Geoprofessions Geoengineers work in areas of Professional geoscience organizations such as the American Rock Mechanics Association or the Geo-Institute and academic degrees such as the bachelor of geoengineering accredited by ABET acknowledge the broad scope of work practiced by geoengineers and stress fundamentals of science and engineering methods for the solution of complex problems. Geoengineers study the mechanics of rock, soil, and fluids to improve the sustainable use of earth's finite resources, where problems appear with competing interests, for example, groundwater and waste isolation, offshore oil drilling and risk of spills, natural gas production and induced seismicity. Geophysics is the study of the physical properties of the earth using quantitative physical methods to determine what lies beneath the earth's surface. The physical properties of concern include the propagation of elastic waves (seismic), magnetism, gravity, electrical resistivity/conductivity, and electromagnetism. Geophysics has historically been most commonly used in oil exploration and mining, but its popularity in non-destructive investigative work has flourished since the early 1990s. It is also used in groundwater exploration and protection, geo-hazard studies (e.g., faults and landslides), alignment studies (e.g
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Geoprofessions , proposed roadway, underground utilities, and pipelines), foundation studies, contamination characterization and remediation, landfill investigations, unexploded-ordnance investigations, vibration monitoring, dam-safety evaluation, location of underground storage tanks, identification of subsurface voids, and assisting in archeological investigations. (definition from Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists) Geophysical engineering is the application of geophysics to the engineering design of facilities including roads, tunnels, and mines. Environmental science and environmental engineering are the geoprofessions commonly associated with the identification, remediation, and prevention of environmental contamination. These services range from phase-one and phase-two environmental site-assessments – research designed to assess the likelihood that a property is contaminated and subsurface exploration conducted to identify the nature and extent of contamination, respectively – up through the design of processes and systems to remediate contaminated sites for the protection of human health and the environment. Environmental geology is one of the principal geoprofessions engaged in assessing and remediating contaminated sites. Environmental geologists help identify the subsurface stratigraphy in which contaminants are located and through which they migrate. Environmental chemistry is the geoprofession that encompasses the study of chemical compounds in the soil
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Geoprofessions These compounds are categorized as pollutants or contaminants when introduced into the environment by human factors (e.g., waste, mining processes, radioactive release) and are not of natural origin. Environmental chemistry assesses interactions or these compounds with soil, rock, and water to determine their fate and transport, the techniques to measure the levels of contaminants in the environment, and technologies to destroy or reduce the toxicity of contaminants in wastes or compounds that have been released to the environment. Environmental engineering is often applied to assess contaminated sites, but more often is used in the design of systems to remediate contaminated soil and groundwater. Hydrogeology is the geoprofession involved when environmental studies involve subsurface water. Hydrogeology applications range from securing safe, plentiful underground drinking-water sources to identifying the nature of groundwater contamination in order to facilitate remediation. Environmental toxicology is a geoprofession when used to identify the source, fate, transformation, effects, and risks of pollutants on the environment, including soil, water, and air. Wetlands science is a geoprofessional pursuit that incorporates several scientific disciplines, such as botany, biology, and limnology. It involves, among other activities, the delineation, conservation, restoration, and preservation of wetlands. These services are sometimes conducted by geoprofessional specialists called wetlands scientists
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Geoprofessions Ecology is a closely related environmental geoprofession involving studies into the distribution of organisms and biodiversity within an environmental context. Numerous geoprofessional disciplines contribute to the redevelopment of brownfields, sites (typically urban) that are underused or abandoned because they are or are assumed to be contaminated by hazardous materials. Geoprofessionals are engaged to evaluate the degree to which such sites are contaminated and the steps that can be taken to achieve the sites’ safe reuse. Environmental engineers and scientists work with developers to identify and design remediation strategies and exposure-barrier designs that protect future site users from unacceptable exposure to environmental contamination resulting from previous uses of the site. Because these previous uses often resulted in degraded soil conditions and the presence of abandoned, underground structures, geotechnical engineers often are needed to design special foundations for the new structures. Construction-materials engineering and testing (CoMET) comprises an array of licensed-engineer-directed professional services applied principally for purposes of construction quality assurance and quality control. CoMET services commonly are provided as a separate discipline by firms that also practice geotechnical engineering, possibly among other geoprofessional disciplines. The geoprofessional-service industry has evolved in this manner because geotechnical engineering employs the observational method
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Geoprofessions Karl von Terzaghi and Ralph B. Peck – the creators of modern geotechnical engineering – used the observational method and multiple working hypotheses to expedite and economize the subsurface-exploration process, by using sampling and testing to form a judgment about subsurface conditions, and then observing excavated conditions and materials to confirm or modify those judgments and related recommendations, and then finalize them. To economize still further, geoprofessionals educated and trained paraprofessionals to represent them on site (hence the term “field representative”), especially to apply their judgment (much as a geotechnical engineer would) in comparing observed conditions with those the geotechnical engineer believed would exist. Over time, geotechnical engineers expanded their CoMET services by providing the additional education and training their field representatives needed to evaluate constructors’ attainment of conditions commonly specified by geoprofessionals; e.g., subsurface preparation for foundations of buildings, roadways, and other structures; materials used for subgrade, subbase, and base purposes; site grading; construction of earthen structures (earth dams, levees, reservoirs, landfills, et al.) and earth-retaining structures (e.g., retaining walls); and so on
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Geoprofessions Because many of the materials involved, such as concrete, are used in other elements of construction projects and structures, geoprofessional firms expanded their field representatives’ skill sets still more, to encompass observation and testing of numerous additional materials (e.g., reinforced concrete, structural steel, masonry, wood, and fireproofing), processes (e.g., cutting and filling and rebar placement), and outcomes (e.g., the effectiveness of welds). Laboratory services are a common element of many CoMET operations. Also operating under the direction of a licensed engineer, they are applied in geotechnical engineering to evaluate subsurface-material samples. In overall CoMET operations, laboratories operate with the equipment and personnel required to evaluate a variety of construction materials. CoMET services applied to evaluate the actual composition of a site's subsurface are part of a complete geotechnical engineering service. For purposes of short-term economy, however, some owners select a firm not associated with the geotechnical engineer of record to provide these and all other CoMET services. This approach precludes the geotechnical engineer of record from providing a complete service
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Geoprofessions It also aggravates risk, because the individuals engaged to evaluate actual subsurface conditions are not “briefed” by the geotechnical engineer of record before they go to the project site and seldom communicate with the geotechnical engineer of record when they discern differences, in large part because the firm associated with the geotechnical engineer of record is regarded as a competitor of the firm employing the field representatives. In some cases, the field representatives in question lack the specific project background information and/or the education and training required to discern those differences. CoMET services applied to evaluate constructor's attainment of specified conditions take the form of quality-assurance (QA) or quality-control (QC) services. QA services are performed directly or indirectly for the owner. The owner specifies the nature and extent of QA services that the owner believes is appropriate. Some owners specify none at all or only those that may be required by law. Those required by law are imposed via a jurisdiction's building code. Almost all U.S. jurisdictions base their building codes on “model codes” developed by associations of building officials. The International Code Council (ICC) is the most prominent of these groups and its International Building Code (IBC) is the most commonly used model
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Geoprofessions As a result, many jurisdictions now require IBC “Special Inspection,” a term defined by the IBC as “the required examination of the materials, installation, fabrication, erection, or placement of components and connections requiring special expertise to ensure compliance with approved construction documents and referenced standards.” Special Inspection requirements vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction based on the provisions adopted by the local building official. While some of the services involved may be similar to or the same as conventional CoMET services, Special Inspection is handled differently. Most commonly, the owner or the owner's agent is required to retain a building-official-approved Special Inspection-services provider. Special Inspection is often required to obtain a certificate of occupancy. QC services are those applied by or on behalf of a constructor to ensure the constructor has attained conditions the constructor has contractually agreed to attain. Most CoMET consultants are engaged far more to provide QA services than QC services. Many CoMET procedures are specified in standards developed by standards-developing organizations (SDOs) such as the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), ASTM International, and American Concrete Institute (ACI), using standards-development protocols approved by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and/or the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). All such standards identify what is minimally required to conform
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Geoprofessions Likewise, several organizations have developed programs to accredit CoMET field and laboratory services to perform certain types of testing and inspection. Some of these programs are more comprehensive than others; e.g., requiring regular calibration of equipment, participation in proficiency testing programs, and implementation and documentation of a (quality) management system to demonstrate technical competence. As with all such programs, of course, accreditation identifies what is least acceptable. Many CoMET laboratories go far beyond minimum requirements in an effort to attain higher levels of quality. A variety of organizations – including local building departments – have developed personnel-certification protocols and requirements. In many jurisdictions, only appropriately certified individuals are permitted to perform certain evaluations. Individuals typically are required to meet certain prerequisites for certification and must pass examinations, in some cases involving performance observation in the field. The prerequisite for higher degrees of certification often include a requirement that the individual has met requirements for a lower degree of certification (e.g., Soils Technician I is in some cases a prerequisite for Soils Technician II). Field representatives are sometimes referred to as “soil testers,” “technicians,” “technicians/technologists,” or “engineering technicians
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Geoprofessions ” The Geoprofessional Business Association developed the term “field representative” to encompass all the many types of paraprofessionals involved (e.g., those involved with specific types of materials, such as reinforced concrete, soil, or steel; those who observe or inspect processes or conditions, such as welding inspectors, caisson inspectors, and foundation inspectors), and especially to underscore their significant, mutual responsibility, that purpose titles such as “technician” fail to signify. In fact, the engineers who direct CoMET operations are personally and professionally responsible and liable for their field representatives’ acts and statements while representing the engineer on site. Especially because CoMET consultants have more hands-on experience with construction activities than many other design-team members, many owners involve them (among other geoprofessionals) from the outset of a project, during the design phase, to help the owner and/or design team members develop technical specifications and establish testing and inspection requirements, instrumentation requirements and procedures, and observation programs. Geotechnical engineers employ CoMET services during the earliest stages of a project, to oversee subsurface sampling procedures, such as drilling. Many of the CoMET services performed for construction projects are performed for environmental projects as well, but requirements tend to be less rigid because they involve fewer licensing and related requirements
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Geoprofessions For example, individuals may perform federally mandated all-appropriate inquiries – typically a phase-one environmental site assessment – without a license of any kind. To the extent that archeology and paleontology require systematic subsurface excavation to recover artifacts, they, too, are considered geoprofessions. Many geoprofessional-services firms offer these services to those of their clients that need to satisfy federal and/or state regulations that require paleontological and/or archeological inquiry before site development or redevelopment activities can proceed.
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Indochinite An is a type of tektite. Tektites were ejected into the Earth's upper atmosphere by a meteorite impact and subsequently cooled to form the distinctive glass-like structure. Indochinites are distinctly dark black in contrast to the green of European moldavite tektites. It is estimated that these bodies of solidified magma are 700,000 years old. tektites, as the name suggests, are found in the Indochinese peninsula, from Australia and the Pacific islands of Micronesia in the east and south, to China and Indonesia in the north and west. The largest indochinite is a Muong-Nong type tektite (which are layered tektites), which had a mass of 29.0 kg.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31081397
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Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina The is an open access peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Asociación Geológica Argentina. The journal is released under a CC-BY-NC 2.5 license.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31089766
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Solvophobic theory attempts to explain interactions between polar solvents and non-polar solutes. In the pure solvent, there are relatively strong cohesive forces between the solvent molecules due to hydrogen bonding or other polar interactions. Hence, non-polar solutes tend not to be soluble in polar solvents because these solvent-solvent binding interactions must be overcome first. When applied to liquid chromatography (LC), solvophobic theory attributes the retention of solutes on the stationary phase partly to the rejection of solute molecules by the solvent, and partly to the attraction of the solute molecules by the stationary phase.
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Aggregate modulus In relation to biomechanics, the aggregate modulus (Ha) is a measurement of the stiffness of a material at equilibrium when fluid has ceased flowing through it. The aggregate modulus can be calculated from Young's modulus (E) and the Poisson ratio (v). The aggregate modulus of a similar specimen is determined from a unidirectional "deformational" testing configuration, i.e., the only non-zero strain component is E, as opposed to the Young's modulus, which is determined from a unidirectional "loading" testing configuration, i.e., the only non-zero stress component is, say, in the e direction. In this test, the only non-zero component of the stress tensor is T. Reference: Biomechanics of Cartilage by Mansour
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31117483
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EOn eOn was a distributed computing project for the BOINC client, which uses theoretical chemistry techniques to solve problems in condensed matter physics and materials science. It was a project of the Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences at the University of Texas. Traditional molecular dynamics can accurately model events that occur within a fraction of a millisecond. In order to model events that take place on much longer timescales, Eon combines transition state theory with kinetic Monte Carlo. The result is a combination of classical mechanics and quantum methods like density functional theory. Since the generation of new work units depended on the results of previous units, the project could only give each host a few units at a time. On May 26, 2014, it was announced that eOn would be retiring from BOINC.
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Japan Society for Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Agrochemistry The (JSBBA) is a scientific society dedicated to bioscience, biotechnology and agrochemistry, founded in 1924 as the Agricultural Chemical Society of Japan. The society took its current name in 1989. In 1957, it was officially recognized as a society by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture of Japan. The current membership consists of researchers, technologists, students and private organizations in various fields of bioscience and biotechnology.
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Cunninghamella elegans is a species of fungus in the genus "Cunninghamella" found in soil. It can be grown in Sabouraud dextrose broth, a liquid medium used for cultivation of yeasts and molds from liquid which are normally sterile. As opposed to "C. bertholletiae", it is not a human pathogen, with the exception of two documented patients. "C. elegans" is a filamentous fungus that produces purely gray colonies. Electron microscopy studies show that the conidia are covered with spines. "Cunninghamella elegans" is able to degrade xenobiotics. It has a variety of enzymes of phases I (modification enzymes acting to introduce reactive and polar groups into their substrates) and II (conjugation enzymes) of the xenobiotic metabolism, as do mammals. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, aryl sulfotransferase, glutathione S-transferase, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, UDP-glucosyltransferase activities have been detected in cytosolic or microsomal fractions. Cytochrome P-450 and cytochrome P-450 reductase in "C. elegans" are part of the phase I enzymes. They are induced by the corticosteroid cortexolone and by phenanthrene. "C. elegans" also possesses a lanosterol 14-alpha demethylase, another enzyme in the cytochrome P450 family. "C. elegans" also possesses a glutathione S-transferase. "Cunninghamella elegans" is a microbial model of mammalian drug metabolism. The use of this fungus could reduce the over-all need for laboratory animals. "C
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Cunninghamella elegans elegans" is able to transform the tricyclic antidepressants amitriptyline and doxepin, the tetracyclic antidepressant mirtazapine, the muscle relaxant cyclobenzaprine, the typical antipsychotic chlorpromazine as well as the antihistamine and anticholinergic methdilazine and azatadine. It is also able to transform the antihistamines brompheniramine, chlorpheniramine and pheniramine. It forms a glucoside with the diuretic furosemide. The transformation of oral contraceptive mestranol by "C. elegans" yields two hydroxylated metabolites, 6beta-hydroxymestranol and 6beta,12beta-dihydroxymestranol. The phase I cytochrome P450 enzyme systems of "C. elegans" has been implicated in the neutralization of numerous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). It can degrade molecules such as anthracene, 7-methylbenz[a]anthracene and 7-hydroxymethylbenz[a]anthracene, phenanthrene, acenaphthene, 1- and 2-methylnaphthalene, naphthalene, fluorene or benzo(a)pyrene. In the case of phenanthrene, "C. elegans" produces a glucoside conjugate of 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (phenanthrene 1-O-beta-glucose). "C. elegans" is also able to degrade the herbicides alachlor, metolachlor and isoproturon as well as the fungicide mepanipyrim. "Cunninghamella elegans" can be used to study the metabolism of phenols. This type of molecules already have reactive and polar groups comprised within their structure therefore phases I enzymes are less active than phase II (conjugation) enzymes
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Cunninghamella elegans In flavonols, an hydroxyl group is available in the 3- position allowing the glycosylation at that position. The biotransformation of quercetin yields three metabolites, including quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, kaempferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and isorhamnetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside. Glucosylation and O-methylation are involved in the process. In flavones, there is no hydroxyl group available at the 3- position. Conjugation, in the form of sulfation occurs at the 7- or 4'- positions. Apigenin and chrysin are also transformed by "C. elegans" and produce apigenin 7-sulfate, apigenin 7,4′-disulfate, chrysin 7-sulfate. <br>Sulfation also occurs on naringenin and produces naringenin-7-sulfate. Glucosylation may nevertheless occur but in 3'- position, as happens during the microbial transformation of psiadiarabin and its 6-desmethoxy analogue, 5,3′ dihydroxy-7,2′,4′,5′-tetramethoxyflavone, by "Cunninghamella elegans" NRRL 1392 that gives the 3′-glucoside conjugates of the two flavones. As in flavones, there is no hydroxyl groups available at the 3- position for glycosylation in flavanones. Therefore, sulfation occurs at the 7- position. In compounds like 7-methoxylated flavanones like 7-O-methylnaringenin (sakuranetin), demethylation followed by sulfation occur. It is also able to degrade synthetic phenolic compounds like bisphenol A. "C. elegans" can transform the nitrogen containing compound phthalazine It is also able to oxidize the organosulfur compound dibenzothiophene. Methods for efficient "C
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Cunninghamella elegans elegans" genomic DNA isolation and transformation have been developed. The cytochrome P450 of "C. elegans" has been cloned in "Escherichia coli" as well as an enolase. "Cunninghamella elegans" can be grown in stirred tank batch bioreactor. Protoplasts cultures have been used. "C. elegans" can be used for phenanthrene bioconversion or for steroid transformation. It has been used to produce isoapocodeine from 10,11-dimethoxyaporphine, triptoquinone from the synthetic abietane diterpene triptophenolide or for the rational and economical bioconversion of antimalarial drug artemisinin to 7beta-hydroxyartemisinin. "Cunninghamella elegans" has been used in environmental biotechnology for the treatment of textile wastewaters, for instance those discoloured by azo dyes or malachite green. Chitin and chitosan isolated from "C. elegans" can be used for heavy metal biosorption. Production can be made on yam bean ("Pachyrhizus erosus" L. Urban) medium. "Cunninghamella elegans" ATCC 9245 <br>"Cunninghamella elegans" ATCC 36112 <br>"Cunninghamella elegans" ATCC 26269 <br>"Cunninghamella elegans" NRRL 1393 <br>"Cunninghamella elegans" IFM 46109 <br>"Cunninghamella elegans" UCP 542
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Dufour effect The is the energy flux due to a mass concentration gradient occurring as a coupled effect of irreversible processes. It is the reciprocal phenomenon to the Soret effect. The concentration gradient results in a temperature change. For binary liquid mixtures, the is usually considered negligible, whereas in binary gas mixtures the effect can be significant.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31149664
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Tom Browning (entomologist) Thomas Oakley Browning (28 January 1920 – April 1998) was an Australian zoologist and peace activist. He was a research scientist in the field of entomology. After his retirement in 1983, he had the title of Emeritus Professor of Entomology at the Waite campus of the University of Adelaide. He also wrote a number of biographies of former colleagues. He died in Adelaide in April 1998 at the age of 78.
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NGC 352 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Cetus. It was discovered on September 20, 1784 by William Herschel. It was described as "pretty faint, small, irregularly extended" by John Louis Emil Dreyer, the compiler of the New General Catalogue; he also noted an "8th magnitude star 97 seconds of time to east" relative to the galaxy.
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Laboratory frame of reference In physics, the laboratory frame of reference, or lab frame for short, is a frame of reference centered on the laboratory in which the experiment (either real or thought experiment) is done. This is the reference frame in which the laboratory is at rest. Also, this is usually the frame of reference in which measurements are made, since they are presumed (unless stated otherwise) to be made by laboratory instruments. An example of instruments in a lab frame, would be the particle detectors at the detection facility of a particle accelerator.
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UGC 6945 (also known as Arp 194) is a trio of interacting galaxies. The highly disrupted galaxy to the northwest is actually two galaxies in the advanced stages of merger, and has an angular size of . About 40″ to the southeast is a third galaxy with an angular size of . Based upon a radial velocity of about 10,500 km s, the interacting pair of galaxies at the northwest are located at a distance of from us (assuming a Hubble constant value of ). If we further assume that the third galaxy lies at the same distance away from us, we find that the galaxies are separated by a projected linear distance of roughly , though later findings from Hubble may cast this assumption into doubt (see below) As the pair of galaxies in the north gravitationally interact with each other, tidally-stripped gas from both galaxies is draped over the southern galaxy as a series of blobs, which are fueling a burst of star formation. While it has long been believed to be interacting with the northern galaxy, images from the Hubble Space Telescope clearly show that this stream of material is actually superimposed on the southern galaxy. This suggests that this third galaxy may actually lie in the background. Due to this uncertainty, the third galaxy may not be involved in the interaction.
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Sievert chamber A is a type of ionization chamber used in radiation dose measurements. It was invented by Professor Rolf Maximilian Sievert in Sweden in the years 1920-40.
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