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Hydrogenothermaceae The family are bacteria that live in harsh environmental settings. They have been found in hot springs, sulfur pools, thermal ocean vents. They are true bacteria as opposed to the other inhabitants of extreme environments, the Archaea. An example occurrence of certain extremophiles in this family are organisms of the genus "Sulfurihydrogenibium" that are capable of surviving in extremely hot environments such as Hverigerdi, Iceland. Hydrogenothermacae families also have a metabolic and physiological properties and they consist of aerobic or microaerophilic bacteria, which generally obtain energy by oxidation of hydrogen or reduced sulfur compounds by molecular oxygen.^3 Family Hydrogenothermaceae
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1949856
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Arthur Erich Haas (April 30, 1884 in Brno – February 20, 1941 in Chicago) was an Austrian physicist, noted for a 1910 paper he submitted in support of his habilitation as "Privatdocent" at the University of Vienna that outlined a treatment of the hydrogen atom involving quantization of electronic orbitals, thus anticipating the Bohr model (1913) by three years. Haas’ paper, however, was initially rejected and even ridiculed. As noted in his autobiography, Haas recalls: "When I lectured to the Chemical-Physical Society of Vienna ... Lecher ... referred to the presentation during open discussion as a carnival joke" (the lecture was held during carnival time in Austria, February 1910). Soon thereafter, however, by September 1911 at a physical science convention in Karlsruhe, former detractors of Haas' work acknowledged it with greater enthusiasm as noted in a footnote: "We do not know what caused [a] change of mind in 1911 and can merely suggest the general trend of thinking at the time: 1910 saw the beginning of a universal shift of opinion of the quantum concept." The significance of Haas' work lay in the establishment of a relationship between Planck's constant and atomic dimensions, having been first to correctly estimate the magnitude of what is today known as the Bohr radius. From 1936 to his death he was professor at the University of Notre Dame.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1951313
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Pileus (meteorology) A pileus (; Latin for "cap"), also called scarf cloud or cap cloud, is a small, horizontal, lenticular cloud appearing above a cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. Pileus clouds are often short-lived, with the main cloud beneath them rising through convection to absorb them. They are formed by strong updraft at lower altitudes, acting upon moist air above, causing the air to cool to its dew point. As such, they are usually indicators of severe weather, and a pileus found atop a cumulus cloud often foreshadows transformation into a cumulonimbus cloud, as it indicates a strong updraft within the cloud. Pilei can also form above mountains, ash clouds, and pyrocumulus clouds from erupting volcanoes. Pilei form above some mushroom clouds of high-yield nuclear detonations. Sometimes several pileus clouds are observed above each other. The bright iridescent colors seen in pileus are sunlight diffracted in water vapor. Iridescent colors are strongest when the diffracting droplets are small and similar in size. The newly formed pileus droplet all of similar provenance are ideal for iridescence. When sheet of altostratus cloud is seen lower down and skirting a cumulonimbus cloud, it is classified as a velum cloud. Pilei clouds indicate the parent cloud is growing rapidly, has plenty of moisture, and is highly unstable. This means the parent cloud could quickly grow to become a cumulonimbus cloud and continue to grow into a cumulonimbus incus cloud.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1952055
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United States temperature extremes For the United States, the extremes are in Death Valley, California in 1913 and recorded in Prospect Creek, Alaska in 1971. The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15, 1972 in Loma, Montana, when the temperature rose from . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds. For example, the largest 2-minute temperature change of occurred in Spearfish, South Dakota, a rise from . Among the U.S. states, Hawaii has both the lowest state maximum of and the highest state minimum of . Tropical ocean island locations such as Hawaii often have the lowest recorded temperature ranges, sometimes with a difference of as little as .
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1953435
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Surface core level shift A surface core level shift (SCS) is a kind of core-level shift that often emerges in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy spectra of surface atoms. Because surface atoms have different chemical environments from bulk atoms, small shifts of binding energies are observed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. SCS is ascribed mainly to the lower coordination numbers of surface atoms than bulk atoms. Reduced coordination leads to narrower valence bandwidth. Such narrowing of the bandwidth increases the density of states, and if more than half of the valence band is filled, the band center is lower than bulk and the binding energy increases. In contrast, if less than half of the valence band is filled, the band center is higher than bulk, and the binding energy decreases. Because the binding energy in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is affected by the final state and other chemical environments, this simple explanation cannot always be applied to the interpretation of X-ray photoelectron spectra. In spite of such complexity, the SCS gives important information about the chemical nature of surface atoms.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1953498
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Aerography (meteorology) Aerography is the production of weather charts. The information is supplied by radiosonde observations, principally. "Constant-pressure" charts are routinely constructed at standard air pressures. Standard air pressures are 850, 700, 500, 400, 300, 250, and 200 millibars (hectopascals) (hPa) (SI). Weather charts are sometimes drawn at lower air pressures that occur above 40,000 feet (12 km). The lines of equal air pressure are called "isobars". "Isotherms" are the lines of equal air temperature.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1955213
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Aurorae Sinus is a dark feature in the southern hemisphere of the planet Mars. Together with albedo features contributed by Aonius Sinus and Solis Lacus, it is part of a feature known as the "eye of Mars".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1956063
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Axillary bud The axillary bud (or lateral bud) is an embryonic or organogenic shoot located in the axil of a leaf. Each bud has the potential to form shoots, and may be specialized in producing either vegetative shoots (stems and branches) or reproductive shoots (flowers). Once formed, a bud may remain dormant for some time, or it may form a shoot immediately. An axillary bud is an embryonic or organogenic shoot which lies dormant at the junction of the stem and petiole of a plant. It arises exogenously from outer layer of cortex of the stem. Axillary buds do not become actively growing shoots on plants with strong apical dominance (the tendency to grow just the terminal bud on the main stem). Apical dominance occurs because the shoot apical meristem produces auxin which prevents axillary buds from growing. The axillary buds begin developing when they are exposed to less auxin, for example if the plant naturally has weak apical dominance, if apical dominance is broken by removing the terminal bud, or if the terminal bud has grown far enough away for the auxin to have less of an effect. Axillary buds can be used to differentiate if the plant is single-leafed or multi-leafed. Simply count the number of leaves after an axillary bud. If there is only one leaf, then the plant is considered single-leafed, if not it is considered multi-leafed. An example of axillary buds are the eyes of the potato
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1956650
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Axillary bud As the apical meristem grows and forms leaves, it leaves behind a region of meristematic cells at the node between the stem and the leaf. These axillary buds are usually dormant, inhibited by auxin produced by the apical meristem, which is known as apical dominance. If the apical meristem is removed, or has grown a sufficient distance away from an axillary bud, the axillary bud may become activated (or more appropriately freed from hormone inhibition). Like the apical meristem, axillary buds can develop into a stem or flower. Certain plant diseases - notably phytoplasmas - can cause the proliferation of axillary buds, and cause plants to become bushy in appearance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1956650
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Plumosite is a questionable mineral. Most of the time, it can refer to any feather ore, i.e. any ore that forms fine capillaries within the surrounding rock. Older specimens could be either boulangerite, jamesonite or zinkenite (PbSbS, sulfosalt mineral).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1957902
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Earthquake cloud Earthquake clouds are clouds claimed to be signs of imminent earthquakes. They have been described in antiquity: In chapter 32 of his work Brihat Samhita, Indian scholar Varahamihira (505–587) discussed a number of signs warning of earthquakes, including extraordinary clouds occurring a week before the earthquake. In modern times, a few scientists claim to have observed clouds associated with a seismic event, sometimes more than 50 days in advance of the earthquake. Some have even claimed to accurately predict earthquake occurrences by observing clouds. However, these claims have very little support in the scientific community.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1958837
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Fengite is a translucent sheet of marble or alabaster used during the Early Middle Ages for windows instead of glass.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1962646
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Umbel In botany, an umbel is an inflorescence that consists of a number of short flower stalks (called pedicels) which spread from a common point, somewhat like umbrella ribs. The word was coined in botanical usage in the 1590s, from Latin "umbella" "parasol, sunshade". The arrangement can vary from being flat-topped to almost spherical. Umbels can be simple or compound. The secondary umbels of compound umbels are known as umbellules or umbellets. A small umbel is called an umbellule. The arrangement of the inflorescence in umbels is referred to as umbellate, or occasionally subumbellate (almost umbellate). Umbels are a characteristic of plants such as carrot, parsley, dill, and fennel in the family Apiaceae; ivy, "Aralia" and "Fatsia" in the family Araliaceae; onion ("Allium") in the family Alliaceae. An umbel is a type of indeterminate inflorescence. A compressed cyme, which is a determinate inflorescence, is called umbelliform if it resembles an umbel.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1964678
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Isotropic radiation is radiation that has the same intensity regardless of the direction of measurement, such as would be found in a thermal cavity. The radiation may be electromagnetic, sound or may be composed of elementary particles.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1965987
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Gluon condensate In quantum chromodynamics (QCD), the gluon condensate is a non-perturbative property of the QCD vacuum which could be partly responsible for giving masses to light mesons. If the gluon field tensor is represented as G, then the gluon condensate is the vacuum expectation value formula_1 . It is not clear yet whether this condensate is related to any of the known phase changes in quark matter. There have been scattered studies of other types of gluon condensates, involving a different number of gluon fields. For more on the context in which this quantity occurs, see the article on the QCD vacuum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1966314
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Fichtelite is a rare white mineral found in fossilized wood from Bavaria. It crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system. It is a cyclic hydrocarbon: dimethyl-isopropyl-perhydrophenanthrene, CH. It is very soft with a Mohs hardness of 1, the same as talc. Its specific gravity is very low at 1.032, just slightly denser than water. It was first described in 1841 and named for the location, Fichtelgebirge, Bavaria, Germany. It has been reported from fossilized pine wood from a peat bog and in organic-rich modern marine sediments.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1966611
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Fiorite is a hydrated silica rock, a form of opal, found in cavities in volcanic tuff. It is a globular, botryoidal or stalactic concretionary form of opal. It has a pearly lustre and forms botryoidal masses. It was named after Santa Fiora, in Italy. It is used as a gemstone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1967117
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Paul Kunz (December 20, 1942 – September 12, 2018) was an American Particle physicist and software developer, who initiated the deployment of the first web server outside of Europe. After a meeting in September with Tim Berners-Lee of CERN, he returned to the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center with word of the World Wide Web. By Thursday, December 12, 1991 there was an active web server, SPIRES HEP in place thanks to the efforts of Kunz, Louise Addis, and Terry Hung. He was also the originator of the free/open source GNUstep implementation of the NeXTSTEP framework and the idea for objcX. He was the chief developer of HippoDraw.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1968245
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Aptamer Aptamers (from the Latin "aptus" – fit, and Greek "meros" – part) are oligonucleotide or peptide molecules that bind to a specific target molecule. Aptamers are usually created by selecting them from a large random sequence pool, but natural aptamers also exist in riboswitches. Aptamers can be used for both basic research and clinical purposes as macromolecular drugs. Aptamers can be combined with ribozymes to self-cleave in the presence of their target molecule. These compound molecules have additional research, industrial and clinical applications. More specifically, aptamers can be classified as Nucleic acid aptamers are nucleic acid species ("next-gen antibody mimics") having selectivity at par of antibodies for a given target generated via in-vitro selection or equivalently, SELEX (systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment) ranging from small entities such as heavy metal ions to large entities like cells. On the molecular level, aptamers bind to its cognate target through various non-covalent interactions viz., electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic interactions, and induced fitting. Aptamers are useful in biotechnological and therapeutic applications as they offer molecular recognition properties that rival that of the commonly used biomolecule, antibodies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1970691
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Aptamer In addition to their discriminate recognition, aptamers offer advantages over antibodies as they can be engineered completely in a test tube, are readily produced by chemical synthesis, possess desirable storage properties, and elicit little or no immunogenicity in therapeutic applications . In 1990, two labs independently developed the technique of selection: the Gold lab, using the term SELEX for their process of selecting RNA ligands against T4 DNA polymerase; and the Szostak lab, coining the term "in vitro selection", selecting RNA ligands against various organic dyes. The Szostak lab also coined the term aptamer (from the Latin, "apto", meaning 'to fit') for these nucleic acid-based ligands. Two years later, the Szostak lab and Gilead Sciences, independent of one another, used "in vitro selection" schemes to evolve single stranded DNA ligands for organic dyes and human coagulant, thrombin (see anti-thrombin aptamers), respectively. There does not appear to be any systematic differences between RNA and DNA aptamers, save the greater intrinsic chemical stability of DNA. The notion of selection "in vitro" was preceded twenty-plus years prior when Sol Spiegelman used a Qbeta replication system as a way to evolve a self-replicating molecule. In addition, a year before the publishing of "in vitro selection" and SELEX, Gerald Joyce used a system that he termed 'directed evolution' to alter the cleavage activity of a ribozyme
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Aptamer Since the discovery of aptamers, many researchers have used aptamer selection as a means for application and discovery. In 2001, the process of "in vitro selection" was automated by J. Colin Cox in the Ellington lab at the University of Texas at Austin, reducing the duration of a selection experiment from six weeks to three days. While the process of artificial engineering of nucleic acid ligands is highly interesting to biology and biotechnology, the notion of aptamers in the natural world had yet to be uncovered until 2002 when two groups led by Ronald Breaker and Evgeny Nudler discovered a nucleic acid-based genetic regulatory element (which was named riboswitch) that possesses similar molecular recognition properties to the artificially made aptamers. In addition to the discovery of a new mode of genetic regulation, this adds further credence to the notion of an 'RNA World', a postulated stage in time in the origins of life on Earth. Both DNA and RNA aptamers show robust binding affinities for various targets. DNA and RNA aptamers have been selected for the same target. These targets include lysozyme, thrombin, human immunodeficiency virus trans-acting responsive element (HIV TAR), hemin, interferon γ, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), prostate specific antigen (PSA), dopamine, and the non-classical oncogene, heat shock factor 1 (HSF1). In the case of lysozyme, HIV TAR, VEGF and dopamine the DNA aptamer is the analog of the RNA aptamer, with thymine replacing uracil
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Aptamer The hemin, thrombin, and interferon γ, DNA and RNA aptamers were selected through independent selections and have unique sequences. Considering that not all DNA analogs of RNA aptamers show functionality, the correlation between DNA and RNA sequence and their structure and function requires further investigation. Lately, a concept of smart aptamers, and smart ligands in general, has been introduced. It describes aptamers that are selected with pre-defined equilibrium , rate constants and thermodynamic (ΔH, ΔS) parameters of aptamer-target interaction. Kinetic capillary electrophoresis is the technology used for the selection of smart aptamers. It obtains aptamers in a few rounds of selection. Recent developments in aptamer-based therapeutics have been rewarded in the form of the first aptamer-based drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in treatment for age-related macular degeneration (AMD), called Macugen offered by OSI Pharmaceuticals. In addition, the company NeoVentures Biotechnology Inc. has successfully commercialized the first aptamer based diagnostic platform for analysis of mycotoxins in grain. Many contract companies develop aptamers and aptabodies to replace antibodies in research, diagnostic platforms, drug discovery, and therapeutics. Non-modified aptamers are cleared rapidly from the bloodstream, with a half-life of minutes to hours, mainly due to nuclease degradation and clearance from the body by the kidneys, a result of the aptamer's inherently low molecular weight
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1970691
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Aptamer Unmodified aptamer applications currently focus on treating transient conditions such as blood clotting, or treating organs such as the eye where local delivery is possible. This rapid clearance can be an advantage in applications such as "in vivo" diagnostic imaging. An example is a tenascin-binding aptamer under development by Schering AG for cancer imaging. Several modifications, such as 2'-fluorine-substituted pyrimidines, polyethylene glycol (PEG) linkage, etc. (both of which are used in Macugen, an FDA-approved aptamer) are available to scientists with which to increase the serum half-life of aptamers easily to the day or even week time scale. Another approach to increase the nuclease resistance of aptamers is to develop Spiegelmers, which are composed entirely of an unnatural L-ribonucleic acid backbone. A Spiegelmer of the same sequence has the same binding properties of the corresponding RNA aptamer, except it binds to the mirror image of its target molecule. In addition to the development of aptamer-based therapeutics, many researchers such as the Ellington lab have been developing diagnostic techniques for aptamer based plasma protein profiling called aptamer plasma proteomics. This technology will enable future multi-biomarker protein measurements that can aid diagnostic distinction of disease versus healthy states. Furthermore, the Hirao lab applied a genetic alphabet expansion using an unnatural base pair to SELEX and achieved the generation of high affinity DNA aptamers
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Aptamer Only few hydrophobic unnatural base as a fifth base significantly augment the aptamer affinity to target proteins. As a resource for all "in vitro selection" and SELEX experiments, the Ellington lab has developed the Database cataloging all published experiments. Peptide aptamers are artificial proteins selected or engineered to bind specific target molecules. These proteins consist of one or more peptide loops of variable sequence displayed by a protein scaffold. They are typically isolated from combinatorial libraries and often subsequently improved by directed mutation or rounds of variable region mutagenesis and selection. "In vivo", peptide aptamers can bind cellular protein targets and exert biological effects, including interference with the normal protein interactions of their targeted molecules with other proteins. Libraries of peptide aptamers have been used as "mutagens", in studies in which an investigator introduces a library that expresses different peptide aptamers into a cell population, selects for a desired phenotype, and identifies those aptamers that cause the phenotype. The investigator then uses those aptamers as baits, for example in yeast two-hybrid screens to identify the cellular proteins targeted by those aptamers. Such experiments identify particular proteins bound by the aptamers, and protein interactions that the aptamers disrupt, to cause the phenotype
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Aptamer In addition, peptide aptamers derivatized with appropriate functional moieties can cause specific postranslational modification of their target proteins, or change the subcellular localization of the targets. Peptide aptamers can also recognize targets "in vitro". They have found use in lieu of antibodies in biosensors and used to detect active isoforms of proteins from populations containing both inactive and active protein forms. Derivatives known as tadpoles, in which peptide aptamer "heads" are covalently linked to unique sequence double-stranded DNA "tails", allow quantification of scarce target molecules in mixtures by PCR (using, for example, the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction) of their DNA tails. The peptides that form the aptamer variable regions are synthesized as part of the same polypeptide chain as the scaffold and are constrained at their N and C termini by linkage to it. This double structural constraint decreases the diversity of the conformations that the variable regions can adopt, and this reduction in conformational diversity lowers the entropic cost of molecular binding when interaction with the target causes the variable regions to adopt a single conformation. As a consequence, peptide aptamers can bind their targets tightly, with binding affinities comparable to those shown by antibodies (nanomolar range). Peptide aptamer scaffolds are typically small, ordered, soluble proteins
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Aptamer The first scaffold, which is still widely used, is Escherichia coli thioredoxin, the "trxA" gene product (TrxA). In these molecules, a single peptide of variable sequence is displayed instead of the Gly-Pro motif in the TrxA -Cys-Gly-Pro-Cys- active site loop. Improvements to TrxA include substitution of serines for the flanking cysteines, which prevents possible formation of a disulfide bond at the base of the loop, introduction of a D26A substitution to reduce oligomerization, and optimization of codons for expression in human cells. Reviews in 2015 have reported studies using 12 and 20 other scaffolds. Peptide aptamer selection can be made using different systems, but the most used is currently the yeast two-hybrid system. Peptide aptamers can also be selected from combinatorial peptide libraries constructed by phage display and other surface display technologies such as mRNA display, ribosome display, bacterial display and yeast display. These experimental procedures are also known as biopannings. Among peptides obtained from biopannings, mimotopes can be considered as a kind of peptide aptamers. All the peptides panned from combinatorial peptide libraries have been stored in a special database with the name MimoDB. Selection of Ligand Regulated Peptide Aptamers (LiRPAs) has been demonstrated
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1970691
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Aptamer By displaying 7 amino acid peptides from a novel scaffold protein based on the trimeric FKBP-rapamycin-FRB structure, interaction between the randomized peptide and target molecule can be controlled by the small molecule Rapamycin or non-immunosuppressive analogs. The Affimer protein, an evolution of peptide aptamers, is a small, highly stable protein engineered to display peptide loops which provides a high affinity binding surface for a specific target protein. It is a protein of low molecular weight, 12–14 kDa, derived from the cysteine protease inhibitor family of cystatins. The Affimer scaffold is a stable protein based on the cystatin protein fold. It displays two peptide loops and an N-terminal sequence that can be randomised to bind different target proteins with high affinity and specificity similar to antibodies. Stabilisation of the peptide upon the protein scaffold constrains the possible conformations which the peptide may take, thus increasing the binding affinity and specificity compared to libraries of free peptides. The Affimer protein scaffold was developed initially at the MRC Cancer Cell Unit in Cambridge then across two laboratories at the University of Leeds. Affimer technology has been commercialised and developed by Avacta Life Sciences, who are developing it as reagents for research and therapeutic applications. X-Aptamers are a new generation of aptamers designed to improve on the binding and versatility of regular DNA/RNA- based aptamers
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Aptamer X-Aptamers are engineered with a combination of natural and chemically-modified DNA or RNA nucleotides. Base modifications allow incorporation of various functional groups/small molecules into X-aptamers, opening a wide range of uses and a higher likelihood of binding success compared to standard aptamers. Thiophosphate backbone modifications at selected positions enhance nuclease stability and binding affinity without sacrificing specificity. X-Aptamers are able to explore new features by utilizing a new selection process. Unlike SELEX, X-selection does not rely on multiple repeated rounds of PCR amplification but rather involves a two-step bead-based discovery process. In the primary selection process, combinatorial libraries are created where each bead will carry approximately 10^12 copies of a single sequence. The beads operate as carriers, where the bound sequences will ultimately be detached into solution. In the secondary solution pull-down process, each target will be used to individually pull down the binding sequences from solution. The binding sequences are amplified, sequenced, and analyzed. Sequences that are enriched for each target can then be synthesized and characterized. AptaBiD or Aptamer-Facilitated Biomarker Discovery is a technology for biomarker discovery. AptaBiD is based on multi-round generation of an aptamer or a pool of aptamers for differential molecular targets on the cells which facilitates exponential detection of biomarkers
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Aptamer It involves three major stages: (i) differential multi-round selection of aptamers for biomarker of target cells; (ii) aptamer-based isolation of biomarkers from target cells; and (iii) mass spectrometry identification of biomarkers. The important feature of the AptaBiD technology is that it produces synthetic affinity probes (aptamers) simultaneously with biomarker discovery. In AptaBiD, aptamers are developed for cell surface biomarkers in their native state and conformation. In addition to facilitating biomarker identification, such aptamers can be directly used for cell isolation, cell visualization, and tracking cells "in vivo". They can also be used to modulate activities of cell receptors and deliver different agents (e.g., siRNA and drugs) into the cells. Aptamers can be used in: Aptamers have also been against several pathogens both bacterial & viruses including influenza A and B viruses, Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in various experimental settings. Aptamers have an innate ability to bind to any molecule they're targeted at, including cancer cells and bacteria. Bound to a target, aptamers inhibit its activity. Aptamers suffer from two issues that limit their effectiveness. Firstly, the bonds they form with target molecules are usually too weak to be effective, and second, they're easily digested by enzymes. Adding an unnatural base to a standard aptamer can increase its ability bind to target molecules
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Aptamer A second addition in the form of a "mini hairpin DNA" gives the aptamer a stable and compact structure that is resistant to digestion, extending its life from hours to days. Aptamers are less likely to provoke undesirable immune responses than antibodies. The ability of aptamers to reversibly bind molecules such as proteins has generated increasing interest in using them to facilitate controlled release of therapeutic biomolecules, such as growth factors. This can be accomplished by tuning the affinity strength to passively release the growth factors, along with active release via mechanisms such as hybridization of the aptamer with complementary oligonucleotides or unfolding of the aptamer due to cellular traction forces. Aptamers have been used to create hot start functions in PCR enzymes to prevent non-specific amplification during the setup and initial phases of PCR reactions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1970691
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Aquifex pyrophilus is a rod-shaped bacterium with a length of 2 to 6 micrometers and a diameter of around half a micrometer. It is one of a handful of species in the Aquificae phylum, an unusual group of thermophilic bacteria that are thought to be some of the oldest species in the bacteria domain. "Aquifex pyrophilus" grows best in water between 85 and 95 °C, and can be found near underwater volcanoes or hot springs. It typically uses oxygen in its respiration, producing water as a byproduct, thus leading to the name "Aquifex," meaning "water-maker." However "A. pyrophilus" can even grow anaerobically by reducing nitrogen instead of oxygen. Members of the species tend to form large cell conglomerations, comprising up to 100 individual cells. It was discovered just north of Iceland. The genome of "Aquifex aeolicus", a member of the same genus, has been successfully mapped. Comparison of this genome to other organisms showed that around 16% of its genes originated from the Archaea domain. It is assumed that "A. pyrophilus" also has this property. Robert Huber and Karl Stetter first discovered A. pyrophilus, in 1992.
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Stadial Stadials and interstadials are phases dividing the Quaternary period, or the last 2.6 million years. Stadials are periods of colder climate while interstadials are periods of warmer climate. Each Quaternary climate phase is associated with a Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) number, which describe alternation between warmer and cooler temperatures as measured by oxygen isotope data. Stadials have even MIS numbers and interstadials odd MIS numbers. The current Holocene interstadial is MIS 1 and the Last glacial maximum stadial is MIS 2. Marine Isotope Stages are sometimes further subdivided into stadials and interstadials by minor climate fluctuations within the overall stadial or interstadial regime, which are indicated by letters. The odd-numbered interstadial MIS 5, also known as the Sangamonian interglacial, contains two periods of relative cooling, and so is subdivided into three interstadials (5a, 5c, 5e) and two stadials (5b, 5d). A stadial isotope stage like MIS 6 would be subdivided by periods of relative warming, and so in that case the first and last subdivisions would be stadials; MIS 6a, 6c and 6e are stadials while 6b and 6d are interstadials. Generally, stadials endure for a thousand years or less, and interstadials for less than ten thousand years, while interglacials last for more than ten thousand and glacials for about one hundred thousand. While the MIS 1 interstadial encompasses the entirety of the present Holocene interglacial, the Wisconsin glaciation encompasses MIS 2, 3, and 4
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1973564
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Stadial Glacials and Interglacials refer to the 100kyr cycles associated with Milankovitch cycles, while stadials and interstadials are defined by the actual oxygen-isotope temperature record. The Bølling Oscillation and the Allerød Oscillation, where they are not clearly distinguished in the stratigraphy, are taken together to form the Bølling/Allerød interstadial, and dated from about 14,700 to 12,700 years before the present. The Oldest, Older, and Younger Dryas are three stadials that occurred during the warming since the Last Glacial Maximum. The Older Dryas occurred between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials. All three periods are named for the arctic plant species, Dryas octopetala, which proliferated during these cold periods. Greenland ice cores show 24 interstadials during the one hundred thousand years of the Wisconsin glaciation. Referred to as the Dansgaard-Oeschger events, they have been extensively studied, and in their northern European contexts are sometimes named after towns, such as the Brorup, the Odderade, the Oerel, the Glinde, the Hengelo, or the Denekamp.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1973564
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Janwillem van den Berg (26 November 1920 in Akkrum – 18 October 1985 in Groningen) was a Dutch speech scientist and medical physicist who played a major role in establishing the myoelastic-aerodynamic theory of voice production. The most notable aspect of van den Berg's theory is its impact on modern speech science in providing a foundation for modern models of vocal fold function. Van den Berg designed the first implantable pacemaker that could be switched to a higher beat rate for a higher level of activity. The first experiments for an R-top triggered pacemaker were done, and the design of electrodes to the heart was tested in animal experiments. This made Van den Berg known to the cardiologists of that time.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1975770
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Deep-level trap Deep-level traps or deep-level defects are a generally undesirable type of electronic defect in semiconductors. They are "deep" in the sense that the energy required to remove an electron or hole from the trap to the valence or conduction band is much larger than the characteristic thermal energy "kT", where "k" is the Boltzmann constant and "T" is the temperature. Deep traps interfere with more useful types of doping by "compensating" the dominant charge carrier type, annihilating either free electrons or electron holes depending on which is more prevalent. They also directly interfere with the operation of transistors, light-emitting diodes and other electronic and opto-electronic devices, by offering an intermediate state inside the band gap. Deep-level traps shorten the non-radiative life time of charge carriers, and—through the Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) process—facilitate recombination of minority carriers, having adverse effects on the semiconductor device performance. Common chemical elements that produce deep-level defects in silicon include iron, nickel, copper, gold, and silver. In general, transition metals produce this effect, while light metals such as aluminium do not. Surface states and crystallographic defects in the crystal lattice can also play role of deep-level traps.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1980733
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Dogtooth spar is a speleothem found in limestone caves that consists of very large calcite crystals resembling dogs' teeth (hence the name). They form through mineral precipitation of water-borne calcite. crystals are not limited to caves, but can grow in any open space including veins, fractures, and geodes. These sharp tooth-shaped crystals are generally of the magnitude of centimeters long, but anomalous samples decimeters long exist, notably in Sitting Bull Crystal Caverns. A layer of crystalline calcite can be found underneath the surface of crystal points. The sharply tooth-shaped crystals typically consist of acute scalenohedrons, twelve triangular crystal faces that ideally form scalene triangles. However, modification of these faces is common, and individual crystal faces may have many more than three edges. Calcite crystallizes in the rhombohedral system, and the most common scalenohedron form has the Miller index [211]. Spar is a general term for transparent to translucent, generally light-colored and vitreous crystalline minerals.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1981051
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Contract research organization A contract research organization (CRO) is a company that provides support to the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device industries in the form of research services outsourced on a contract basis. A CRO may provide such services as biopharmaceutical development, biologic assay development, commercialization, preclinical research, clinical research, clinical trials management, and pharmacovigilance. CROs are designed to reduce costs for companies developing new medicines and drugs in niche markets. They aim to simplify entry into drug markets, and simplify development, as the need for large pharmaceutical companies to do everything ‘in house’ is now redundant. CROs also support foundations, research institutions, and universities, in addition to governmental organizations (such as the NIH, EMA, etc.). Many CROs specifically provide clinical-study and clinical-trial support for drugs and/or medical devices. CROs range from large, international full-service organizations to small, niche specialty groups. CROs that specialize in clinical-trials services can offer their clients the expertise of moving a new drug or device from its conception to FDA/EMA marketing approval, without the drug sponsor having to maintain a staff for these services
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1984610
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Contract research organization The International Council on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use, a 2015 Swiss NGO of pharmaceutical companies and others, defined a contract research organization (CRO), specifically pertaining to clinical trials services as: "A person or an organization (commercial, academic, or other) contracted by the sponsor to perform one or more of a sponsor's trial-related duties and functions." It further details the sponsor's responsibilities in its good clinical practice guidelines: , there were over 1,100 CROs in the world, despite continued trends toward consolidation. Many CROs have been acquired while others have gone out of business. The industry is fragmented, with the top 10 companies controlling 56% of the market in 2008 and 55% in 2009. One estimate from 2007 had the size of the market set to reach $24 billion in 2010 and another estimate from 2009 set to grow at a rate of 8.5% through 2015. , there was a 15.5% increase in R&D spending from 2015 to 2020. , IgeaHub considered the top CROs by revenue to be:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1984610
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Zsolt Bor (born 1949) is a Hungarian physicist, currently working at the University of Szeged. He has a BSc in Electrical Engineering from the Technical University in Kiev (1973), an MSc in physics (1974), and PhD in Physics from JATE University (1975). He is a member of the Academia Europaea, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the Quantum Electronics and Optics Division of the European Physical Society, the Commission on Quantum Electronics, and Hungarian Physical Society Department of Optics and Quantum Electronics. He is one of the inventors of the "Rhinolight phototherapeutical apparatus" for hay fever therapy.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1988233
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Narrow-gap semiconductor Narrow-gap semiconductors are semiconducting materials with a band gap that is comparatively small compared to that of silicon, i.e. smaller than 1.11 eV at room temperature. They are used as infrared detectors or thermoelectrics.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1988996
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Indeterminate growth In biology and botany, indeterminate growth is growth that is not terminated in contrast to determinate growth that stops once a genetically pre-determined structure has completely formed. Thus, a plant that grows and produces flowers and fruit until killed by frost or some other external factor is called indeterminate. For example, the term is applied to tomato varieties that grow in a rather gangly fashion, producing fruit throughout the growing season, and in contrast to a determinate tomato plant, which grows in a more bushy shape and is most productive for a single, larger harvest, then either tapers off with minimal new growth or fruit, or dies. In reference to an inflorescence (a shoot specialised for bearing flowers, and bearing no leaves other than bracts), an indeterminate type (such as a raceme) is one in which the first flowers to develop and open are from the buds at the base, followed progressively by buds nearer to the growing tip. The growth of the shoot is not impeded by the opening of the early flowers or development of fruits and its appearance is of growing, producing, and maturing flowers and fruit indefinitely. In practice the continued growth of the terminal end necessarily peters out sooner or later, though without producing any definite terminal flower, and in some species it may stop growing before any of the buds have opened
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1989020
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Indeterminate growth Not all plants produce indeterminate inflorescences however; some produce a definite terminal flower that terminates the development of new buds towards the tip of that inflorescence. In most species that produce a "'determinate" inflorescence in this way, all of the flower buds are formed before the first ones begin to open, and all open more or less at the same time. In some species with determinate inflorescences however, the terminal flower blooms first, which stops the elongation of the main axis, but side buds develop lower down. One type of example is Dianthus another type is exemplified by Allium and yet others by Daucus. In zoology, indeterminate growth refers to the condition where animals grow rapidly when young, and continue to grow after reaching adulthood although at a slower pace. It is common in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and many molluscs. The term also refers to the pattern of hair growth sometimes seen in humans and a few domestic breeds, where hair continues to grow in length until it is cut. Some mushrooms – notably "Cantharellus californicus" – also exhibit indeterminate growth.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1989020
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Pierre Boitard (27 April 1787 Mâcon, Saône-et-Loire – 1859) was a French botanist and geologist. As well as describing and classifying the Tasmanian devil, he is notable for his fictional natural history "Paris avant les hommes" ("Paris Before Man"), published posthumously in 1861, which described a prehistoric ape-like human ancestor living in the region of Paris. He also wrote "Curiosités d'histoire naturelle et astronomie amusante", "Réalités fantastiques", "Voyages dans les planètes", "Manuel du naturaliste préparateur ou l’art d’empailler les animaux et de conserver les végétaux et les minéraux", "Manuel d'entomologie" etc.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1989637
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Aurostibite is an isometric gold antimonide mineral which is a member of the pyrite group. was discovered in 1952 and can be found in hydrothermal gold-quartz veins, in sulfur-deficient environments that contain other antimony minerals. The mineral can be found in Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories of Canada, and the Timiskaming District in Ontario, Canada. Antimonides are rare and are normally placed in the sulfide class by mineralogists.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1994152
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Hyalite is a form of opal with a glassy and clear appearance which may exhibit an internal play of colors if natural inclusions are present. It is also called "Muller's glass", "water opal" and "jalite". The name Müller's glass derived from the name of its discoverer, Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein. Hyalite's Mohs hardness is 5.5 to 6 and has a specific gravity of 1.9 - 2.1. It has no planes of cleavage but fractures conchoidally, is clear or translucent and has a globular structure. Its luster is vitreous and its streak is white. is an amorphous form of silica (SiO) formed as a volcanic sublimate in volcanic or pegmatic rock and is therefore considered a mineraloid. It contains 3 - 8% water, either as a silanol group or in molecular form. Opalescent hyalite is used in jewellery, and well-formed samples are of interest to collectors due to their unusual appearance, mode of formation and relative rarity. It is sometimes mistaken for resin opal or silica glass since they both may appear clear and globular, but it can be identified under ultraviolet light due to its bright green fluorescence.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1996424
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Johann Leopold Theodor Friedrich Zincken Julius Leopold Theodor Friedrich Zincken or Zinken also Sommer (15 April 1770 in Braunschweig – 8 February 1856 in Braunschweig) was a German entomologist. He also appears in literature cited as Zinken-Sommers and Zinken gennant Sommers. He was co-editor, with Ernst Friedrich Germar of "Magazin der Entomologie" Hendel & Son. Halle. also known as "Germar's Magazine" in which he wrote many articles and described new species and genera especially in the Tineidae. Zincken's collection was sold on his death. Its subsequent history is unknown. Partial list
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2001172
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Painite is a very rare borate mineral. It was first found in Myanmar by British mineralogist and gem dealer Arthur C.D. Pain who misidentified it as ruby, until it was discovered as a new gemstone in the 1950s. When it was confirmed as a new mineral species, the mineral was named after him. The chemical makeup of painite contains calcium, zirconium, boron, aluminium and oxygen (CaZrAlO(BO)). The mineral also contains trace amounts of chromium and vanadium, which are responsible for Painite's typically orange-red to brownish-red color, similar to topaz. The crystals are naturally hexagonal in shape, and, until late 2004, only two had been cut into faceted gemstones. Extensive exploration in the Mogok region has identified several new painite occurrences that have been vigorously explored resulting in several thousand new available painite specimens.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2003525
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Glaciated rock A glaciated rock is a rock that shows evidence of having been exposed to a glacier. Generally it has striations or deep scratches, caused more by the debris being carried by the glacier than by the ice itself. Glaciated rocks may also be erratics - that is, not belonging to the local rocks but having been transported there by the glacier. Where a present-day glacier is retreating, its former extent can be measured by distribution of the glaciated rocks. More significantly glaciated rocks in any area mean that it has been under ice at some stage. Thus they have produced evidence that Saudi Arabia was once covered by an ice sheet.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2008501
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Belgrade Meteorological Station Meteorology was first practiced in Serbia when meteorological data was gathered, monitored and recorded on a daily basis, in 1848, in Belgrade. Daily, meteorological forecasts started in 1892. The first meteorologist was Vladimir Jakšić. While the first meteorological observation post was in a nearby private house, a meteorological observation station (Serbian Meteorološka opservatorija) building was built in 1891 by architect Dimitrije T. Leko, on Vračar's plateau, in Savinac (recognized also as "Englezovac", named after Francis Mackenzie).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2010345
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Vixen (telescopes) Vixen is a Japanese company that makes telescopes, binoculars, spotting scopes and accessories for their products. Among many other more mainstream products they have created two unusual varieties of catadioptric telescopes with an open tube design instead of the full-aperture corrector plate of the Schmidt–Cassegrain and most Maksutov–Cassegrain designs. This design is based on the Maksutov–Cassegrain. It provides correction of aberrations via a two-element meniscus-shaped corrector lens in front of the secondary mirror. This design was originally envisaged by G. I. Popov with a practical implementation by Yu. A. Klevtsov. It is produced with apertures of 8, 10.25 and 13 inches. The 8-inch model employs a refractor style rack and pinion focuser, while in the larger designs the primary mirror is moved as in most other small to medium-sized Cassegrain designs. Vixen produces an 8-inch aperture-modified Cassegrain design (VC200L) they refer to as a VISAC (Vixen Sixth-Order Aspheric Cassegrain) that is based on a Cassegrain design with a primary mirror that is "sixth order aspheric" – somewhat like a hyperbolic mirror but able to be manufactured using mass-production techniques. To compensate for the aberrations the mirror design introduces, Vixen adds a "field corrector lens" – actually a three-element corrector in the draw tube of the focuser which also reduces field curvature for wide field applications. The design results in an image that is free of coma and astigmatism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2013687
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Vixen (telescopes) These characteristics have led to the VISAC being referred to as a "Poor man's Ritchey–Chrétien". In fact, given that it has no astigmatism and field curvature, it performs better than a true RC. There is the downside of the potential for chromatic aberration due to the refractive elements, but it is hardly noticeable. This particular design is also unusual in that it is a Cassegrain design but has a fixed primary and refractor-style rack-and-pinion focuser which removes the image shift issues seen with other catadioptric designs. These features together make for a telescope that is very well suited to astrophotography either at the native f/9 or using the optional focal reducer at around f/6.3.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2013687
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Petrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into products or raw materials. These petrochemicals have become a major part of the chemical industry today. It may be possible to make petroleum from any kind of organic matter under suitable conditions. The concentration of organic matter is not very high in the original deposits, but petroleum and natural gas evolved in places that favored retention, such as sealed-off porous sandstones. Petroleum, produced over millions of years by natural changes in organic materials, accumulates beneath the earth's surface in extremely large quantities. The first commercial oil well was set up in 1859, two years after which the first oil refinery was set up. The industry grew in the late 1940s. Demand for products from the petrochemical industry grew during the World War II. The demand for synthetic materials increased, and this rising demand was met by replacing costly and sometimes less efficient products with these synthetic materials. This caused petrochemical processing to develop into a major industry. Before this, petrochemical industry was a tentative sector where various experiments could be carried out. The industry used basic materials: synthetic rubbers in the 1900s, Bakelite, the first petrochemical-derived plastic in 1907, the first petrochemical solvents in the 1920s, polystyrene in the 1930s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2016067
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Petrochemistry After that period, the industry produced materials for a large variety of areas—from household goods (kitchen appliances, textile, furniture) to medicine (heart pacemakers, transfusion bags), from leisure (running shoes, computers) to highly specialized fields like archaeology and crime detection. Crude oils are compounds that mainly consist of many different hydrocarbon compounds that vary in appearance and composition. Average crude oil composition is 84% carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1%-3% sulphur, and less than 1% each of nitrogen, oxygen, metals and salts. Crude oils are distinguished as "sweet" or "sour," depending upon the sulphur content present. Crude oils with a high sulfur content, which may be in the form hydrogen sulphides, are called "sour," and those with less sulphur are called "sweet." A process called fractional distillation separates crude oil into various segments. Fractions at the top have a lower boiling points than fractions at the bottom. The bottom fractions are heavy, and are thus "cracked" into lighter and more useful products. Directly from the well, raw or unprocessed ("crude") oil is not useful. Though light sweet oil has been used directly as a burner fuel, these lighter fragments form explosive vapors in fuel tanks, and thus are dangerous. The oil must be separated into various parts and refined before used in fuels and lubricants, and before some of the byproducts form materials such as plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers, and fibers such as nylon and polyesters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2016067
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Petrochemistry Crude oil and natural gas are extracted from the ground, on land or under the oceans, with oil wells. Ships, trains, and pipelines transport extracted oils and gasses to refineries. Refineries then execute processes that cause various physical and chemical changes in the crude oil and natural gas. This involves extremely specialized manufacturing processes. One of the important process is distillation, i.e., separation of heavy crude oil into lighter groups (called fractions) of hydrocarbons. There are two processes of distillation: CDU process and VDU process. The objective of the CDU process is to distill and separate valuable distillates (naphtha, kerosene, diesel) and atmospheric gas oil (AGO) from the crude feedstock. The technique used to carry out the above process is called complex distillation. On the other hand, the objective of the VDU process is to recover valuable gas oils from reduced crude via vacuum distillation. Two of the fractions of distillation are fuel oil and naphtha, which are familiar to consumers. Fuel oil, is used for heating for diesel fuel in automotive applications. Naphtha is used in gasoline and also used as the primary source for petrochemicals. Refining is the processing of one complex mixture of hydrocarbons into a number of other complex mixtures of hydrocarbons. Refining is where the job of oil industry stops and that of petrochemical industry starts. The raw materials used in the petrochemistry industry are known as feedstocks
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2016067
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Petrochemistry These are obtained from the refinery:naphtha, components of natural gas such as butane, and some of the by-products of oil refining processes, such as ethane and propane. These feedstocks then undergo processing through an operation called cracking. Cracking is defined as the process of breaking down heavy oil molecules into lighter, more valuable fractions. There are two kinds: steam cracking and catalytic cracking. In steam cracking, high temperatures are used. Catalytic cracking is when a catalyst is being used. The plant where these operations are conducted is called a 'cracker'. Once these operations complete, new products are obtained that serve as building blocks of the petrochemical industry: olefins, i.e., mainly ethylene, propylene, and the so-called C4 derivatives, including butadiene—and aromatics, so called because of their distinctive perfumed smell, i.e., mainly benzene, toluene and the xylenes. Then petrochemicals go through various processes that eventually contribute to the final output of products like plastics, soaps and detergents, healthcare products like aspirin, synthetic fibres for clothes and furniture, rubbers, paints, insulating materials etc.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2016067
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Moravské zemské muzeum ("Moravian Museum" in English) is the second largest and the second oldest museum in the Czech Republic. The museum was founded in July 1817 in Brno. Its collections include over 6 million objects from many fields of science and culture. The museum has several exhibition places:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2017243
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Jindřich Wankel (German: Heinrich Wankel; July 15, 1821, Prague – April 5, 1897, Olomouc) was a Bohemian palaeontologist and archaeologist. Wankel was born to Damian Wankel, a clerk, and his wife Magdalena, née Schwarz in a bilingual environment. He was attending German schools in Prague and later studied Medicine at the University of Prague as a student of Josef Hyrtl. He came to work into area of Moravský kras ("Moravian Karst", today Czech Republic) in 1847 and since 1849 lived in Blansko as a medical doctor. He started with geological exploration of the area and later with palaeontology, archaeology and anthropology. In 1850, in Blansko, he set up first ever laboratory to research fossil bones from Cenozoic Era where he assembled complete skeleton of cave bear (until then such bones were used for spodium in nearby sugar refinery ). His most famous discovery (1872) was burial site of a nobleman from Bronze Age at "Býčí skála", with skeletons of 40 ritually killed young women (, ). His grandson Karel Absolon was also famous archaeologist and worked in the same area.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2017677
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James M. Harrison James Merritt Harrison, (September 20, 1915 – July 6, 1990) was a Canadian scientist and public servant. He was the Director of the Geological Survey of Canada from 1956 to 1964, and Assistant Deputy Minister of the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. Born in Regina, Saskatchewan, he obtained his B.Sc. from the University of Manitoba in 1935. He received his M.A. in 1941 and Ph.D. in 1943 from Queen's University. He was one of the founders of the Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) and was its first President from 1961 to 1964. Between 1966 and 1968, he was President of the International Council for Science (ICSU). In 1969, Harrison was awarded the Logan Medal, the Geological Association of Canada's highest honour. From January 1973 to March 1976, he was the Assistant Director-General for Natural Sciences at the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in Paris. In 1971, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2021287
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Krennerite is an orthorhombic gold telluride mineral which can contain variable amounts of silver in the structure. The formula is AuTe, but specimen with gold substituted by up to 24% with silver have been found ([AuAg]Te). Both of the chemically similar gold-silver tellurides, calaverite and sylvanite, are in the monoclinic crystal system, whereas krennerite is orthorhombic. The color varies from silver-white to brass-yellow. It has a specific gravity of 8.62 and a hardness of 2.5. It occurs in high temperature, hydrothermal environments. was discovered in 1878 near the village of Săcărâmb, Romania, and first described by the Hungarian mineralogist Joseph Krenner (1839–1920).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2022488
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Josef Augusta (paleontologist) Josef Augusta (March 17, 1903, Boskovice, Moravia – February 4, 1968, Prague) was a Czechoslovak paleontologist, geologist, and science popularizer. From 1921 to 1925 Augusta studied at the university in Brno. Between 1933 and 1968 he held posts at the Charles University in Prague as lecturer, professor, and dean of the faculty. In addition to his scientific work (about 120 publications), Augusta wrote about twenty books popularizing his profession, mostly targeted to the youth. He is best known for his reconstructions of fossil flora and fauna, together with the painter Zdeněk Burian (1905–1981). He also participated in the famous movie "Cesta do pravěku" ("Journey to the Beginning of Time") (1954).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2024999
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Josef Ladislav Píč (January 19, 1847 in Mšeno near Mělník – December 19, 1911 in Prague) was Czech archaeologist and paleontologist, one of founders of modern Czech archaeology. Píč studied history and Slavic languages at the Charles University in Prague (then called "Karl-Ferdinand University"). In 1883, he became docent of history at the university. Since 1893, he was named custodian and later director of archeologic collection at the National Museum (then named "České museum") in Prague. Píč created and maintained collection prehistoric artefacts. His major literary work was "Starožitnosti země české" (1899–1909), in three parts, about ancient history of Czech lands. Exhaustion, conflicts with colleagues about his work and involvement in fights over validity of "Rukopis královédvorský a zelenohorský" drove him to suicide.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2025059
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Incoherent scatter Incoherent scattering is a type of scattering phenomenon in physics. The term is most commonly used when referring to the scattering of an electromagnetic wave (usually light or radio frequency) by random fluctuations in a gas of particles (most often electrons). The most well known practical application is known as incoherent scatter radar theory, a ground-based technique for studying the Earth's ionosphere first proposed by Professor William E. Gordon in 1958. A radar beam scattering off electrons in the ionospheric plasma creates an incoherent scatter return. The distribution function of the ionospheric electrons is modified by the much slower and more massive positive ions — electron density fluctuations relate to ion temperature, mass distribution, and motion. The incoherent scatter signal allows measurement of electron density, ion temperature and electron temperatures, ion composition and plasma velocity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2026869
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Oregon Star Party The (OSP) was founded in 1987 and is considered one of the best annual events in the United States for observational astronomy. The takes place in the Ochoco National Forest, near the geographical center of the state of Oregon. It is far enough from population centers to provide some of the darkest skies in North America. The area's altitude contributes to steady seeing, which frequently provides near ideal observational conditions. The OSP site also has a treeless field of view providing an unobstructed 360 degree horizon. Usually held in August or September during a new moon, OSP attracts as many as 600-800 attendees. The highest attendance was in 2003, with 900 attendees. OSP features a wide range of amenities such as a latte stand, chuckwagon stand, and showers. Many vendors sell various astronomy-related goods, and there is a swap meet every day during the four-day event. Participation does not require a telescope, as most amateur astronomers let visitors look through their telescopes. Daytime events include guest speakers, such as telescope makers, NASA representatives, and optics manufacturers. Also, OSP has a guided tour through the "telescope fields" which discusses many of the different telescope designs and custom builds. OSP also offers activities for children and offers an observing challenge ranging in difficulty from beginner to advanced. Due to its unique location, OSP attracts casual observers, professional observers, astro-photographers, and beginners interested in astronomy.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2028662
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Gossan (eiserner hut or eisenhut) is intensely oxidized, weathered or decomposed rock, usually the upper and exposed part of an ore deposit or mineral vein. In the "classic" gossan or iron cap all that remains is iron oxides and quartz, often in the form of boxworks (which are quartz-lined cavities retaining the shape of the dissolved ore minerals). In other cases, quartz and iron oxides, limonite, goethite, and jarosite, exist as pseudomorphs, replacing the pyrite and primary ore minerals. Frequently, gossan appears as a red "stain" against the background rock and soil, due to the abundance of oxidized iron; the gossan may be a topographic positive area due to the abundance of erosion-resistant quartz and iron oxides. Although most gossans are red, orange, or yellow, black gossans from manganese oxides such as pyrolusite, manganite, and especially psilomelane form at the oxidized portion of manganese-rich mineral deposits. In the 19th and 20th centuries, gossans were important guides to buried ore deposits used by prospectors in their quest for metal ores. An experienced prospector could read the clues in the structure of the gossans to determine the type of mineralization likely to be found below the "iron cap". The name "gossan" appears to come from Cornish miner's slang. The terms "iron cap" and "iron hat", common in America, are direct translations from the German ""Eiserner Hut"" or ""Eisenhut"", which term was also used in America.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2029271
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Gustav Karl Laube (8 February 1839, Teplitz – 12 April 1923, Prague) was a Bohemian German geologist and paleontologist. In 1871 Laube became a professor of mineralogy and geology at the technical university in Prague, and in 1876, a professor of geology and paleontology at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague. Here, he was also director of the geological institute. He was active in geological research of the Ore Mountains and neighbouring areas. He also served as geologist of the Second German North Polar Expedition (1869-70).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2033247
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Tusionite is a rare colorless to transparent to translucent yellow brown trigonal borate mineral with chemical formula: MnSn(BO). The mineral is composed of 18.86% manganese, 40.76% tin, 7.42% boron, and 32.96% oxygen. It is a late stage hydrothermal mineral and occurs rarely in granite pegmatites in miarolitic cavities. was named for the location where the mineral was first discovered and described in 1983 in the Tusion River Valley in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. has also been reported from Recice in the Czech Republic and in pegmatites at Thomas Mountain, Riverside County, California.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2034998
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EOSFET An or electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor is a FET, like a MOSFET, but with an electrolyte solution replacing the metal for the detection of neuronal activity. Many EOSFETs are integrated in a neurochip.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2035333
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ECMWF re-analysis The project is a meteorological reanalysis project. The first reanalysis product, ERA-15, generated re-analyses for approximately 15 years, from December 1978 to February 1994. The second product, ERA-40 (originally intended as a 40-year reanalysis) begins in 1957 (the International Geophysical Year) and covers 45 years to 2002. As a precursor to a revised extended reanalysis product to replace ERA-40, ECMWF released ERA-Interim, which covers the period from 1979 to present. A new reanalysis product ERA5 has recently been released by ECMWF as part of Copernicus Climate Change Services. This product has higher spatial resolution (31 km) and covers the period from 1979 to present. Extension up to 1950 will become available in 2020. In addition to re-analysing all the old data using a consistent system, the reanalyses also make use of much archived data that was not available to the original analyses. This allows for the correction of many historical hand-drawn maps where the estimation of features was common in areas of data sparsity. The ability is also present to create new maps of atmosphere levels that were not commonly used until more recent times. The data can be downloaded for research use from ECMWF's homepage (see external links) and the National Center for Atmospheric Research data archives. Both require registration. A Python web API can be used to download a subset of parameters for a selected region and time period.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2039538
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Carreau fluid is a type of generalized Newtonian fluid where viscosity, formula_1, depends upon the shear rate, formula_2, by the following equation: Where: formula_4, formula_5, formula_6 and formula_7 are material coefficients. formula_4 = viscosity at zero shear rate (Pa.s) formula_5 = viscosity at infinite shear rate (Pa.s) formula_6 = relaxation time (s) formula_7 = power index At low shear rate (formula_12) a behaves as a Newtonian fluid with viscosity formula_13. At intermediate shear rates (formula_14), a behaves as a Power-law fluid. At high shear rate, which depends on the power index formula_15 and the infinite shear-rate viscosity formula_16, a behaves as a Newtonian fluid again with viscosity formula_16. The model was first proposed by Pierre Carreau.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2041081
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Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani was a Persian physician of the late 17th century. Hasani was a scholar who is known to have been working in the city of Qazvin in Persia in the year 1694 CE. The National Library of Medicine has in its collections a rare copy of a collection of five Arabic poems concerned with medicine, astronomy, arithmetic, calligraphy, and proper conduct. These five poems were collectively titled "al-Khamsah al-Qazwiniyah" (The Five Qazwini works). The copy at NLM was copied by a professional scribe for the author, whose stamps are in the volume, next to a statement that he corrected the volume in the year 1719–1720 CE. Thus we learn from this volume that Qiwan al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani was still working by 1719 CE.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2042400
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Segre classification The is an algebraic classification of rank two symmetric tensors. The resulting types are then known as Segre types. It is most commonly applied to the energy-momentum tensor (or the Ricci tensor) and primarily finds application in the classification of exact solutions in general relativity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2045451
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Akeno Giant Air Shower Array The (AGASA) is a very large surface array designed to study the origin of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. Located in the town of Akeno in Yamanashi prefecture, Japan, it covers an area of 100 km and consists of 111 surface detectors and 27 muon detectors. Array experiments such as this one are used to detect air shower particles. The array is operated by the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, University of Tokyo at the Akeno Observatory. The results from AGASA were used to calculate the energy spectrum and anisotropy of cosmic rays. The results helped to confirm the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays (>), such as the so-called "Oh-My-God" particle that was observed by the Fly's Eye experiment run by the University of Utah. The Telescope Array, a merger of the AGASA and High Resolution Fly's Eye (HiRes) groups, and the Pierre Auger Observatory have improved on the results from AGASA by building larger, hybrid detectors and collecting greater quantities of more precise data.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2046489
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Environmental biotechnology is biotechnology that is applied to and used to study the natural environment. could also imply that one try to harness biological process for commercial uses and exploitation. The International Society for Environmental Biotechnology defines environmental biotechnology as "the development, use and regulation of biological systems for remediation of contaminated environments (land, air, water), and for environment-friendly processes (green manufacturing technologies and sustainable development)". can simply be described as "the optimal use of nature, in the form of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi and algae, to produce renewable energy, food and nutrients in a synergistic integrated cycle of profit making processes where the waste of each process becomes the feedstock for another process". Science through the IAASTD has called for the advancement of small-scale agro-ecological farming systems and technology in order to achieve food security, climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation and the realisation of the Millennium Development Goals. has been shown to play a significant role in agroecology in the form of zero waste agriculture and most significantly through the operation of over 15 million biogas digesters worldwide. Consider an environment in which pollution of a particular type is maximum. Consider the effluents of a starch industry which has mixed up with a local water body like a lake or pond
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2051037
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Environmental biotechnology We find huge deposits of starch which are not so easily taken up for degradation by micro-organisms except for a few exemptions. we isolate a few micro-organisms from the polluted site and scan for any significant changes in their genome like mutations or evolutions. The modified genes are then identified. This is done because, the isolate would have adapted itself to degrade/utilize the starch better than other microbes of the same genus. Thus, the resultant genes are cloned onto industrially significant micro-organisms and are used for more economically significant processes like in pharmaceutical industry, fermentations...etc. Similar situations can be elucitated like in the case of oil spills in the oceans which require cleanup, microbes isolated from oil rich environments like oil wells, oil transfer pipelines...etc. have been found having the potential to degrade oil or use it as an energy source. Thus they serve as a remedy to oil spills. Still another elucidation would be in the case of microbes isolated from pesticide rich soils These would be capable of utilizing the pesticides as energy source and hence when mixed along with bio-fertilizers, would serve as excellent insurance against increased pesticide-toxicity levels in agricultural platform. But the counter argument would be that whether these newly introduced microorganisms would create an imbalance in the environment concerned
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2051037
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Environmental biotechnology The mutual harmony in which the organisms in that particular environment existed may have to face alteration and we should be extremely careful so as to not disturb the mutual relationships already existing in the environment of both the benefits and the disadvantages would pave way for an improvised version of environmental biotechnology. After all it is the environment that we strive to protect. Humans have been manipulating genetic material for centuries. Although many benefits are provided by these manipulations, there can also be unexpected, negative health and environmental outcomes. Environmental biotechnology, then, is all about the balance between the applications that provide for these and the implications of manipulating genetic material. Textbooks address both the applications and implications. Environmental engineering texts addressing sewage treatment and biological principles are often now considered to be environmental biotechnology texts. These generally address the applications of biotechnologies, whereas the implications of these technologies are less often addressed; usually in books concerned with potential impacts and even catastrophic events.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2051037
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Corona (optical phenomenon) In meteorology, a corona (plural "coronae") is an optical phenomenon produced by the diffraction of sunlight or moonlight (or, occasionally, bright starlight or planetlight) by individual small water droplets and sometimes tiny ice crystals of a cloud or on a foggy glass surface. In its full form, a corona consists of several concentric, pastel-colored rings around the celestial object and a central bright area called "aureole". The aureole is often (especially in case of the Moon) the only visible part of the corona and has the appearance of a bluish-white disk which fades to reddish-brown towards the edge. The angular diameter of a corona depends on the sizes of the water droplets involved; smaller droplets produce larger coronae. For the same reason, the corona is the most pronounced when the size of the droplets is most uniform. Coronae differ from halos in that the latter are formed by refraction (rather than diffraction) from comparatively large rather than small ice crystals. Pollen suspended in the air can also cause diffraction of sunlight that produces coronae. Because pollen grains are not always spherical, the resulting pollen coronae often have characteristic elliptic shape and brighter spots in them. They can be seen during blooming season where there is significant source of pollen like forests. They are more easily seen during sunset or sunrise as there is less sun glare and the light path through pollen laden atmosphere is longer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2051536
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Orungo virus (ORUV) is an arbovirus of the genus "Orbivirus", the subfamily "Sedoreovirinae" and the family "Reoviridae". There are four known subtypes of designated Orungo-1 (ORUV-1), Orungo-2 (ORUV-2), Orungo-3 (ORUV-3), and Orungo-4 (ORUV-4). It was first isolated by the Uganda Virus Research Institute in Entebbe, Uganda by Oyewale Tomori and colleagues. Antibodies to the virus have been found in humans, monkeys, sheep, and cattle.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2052742
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Kadam virus The (or KAD, strain MP6640) is a tick-borne" Flavivirus". The virus was first isolated by the Uganda Virus Research Institute in Entebbe, Uganda, after samples were taken from cattle in Karamoja in 1967. The viruses were usually only found from "Rhipicephalus" and" Amblyomma" ticks around Kenya and Uganda infecting cattle and humans. In the early 1980s, "Kadam virus;; was found to be spread in Saudi Arabia by" Hyalomma" ticks when found on a dead camel at Wadi Thamamah in Riyadh.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2052832
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Kaplan–Yorke map The is a discrete-time dynamical system. It is an example of a dynamical system that exhibits chaotic behavior. The takes a point ("x, y ") in the plane and maps it to a new point given by where "mod" is the modulo operator with real arguments. The map depends on only the one constant α. Due to roundoff error, successive applications of the modulo operator will yield zero after some ten or twenty iterations when implemented as a floating point operation on a computer. It is better to implement the following equivalent algorithm: where the formula_6 and formula_7 are computational integers. It is also best to choose formula_7 to be a large prime number in order to get many different values of formula_9. Another way to avoid having the modulo operator yield zero after a short number of iterations is which will still eventually return zero, albeit after many more iterations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2053018
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Bonnor beam In general relativity, the is an exact solution which models an infinitely long, straight beam of light. It is an explicit example of a pp-wave spacetime. It is named after William B. Bonnor who first described it. The is obtained by matching together two regions: On the "cylinder" where they meet, the two regions are required to obey matching conditions stating that the metric tensor and extrinsic curvature tensor must agree. The interior part of the solution is defined by This is a null dust solution and can be interpreted as incoherent electromagnetic radiation. The exterior part of the solution is defined by The can be generalized to several parallel beams travelling in the same direction. Perhaps surprisingly, the beams do not curve toward one another. On the other hand, "anti-parallel" beams (travelling along parallel trajectories, but in opposite directions) "do" attract each other. This reflects a general phenomenon: two pp-waves with parallel wave vectors superimpose linearly, but pp-waves with nonparallel wave vectors (including antiparallel Bonnor beams) do "not" superimpose linearly, as we would expect from the nonlinear nature of the Einstein field equation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2054980
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Eugenius Johann Christoph Esper (2 June 1742 – 27 July 1810) was a German entomologist. Born in Wunsiedel in Bavaria, he was professor of zoology at Erlangen university. Eugen and his brother Friedrich were introduced to natural history at an early age by their father Friedrich Lorenz Esper, an amateur botanist. Encouraged to abandon his theology course by his professor of botany Casimir Christoph Schmidel (1718–1792) Eugen Esper, instead, took instruction in natural history. He obtained his doctorate of philosophy at the university of Erlangen in 1781 with a thesis entitled "De varietatibus specierum in naturale productis". The following year, he started to teach at the university initially as extraordinary professor, a poorly paid position, then in 1797 as the professor of philosophy. He directed the department of natural history in Erlangen from 1805. Thanks to him the university collections of minerals, birds, plants, shells and insects grew very rapidly. During his leisure hours Esper devoted himself to the study of nature and the preparation of manuscripts relating to natural history. He was the author of a series of booklets entitled "Die Schmetterlinge in Abbildungen nach der Natur mit Beschreibungen" which were published between 1776 and 1807. These were richly illustrated; minerals, birds, plants, shells and insects being presented on 438 hand-coloured plates. A second work was published in 1829–1830 with Toussaint de Charpentier (1779–1847). This is an important work on the butterflies of Germany, following the Linnean System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2056828
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Eugenius Johann Christoph Esper Esper was also the very first person to research palaeopathology. The review of entomology, "Esperiana, Buchreihe zur Entomologie", created in 1990, commemorates his name and work. Esper's collection is in the Zoologische Staatssammlung München Translated from French Wikipedia on Esper
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2056828
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Ludwigite is a magnesium-iron borate mineral: MgFeBO. typically occurs in magnesian iron skarn and other high temperature contact metamorphic deposits. It occurs in association with magnetite, forsterite, clinohumite and the borates vonsenite and szaibelyite. It forma a solid solution series with the iron(II)-iron(III) borate mineral vonsenite. It was first described in 1874 for an occurrence in Ocna de Fier, Banat Mountains, Caraș-Severin County, Romania and named for Ernst Ludwig (1842–1915), an Austrian chemist at the University of Vienna. <br>
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2057993
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Rickardite is a telluride mineral, a copper telluride (CuTe) or CuTe. It was first described for an occurrence in the Good Hope Mine, Vulcan district, Gunnison County, Colorado, US, and named for mining engineer Thomas Arthur Rickard (1864–1953). It is a low temperature hydrothermal mineral that occurs associated with vulcanite, native tellurium, cameronite, petzite, sylvanite, berthierite, pyrite, arsenopyrite and bornite.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2061129
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Homothetic vector field A homothetic vector field (sometimes homothetic collineation or homothety) is a projective vector field which satisfies the condition: where c is a real constant. Homothetic vector fields find application in the study of singularities in general relativity. They can also be used to generate new solutions for Einstein equations by similarity reduction.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2062754
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Affine vector field An affine vector field (sometimes affine collineation or affine) is a projective vector field preserving geodesics and preserving the affine parameter. Mathematically, this is expressed by the following condition:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2062759
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Ensemble average (statistical mechanics) In statistical mechanics, the ensemble average is defined as the mean of a quantity that is a function of the microstate of a system, according to the distribution of the system on its micro-states in this ensemble. Since the ensemble average is dependent on the ensemble chosen, its mathematical expression varies from ensemble to ensemble. However, the mean obtained for a given physical quantity doesn't depend on the ensemble chosen at the thermodynamic limit. The grand canonical ensemble is an example of an open system. For a classical system in thermal equilibrium with its environment, the "ensemble average" takes the form of an integral over the phase space of the system: The denominator in this expression is known as the partition function, and is denoted by the letter Z. In quantum statistical mechanics, for a quantum system in thermal equilibrium with its environment, the weighted average takes the form of a sum over quantum energy states, rather than a continuous integral: The generalized version of the partition function provides the complete framework for working with ensemble averages in thermodynamics, information theory, statistical mechanics and quantum mechanics. The microcanonical ensemble represents an isolated system in which energy (E), volume (V) and the number of particles (N) are all constant. The canonical ensemble represents a closed system which can exchange energy (E) with its surroundings (usually a heat bath), but the volume (V) and the number of particles (N) are all constant
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2063509
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Ensemble average (statistical mechanics) The grand canonical ensemble represents an open system which can exchange energy (E) as well as particles with its surroundings but the volume (V) is kept constant.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2063509
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Chirotechnology in materials science is the chemistry and technology of production and separation of enantiomers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2065712
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Biopesticide Biopesticides, a contraction of 'biological pesticides', include several types of pest management intervention: through predatory, parasitic, or chemical relationships. The term has been associated historically with [biological control] – and by implication – the manipulation of living organisms. Regulatory positions can be influenced by public perceptions, thus: They are obtained from organisms including plants, bacteria and other microbes, fungi, nematodes, "etc". They are often important components of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes, and have received much practical attention as substitutes to synthetic chemical plant protection products (PPPs). Biopesticides can be classified into these classes- Biopesticides have usually no known function in photosynthesis, growth or other basic aspects of plant physiology. Instead, they are active against biological pests. Many chemical compounds have been identified that are produced by plants to protect them from pests so they are called antifeedants. These materials are biodegradable and renewable alternatives, which can be economical for practical use. Organic farming systems embraces this approach to pest control. RNA interference is under study for possible use as a spray-on insecticide by multiple companies, including Monsanto, Syngenta, and Bayer. Such sprays do not modify the genome of the target plant. The RNA could be modified to maintain its effectiveness as target species evolve tolerance to the original
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2065799
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Biopesticide RNA is a relatively fragile molecule that generally degrades within days or weeks of application. Monsanto estimated costs to be on the order of $5/acre. RNAi has been used to target weeds that tolerate Monsanto's Roundup herbicide. RNAi mixed with a silicone surfactant that let the RNA molecules enter air-exchange holes in the plant's surface that disrupted the gene for tolerance, affecting it long enough to let the herbicide work. This strategy would allow the continued use of glyphosate-based herbicides, but would not per se assist a herbicide rotation strategy that relied on alternating Roundup with others. They can be made with enough precision to kill some insect species, while not harming others. Monsanto is also developing an RNA spray to kill potato beetles One challenge is to make it linger on the plant for a week, even if it's raining. The Potato beetle has become resistant to more than 60 conventional insecticides. Monsanto lobbied the U.S. EPA to exempt RNAi pesticide products from any specific regulations (beyond those that apply to all pesticides) and be exempted from rodent toxicity, allergenicity and residual environmental testing. In 2014 an EPA advisory group found little evidence of a risk to people from eating RNA. However, in 2012, the Australian Safe Food Foundation posited that the RNA trigger designed to change the starch content of wheat might interfere with the gene for a human liver enzyme. Supporters countered that RNA does not appear to make it past human saliva or stomach acids
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2065799
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Biopesticide The US National Honey Bee Advisory Board told EPA that using RNAi would put natural systems at "the epitome of risk". The beekeepers cautioned that pollinators could be hurt by unintended effects and that the genomes of many insects are still unknown. Other unassessed risks include ecological (given the need for sustained presence for herbicide and other applications) and the possible for RNA drift across species boundaries. Monsanto has invested in multiple companies for their RNA expertise, including Beeologics (for RNA that kills a parasitic mite that infests hives and for manufacturing technology) and Preceres (nanoparticle lipidoid coatings) and licensed technology from Alnylam and Tekmira. In 2012 Syngenta acquired Devgen, a European RNA partner. Startup Forrest Innovations is investigating RNAi as a solution to citrus greening disease that in 2014 caused 22 percent of oranges in Florida to fall off the trees. "Bacillus thuringiensis", a bacteria capable of causing disease of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera, is a well-known insecticide example. The toxin from "B. thuringiensis" (Bt toxin) has been incorporated directly into plants through the use of genetic engineering. The use of Bt Toxin is particularly controversial. Its manufacturers claim it has little effect on other organisms, and is more environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2065799
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Biopesticide Other microbial control agents include products based on: Various naturally occurring materials, including fungal and plant extracts, have been described as biopesticides. Products in this category include: Biopesticides are biological or biologically-derived agents, that are usually applied in a manner similar to chemical pesticides, but achieve pest management in an environmentally friendly way. With all pest management products, but especially microbial agents, effective control requires appropriate formulation and application. Biopesticides for use against crop diseases have already established themselves on a variety of crops. For example, biopesticides already play an important role in controlling downy mildew diseases. Their benefits include: a 0-Day Pre-Harvest Interval (see: maximum residue limit), the ability to use under moderate to severe disease pressure, and the ability to use as a tank mix or in a rotational program with other registered fungicides. Because some market studies estimate that as much as 20% of global fungicide sales are directed at downy mildew diseases, the integration of biofungicides into grape production has substantial benefits in terms of extending the useful life of other fungicides, especially those in the reduced-risk category. A major growth area for biopesticides is in the area of seed treatments and soil amendments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2065799
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Biopesticide Fungicidal and biofungicidal seed treatments are used to control soil borne fungal pathogens that cause seed rots, damping-off, root rot and seedling blights. They can also be used to control internal seed–borne fungal pathogens as well as fungal pathogens that are on the surface of the seed. Many biofungicidal products also show capacities to stimulate plant host defence and other physiological processes that can make treated crops more resistant to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. ● Bioinsecticides Market (Acquire Market Research)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2065799
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SEAgel (Safe Emulsion Agar gel) is one of a class of high-tech foam materials known as aerogels. It is an excellent thermal insulator and among the least dense solids known. was invented by Robert Morrison at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 1992. is made of agar, a carbohydrate material that comes from kelp and red algae, and has a density of 200 mg/cm. can be made lighter than air using hydrogen, causing it to float or hang in the air. It insulates against temperature, noise, and electric current. is also completely biodegradable, as it is made entirely of biological material and can even be eaten. Initially, starts out as a gelatin-like mixture of agar and water. After it is freeze-dried to remove the water, it is left as a honeycomb of dried agar filled with air, with cell sizes two to three micrometers (2-3 µm) in diameter. can have many different uses. Laboratory scientists use as targets for x-ray laser experiments because it can be doped with other materials, such as selenium. In order to eliminate the volatile hydrodynamics that occur when a solid-density target explodes before it reaches the density required for lasing, scientists are trying to develop an x-ray laser target with a density that is less than the critical density of laser light (4×10 electrons/cm for 0.53-µm light). can help them achieve a more uniform plasma, which will ultimately improve the quality of the x-ray laser beam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2070706
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SEAgel could also be used as food packaging or the encapsulating material of timed-release medical pills, as it is safe to digest. could also replace balsa wood, to insulate supertankers, and to provide sound damping in high-speed trains. was covered under U.S. patents 5,382,285 ("Biofoam") and 5,360,828 ("Biofoam II").
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2070706
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Rate of heat flow The rate of heat flow is the amount of heat that is transferred per unit of time in some material, usually measured in watt (joules per second). Heat is the flow of thermal energy driven by thermal non-equilibrium, so that 'heat flow' is a redundancy (i.e. a pleonasm, and the same for ‘work flow’). Heat must not be confused with stored thermal energy, and moving a hot object from one place to another must not be called heat transfer. But, in spite of all these remarks, it is common in normal parlance to say ‘heat flow’, to talk of ‘heat content’, etc. The equation of heat flow is given by Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction. = - (heat transfer coefficient) * (area of the body) * (variation of the temperature) / (length of the material) The formula for the rate of heat flow is: formula_2 is the net heat (energy) transfer, formula_3 is the time taken, formula_4 is the difference in temperature between the cold and hot sides, formula_5 is the thickness of the material conducting heat (distance between hot and cold sides), formula_6 is the thermal conductivity, and formula_7 is the surface area of the surface emitting heat. If a piece of material whose cross-sectional area is formula_7 and thickness is formula_5 with a temperature difference formula_4 between its faces is observed, heat flows between the two faces in a direction perpendicular to the faces. The time rate of heat flow, formula_11, for small formula_2 and small formula_3, is proportional to formula_14
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2071466
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Rate of heat flow In the limit of infinitesimal thickness formula_5, with temperature difference formula_4, this becomes formula_17, where formula_18 is the time rate of heat flow through the area formula_7, formula_20 is the "temperature gradient" across the material, and formula_6, the proportionality constant, is the "thermal conductivity" of the material. People often use formula_6, formula_23, or the Greek letter formula_24 to represent this constant. The minus sign is there because the rate of heat flow is always negative—heat flows from the side at higher temperature to the one at lower temperature, not the other way around.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2071466
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Bangladesh National Museum The (), is the national museum of Bangladesh. The museum is well organized and displays have been housed chronologically in several departments like department of ethnography and decorative art, department of history and classical art, department of natural history, and department of contemporary and world civilization. The museum also has a rich conservation laboratory. Nalini Kanta Bhattasali served as the first curator of the museum during 1914–1947. was originally established on 20 March 1913, albeit under another name (the Dhaka Museum), and formally inaugurated on 7 August 1913 by Thomas Gibson-Carmichael, 1st Baron Carmichael, the governor of Bengal. In July 1915 it was handed over to the Naib-Nazim of Dhaka. was formed through the incorporation of Dhaka museum and it was made the national museum of Bangladesh on 17 November 1983. It is located at Shahbag, Dhaka. The ground floor consists of some old guns at the entrance and the hall where the people book their tickets or assemble to hear the history of the museum. The hall leads to a grand staircase. Beside the hall, there is a smaller room which also acts like the hall (it is also used by the guides to tell the visitors about the history) and a simple staircase. The 1st floor is divided into 22 rooms. The first room displays a large map showing the map of Bangladesh and its 64 districts. The 2nd room consists of an under going work of a large statue of a royal Bengal tiger. These rooms consist of natural beauties found in Bangladesh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2072416
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Bangladesh National Museum In one of the room there is showcase of a tongue of a whale. The other rooms contain some historic relics of Bengal up to 1900. There is a room which shows the different boats used by the rural people. The 2nd floor consists of photos of famous people and showcases the Bangladesh Liberation War and the Language Movement of 1952. There are posters used in the war, a torture machine and much more. There are also two libraries. The 3rd floor consists of pictures of international politicians, artists, scientists, famous pictures and four international galleries - Chinese, Korean, Iranian and Swiss.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2072416
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