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Pharmacokinetics Clinical pharmacokinetics (arising from the clinical use of population pharmacokinetics) is the direct application to a therapeutic situation of knowledge regarding a drug's pharmacokinetics and the characteristics of a population that a patient belongs to (or can be ascribed to). An example is the relaunch of the use of ciclosporin as an immunosuppressor to facilitate organ transplant. The drug's therapeutic properties were initially demonstrated, but it was almost never used after it was found to cause nephrotoxicity in a number of patients. However, it was then realized that it was possible to individualize a patient's dose of ciclosporin by analysing the patients plasmatic concentrations (pharmacokinetic monitoring). This practice has allowed this drug to be used again and has facilitated a great number of organ transplants. Clinical monitoring is usually carried out by determination of plasma concentrations as this data is usually the easiest to obtain and the most reliable. The main reasons for determining a drug's plasma concentration include: Ecotoxicology is the branch of science that deals with the nature, effects, and interactions of substances that are harmful to the environment. All model based software above. Global centres with the highest profiles for providing in-depth training include the Universities of Buffalo, Florida, Gothenburg, Leiden, Otago, San Francisco, Beijing, Tokyo, Uppsala, Washington, Manchester, Monash University, and University of Sheffield. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9674107 |
Trim line A trim line, also written as trimline, is a clear line on the side of a valley formed by a glacier. The line marks the most recent highest extent of the glacier. The line may be visible due to changes in color to the rock or to changes in vegetation on either side of the line. The term "trim line" is also used for similar looking phenomena caused by floods, volcanic activity, or tsunamis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9680179 |
Jan Esper (born 1968) is the head of the dendro sciences division at the WSL (Wald Snee und Landschafft - en:Forest, Snow and Landscape) division of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH). His research interests are Global Climate Change, Palaeoclimatology and Vegetation Dynamics. His research has been part of the Hockey stick controversy with his temperature reconstructions, that have been cited as being evidence for both sides of the controversy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9687705 |
Kapustinskii equation The calculates the lattice energy "U" for an ionic crystal, which is experimentally difficult to determine. It is named after Anatoli Fedorovich Kapustinskii who published the formula in 1956. The calculated lattice energy gives a good estimation; the real value differs in most cases by less than 5%. Furthermore, one is able to determine the ionic radii (or more properly, the thermochemical radius) using the when the lattice energy is known. This is useful for rather complex ions like sulfate (SO) or phosphate (PO). Kapustinskii originally proposed the following simpler form, which he faulted as "associated with antiquated concepts of the character of repulsion forces". Here, "K"' = 1.079 J·m·mol. This form of the may be derived as an approximation of the Born–Landé equation, below. Kapustinskii replaced "r", the measured distance between ions, with the sum of the corresponding ionic radii. In addition, the Born exponent, "n", was assumed to have a mean value of 9. Finally, Kapustinskii noted that the Madelung constant, "M", was approximately 0.88 times the number of ions in the empirical formula. The derivation of the later form of the followed similar logic, starting from the quantum chemical treatment in which the final term is where "d" is as defined above. Replacing "r" as before yields the full Kapustinskii equation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9688913 |
Pokeweed mitogen is a mitogen derived from "Phytolacca americana". It functions as a lectin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9690908 |
Henry Primakoff (* February 12, 1914 in Odessa, Russian Empire; † July 25, 1983 in Philadelphia, United States) was a theoretical physicist who is famous for his discovery of the Primakoff effect. Primakoff contributed to the understanding of weak interactions, double beta decay, spin waves in ferromagnetism, and the interaction between neutrinos and the atomic nucleus. He also developed the Holstein-Primakoff transformation which is designed to treat spin waves as bosonic excitations. In 1940 he worked at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, subsequently at the Queens College, and then at Washington University in St. Louis starting in 1946. Primakoff was the first Donner Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania. He was married to Mildred Cohn from 1938 until his death in 1983. In 1968 he was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. In 2011 the American Physical Society established the Award for Early-Career Particle Physics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9715761 |
State space (physics) In physics, a state space is an abstract space in which different "positions" represent, not literal locations, but rather states of some physical system. This makes it a type of phase space. Specifically, in quantum mechanics a state space is a complex Hilbert space in which the possible instantaneous [ ] states of the system may be described by unit vectors. These state vectors, using Dirac's bra–ket notation, can often be treated like coordinate vectors and operated on using the rules of linear algebra. This Dirac formalism of quantum mechanics can replace calculation of complicated integrals with simpler vector operations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9718351 |
Cunningham correction factor In fluid dynamics, the or Cunningham slip correction factor is used to account for noncontinuum effects when calculating the drag on small particles. The derivation of Stokes' law, which is used to calculate the drag force on small particles, assumes a no-slip condition which is no longer correct at high Knudsen number. The Cunningham slip correction factor allows predicting the drag force on a particle moving a fluid with Knudsen number between the continuum regime and free molecular flow. The drag coefficient calculated with standard correlations is divided by the Cunningham correction factor, C given below. Ebenezer Cunningham derived the correction factor in 1910 and with Robert Andrews Millikan, verified the correction in the same year. where The becomes significant when particles become smaller than 15 micrometers, for air at ambient conditions. For sub-micrometer particles, Brownian motion must be taken into account. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9721524 |
Thermal effective mass The thermal effective mass of electrons in a metal is the apparent mass due to interactions with the periodic potential of the crystal lattice, with phonons (e.g. phonon drag), and interaction with other electrons. The resulting effective mass of electrons contributes to the electronic heat capacity of the metal, leading to deviations from the heat capacity of a free electron gas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9749180 |
Phonon drag is an increase in the effective mass of conduction electrons or valence holes due to interactions with the crystal lattice in which the electron moves. As an electron moves past atoms in the lattice its charge distorts or polarizes the nearby lattice. This effect leads to a decrease in the electron (or hole, as may be the case) mobility, which results in a decreased conductivity. However, as the magnitude of the Seebeck coefficient increases with phonon drag, it may be beneficial in a thermoelectric material for direct energy conversion applications. The magnitude of this effect is typically appreciable only at low temperatures (<200 K). Phonons are not always in local thermal equilibrium; they move against the thermal gradient. They lose momentum by interacting with electrons (or other carriers) and imperfections in the crystal. If the phonon-electron interaction is predominant, the phonons will tend to push the electrons to one end of the material, losing momentum in the process. This contributes to the already present thermoelectric field. This contribution is most important in the temperature region where phonon-electron scattering is predominant. This happens for where θD is the Debye temperature. At lower temperatures there are fewer phonons available for drag, and at higher temperatures they tend to lose momentum in phonon-phonon scattering instead of phonon-electron scattering. This region of the Seebeck coefficient-versus-temperature function is highly variable under a magnetic field | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9749236 |
Phonon drag Kittel, Charles (1996) Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th Ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9749236 |
Interaction soil–biosphere–atmosphere (model system) Interaction soil–biosphere–atmosphere (ISBA) is a land-surface parameterisation model scheme describing soil–vegetation–atmosphere interactions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9754003 |
Land surface models (climate) Land surface models (LSMs) use quantitative methods to simulate the exchange of water and energy fluxes at the Earth surface–atmosphere interface. They are key component of climate models. Over the past two decades, they have evolved from oversimplified schemes, which described the surface boundary conditions for general circulation models (GCMs), to complex models that can be used alone or as part of GCMs to investigate the biogeochemical, hydrological, and energy cycles at the earth's surface. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9754030 |
Oronzio Gabriele Costa Oronzo Gabriele Costa (26 August 1787, Alessano – 7 November 1867 Naples) was an Italian zoologist. At first a physician, he taught zoology at the University of Naples. He wrote 126 papers on various subjects, principally entomology, and in 1846 served as president of the Accademia Pontaniana in Naples. His two sons, Achille Costa (1823-1899) and Giuseppe Costa, were also both well known zoologists. There has been a good deal of confusion over the publication details of his most important work, the "Fauna del Regno di Napoli" (full title: "Fauna del Regno di Napoli, ossia, enumerazione di tutti gli animali che abitano le diverse regioni di questo regno e le acque che le bagnano"), published over a long period of time, including posthumously, in collaboration with his son, Achille Costa. Taeger and Blank (1996; p. 253) state that for some of the work, Oronzio was merely the editor, Achille being the actual author, and whose name appears on the title page. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9770355 |
Jörundur Svavarsson is a professor in marine biology at the University of Iceland. His fields of research are marine invertebrates, marine biodiversity and ecotoxicology. According to Web of Science Prof. Svavarsson has published 49 papers in peer-reviewed journals, with 13 or them being cited more than 11 times. He is currently the head of the department of Biology at University of Iceland. Svavarsson has spearheaded several cultural and historic projects, including an exhibition on the explorations of Jean-Baptiste Charcot. In 2012, the French Government awarded Svavarsson the Chevalier des Palmes Académiques for this exhibition. The most widely referred to are: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9775965 |
Canadian Land Surface Scheme The (CLASS) is a land surface parametrization scheme for use in large scale climate models. It is a state-of-the-art model, using physically based equations to simulate the energy and water balances of vegetation, snow and soil. CLASS is being developed in a research project led by D. Verseghy at the Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9797914 |
Mendel (Martian crater) Mendel is a crater in Terra Cimmeria, Mars. It is located at 58.8°S, 161.3°E and was named in honor of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9797919 |
ERA-40 is an ECMWF re-analysis of the global atmosphere and surface conditions for 45-years, over the period from September 1957 through August 2002 by ECMWF. Many sources of the meteorological observations were used, including radiosondes, balloons, aircraft, buoyes, satellites, scatterometers. This data was run through the ECMWF computer model at a 125 km resolution. As the ECMWF's computer model is one of the more highly regarded in the field of forecasting, many scientists take its reanalysis to have similar merit. The data is stored in GRIB format. The reanalysis was done in an effort to improve the accuracy of historical weather maps and aid in a more detailed analysis of various weather systems through a period that was severely lacking in computerized data. With the data from reanalyses such as this, many of the more modern computerized tools for analyzing storm systems can be utilized, at least in part, because of this access to a computerized simulation of the atmospheric state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9798051 |
Tree-Puzzle TREE-PUZZLE is a computer program used to construct phylogenetic trees from sequence data by maximum likelihood analysis. Branch lengths can be calculated with and without the molecular clock hypothesis. The program's successor is IQ-TREE. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9804129 |
Ferret Data Visualization and Analysis Ferret is an interactive computer visualization and analysis environment designed to meet the needs of oceanographers and meteorologists analyzing large and complex gridded data sets. Ferret offers a Mathematica-like approach to analysis; new variables may be defined interactively as mathematical expressions involving data set variables. Calculations may be applied over arbitrarily shaped regions. Fully documented graphics are produced with a single command. It runs on most Unix and Linux systems using X Window for display, and on Windows XP/NT/9x. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9809926 |
DEN 1048−3956 is a brown dwarf about 13.1 light years from Earth in the southern constellation of Antlia, among the closest interstellar objects to Earth. This substellar object is very dim with an apparent magnitude of about 17, and will require a telescope with a camera to be seen. It was discovered in 2000 by Xavier Delfosse (Institute of Astrophysics of the Canary Islands, now Observatoire de Grenoble) and Thierry Forveille (Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope Corporation), with the assistance of nine other astronomers. In 2005 a powerful flare from this object was detected by radio astronomy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9819646 |
Morton Allport FLS (4 December 1830 – 10 September 1878) was an English-born Australian colonial naturalist. Allport was born to Joseph and Mary Morton Allport, at West Bromwich, Staffordshire. His family moved in 1831 to Tasmania. He trained for law, his father's profession, and was admitted as a solicitor of the Supreme Court of Tasmania in 1852. Allport was an ardent and accomplished naturalist, and by his original work added largely to the knowledge of the zoology and botany of Tasmania. To the study of the fishes of the colony he gave special attention, and he made it his concern to send specimens of every new fish he could procure to the best authorities of England and elsewhere. He was an authority on Tasmanian fish and catalogued, described and drew pictures of his specimens. He was a leader in the introduction of salmon and trout to Tasmanian waters and also introduced the white water-lily and the perch. Allport was a Fellow of the Linnæan Society of London and of the Zoological Society, corresponding member of the Anthropological Institute, life member of the Entomological and Malacological Societies, and foreign member of several Continental scientific societies. He was a Vice-President of the Royal Society of Tasmania, to the Proceedings of which last-named Society he contributed a number of valuable pacers on the subjects of his favourite studies. He was a member of the Council of Education for many years. He died at Hobart on 10 September 1878. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9828052 |
JME Molecule Editor The is a molecule editor Java applet with which users make and edit drawings of molecules and reactions (including generating substructure queries), and can display molecules within an HTML page. The editor can generate Daylight simplified molecular-input line-entry system (SMILES) or MDL Molfiles of the created structures. The JME Editor was written by Peter Ertl while at Comenius University in Bratislava, and then at Ciba-Geigy, later merged with Sandoz Laboratories, to form Novartis International AG, in Basel, Switzerland. It is released as freeware for noncommercial use and has become a standard for molecular-structure input on the web. JME has been ported to JavaScript using the Google Web Toolkit (GWT). In analogy to JME, the JavaScript version is named JSME. Its interface is almost identical to that of JME, although some cosmetic options are available. It is released as free and open-source software under a 3-clause BSD license in the form of minified JavaScript produced by GWT. , JSME is capable of SMILES, MOL (original and V3000), InChI (and key), and SVG export. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9831570 |
Lyman–Werner photons A Lyman-Werner photon is an ultraviolet photon with a photon energy in the range of 11.2 to 13.6 eV, corresponding to the energy range in which the Lyman and Werner absorption bands of molecular hydrogen (H) are found. A photon in this energy range, with a frequency that coincides with that of one of the lines in the Lyman or Werner bands, can be absorbed by H, placing the molecule in an excited electronic state. Radiative decay (that is, decay into photons) from this excited state occurs rapidly, with roughly 15% of these decays occurring into the vibrational continuum of the molecule, resulting in its dissociation. This two-step photodissociation process, known as the Solomon process, is one of the main mechanisms by which molecular hydrogen is destroyed in the interstellar medium. In reference to the figure shown, Lyman-Werner photons are emitted as described below: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9843891 |
Wet-bulb potential temperature Wet-bulb potential temperature, sometimes referred to as pseudo wet-bulb potential temperature, is the temperature that a parcel of air at any level would have if, starting at the wet-bulb temperature, it were brought at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate to the standard pressure of 1000 mbar. This temperature is conservative with respect to reversible adiabatic changes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9850761 |
Alexander Nesmeyanov Alexander Nikolaevich Nesmeyanov (; , Moscow – 17 January 1980, Moscow) was a prominent Soviet chemist and academician (1943) specializing in organometallic chemistry. He was born in Moscow on 9 September 1899 the son of Nikolai Vasilevich Nesmeyanov, a teacher, and his wife Lyudmila Danilovna. He obtained his degree in chemistry in 1920 from Moscow State University where he thereafter served as lecturer, professor, and eventually rector. He was the President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1951–1961. As the rector of the Moscow State University in 1948–1951, he oversaw the construction of its new campus at Sparrow Hills. He was twice awarded the title Hero of Socialist Labor (1969, 1979). He had organized and headed the laboratory of organometallic compounds first in the Institute of Organic Chemistry of USSR (1939–1954) and then in the new Institute of Organoelement Compounds of USSR (1954–1980) as the founder and the first director. This institute and the nearby street were named after A. N. Nesmeyanov. His monument is placed in front of the institute. Prof. Nesmeyanov had popularized the term "organometallic chemistry" and became the leader of this science in USSR. He had also organized the investigations of artificial and synthetic food chemistry. Prof. Nesmeyanov had discovered the reaction of diazo-compounds with metal halides which was later named after him | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9861601 |
Alexander Nesmeyanov This reaction is widely used for the synthesis of organic derivatives of non-transition metals with their further transformation into various classes of organometallic compounds. Prof. Nesmeyanov had also developed a number of industrial chemistry processes, including production of pharmaceuticals, antiknock agents, and artificial black caviar. The later was the first commercial protein analogue product. He married twice: firstly to Nina Vladimirovna Koperina, secondly to Marina Anatolyevna Vinogradova. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9861601 |
Nikolay Belov (geochemist) Nikolay Vasilyevich Belov (; December 14, 1891 – March 6, 1982) was a Soviet crystallographer, geochemist, academician (1953), and Hero of Socialist Labor (1969). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9861756 |
Vladimir Engelgardt Vladimir Aleksandrovich Engelgardt () (December 3, 1894, in Moscow – July 10, 1984, in Moscow) was a Soviet biochemist, academician of the Soviet Academy of Medical Sciences (1944), academician of the Soviet Academy of Sciences (1953), and Hero of Socialist Labor (1969). He was the founder and the first director of the Institute of Molecular Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (later renamed the Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology in his honor). is considered to be one of the founders of molecular biology in the Soviet Union. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9861915 |
Alexander Pavlovich Vinogradov () (August 21, 1895 in Petretsovo, Yaroslavl Oblast – November 16, 1975 in Moscow) was a Soviet geochemist, academician (1953), and Hero of Socialist Labor (1949, 1975). In 1928, he took up a position as assistant professor in the laboratory for biogeochemical problems of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. He was director of Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, USSR Academy of Sciences. Mons Vinogradov, a mountain on the near side of the moon, is named after him. So is a large crater on Mars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9862095 |
Semyon Volfkovich Semyon Isaakovich Volfkovich () (October 23, 1896 – November 12, 1980) was a Soviet chemist, technologist, and academician (1946). In 1941 he was awarded the Stalin Prize and in 1976 he received the Lomonosov Gold Medal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9862467 |
False vivipary is an abnormal condition found in many types of plants in which a plantlet is produced where the flower should appear. It is not a completely understood topic, but some say it could be caused by a hormonal mistake. The plantlet which appears can be rooted and grown like normal plants. This abnormal behavior can occasionally be seen in many types of carnivorous plants.5 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9867900 |
Driller's depth The original depth recorded while drilling an oil or gas well is known as the driller's depth. Since there is not a single reference or measurement system for calculating the depth in sub-surface environments, two engineers talking about a single drilling might give different answers when asked to give a measurement of depth. The two main depth references used in the "downhole" (i.e. sub-surface) environment are driller's depths and Logger's depths (also called Wireline logger's depths). These measurement systems are recorded quite differently and logger's depths are generally considered the more accurate of the two: There are several parts of the drilling site to be considered while measuring: In practice, driller's depth measurement is a manual operation, not changed significantly over the years and there are many facets of the system with potential to introduce errors and inconsistencies. This process was first described by Reistle and Sikes in 1938, and has not changed significantly. The bulk of the drill string is drill pipe which has a nominal length of 9.6 meter per pipe section, however, in reality, not all pipes are the same length. Weakened or damaged ends of a pipe section will be reworked, resulting in reduced length. Steel pipe has a "male" connection at one end (called "the pin") and a "female" connection at the other end (called "the box") and as each section of pipe is lowered into the hole it is connected to the pipe preceding it by threading together the male and female components | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9871209 |
Driller's depth Drill pipe connections (or drill pipe/collar, or collar/bit and any other connection) must have a very good sealing surface because high pressure mud will be traveling through the pipe and any pitted or galled areas could be quickly eroded out. This is usually referred to as a "wash-out", or words to that effect, and can occur in any part of the drill string or bottom hole assembly. Because of this pipe is routinely inspected before and after use. Any imperfections are eliminated one of two actions: Different methods of measuring the drill pipe length also have a significant effect on the accuracy of the measurement made. Pipe "strapping" is commonly used to define drill pipe length, where the pipe is measured on the pipe racks using a (steel) measure tape. These results are noted in a tally book, and the drillstring length is hence defined. However, the accuracy of this measurement method is limited by the application of the steel tape correctly, the reading accuracy, and a host of environmental issues. A significant improvement to drill pipe measurement accuracy is provided using laser, and accuracies can be easily improved by around factor 4. It is also important to note the calibration conditions so that corrections can be applied based on these calibration conditions. This is specifically true for temperature when defining the thermal elongation. Tracking and recording of drill pipe at the rig site starts when individual joints are picked up. Joint numbers are manually marked on the side of the pipe | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9871209 |
Driller's depth Typically three sections of pipe are joined together into a "stand" (of about 27–29 m in length) and stacked in rows of 10, with their base resting on the drill floor. Prior to running in the hole each stand is manually measured with a steel tape measure and the measurement recorded in a computer spreadsheet (previously a pipe tally book was used) alongside the stand number. To confirm at any stage what depth the drill bit is operating at, the driller consults the pipe tally records, and measures the length of the current stand of drill pipe below the rig floor. Another potential area for error is the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA). The BHA consists of the drill bit, drill collars and stabilizers. Additionally, it can also include a downhole motor, MWD (measurement while drilling) and LWD (logging while drilling) tools. Errors come about if the total BHA is not correctly measured or recorded. Often BHA changes may be made during operations and if these changes are not recorded then the depths will be incorrect. Ideally the BHA is operated to minimize "sagging" within the borehole. Pipe stretch and compression will occur from time to time but are not corrected for during normal operations, even though they can introduce fairly significant cumulative errors on driller's depth, particularly in deep wells or in areas of hard rock | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9871209 |
Driller's depth If exploration derived prognosicated depths are significantly different from the driller's depths, for example by 10−30 m, then warning bells come up – it is possible a pipe section or stand has been left off the calculations. If this is suspected, then the drill string should be measured (in tension) when the string is next pulled out of the hole, and the results checked with the tally. Mudloggers should be vigilant, as they provide the opportunity to cross check with the drilling company. An important aspect in this is identifying the required accuracy for the logged driller's depths. If drillers and geologists are "OK" with (for example, +/- 15 m) at these depths, but later the reservoir engineers trying to map fluid water contacts require a higher level of precision (for example, +/- 3 m), then by the time the drilling is finished the higher level of accuracy cannot be recreated. This leads to the concept of true along-hole (TAH) depth, where the measurements made are defined using the accuracy of the pipe length calibration method and (if any) the accuracy of the corrections applied the correction methodology. One methodology that has been introduced is called Driller Way-point Depth (patent applied) which results in TAH depth. The measurement uncertainty is then a combination of the drill pipe length measurement accuracy, how accurately the correction parameters are measured, and the fidelity of the correction model applied. For some deep wells, e.g | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9871209 |
Driller's depth 7000 m or 25000 ft deep, the drill pipe elongation due to its own weight and temperature must be taken into account. This can be on the order of 24 m (80 ft). Wireline does not behave this way: it tends to lengthen under tension but shorten with increasing temperature. One can only assume by how much this net effect varies. Wireline depth correction for temperature and tension has been around since before the days of computer data acquisition, and is generally seen as reliable. Based on experience, the impact on a geological model previously based on wireline depth, when drilling at greater than 7,000 m and using LWD (driller's) depths, can introduce differences in marker depths of up to 25 m (80 ft): the driller's depths are consistently higher than the more reliable wireline depths. The driller's survey do not call this elongation an uncertainty but rather call it "bias" or "error". For the example above, in addition to the 25 m (+80 ft) bias, there would be about ± 3 m/12 ft to 10 m/30 ft residual uncertainty depending on hole inclination. There are a few in the industry who know how to correct for this real time and some service companies have developed conceptual or prototype tools/processes to account for this elongation effect. In future, these corrections should become standard practice for the industry, but they are not | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9871209 |
Driller's depth The determination of an accurate depth has not traditionally been a popular area of research primarily because of lack of recognition of the impact that depth measurement inaccuracy has on the value of the depth data. The impact of errors in depth is most critical when integrating data from more than one well, e.g. to build a reservoir model. This impact, however, is usually apparent only long after the depth measurement process has occurred and is not seen as being an issue during the well construction. Recognition of the value of depth measurement accuracy at the planning stages of drilling, and then during the drilling process itself, is a precursor to achieving improving accuracy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9871209 |
Una virus is a subtype of the Mayaro virus (MAYV), one of the Semliki Forest Virus (SFV) complex of the "Togaviridae" family. According to the Baltimore classification of viruses, it is a class IV virus. It has a linear single-stranded RNA genome. The is an Arbovirus or arthropod-borne virus, transmitted primarily by an arthropod species. The is widely distributed in South America, where infections have been detected in mosquitoes and vertebrate hosts such as humans, birds and horses. It was first isolated in "Psorophora ferox" mosquitoes in the state of Pará, Brazil. The virus is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Central and South America, such as Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Panama, Surinam, Trinidad and Venezuela. It is the only member of the SFV complex which has activity reported in Argentina, where two strains of the virus, (Cba An 979 and Cba An 995) have been isolated from febrile or dead equines at Rio Segundo and Colonia Videla, two villages located in the province of Córdoba. The reporting of the in Argentina demonstrates an enlargement of the southern limit of the distribution of this virus group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9874573 |
Hu Gabrielse Hubert "Hu" Gabrielse (born 1926) is a Canadian retired geologist who formerly worked for the Geological Survey of Canada. He devoted much of his more than 50 years in geosciences to regional geological mapping in the northern Cordillera of British Columbia, southeast Yukon and southwest District of Mackenzie. His work has led to syntheses of the geological evolution of the northern Cordillera range. Gabrielse published several papers with Stewart Blusson in the late 1960s. He was a contributor to Lithoprobe. One of the volcanoes found in the Tuya Volcanic Field is named after him, Gabrielse Cone. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9875706 |
Gammator ӀA was a gamma irradiator made by the Radiation Machinery Corporation during the U.S. Atoms for Peace project of the 1950s and 1960s. The gammator was distributed by the "Atomic Energy Commission to schools, hospitals, and private firms to promote nuclear understanding." Around 120-140 Gammators were distributed throughout the U.S. and the whereabouts of several of them are unknown, although the Department of Energy has removed and destroyed many of the units. A weighed about 1,850 pounds and contained about 400 curies of caesium-137 in a pellet roughly the size of a pen. Because of the massive shielding of a Gammator, the machine is very safe when used as intended (e.g. school science experiments); according to the Los Alamos National Laboratory, it is similar to machines used to irradiate blood. However, this amount of nuclear material could pose a significant problem if used as the radioactive component in a dirty bomb. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9875903 |
Very special relativity Ignoring gravity, experimental bounds seem to suggest that special relativity with its Lorentz symmetry and Poincaré symmetry describes spacetime. Surprisingly, Cohen and Glashow have demonstrated that a small subgroup of the Lorentz group is sufficient to explain all the current bounds. The minimal subgroup in question can be described as follows: The stabilizer of a null vector is the special Euclidean group SE(2), which contains T(2) as the subgroup of parabolic transformations. This T(2), when extended to include either parity or time reversal (i.e. subgroups of the orthochronous and time-reversal respectively), is sufficient to give us all the standard predictions. Their new symmetry is called very special relativity (VSR). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9878887 |
Putrefying bacteria are bacteria involved in putrefaction of living matter. Along with other decomposers, they play a critical role in recycling nitrogen from dead organisms. use amino acids or urea as an energy source to decompose dead organisms. In the process, they produce ammonium ions. Nitrifying bacteria then convert this ammonium into nitrate, which can then be used by plants to create more proteins thus completing the nitrogen cycle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9880182 |
Zola (crater) Zola is a crater on Mercury. The crater was named after the French novelist and playwright Émile Zola by the IAU in 1979. Zola is located to the northeast of the Caloris basin. The crater Nervo is to the south, Brahms is to the north, and Mansur is to the east. The small crater Ailey is to the southwest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14529301 |
Rameau (crater) Rameau is a crater on Mercury. It was named by the IAU in 1976, after French composer Jean Philippe Rameau. The scarp Discovery Rupes cuts across Rameau crater. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14529432 |
Arecibo Catena (Arecibo Vallis until March 2013) is a catena on Mercury. It is located at latitude 27.5 S, longitude 28.4 W, in the hilly and chaotic terrain antipodal to Caloris Basin. It is named after Arecibo Observatory. Arecibo Vallis is connected to Petrarch crater. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14529537 |
Goldstone Catena (Goldstone Vallis until March 2013) is a catena on Mercury located at 15.8 S, 31.7 W. It is named after Goldstone Observatory. While it superficially resembles a graben, it is a chain of overlapping secondary craters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14535383 |
Kuiper (Mercurian crater) Kuiper is a moderate-size crater with a central peak cluster located at on Mercury. It is 62 kilometers in diameter and was named after Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper in 1976. It is one of only 2 Mercurian craters which are named not after artists, and one of very few cases when the same name is used for 3 craters (there are also Kuiper craters on Mars and on the Moon). Gerard Kuiper, being a leader of American planetary science, died shortly before the first images of Mercurian surface were made. Kuiper overlies the northern rim of the larger crater Murasaki. Kuiper crater has the highest recorded albedo of any region on the planet's surface and has a prominent ray system, suggesting that it is one of the youngest craters. Kuiper is one of the largest craters of the Kuiperian system on Mercury. The largest is Bartók crater. The Kuiperian time period is named after Kuiper crater. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14535414 |
Murasaki (crater) Murasaki is a crater on Mercury located at 12 S, 31 W. It is 132 km in diameter. It was named after 10th-11th century Japanese writer Murasaki Shikibu. The name was approved by IAU's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature in 1976. To its east lies the slightly larger Hiroshige. The bright crater Kuiper overlays the rim of Murasaki. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14535443 |
Hiroshige (crater) Hiroshige is a crater on Mercury. Its name was adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1976, after the Japanese artist Andō Hiroshige. Hiroshige is east of the craters Murasaki and Kuiper. Kuiper's rays overlie Hiroshige. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14535543 |
Haystack Catena (Haystack Vallis until March 2013) is a catena at 4.7° N, 46.2° W on Mercury. It superficially resembles a graben but is a chain of overlapping secondary craters. It was named after Haystack Observatory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14536981 |
Simeiz Vallis is a valley at 13.2 S, 64.3 W on Mercury. It is named after Simeiz Observatory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14537033 |
Segregation (materials science) In materials science, segregation is the enrichment of atoms, ions, or molecules at a microscopic region in a materials system. While the terms segregation and adsorption are essentially synonymous, in practice, segregation is often used to describe the partitioning of molecular constituents to defects from "solid" solutions, whereas adsorption is generally used to describe such partitioning from liquids and gases to surfaces. The molecular-level segregation discussed in this article is distinct from other types of materials phenomena that are often called segregation, such as particle segregation in granular materials, and phase separation or precipitation, wherein molecules are segregated in to macroscopic regions of different compositions. Segregation has many practical consequences, ranging from the formation of soap bubbles, to microstructural engineering in materials science, to the stabilization of colloidal suspensions. Segregation can occur in various materials classes. In polycrystalline solids, segregation occurs at defects, such as dislocations, grain boundaries, stacking faults, or the interface between two phases. In liquid solutions, chemical gradients exist near second phases and surfaces due to combinations of chemical and electrical effects. Segregation which occurs in well-equilibrated systems due to the instrinsic to the chemical properties of the system is termed equilibrium segregation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) Segregation that occurs due to the processing history of the sample (but that would disappear at long times) is termed non-equilibrium segregation. Equilibrium segregation is associated with the lattice disorder at interfaces, where there are sites of energy different from those within the lattice at which the solute atoms can deposit themselves. The equilibrium segregation is so termed because the solute atoms segregate themselves to the interface or surface in accordance with the statistics of thermodynamics in order to minimize the overall free energy of the system. This sort of partitioning of solute atoms between the grain boundary and the lattice was predicted by McLean in 1957. Non-equilibrium segregation, first theorized by Westbrook in 1964, occurs as a result of solutes coupling to vacancies which are moving to grain boundary sources or sinks during quenching or application of stress. It can also occur as a result of solute pile-up at a moving interface. There are two main features of non-equilibrium segregation, by which it is most easily distinguished from equilibrium segregation. In the non-equilibrium effect, the magnitude of the segregation increases with increasing temperature and the alloy can be homogenized without further quenching because its lowest energy state corresponds to a uniform solute distribution | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) In contrast, the equilibrium segregated state, by definition, is the lowest energy state in a system that exhibits equilibrium segregation, and the extent of the segregation effect decreases with increasing temperature. The details of non-equilibrium segregation are not going to be discussed here, but can be found in the review by Harries and Marwick. Segregation of a solute to surfaces and grain boundaries in a solid produces a section of material with a discrete composition and its own set of properties that can have important (and often deleterious) effects on the overall properties of the material. These ‘zones’ with an increased concentration of solute can be thought of as the cement between the bricks of a building. The structural integrity of the building depends not only on the material properties of the brick, but also greatly on the properties of the long lines of mortar in between. Segregation to grain boundaries, for example, can lead to grain boundary fracture as a result of temper brittleness, creep embrittlement, stress relief cracking of weldments, hydrogen embrittlement, environmentally assisted fatigue, grain boundary corrosion, and some kinds of intergranular stress corrosion cracking. A very interesting and important field of study of impurity segregation processes involves AES of grain boundaries of materials. This technique includes tensile fracturing of special specimens directly inside the UHV chamber of the Auger Electron Spectrometer that was developed by Ilyin | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) Segregation to grain boundaries can also affect their respective migration rates, and so affects sinterability, as well as the grain boundary diffusivity (although sometimes these effects can be used advantageously). Segregation to free surfaces also has important consequences involving the purity of metallurgical samples. Because of the favorable segregation of some impurities to the surface of the material, a very small concentration of impurity in the bulk of the sample can lead to a very significant coverage of the impurity on a cleaved surface of the sample. In applications where an ultra-pure surface is needed (for example, in some nanotechnology applications), the segregation of impurities to surfaces requires a much higher purity of bulk material than would be needed if segregation effects didn’t exist. The following figure illustrates this concept with two cases in which the total fraction of impurity atoms is 0.25 (25 impurity atoms in 100 total). In the representation on the left, these impurities are equally distributed throughout the sample, and so the fractional surface coverage of impurity atoms is also approximately 0.25. In the representation to the right, however, the same number of impurity atoms are shown segregated on the surface, so that an observation of the surface composition would yield a much higher impurity fraction (in this case, about 0.69). In fact, in this example, were impurities to completely segregate to the surface, an impurity fraction of just 0 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) 36 could completely cover the surface of the material. In an application where surface interactions are important, this result could be disastrous. While the intergranular failure problems noted above are sometimes severe, they are rarely the cause of major service failures (in structural steels, for example), as suitable safety margins are included in the designs. Perhaps the greater concern is that with the development of new technologies and materials with new and more extensive mechanical property requirements, and with the increasing impurity contents as a result of the increased recycling of materials, we may see intergranular failure in materials and situations not seen currently. Thus, a greater understanding of all of the mechanisms surrounding segregation might lead to being able to control these effects in the future. Modeling potentials, experimental work, and related theories are still being developed to explain these segregation mechanisms for increasingly complex systems. Several theories describe the equilibrium segregation activity in materials. The adsorption theories for the solid-solid interface and the solid-vacuum surface are direct analogues of theories well known in the field of gas adsorption on the free surfaces of solids. This is the earliest theory specifically for grain boundaries, in which McLean uses a model of P solute atoms distributed at random amongst N lattice sites and p solute atoms distributed at random amongst n independent grain boundary sites | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) The total free energy due to the solute atoms is then: where E and e are energies of the solute atom in the lattice and in the grain boundary, respectively and the kln term represents the configurational entropy of the arrangement of the solute atoms in the bulk and grain boundary. McLean used basic statistical mechanics to find the fractional monolayer of segregant, formula_2, at which the system energy was minimized (at the equilibrium state), differentiating "G" with respect to "p", noting that the sum of "p" and "P" is constant. Here the grain boundary analogue of Langmuir adsorption at free surfaces becomes: Here, formula_4 is the fraction of the grain boundary monolayer available for segregated atoms at saturation, formula_2 is the actual fraction covered with segregant, formula_6 is the bulk solute molar fraction, and formula_7 is the free energy of segregation per mole of solute. Values of formula_7 were estimated by McLean using the elastic strain energy, formula_9, released by the segregation of solute atoms. The solute atom is represented by an elastic sphere fitted into a spherical hole in an elastic matrix continuum. The elastic energy associated with the solute atom is given by: where formula_11 is the solute bulk modulus, formula_12 is the matrix shear modulus, and formula_13 and formula_14 are the atomic radii of the matrix and impurity atoms, respectively | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) This method gives values correct to within a factor of two (as compared with experimental data for grain boundary segregation), but a greater accuracy is obtained using the method of Seah and Hondros, described in the following section. Using truncated BET theory (the gas adsorption theory developed by Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller), Seah and Hondros write the solid-state analogue as: where formula_17 formula_18 is the solid solubility, which is known for many elements (and can be found in metallurgical handbooks). In the dilute limit, a slightly soluble substance has formula_19, so the above equation reduces to that found with the Langmuir-McLean theory. This equation is only valid for formula_20. If there is an excess of solute such that a second phase appears, the solute content is limited to formula_18 and the equation becomes This theory for grain boundary segregation, derived from truncated BET theory, provides excellent agreement with experimental data obtained by Auger electron spectroscopy and other techniques. Other models exist to model more complex binary systems. The above theories operate on the assumption that the segregated atoms are non-interacting. If, in a binary system, adjacent adsorbate atoms are allowed an interaction energy formula_23, such that they can attract (when formula_23 is negative) or repel (when formula_23 is positive) each other, the solid-state analogue of the Fowler adsorption theory is developed as When formula_23 is zero, this theory reduces to that of Langmuir and McLean | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) However, as formula_23 becomes more negative, the segregation shows progressively sharper rises as the temperature falls until eventually the rise in segregation is discontinuous at a certain temperature, as shown in the following figure. Guttman, in 1975, extended the Fowler theory to allow for interactions between two co-segregating species in multicomponent systems. This modification is vital to explaining the segregation behavior that results in the intergranular failures of engineering materials. More complex theories are detailed in the work by Guttmann and McLean and Guttmann. The Langmuir–McLean equation for segregation, when using the regular solution model for a binary system, is valid for surface segregation (although sometimes the equation will be written replacing formula_2 with formula_30). The free energy of surface segregation is formula_31. The enthalpy is given by where formula_33 and formula_34 are matrix surface energies without and with solute, formula_35 is their heat of mixing, Z and formula_36 are the coordination numbers in the matrix and at the surface, and formula_37 is the coordination number for surface atoms to the layer below. The last term in this equation is the elastic strain energy formula_9, given above, and is governed by the mismatch between the solute and the matrix atoms. For solid metals, the surface energies scale with the melting points | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) The surface segregation enrichment ratio increases when the solute atom size is larger than the matrix atom size and when the melting point of the solute is lower than that of the matrix. A chemisorbed gaseous species on the surface can also have an effect on the surface composition of a binary alloy. In the presence of a coverage of a chemisorbed species theta, it is proposed that the Langmuir-McLean model is valid with the free energy of surface segregation given by formula_39, where formula_41 and formula_42 are the chemisorption energies of the gas on solute A and matrix B and formula_43 is the fractional coverage. At high temperatures, evaporation from the surface can take place, causing a deviation from the McLean equation. At lower temperatures, both grain boundary and surface segregation can be limited by the diffusion of atoms from the bulk to the surface or interface. In some situations where segregation is important, the segregant atoms do not have sufficient time to reach their equilibrium level as defined by the above adsorption theories. The kinetics of segregation become a limiting factor and must be analyzed as well. Most existing models of segregation kinetics follow the McLean approach. In the model for equilibrium monolayer segregation, the solute atoms are assumed to segregate to a grain boundary from two infinite half-crystals or to a surface from one infinite half-crystal. The diffusion in the crystals is described by Fick’s laws | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) The ratio of the solute concentration in the grain boundary to that in the adjacent atomic layer of the bulk is given by an enrichment ratio, formula_44. Most models assume formula_44 to be a constant, but in practice this is only true for dilute systems with low segregation levels. In this dilute limit, if formula_4 is one monolayer, formula_44 is given as formula_48. The kinetics of segregation can be described by the following equation: where formula_51 for grain boundaries and 1 for the free surface, formula_52 is the boundary content at time formula_53, formula_54 is the solute bulk diffusivity, formula_55 is related to the atomic sizes of the solute and the matrix, formula_56 and formula_57, respectively, by formula_58. For short times, this equation is approximated by: In practice, formula_44 is not a constant but generally falls as segregation proceeds due to saturation. If formula_44 starts high and falls rapidly as the segregation saturates, the above equation is valid until the point of saturation. All metal castings experience segregation to some extent, and a distinction is made between "macro"segregation and "micro"segregation. Microsegregation refers to localized differences in composition between dendrite arms, and can be significantly reduced by a homogenizing heat treatment. This is possible because the distances involved (typically on the order of 10 to 100 µm) are sufficiently small for diffusion to be a significant mechanism. This is not the case in macrosegregation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Segregation (materials science) Therefore, macrosegregation in metal castings cannot be remedied or removed using heat treatment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14539370 |
Suites à Buffon Les is a French 19th-century scientific publication. Les "Suites à Buffon" carries the complete title "formant avec les œuvres de cet auteur un cours complet d'histoire naturelle embrassant les trois règnes de la nature, confié aux plus célèbres naturalistes et habiles écrivains" (Sequels to Buffon Constituting a Complete Course of Natural History Encompassing the Three Reigns of Nature, Entrusted to the Most Famous Naturalists and to Skillful Writers). The three reigns or kingdoms are Botany, Zoology and Geology. This work constitutes a vast realization in 89 volumes edited and published by the Parisian editor Nicolas Roret. Published between 1834 and 1890, it appears in many forms and is often extracted, sometimes under the titles "Nouvelles Suites à Buffon", "Suites à Buffon", and "Nouvelles Suites à Buffon". An example of a "Suites à Buffon" title is Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc, "Histoire Naturelle des Coquilles,contenant leur description, les moeurs des animaux qui les habitant et leurs usages" in 5 vols. 2nd ed. Paris, Verdière, 1824. Several new species of shells are described in this rather rare work which included a long "table alphabétique de toutes les espèces mentionnées dans ces ouvrages avec les synonymes de Lamarck". It is not clear from the title that this is part of "Suites à Buffon", but it is, though not published by Roret and of a specialised nature. Sometimes "Suites de Buffon" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14540333 |
Maximilien Chaudoir Maximilien Chaudoir, or Maximilien, baron de Chaudoir, (12 September 1816, Ivnitsa, near Zhitomir – 6 May 1881, Amélie-les-Bains) was a Russian entomologist. He was a specialist in Coleoptera and in particular the Carabidae. His Cicindelidae are conserved by the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris. His Carabidae were acquired by Charles Oberthür (1845–1924), then given to the same museum. He wrote "Mémoire sur la famille des Carabiques", 6 volumes commencing 1848. Chaudoir was born in Ivnitza, about 30 kilometres from Jitomir, Ukraine. The family may come from a line of French Protestant emigrants who fled in 1685 or from Belgium. The subsequent roots have been traced to Antoine de Chaudoire from Poland whose son worked in the court of Stanislas-Auguste Poniatowski until his abdication in 1795 after which he moved to Bavaria where he received the hereditary title of Baron from Maximilien Joseph II in 1814. His son Stanislav (1790–1858) married Aglae d'Erggelet and Maximilien was their only son. Stanislav was a wealthy collector who donated his books and collectibles to the Hermitage Museum. Maximilien was raised by his aunt as his mother died after his birth. Jean Wavre, a private tutor introduced him to natural history and insects. He began collecting carabid beetles in 1826. He was sent to study law at Tartu (Dorpat), although not interested in law, he knew that J.F. Eschscholtz taught zoology there | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14541256 |
Maximilien Chaudoir Unfortunately for him, Eschscholtz died a few weeks before he joined the university, and Chaudoir began to work on his collections at the museum. He was encouraged by Count Gustave de Mannerheim and in 1834 he travelled around Germany and met Louis Chevrolat in Hamburg. He became a member of the Entomological Society of France in 1834. He moved to Kiev and then joined the Societe Imperiale des Naturlistes de Moscou in 1837. In 1845 Chaudoir visited Crimea and became interested in the Caucasus region. In 1847 he became a member of the Entomologische Verein, Stettin. In 1848 he bought the Faldermann collection followed by another collection of Himalayan beetles from Captain Boys in 1850 and still later Gory's collection in 1852. He married Elisabeth-Augusta Bockshanine on February 28, 1856. They had a daughter and a son. His daughter Marie however died in 1879 at the age of 22 from Tuberculosis. Chaudoir died from a stroke on 6 May 1881 and was buried next to his daughter in their family vault at Amelie-Bains-Palalda. His wife died in 1896 at Jitomir and their son died without issue in 1919. Before his death he let his collection be available to Rene Oberthür through his friend Charles Oberthür. This collection eventually went to the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle in Paris. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14541256 |
Jan Zawidzki Jan Wiktor Tomasz Zawidzki (December 20, 1866 in Włóki, Masovian Voivodeship – September 14, 1928 in Warsaw) was a Polish physical chemist and historian of chemistry. He researched mainly chemical kinetics, thermochemistry and autocatalysis. Zawidzki was a professor of the Akademia Rolnicza in Dublany (1907–1916), Jagiellonian University (1916–1917), University of Warsaw (1917–1928), rector of the University of Warsaw (1918–1919), member of the Academy of Learning (since 1918), co-founder of the Polish Chemical Society and magazine "Roczniki Chemii". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14562720 |
Tilted updraft A tilted updraft (also known as a tilted storm) is a thunderstorm which is not vertically erect. This happens as a result of unidirectional wind shear, or a change in wind speed with height. In such an environment, the top of the updraft is pushed further downstream than the lower parts as a result of stronger winds pushing the top, as it is higher in the atmosphere. Storms that occur in environments with wind shear are more likely to be severe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14564162 |
Umbravirus The genus includes plant viruses assigned to the family "Tombusviridae". The genus has nine recognized species: "Carrot mottle mimic virus", "Carrot mottle virus", the type species, "Ethiopian tobacco bushy top virus", "Groundnut rosette virus", "Lettuce speckles mottle virus", "Opium poppy mosaic virus", "Pea enation mosaic virus 2", "Tobacco bushy top virus", and "Tobacco mottle virus". Umbraviruses do not encode their own coat protein, but use the coat proteins of 'assistor viruses' from the family "Luteoviridae" to produce virions, allowing them to be transmitted. Transmission may be by aphids or mechanical inoculation. The genome is a linear, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA, 4200–6900 nucleotides in length. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14565682 |
Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink. It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth, in Antarctica and in the Arctic. When light hits the blue oceans or seas, some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water. However, some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds. These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water. The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice. For example, Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole, as did Louis Bernacchi and Douglas Mawson in Antarctica. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14566980 |
Rare-cutter enzyme A rare-cutter enzyme is a restriction enzyme with a recognition sequence which occurs only rarely in a genome. An example is NotI, which cuts after the first GC of a 5'-GCGGCCGC-3' sequence; restriction enzymes with seven and eight base pair recognition sequences are often also called rare-cutter enzymes (six bp recognition sequences are much more common). For example, rare-cutter enzymes with 7-nucleotide recognition sites cut once every 4 bp (16,384 bp), and those with 8-nucleotide recognition sites cut every 4 bp (65,536 bp) respectively. They are used in top-down mapping to cut a chromosome into chunks of these sizes on average. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14570400 |
Ludwig Ganglbauer (1 October 1856, Vienna- 5 June 1912, Rekawinkel, near Kaltenbach Lower Austria), was an Austrian entomologist who specialised in Coleoptera (i.e. beetles). Ganglbauer became interested in insects during early childhood. Educated at the Schottengymnasium in Vienna, he later obtained a teaching certificate from the University of Vienna, and then taught high school for a few years. He subsequently took a job at the Wiener Hofmuseum (now the Vienna Museum of Natural History). In 1881, he co-founded the journal "Wiener Entomologische Zeitung". He became director of the Department for Zoology at the Vienna Natural History Museum in 1906. Ganglbauer wrote "Die Käfer von Mitteleuropa" (Beetles of Central Europe), 4 vols., 1892-1904 which was unfinished at his death, but is still widely read by entomologists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14571086 |
Valerie Hall (1946-2016) was a Professor in Palaeoecology at Queen's University Belfast until her retirement in 2010, after which she remained a Professor Emerita. She gained a 2:2 in botany at Queen's University Belfast in 1968 and a PhD in Palaeoecology in 1989. She has produced a number of publications of which the best known may be Flora Hibernica, which she co-wrote along with J. Pilcher and published in 2001. She was the Director of Research in the School of Archaeology-Palaeoecology at Queen's University Belfast. Valerie was Vice President of the INQUA Commission for Tephrochronology and Volcanology and was the Honorary Company Secretary of the Irish Naturalists' Journal Ltd. She produced 30 peer-reviewed papers as listed in Scopus. The most cited is "Dates of Holocene Icelandic volcanic eruptions from tephra layers in Irish peats" Pilcher, J.R., Hall, V.A., McCormac, F.G. "Holocene" 5 (1), pp. 103–110, (1995), which has been cited 85 times by March 2010. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14573316 |
Adparticle An adparticle is an atom, molecule, or cluster of atoms or molecules that lies on a crystal surface. The term is used in surface chemistry. The word is a contraction of "adsorbed particle". An adparticle that is a single atom may be referred to as an "adatom". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14573864 |
Christian Overgaard Nielsen (January 16, 1918 – January 26, 1999) was a Danish zoologist and ecologist. Overgaard Nielsen was a soil ecologist, specializing in soil nematodes and Enchytraeidae. He investigated the role of the soil microfauna in the decomposition of plant litter and recycling of nutrients in ecosystems. He was a visiting scientist with Charles Elton at Oxford University in 1950-1953. He was then employed at the Mols Laboratory under Aarhus University. In 1964, he was appointed professor of zoology at the University of Copenhagen. He was the first Editor-in-Chief of the scientific journal Oikos (1949-1965). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14574550 |
Hokusai quadrangle The (H-5) is one of fifteen quadrangles on the planet Mercury. It runs from 360 to 270° longitude and 20 to 70° latitude. Named after the Hokusai crater, it was mapped in detail for the first time after "MESSENGER" entered orbit around Mercury in 2011. It had not been mapped prior to that point because it was one of the six quadrangles that wasn't illuminated when "Mariner 10" made its flybys in 1974 and 1975. These six quadrangles continued to be known by their albedo feature names, with this one known as the Apollonia quadrangle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14582630 |
Raditladi quadrangle The (H-4) is one of fifteen quadrangles on Mercury. It runs from 270 to 180° longitude and 20 to 70° latitude. Named after the Raditladi Basin, it was mapped in detail for the first time after "MESSENGER" entered orbit around Mercury in 2011. It had not been mapped prior to that point because it was one of the six quadrangles that was not illuminated (with the exception of a thin strip of its territory along the eastern border with Shakespeare quadrangle) when "Mariner 10" made its flybys in 1974 and 1975. These six quadrangles continued to be known by their albedo feature names, with this one known as the Liguria quadrangle. Caloris Basin is centered in Raditladi quadrangle, though it overlaps significantly with the Tolstoj and Shakespeare quadrangles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14582668 |
Locule A locule (plural locules) or loculus (plural loculi) (meaning "little place" in Latin) is a small cavity or compartment within an organ or part of an organism (animal, plant, or fungus). In angiosperms (flowering plants), the term "locule" usually refers to a chamber within an ovary (gynoecium or carpel) of the flower and fruits. Depending on the number of locules in the ovary, fruits can be classified as "uni-locular" (unilocular), "bi-locular", "tri-locular" or "multi-locular". The number of locules present in a gynoecium may be equal to or less than the number of carpels. The locules contain the ovules or seeds. The term may also refer to chambers within anthers containing pollen. In Ascomycete fungi, locules are chambers within the hymenium in which the perithecia develop. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14587477 |
C.G. Johannes Petersen Carl Georg Johannes Petersen (24 October 1860 – 11 May 1928) was a Danish marine biologist, especially fisheries biologist. He was the first to describe communities of benthic marine invertebrates and is often considered a founder of modern fisheries research. Especially he was the first to use the Mark and recapture method which he used to estimate the size of a Plaice population. The Lincoln-Petersen method also known as the Petersen-Lincoln index is named after him. C.G.J. Petersen studied natural history at the University of Copenhagen under professor Japetus Steenstrup. He participated in expeditions 1883-1886 and sampled the benthic fauna in Danish waters systematically. In 1889, he co-founded "Dansk biologisk Station", which was a mobile laboratory in a former naval transport vessel that was put in a new location every spring and anchored for the summer. His research was primarily directed towards understanding the ecology – not the least feeding ecology – and distribution of fish species and to provide the fundament for an evidence-based fisheries policy. Nevertheless, today he is mainly remembered for his significant contribution to the development of the community concept for marine benthos. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14591746 |
Eminescu quadrangle The (H-9) is one of fifteen quadrangles on Mercury. It runs from 216 to 288° longitude and from -25 to 25° latitude. Named after the Eminescu crater, it was mapped in detail for the first time after "MESSENGER" entered orbit around Mercury in 2011. It had not been mapped prior to that point because it was one of the six quadrangles that was not illuminated when "Mariner 10" made its flybys in 1974 and 1975. These six quadrangles continued to be known by their albedo feature names, with this one known as the Solitudo Criophori quadrangle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14595728 |
Derain quadrangle The (H-10) is one of fifteen quadrangles on Mercury. It runs from 288 to 360° longitude and from -25 to 25° latitude. Named after the Derain crater, it was mapped in detail for the first time after "MESSENGER" entered orbit around Mercury in 2011. It had not been mapped prior to that point because it was one of the six quadrangles that was not illuminated when "Mariner 10" made its flybys in 1974 and 1975. These six quadrangles continued to be known by their albedo feature names, with this one known as the Pieria quadrangle. The massive Skinakas Basin overlaps the border of this quadrangle and neighboring Eminescu quadrangle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14595743 |
Debussy quadrangle The (H-14) is one of fifteen quadrangles on Mercury. It runs from 270 to 360° longitude and from -20 to -70° latitude. Named after the Debussy crater, it was mapped in detail for the first time after "MESSENGER" entered orbit around Mercury in 2011. It had not been mapped prior to that point because it was one of the six quadrangles that was not illuminated when "Mariner 10" made its flybys in 1974 and 1975. These six quadrangles continued to be known by their albedo feature names, with this one known as the Cyllene quadrangle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14595828 |
Alain Haché (born 14 December 1970, in Tracadie, New Brunswick) is an experimental physicist, a professor at the University of Moncton, Canada. From 2003 to 2013 he held the Canada Research Chair in Photonics. He is also the author of "The Physics of Hockey" and "Slap Shot Science", two popular science books on ice hockey. In 2002, he and undergraduate student Louis Poirier transmitted faster-than-light electrical pulses through a 120-metre long "photonic crystal" made of coaxial cables of alternating characteristic impedance (12 pairs of 50 Ω and 75 Ω cables). The experiment showed that the pulse envelope was recreated at the end of the cables at a speed of >3 "c". This speed represents the group velocity, but the amplitude of the signal also drops in such a way that the energy transmitted never exceeds, at any given time, the energy that would have been transmitted by same pulse travelling in a vacuum. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14597914 |
Neruda quadrangle The (H-13) is one of fifteen quadrangles on Mercury. It runs from 180 to 270° longitude and -20 to -70° latitude. Named after the Neruda crater, it was mapped in detail for the first time after "MESSENGER" entered orbit around Mercury in 2011. It had not been mapped prior to that point because it was one of the six quadrangles that was not illuminated (with the exception of a narrow strip along the eastern border with the Michelangelo quadrangle) when "Mariner 10" made its flybys in 1974 and 1975. These six quadrangles continued to be known by their albedo feature names, with this one known as the Solitudo Persephones quadrangle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14598685 |
Aristoxenus (crater) Aristoxenus is an impact crater at latitude 82 degrees north, longitude 11 degrees west on Mercury. It is 65 kilometers in diameter and was named after Aristoxenus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14610181 |
Grigory Bey-Bienko Grigory Yakovlevich Bey-Bienko (; 7 February 1903, in Bilopillia, Russian Empire (now Sumy Oblast, Ukraine) – 3 November 1971) was a Russian entomologist who specialized in Orthoptera. He graduated from the Omsk Institute of Agriculture, worked in the USSR Institute for Plants Protection (Vsesoyuznij Institut Zaschity Rastenij, 1929–1938), Leningrad Agricultural Institute (1938–1968) and Institute for Zoology of the USSR Academy of Sciences (starting in 1948). He was a Stalin Prize winner (1952), corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (starting in 1953) and chairman of the USSR Entomology Society (starting in 1966) He was one of the editors of "Keys to the Insects of the European Part of the USSR" (Leningrad, Nauka; published in English by Amerind Publishing, New Delhi) and "Fauna of the European Part of the USSR" (Leningrad, Nauka; published in English by Amerind Publishing, New Delhi). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14615306 |
Boethius (Mercurian crater) Boethius is a crater on Mercury, named after Boethius, the Roman philosopher. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14617046 |
Schubert (Mercurian crater) Schubert is a crater on Mercury. It was named after Franz Schubert, a famous Austrian composer, by the IAU in 1976. Schubert has been filled in by smooth plains material. Nearby craters include Wergeland to the north, Nampeyo to the northeast, and Bramante to the southwest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14617148 |
Soredium Soredia are common reproductive structures of lichens. Lichens reproduce asexually by employing simple fragmentation and production of soredia and isidia. Soredia are powdery propagules composed of fungal hyphae wrapped around cyanobacteria or green algae. These can be either scattered diffusely across the surface of the lichen's thallus, or produced in localized structures called soralia. Fungal hyphae make up the basic body structure of lichen. The soredia are released through openings in the upper cortex of the lichen structure. After their release, the soredia disperse to establish the lichen in a new location. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14617718 |
Africanus Horton (crater) Africanus Horton is a crater on Mercury. It was named by the IAU in 1976, after Africanus Horton, a Creole African nationalist writer and an esteemed medical surgeon in the British Army from Freetown, Sierra Leone. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14618597 |
Gula Mons is a volcano in western Eistla Regio on Venus; it is high and located at approximately 22 degrees north latitude, 359 degrees east longitude. Its main feature is a NE-SW-oriented rift-like fracture set connecting two summit calderas. There is also a structure which links the northern caldera and ridge system to Idem Kuva corona located NW of Gula Mons. Radially spreading lava flows which have digitate and broad sheet-like forms extend from the summit, including radar-dark flows which overlay several older lava deposits. Radial and circumferential fractures are present on the flanks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14621107 |
Sif Mons is a shield volcano in Eistla Regio on Venus. It has a diameter of and a height of . It is named after the Norse goddess Sif. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14621183 |
Cunitz (crater) Cunitz is a crater on Venus at latitude 14.5, longitude 350.9 in western Eistla Regio. It is 48.6 km in diameter and was named for a 17th-century Silesian astronomer Maria Cunitz. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14621259 |
Ushas Mons is a 2-kilometer-high (1.25 mile) volcano in the southern hemisphere of Venus at 25 degrees south latitude, 323 degrees east longitude. Its name is derived from vedic goddess of dawn Ushas The volcano is marked by numerous bright lava flows and a set of north-south trending fractures, many of which appear to have formed after the lavas were erupted onto the surface. In the central summit area, however, younger flows remain unfractured. An impact crater can be seen among the fractures in the upper center of the image. The association of faulting and volcanism is common on this type of volcano on Venus, and is believed to result from a large zone of hot material upwelling from the Venusian mantle, a phenomenon known on Earth as a "hotspot." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14621456 |
Dickinson (crater) Dickinson crater is located at 74.6 degrees north latitude and 177.2 east longitude, in the northeastern Atalanta Region of Venus. It is in diameter. The crater is complex, characterized by a partial central ring and a floor flooded by radar-dark and radar-bright materials. Hummocky, rough-textured ejecta extend all around the crater, except to the west. The lack of ejecta to the west may indicate that the impactor that produced the crater was an oblique impact from the west. Extensive radar-bright flows that emanate from the crater's eastern walls may represent large volumes of impact melt, or they may be the result of volcanic material released from the subsurface during the cratering event. The crater was named after Emily Dickinson, an American poet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14621544 |
Grimke (crater) Grimke is a crater on Venus at latitude 17.2, longitude 215.3. It is 34.8 km in diameter and is named after Sarah Grimké. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14623681 |
Wheatley (crater) Wheatley is a crater on Venus at latitude 16.6, longitude 268 in Asteria Regio. It is 74.8 km in diameter and was named after Phillis Wheatley, the first black writer of note in America (1753-1784). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14623802 |
Mona Lisa (crater) Mona Lisa is a crater on Venus at latitude 25.6, longitude 25.1. It is 79.4 km in diameter and was named after Lisa Giacondo, Leonardo da Vinci's model for the painting "Mona Lisa". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14623843 |
Balch (crater) Balch is a crater on Venus at latitude 29.9, longitude 282.9 in Devana Chasma, Central Beta Regio. It is 40 km in diameter and named after Emily Balch, though it was originally designated Somerville crater. This crater is one of the few examples of tectonically modified craters seen on Venus. Approximately half the crater was subsumed into a valley. The absence of such craters indicates a possible cessation of tectonic deformation on Venus at some point in history. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14623922 |
Tor Ørvig (1916–1994) was a Norwegian-born Swedish paleontologist who explored the histology of early vertebrates. He was professor at the Swedish Museum of Natural History in Stockholm and member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He described a possible post-Cretaceous coelacanth fossil from the Paleocene epoch. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14627006 |
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