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Joe Farman Joseph Charles Farman CBE (7 August 193011 May 2013) was a British geophysicist who worked for the British Antarctic Survey. Together with Brian Gardiner and Jon Shanklin, he published the discovery of the ozone hole over Antarctica, having used Dobson ozone spectrophotometers. Their results were first published on 16 May 1985. He was educated at Norwich School, where he was a prefect in Coke House, and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge where he gained an undergraduate degree in Natural Sciences. He received numerous honours for this discovery, including the Society of Chemical Industry (SCI) Environment Medal, the Chree Medal and Prize, membership of the Global 500 Roll of Honour, and a CBE in the 2000 New Year Honours.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1808883
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Polyphage are genomic multimers of bacteriophage in which multiple viral particles are all encapsulated, one after the other, within the same set of coat proteins. This phenomenon is characteristic of filamentous phage.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1809382
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Ernst Krause Dr Ernst Ludwig Krause also known under the pen-name Carus Sterne (22 November 1839 in Zielenzig, – 24 August 1903 in Eberswalde) was a German biologist. Initially a student of pharmacy, he later studied natural sciences at the University of Berlin. After graduation, he devoted himself to independent scientific research. He was a prominent and successful champion of Darwinism in Germany. He also maintained an extensive correspondence with Germany's most outspoken popular Darwinist, Ernst Haeckel. Krause was also the author of numerous articles in the journal "Die Gartenlaube".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1811066
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Cryoscopic constant In thermodynamics, the cryoscopic constant, , relates molality to freezing point depression (which is a colligative property). It is the ratio of the latter to the former: Through cryoscopy, a known constant can be used to calculate an unknown molar mass. The term "cryoscopy" comes from Greek and means "freezing measurement." Freezing point depression is a colligative property, so depends only on the number of solute particles dissolved, not the nature of those particles. Cryoscopy is related to ebullioscopy, which determines the same value from the ebullioscopic constant (of boiling point elevation). The value of , which depends on the nature of the solvent can be found out by the following equation: The for water is 1.853 K kg mol.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1811634
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Gelifluction Gelifluction, very similar to solifluction, is the seasonal freeze-thaw action upon waterlogging topsoils which induces downslope movement. is prominent in periglacial regions where snow falls during six to eight months of the year. In spring, the snow and ice melt, and the landscape is effectively inundated with half a year's worth of rainfall in the space of a couple of days. The top soil becomes waterlogged, and flows like a liquid. Because the soil now a fluid, gelifluction is a form of mass movement that can occur on slopes with a slope angle of less than half a degree. The most distinctive landforms created by gelifluction include gelifluction lobes and gelifluction benches. The former refer to tongue-shaped deposits of geliflucted material orientated downslope that tend to form on slopes of between 10° and 20°, whereas the latter refer to terrace-like deposits forming on gentler slopes with a long axis running parallel to the slope contour. lobes can be further subdivided into either stone-banked or turf-banked lobes depending on vegetation cover. A lobe is usually measured in terms of its front (riser) and its length upslope (tread); gelifluction lobes typically have risers of up to and treads of up to .
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1815506
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Structural unit In polymer chemistry, a structural unit is a building block of a polymer chain. It is the result of a monomer which has been polymerized into a long chain. There may be more than one structural unit in the repeat unit. When different monomers are polymerized, a copolymer is formed. It is a routine way of developing new properties for new materials. Consider the example of polyethylene terephthalate (PET or "polyester"). The monomers which could be used to create this polymer are ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid: HO-CH-CH-OH and HOOC-CH-COOH In the polymer, there are two structural units, which are -O-CH-CH-O- and -CO-CH-CO- The repeat unit is -CH-CH-O-CO-CH-CO-O- The functionality of a monomeric structural unit is defined as the number of covalent bonds which it forms with other reactants. A structural unit in a linear polymer chain segment forms two bonds and is therefore bifunctional, as for the PET structural units above. Other values of functionality exist. Unless the macromolecule is cyclic, it will have monovalent structural units at each end of the polymer chain. In branched polymers, there are trifunctional units at each branch point. For example, in the synthesis of PET, a small fraction of the ethylene glycol can be replaced by glycerol which has three alcohol groups. This trifunctional molecule inserts itself in the polymeric chain and bonds to three carboxylic acid groups forming a branch point. Finally, the formation of cross-linked polymers involves tetrafunctional structural units
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Structural unit For example, in the synthesis of cross-linked polystyrene, a small fraction of monomeric styrene (or vinylbenzene) is remplaced by 1,4-divinylbenzene (or "para"-divinylbenzene). Each of the two vinyl groups is inserted into a polymeric chain, so that the tetravalent unit is inserted into both chains, linking them together.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1818273
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Ishtar Terra is one of two main highland regions on the planet Venus. It is the smaller of the three "continents", and is located near the north pole. It is named after the Akkadian goddess Ishtar. The size of is roughly between the sizes of Australia and the continental United States. On its eastern edge lies the great mountain chain Maxwell Montes, which is 11 km high, compared to Mt. Everest at 8.8 km. On one side of the mountain chain is an impact crater of 100 km in diameter filled with lava. contains the four main mountain ranges of Venus: Maxwell Montes on the eastern edge, Freyja Montes in the north, Akna Montes on the western edge, and Danu Montes in the southern region. These surround the lower plain of Ishtar Terra, which is named Lakshmi Planum (named after the Hindu goddess Lakshmi). also contains volcanoes named after famous women: Sacajawea, Colette, and Cleopatra. is also the site of many tesserae, formed by tectonic deformation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1822856
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Bremermann's limit Bremermann's limit, named after Hans-Joachim Bremermann, is a limit on the maximum rate of computation that can be achieved in a self-contained system in the material universe. It is derived from Einstein's mass-energy equivalency and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and is "c"/"h" ≈ 1.36 × 10 bits per second per kilogram. This value is important when designing cryptographic algorithms, as it can be used to determine the minimum size of encryption keys or hash values required to create an algorithm that could never be cracked by a brute-force search. For example, a computer with the mass of the entire Earth operating at the could perform approximately 10 mathematical computations per second. If one assumes that a cryptographic key can be tested with only one operation, then a typical 128-bit key could be cracked in under 10 seconds. However, a 256-bit key (which is already in use in some systems) would take about two minutes to crack. Using a 512-bit key would increase the cracking time to approaching 10 years, without increasing the time for encryption by more than a constant factor (depending on the encryption algorithms used). The limit has been further analysed in later literature as the maximum rate at which a system with energy spread formula_1 can evolve into an orthogonal and hence distinguishable state to another, formula_2 In particular, Margolus and Levitin have shown that a quantum system with average energy E takes at least time formula_3 to evolve into an orthogonal state
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Bremermann's limit However, it has been shown that access to quantum memory in principle allows computational algorithms that require arbitrarily small amount of energy/time per one elementary computation step.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1824836
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Edouard Van Beneden Édouard Joseph Louis Marie Van Beneden (5 March 1846 in Leuven – 28 April 1910 in Liège), son of Pierre-Joseph Van Beneden, was a Belgian embryologist, cytologist and marine biologist. He was professor of zoology at the University of Liège. He contributed to cytogenetics by his works on the roundworm "Ascaris". In this work he discovered how chromosomes organized meiosis (the production of gametes). Van Beneden elucidated, together with Walther Flemming and Eduard Strasburger, the essential facts of mitosis, where, in contrast to meiosis, there is a qualitative and quantitative equality of chromosome distribution to daughter cells. (See karyotype). Van Beneden's father, Pierre-Joseph van Beneden (18091894) was also a well-known biologist. He introduced two important terms into evolutionary biology and ecology: mutualism and commensalism.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1825382
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Neutron probe A neutron probe is a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil. A typical neutron probe contains a pellet of americium-241 and beryllium. The alpha particles emitted by the decay of the americium collide with the light beryllium nuclei, producing fast neutrons. When these fast neutrons collide with hydrogen nuclei present in the soil being studied, they lose much of their energy. The detection of slow neutrons returning to the probe allows an estimate of the amount of hydrogen present. Since water contains two atoms of hydrogen per molecule, this therefore gives a measure of soil moisture. Farmers use this to determine how much water is in their fields. This was first developed in 1950's. This was an efficient and reliable technique.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1826330
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Colatitude In a spherical coordinate system, a colatitude is the complementary angle of a given latitude, i.e. the difference between 90° and the latitude. Southern latitudes are given a negative value and are thus denoted with a minus sign. The colatitude corresponds to the conventional polar angle in spherical coordinates, as opposed to the latitude as used in cartography. Latitude and colatitude sum up to 90°. The colatitude is most useful in astronomy because it refers to the zenith distance of the celestial poles. For example, at latitude 42°N, Polaris (approximately on the North celestial pole) has an altitude of 42°, so the distance from the zenith (overhead point) to Polaris is . Adding the declination of a star to the observer's colatitude gives the maximum latitude of that star (its angle from the horizon at culmination or upper transit). For example, if Alpha Centauri is seen with a latitude of 72° north (108° south) and its declination is known (60°S), then it can be determined that the observer's colatitude is (i.e. their latitude is ). Stars whose declinations exceed the observer's colatitude are called circumpolar because they will never set as seen from that latitude. If an object's declination is further south on the celestial sphere than the value of the colatitude, then it will never be seen from that location
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Colatitude For example, Alpha Centauri will always be visible at night from Perth, Western Australia because the colatitude is , and 60° is greater than 58°; on the other hand, the star will never rise in Juneau because its declination of −60° is less than −32° (the negation of Juneau's colatitude). Additionally, colatitude is used as part of the Schwarzschild metric in general relativity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1828681
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Ganges Chasma is a deep canyon at the eastern end of the vast Valles Marineris system on Mars, an offshoot of Capri Chasma, and is in the Coprates quadrangle. It is named after the River Ganges in South Asia. is thought to have formed through a series of catastrophic discharges of water and CO from chaos terrains such as that preserved in Ganges Chaos at its southern margin. Most of the evidence for these discharges and the ensuing collapses is believed to have been washed away. Prior to developing an outlet that joined it to Capri Chasma and the connected outflow channels to its east, may at some point in the Noachian period have contained a lake which drained northward through partially subsurface pathways into Shalbatana Vallis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1829154
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Hyetograph A hyetograph is a graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall intensity over time. For instance, in the 24-hour rainfall distributions as developed by the Soil Conservation Service (now the NRCS or National Resources Conservation Service), rainfall intensity progressively increases until it reaches a maximum and then gradually decreases. Where this maximum occurs and how fast the maximum is reached is what differentiates one distribution from another. One important aspect to understand is that the distributions are for design storms, not necessarily actual storms. In other words, a real storm may not behave in this same fashion. The maximum intensity may not be reached as uniformly as shown in the SCS hyetographs.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1831357
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Oceanographic Museum of Monaco The Oceanographic Museum ("Musée océanographique") is a museum of marine sciences in Monaco-Ville, Monaco. It is home to the Mediterranean Science Commission. This building is part of the Oceanographic Institute, which is committed to sharing its knowledge of the oceans. The Oceanographic Museum was inaugurated in 1910 by Monaco's modernist reformer, Prince Albert I. Jacques-Yves Cousteau was director from 1957 to 1988. The Museum celebrated its centenary in March 2010, after extensive renovations. The museum is home to exhibitions and collections of various species of sea fauna (starfish, seahorses, turtles, jellyfish, crabs, lobsters, rays, sharks, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, eels, cuttlefish etc.). The museum's holdings also include a great variety of sea related objects, including model ships, sea animal skeletons, tools, weapons etc., as well as a collection of material culture and ritual objects made from, or integrating materials such as pearls, molluscs and nacre. At the first floor, "A Sailor’s Career" showcases the work of Prince Albert I. It includes the laboratory from "L’Hirondelle", the first of Prince Albert's research yachts. Observations made there led to an understanding of the phenomenon of anaphylaxis, for which Dr Charles Richet received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1913. An aquarium in the basement of the museum presents a wide array of flora and fauna. Four thousand species of fish and over 200 families of invertebrates can be seen
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Oceanographic Museum of Monaco The aquarium also features a presentation of Mediterranean and tropical marine ecosystems. Numerous artists display their artworks in the museum, such as Damien Hirst and . This monumental example of highly charged Baroque Revival architecture has an impressive façade above the sea, towering over the sheer cliff face to a height of 279 feet (85.04 m). It took eleven years to build, using 100,000 tons of stone from La Turbie. During construction, the names of twenty well-known oceanographic research vessels personally selected by Prince Albert I were inscribed into the frieze of the museum's façade. In 1989, French marine biologist Alexandre Meinesz discovered a patch of a giant, tropical seaweed "Caulerpa taxifolia" directly under the walls of the museum. Several documentaries point to this patch as the origin of one of the largest seaweed contaminations of the Mediterranean Sea in recent history. The role of the museum and its director, François Doumenge when the discovery was made public is still heavily debated.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1835511
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Knudsen gas In physics and chemistry, a is a gas in a state of such low density that the mean free path of molecules is greater than the diameter of receptacle that contains it. The molecular dynamical regime is then dominated by the collisions of the gas molecules with the walls of the receptacle rather than with each other. It is named after Martin Knudsen. A flow of gas through a pipe is called Knudsen flow when it can be expressed as the difference of two independent flows, which enter the pipe through its different ends.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1837480
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The Creator (diamond) The Creator () is a 298.48 carat colored raw diamond, the third largest gem diamond ever found in Russia or the territory of the former Soviet Union (after the 26th Congress of the CPSU and the Alexander Pushkin), and one of the largest in the world as of 2016. It was found at a placer mining factory in the area of the Lower Lena River (Yakutia, Far Eastern Federal District) in 2004 and is owned by the Government of the Sakha Republic, but kept in the Russian Diamond Fund (Moscow Kremlin).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1837640
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Biodistribution is a method of tracking where compounds of interest travel in an experimental animal or human subject. For example, in the development of new compounds for PET (positron emission tomography) scanning, a radioactive isotope is chemically joined with a peptide (subunit of a protein). This particular class of isotopes emits positrons (which are antimatter particles, equal in mass to the electron, but with a positive charge). When ejected from the nucleus, positrons encounter an electron, and undergo annihilation which produces two gamma rays travelling in opposite directions. These gamma rays can be measured, and when compared to a standard, quantified. For example, a new compound would be injected intravenously into a group of 16-20 rodents (typically mice or rats). At intervals of 1, 2, 4, and 24 hours, smaller groups (4-5) of the animals are euthanized, then dissected. The organs of interest (usually: blood, liver, spleen, kidney, muscle, fat, adrenals, pancreas, brain, bone, stomach, small intestine, and upper and lower large intestine, etc.) are placed in pre-weighed containers, then into a device that measures gamma radiation. The results give a dynamic view of how the compound moves through the animal. A useful compound is one that is used either for the medical imaging of certain body parts or tumors (at low doses of radioactivity) or treating tumors (at high doses of radioactivity)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1840155
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Biodistribution In gene therapy, gene delivery vectors, such as viruses, can be imaged according either to their particle biodistribution or their transduction pattern. The former means labeling the viruses with a contrast agent, being visible in some imaging modality, such as MRI or SPECT/PET and latter means visualising the marker gene of gene delivery vector to be visible by the means of immunohistochemical methods, optical imaging or even by PCR. Non-invasive imaging has gained popularity as the imaging equipment has become available for research use from clinics. For example, avidin-displaying baculoviruses could be imaged in rat brain by coating them with biotinylated iron particles, rendering them visible in MR imaging. The biodistribution of the iron-virus particles was seen to concentrate on the choroid plexus cells of lateral ventricles.
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Gamma counter A gamma counter is a machine to measure gamma radiation emitted by a radionuclide. Unlike survey meters, gamma counters are designed to measure small samples of radioactive material, typically with automated measurement and movement of multiple samples. Gamma counters are usually scintillation counters. In a typical system, a number of samples are placed in sealed vials or test tubes, and moved along a track. One at a time, they move down inside a shielded detector, set to measure specific energy windows characteristic of the particular isotope. Within this shielded detector there is a scintillation crystal that surrounds the radioactive sample. Gamma rays emitted from the radioactive sample interact with the crystal, are absorbed, and light is emitted. A detector, such as a photomultiplier tube converts the visible light to an electrical signal. Depending on the half-life and concentration of the sample, measurement times may vary from 0.02 minutes to several hours. If the photon has too low of an energy level it will be absorbed into the scintillation crystal and never be detected. If the photon has too high of an energy level the photons may just pass right through the crystal without any interaction. Thus the thickness of the crystal is very important when sampling radioactive materials using the Gamma Counter. Gamma counters are standard tools used in the research and development of new radioactive compounds used for diagnosing and treating disease, (as in PET scanning)
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Gamma counter Gamma counters are used in radiobinding assays, radioimmunoassays (RIA) and Nuclear Medicine measurements such as GFR and hematocrit. Some gamma counters can be used for gamma spectroscopy to identify radioactive materials based on their output energy spectrum, e.g. as a wipe test counter.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1841012
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International Celestial Reference System The (ICRS) is the current standard celestial reference system adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Its origin is at the barycenter of the Solar System, with axes that are intended to be "fixed" with respect to space. ICRS coordinates are approximately the same as equatorial coordinates: the mean pole at J2000.0 in the ICRS lies at 17.3±0.2 mas in the direction 12 h and 5.1±0.2 mas in the direction 18 h. The mean equinox of J2000.0 is shifted from the ICRS right ascension origin by 78±10 mas (direct rotation around the polar axis). The defining extragalactic reference frame of the ICRS is the International Celestial Reference Frame (currently ICRF3) based on hundreds of extra-galactic radio sources, mostly quasars, distributed around the entire sky. Because they are so distant, they are apparently stationary to our current technology, yet their positions can be measured with the utmost accuracy by Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI). The positions of most are known to 0.001 arcsecond or better. At optical wavelengths, the ICRS is currently realized by the Hipparcos Celestial Reference Frame (HCRF), a subset of about 100,000 stars in the Hipparcos Catalogue. A more accurate optical realization of the ICRS ("Gaia"-CRF2), based on the observation by the "Gaia" spacecraft of almost 500,000 extragalactic objects believed to be quasars, is under preparation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1846548
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Azurophilic granule An azurophilic granule is a cellular object readily stainable with a Romanowsky stain. In white blood cells and hyperchromatin, staining imparts a burgundy or merlot coloration. Neutrophils in particular are known for containing azurophils loaded with a wide variety of anti-microbial defensins that fuse with phagocytic vacuoles. Azurophils may contain myeloperoxidase, phospholipase A2, acid hydrolases, elastase, defensins, neutral serine proteases, bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein, lysozyme, cathepsin G, proteinase 3, and proteoglycans. Azurophil granules are also known as "primary granules". Furthermore, the term "azurophils" may refer to a unique type of cells, identified only in reptiles. These cells are similar in size to so-called heterophils with abundant cytoplasm that is finely to coarsely granular and may sometimes contain vacuoles. Granules may impart a purplish hue to the cytoplasm, particularly to the outer region. Occasionally, azurophils are observed with vacuolated cytoplasm.
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AstroGrid was a £7.7M project which built a data-grid for UK astronomy, forming part of the UK contribution to the International Virtual Observatory. announced its first full production release on 1 April 2008. The project ran, in three phases, from 2001 to 2009. Accounts of its end-days suggest that many in the community regretted its early closing.
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Hossein Gol-e-Golab (Persian حسین گلگلاب also given as "Hosayn Golgolab", (1895 – March 13, 1985) was a polymath Iranian scholar and musician who wrote the patriotic anthem "Ey Iran". Gol-e-Golab was born in Kerman, and studied at the Elmiya School and Dar-ul-Funun university, which is now known as the University of Tehran. Gol-e-Golab never lost his interest in music, finding time to translate Western operas into his native Persian while teaching and writing on botany and serving on the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, to which he was appointed 1935.
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Georgia Depression The is a landform and ecoregion in the Pacific Northwest which is part of the larger Insular Mountain System of the North American Cordillera. The depression includes the lowland regions of southwestern British Columbia and northwestern Washington. The is encompassed by the Pacific Ranges to the north, Vancouver Island Ranges and Olympic Mountains to the west, and North Cascades to the east. The depression itself includes the Fraser Lowland, Nanaimo and Nahwitti lowlands of Vancouver Island, Puget Sound basin, and all the islands and adjoining waterways of the Salish Sea. Much of the is dry, flat, and at low elevation relative to the surrounding highlands. As such, a wide diversity of flora and fauna thrive within the depression. The majority of the population of British Columbia and Washington reside within this depression. Human activity has greatly altered much of the natural environment here through industrialization, agriculture, forestry, urbanization, and suburban sprawl.
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Flandrian interglacial The or stage is the name given by geologists and archaeologists in the British Isles to the first, and so far only, stage of the Holocene epoch (the present geological period), covering the period from around 12,000 years ago, at the end of the last glacial period to the present day. As such, it is in practice identical in span to the Holocene. The Flandrian began as the relatively short-lived Younger Dryas climate downturn came to an end. This formed the last gasp of the Devensian glaciation, the final stage of the Pleistocene epoch. The Flandrian is traditionally seen as the latest warm interglacial in a series that has been occurring throughout the Quaternary geological period. The first part of the Flandrian, known as the Younger Atlantic, was a period of fairly rapid sea level rise, known as the Flandrian transgression. It is associated with the melting of the Fenno-Scandian, Scottish, Laurentide and Cordilleran glaciers. Fjords were formed during the Flandrian transgression when U-shaped glaciated valleys were inundated. Milankovitch theory alone would forecast that the present Flandrian climate, like that of other interstadials, should eventually decline in temperature, towards a global climate similar to that of the Last Glacial Maximum. Less orbital eccentricity might have the effect of moderating this temperature downturn. However, orbital cycles are not the only influence on global temperature; atmospheric greenhouse gasses also affect the radiative forcing
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Flandrian interglacial While there is agreement that post-industrial-revolution greenhouse-gas emissions are substantially warming the planet, there is debate over whether early agriculture, beginning thousands of years earlier, has had a much smaller warming effect (due to methane emissions from rice paddies, or deforestation, for instance). If this is the case, the climate of at least the later Holocene has long deviated from what would be expected with only orbital forcings, and the Flandrian has long been an atypical interglacial.
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Rainout A rainout is the process of precipitation causing the removal of radioactive particles from the atmosphere onto the ground, creating nuclear fallout by rain. The rainclouds of the rainout are often formed by the particles of a nuclear explosion itself and because of this, the decontamination of rainout is more difficult than a "dry" fallout. A rainout could occur in the vicinity of ground zero or the contamination could be carried aloft before deposition depending on the current atmospheric conditions and how the explosion occurred. The explosion, or burst, can be air, surface, subsurface, or seawater. An air burst will produce less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground due to less particulate being contaminated. Detonations at the surface will tend to produce more fallout material. In case of water surface bursts, the particles tend to be rather lighter and smaller, producing less local fallout but extending over a greater area. The particles contain mostly sea salts with some water; these can have a cloud seeding effect causing local rainout and areas of high local fallout. Fallout from a seawater burst is difficult to remove once it has soaked into porous surfaces because the fission products are present as metallic ions which become chemically bonded to many surfaces. For subsurface bursts, there is an additional phenomenon present called "base surge"
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Rainout The base surge is a cloud that rolls outward from the bottom of the subsiding column, which is caused by an excessive density of dust or water droplets in the air. This surge is made up of small solid particles, but it still behaves like a fluid. A soil earth medium favors base surge formation in an underground burst. Although the base surge typically contains only about 10% of the total bomb debris in a subsurface burst, it can create larger radiation doses than fallout near the detonation, because it arrives sooner than fallout, before much radioactive decay has occurred. For underwater bursts, the visible surge is, in effect, a cloud of liquid (usually water) droplets with the property of flowing almost as if it were a homogeneous fluid. After the water evaporates, an invisible base surge of small radioactive particles may persist. Meteorogically, snow and rain will accelerate local fallout. Under special meteorological conditions, such as a local rain shower that originates above the radioactive cloud, limited areas of heavy contamination just downwind of a nuclear blast may be formed. Rain on an area contaminated by a surface burst changes the pattern of radioactive intensities by washing off higher elevations, buildings, equipment, and vegetation. This reduces intensities in some areas and possibly increases intensities in drainage systems; on low ground; and in flat, poorly drained areas.
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Trituration is the name of several different methods used to process materials. In one sense, it is a form of comminution (reducing the particle size of a substance). In another sense, it is the production of a homogeneous material by mixing component materials thoroughly. For example, a dental amalgam is formed by combining particles of a metal, usually gold or silver, with mercury. In organic chemistry, trituration is a process used to purify crude chemical compounds containing soluble impurities. A solvent is chosen in which the desired product is insoluble and the undesired by-products are very soluble or vice versa. For example, when the impurities are soluble and the desired product is not, the crude material is washed with the solvent and filtered, leaving the purified product in solid form and any impurities in solution. In pharmacology, "trituration" can also refer to the process of grinding one compound into another to dilute one of the ingredients, add volume for processing and handling, or to mask undesirable qualities. For example, the amount of hormone in a dose of Levonorgestrel formulated as a progestogen-only contraceptive is only 30μg, which is far too small to handle. In a typical product, the drug is triturated with c. 1700 times its mass of sugar before being compressed and coated to produce the final tablet. In juicing, a triturating juicer is a style of juicer used to break down fresh produce into juice and fiber
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Trituration In homeopathy, a trituration is a solution in lactose of a substance that is not water-soluble.
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Polly and Molly (born 1997), two ewes, were the first mammals to have been successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell and to be transgenic animals at the same time. This is not to be confused with Dolly the Sheep, the first animal to be successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell where there wasn’t modification carried out on the adult donor nucleus. Polly and Molly, like Dolly the Sheep, were cloned at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland. The creation of built on the somatic nuclear transfer experiments that led to the cloning of Dolly the Sheep. The crucial difference was that in creating Polly and Molly, scientists used cells into which a new gene had been inserted. The gene chosen was a therapeutic protein to demonstrate the potential of such recombinant DNA technology combined with animal cloning. This could hopefully be used to produce pharmacological and therapeutic proteins to treat human diseases. The protein in question was the human blood clotting factor IX. Another difference from Dolly the Sheep was the source cell type of the nucleus that was transferred. Prior to the production of Polly and Molly, the only demonstrated way to make a transgenic animal was by microinjection of DNA into the pronuclei of fertilized oocytes (eggs). However, only a small proportion of the animals will integrate the injected DNA into their genome
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1857574
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Polly and Molly In the rare cases that they do integrate this new genetic information, the pattern of expression of the injected transgene's protein due to the random integration is very variable. As the aim of such research is to produce an animal that expresses a particular protein in high levels in, for example, its milk, microinjection is a very costly procedure that does not usually produce the desired animal. In mice, there is an additional option for genetic transfer that is not available in other animals. Embryonic stem cells provide a means to transfer new DNA into the germline. They also allow precise genetic modifications by gene targeting. Modified embryonic stem cells can be selected in vitro before the experiment moves on further for the production of an animal. Embryonic stem cells capable of contributing to the germline of livestock species such as sheep have not been isolated. The production of Dolly the Sheep and also Megan and Morag, the two sheep that led to the production of Dolly, demonstrated that viable sheep can be produced by nuclear transfer from a variety of somatic cell types which have been cultured in vitro. represented the further step in which somatic cells were cultured in vitro, just as in the case with the previous sheep. However, in this case they were transfected with foreign DNA, and the transfected cells which stably integrated this new piece of genetic information were selected
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1857574
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Polly and Molly The nuclei of these somatic cells was then transferred into an empty oocyte, as in the procedure of nuclear transfer, and this was used to produce several transgenic animals. A cell type PDFF was used. PDFF5 would produce male animals and were not transduced. Cell type PDFF2 produced female animals and were transduced. Of the gestations that occurred, three PDFF2 animals were born, two of which survived birth, 7LL8 and 7LL12. These animals were transfected but contained a marker gene "not" the cloned gene of interest. These were named "Holly" and "Olly". Two more subsets of female-producing PDFF2 cells, PDFF2-12 and PDFF2-13, also produced animals which had the cell of interest together with the marker. Of these lambs, 7LL12, 7LL15, and 7LL13 were born alive and healthy. Two of these were named Polly and Molly. The transgene that was inserted in the donor somatic cells was designed to express the human clotting factor IX protein in the milk of sheep. This protein plays an essential role in blood coagulation, and deficiency leads to the disease haemophilia B of which treatment requires intravenous infusion of factor IX. The production of this protein in livestock milk, a process known as pharming, would provide a source of this therapeutic protein that would reduce the cost and also would be free of potential infectious risk associated with the current source of this protein (human blood).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1857574
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ROFOR is a format for reporting weather information. is an abbreviation for "Route Forecast". As the name suggests is the weather forecast of the route of any aircraft which will be flying through the route. contains various information regarding date and time of forecast, direction and speed of the wind, aerodrome icao code for which the forecast is made, cloud levels and freezing (Icing) levels, turbulence and vertical wind shear information. here is an example of report:- AND INDICATOR FIG 4 IS ALTITUDE AND TEMP WITH WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED 405020 28015 (INDICATOR FIG 4) AT 5000 FT TEMP. IS 20 DEG CELCIUS WIND FROM 280 DEG AT 15 KNOTS FIG 5 INDICATE TURBULENCE 523306 (INDICATOR FIG 5) MODERATE CAT AT 33000 FT WITH THICKNESS 6000 FT FIG 6 INDICATE ICING 631209 (INDICATOR FIG 6) LIGHT ICING WITH PRECIPITATION AT 12000 FT WITH THICKNESS 9000 FT 11111 INDICATES JET STREAM LOCATION 22222 INDICATES MAX WIND,VERTICAL WIND SHEAR AND DIRECTION WITH ALTITUDE
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1862942
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Virotherapy is a treatment using biotechnology to convert viruses into therapeutic agents by reprogramming viruses to treat diseases. There are three main branches of virotherapy: anti-cancer oncolytic viruses, viral vectors for gene therapy and viral immunotherapy. These branches utilize three different types of treatment methods: gene overexpression, gene knockout, and suicide gene delivery. Gene overexpression adds genetic sequences that compensate for low to zero levels of needed gene expression. Gene knockout utilizes RNA methods to silence or reduce expression of disease-causing genes. Suicide gene delivery introduces genetic sequences that induce an apoptotic response in cells, usually to kill cancerous growths. In a slightly different context, virotherapy can also refer more broadly to the use of viruses to treat certain medical conditions by killing pathogens. Oncolytic virotherapy is not a new idea – as early as the mid 1950s doctors were noticing that cancer patients who suffered a non-related viral infection, or who had been vaccinated recently, showed signs of improvement; this has been largely attributed to the production of interferon and tumour necrosis factors in response to viral infection, but oncolytic viruses are being designed that selectively target and lyse only cancerous cells. In the 1940s and 1950s, studies were conducted in animal models to evaluate the use of viruses in the treatment of tumours. In the 1940s–1950s some of the earliest human clinical trials with oncolytic viruses were started
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1873971
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Virotherapy In 2015 the FDA approved the marketing of talimogene laherparepvec, a genetically engineered herpes virus, to treat melanoma lesions that cannot be operated on; it is injected directly into the lesion. As of 2016 there was no evidence that it extends the life of people with melanoma, or that it prevents metastasis. Two genes were removed from the virus – one that shuts down an individual cell's defenses, and another that helps the virus evade the immune system – and a gene for human GM-CSF was added. The drug works by replicating in cancer cells, causing them to burst; it was also designed to stimulate an immune response but as of 2016, there was no evidence of this. The drug was created and initially developed by BioVex, Inc. and was continued by Amgen, which acquired BioVex in 2011. It was the first oncolytic virus approved in the West. Viral gene therapy uses genetically engineered viral vectors to deliver therapeutic genes to cells with genetic malfunctions. Typically, the virus is administered to patients intravenously or by direct injection into target tissues. The molecular mechanisms of gene delivery and/or integration into cells vary based on the viral vector that is used. There are many targets of viral gene therapy. While some therapies target the missing or mutated genes of inherited genetic disorders, others seek to deliver new genes to cancer cells in order to destroy tumors. Currently, immune responses to viral gene therapies pose a challenge to successful treatment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1873971
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Virotherapy However, responses to viral vectors at immune privileged sites such as the eye may be reduced compared to other sites of the body. Unlike traditional vaccines, in which attenuated or killed virus/bacteria is used to generate an immune response, viral immunotherapy uses genetically engineered viruses to present a specific antigen to the immune system. That antigen could be from any species of virus/bacteria or even human disease antigens, for example cancer antigens. Vaccines are another method of virotherapy that use attenuated or inactivated viruses to develop immunity to disease. An attenuated virus is a weakened virus that incites a natural immune response in the host that is often undetectable. The host also develops potentially life-long immunity due to the attenuated virus's similarity to the actual virus. Inactivated viruses are killed viruses that present a form of the antigen to the host. However, long-term immune response is limited. There are two general approaches to develop these viruses using applied evolutionary techniques: Jennerian and Pastorian. The Jennerian method involves selecting similar viruses from non-human organisms to protect against a human virus while Pastorian methods use serial passage. This Pastorian method is very similar to directive evolution of oncolytic viruses. Selected viruses that target humans are passed through multiple non-human organisms for multiple generations. Over time the viruses adapt to the foreign environments of their new hosts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1873971
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Virotherapy These now maladapted viruses have minimal capacity for harming humans and are used as attenuated viruses for clinical use. An important consideration is to not reduce the replicative ability of the virus beyond the point where the immune system response will be compromised. A secondary immune response would therefore be insufficient to provide protection against the live virus should it be reintroduced to the host. RIGVIR is a virotherapy drug that was approved by the State Agency of Medicines of the Republic of Latvia in 2004. It is wild type ECHO-7, a member of echovirus family. The potential use of echovirus as an oncolytic virus to treat cancer was discovered by Latvian scientist Aina Muceniece in the 1960s and 1970s. The data used to register the drug in Latvia is not sufficient to obtain approval to use it in the US, Europe, or Japan. As of 2017 there was no good evidence that RIGVIR is an effective cancer treatment. On March 19th, 2019, the manufacturer of ECHO-7, SIA LATIMA, announced the drug's removal from sale in Latvia, quoting financial and strategic reasons and insufficient profitability. However, several days later an investigative TV show revealed that State Agency of Medicines had run laboratory tests on the vials, and found that the amount of ECHO-7 virus is of a much smaller amount than claimed by the manufacturer. According to agency's lab director, "It's like buying what you think is lemon juice, but finding that what you have is lemon-flavored water"
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1873971
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Virotherapy In March 2019, the distribution of ECHO-7 in Latvia has been stopped. Currently, there are many viral gene therapy products in clinical trial phases. Listed below are the products that are (or were) approved for marketing in the US and/or European Union. Viruses have been explored as a means to treat infections caused by protozoa. One such protozoa that potential virotherapy treatments have explored is Naegleria fowleri which causes primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM). With a mortality rate of 95%, this disease-causing eukaryote has one of the highest pathogenic fatalities known. Chemotherapeutic agents that target this amoeba for treating PAM have difficulty crossing blood-brain barriers. However, the driven evolution of virulent viruses of protozoal pathogens (VVPPs) may be able to develop viral therapies that can more easily access this eukaryotic disease by crossing the blood-brain barrier in a process analogous to bacteriophages. These VVPPs would also be self-replicating and therefore require infrequent administration with lower doses, thus potentially reducing toxicity. While these treatment methods for protozoal disease may show great promise in a manner similar to bacteriophage viral therapy, a notable hazard is the evolutionary consequence of using viruses capable of eukaryotic pathogenicity. VVPPs will have evolved mechanisms of DNA insertion and replication that manipulate eukaryotic surface proteins and DNA editing proteins
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1873971
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Virotherapy VVPP engineering must therefore control for viruses that may be able to mutate and thereby bind to surface proteins and manipulate the DNA of the infected host. Chester M. Southam, a researcher at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, pioneered the study of viruses as potential agents to treat cancer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1873971
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Mass formula A mass formula is an equation or set of equations in physics which attempts to predict the mass or mass ratios of the subatomic particles. An important step in high energy physics was the discovery of the Gell-Mann–Okubo mass formula predicting relationships between masses of the members of SU(3) multiplets. The development of an accurate mass formula is one of several fundamental aspects to developing a working theory of everything, which is expected to overcome the incompatibilities between current classical and quantum physics theories. There are currently no universal mass formulae which are generally accepted as correct by the mainstream physics community, however several versions of potential mass formulae have been presented and are currently being explored by some (largely amateur) physics theorists.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1876520
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Névé is a young, granular type of snow which has been partially melted, refrozen and compacted, yet precedes the form of ice. This type of snow is associated with glacier formation through the process of nivation. that survives a full season of ablation turns into firn, which is both older and slightly denser. Firn eventually becomes glacial ice – the long-lived, compacted ice that glaciers are composed of. Glacier formation can take days to years depending on freeze-thaw factors. is annually observed in skiing slopes, and is generally disliked as an icy falling zone. has a minimum density of 500 kg/m³, which is roughly half of the density of liquid water at 1 atm. can also refer to the alpine region in which snowfall accumulates, becomes névé, and feeds a glacier.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1877084
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National Geomagnetism Program The is a program directed by the USGS that monitors the Earth's magnetic field.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1879284
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Cortex (botany) A cortex is an outer layer of a stem or root in a plant, lying below the epidermis but outside the vascular bundles. The cortex is composed mostly of large thin-walled parenchyma cells of the ground tissue system and shows little to no structural differentiation. The outer cortical cells often acquire irregularly thickened cell walls, and are called collenchyma cells. Some of the outer cortical cells may contain chloroplasts.Cortex forms layer of cells that constitute cork. It is responsible for the transportation of materials into the central cylinder of the root through diffusion and may also be used for food storage in the form of starch. The innermost layer of the cortex is the endodermis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1884746
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Microwave spectroscopy is the spectroscopy method that employs microwaves, i.e. electromagnetic radiation at GHz frequencies, for the study of matter. In the field of molecular physics, microwave spectroscopy is commonly used to probe the rotation of molecules. In the field of condensed matter physics, microwave spectroscopy is used to detect dynamic phenomena of either charges or spins at GHz frequencies (corresponding to nanosecond time scales) and energy scales in the µeV regime. Matching to these energy scales, microwave spectroscopy on solids is often performed as a function of temperature (down to cryogenic regimes of a few K or even lower) and/or magnetic field (with fields up to several T). Spectroscopy traditionally considers the frequency-dependent response of materials, and in the study of dielectrics microwave spectroscopy often covers a large frequency range. In contrast, for conductive samples as well as for magnetic resonance, experiments at a fixed frequency are common (using a highly sensitive microwave resonator), but frequency-dependent measurements are also possible. For insulating materials (both solid and liquid), probing charge dynamics with microwaves is a part of dielectric spectroscopy. Amongst the conductive materials, superconductors are a material class that is often studied with microwave spectroscopy, giving information about penetration depth (governed by the superconducting condensate), energy gap (single-particle excitation of Cooper pairs), and quasiparticle dynamics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1886159
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Microwave spectroscopy Another material class that has been studied using microwave spectroscopy at low temperatures are heavy fermion metals with Drude relaxation rates at GHz frequencies. Microwaves impinging on matter usually interact with charges as well as with spins (via electric and magnetic field components, respectively), with the charge response typically much stronger than the spin response. But in the case of magnetic resonance, spins can be directly probed using microwaves. For paramagnetic materials, this technique is called electron spin resonance (ESR) and for ferromagnetic materials ferromagnetic resonance (FMR). In the paramagnetic case, such an experiment probes the Zeeman splitting, with a linear relation between the static external magnetic field and the frequency of the probing microwave field. A popular combination, as implemented in commercial X-band ESR spectrometers, is approximately 0.3 T (static field) and 10 GHz (microwave frequency) for a typical material with electron g-factor close to 2.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1886159
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Pospiviroidae The are a family of viroids, including the first viroid to be discovered, PSTVd. Their secondary structure is key to their biological activity. The classification of this family is based on differences in the conserved central region sequence. The genome consists (in this order) of an LH terminal domain, a pathogenic domain, conserved central domain, variable domain, and an RH terminal domain. "Pospiviroidae" replication occurs in an asymmetric fashion via host cell RNA polymerase, RNase, and RNA ligase.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1886461
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Diamicton (also diamict) (from Greek "δια" (dia-): through and "µεικτός" (meiktós): mixed) is a terrigenous sediment (a sediment resulting from dry-land erosion) that is unsorted to poorly sorted and contains particles ranging in size from clay to boulders, suspended in a matrix of mud or sand. The term was proposed by Flint and others as a purely descriptive term, devoid of any reference to a specific origin or depositional environment. Although the term is most commonly applied to unsorted glacial deposits (i.e., glacial till), other processes that create diamictons are solifluction, landslides, debris flows, and turbiditic olistostromes. Lithified diamicton is referred to as diamictite.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1888138
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Bernard du Bus de Gisignies Jonkheer Bernard Amé Léonard du Bus de Gisignies (June 21, 1808 in Sint-Joost-ten-Node – July 6, 1874 in Bad Ems) was a Dutch nobleman and later on a Belgian politician, ornithologist and paleontologist. He was the second son of Leonard Pierre Joseph du Bus de Gisignies. He married "Petronilla Truyts" on 19 May 1845, together they had two children; Viscount Bernard Daniel (Sint-Joost-ten-Node, 7 October 1832 - Brussels, 17 February 1917) and Viscount Chretien (Sint-Joost-ten-Node, 4 November 1845 - Jabbeke, 3 July 1883). He studied law at the State University of Louvain, but soon became more interested in ornithology. In 1835 he presented a manuscript to the Royal Academy of Belgium in which described the bird "Leptorhynchus pectoralis" (the banded stilt). He was a member of parliament for Soignies. He became the first director of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in 1846. On this occasion he donated 2474 birds from his own collection to the museum. In 1860, during the construction of new fortifications around Antwerp he became involved in paleontology. The fossils found were mainly from whales. He also obtained the skeletons from a bowhead whale ("Balaena mysticetus") and a young blue whale ("Balaenoptera musculus"), which are still on display in the museum. In 1860 the skeleton of a mammoth was found near Lier and was brought to the museum (on display since 1869). At that time the only other skeleton of a mammoth was on display in the museum of Saint Petersburg (Russia)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1889654
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Bernard du Bus de Gisignies In 1867 he became the director of the "science section" of the Royal Academy of Belgium.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1889654
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Barrett–Crane model The is a model in quantum gravity, first published in 1998, which was defined using the Plebanski action. The formula_1 field in the action is supposed to be a formula_2-valued 2-form, i.e. taking values in the Lie algebra of a special orthogonal group. The term in the action has the same symmetries as it does to provide the Einstein–Hilbert action. But the form of is not unique and can be posed by the different forms: where formula_7 is the tetrad and formula_8 is the antisymmetric symbol of the formula_2-valued 2-form fields. The Plebanski action can be constrained to produce the BF model which is a theory of no local degrees of freedom. John W. Barrett and Louis Crane modeled the analogous constraint on the summation over spin foam. The on spin foam quantizes the Plebanski action, but its path integral amplitude corresponds to the degenerate formula_1 field and not the specific definition which formally satisfies the Einstein's field equation of general relativity. However, if analysed with the tools of loop quantum gravity the gives an incorrect long-distance limit , and so the model is not identical to loop quantum gravity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1892519
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Abundance (chemistry) In a chemical reaction, a reactant is considered to be in abundance if the quantity of that substance is high and virtually unchanged by the reaction. Abundance differs from excess in that a reactant in excess is simply any reactant other than the limiting reagent; the amount by which a reactant is in excess is often specified, such as with terms like "twofold excess", indicating that there is twice the amount of reactant necessary for the limiting reagent to be completely reacted. In this case, should the reaction go to completion, the quantity of the reactant in excess will have halved. When performing kinetic or thermodynamic studies, it is often useful to have one or more reactants in abundance, as it allows their concentrations to be treated as constants (or parameters) rather than as variables.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1900675
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Wet electrons Wet electrons, which occur on the surface of metal oxides, are a transition state for electrons between the solid and liquid states of matter. are attracted to positively charged hydroxide ions which form on oxide surfaces in the presence of atmospheric moisture. These electrons in turn affect the interaction of other materials with the oxide. Hydrogen atoms on water or hydroxide (OH) can be involved in hydrogen bonds or be dangling. are primarily stabilized by the dangling atoms on OH, which is more acidic than water, but the dangling atoms on water also contribute to the stabilization. The process is akin to following the lowest elevation path between valleys with a mountain between them. The minimum energy necessary to change an electron from the solid to the liquid state corresponds to going through the wet electron state. are a transition state (saddle point) between electrons in the liquid and solid states.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1904617
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Fraction (chemistry) A fraction in chemistry is a quantity collected from a batch of a substance in a fractionating separation process. In such a process, a mixture is separated into fractions, which have compositions that vary according to a gradient. A fraction can be defined as a group of chemicals that have similar boiling points. A common fractionating process is fractional distillation. It is used to produce liquor and various hydrocarbon fuels, such as gasoline, kerosene and diesel. A fraction is the product of a fractionating column. A vast chamber designed to separate different substances based on their boiling point, e.g. crude oil. Fraction could also refer to a description of the composition of a mixture, e.g. mass fraction or mole fraction. For a simpler definition a fraction is a part of the fractionating column where a compound with one boiling point can be separated from other compounds with different boiling points.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1907405
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Dispersive mass transfer Dispersive mass transfer, in fluid dynamics, is the spreading of mass from highly concentrated areas to less concentrated areas. It is one form of mass transfer. Dispersive mass flux is analogous to diffusion, and it can also be described using Fick's first law: where c is mass concentration of the species being dispersed, E is the dispersion coefficient, and x is the position in the direction of the concentration gradient. Dispersion can be differentiated from diffusion in that it is caused by non-ideal flow patterns (i.e. deviations from plug flow) and is a macroscopic phenomenon, whereas diffusion is caused by random molecular motions (i.e. Brownian motion) and is a microscopic phenomenon. Dispersion is often more significant than diffusion in convection-diffusion problems. The dispersion coefficient is frequently modeled as the product of the fluid velocity, "U", and some characteristic length scale, "α":
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1907770
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Kenneth Carpenter (born September 21, 1949 in Tokyo, Japan) is a paleontologist. He is the museum director of the USU Eastern Prehistoric Museum and author or co-author of books on dinosaurs and Mesozoic life. His main research interests are armored dinosaurs (Ankylosauria and Stegosauria), as well as the Early Cretaceous dinosaurs from the Cedar Mountain Formation in eastern Utah.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1909502
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Global Telecommunications System The Global Telecommunication System (GTS) is a global network for the transmission of meteorological data from weather stations, satellites and numerical weather prediction centres. The GTS consists of an integrated network of point-to-point circuits, and multi-point circuits which interconnect meteorological telecommunication centres. The circuits of the GTS are composed of a combination of terrestrial and satellite telecommunication links. They comprise point-to-point circuits, point-to-multi-point circuits for data distribution, multi-point-to-point circuits for data collection, as well as two-way multi-point circuits. Meteorological Telecommunication Centres are responsible for receiving data and relaying it selectively on GTS circuits. The GTS is organized on a three level basis: Satellite-based data collection and/or data distribution systems are integrated in the GTS as an essential element of the global, regional and national levels of the GTS. Data collection systems operated via geostationary or near-polar orbiting meteorological/environmental satellites, including the Argos System, are widely used for the collection of observational data from data collection platforms. Marine data are also collected through the International Maritime Mobile Service and Inmarsat satellites. WMO (2013) "Manual on the Global Telecommunications System" WMO publication 386
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1911304
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Vertex Pharmaceuticals Vertex Pharmaceuticals, Inc. is an American biopharmaceutical company based in Boston, Massachusetts. It was one of the first biotech firms to use an explicit strategy of rational drug design rather than combinatorial chemistry. It maintains headquarters in South Boston, Massachusetts, and three research facilities, in San Diego, California, and Milton Park, near Oxford, England. Vertex was founded in 1989 by Joshua Boger and Kevin J. Kinsella. The company's beginnings were profiled by Barry Werth in the 1994 book, "The Billion-Dollar Molecule" and it's further developed in his 2014 book, "The Antidote: Inside the World of New Pharma". By 2004, its product pipeline focused on viral infections, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and cancer. In 2009, the company had about 1,800 employees, including 1,200 in the Boston area. By 2019 there were about 2,500 employees. Since late 2011, Vertex has ranked among the top 15 best performing companies on the Standard & Poor's 500. Vertex shares increased 250 percent in the same period. In January 2014, Vertex completed its move from Cambridge, Massachusetts to Boston, Massachusetts, and took residence in a new, $800 million complex. Located on the South Boston waterfront, it marked the first time in the company's history that all of the roughly 1,200 Vertex employees in the Greater Boston area worked together
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1913376
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Vertex Pharmaceuticals On 23 January 2019, Ian Smith, the COO and interim CFO of Vertex was terminated from his position for undisclosed personal behavior that violated established company code of conduct rules. In June of the same year, Vertex announced it would acquire Exonics Therapeutics for up to $1 billion and collaborate with CRISPR Therapeutics, boosting its development of treatments for Duchenne muscular dystrophy and Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1. In September 2019 the company announced it would acquire Semma Therapeutics for $950 million in cash. Semma Therapeutics created a "small, implantable device that holds millions of replacement beta cells, letting glucose and insulin through but keeping immune cells out." On 1 April 2020, former Chief Medical Officer, Reshma Kewalramani, became President and Chief Executive Officer of Vertex Pharmaceuticals. Former CEO and President Jeffrey Leiden transitioned to the role of Executive Chairman of the Board of Directors, as of 1 April 2020. Dr. Leiden will serve as Executive Chairman until April 2023. In 2012 ivacaftor, was designated as an orphan drug, identifying cystic fibrosis as affecting fewer than 200,000 people in the United States. On 31 January 2012, Vertex gained FDA approval of the first drug, Kalydeco, to treat the underlying cause of cystic fibrosis rather than the symptoms, in patients 6 years or older who have the G551D gene mutation. In the US, 30,000 people have cystic fibrosis. About 4% of those, or 1,200, have the G551D gene mutation
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Vertex Pharmaceuticals In 2017 Vertex marketed the drug for $311,000 per year. Vertex also studied ivacaftor in combination with another drug (lumacaftor) for the most common mutation in cystic fibrosis (CF), known as F508del, and published the first set of results in 2012. Vertex produced the drug after 13 years of research and development, with $70 million in support from the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. In the UK, the company provided the drug free for a limited time for certain patients. Subsequently, the hospitals decided to continue to pay for the drug for those patients. UK agencies estimated the cost per quality adjusted life year (QALY) at between £335,000 and £1,274,000—far above the NICE thresholds of £20,000-£30,000. On 5 November 2014 Vertex announced the submission of a New Drug Application (NDA) to the FDA for a fully co-formulated combination of lumacaftor and ivacaftor for people with cystic fibrosis ages 12 and older who have two copies of the F508del mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. In 2015, FDA approved the combination of lumacaftor and ivacaftor to treat CF in patients 12 years and older, who have the F"508del" mutation. The combination drug is marketed under the tradename Orkambi. On 28 March 2017, Vertex announced Phase 3 data from a dual combination treatment, tezacaftor plus ivacaftor, in patients with cystic fibrosis. On 12 February 2018, the FDA approved the combination, marketed as Symdeko
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Vertex Pharmaceuticals In 2016, Vertex began developing a new group of CFTR modulators in combination with tezacaftor and ivacaftor. In 2017, the company reported results that showed benefits for patients with different mutations that represent 90% of the CF population. On 22 October 2019, the FDA approved Vertex's Triple-combo therapy "TRIKAFTA (elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor)" for patients 12 and older with at least one F508del mutation. This approval came only 2 months after the NDA was filed. Trikafta is approved for approximately 90% of patients with cystic fibrosis. In 2015, Vertex entered into a research collaboration with CRISPR Therapeutics to develop gene-editing therapies for genetic diseases. In 2016, the company entered into a collaboration with Moderna to develop new mRNA-based therapeutics to treat CF; Vertex paid Moderna $20M in cash and provided an additional $20M in cash in exchange for a convertible note that Vertex can cash in for stock. Vertex also promised to pay up to $275M in milestone payments. In 2019, Vertex established a research collaboration with Arbor Biotechnologies to discover novel proteins to advance the development of new gene-edition therapies for cystic fibrosis and four other diseases. In 2014, Vertex discontinued telaprevir. In May 2011, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the drug telaprevir (Incivek), an oral treatment for hepatitis C marketed by Vertex
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Vertex Pharmaceuticals Development and commercialization of telaprevir is shared with Johnson & Johnson for European distribution and Mitsubishi for Asia. Telaprevir is a protease inhibitor. In 2015, several media outlets reported CEO Jeffrey Leiden's 2014 compensation to be approximately US$48.5 million. Vertex shareholders opted for a reduction in CEO compensation in 2015 and 2016, resulting in 2016 earnings of US$17.4 million. Criticism of Vertex-based around claims that the pricing of their groundbreaking cystic fibrosis drug Orkambi (priced at to per patient per year, depending on the patient's country), limited access to the drug for children and young adults with cystic fibrosis, resulted in campaigns by concerned parent groups and allegations of unfair pricing by the UK's National Health Service. In March 2019, Vertex was legally required to destroy 7,880 packs of Orkambi that reached their expiry dates during negotiations with the NHS concerning the drug's pricing. On October 24, 2019, Vertex reached an agreement with NHS England which provided improved access to all of the pharmaceutical company's cystic fibrosis medications that are already licensed, such as Orkambi, Symkevi and Kalydeco, and any future indications of these medicines. The deal was finalized soon after Vertex signed reimbursement deals elsewhere, including NHS Scotland, Spain and Australia. The NHS in Wales and Northern Ireland will be offered equivalent pricing terms
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Vertex Pharmaceuticals In the late 1990s the Bethesda-based Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, encouraged by then-President Robert Beall, began investing in Vertex— when it was a small start-up biotechnology company— to help fund the development of Kalydeco in the form of venture philanthropy. The total investment amounted to $150 million. In 2014, the CF Foundation sold the rights to the royalties of the drugs for $3.3 billion, twenty times the foundation's 2013 budget. Proponents of venture philanthropy say the high financial return helps speed drug development and also provides potential monetary rewards that can go to more research. By 2015 the annual price of Kalydeco had been increased to more than $300,000 per patient. According to an article published in the "Milwaukee Journal Sentinel" Vertex executives "grossed more than $100 million by cashing in stocks and stock options" and at "one point, the value of company's stock increased more $6 billion in a single day." Twenty-nine physicians and scientists working with people with cystic fibrosis (CF) wrote to Jeff Leiden, CEO of to plead for lower prices. The company responded in an email that "while publicly funded academic research provided important early understanding of the cause of cystic fibrosis, it took Vertex scientists 14 years of their own research, funded mostly by the company, before the drug won approval
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1913376
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Vertex Pharmaceuticals " On 15 April 2015 in Cambridge, MA, Joan Finnegan Brooks of the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, spoke about the role of Vertex and venture philanthropy to a panel of biotech leaders hosted by Life Sciences Foundation on the topic of patient advocacy in the biotech industry. While Brooks, who has Cystic Fibrosis, expressed gratitude for Vertex' development of Kalydeco, she observed that "More than 25% of people are saying (in a surveys conducted by the CFF) that they are skipping medications or delaying medications or skipping doctor appointments because of cost of care issues." She added that "one of the things that the Foundation has done," is to "develop resources that can help patients bridge that gap through patient access programs, and so forth."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1913376
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Eisai (company) Nihon Eisai Co. Ltd. was established in 1941. In 1944, merger with Sakuragaoka Research Laboratory resulted in creation of Eisai Co. Ltd. The American subsidiary of the company, Eisai Inc., was established in 1995. On November 25, 1996, Eisai received approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) for Aricept (donepezil), a drug discovered in the company's labs and co-marketed with Pfizer. Three years later in 1999, the company received USFDA approval for Aciphex (rabeprazole), a drug co-marketed with Johnson & Johnson. In September 2006, the company acquired four oncology products from Ligand Pharmaceuticals. In April 2007, Eisai acquired Exton, Pennsylvania-based Morphotek, a company developing therapeutic monoclonal antibodies for the treatment of cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and infectious diseases. In December 2007, Eisai acquired MGI Pharma, a company specializing in oncology, for US$3.9 billion. This event brought Dacogen (decitabine), Aloxi (palonosetron), Hexalen (altretamine) for ovarian cancer, and the Gliadel Wafer (carmustine) for brain tumors into the Eisai product portfolio. In 2009, Eisai received the Corporate Award from the National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD) for the development of Banzel. Eisai Co., Ltd. is based in Tokyo, Japan, while its American subsidiary Eisai Inc. is headquartered in Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1914048
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Eisai (company) Eisai maintains medical research headquarters in Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey as well as locations in Japan, the United Kingdom, the Research Triangle in North Carolina, and Massachusetts where the Eisai Research Institute and the Genetics Guided Dementia Discovery (G2D2) institute are based. The company has manufacturing sites in Japan, North Carolina (USA), Maryland (USA), Bogor (Indonesia), Suzhou (China), Tainan (Taiwan), Visakhapatnam (India) and Hatfield, Hertfordshire (UK). Eisai has marketing operations in 19 European countries as well as the Asia-Pacific region. Some of the key products that Eisai produces or markets with partners include: Aricept accounted for 40% of Eisai's revenue as of March 2010. The main competitor to Aricept is a generic formulation from Ranbaxy Labs. Eisai has pursued development of alternative formulations in order to extend the marketable lifetime of the product.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1914048
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Mean free time Molecules in a fluid constantly collide off each other. The mean free time of a molecule in a fluid is the average time between collisions. The mean free path of the molecule is the product of the average speed and the mean free time. These concepts are used in the kinetic theory of gases to compute transport coefficients such as the viscosity. In a gas the mean free path may be much larger than the average distance between molecules. In a liquid these two lengths may be very similar.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1916509
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Thistle tube A thistle tube is a piece of laboratory glassware consisting of a shaft of tube, with a reservoir and funnel-like section at the top. Thistle tubes are typically used by chemists to add liquid to an existing system or apparatus. Thistle funnels are used to add small volumes of liquids to an exact position. Thistle funnels are found with or without taps. The thistle tube shaft is designed to allow insertion through a small hole present in some stoppers, permitting the tube to be inserted into a container such as an Erlenmeyer flask.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1918474
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Calcifuge A calcifuge is a plant that does not tolerate alkaline (basic) soil. The word is derived from the Latin 'to flee from chalk'. These plants are also described as ericaceous, as the prototypical calcifuge is the genus "Erica" (heaths). It is not the presence of carbonate or hydroxide ions "per se" that these plants cannot tolerate, but the fact that under alkaline conditions, iron becomes less soluble. Consequently, calcifuges grown on alkaline soils often develop the symptoms of iron deficiency, "i.e." interveinal chlorosis of new growth. There are many horticultural plants which are calcifuges, most of which require an 'ericaceous' compost with a low pH, composed principally of "Sphagnum" moss peat. A plant that thrives in lime-rich soils is known as a calcicole.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1919309
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Calcicole A calcicole, calciphyte or calciphile is a plant that thrives in lime rich soil. The word is derived from the Latin 'to dwell on chalk'. Under acidic conditions, aluminium becomes more soluble and phosphate less. As a consequence, calcicoles grown on acidic soils often develop the symptoms of aluminium toxicity, i.e. necrosis, and phosphate deficiency, i.e. anthocyanosis (reddening of the leaves) and stunting. A plant that thrives in acid soils is known as a calcifuge. A plant thriving on sand (which may be acidic or calcic) is termed psammophilic or arenaceous (see also arenite).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1919332
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Vertical seismic profile In geophysics, vertical seismic profile (VSP) is a technique of seismic measurements used for correlation with surface seismic data. The defining characteristic of a VSP (of which there are many types) is that either the energy source, or the detectors (or sometimes both) are in a borehole. In the most common type of VSP, Hydrophones, or more often geophones or accelerometers, in the borehole record reflected seismic energy originating from a seismic source at the surface. There are numerous methods for acquiring a vertical seismic profile (VSP). Zero-offset VSPs (A) have sources close to the wellbore directly above receivers. Offset VSPs (B) have sources some distance from the receivers in the wellbore. Walkaway VSPs (C) feature a source that is moved to progressively farther offset and receivers held in a fixed location. Walk-above VSPs (D) accommodate the recording geometry of a deviated well, having each receiver in a different lateral position and the source directly above the receiver. Salt-proximity VSPs (E) are reflection surveys to help define a salt-sediment interface near a wellbore by using a source on top of a salt dome away from the drilling rig. Drill-noise VSPs (F), also known as seismic-while-drilling (SWD) VSPs, use the noise of the drill bit as the source and receivers laid out along the ground. Multi-offset VSPs (G) involve a source some distance from numerous receivers in the wellbore.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1920027
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Cumulus mediocris cloud Cumulus mediocris is a low to middle level cloud with some vertical extent (Family D1) of the genus cumulus, larger in vertical development than Cumulus humilis. It also may exhibit small protuberances from the top and may show the cauliflower form characteristic of cumulus clouds. Cumulus mediocris clouds do not generally produce precipitation of more than very light intensity, but can further advance into clouds such as Cumulus congestus or Cumulonimbus, which do produce precipitation. Cumulus mediocris is also classified as a low cloud and is coded C2 by the World Meteorological Organization. Cumulus mediocris is brilliantly white when sunlit, and is dark underneath. A single pattern-based variety, Cumulus radiatus, is sometime seen when the individual clouds are arranged into parallel rows. The resulting formations are known as "cloud streets" and are aligned nearly parallel to the wind. Cumulus mediocris may have precipitation-based features like virga, and may form Cumulus praecipitato clouds. The pannus supplementary feature is sometimes seen with precipitating Cumulus mediocris, but in this case the C7 reporting code normally used with to identify pannus is usually superseded by C2, since there is significant vertical development. "Pileus" (cap cloud), "velum" (apron), "arcus" (roll or shelf cloud) and "tuba" (vertical column) features are also occasionally seen with cumulus mediocris. Cumulus mediocris may form as a result of a partial transformation of altocumulus or stratocumulus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1922671
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Cumulus mediocris cloud This genus and species type may also be the result of a complete transformation of stratocumulus or stratus. These clouds are common in the advance of a cold front or in unstable atmospheric conditions such as an area of low pressure. They can grow into larger Cumulus congestus which could bring rain, winds and in worse cases, thunder and lightning. If these clouds are present in the morning or early afternoon they show a significant instability in the atmosphere likely leading to storms later in the day. These clouds occur when there is more rising air than the Cumulus humilis. Like any cumulus cloud, this cloud requires convection before developing. This occurs when pockets of air around them become warmer and begin to rise. As the air rises, it condenses forming a Cumulus humilis cloud as it continues to rise, a Cumulus mediocris.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1922671
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Gemma (botany) A gemma (plural "gemmae") is a single cell, or a mass of cells, or a modified bud of tissue, that detaches from the parent and develops into a new individual. This type of asexual reproduction is referred to as fragmentation. It is a means of asexual propagation in plants. These structures are commonly found in fungi, algae, liverworts and mosses, but also in some flowering plants such as pygmy sundews and some species of butterworts. Vascular plants have many other methods of asexual reproduction including bulbils and turions. The production of gemmae is a widespread means of asexual reproduction in both liverworts and mosses. In liverworts such as "Marchantia", the flattened plant body or thallus is a haploid gametophyte with gemma cups scattered about its upper surface. The gemma cups are cup-like structures containing gemmae. The gemmae are small discs of haploid tissue, and they directly give rise to new gametophytes. They are dispersed from gemma cups by rainfall. The gemmae are bilaterally symmetrical and are not differentiated into dorsal and ventral surfaces. The mature gemmae fall on the ground and if conditions are suitable their germination starts immediately. The surface of the gemma which comes in contact of the soil gives out many rhizoids. This surface eventually becomes the lower(ventral) surface of the thallus. Meanwhile, the apical cells present in the two lateral notches become active and form two thalli in opposite directions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1924911
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Kraus-type radio telescope The design was created by Dr. John D. Kraus (1910–2004). Kraus-type telescopes are transit instruments, where the flat primary mirror reflects radio waves towards the spherical secondary mirror, which focuses it towards a mobile focal carriage. The primary tilts North-South to select any object near the meridian, while the focal carriage moves East-West along railroad ties to track objects near transit. The Nançay radio telescope in France and the former Big Ear in Ohio are Kraus-type telescopes, and the southern section of the RATAN-600 ring in Russia can operate as a Kraus-type telescope.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1926830
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Vespertine (biology) Vespertine is a term used in the life sciences to indicate something of, relating to, or occurring in the evening. In botany, a vespertine flower is one that opens or blooms in the evening. In zoology, the term is used for a creature that becomes active at dusk, such as bats and owls. Strictly speaking, however, the term means that activity ceases during the hours of full darkness and does not resume until the next evening. Activity that continues throughout the night should be described as nocturnal. Vespertine behaviour is a special case of crepuscular behaviour; like crepuscular activity, vespertine activity is limited to dusk rather than full darkness. Unlike vespertine activity, crepuscular activity may resume in dim twilight before dawn. A related term is matutinal, referring to activity limited to the dawn twilight. The word "vespertine" is derived from the Latin word "vesper" (evening).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1927645
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Deconfinement In physics, deconfinement (in contrast to confinement) is a phase of matter in which certain particles are allowed to exist as free excitations, rather than only within bound states. Various examples exist in particle physics where certain gauge theories exhibit transitions between confining and deconfining phases. A prominent example, and the first case considered as such in theoretical physics, occurs at high energy in quantum chromodynamics when quarks and gluons are free to move over distances larger than a femtometer (the size of a hadron). This phase is also called the quark–gluon plasma. These ideas have been adopted in many-body theory of matter with a distinguished example developed in the context fractional quantum Hall effect.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1928399
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Carl Ludwig Koch (21 September 1778 – 23 August 1857) was a German entomologist and arachnologist. He was responsible for classifying a great number of spiders, including the Brazilian whiteknee tarantula and common house spider. He was born in Kusel, Germany and died in Nuremberg, Germany. was an inspector of water and forests. His principal work "Die Arachniden" (1831–1848) (16 volumes) was commenced by Carl Wilhelm Hahn (1786–1836). Koch was responsible for the last twelve volumes. He also finished the chapter on spiders in "Faunae insectorum germanicae initia oder Deutschlands Insecten" [Elements of the insect fauna of Germany] a work by Georg Wolfgang Franz Panzer (1755–1829). He also co-authored, with Georg Karl Berendt, an important monograph "Die im Bernstein befindlichen Myriapoden, Arachniden und Apteren der Vorwelt" (1854) on arachnids, myriapods and wingless insects in amber based on material in Berendt's collection, now held in the Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin. He is not to be confused with his son Ludwig Carl Christian Koch (1825–1908) who also became a well-known entomologist.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1929700
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Stacking velocity In reflection seismology, stacking velocity, or Normal Moveout (NMO) velocity, is the value of the seismic velocity obtained from the best fit of the traveltime curve by a hyperbola.. The hyperbolic approximation to the traveltime curve (two-way travel time versus offset) is known as Normal moveout (NMO). The procedure of finding the best fit on common midpoint (CMP) seismic gathers is known as NMO velocity analysis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1929759
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Ludwig Carl Christian Koch (8 November 1825 – 1 November 1908) was a German entomologist and arachnologist. He was born in Regensburg, Germany, and died in Nuremberg, Germany. He studied in Nuremberg, initially law, but then turned to medicine and science. From 1850, he practiced as a physician in the Wöhrd district of Nuremberg. He is considered among the four most influential scientists on insects and spiders in the second half of the 19th century. He wrote numerous works on the arachinoids of Europe, Siberia, and Australia. His work earned him worldwide reputation as "Spider Koch". Sometimes confused with his father Carl Ludwig Koch (1778–1857), another famous arachnologist, his name is abbreviated L.Koch on species descriptions; his father's name is abbreviated C.L.Koch "Die Arachniden Australiens" (1871-1883), his major work on Australian spiders, was completed by Eugen von Keyserling due to the onset of blindness (Worldcat)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1929794
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Pastonian Stage The Pastonian interglacial, now called the (from Paston, Norfolk), is the name for an early or middle Pleistocene stage used in the British Isles. It precedes the Beestonian Stage and follows the Pre-Pastonian Stage. Unfortunately the precise age of this stage cannot yet be defined in terms of absolute dating or MIS stages. The Pre-is equivalent to the Tiglian C5-6 Stage of Europe and the Pre-Illinoian I glaciation of the early Pre-Illinoian Stage of North America. Deciduous woodland, increased including species such as Hornbeam ("Carpinus"), Elm ("Ulmus"), Hazel ("Corylus"), and Spruce ("Picea"). Towards the end of the period, there is evidence for a fall in sea levels and an increase in grassland species.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1930545
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Pre-Pastonian Stage The or Baventian Stage (from Easton Bavents in Suffolk), is the name for an early Pleistocene stage used in the British Isles. It precedes the Pastonian Stage and follows the Bramertonian Stage. This stage ended 1.806 Ma (million years ago) at the end of Marine Isotope Stage 65. It is not currently known when this stage started. The is equivalent to the Tiglian C4c Stage of Europe and the Pre-Illinoian J glaciation of the early Pre-Illinoian Stage of North America. Pollen evidence indicates that there were climatic fluctuations from cooler to warmer climates throughout this stage.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1930557
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Bramertonian Stage The is the name for an early Pleistocene biostratigraphic stage in the British Isles. It precedes the Pre-Pastonian Stage (Baventian Stage). It derives its name from Bramerton Pits in Norfolk, where the deposits can be found on the surface. The exact timing of the beginning and end of the is currently unknown. It is only known that it is equivalent to the Tiglian C1-4b Stage of Europe and early Pre-Illinoian Stage of North America. It lies somewhere in time between Marine Oxygen Isotope stages 65 to 95 and somewhere between 1.816 and 2.427 Ma (million years ago). The Bramertonian is correlated with the Antian stage identified from pollen assemblages in the Ludham borehole. During this stage, the climate was temperate with evidence for mixed oak forest in southern England and the arrival of hemlock. Evidence from East Anglia suggests sea levels were higher than they are today.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1930594
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X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) is a difference spectrum of two X-ray absorption spectra (XAS) taken in a magnetic field, one taken with left circularly polarized light, and one with right circularly polarized light. By closely analyzing the difference in the XMCD spectrum, information can be obtained on the magnetic properties of the atom, such as its spin and orbital magnetic moment. In the case of transition metals such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, the absorption spectra for XMCD are usually measured at the L-edge. This corresponds to the process in the iron case: with iron, a 2p electron is excited to a 3d state by an X-ray of about 700 eV. Because the 3d electron states are the origin of the magnetic properties of the elements, the spectra contain information on the magnetic properties.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1932012
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Brinkmann coordinates are a particular coordinate system for a spacetime belonging to the family of pp-wave metrics. They are named for Hans Brinkmann. In terms of these coordinates, the metric tensor can be written as where formula_2, the coordinate vector field dual to the covector field formula_3, is a null vector field. Indeed, geometrically speaking, it is a null geodesic congruence with vanishing optical scalars. Physically speaking, it serves as the wave vector defining the direction of propagation for the pp-wave. The coordinate vector field formula_4 can be spacelike, null, or timelike at a given event in the spacetime, depending upon the sign of formula_5 at that event. The coordinate vector fields formula_6 are both spacelike vector fields. Each surface formula_7 can be thought of as a wavefront. In discussions of exact solutions to the Einstein field equation, many authors fail to specify the intended range of the coordinate variables formula_8. Here we should take formula_9 to allow for the possibility that the pp-wave develops a null curvature singularity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1932484
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Gustaf Johan Billberg (14 June 1772, Karlskrona – 26 November 1844, Stockholm) was a Swedish botanist, zoologist and anatomist, although professionally and by training he was a lawyer and used science and biology as an avocation. The plant genus "Billbergia" was named for him by Carl Peter Thunberg. In 1790 he earned his legal degree at the University of Lund, later working as an auditor at the audit chamber in Stockholm from 1793. In 1798 he became a member of the county administrative board ("landskamrerare") in Visby. In 1808 he returned to Stockholm, where from 1812 to 1837, he served as a member of the administrative court ("kammarrättsråd"). He was promoted in 1824 to head the ministry of the Board of Customs ("generaltullstyrelsen"). In 1812, he purchased the right of publishing to the precious work of "Svensk Botanik" from the estate of Johan Wilhelm Palmstruch. He subsequently prepared two parts for publication during 1812–1919. He was elected member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1817. Billberg was the author of the following works:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1934218
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Stanisław Mrozowski Stanisław Wojciech Mrozowski (February 9, 1902 – February 21, 1999) was a Polish born American physicist. He was a professor of physics at SUNY Buffalo from 1949 until 1972, after which he worked at Ball State University. He worked briefly on the Manhattan Project at Princeton University. He received the Kosciuszko Medal in 1991 and the Officer's Cross of the Polonia Restituta Cross in 1993.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1935627
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Jerzy Pniewski (June 1, 1913 – June 16, 1989) was a Polish physicist. Pniewski was born in Płock. He studied mathematics and physics at the University of Warsaw. In 1952, he co-discovered the hypernucleus with Marian Danysz. In 1962, he discovered hypernuclear isomery.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1935656
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Velamen or velamen radicum is a spongy, multiple epidermis that covers the roots of some epiphytic or semi-epiphytic plants, such as orchid and "Clivia" species. The velamen of an orchid is the white or gray covering of aerial roots (when dry, and usually more green when wet as a result of the appearance of underlying photosynthetic structures). It is many cell layers thick and capable of absorbing atmospheric moisture and nutrients, but its main function may lie in protecting the underlying cells against damaging UV rays (Chomicki et al., 2015). Often, the roots of orchids are associated with symbiotic fungi or bacteria; the latter may fix nutrients from the air. This functionality allows the orchid to exist in locations that provide a reproductive or vegetative advantage such as improved exposure or reduced competition from other plant species. The velamen also serves a mechanical function, protecting the vascular tissues in the root cortex, shielding the root from transpirational water loss, and, in many cases, adhering the plant to the substrate. The typical orchid root has a stele of comparatively small diameter. It is surrounded by a cortex which is further enveloped by a highly specialized exodermis, most of which at maturity do not contain protoplasm. A few cells, however, are living and allow the passage of water through them. The exodermis is surrounded by velamen, consisting of one to several layers of cells, which can develop root hair under proper environmental conditions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1936105
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Velamen The velamen arises from the root tip by division of a special tissue. The dead cells of velamen diffuse light, thus giving it a grey appearance—except at the tips, where the chlorophyll become visible. Upon absorbing water, the dead cells become transparent, and the whole velamen tissue then appears green.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1936105
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Axial ratio Axial ratio, for any structure or shape with two or more axes, is the ratio of the length (or magnitude) of those axes to each other - the longer axis divided by the shorter. In "chemistry" or "materials science", the axial ratio (symbol P) is used to describe rigid rod-like molecules. It is defined as the length of the rod divided by the rod diameter. In "physics", the axial ratio describes electromagnetic radiation with elliptical, or circular, polarization. The axial ratio is the ratio of the magnitudes of the major and minor axis defined by the electric field vector.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1938356
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Coinjection is a polymer injection technology in which different polymers are injected into the same mold. Reasons for using coinjection are: Despite these advantages, coinjection requires machinery that is more expensive and difficult to maintain than standard single injection machines. The coinjection process also has difficulty with complex geometric shapes. Links broken.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1939458
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Billion years A billion years (10 years) is a unit of time on the petasecond scale, more precisely equal to seconds. It is sometimes abbreviated Gy, Ga ("giga-annum"), Byr and variants. The abbreviations Gya or bya are for "billion years ago", i.e. billion years before present. The terms are used in geology, paleontology, geophysics, astronomy, and physical cosmology. The prefix giga- is preferred to billion- to avoid confusion in the long and short scales over the meaning of billion; the postfix annum may be further qualified for precision as a sidereal year or Julian year: Byr was formerly used in English-language geology and astronomy as a unit of one billion years. Subsequently, the term gigaannum (Ga) has increased in usage, with Gy or Gyr still sometimes used in English-language works (at the risk of confusion with Gy as abbreviation for the gray, a unit of radiation exposure). Astronomers use Gyr or Gy as an abbreviation for gigayear.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1947920
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Incompatible element In petrology and geochemistry, an incompatible element is one that is unsuitable in size and/or charge to the cation sites of the minerals of which it is included. It is defined by the partition coefficient between rock-forming minerals and melt being much smaller than 1. During the fractional crystallization of magma and magma generation by the partial melting of the Earth's mantle and crust, elements that have difficulty in entering cation sites of the minerals are concentrated in the melt phase of magma (liquid phase). Two groups of incompatible elements that have difficulty entering the solid phase are known by acronyms. One group includes elements having large ionic radius, such as potassium, rubidium, caesium, strontium, barium (called LILE, or large-ion lithophile elements), and the other group includes elements of large ionic valences (or high charges), such as zirconium, niobium, hafnium, rare-earth elements (REE), thorium, uranium and tantalum (called HFSE, or high-field-strength elements). Another way to classify incompatible elements is by mass (lanthanide series): light rare-earth elements (LREE) are La, Ce, Pr, Nd, and Sm, and heavy rare-earth elements (HREE) are Eu–Lu. Rocks or magmas that are rich, or only slightly depleted, in light rare-earth elements are referred to as "fertile", and those with strong depletions in LREE are referred to as "depleted". Compatibility (geochemistry)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1948939
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Aquificaceae The family are bacteria that live in harsh environmental settings such as hot springs, sulfur pools, and hydrothermal vents. Although they are true bacteria as opposed to the other inhabitants of extreme environments, the Archaea, genera are an early phylogenetic branch. Family Notes: • No pure culture isolated or available for prokaryotes. • Not validly published because the effective publication only documents deposit of the type strain in a single recognized culture collection. • Not approved and published by the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology or the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology (IJSB/IJSEM).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1949853
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