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Gender typing Lawrence Kohlberg suggested that cognition comes before action and behavior (“I am a boy so I do boy-like things”). This emphasizes the importance of a child's understanding about gender roles and their permanent placement in it. After a child can fully grasp this concept, gender-specific information will become more relevant. This idea of gender consistency, similar to Piaget's concrete-operational stage, is represented by three stages: When the child is able to fully grasp gender stable understanding about themselves, usually between the ages of five and seven, the motivation to master their orientation and to socialize themselves allows them to seek out same-sexed models to learn more about gender-stereotypic behaviors. A schema is a cognitively organized network of associations that is readily available to help guide an individual's perception. Gender schema acts as a guide or standard for consistent behavior in a given scenario. Labels such as “girls are weak and boys are strong,” classifies what stereotypically acceptable actions for the gender groups are. Therefore, the theory proposes the idea that once the child has developed basic knowledge on gender behaviors they will begin to construct gender schemas. This is acquired first through the basic understanding of gender-specific roles. In other words, the child learns the contents of the society, things that are related to their own and the opposite sex, and incorporates it into their gender schemas
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Gender typing The child then learns to apply the appropriate attributes respectively to the right gender by selectively using this knowledge to conceptualize their own actions. Hence, categorizing how they should perform in various situations by molding their capabilities to match the schematic labels. Social learning theorists, like Albert Bandura, suggest that adults not only provide models for children to imitate, but that they also are actively involved in influencing a child's gender-role identification. The Social learning theory proposes that gender-identities and gender-role preferences are acquired through two concepts. There are many opportunities for a child to learn and develop their own understanding of what “gender” is. Thus as children progresses from childhood into adolescence they will already have been exposed to many factors that will influence their ideas and attitudes for normative social behaviors regarding gender roles. Social models, such as parents, siblings, and the media become extremely important during different stages of the child's development. Parents: Parents play a vital part in a child's early life, for they are the first group of people that a child meets and learns from. The information that surrounds a child at home becomes reinforcements for desired behaviors of a male or female. Studies have shown that as immediate as 24 hours after a child is born most parents have already engaged in gender stereotypic expectations of sons or daughters
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Gender typing Through examples such as painting a room pink or blue, encouragement to participate in shared sex-typed activities, offering gender differentiated toys, or treating the opposite sex child differently, these parent-child interactions have long lasting influence on how a child connects to certain gender-specific behaviors. Furthermore, various evidence suggest that certain household differences affecting how a child is raised can influence how similar (or different) a child is to the opposite sex, therefore how “feminine” or “masculine” the child can potentially become. For instance, as certain research demonstrates, in the absence of a father figure boys are generally more “feminine” than those living with a father. This demonstrates the significance of father-son modeling. The same research reveals that boyhood femininity is more strongly correlated with parental reinforcement such as a father or mother's desire for a girl and/or their approval for feminine behaviours. Siblings: Apart from parents, children also seek reinforcement from their older siblings. Therefore, inconsistencies for gender behaviors can also be as a result of children emulating their siblings of opposite sex. Sibling's influence is often most effective when the sibling is of an age that is more advanced than the child himself, therefore increasing the motivation for the child to model after their brother or sister
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Gender typing The impact of older siblings are power predictors for the younger sibling's gender role attitudes, sex-typed personality qualities, and masculine leisure activities. Findings suggest that girls develop less traditional attitudes than boys, thus, relative to stereotypically traditional development, older male siblings are more conscientious towards masculine activities, which are evidently modeled after by younger siblings more than feminine activities. Moreover, older brothers tend to have stronger influence over a younger sibling's sexual development. There is evidence that the relationship between older brother and younger sister can, in fact, influence the sister to become more feminine, abiding to more stereotypical gender-typed development than girls with older sisters. Biological studies show that dizygotic twins with the opposite- sex co-twin gender show more sex-typed behaviors than same-sex twins. Conversely, this can also develop in an opposite direction in which children may try to diverge themselves from their siblings as much as possible, making their differences more salient; however, this may be more evident in first-borns possibly due to the birth order. Peers: At a young age, children can already utilize their knowledge of different social categories to form stereotypes about what they understand about men and women. Interaction with peer groups will often shape people's behavior to fit normative expectations. Children often group together with other children of the same-gender
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Gender typing Belonging in a group that shares the same gender identity will often endorse more gender appropriate traits. An example of this is the fact that girls have more expressive traits than boys. Research also show that children often engage in play with same-sex peers, and exclude others who are different from the norm. For example, children who want to join a group will only be allowed to engage in play if they are a same-gender peer who has had prior experience with the activity, or an opposite-gender peer who has not had prior experience. The desire to engage in play can influence a child to behave like to their peers. In later life, as children starts to move away from their parents, the role of friendship becomes much more influential. Media: Children learn about different gender categories by observing various forms of media. They often look for gender roles, with whom they can relate to, from books and television. Conversely, these sources of media will also stereotypically shape a child's understanding for gender acceptable behaviors. Studies examining the effects of gender stereotyping in children's literature describe that, most often than not, gender views are affiliated with stereotypes which are both culturally and individually constructed. In children's literature, male characters appear to be more central as well as less emotional and stronger
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Gender typing Female characters on the other hand worked out their feelings through expression, they are more dependent and usually adopt the roles of more domesticated characters. Moreover, these characteristics are also seen in television programing. For example, in most prime-time television shows women receive twice as many comments about her appearance than men. Similarly, a study investigating the cartoon “Pokémon” and gender role expresses the differences in “good” and “bad” characters. Jesse and James (villains of the story) are portrayed to have adopted counter-stereotypical portrayal. While Jesse is seen as more aggressive and James as more feminine, it subtly teaches children that nontraditional or nonstereotypical gender role behaviors are bad. Furthermore, children in the story have difficulty recalling a male Pokémon revealing that there is an imbalance in which prominence is given to male characters. These depictions of male and female character roles can potentially become unconsciously influential in the way a child constructs gender views. It is expected for children to develop gender-typed behavioural cues given that children often use gender-related information to make judgments. Society often rewards shared traditional behaviours, especially for men, and thus having progressed to a cross-gender development can lead to unwanted criticisms and punishment
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Gender typing Therefore, when children undergo atypical gender development, due to both genetic and environmental contributors, it can drastically alter normal development from a person's sense of self-worth, self-esteem, to feelings of acceptance. When the child identifies as the opposite sex, he or she is then diagnosed with gender dysphoria (often termed "gender identity disorder" or GID). Genetics vs. environmental contributors: The development of gender roles has been associated with both genetic and social factors. Current biological research has suggested that testosterone differences can affect sexual orientation, gender identity, and personality. For example, girls with increased prenatal testosterone levels, due to congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), show more male-typed behaviors than the average female. This may cause a decrease in empathy levels, which is proven to be higher in the average women than men, and an increase in physical aggression, typically higher in men than women. Furthermore, multiple twin studies have also shown that homosexual traits displayed greater congruence in monozygotic (MZ) twins than dizygotic (DZ) twins displaying genetic contributions. Further studies reveal that this is especially true for girls' gender-typed values. Similarly, other studies have summarized that the prevalence of cross-gender behavior a highly heritable trait where MZ twins display the same cross-gender behaviors more so than DZ twins
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Gender typing While atypical gender role development may be heritable, this does not mean that it is independent. However, environmental effects can differ largely for different genders. Because society is more accepting of male traits (girls playing soccer) than female traits (boys doing ballet), society's negativity typically forces males to try to stay within the stereotypic norms. That being said however, male influence accounted by environmental factors that lead to atypical development is also stronger for boys than girls in terms of atypical development. Gender dysphoria: Gender dysphoria or gender identity disorder (GID) occurs when the child identifies himself or herself as the opposite sex. GID, previously known as transsexualism, occurs when a person has a strong desire to be the opposite sex because they feel uncomfortable in their own body. This may lead to cross-dressing or the desire to rid of their physical characteristic. GID is accompanied with a distress that the individual cannot change their sex and a strong rejection for sex-typical behaviors. Onset of most of these behaviors occurs as early as two to four years of age. While the onset of these behaviors may occur as early as two years of age, most children that exhibit GID before puberty will not experience it once they become an adult and will instead most likely fall under the category of gay, lesbian, or bisexual. If a child's GID does persist into adulthood however, it will most likely be permanent with medical intervention being the only solution
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Gender typing Gender dysphoria in children can be a controversial topic as some disapprove in diagnosing GID in children that have yet to reach puberty. However, GID in children is included in the DSM-5 and ICD-10. The ICD-10 is in the process of revision by the WHO, but instead of not addressing GOD in children, it will most likely be changed from "gender identity disorder of children" into "gender incongruence of childhood". Controversies about gender in DSM-5: For the fifth edition of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM-5), there has been a tremendous amount of debate around whether the sexual and gender identity, which includes the GID, qualifies as a mental disorder. One of the most notable discussions for this occurred in 2003 during the annual APA meeting, where Darryl B. Hill, Ph.D., argued that the GID should not be considered a mental disorder. He explains that due to the limited amount of reliable and valid evidence, given the role of parents and therapies, for whether GID meets the conditions as a mental disorder among children and adolescents. Furthermore, other researchers have stated that the diagnosis does not give recognition to the individual's discomfort with their biological sex which is completely detached from their gender assignment. This leaves patients susceptible to social changes for what acceptably feminine or masculine
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Gender typing Lastly, it does not provide evidence for nonconformity to traditional gender behaviours which varies between cultures, life stages, genders, and ethnic groups. Androgyny: Recent studies have shown that androgynous people are able to enhance performance cross-situationally because they can alter their behaviors appropriately to becoming more “masculine” or “feminine” in the given context. According to a study, a person's activity preference in games and interests are purely based on their gender-typed stereotypes, making the person significantly more stereotyped than androgynous people. In a self-esteem test, when individuals were given opposite-sex activities, gender-typed individuals generally felt more uncomfortable, leading to decreased levels of self-esteem. However, androgynous subjects did not feel discomfort or pessimism about themselves. Therefore, gender typing can often lead to specific gender-rule stereotypes to better facilitate decision making which can adhere to certain benefits as well as limitations. Therefore, parents who foster more non-traditional views in sex role orientation tend to encourage a less discriminatory environment. The child can then freely engage in more choices that are not affected by gender limitations. Androgynous children have been found to have higher self-esteem and higher self-worth
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Gender typing Drawbacks Recent studies have shown that gender typing is, in fact, not just related to gender-related characteristics that is congruous with the person's biological sex, but rather holds different dimensions. Several studies have also revealed the perks of androgynous individuals such as having more adaptability towards gender-specific situations as well as more flexible attitudes about sex roles. Therefore, while there appear to be many benefits for a gender-congruent identity, it can also result in limitations. Because gender typing often reinforces stereotypes, it tends to attract negative and rigid attitudes towards atypical gender characteristics, activities, and interests. This reinforces the idea that gender-typing does result in certain limitations towards the construction of one's identity. Boy Raised as Girl After a circumcision accident, Bruce's parents turned to Psychologist Dr. John Money who suggested they raise the boy as a girl. Money believes that biology does not determine our gender identification; our environment does. At 17 months old, Bruce was renamed "Brenda". However, at age 13, "Brenda" became unhappy, lonely, and refused to pursue anything female-typed. Brenda's parents chose to tell Brenda the truth, and from then on he named himself David. This story ended in tragedy; David committed suicide after his wife left him and he lost his job. Kate: Ben had never shown interest in “boy” toys, they wanted to wear girl's clothing and grow long hair
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Gender typing Soon they started to make their gender clear: they talked about being a girl and their identity not matching anatomy. Finally, Ben told family they would go by Kate. In the beginning, the child lived a double life. In school, she was “Ben”; at home, she was Kate. Characteristics between the two identities drastically varied. Ben was quiet, shy and withdrawn, while Kate was extroverted and happy. Her parents could see that this was taking a toll on Kate and so they changed to a school where Kate could attend as herself. As the parent learned through this experience, supporting a child's gender identity is extremely important. Pop: In Sweden, there is a couple who raised their child, Pop, by keeping the child's gender a secret, despite a few people who changed the baby's diaper. The parents stated that they wanted the baby to grow up free and without a gender mold. Pop's wardrobe contains everything from pants to dresses. Pop's parents avoid using pronouns and just refer to their child as “Pop.”
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K factor (crude oil refining) The K factor or characterization factor is a systematic way of classifying a crude oil according to its paraffinic, naphthenic, intermediate or aromatic nature. 12.5 or higher indicate a crude oil of predominantly paraffinic constituents, while 10 or lower indicate a crude of more aromatic nature. The K factor is also referred to as the UOP K factor or just UOPK.
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Art Spivack Arthur J. Spivack (July 9, 1956 - Queens, New York), also known as "Art" or "Arturo", is an American geochemist. He is currently a professor at the University of Rhode Island Graduate School of Oceanography. Spivack’s research interest is the geochemistry of the oceans, atmosphere, and crust. He developed the use of boron isotopes for determining the pH of ancient oceans. This approach provides a principal basis for estimating atmospheric CO2 concentrations of the last several tens of million years. He led the investigation of the 2015 Salty Brine Beach explosion. He has also contributed to scientific understanding of geochemical fluxes in mid-ocean-ridge hydrothermal systems and subduction zones and understanding of subseafloor life. Spivack received his bachelor's degree (1980) in chemistry from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and his Ph.D. in Oceanography from MIT and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (1986).
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Yangoor (crater) Yangoor is the largest known crater on the surface of the Uranian moon Ariel. The name comes from a spirit that brings day in Australian Aboriginal mythology. It is about in diameter and is located approximately from Ariel's south pole. The northwestern edge of the crater was erased by formation of ridged terrain. The crater lacks bright ejecta deposits and was imaged for the first time by the "Voyager 2" spacecraft in January 1986.
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Bismuthate is an ion. Its chemical formula is BiO. It has bismuth in its +5 oxidation state. It is a very strong oxidizing agent. It reacts with hot water to make bismuth(III) oxide and oxygen. It also reacts with acids. Sodium bismuthate is the most common bismuthate. It is one of the few sodium compounds that does not dissolve in water.
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Émile Bertrand (1844–1909) was a French mineralogist, in honour of whom bertrandite was named by Alexis Damour. He also gave his name to the "Bertrand lens" or phase telescope. He studied at the Ecole des Mines in Paris and was a co-founder of the "Société française de Minéralogie". He wrote a book on the application of microscopy to mineralogical studies, ""De l'Application du microscope à l'étude de la minéralogie"" (1878); published a translation of Ernst Mach's work on the history of mechanics, ""La mécanique: exposé historique et critique de son développement"" (1904); and is credited with the design of a refractometer.
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Melville S. Green Melville Saul Green (9 June 1922 – 27 March 1979) was an American statistical physicist.) He is known for the Green–Kubo relations. He was born in Jamaica, New York, and studied at Columbia University, where he was awarded M.A. in 1947, and Princeton University where he was awarded a Ph.D. in 1952. He became a faculty member at the University of Chicago from 1947 to 1951 and a research associate at the Institute of Fluid Dynamics and Applied Mathematics of the University of Maryland from 1951 to 1954. He was appointed head of the statistical physics section of the then National Bureau of Standards from 1954 to 1968. He worked on the Bogoliubov–Born–Green–Kirkwood–Yvon hierarchy, which however is not named for him, but for Herbert S. Green. Green is also known as a co-editor of an influential review series "Phase transitions and critical phenomena". He married Vivian Grossman in 1950 and had two children.
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Steven M. Weinreb (born May 10, 1941) is an American chemist and is a professor of chemistry at Pennsylvania State University in United States. Together with Steven Nahm, he developed the Weinreb ketone synthesis, which allows for mono-addition of an organometallic reagent such as a Grignard reagent or organolithium reagent to an amide. Weinreb received his PhD for work with Marshall Gates at the University of Rochester in 1967. After post-docs with Gilbert Stork and George H. Buchi, he worked at Fordham University. He joined the Pennsylvania State University in 1978, where he holds the Russell and Mildred Marker Professor of Natural Products Chemistry chair.
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Itabirite Itabirite, also known as banded-quartz hematite and hematite schist, is a laminated, metamorphosed oxide-facies iron formation in which the original chert or jasper bands have been recrystallized into megascopically distinguishable grains of quartz and the iron is present as thin layers of hematite, magnetite, or "martite" (pseudomorphs of hematite after magnetite). The term was originally applied in Itabirito (Pico de Itabirito), in the state of Minas Gerais and southern part of Belo Horizonte, Brazil, to a high-grade, massive specular hematite ore (66% iron) associated with a schistose rock composed of granular quartz and scaly hematite. The term is now widely used outside Brazil.
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Out of autoclave composite manufacturing is an alternative to the traditional high pressure autoclave (industrial) curing process commonly used by the aerospace manufacturers for manufacturing composite material. Out of autoclave (OOA) is a process that achieves the same quality as an autoclave but through a different process. OOA curing achieves the desired fiber content and elimination of voids by placing the layup within a closed mold and applying vacuum, pressure, and heat by means other than an autoclave. An RTM press is the typical method of applying heat and pressure to the closed mold. There are several out of autoclave technologies in current use including resin transfer molding (RTM), Same Qualified Resin Transfer Molding (SQRTM), vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM), and balanced pressure fluid molding. The most advanced of these processes can produce high-tech net shape aircraft components. Resin transfer molding (RTM) is a method of fabricating high-tech composite structures. The RTM process is capable of consistently producing composite parts with high strength, complex geometries, tight dimensional tolerances, and part quality typically required of aerospace applications. RTM uses a closed mold commonly made of aluminum. A fiber "layup" such as graphite is placed into the mold. The mold is closed, sealed, heated, and placed under vacuum. Heated resin is injected into the mold to impregnate the fiber layup. Having the mold heated and under vacuum, as in Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) assists the resin flow
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Out of autoclave composite manufacturing The mold is then held at a temperature sufficient to cure the resin. Current RTM technology produces lightweight parts with excellent mechanical properties. With these qualities, composite materials are gaining wide use in a variety of structural and non-structural applications common in aerospace and aviation. RTM is one method of fabricating these composite structures. SQRTM is a closed mold composites manufacturing method similar to RTM (Resin Transfer Molding). "Same Qualified" refers to this method injecting the same resin as that used in the prepreg layup. The attributes of "same qualified" are significant to a manufacturer because those who adopt this process need not re-qualify resin materials for their production process. SQRTM Process: Liquid molding + prepreg What sets SQRTM apart from standard resin transfer molding (RTM) is that, in place of a dry fiber preform, it substitutes a prepreg layup. SQRTM is an RTM process adapted to prepreg technology. The prepreg is placed in a closed mold and during the cure cycle, a small amount of resin is injected into the cavity through ports positioned around the part. This resin does not go into the laminate, but only presses up against the edge of the laminate in order to establish hydrostatic pressure on the prepreg, similar to the goal of autoclave curing. This pressure is similar to the autoclave, on the order of 6-7 bars (90-100 psi). Hydrostatic pressure minimizes voids by keeping dissolved air, water and resin monomers in solution in the resin
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Out of autoclave composite manufacturing The tool can either be self-clamped and self-heated or heated and clamped by a press. The equipment is composed of a tool, a press, an injector, and a vacuum pump. The key factors in the SQRTM process include precision machined closed mold tooling, high pressure presses, a high vacuum applied to the tool interior, and precise control of heating platens, injected resin volume, heat, and pressure. The advantages of the SQRTM process include a high level of integration, tight tolerances and the use of qualified prepregs. Its disadvantages include higher tool costs and a lower level of flexibility to design changes. VARTM is one of three processing alternatives that proponents claim can achieve aerospace-grade results without resort to autoclave cure. VARTM denotes a variety of related resin infusion processes now commonly used in the marine, transportation and infrastructure markets. The processes differ radically from prepreg processing in that fiber reinforcements and core materials are laid up dry in a one-sided mold and vacuum bagged. Liquid resin is then introduced through one or more ports strategically placed in the mold, and drawn by vacuum through the reinforcements by means of a series of designed-in channels and/or carefully placed infusion media that facilitate fiber wetout. Unlike the autoclave, VARTM cure requires neither high heat nor high pressure
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Out of autoclave composite manufacturing VARTM's comparatively low-cost tooling makes it possible to inexpensively produce large, complex parts in one shot, such as the tail on the Mitsubishi Regional Jet. Balanced pressure molding using fluid as the heat transfer is commercially practiced as the 'quickstep' process. This process allows for the curing, partial curing, and joining of composite materials. The process involves a fluid-filled, pressure balanced, heated floating mould technology. The heated floating mold technology used within the process works by rapidly applying heat to the laminate which is trapped between a free floating rigid or semi-rigid mold that floats in, and is surrounded by, a heat transfer fluid (HTF). The rapid heating can lead to significantly lower resin viscosities, and this in turn allows achieving full laminate consolidation using pressures lower than those used in autoclave. The mold and laminate become separated from the circulating HTF by a flexible membrane. The part, typically under full vacuum, is subject to pressures as high as 250kPa fluid pressure and can be rapidly heated to the desired cure temperature without risk of catastrophic exothermic reaction, as the HTF can draw excess heat as desired. The air is then removed under vacuum and the laminate is compacted and heated until the part is cured. A flexible membrane beneath the mold is bonded into a pressure chamber creating the lower half of a 'clamshell' or 'chamber' like mold set
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Out of autoclave composite manufacturing A second flexible membrane is bonded to a second pressure chamber creating the upper half of the clamshell. These pressure chambers are clamped together during processing, permitting the laminate to be compressed while reducing stress to the mold as it is floating in a balanced pressure environment within the HTF. The process can use thermosetting, thermoplastic prepregs (pre-impregnated composite fibers), and wet resin with dry fiber to produce superior composite parts. This out of autoclave process can achieve aerospace grade void contents of less than 2%, with extremely fast cycle times, and at significantly lower pressures and lower labor costs than many alternative autoclave production systems using many typical autoclave qualified prepregs. The quickstep out of autoclave system is unique in that it uses fully immersed balanced pressure fluid curing and it allows the user to stop the composite cure reaction at any point in the cure cycle, and thus can halt processing on all or part of the laminate and either return to it at a later to complete cure or to co-cure, join and bond other composites to it to create larger parts. The use of fluid to control temperature, as opposed to the gas generally used within methods such as autoclave and oven curing equates to lower energy consumption, faster cycle times and extremely accurate part temperature control. Another Out of autoclave method for achieving external compression on prepreg based composite parts is through the use of heat shrink tape
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Out of autoclave composite manufacturing This method, however, does not achieve the high quality of RTM or autoclave processes because without the autoclave or a closed mold, the part must be cured in a non-pressurized oven. These compression tapes are typically made from polyester (PET) film. Heat shrink tape is applied to a composite part prior to the heating, or curing cycle. When heated, the tape will shrink in the linear (machine direction). Heat shrink tape works best on parts that are cylindrical or semi-circular in cross section, as this allows the tape to exert even compaction forces on the part surface. Examples would be composite tubes for aerospace, wind energy, consumer sporting goods, etc. Heat shrink tape allows these parts to be processed without the need to cure with the heat and pressure of an autoclave.
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Aleksei Konstantinovich Zagulyaev (; 1924–2007), often incorrectly spelled as Zagulajev, was a Russian entomologist.
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Knudsen force is the force experienced by two surfaces at two different temperatures that are separated by a distance comparable to a mean free path of the molecules of the ambient medium.
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Carlos de la Torre y Huerta (born May 15, 1858 in Matanzas, Cuba, died February 19, 1950 in Havana) was a Cuban naturalist. He was the president of House of Representatives from November 1903 to April 1904. He is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of Cuban gecko, "Sphaerodactylus torrei".
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Tissue hydration is the process of absorbing and retaining water in biological tissues. Land plants maintain adequate tissue hydration by means of an outer waterproof layer. In soft or green tissues, this is usually a waxy cuticle over the outer epidermis. In older, woody tissues, waterproofing chemicals are present in the secondary cell wall that limit or inhibit the flow of water. Vascular plants also possess an internal vascular system that distributes fluids throughout the plant. Some xerophytes, such as cacti and other desert plants, have mucilage in their tissues. This is a sticky substance that holds water within the plant, reducing the rate of dehydration. Some seeds and spores remain dormant until adequate moisture is present, at which time the seed or spore begins to germinate. Animals maintain adequate tissue hydration by means of (1) an outer skin, shell, or cuticle; (2) a fluid-filled coelom cavity; and (3) a circulatory system. Hydration of fat free tissues, ratio of total body water to fat free body mass, is stable at 0.73 in mammals. In humans, a significant drop in tissue hydration can lead to the medical condition of dehydration. This may result from loss of water itself, loss of electrolytes, or a loss of blood plasma. Administration of hydrational fluids as part of sound dehydration management is necessary to avoid severe complications, and in some cases, death. Some invertebrates are able to survive extreme desiccation of their tissues by entering a state of cryptobiosis.
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Geologists' Association The (GA) is a British association concerned with the study of geology. The GA was founded in 1858. It is a charitable organization for all geologists and earth scientists, whether of professional or amateur status. The association publishes the "Proceedings of the Geologists' Association" through Elsevier. "Geology Today" is a bi-monthly publication produced jointly with the Geological Society of London.
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Sand sheet Sand sheets are flat, gently undulating plots of sand surfaced by grains that may be too large for saltation. They form approximately 40 percent of aeolian depositional surfaces. Sand sheets exist where grain size is too large, or wind velocities too low, for dunes to form.
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Randkluft A randkluft (from the German for "marginal cleft/crevasse") or rimaye (from the same French ) is the headwall gap between a glacier or snowfield and the adjacent rock face at the back of the cirque or, more loosely, between the rock face and the side of the glacier. In French, the word "rimaye" covers both notions of randkluft and bergschrund. It is formed by the melting of ice against warmer rock and may be very deep. During summer therefore, a randkluft will become wider and thus more difficult for climbers to negotiate. Randklufts are often found in relatively low-lying glaciers such as the Blaueis in the Berchtesgaden Alps or the Höllentalferner in the Wetterstein. A randkluft is similar to, but not identical with, a bergschrund, which is the place on a high-altitude glacier where the moving ice stream breaks away from the static ice frozen to the rock creating a large crevasse. Unlike a randkluft, a bergschrund has two ice walls.
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Dreifrankenstein The (German for "Three Franconias Stone") is a boundary stone that marks the tripoint where the three Franconian provinces of Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia meet in southern Germany. As part of the regional reforms in 1972 the boundary marker was moved around 7 kilometres as the crow flies to the southeast. Today both points are marked by stones that are referred to as the Old and New Dreifrankenstein. The Old ("Alter Dreifrankenstein") erected in 1892, is a 135 cm high column made of sandstone. It is located in woodland on the territory of Sandhügel, several hundred metres west of Kleinbirkach (in the borough of the market town of Ebrach) and east of Ebersbrunn (Markt Geiselwind, Lower Franconia) near the source region of the Reiche Ebrach stream. Its GPS coordinates are . The New ("Neuer Dreifrankenstein"), laid in 1979, is a 280 cm high glacial erratic made of muschelkalk, in which the coats of arms of the three Franconian provinces have been carved. It is located on an eminence in the Steigerwald forest, southwest of Heuchelheim (in the borough of Schlüsselfeld, Upper Franconia), northwest of Freihaslach (Markt Burghaslach, Middle Franconia) and east of Sixtenberg (Markt Geiselwind, Lower Franconia). Its GPS coordinates are . On the is a geodetic reference point whose coordinates are .
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30178822
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Macroflora is a term used for all the plants occurring in a particular area that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. It is usually synonymous with the Flora and can be contrasted with the microflora, a term used for all the bacteria and other microorganisms in an ecosystem. is also an informal term used by many palaeobotanists to refer to an assemblage of plant fossils as preserved in the rock. This is in contrast to the flora, which in this context refers to the assemblage of living plants that were growing in a particular area, whose fragmentary remains became entrapped within the sediment from which the rock was formed and thus became the macroflora.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30179091
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Stephen Wiesner Stephen J. Wiesner (born 1942) is a research physicist currently living in Israel. As a graduate student at Columbia University in New York in the late 1960s and early 1970s, he discovered several of the most important ideas in quantum information theory, including quantum money (which led to quantum key distribution), quantum multiplexing (the earliest example of oblivious transfer) and superdense coding (the first and most basic example of entanglement-assisted communication). Although this work remained unpublished for over a decade, it circulated widely enough in manuscript form to stimulate the emergence of quantum information science in the 1980s and 1990s. Wiesner is the son of Jerome Wiesner and Laya Wiesner. He received his undergraduate degree from Brandeis University. As of 2013 Wiesner works (by choice) as a construction laborer in Jerusalem.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30190335
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Leopoldo García-Colín Scherer (27 November 1930, in Mexico City – 8 October 2012, in Mexico City) was a Mexican scientist specialized in Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics who received the National Prize for Arts and Sciences in 1988. He was a member of The National College, a former president of the Mexican Society of Physics ("SMF", 1972–1973) and has received honorary degrees from several universities, including the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and the Metropolitan Autonomous University (UAM). He obtained a Chemistry degree at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) in 1953. The Ph.D. in Physics at the University of Maryland in 1959. He was professor at Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla from 1960 to 1963, and at Facultad de Ciencias in UNAM from 1967 to 1984. Later, he participated in research at the Centro Nuclear de Salazar, a Nuclear center in Mexico; assistant director of Basic Investigation of Processes at Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo from 1967 to 1974, professor at Instituto de Investigaciones de Materiales in UNAM during the period from 1984 to 1988. At the end of his career he had a tenure position at Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana at Iztapalapa. He was elected to El Colegio Nacional in September 12, 1977. He was member of the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores with the highest level, III, since 1988. He received a honris causa Ph. D from the National University of Mexico in April, 2007.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30204976
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Megaflora (from Greek μέγας "megas" "large" and New Latin "flora" "plant life") refers to an exceptionally large plant species. Examples of megaflora include the Sequoioideae of California and a number of extinct plant species from the Mesozoic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30268354
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Causal patch A causal patch is a region of spacetime connected within the relativistic framework of causality (causal light cones). After Leonard Susskind proposed the black hole complementarity conjecture for black holes in quantum gravity, he realized it would also apply to a de Sitter universe with a positive cosmological constant with the cosmological horizon in place of the event horizon. The region within the horizon is the causal patch, and it is self-contained. This means we may neglect what happens beyond the cosmological horizon. A consequence of this radical conjecture is that the total number of states of the universe is finite.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30269772
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Elusimicrobia The phylum Elusimicrobia, previously known as "Termite Group 1", has been shown to be widespread in different ecosystems like marine environment, sewage sludge, contaminated sites and soils, and toxic wastes. The high abundance of 'Elusimicrobia' representatives is only evidenced for the lineage of symbionts found in termites and ants. The first organism to be cultured was "Elusimicrobium minutum"; however, other two species have been partially described and placed in a separate class, known as Microbiaendophisolisum. The phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 123 by 'The All-Species Living Tree' Project. The currently accepted taxonomy is based solemnly on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Notes: ♠ Strains found at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) but not listed in the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LSPN)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30290243
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Caldisericum exile is a species of bacteria sufficiently distinct from other bacteria to be placed in its own family, order, class and phylum. It is the first member of the thermophilic candidate phylum OP5 to be cultured and described.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30302010
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Bunch–Davies vacuum In quantum field theory in curved spacetime, there is a whole class of quantum states over a background de Sitter space which are invariant under all the isometries: the alpha-vacua. Among them there is a particular one whose associated Green functions verify a condition (Hadamard condition) consisting to behave on the light-cone as in flat space. This state is usually called the or Euclidean vacuum, actually was first obtained by N.A. Chernikov and E. A. Tagirov, in 1968 and later by C. Schomblond and P. Spindel, in 1976, in the framework of a general discussion about invariant Green functions on de Sitter space. The can also be described as being generated by an infinite time trace from the condition that the scale of quantum fluctuations is much smaller than the Hubble scale. The state possesses no quanta at the asymptotic past infinity. The Bunch-Davies state is the zero-particle state as seen by a geodesic observer, that is, an observer who is in free fall in the expanding state. The state explains the origin of cosmological perturbation fluctuations in inflationary models.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30335048
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Spinoside is any one of several chemical compounds isolated from certain plants, notably "Desfontainia spinosa". They can be seen as derivatives of the triterpene hydrocarbon cucurbitane (), more specifically from cucurbitacin H. They include
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30381533
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Michael A. Dopita Michael Andrew "Mike" Dopita (born 28 October 1946, Kraslice, Czechoslovakia, died 22 December 2018, Canberra, Australia) was an Australian astronomer and Professor Emeritus at the Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Australian National University where he worked since 1975. He was the 1983 winner of the Pawsey Medal. He was elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science in 1996 and served as Treasurer of the Academy. He was President, Division VI, International Astronomical Union, from 1994 to 1997 and was a council member of the Astronomical Society of Australia between 1993 and 1996. He was a Fellow of that society. He was an Inaugural Federation Fellow of the Australian Research Council, 2001. Until 2015 he was Editor in Chief of the scientific journal Astrophysics and Space Science and author with Dr Ralph Sutherland of "Astrophysics of the Diffuse Universe". Dopita published over 650 research papers in refereed scientific journals. He became a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) in the Australia Day 2013 honours list.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30387479
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Affleck–Dine mechanism The (AD mechanism) is a postulated mechanism for explaining baryogenesis during the primordial Universe immediately following the Big Bang. Thus, the AD mechanism may explain the asymmetry between matter and anti-matter in the current Universe. It was proposed in 1985 by Ian Affleck and Michael Dine of Princeton University. In the supersymmetry theory of particle physics, ordinary quarks and leptons have scalar partners that carry baryon and lepton numbers. As the latter decay into fermions during the early Universe, the net baryon number that they carry can then form the currently observed excess of ordinary baryons. This occurs due to interactions of the scalars with the inflaton field, resulting in CP violations. The AD mechanism must have occurred during or after the reheating event that followed cosmic inflation. This may explain why the net mass of normal matter and dark matter are apparently so close to each other, rather than being widely different.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30388766
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Differential Doppler effect The occurs when light is emitted from a rotating source. In circumstellar environments it describes the difference in photons arriving at orbiting dust particles. Photons that originate from the limb that is rotating away from the particle are red-shifted, while photons emitted from the limb rotating toward the particle are blue-shifted.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30391110
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Charles Joseph Devillers or de Villers (1724 in Rennes – 1810) was a French naturalist. Charles Devillers was a member of l’Académie des sciences belles-lettres et arts de Lyon from 1764 to 1810. He had a cabinet of curiosities and was interested in physics and mathematics. He published "Caroli Linnaei entomologia", in 1789, a collection of the insect descriptions of Carl von Linné. He was a friend of Philibert Commerson (1727–1773), Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert (1741–1814) and Marc Antoine Louis Claret de La Tourrette (1729–1793).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30404380
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Shamil Shetekauri (; born July 10, 1955) is a Georgian scientist, botanist, and botanical geography specialist in the study of flora, biodiversity, taxonomy of plants and plant ecology. Member of the Georgian Botanical Society () (1980), Member of the International Organisation for the Phytotaxonomic Investigation Mediterranean Area (OPTIMA) (2002), Member International Geographical Union (IGU) (2002), Head of the NGO "“TEBULO”" (2002), Fellow of the London Linnean Society (FLS), Regional expert in Caucasus of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2008), Member of scientific chamber of Botanical Institute of Ketskhoveli () (2008). was born on July 10, 1955 in Khone, Dusheti District, Georgia. In 1973–1978 he successfully finished Faculty of Gardening and Viticulture in Georgian State Institute of Agriculture () and received Master of Sciences in Agronomy. In 1982–1985 he studied in Postgraduate school of the Institute of Botany of the Georgian Academy of Sciences. In 1986 he made Candidate of Biological of Sciences (equivalent to PhD, Flora, Botany). In 1999 he was made Doctor of Biological of Sciences (equivalent to ScD, Flora, Botany). Since 2010, he has served as a Chief Researcher and Head of Department Plant Systematic and Geography Tbilisi Botanical Garden and Institute of Botany. From 2006 he has been a Professor at Tbilisi State University. He has worked as a Leading Researcher, at the Institute of Botany of Academy of Sciences of Georgia since 2001
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30404959
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Shamil Shetekauri An endemic spider species of the Caucasus has been named after him: "Incestophantes shetekaurii" (Linyphiidae).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30404959
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Respiratory inductance plethysmography (RIP) is a method of evaluating pulmonary ventilation by measuring the movement of the chest and abdominal wall. Accurate measurement of pulmonary ventilation or breathing often requires the use of devices such as masks or mouthpieces coupled to the airway opening. These devices are often both encumbering and invasive, and thus ill suited for continuous or ambulatory measurements. As an alternative RIP devices that sense respiratory excursions at the body surface can be used to measure pulmonary ventilation. According to a paper by Konno and Mead “the chest can be looked upon as a system of two compartments with only one degree of freedom each”. Therefore, any volume change of the abdomen must be equal and opposite to that of the rib cage. The paper suggests that the volume change is close to being linearly related to changes in antero-posterior (front to back of body) diameter. When a known air volume is inhaled and measured with a spirometer, a volume-motion relationship can be established as the sum of the abdominal and rib cage displacements. Therefore, according to this theory, only changes in the antero-posterior diameter of the abdomen and the rib cage are needed to estimate changes in lung volume. Several sensor methodologies based on this theory have been developed. RIP is the most frequently used, established and accurate plethysmography method to estimate lung volume from respiratory movements
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30407298
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Respiratory inductance plethysmography RIP has been used in many clinical and academic research studies in a variety of domains including polysomnographic (sleep), psychophysiology, psychiatric research, anxiety and stress research, anesthesia, cardiology and pulmonary research (asthma, COPD, dyspnea). A respiratory inductance plethysmograph consists of two sinusoid wire coils insulated and placed within two 2.5 cm (about 1 inch) wide, lightweight elastic and adhesive bands. The transducer bands are placed around the rib cage under the armpits and around the abdomen at the level of the umbilicus (belly button). They are connected to an oscillator and subsequent frequency demodulation electronics to obtain digital waveforms. During inspiration the cross-sectional area of the rib cage and abdomen increases altering the self-inductance of the coils and the frequency of their oscillation, with the increase in cross-sectional area proportional to lung volumes. The electronics convert this change in frequency to a digital respiration waveform where the amplitude of the waveform is proportional to the inspired breath volume. Konno and Mead extensively evaluated a two-degrees-of-freedom model of chest wall motion, whereby ventilation could be derived from measurements of rib cage and abdomen displacements. With this model, tidal volume (Vt) was calculated as the sum of the anteroposterior dimensions of the rib cage and abdomen, and could be measured to within 10% of actual Vt as long as a given posture was maintained
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30407298
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Respiratory inductance plethysmography Changes in volume of the thoracic cavity can also be inferred from displacements of the rib cage and diaphragm. Motion of the rib cage can be directly assessed, whereas the motion of the diaphragm is indirectly assessed as the outward movement of the anterolateral abdominal wall. However, accuracy issues arise when trying to assess accurate respiratory volumes from a single respiration band placed either at the thorax, abdomen or midline. Due to differences in posture and thoraco-abdominal respiratory synchronization it is not possible to obtain accurate respiratory volumes with a single band. Furthermore, the shape of the acquired waveform tends to be non-linear due to the non-exact co-ordination of the two respiratory compartments. This further limits quantification of many useful respiratory indices and limits utility to only respiration rates and other basic timing indices. Therefore, to accurately perform volumetric respiratory measurements, a dual band respiratory sensor system must be required. Dual band respiratory inductance plethysmography can be used to describe various measures of complex respiratory patterns. The image shows waveforms and measures commonly analyzed. Respiratory rate is the number of breaths per minute. A non-specific measure of respiratory disorder. Tidal volume (Vt) is the volume inspired and expired with each breath. Variability in the wave form can be used to differentiate between restrictive (less) and obstructive pulmonary diseases as well as acute anxiety
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30407298
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Respiratory inductance plethysmography Minute ventilation is equivalent to tidal volume multiplied by respiratory rate and is used to assess metabolic activity. Peak inspiratory flow (PifVt) is a measure that reflects respiratory drive, the higher its value, the greater the respiratory drive in the presence of coordinated thoraco-abdominal or even moderately discoordinated thoraco-abdominal movements. Fractional inspiratory time (Ti/Tt) is the "Duty cycle" (Ti/Tt, ratio of time of inspirationy to total breath time). Low values may reflect severe airways obstruction and can also occur during speech. Higher values are observed when snoring. Work of breathing is a measure of a "Rapid shallow breathing index". Peak/mean inspiratory and expiratory flow measures the presence of upper airway flow limitations during inspiration and expiration. %RCi is the percent contribution of the rib cage excursions to the tidal volume Vt. The %RCi contribution to Tidal Volume ratio is obtained by dividing the inspired volume in the RC band by the inspired volume in the algebraic sum of RC + AB at the point of the peak of inspiratory tidal volume. This value is higher in woman than in men. The values are also generally higher during acute hyperventilation. Phase Angle - Phi - Normal breathing involves a combination of both thoracic and abdominal (diaphragmatic) movements. During inhalation, both the thoracic and abdominal cavities simultaneously expand in volume, and thus in girth as well
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Respiratory inductance plethysmography If there is a blockage in the trachea or nasopharynx, the phasing of these movements will shift in relation to the degree of the obstruction. In the case of a total obstruction, the strong chest muscles force the thorax to expand, pulling the diaphragm upward in what is referred to as “paradoxical” breathing – paradoxical in that the normal phases of thoracic and abdominal motion are reversed. This is commonly referred to as the Phase Angle. Apnea & hypopnea detection - Diagnostic components of sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome and periodic breathing. Apnea & hypopnea classification - Phase relation between thorax and abdomen classifies apnea/hypopnea events into central, mixed, and obstructive types. qDEEL quantitative difference of end expiratory lung volume is a change in the level of end expiratory lung volume and may be elevated in Cheyne-Stokes respiration and periodic breathing. Dual band respiratory inductance plethysmography was validated in determining tidal volume during exercise and shown to be accurate. A version of RIP embedded in a garment called the LifeShirt was used for these validation studies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30407298
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Stellar density is the average number of stars within a unit volume. It is similar to the stellar mass density, which is the total solar masses (M) found within a unit volume. Typically, the volume used by astronomers to describe the stellar density is a cubic parsec (pc). In the solar neighborhood, this value can be determined from surveys of nearby stars, combined with estimates of the number of faint stars that may have been missed. The true stellar density near the Sun is estimated as 0.004 stars per cubic light year, or . When combined with estimates of the stellar masses, this yields a mass density estimate of g/cm. The density estimate varies across space, with the density decreasing rapidly in the direction out of the galactic plane. The locations within the Milky Way that have the highest stellar density are the central core and the interior of globular clusters. A typical mass density for a globular cluster is , which is 500 times the mass density near the Sun. In the solar neighborhood, the stellar density of a star cluster must be greater than in order to avoid tidal disruption.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30428055
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Bousso's holographic bound A simple generalization of the black hole entropy bound (cf. holographic principle) to generic systems is that, in quantum gravity, the maximum entropy which can be enclosed by a spatial boundary is given by a quarter of its surface area. However, as a general rule, this simple generalization appears to be false, because the spatial boundary can be taken to be within the event horizon of a black hole. It also fails in cosmological models. Raphael Bousso came up with a modification that the spatial boundary should not be a trapped surface. This led him to come up with Bousso's holographic bound, also known as the covariant entropy bound. Basically, a spatial boundary is valid if, when one considers both null (or light) sheets orthogonal to its tangent space, the expansion factors both point in the same direction. This defines inside and outside. The entropy crossing either (past or future) of the inner or non-expanding null surface (light sheet) is bounded by one quarter of the surface area of the interior region.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30471415
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Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity The "R" = "T" model, also known as Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity, is a theory of gravity with dilaton coupling in one spatial and one time dimension. It should not be confused with the CGHS model or Liouville gravity. The action is given by where formula_2 is the dilaton, formula_3 denotes the covariant derivative and the equation of motion is The metric in this case is more amenable to analytical solutions than the general 3+1D case though a canonical reduction for the latter has recently been obtained. For example, in 1+1D, the metric for the case of two mutually interacting bodies can be solved exactly in terms of the Lambert W function, even with an additional electromagnetic field (see quantum gravity and references for details).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30480361
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Knut Olai Bjørlykke Knut Olai Knutsen Bjørlykke (11 February 1860 – 26 February 1946) was a Norwegian geologist and sedimentologist. He was born in Sandøy in Møre og Romsdal, Norway. He was the father of Harald Bjørlykke and through him a grandfather of Arne Bjørlykke. He took the dr.philos. degree in 1907 and his best known academic work was "Det centrale Norges fjeldbygning" (1905). He worked for the Norwegian Geological Survey from 1889 to 1905 and the Norwegian College of Agriculture from 1898 to 1931. He was awarded his PhD. in 1907 and appointed professor of geology. In the 1915 Norwegian parliamentary election, he stood as a candidate for the Liberal Party in the constituency "Bærum og Follo" but lost to Christian Fredrik Michelet with only 864 out of 9,133 votes. The Bjørlykke Glacier in Svalbard was named after him following a proposal in 1912 by Adolf Hoel, who had traversed the glacier in 1909 together with Olaf Holtedahl.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30492995
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Harald Bjørlykke (14 September 1901 – 28 February 1968) was a Norwegian geologist. He was born in Ås, a son of Knut Olai Bjørlykke. He was the father of Arne Bjørlykke and Knut Olav Bjørlykke. He took the dr.philos. degree in 1935, and mainly worked within mineralogy and the geology of ore. He was the director of Norsk Bergverk from 1958, director of the Norwegian Geological Survey from 1958 to 1966, and professor of geology at the Norwegian Institute of Technology from 1966 to his death.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30493028
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Fritz Müller (glaciologist) Fritz Müller (16 April 1926 – 26 July 1980) was a Swiss glaciologist, who carried out research in Switzerland, Greenland, the Canadian Arctic, Antarctica and the Himalayas. Fritz Müller was born 1926 in a little town near Zurich and graduated in 1954 in Geographies and Geology from the University of Zurich. After expeditions to Greenland and Mount Everest, he concentrated his work on cold region hydrology. In 1959 he became the scientific leader of a Canadian expedition to Axel Heiberg Island organised by McGill University, where he became Assistance Professor of Glaciology. In 1970 he changed to ETH Zurich, where he became Head of the Institute of Geography and started the investigation of the North Water Polynya in Baffin Bay. Müller also worked on the glacier inventories of the Swiss Alps and the world. He became director of the World Glacier Monitoring Service. In 1980 Fritz Müller died due to a heart attack during a field excursion for journalists on the Rhône Glacier in Switzerland.
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Sulcus (geology) Sulcus (plural: sulci ) is, in astrogeology, an area of complex parallel or subparallel ridges and furrows on a planet or moon. For example, Uruk Sulcus is a bright region of grooved terrain adjacent to Galileo Regio on Jupiter's moon Ganymede.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30496655
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Pyotr Kolodin Pyotr Ivanovich Kolodin (; born 23 September 1930) is a former Soviet cosmonaut. Although he retired in 1983 without flying in space, Kolodin served non-flying assignments on several spaceflights. Kolodin was born in Novovasilyevka, Soviet Union (now in Zaporizhia Oblast, Ukraine). In 1959, he graduated from Military Academy of Engineering and Radioengineering with gold medal. Kolodin then became an engineer-officer in the Soviet Armed Forces until his selection as a cosmonaut. He was selected as a Soviet cosmonaut as part of the TsPK Group 2 in 1963. He entered cosmonaut training in January 1963 and completed training in January 1966. After completing his training, Kolodin served non-flight (backup) roles on the Voskhod 2, Soyuz 5, Soyuz 7, Soyuz 11, and Soyuz 12 spaceflights. He trained as test engineer of the 1st crew to fly on Soyuz 11 to 1st visit the Salyut 1 space station, but the entire crew was bumped when it was suspected that flight engineer Valeri Kubasov had contracted tuberculosis. The crew that replaced them perished during their mission when their capsule depressurized during preparations for re-entry. Then he was in the 1st crew of the 1st visitation mission to Salyut 6 space station with Vladimir Dzhanibekov as a commander (future Soyuz 27). But after the unsuccessful mission of Soyuz 25 it was decided to include in the crews cosmonauts with the flight experience, so he was replaced by Oleg Makarov. Kolodin later worked as a flight controller until his retirement on 20 April 1983
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Pyotr Kolodin He is married and has one son.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30501434
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Kuravirus is a genus within the "Podoviridae" family. This genus was established based on a combination of morphological features and genome organization. The type species, "Enterobacteria phage Phieco32", has a relatively rare morphology, a C3 morphotype, with an elongated head (145 x 44 nm) and a short tail (13 nm) with short kinked tail fibers. These phages are temperate and are capable of generalized transduction with lysogenic conversion, and can have very high burst sizes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30508481
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RST model The Russo–Susskind–Thorlacius model or in short is a modification of the CGHS model to take care of conformal anomalies. In the CGHS model, if we include Faddeev-Popov ghosts to gauge-fix diffeomorphisms in the conformal gauge, they contribute an anomaly of -24. Each matter field contributes an anomaly of 1. So, unless N=24, we will have gravitational anomalies. To the CGHS action is added, where "κ" is either formula_3 or formula_4 depending upon whether ghosts are considered. The nonlocal term leads to nonlocality. In the conformal gauge, It might appear as if the theory is local in the conformal gauge, but this overlooks the fact that the Raychaudhuri equations are still nonlocal.
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Daniel Hanbury FRS (11 September 1825 – 24 March 1875), a British botanist and pharmacologist, was one of the leading 19th century experts on pharmacognosy, the study of the medicinal applications of nature, principally of plants. Son of a Quaker pharmacist, Daniel Bell Hanbury (1794-1882), and his wife Rachel Christy (1802-1876), grew up in London. Entering his father's firm, Allen, Hanbury and Barry, at the age of 16, young Daniel quickly proved a valuable and capable employee. His life was dedicated to his work, into which he threw himself with great energy. Hanbury, who never married, was a vegetarian, and like many of his Victorian contemporaries, opposed the use of alcohol and tobacco. He retired from business in 1870 and died in Clapham of typhoid fever. He was buried in the burial ground of the Society of Friends at Wandsworth. Hanbury's extensive knowledge of the world's botany was based on years of study, collecting and travel - trips to the Middle East and throughout Europe were supplemented by extensive correspondence with colleagues throughout the world. He was an essential partner to his brother, Sir Thomas Hanbury, in selecting specimens for and establishing the Giardini Botanici Hanbury at La Mortola, now maintained by the University of Genoa. On his death, Sir Thomas donated his brother's entire botanical cabinet collection to Kew Gardens, where it is now part of the Economic Botany Collection
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Daniel Hanbury Hanbury's first published contribution, in volume 1 of the "Transactions of the Pharmaceutical Society", was published soon after starting his work. It was followed, regularly, by a stream of articles and papers describing the pharmacological applications of various plants, insects, and chemicals, and published in such distinguished sources as the "Pharmaceutical Journal" and the "Transactions of the Linnean Society". During his career he served as President of the British Pharmaceutical Conference, as Botanical Examiner of the Board of Examiners of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (served, 1860-1872; elected member 1857), and in several other major professional capacities. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1867. Hanbury's published works include:
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(2+1)-dimensional topological gravity In two spatial and one time dimensions, general relativity turns out to have no propagating gravitational degrees of freedom. In fact, it can be shown that in a vacuum, spacetime will always be locally flat (or de Sitter or anti-de Sitter depending upon the cosmological constant). This makes (2+1D topological gravity) a topological theory with no gravitational local degrees of freedom. Physicists became interested in the relation between Chern–Simons theory and gravity during the 1980s. During this period, Edward Witten argued that 2+1D topological gravity is equivalent to a Chern–Simons theory with the gauge group formula_1 for a negative cosmological constant, and formula_2 for a positive one. This theory can be exactly solved, making it a toy model for quantum gravity. The Killing form involves the Hodge dual. Witten later changed his mind, and argued that nonperturbatively 2+1D topological gravity differs from Chern–Simons because the functional measure is only over nonsingular vielbeins. He suggested the CFT dual is a Monster conformal field theory, and computed the entropy of BTZ black holes.
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Gaunt factor The (or Kramers-Gaunt factor) is used as a multiplicative correction to the continuous absorption or emission results when calculated using classical physics techniques. In cases where classical physics provides a close approximation, the can be set to 1.0. It varies from this value in cases where quantum mechanics becomes important. The was named after the physicist John Arthur Gaunt, based on his work on the quantum mechanics of continuous absorption. Gaunt used a 'g' function in his 1930 work, which Chandrasekhar named the 'Gaunt factor' in 1939. It is sometimes named the Kramers-as Gaunt incorporated the work of Hendrik Anthony Kramers.
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Sandplain A sandplain is an area where the soil is sand deposited from elsewhere by processes such as wind or ocean, rather than direct weathering of bedrock. Sandplains are quite flat. There may be dune systems, and given time and the right conditions these may form eolianite ridges, but other than that there is little to give a sandplain any topographical character. Inland sandplains are often extremely infertile, because the sand is often low in nutrients when deposited, plus the good drainage means any nutrients are rapidly leached away. Coastal sandplains in intertidal zones like those seen in the Wadden Sea in western Europe for example, are wet with nutrients added continuously, so they can often support a very rich and important fauna of birds, worms, mussels, etc.. In North America, sandplains are often vegetated by pine barrens. In Western Australia, kwongan is the dominant vegetation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30568215
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Sample injector A sample injector is a device used in conjunction with injecting samples into high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or similar chromatography apparati.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30577297
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Indonesian tsunami There have been many tsunamis involving the territory that is now Indonesia. class="wikitable sortable" !Event !Date !Location !class="unsortable"|Summary !class="unsortable"|Notes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30578823
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Regius Professor of Natural History (Aberdeen) The Regius Professor of Natural History is a Regius Professorship at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland. It was originally called the Regius Professor of Civil and Natural History at Marischal College until in 1860 Marischal College and King's Colleges merged to form the University of Aberdeen, and the title changed to Natural History.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30635101
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Damping matrix In applied mathematics, a damping matrix is a matrix corresponding to any of certain systems of linear ordinary differential equations. A damping matrix is defined as follows. If the system has "n" degrees of freedom "u" and is under application of "m" damping forces. Each force can be expressed as follows: It yields in matrix form; where C is the damping matrix composed by the damping coefficients:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30638875
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Ruff degradation In 1898, Otto Ruff published his work on the transformation of D-Glucose to D-Arabinose later called the Ruff degradation. In this reaction, D-Glucose is converted to D-Arabinose . In this reaction, the terminal aldehyde group is converted to a carboxylic acid group, using selective oxidation of the aldehyde using Bromine water and then converted to gluconate ion. Next, Fe(OAc) with 30% of HO is added. Thus COO- ion will form CO2 and a stereo selective compound will form. And below -CH2OH will convert to -CHO group through the reduction of iron from its +3 state to +2 state, thus forming D-Arabinose. shortens an aldose chain by removing one carbon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30647223
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Toxophore A toxophore is the chemical group that produces the toxic effect in a toxin molecule: commonly used in pharmaceutical and pesticide sciences.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30678506
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Hilt's law is a geological term that states the deeper the coal, the higher its rank (grade). The law holds true if the thermal gradient is entirely vertical, but metamorphism may cause lateral changes of rank, irrespective of depth. Increasing depth of burial results in a decrease in the oxygen content of the coals. The phenomenon was observed by professor Carl Hilt (1873).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30697737
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Torsion-bar antenna A torsion-bar antenna (or TOBA) is a novel scheme for a gravitational wave detector, proposed by M. Ando, et al. in 2010. The proposed design is composed of two, long, thin bars, suspended as torsion pendula in a cross-like fashion. Their differential angle (sensitive to tidal gravitational wave forces) would be compared using a set of optical cavities with one end mirror of each cavity fixed to the ends of each bar. Such a detector could be fashioned either for ground-based or space-based use. The predicted frequency band over which such a detector would be most sensitive band would be centered on 1 Hz, similar to DECIGO. This frequency range would complement current ground-based, laser interferometric detectors (whose sensitive band is between 10–100 Hz and several kHz, such as LIGO or Virgo), and proposed space-based, laser interferometric detectors (such as LISA whose sensitive band is centered on 10 Hz).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30706121
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Josef Velenovský (22 April 1858 – 7 May 1949) was a Czech botanist, mycologist, pteridologist, and bryologist. He also worked with fossils. He was a research investigator and professor in the Botanical Institute of the University of Prague, alternating with his colleague Ladislav Josef Čelakovský. He was also professor of botany at Charles University, where he concentrated in the study of mycology in final half of his life. Velenovský collected innumerable material, particularly in new central Bohemia, and described at least 2000 species of fungi. Many of his type specimens and other collections are located in the herbarium of the Národní Museum of Prague.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30715608
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Sweet spot (acoustics) The sweet spot is a term used by audiophiles and recording engineers to describe the focal point between two speakers, where an individual is fully capable of hearing the stereo audio mix the way it was intended to be heard by the mixer. The sweet spot is the location which creates an equilateral triangle together with the stereo loudspeakers. In the case of surround sound, this is the focal point between four or more speakers, i.e., the location at which all wave fronts arrive simultaneously. In international recommendations the sweet spot is referred to as "reference listening point". Different static methods exist to broaden the area of the "sweet spot". A discussion of methods and their benefits can be found in Merchel "et al." By means of such methods more than one listener can enjoy the sound experience as intended by the audio engineer, including the desired phantom source locations, spectral and spatial balance and degree of immersion. Alternatively, the "sweet spot" can be adjusted dynamically to the actual position of the listener. Therefore, a correct phantom source localization is possible over the whole listening area. This approach is implemented in the open source project SweetSpotter. Massive multi-channel audio systems that apply wave field synthesis or higher order ambisonics exhibit an extended optimal listening area instead of a sweet spot. Sound engineers also refer to the "sweet spot" of any noise-producing body that may be captured with a microphone
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30719029
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Sweet spot (acoustics) Every individual instrument has its own sweet spot, the perfect location to place the microphone or microphones, in order to obtain the best sound.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30719029
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Isostructural chemical compounds have similar chemical structures. Isomorphous when used in the relation to crystal structures is not synonymous: in addition to the same atomic connectivity that characterises isostructural compounds, isomorphous substances crystallise in the same space group and have the same unit cell dimensions. The IUCR definition used by crystallographers is: Examples include: Many minerals are isostructural when they differ only in the nature of a cation. Compounds which are isoelectronic usually have similar chemical structures. For example, methane, CH, and the ammonium ion, NH, are isoelectric and are isostructural as both have a tetrahedral structure. The C-H and N-H bond lengths are different and crystal structures are completely different because the ammonium ion only occurs in salts.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30723461
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NGC 3621 is a field spiral galaxy about away in the equatorial constellation of Hydra. It is comparatively bright and can be well seen in moderate-sized telescopes. The galaxy is around across and is inclined at an angle of 25° from being viewed edge on. It shines with a luminosity equal to 13 billion times that of the Sun. The morphological classification is SA(s)d, which indicates this is an ordinary spiral with loosely wound arms. There is no evidence for a bulge. Although it appears to be isolated, belongs to the Leo spur. This galaxy has an active nucleus that matches a Seyfert 2 optical spectrum, suggesting that a low mass supermassive black hole is present at the core. Based upon the motion of stars in the nucleus, this object may have a mass of up to three million times the mass of the Sun.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30724603
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Emendation In zoological nomenclature, emendations are alterations made to the spelling of taxon names. In bacteriological nomenclature, emendations are made to the circumscription of a taxon. The change must be consciously made along with justification for altering the spelling originally used by the taxon author while describing the species. Any other spelling changes are considered to be unjustified. Valid emendations include changes made to correct: The binomial authority remains unchanged.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30733816
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N2K Consortium The is a collaborative multinational effort by American, Chilean and Japanese astronomers to find additional extrasolar planets around stars that are not already being surveyed. The N2K is shorthand for the set of roughly 2,000 of the nearest and most luminous main sequence stars that were selected to be newly surveyed. Target stars have a B - V color index value between 0.4 and 1.2, a visual magnitude brighter than 10.5, and a distance of less than 110 pc from the Sun. They were selected based upon their high metallicity, which is the abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium. The observing campaign uses the Keck, Magellan and Subaru telescopes, plus automated telescopes at Fairborn Observatory. Each star is observed three times over a period of several days, then checked for short period variations in radial velocity. This variation is a characteristic of gravitational perturbation caused by a hot Jupiter. Those stars showing radial velocity variations are then checked with the automated photometric telescopes from Fairborn Observatory. During a two-year run beginning in 2004, the was predicted to detect about 60 new hot Jupiters. However, by 2009, only seven planets with orbital periods of up to five days had been discovered. They orbit the following stars:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30741541
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Roman Kozłowski (February 1, 1889 – May 2, 1977) was a Polish palaeontologist, best known for his work on graptolites. Kozłowski was born in Włocławek. He was a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences and founder of "Acta Palaeontologica Polonica". Kozłowski was awarded the Mary Clark Thompson Medal in 1958 from the National Academy of Sciences and the Wollaston Medal in 1961.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30795441
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Indium arsenide antimonide phosphide () is a semiconductor material. InAsSbP has been widely used as blocking layers for semiconductor laser structures, as well as for the mid-infrared light-emitting diodes, photodetectors and thermophotovoltaic cells. InAsSbP layers can be grown by heteroepitaxy on indium arsenide, gallium antimonide and other materials. The vibrational properties of the alloy have been investigated by Raman spectroscopy.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30839887
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József Sándor Krenner or Joseph Krenner (3 March 1839 – 6 January 1920) was a Hungarian mineralogist. He discovered several new minerals. Krenner was born in Buda and studied at the University of Pest, Vienna and Tübingen mineralogy and geology. He received his Ph.D. in 1865 for work with Friedrich August Quenstedt in Tübingen. Krenner worked in the mineralogy section of the Hungarian National Museum. From 1870 on he also lectured at the Technical University of Budapest. In 1888 he became a member of the Hungarian Academy of Science. Krenner discovered several new minerals, for example, Krennerite which he discovered in 1877 in Sacaramb, Romania. The mineral is obviously named after himself. Another mineral he discovered was Semseyite, the lead antimony sulfide discovered in 1881 was named after Andor Semsey (1833–1923), a Hungarian nobleman and mineralogist.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30857223
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Tidal atlas A tidal atlas or a tidal stream atlas is used to predict the direction and speed of tidal currents. A tidal atlas usually consists of a set of 12 or 13 diagrams, one for each hour of the tidal cycle, for a coastal region. Each diagram uses arrows to indicate the direction of the flow at that time. The speed of the flow may be indicated by numbers on each arrow or by the length of the arrow. Areas of slack water may be indicated by no arrows or the words "slack water". UK Admiralty Tidal Atlases show speed in units of tenth of a knot. An alternative to a tidal atlas is a nautical chart that provides tidal diamonds.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30862602
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Pre-exponential factor In chemical kinetics, the pre-exponential factor or A factor is the pre-exponential constant in the Arrhenius equation, an empirical relationship between temperature and rate coefficient. It is usually designated by A when determined from experiment, while Z is usually left for collision frequency. The units of the pre-exponential factor A are identical to those of the rate constant and will vary depending on the order of the reaction. For a first-order reaction, it has units of s. For that reason, it is often called frequency factor. According to collision theory, the frequency factor, A, depends on how often molecules collide when all concentrations are 1 mol/L and on whether the molecules are properly oriented when they collide. Values of A for some reactions can be found at Collision theory#Steric factor. According to transition state theory, A can be expressed in terms of the entropy of activation of the reaction. IUPAC Gold Book definition of pre-exponential factor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30862748
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Akira Ogata In 1912, Ogata graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Tokyo. In 1919 he received a degree from the Humboldt University of Berlin, where he had performed pharmacological experiments. In 1920, he was appointed assistant professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Tokyo, where he taught until 1948. In 1893, Methamphetamine was first synthesised from ephedrine by Nagayoshi Nagai and in 1919, was the first to synthesise methamphetamine in a crystallized form. Ogata blended the red phosporus and ephedrine, which is derived from an Asian herbal plant, to produce an amphetamine that could be dissolved in water. The procedure involved reduction of ephedrine using iodine and red phosphorus. Ogata's synthesis of methamphetamine replaced much more complicated earlier syntheses, and continues to be used as the basis for modern production and usage of the drug. Particularly, is the method favored in illegal drug production. Amphetamine was synthesized in 1887 by Lazar Edeleanu in Germany. Ogata released this new drug to a British-based pharmaceutical company. It was then introduced as a pill form to treat diseases such as sinus congestion, asthma, and depression. The drug took on a new form in 1934 by the German pharmaceutical company Temmler. A tablet was named ‘Pervitin’. This was marketed in Germany where it was known as Herman-Göring Pill. It became popular among soldiers, Luftwaffe pilots, and even Adolf Hitler
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30864054
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Akira Ogata The new pill could keep tired pilots more alert and lift the spirits of those in battle. In Japan the drug was used as a workforce pill. It was called ‘Philopon’ which means ‘love of work’. It was given to military personnel as well as government factories. Many pharmaceutical companies in the US patented the methamphetamines under various names, one of which was called Obetrol. They treated extreme obesity as a way to curb the appetite. However, these pills were outlawed in the 70s due to some of the obvious side effects.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30864054
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Speleogen A speleogen is a geological feature within a karst system that is created by the dissolution of bedrock. As rain water falls through the atmosphere it picks up carbon dioxide and more as it passes through organic material in the soil. As water moves through joints and cracks in calcium carbonate bedrock, more dissolution of the bedrock occurs and the bedrock features that are left are the speleogens. This process called speleogenesis is what leads to secondary formations or speleothems. The United States Code defines speleogens as "relief features on the walls, ceiling, and floor of any cave or lava tube which are part of the surrounding bedrock, including anastomoses, scallops, meander niches, petromorphs and rock pendants in solution caves and similar features unique to volcanic caves." "Speleogens are irregular or distinctive shapes of carbonate rock etched from bedrock by dripping or running water. Speleogens can form where bedrock is not uniform in chemical composition. Consequently, the less soluble rock dissolves slower than adjacent more soluble rock through time. The less soluble rock tends to stand in relief and projects from walls and ceilings of caves."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30865432
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Teclu burner The is a laboratory gas burner, a variant of the Bunsen burner, named after the Romanian chemist Nicolae Teclu. It can produce a hotter flame than a Bunsen burner. The lower part of its tube is conical, with a round screw nut below its base. The gap, set by the distance between the nut and the end of the tube, regulates the influx of the air in a way similar to the open slots of the Bunsen burner. The provides better mixing of air and fuel, which is what allows it to achieve higher flame temperatures than the Bunsen burner.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30868647
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Physical system In physics, a physical system is a portion of the physical universe chosen for analysis. Everything outside the system is known as the environment. The environment is ignored except for its effects on the system. The split between system and environment is the analyst's choice, generally made to simplify the analysis. For example, the water in a lake, the water in half of a lake, or an individual molecule of water in the lake can each be considered a physical system. An isolated system is one that has negligible interaction with its environment. Often a system in this sense is chosen to correspond to the more usual meaning of system, such as a particular machine. In the study of quantum coherence, the "system" may refer to the microscopic properties of an object (e.g. the mean of a pendulum bob), while the relevant "environment" may be the internal degrees of freedom, described classically by the pendulum's thermal vibrations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30871250
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The Intelligence of Dogs is a 1994 book on dog intelligence by Stanley Coren, a professor of canine psychology at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver. The book explains Coren's theories about the differences in intelligence between various breeds of dogs. Coren published a second edition in 2006. Coren defines three aspects of dog intelligence in the book: "instinctive intelligence", "adaptive intelligence", and "working and obedience intelligence". Instinctive intelligence refers to a dog's ability to perform the tasks it was bred for, such as herding, pointing, fetching, guarding, or supplying companionship. Adaptive intelligence refers to a dog's ability to solve problems on its own. Working and obedience intelligence refers to a dog's ability to learn from humans. The book's ranking focuses on working and obedience intelligence. Coren sent evaluation requests to American Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel Club obedience trial judges, asking them to rank breeds by performance, and received 199 responses, representing about 50 percent of obedience judges then working in North America. Assessments were limited to breeds receiving at least 100 judge responses. This methodology aimed to eliminate the excessive weight that might result from a simple tabulation of obedience degrees by breed. Its use of expert opinion followed precedent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30874722
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The Intelligence of Dogs Coren found substantial agreement in the judges' rankings of working and obedience intelligence, with Border collies consistently named in the top ten and Afghan Hounds consistently named in the lowest. The highest ranked dogs in this category were Border collies, Poodles, German Shepherds, Golden Retrievers, and Doberman Pinschers. Dogs that are not breeds recognized by the American Kennel Club or Canadian Kennel Club (such as the Jack Russell Terrier) were not included in Coren's rankings. When Coren's list of breed intelligence first came out there was much media attention and commentary both pro and con. However over the years the ranking of breeds and the methodology used have come to be accepted as a valid description of the differences among dog breeds in terms of the trainability aspect of dog intelligence. In addition, measurements of canine intelligence using other methods have confirmed the general pattern of these rankings including a new study using owner ratings to rank dog trainability and intelligence. 79 ranks are given (plus 52 ties), a total of 138 breeds ranked:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30874722
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Unburned hydrocarbon Unburnt hydrocarbons (UHCs) are the hydrocarbons emitted after petroleum is burned in an engine. When unburnt fuel is emitted from a combustor, the emission is caused by fuel "avoiding" the flame zones. For example, in piston engines, some of the fuel-air mixture "hides" from the flame in the crevices provided by the piston ring grooves. Further, some regions of the combustion chamber may have a very weak flame, that is, they have either very fuel-lean or very fuel-rich conditions and consequently they have a low combustion temperature. These regions will cause intermediate species such as formaldehyde and alkenes to be emitted. Sometimes the term "products of incomplete combustion," or PICs, is used to describe such species. The hydrocarbon is a auspicious way to reach low NOx (nitrogen oxide) emissions in diesel engines but one of its disadvantages is drastic increasing amount of unburned hydrocarbons.<ref>
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30876715
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Essex County Natural History Society The (1833–1848) in Salem, Massachusetts, was formed "for the purpose of promoting the science of natural history." It endeavored "to form a complete collection of natural productions, curiosities. &c, particularly of this county; and, to form a library of standard books on the natural sciences." The society incorporated in 1836; Andrew Nichols, William Oakes, and William Prescott served as signatories. Other members included Samuel B. Buttrick, Samuel P. Fowler, John M. Ives, John C. Lee, George Osgood, Charles G. Page, Gardner B. Perry, George Dean Phippen, William P. Richardson, John Lewis Russell, Henry Wheatland. By 1836 some 100 members belonged to the society. In Salem its "cabinets and library were first deposited in Essex Place, then in Franklin Building, then in Chase's Building, Washington Street, and finally removed to Pickman Place, in 1842." In 1848 the society merged with the Essex Historical Society to form the Essex Institute.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30891242
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Magnetochemistry is concerned with the magnetic properties of chemical compounds. Magnetic properties arise from the spin and orbital angular momentum of the electrons contained in a compound. Compounds are diamagnetic when they contain no unpaired electrons. Molecular compounds that contain one or more unpaired electrons are paramagnetic. The magnitude of the paramagnetism is expressed as an effective magnetic moment, μ. For first-row transition metals the magnitude of μ is, to a first approximation, a simple function of the number of unpaired electrons, the spin-only formula. In general, spin-orbit coupling causes μ to deviate from the spin-only formula. For the heavier transition metals, lanthanides and actinides, spin-orbit coupling cannot be ignored. Exchange interaction can occur in clusters and infinite lattices, resulting in ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism or ferrimagnetism depending on the relative orientations of the individual spins. The primary measurement in magnetochemistry is magnetic susceptibility. This measures the strength of interaction on placing the substance in a magnetic field. The volume magnetic susceptibility, represented by the symbol formula_1 is defined by the relationship where, formula_3 is the magnetization of the material (the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume), measured in amperes per meter ( SI units), and formula_4 is the magnetic field strength, also measured in amperes per meter. Susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30897833
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