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Nanobiotechnology genetic disease, cancer, organ/tissue failure), as well as computing (e.g. DNA computing) and agriculture (target delivery of pesticides, hormones and fertilizers. takes most of its fundamentals from nanotechnology. Most of the devices designed for nano-biotechnological use are directly based on other existing nanotechnologies. is often used to describe the overlapping multidisciplinary activities associated with biosensors, particularly where photonics, chemistry, biology, biophysics, nanomedicine, and engineering converge. Measurement in biology using wave guide techniques, such as dual-polarization interferometry, is another example. Applications of bionanotechnology are extremely widespread. Insofar as the distinction holds, nanobiotechnology is much more commonplace in that it simply provides more tools for the study of biology. Bionanotechnology, on the other hand, promises to recreate biological mechanisms and pathways in a form that is useful in other ways. Nanomedicine is a field of medical science whose applications are increasing more and more thanks to nanorobots and biological machines, which constitute a very useful tool to develop this area of knowledge. In the past years, researchers have made many improvements in the different devices and systems required to develop nanorobots
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Nanobiotechnology This supposes a new way of treating and dealing with diseases such as cancer; thanks to nanorobots, side effects of chemotherapy have been controlled, reduced and even eliminated, so some years from now, cancer patients will be offered an alternative to treat this disease instead of chemotherapy, which causes secondary effects such as hair loss, fatigue or nausea killing not only cancerous cells but also the healthy ones. At a clinical level, cancer treatment with nanomedicine will consist of the supply of nanorobots to the patient through an injection that will search for cancerous cells while leaving the healthy ones untouched. Patients that will be treated through nanomedicine will not notice the presence of these nanomachines inside them; the only thing that is going to be noticeable is the progressive improvement of their health. Nanobiotechanlogy is quite important for medicine formulation. It helps a lot in making vaccines as well. (sometimes referred to as nanobiology) is best described as helping modern medicine progress from treating symptoms to generating cures and regenerating biological tissues. Three American patients have received whole cultured bladders with the help of doctors who use nanobiology techniques in their practice. Also, it has been demonstrated in animal studies that a uterus can be grown outside the body and then placed in the body in order to produce a baby
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Nanobiotechnology Stem cell treatments have been used to fix diseases that are found in the human heart and are in clinical trials in the United States. There is also funding for research into allowing people to have new limbs without having to resort to prosthesis. Artificial proteins might also become available to manufacture without the need for harsh chemicals and expensive machines. It has even been surmised that by the year 2055, computers may be made out of biochemicals and organic salts. Another example of current nanobiotechnological research involves nanospheres coated with fluorescent polymers. Researchers are seeking to design polymers whose fluorescence is quenched when they encounter specific molecules. Different polymers would detect different metabolites. The polymer-coated spheres could become part of new biological assays, and the technology might someday lead to particles which could be introduced into the human body to track down metabolites associated with tumors and other health problems. Another example, from a different perspective, would be evaluation and therapy at the nanoscopic level, i.e. the treatment of Nanobacteria (25-200 nm sized) as is done by NanoBiotech Pharma. While nanobiology is in its infancy, there are a lot of promising methods that will rely on nanobiology in the future. Biological systems are inherently nano in scale; nanoscience must merge with biology in order to deliver biomacromolecules and molecular machines that are similar to nature
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Nanobiotechnology Controlling and mimicking the devices and processes that are constructed from molecules is a tremendous challenge to face for the converging disciplines of nanobiotechnology. All living things, including humans, can be considered to be nanofoundries. Natural evolution has optimized the "natural" form of nanobiology over millions of years. In the 21st century, humans have developed the technology to artificially tap into nanobiology. This process is best described as "organic merging with synthetic." Colonies of live neurons can live together on a biochip device; according to research from Dr. Gunther Gross at the University of North Texas. Self-assembling nanotubes have the ability to be used as a structural system. They would be composed together with rhodopsins; which would facilitate the optical computing process and help with the storage of biological materials. DNA (as the software for all living things) can be used as a structural proteomic system - a logical component for molecular computing. Ned Seeman - a researcher at New York University - along with other researchers are currently researching concepts that are similar to each other. DNA nanotechnology is one important example of bionanotechnology. The utilization of the inherent properties of nucleic acids like DNA to create useful materials is a promising area of modern research. Another important area of research involves taking advantage of membrane properties to generate synthetic membranes
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Nanobiotechnology Proteins that self-assemble to generate functional materials could be used as a novel approach for the large-scale production of programmable nanomaterials. One example is the development of amyloids found in bacterial biofilms as engineered nanomaterials that can be programmed genetically to have different properties. Protein folding studies provide a third important avenue of research, but one that has been largely inhibited by our inability to predict protein folding with a sufficiently high degree of accuracy. Given the myriad uses that biological systems have for proteins, though, research into understanding protein folding is of high importance and could prove fruitful for bionanotechnology in the future. Lipid nanotechnology is another major area of research in bionanotechnology, where physico-chemical properties of lipids such as their antifouling and self-assembly is exploited to build nanodevices with applications in medicine and engineering. Nanotechnology application to biotechnology leaves no field untouched by its groundbreaking scientific innovations for human wellness; the agricultural industry is no exception. Basically, nanomaterials are distinguished depending on the origin: natural, incidental and engineered nanoparticles. Among these, engineered nanoparticles have received wide attention in all fields of science, including medical, materials and agriculture technology with significant socio-economical growth
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Nanobiotechnology In the agriculture industry, engineered nanoparticles have been serving as nano carriers, containing herbicides, chemicals, or genes, which target particular plant parts to release their content. Previously nanocapsules containing herbicides have been reported to effectively penetrate through cuticles and tissues, allowing the slow and constant release of the active substances. Likewise, other literature describes that nano-encapsulated slow release of fertilizers has also become a trend to save fertilizer consumption and to minimize environmental pollution through precision farming. These are only a few examples from numerous research works which might open up exciting opportunities for nanobiotechnology application in agriculture. Also, application of this kind of engineered nanoparticles to plants should be considered the level of amicability before it is employed in agriculture practices. Based on a thorough literature survey, it was understood that there is only limited authentic information available to explain the biological consequence of engineered nanoparticles on treated plants. Certain reports underline the phytotoxicity of various origin of engineered nanoparticles to the plant caused by the subject of concentrations and sizes . At the same time, however, an equal number of studies were reported with a positive outcome of nanoparticles, which facilitate growth promoting nature to treat plant
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Nanobiotechnology In particular, compared to other nanoparticles, silver and gold nanoparticles based applications elicited beneficial results on various plant species with less and/or no toxicity. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) treated leaves of Asparagus showed the increased content of ascorbate and chlorophyll. Similarly, AgNPs-treated common bean and corn has increased shoot and root length, leaf surface area, chlorophyll, carbohydrate and protein contents reported earlier. The gold nanoparticle has been used to induce growth and seed yield in Brassica juncea. This field relies on a variety of research methods, including experimental tools (e.g. imaging, characterization via AFM/optical tweezers etc.), x-ray diffraction based tools, synthesis via self-assembly, characterization of self-assembly (using e.g. MP-SPR, DPI, recombinant DNA methods, etc.), theory (e.g. statistical mechanics, nanomechanics, etc.), as well as computational approaches (bottom-up multi-scale simulation, supercomputing).
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Ángel Cabrera (naturalist) Ángel Cabrera (19 February 1879 – 8 July 1960) was a Spanish zoologist. Cabrera was born in Madrid and studied at the city's university. He worked the National Museum of Natural Sciences from 1902, going on several collecting expeditions to Morocco. In 1907, he proposed that the Iberian wolf was a separate subspecies, which he named "Canis lupus signatus". In 1925 Cabrera went to Argentina and remained there for the rest of his life. He was head of the Department of Vertebrate Paleontology at the Museo de La Plata, and made collecting trips to Patagonia and Catamarca. His books include "South American Mammals" (1940).
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Rollin film A Rollin film, named after Bernard V. Rollin, is a 30 nm-thick liquid film of helium in the helium II state. It exhibits a "creeping" effect in response to surfaces extending past the film's level (wave propagation). Helium II can escape from any non-closed container via creeping toward and eventually evaporating from capillaries of 10 to 10 meters or greater. Rollin films are involved in the "fountain effect" where superfluid helium leaks out of a container in a fountain-like manner. They have high thermal conductivity. The ability of superfluid liquids to cross obstacles that lie at a higher level is often referred to as the Onnes effect, named after Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. The Onnes effect is enabled by the capillary forces dominating gravity and viscous forces. Waves propagating across a are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the van der Waals force. The film suffers a change in chemical potential when the thickness varies. These waves are known as third sound. The thickness of the film can be calculated by the energy balance. Consider a small fluid volume element formula_1 which is located at a height formula_2 from the free surface. The potential energy due to the gravitational force acting on the fluid element is formula_3, where formula_4 is the total density and formula_5 is the gravitational acceleration
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Rollin film The quantum kinetic energy per particle is formula_6, where formula_7 is the thickness of the film and formula_8 is the mass of the particle. Therefore, the net kinetic energy is given by formula_9, where formula_10 is the fraction of atoms which are Bose–Einstein condensate. Minimizing the total energy with respect to the thickness provides us the value of the thickness:
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Protein–protein interaction Protein–protein interactions (PPIs) are the physical contacts of high specificity established between two or more protein molecules as a result of biochemical events steered by interactions that include electrostatic forces, hydrogen bonding and the hydrophobic effect. Many are physical contacts with molecular associations between chains that occur in a cell or in a living organism in a specific biomolecular context. Proteins rarely act alone as their functions tend to be regulated. Many molecular processes within a cell are carried out by molecular machines that are built from numerous protein components organized by their PPIs. These interactions make up the so-called interactomics of the organism, while aberrant PPIs are the basis of multiple aggregation-related diseases, such as Creutzfeldt–Jakob, Alzheimer's diseases. PPIs have been studied with many methods and from different perspectives: biochemistry, quantum chemistry, molecular dynamics, signal transduction, among others. All this information enables the creation of large protein interaction networks – similar to metabolic or genetic/epigenetic networks – that empower the current knowledge on biochemical cascades and molecular etiology of disease, as well as the discovery of putative protein targets of therapeutic interest. In many metabolic reactions, a protein that acts as an electron carrier binds to an enzyme that acts its reductase. After it receives an electron, it dissociates and then binds to the next enzyme that acts its oxidase (i.e
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Protein–protein interaction an acceptor of the electron). These interactions between proteins are dependent on highly specific binding between proteins to ensure efficient electron transfer. Examples: mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation chain system components cytochrome c-reductase / cytochrome c / cytochrome c oxidase; microsomal and mitochondrial P450 systems. In the case of the mitochondrial P450 systems, the specific residues involved in the binding of the electron transfer protein adrenodoxin to its reductase were identified as two basic Arg residues on the surface of the reductase and two acidic Asp residues on the adrenodoxin. More recent work on the phylogeny of the reductase has shown that these residues involved in protein-protein interactions have been conserved throughout the evolution of this enzyme. The activity of the cell is regulated by extracellular signals. Signal propagation inside and/or along the interior of cells depends on PPIs between the various signaling molecules. The recruitment of signaling pathways through PPIs is called signal transduction and plays a fundamental role in many biological processes and in many diseases including Parkinson's disease and cancer. A protein may be carrying another protein (for example, from cytoplasm to nucleus or vice versa in the case of the nuclear pore importins). In many biosynthetic processes enzymes interact with each other to produce small compounds or other macromolecules. Physiology of muscle contraction involves several interactions
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Protein–protein interaction Myosin filaments act as molecular motors and by binding to actin enables filament sliding. Furthermore, members of the skeletal muscle lipid droplet-associated proteins family associate with other proteins, as activator of adipose triglyceride lipase and its coactivator comparative gene identification-58, to regulate lipolysis in skeletal muscle The total amount of muscle proteins in mammals, including humans, exceeds that of any other protein. About 40 percent of the body weight of a healthy human adult weighing about 70 kilograms (150 pounds) is muscle, which is composed of about 20 percent muscle protein. Thus, the human body contains about 5 to 6 kilograms (11 to 13 pounds) of muscle protein. An albumin-like fraction of these proteins, originally called myogen, contains various enzymes—phosphorylase, aldolase, glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase, and others; it does not seem to be involved in contraction. The globulin fraction contains myosin, the contractile protein, which also occurs in blood platelets, small bodies found in blood. Similar contractile substances occur in other contractile structures; for example, in the cilia or flagella (whiplike organs of locomotion) of bacteria and protozoans. In contrast to the scleroproteins, the contractile proteins are soluble in salt solutions and susceptible to enzymatic digestion. The energy required for muscle contraction is provided by the oxidation of carbohydrates or lipids
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Protein–protein interaction The term "mechanochemical reaction" has been used for this conversion of chemical into mechanical energy. The molecular process underlying the reaction is known to involve the fibrous muscle proteins, the peptide chains of which undergo a change in conformation during contraction. Myosin, which can be removed from fresh muscle by adding it to a chilled solution of dilute potassium chloride and sodium bicarbonate, is insoluble in water. Myosin, solutions of which are highly viscous, consists of an elongated—probably double-stranded—peptide chain, which is coiled at both ends in such a way that a terminal globule is formed. The length of the molecule is approximately 160 nanometres and its average diameter 2.6 nanometres. The equivalent weight of each of the two terminal globules is approximately 30,000; the molecular weight of myosin is close to 500,000. Trypsin splits myosin into large fragments called meromyosin. Myosin contains many amino acids with positively and negatively charged side chains; they form 18 and 16 percent, respectively, of the total number of amino acids. Myosin catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). A smaller protein with properties similar to those of myosin is tropomyosin. It has a molecular weight of 70,000 and dimensions of 45 by 2 nanometres. More than 90 percent of its peptide chains are present in the α-helix form
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Protein–protein interaction Myosin combines easily with another muscle protein called actin, the molecular weight of which is about 50,000; it forms 12 to 15 percent of the muscle proteins. Actin can exist in two forms—one, G-actin, is globular; the other, F-actin, is fibrous. Actomyosin is a complex molecule formed by one molecule of myosin and one or two molecules of actin. In muscle, actin and myosin filaments are oriented parallel to each other and to the long axis of the muscle. The actin filaments are linked to each other lengthwise by fine threads called S filaments. During contraction the S filaments shorten, so that the actin filaments slide toward each other, past the myosin filaments, thus causing a shortening of the muscle (for a detailed description of the process, "see" muscle: Striated muscle). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. To describe the types of protein–protein interactions (PPIs) it is important to consider that proteins can interact in a "transient" way (to produce some specific effect in a short time, like a signal transduction) or to interact with other proteins in a "stable" way to form complexes that become molecular machines within the living systems. A protein complex assembly can result in the formation of homo-oligomeric or hetero-oligomeric complexes. In addition to the conventional complexes, as enzyme-inhibitor and antibody-antigen, interactions can also be established between domain-domain and domain-peptide
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Protein–protein interaction Another important distinction to identify protein-protein interactions is the way they have been determined, since there are techniques that measure direct physical interactions between protein pairs, named “binary” methods, while there are other techniques that measure physical interactions among groups of proteins, without pairwise determination of protein partners, named “co-complex” methods. Homo-oligomers are macromolecular complexes constituted by only one type of protein subunit. Protein subunits assembly is guided by the establishment of non-covalent interactions in the quaternary structure of the protein. Disruption of homo-oligomers in order to return to the initial individual monomers often requires denaturation of the complex. Several enzymes, carrier proteins, scaffolding proteins, and transcriptional regulatory factors carry out their functions as homo-oligomers. Distinct protein subunits interact in hetero-oligomers, which are essential to control several cellular functions. The importance of the communication between heterologous proteins is even more evident during cell signaling events and such interactions are only possible due to structural domains within the proteins (as described below). Stable interactions involve proteins that interact for a long time, taking part of permanent complexes as subunits, in order to carry out functional roles. These are usually the case of homo-oligomers (e.g. cytochrome c), and some hetero-oligomeric proteins, as the subunits of ATPase
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Protein–protein interaction On the other hand, a protein may interact briefly and in a reversible manner with other proteins in only certain cellular contexts – cell type, cell cycle stage, external factors, presence of other binding proteins, etc. – as it happens with most of the proteins involved in biochemical cascades. These are called transient interactions. For example, some G protein-coupled receptors only transiently bind to G proteins when they are activated by extracellular ligands, while some G-coupled receptors, such as muscarinic receptor M3, pre-couple with G proteins prior to the receptor-ligand binding. Interactions between intrinsically disordered protein regions to globular protein domains (i.e. MoRFs) are transient interactions. Covalent interactions are those with the strongest association and are formed by disulphide bonds or electron sharing. While rare, these interactions are determinant in some posttranslational modifications, as ubiquitination and SUMOylation. Non-covalent bonds are usually established during transient interactions by the combination of weaker bonds, such as hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions, Van der Waals forces, or hydrophobic bonds. Water molecules play a significant role in the interactions between proteins. The crystal structures of complexes, obtained at high resolution from different but homologous proteins, have shown that some interface water molecules are conserved between homologous complexes
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Protein–protein interaction The majority of the interface water molecules make hydrogen bonds with both partners of each complex. Some interface amino acid residues or atomic groups of one protein partner engage in both direct and water mediated interactions with the other protein partner. Doubly indirect interactions, mediated by two water molecules, are more numerous in the homologous complexes of low affinity. Carefully conducted mutagenesis experiments, e.g. changing a tyrosine residue into a phenylalanine, have shown that water mediated interactions can contribute to the energy of interaction. Thus, water molecules may facilitate the interactions and cross-recognitions between proteins. The molecular structures of many protein complexes have been unlocked by the technique of X-ray crystallography. The first structure to be solved by this method was that of sperm whale myoglobin by Sir John Cowdery Kendrew. In this technique the angles and intensities of a beam of X-rays diffracted by crystalline atoms are detected in a film, thus producing a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. Later, nuclear magnetic resonance also started to be applied with the aim of unravelling the molecular structure of protein complexes. One of the first examples was the structure of calmodulin-binding domains bound to calmodulin. This technique is based on the study of magnetic properties of atomic nuclei, thus determining physical and chemical properties of the correspondent atoms or the molecules
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Protein–protein interaction Nuclear magnetic resonance is advantageous for characterizing weak PPIs. Proteins hold structural domains that allow their interaction with and bind to specific sequences on other proteins: The study of the molecular structure can give fine details about the interface that enables the interaction between proteins. When characterizing PPI interfaces it is important to take into account the type of complex. Parameters evaluated include size (measured in absolute dimensions Å or in solvent-accessible surface area (SASA)), shape, complementarity between surfaces, residue interface propensities, hydrophobicity, segmentation and secondary structure, and conformational changes on complex formation. The great majority of PPI interfaces reflects the composition of protein surfaces, rather than the protein cores, in spite of being frequently enriched in hydrophobic residues, particularly in aromatic residues. PPI interfaces are dynamic and frequently planar, although they can be globular and protruding as well. Based on three structures – insulin dimer, trypsin-pancreatic trypsin inhibitor complex, and oxyhaemoglobin – Cyrus Chothia and Joel Janin found that between 1,130 and 1,720 Å of surface area was removed from contact with water indicating that hydrophobicity is a major factor of stabilization of PPIs. Later studies refined the buried surface area of the majority of interactions to 1,600±350 Å
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Protein–protein interaction However, much larger interaction interfaces were also observed and were associated with significant changes in conformation of one of the interaction partners. PPIs interfaces exhibit both shape and electrostatic complementarity. There are a multitude of methods to detect them. Each of the approaches has its own strengths and weaknesses, especially with regard to the sensitivity and specificity of the method. The most conventional and widely used high-throughput methods are yeast two-hybrid screening and affinity purification coupled to mass spectrometry. This system was firstly described in 1989 by Fields and Song using "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" as biological model. Yeast two hybrid allows the identification of pairwise PPIs (binary method) "in vivo", in which the two proteins are tested for biophysically direct interaction. The Y2H is based on the functional reconstitution of the yeast transcription factor Gal4 and subsequent activation of a selective reporter such as His3. To test two proteins for interaction, two protein expression constructs are made: one protein (X) is fused to the Gal4 DNA-binding domain (DB) and a second protein (Y) is fused to the Gal4 activation domain (AD). In the assay, yeast cells are transformed with these constructs. Transcription of reporter genes does not occur unless bait (DB-X) and prey (AD-Y) interact with each other and form a functional Gal4 transcription factor
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Protein–protein interaction Thus, the interaction between proteins can be inferred by the presence of the products resultant of the reporter gene expression. In cases in which the reporter gene expresses enzymes that allow the yeast to synthesize essential amino acids or nucleotides, yeast growth under selective media conditions indicates that the two proteins tested are interacting. Despite its usefulness, the yeast two-hybrid system has limitations. It uses yeast as main host system, which can be a problem when studying proteins that contain mammalian-specific post-translational modifications. The number of PPIs identified is usually low because of a high false negative rate; and, understates membrane proteins, for example. In initial studies that utilized Y2H, proper controls for false positives (e.g. when DB-X activates the reporter gene without the presence of AD-Y) were frequently not done, leading to a higher than normal false positive rate. An empirical framework must be implemented to control for these false positives. Limitations in lower coverage of membrane proteins have been overcoming by the emergence of yeast two-hybrid variants, such as the membrane yeast two-hybrid (MYTH) and the split-ubiquitin system, which are not limited to interactions that occur in the nucleus; and, the bacterial two-hybrid system, performed in bacteria; Affinity purification coupled to mass spectrometry mostly detects stable interactions and thus better indicates functional in vivo PPIs
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Protein–protein interaction This method starts by purification of the tagged protein, which is expressed in the cell usually at "in vivo" concentrations, and its interacting proteins (affinity purification). One of the most advantageous and widely used method to purify proteins with very low contaminating background is the tandem affinity purification, developed by Bertrand Seraphin and Matthias Mann and respective colleagues. PPIs can then be quantitatively and qualitatively analysed by mass spectrometry using different methods: chemical incorporation, biological or metabolic incorporation (SILAC), and label-free methods. This system was first developed by LaBaer and colleagues in 2004 by using in vitro transcription and translation system. They use DNA template encoding the gene of interest fused with GST protein, and it was immobilized in the solid surface. Anti-GST antibody and biotinylated plasmid DNA were bounded in aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES)-coated slide. BSA can improve the binding efficiency of DNA. Biotinylated plasmid DNA was bound by avidin. New protein was synthesized by using cell-free expression system i.e. rabbit reticulocyte lysate (RRL), and then the new protein was captured through anti-GST antibody bounded on the slide. To test protein-protein interaction, the targeted protein cDNA and query protein cDNA were immobilized in a same coated slide. By using in vitro transcription and translation system, targeted and query protein was synthesized by the same extract
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Protein–protein interaction The targeted protein was bound to array by antibody coated in the slide and query protein was used to probe the array. The query protein was tagged with hemagglutinin (HA) epitope. Thus, the interaction between the two proteins was visualized with the antibody against HA. Diverse techniques to identify PPIs have been emerging along with technology progression. These include co-immunoprecipitation, protein microarrays, analytical ultracentrifugation, light scattering, fluorescence spectroscopy, luminescence-based mammalian interactome mapping (LUMIER), resonance-energy transfer systems, mammalian protein–protein interaction trap, electro-switchable biosurfaces, protein-fragment complementation assay, as well as real-time label-free measurements by surface plasmon resonance, and calorimetry. The experimental detection and characterization of PPIs is labor-intensive and time-consuming. However, many PPIs can be also predicted computationally, usually using experimental data as a starting point. However, methods have also been developed that allow the prediction of PPI de novo, that is without prior evidence for these interactions. "The Rosetta Stone or Domain Fusion method" is based on the hypothesis that interacting proteins are sometimes fused into a single protein in another genome. Therefore, we can predict if two proteins may be interacting by determining if they each have non-overlapping sequence similarity to a region of a single protein sequence in another genome
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Protein–protein interaction "The Conserved Neighborhood method" is based on the hypothesis that if genes encoding two proteins are neighbors on a chromosome in many genomes, then they are likely functionally related (and possibly physically interacting)"." "The Phylogenetic Profile method" is based on the hypothesis that if two or more proteins are concurrently present or absent across several genomes, then they are likely functionally related. Therefore, potentially interacting proteins can be identified by determining the presence or absence of genes across many genomes and selecting those genes which are always present or absent together. Publicly available information from biomedical documents is readily accessible through the internet and is becoming a powerful resource for collecting known protein-protein interactions (PPIs), PPI prediction and protein docking. Text mining is much less costly and time-consuming compared to other high-throughput techniques. Currently, text mining methods generally detect binary relations between interacting proteins from individual sentences using rule/pattern-based information extraction and machine learning approaches. A wide variety of text mining applications for PPI extraction and/or prediction are available for public use, as well as repositories which often store manually validated and/or computationally predicted PPIs
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Protein–protein interaction Text mining can be implemented in two stages: "information retrieval", where texts containing names of either or both interacting proteins are retrieved and "information extraction," where targeted information (interacting proteins, implicated residues, interaction types, etc.) is extracted. There are also studies using phylogenetic profiling, basing their functionalities on the theory that proteins involved in common pathways co-evolve in a correlated fashion across species. Some more complex text mining methodologies use advanced Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques and build knowledge networks (for example, considering gene names as nodes and verbs as edges). Other developments involve kernel methods to predict protein interactions. These methods use machine learning to distinguish how interacting protein pairs differ from non-interacting protein pairs in terms of pairwise features such as cellular colocalization, gene co-expression, how closely located on a DNA are the genes that encode the two proteins, and so on. Random Forest has been found to be most-effective machine learning method for protein interaction prediction. Such methods have been applied for discovering protein interactions on human interactome, specifically the interactome of Membrane proteins and the interactome of Schizophrenia-associated proteins
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Protein–protein interaction Large scale identification of PPIs generated hundreds of thousands of interactions, which were collected together in specialized biological databases that are continuously updated in order to provide complete interactomes. The first of these databases was the Database of Interacting Proteins (DIP). Since that time, the number of public databases has been increasing. Databases can be subdivided into primary databases, meta-databases, and prediction databases. "Primary databases" collect information about published PPIs proven to exist via small-scale or large-scale experimental methods. Examples: DIP, Biomolecular Interaction Network Database (BIND), Biological General Repository for Interaction Datasets (BioGRID), Human Protein Reference Database (HPRD), IntAct Molecular Interaction Database, Molecular Interactions Database (MINT), MIPS Protein Interaction Resource on Yeast (MIPS-MPact), and MIPS Mammalian Protein–Protein Interaction Database (MIPS-MPPI). "Meta-databases" normally result from the integration of primary databases information, but can also collect some original data. Examples: Agile Protein Interactomes Dataserver (APID), The Microbial Protein Interaction Database (MPIDB), Protein Interaction Network Analysis (PINA) platform, (GPS-Prot), and Wiki-Pi. "Prediction databases" include many PPIs that are predicted using several techniques (main article)
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Protein–protein interaction Examples: Human Protein–Protein Interaction Prediction Database (PIPs), Interlogous Interaction Database (I2D), Known and Predicted Protein–Protein Interactions (STRING-db), and Unified Human Interactive (UniHI). The aforementioned computational methods all depend on source databases whose data can be extrapolated to predict novel protein-protein interactions". Coverage" differs greatly between databases. In general, primary databases have the fewest total protein interactions recorded as they do not integrate data from multiple other databases, while prediction databases have the most because they include other forms of evidence in addition to experimental. For example, the primary database IntAct has 572,063 interactions, the meta-database APID has 678,000 interactions, and the predictive database STRING has 25,914,693 interactions. However, it is important to note that some of the interactions in the STRING database are only predicted by computational methods such as Genomic Context and not experimentally verified. Information found in PPIs databases supports the construction of interaction networks. Although the PPI network of a given query protein can be represented in textbooks, diagrams of whole cell PPIs are frankly complex and difficult to generate. One example of a manually produced molecular interaction map is the Kurt Kohn's 1999 map of cell cycle control. Drawing on Kohn's map, Schwikowski et al
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Protein–protein interaction in 2000 published a paper on PPIs in yeast, linking 1,548 interacting proteins determined by two-hybrid screening. They used a layered graph drawing method to find an initial placement of the nodes and then improved the layout using a force-based algorithm. Bioinformatic tools have been developed to simplify the difficult task of visualizing molecular interaction networks and complement them with other types of data. For instance, Cytoscape is an open-source software widely used and lots of plugins are currently available. Pajek software is advantageous for the visualization and analysis of very large networks. Identification of functional modules in PPI networks is an important challenge in bioinformatics. Functional modules means a set of proteins that are highly connected to each other in PPI network. It is almost similar problem as community detection in social networks. There are some methods such as Jactive modules and MoBaS. Jactive modules integrate PPI network and gene expression data where as MoBaS integrate PPI network and Genome Wide association Studies. The awareness of the major roles of PPIs in numerous physiological and pathological processes has been driving the challenge of unravel many interactomes. Examples of published interactomes are the thyroid specific DREAM interactome and the PP1α interactome in human brain
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Protein–protein interaction Protein-protein relationships are often the result of multiple types of interactions or are deduced from different approaches, including co-localization, direct interaction, suppressive genetic interaction, additive genetic interaction, physical association, and other associations. Protein–protein interactions often result in one of the interacting proteins either being 'activated' or 'repressed'. Such effects can be indicated in a PPI network by "signs" (e.g. "activation" or "inhibition"). Although such attributes have been added to networks for a long time, Vinayagam et al. (2014) coined the term "Signed network" for them. Signed networks are often expressed by labeling the interaction as either positive or negative. A positive interaction is one where the interaction results in one of the proteins being activated. Conversely a negative interaction indicates that one of the proteins being inactivated. networks are often constructed as a result of lab experiments such as yeast two hybrid screens or 'affinity purification and subsequent mass spectrometry techniques. However these methods do not provide the layer of information needed in order to determine what type of interaction is present in order to be able to attribute signs to the network diagrams. RNA interference (RNAi) screens (repression of individual proteins between transcription and translation) are one method that can be utilized in the process of providing signs to the protein-protein interactions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2161878
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Protein–protein interaction Individual proteins are repressed and the resulting phenotypes are analyzed. A correlating phenotypic relationship (i.e. where the inhibition of either of two proteins results in the same phenotype) indicates a positive, or activating relationship. Phenotypes that do not correlate (i.e. where the inhibition of either of two proteins results in two different phenotypes) indicate a negative or inactivating relationship. If protein A is dependent on protein B for activation then the inhibition of either protein A or B will result in a cell losing the service that is provided by protein A and the phenotypes will be the same for the inhibition of either A or B. If, however, protein A is inactivated by protein B then the phenotypes will differ depending on which protein is inhibited (inhibit protein B and it can no longer inactivate protein A leaving A active however inactivate A and there is nothing for B to activate since A is inactive and the phenotype changes). Multiple RNAi screens need to be performed in order to reliably appoint a sign to a given protein-protein interaction. Vinayagam et al. who devised this technique state that a minimum of nine RNAi screens are required with confidence increasing as one carries out more screens. Modulation of PPI is challenging and is receiving increasing attention by the scientific community. Several properties of PPI such as allosteric sites and hotspots, have been incorporated into drug-design strategies
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Protein–protein interaction The relevance of PPI as putative therapeutic targets for the development of new treatments is particularly evident in cancer, with several ongoing clinical trials within this area. The consensus among these promising targets is, nonetheless, denoted in the already available drugs on the market to treat a multitude of diseases. Examples are Tirobifan, inhibitor of the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa, used as a cardiovascular drug, and Maraviroc, inhibitor of the CCR5-gp120 interaction, used as anti-HIV drug. Recently, Amit Jaiswal and others were able to develop 30 peptides using protein–protein interaction studies to inhibit telomerase recruitment towards telomeres.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2161878
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Core-excited shape resonance A core-excited shape resonance is a shape resonance in a system with more than one degree of freedom where, after fragmentation, one of the fragments is in an excited state. It is sometimes very difficult to distinguish a core-excited shape resonance from a Feshbach resonance. See the definition of Feshbach resonances for more details.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2166633
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Cirrus uncinus cloud Cirrus uncinus is a type of cirrus cloud. The name "cirrus uncinus" is derived from Latin, meaning "curly hooks". Also known as "mares' tails", these clouds are generally sparse in the sky and very thin. The clouds occur at high altitudes, at a temperature of about . They are generally seen when a warm or occluded front is approaching. They are very high in the troposphere and generally mean that precipitation, usually rain, is approaching.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2167852
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Reyn In fluid dynamics, the reyn is a British unit of dynamic viscosity, named in honour of Osbourne Reynolds, for whom the Reynolds number is also named. The relation between reyn and centipoise is approximately: In SI units, viscosity is expressed as newton-seconds per square meter, or pascal-seconds. The conversion factor between the two is the same for stress:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2168763
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Fixative (perfumery) A fixative is used to equalize the vapor pressures, and thus the volatilities, of the raw materials in a perfume oil, as well as to increase the tenacity. Natural fixatives are resinoids (benzoin, labdanum, myrrh, olibanum, storax, tolu balsam) and animal products (ambergris, castoreum, musk, and civet). Synthetic fixatives include substances of low volatility (diphenylmethane, cyclopentadecanolide, ambroxide, benzyl salicylate) and virtually odorless solvents with very low vapor pressures (benzyl benzoate, diethyl phthalate, triethyl citrate).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2171777
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Tephigram A tephigram is one of four thermodynamic diagrams commonly used in weather analysis and forecasting. The name evolved from the original name "T-formula_1-gram" to describe the axes of temperature (T) and entropy (formula_1) used to create the plot. Usually, temperature and dew point data from radiosondes are plotted on these diagrams to allow calculations of convective stability or convective available potential energy (CAPE). Wind barbs are often plotted at the side of a tephigram to indicate the winds at different heights. The tephigram was invented by Napier Shaw in 1915 and is used primarily in the United Kingdom and Canada. Other countries use similar thermodynamic diagrams for the same purpose however the details of their construction vary. In the tephigram, isotherms are straight and have a 45 degree inclination to the right while isobars are horizontal and have a slight curve. Dry adiabats are also straight and have a 45 degree inclination to the left while moist adiabats are curved. The main reason that tephigrams are used by the British Met Office, the Meteorological Service of Canada, and Met Éireann (Irish Meteorological Service) is the property that areas contained by the curves have equal energies for equal areas, leading to better comparisons of CAPE and hence convective systems.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2173331
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Georg zu Münster Count Georg Ludwig Friedrich Wilhelm zu Münster (; 17 February 1776 – 23 December 1844) was a German paleontologist. Münster was born on 17 February 1776, in Langelage near Osnabrück. In 1800, he became a Prussian official in the principalities of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Brandenburg-Bayreuth. He formed a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological museum at Munich. Münster assisted Georg August Goldfuss in writing his great work, "Petrefacta Germaniae". Louis Agassiz and Georges Cuvier visited him at Bayreuth, where he donated them part of his collection. He died in Bayreuth on 23 December 1844. The Graf-Münster-Gymnasium in Bayreuth was named after him.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2173432
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Lipke Holthuis Lipke Bijdeley Holthuis (21 April 1921 – 7 March 2008) was a Dutch carcinologist, considered one of the "undisputed greats" of carcinology, and "the greatest carcinologist of our time". Holthuis was born in Probolinggo, East Java and obtained his doctorate from Leiden University on 23 January 1946. He was appointed the assistant curator of the "Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie" (now "Naturalis") in Leiden in 1941. He was the most prolific carcinologist of the 20th century, publishing 620 papers (108 of which were in the Leiden Museum Journals) totalling 12,795 pages which is an average of 185 pages per year and an average of approximately 21 pages per paper. These were published on many groups of crustaceans, their natural history and nomenclature, and the history of carcinology. This steady stream of publications resulted in the description of 428 new taxa: 2 new families, 5 subfamilies, 83 genera and 338 species. 67 taxa were named after him between 1953 ("Hippolyte holthuisi") and 2009 ("Caridina holthuisi", "Lysmata holthuisi"). However, in Fransen, C.H.J.M., De Grave, S., Ng, P.K.L. 2010, an additional 50 taxa were named after him. In 1972 Holthuis received an honorary doctorate from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2173949
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Mixed potential theory is a theory used in electrochemistry that relates the potentials and currents from differing constituents to come up with a 'weighted' potential at zero net current. In other words, it is an electrode potential resulting from a simultaneous action of more than a single redox couple, while the net electrode current is zero. According to the IUPAC definition, mixed potential is the potential of an electrode (against a suitable reference electrode, often the standard hydrogen electrode) when appreciable fraction to the anodic or cathodic current arises from species of two or more different redox couples, but when the total current on the electrode is zero.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2175615
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Annabergite is an arsenate mineral consisting of a hydrous nickel arsenate, Ni(AsO)·8HO, crystallizing in the monoclinic system and isomorphous with vivianite and erythrite. Crystals are minute and capillary and rarely met with, the mineral occurring usually as soft earthy masses and encrustations. A fine apple-green color is its characteristic feature. It was long known (since 1758) under the name nickel bloom; the name annabergite was proposed by H. J. Brooke and W H. Miller in 1852, from Annaberg in Saxony, one of the localities of the mineral. It occurs with ores of nickel, of which it is a product of alteration. A variety, from Creetown in Kirkcudbrightshire, in which a portion of the nickel is replaced by calcium, has been called "dudgeonite", after P. Dudgeon, who found it. Closely related is "cabrerite" wherein some of the nickel is replaced by magnesium. It is named for Sierra Cabrera in Spain where it was originally found.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2175924
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Husband Hill is one of the Columbia Hills in Gusev crater, Mars, which are close to the landing site of NASA's "Spirit" rover. It was named in honor of Rick Husband, the commander of the Space Shuttle "Columbia" when it disintegrated upon atmospheric reentry (see Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster). In 2005, the "Spirit" rover, as part of its exploration of its landing site, slowly climbed to the top of Husband Hill. It reached the summit on August 21, 2005, and began its descent on September 25, 2005, after spending nearly two months examining the outcrops and views of the summit plateau before moving on. Named areas on the hill include the "Cumberland Ridge", where rocks with higher than normal phosphorus content exist, and "El Dorado", a dark albedo feature on the south side. rises about 351 ft (107 m) above surrounding plains.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2178252
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Glass with embedded metal and sulfides (GEMS) are tiny spheroids in cosmic dust particles with bulk compositions that are approximately chondritic. They form the building blocks of anhydrous interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) in general, and "cometary" IDPs, in particular. Their compositions, mineralogy and petrography appear to have been shaped by exposure to ionizing radiation. Since the exposure occurred prior to the accretion of cometary IDPs, and therefore comets themselves, GEMS are likely either solar nebula or presolar interstellar grains. The properties of GEMS (size, shape, mineralogy) bear a strong resemblance to those of interstellar silicate grains as inferred from astronomical observations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2179144
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William J. Sanders is a vertebrate paleontologist and research scientist/preparator at the University of Michigan. He has written a number of papers on fossil elephants.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2179566
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Jules Pierre Rambur (21 July 1801 – 10 August 1870) was a French entomologist. Rambur was born in Chinon. He studied the insect fauna of Corsica and Andalusia. He was the author of "Histoire naturelle des insectes" (1842) amongst other works. He died in Geneva. He was a Member and later (1839) President of the Société entomologique de France. Jean Gouillard (2004). "Histoire des entomologistes français, 1750–1950". Édition entièrement revue et augmentée. Boubée (Paris) : 287 p. Jean Lhoste (1987). "Les Entomologistes français. 1750–1950". INRA Éditions .
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2179839
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Aladin Sky Atlas Aladin is an interactive software sky atlas allowing the user to visualize digitized astronomical images, superimpose entries from astronomical catalogues or databases, and interactively access related data and information from the SIMBAD database, the VizieR service and other archives for all known sources in the field. Created in 1999, Aladin has become a widely used VO portal capable of addressing challenges such as locating data of interest, accessing and exploring distributed datasets, visualizing multi-wavelength data. Compliance with existing or emerging VO standards, interconnection with other visualisation or analysis tools, ability to easily compare heterogeneous data are key topics allowing Aladin to be a powerful data exploration and integration tool as well as a science enabler. Aladin is developed and maintained by the Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg (CDS) and released under the GNU GPL v3.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2181194
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John Ziman John Michael Ziman (16 May 1925 – 2 January 2005) was a British-born New Zealand physicist and humanist who worked in the area of condensed matter physics. He was a spokesman for science, as well as a teacher and author. Ziman was born in Cambridge, England, in 1925. His parents were Solomon Netheim Ziman and, Nellie Frances, née Gaster. The family emigrated to New Zealand when Ziman was a baby. He obtained his early education at Hamilton High School and the University of Wellington. He obtained his PhD from Balliol College, Oxford and did his early research on the theory of electrons in liquid metals at the University of Cambridge. In 1964 he was appointed professor of theoretical physics at University of Bristol, where he wrote his "Elements Of Advanced Quantum Theory" (1969) which explains the rudiments of quantum field theory with an elementary condensed matter slant. During this period, his interests shifted towards the philosophy of science. He argued about the social dimension of science, and the social responsibility of scientists in numerous essays and books. He married twice, to Rosemary Dixon in 1951 and secondly to Joan Solomon, and was survived by her and three of his four children.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2186185
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Bioprocessor A bioprocessor is a miniaturized bioreactor capable of culturing mammalian, insect and microbial cells. Bioprocessors are capable of mimicking performance of large-scale bioreactors, hence making them ideal for laboratory scale experimentation of cell culture processes. Bioprocessors are also used for concentrating bioparticles (such as cells) in bioanalytical systems. Microfluidic processes such as electrophoresis can be implemented by bioprocessors to aid in DNA isolation and purification.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2186993
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Alexander von Nordmann (24 May 1803 in Ruotsinsalmi (now Kotka), Finland – 25 June 1866 in Helsinki) was a 19th-century Finnish biologist, who contributed to zoology, parasitology, botany and paleontology. Nordmann was a son of an officer of the Russian army at the Ruotsinsalmi fortress, SE Finland. He started academic studies at the Imperial Academy of Turku, and at that time also acted as a curator of the entomological collections. In 1827 he continued studies in Berlin with the famous parasitologist and anatomist Karl Rudolphi. His first major work was a microscopical description of tens of parasitic worms and crustaceans from the eyes and other organs of fishes and other animals, including man. These included the enigmatic monogenean "Diplozoon paradoxum". In 1832 he was appointed a professor (teacher) at the Lyceum Richelieu in Odessa, Ukraine, and in 1834 also the director of the Odessa Botanical Garden and the associated Central Gardening School. He participated in several expeditions and collected natural history specimens in southern Russia and adjacent regions. Later, in 1849, he became professor of Zoology and Botany at the Imperial Alexander University in Finland (Helsinki). He died of heart failure on 25 June 1866. The cladoceran "Evadne nordmanni", the Nordmann fir "Abies nordmanniana" and at least seven other species and one genus ("Nordmannia") have been named after him. The standard author abbreviation Nordm. is used to indicate this individual as the author when citing a botanical name.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2189408
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Sylvatic is a scientific term referring to wild animals, often in context of diseases or pathogens that only affect them (sylvan means "forest-dwelling"). In the context of animal research, its opposite is domestic, which refers to pets, farm animals or other animals which do not dwell in the wild. The word "sylvatic" is also simply a synonym for "sylvan" (or "silvan") = "of the forest". The Latin words "silvatica", "silvaticus" of this root are commonly used in biological taxonomy: "Rana sylvatica" (Wood Frog), "agaricus silvaticus" (Scaly Wood Mushroom), etc.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2191056
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Fungiculture is the cultivation of mushrooms and other fungi. By growing fungi, food, medicine, construction materials and other products can be attained. A "mushroom farm" is in the business of growing fungi. The word is also commonly used to refer to the practice of cultivating fungi by leafcutter ants, termites, ambrosia beetles, and marsh periwinkles. Mushrooms are not plants, and require different conditions for optimal growth. Plants develop through photosynthesis, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, especially cellulose. While sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium, through biochemical decomposition processes. This does not mean that light is an irrelevant requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal for fruiting. However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Mushrooms grow well at relative humidity levels of around 95–100%, and substrate moisture levels of 50 to 75%. Instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce asexually through spores. Spores can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop. Mycelium, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on a substrate—usually sterilized grains such as rye or millet—and induced to grow into those grains. This is called inoculation. Inoculated grains (or plugs) are referred to as spawn
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Fungiculture Spores are another inoculation option, but are less developed than established mycelium. Since they are also contaminated easily, they are only manipulated in laboratory conditions with a laminar flow cabinet. All mushroom growing techniques require the correct combination of humidity, temperature, substrate (growth medium) and inoculum (spawn or starter culture). Wild harvests, outdoor log inoculation and indoor trays all provide these elements. Mushrooms can be grown on logs placed outdoors in stacks or piles, as has been done for hundreds of years. Sterilization is not performed in this method. Since production may be unpredictable and seasonal, less than 5% of commercially sold mushrooms are produced this way. Here, tree logs are inoculated with spawn, then allowed to grow as they would in wild conditions. Fruiting, or pinning, is triggered by seasonal changes, or by briefly soaking the logs in cool water. Shiitake and oyster mushrooms have traditionally been produced using the outdoor log technique, although controlled techniques such as indoor tray growing or artificial logs made of compressed substrate have been substituted. Shiitake mushrooms grown under a forested canopy are considered non-timber forest products In the Northeast shiitake mushrooms can be cultivated on a variety of hardwood logs including oak, American beech, sugar maple and hophornbeam. Softwood should not be used to cultivate shiitake mushrooms
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Fungiculture The resin of softwoods will oftentimes inhibit the growth of the shiitake mushroom making it impractical as a growing substrate. In order to produce shiitake mushrooms, 1 metre (3-foot) hardwood logs with a diameter ranging between are inoculated with the mycelium of the shiitake fungus. Inoculation is completed by drilling holes in hardwood logs, filling the holes with cultured shiitake mycelium or inoculum, and then sealing the filled holes with hot wax. After inoculation, the logs are placed under the closed canopy of a coniferous stand and are left to incubate for 12 to 15 months. Once incubation is complete, the logs are soaked in water for 24 hours. 7 to 10 days after soaking, shiitake mushrooms will begin to fruit and can be harvested once fully ripe. Indoor growing provides the ability to tightly regulate light, temperature and humidity while excluding contaminants and pests. This allows consistent production, regulated by spawning cycles. This is typically accomplished in windowless, purpose-built buildings, for large-scale commercial production. Indoor tray growing is the most common commercial technique, followed by containerized growing. The tray technique provides the advantages of scalability and easier harvesting. Unlike wild harvests, indoor techniques provide tight control over growing substrate composition and growing conditions. Indoor harvests are much more predictable
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Fungiculture According to Daniel Royse and Robert Beelman, "[Indoor] Mushroom farming consists of six steps, and although the divisions are somewhat arbitrary, these steps identify what is needed to form a production system. The six steps are phase I composting, phase II fertilizing, spawning, casing, pinning, and cropping." Complete sterilization is not always required or performed during composting. In some cases, a pasteurization step is not included to allow some beneficial microorganisms to remain in the growth substrate. Specific time spans and temperatures required during stages 3–6 will vary respective to species and variety. Substrate composition and the geometry of growth substrate will also affect the ideal times and temperatures. Pinning is the trickiest part for a mushroom grower, since a combination of carbon dioxide (CO) concentration, temperature, light, and humidity triggers mushrooms towards fruiting. Up until the point when rhizomorphs or mushroom "pins" appear, the mycelium is an amorphous mass spread throughout the growth substrate, unrecognizable as a mushroom. Carbon dioxide concentration becomes elevated during the vegetative growth phase, when mycelium is sealed in a gas-resistant plastic barrier or bag which traps gases produced by the growing mycelium. To induce pinning, this barrier is opened or ruptured. CO concentration then decreases from about 0.08% to 0.04%, the ambient atmospheric level. Oyster mushroom farming is rapidly expanding around many parts of the world
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Fungiculture Increased consciousness of its nutritional value and increased market demand is making mushroom cultivation one of the most sought businesses among the farming communities. Oyster mushroom is grown in substrate that comprises sterilized wheat or paddy straw and does not require much space compared to other crops. Its per unit production and profit extracted is comparatively higher than other crops. Mushroom production converts the raw natural ingredients into mushroom tissue, most notably the carbohydrate chitin. An ideal substrate will contain enough nitrogen and carbohydrate for rapid mushroom growth. Common bulk substrates include several of the following ingredients: Mushrooms metabolize complex carbohydrates in their substrate into glucose, which is then transported through the mycelium as needed for growth and energy. While it is used as a main energy source, its concentration in the growth medium should not exceed 2%. For ideal fruiting, closer to 1% is ideal. One of the most sustainable ways of mushroom cultivation is using coffee grounds as a substrate. This process was pioneered by Prof. Chang Shuting in the early 1990s while he worked at the Chinese University in Hong Kong. Coffee grounds are sterile, and rich in fibers. It is more environmentally-friendly; as an estimated millions of kilos of coffee waste disposed in landfill every day, which could be diverted into sustainable food production
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Fungiculture The spent substrate, after harvesting mushrooms, is enriched in essential amino-acids, and therefore an ideal feed for animals. Parasitic insects, bacteria and other fungi all pose risks to indoor production. The sciarid fly or phorid fly may lay eggs in the growth medium, which hatch into maggots and damage developing mushrooms during all growth stages. Bacterial blotch caused by "Pseudomonas" bacteria or patches of "Trichoderma" green mold also pose a risk during the fruiting stage. Pesticides and sanitizing agents are available to use against these infestations. Biological controls for insect sciarid and phorid flies have also been proposed. An epidemic of Trichoderma green mold significantly affected mushroom production: "From 1994–96, crop losses in Pennsylvania ranged from 30 to 100%". Pennsylvania is the top-producing mushroom state in the United States, and celebrates September as "Mushroom Month". The borough of Kennett Square is a historical and present leader in mushroom production. It currently leads production of Agaricus-type mushrooms, followed by California, Florida and Michigan. Other mushroom-producing states: Vancouver, British Columbia has a significant number of producersabout 60 as of 1998mostly located in the lower Fraser Valley. Oyster mushroom cultivation has taken off in Europe as of late. Many entrepreneurs nowadays find it as a quite profitable business, a start-up with a small investment and good profit
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Fungiculture Italy with 785,000 tonnes and Netherlands with 307,000 tonnes are between the top ten mushroom producing countries in the world. The world's biggest producer of mushroom spawn is also situated in France. According to a research carried out on Production and Marketing of Mushrooms: Global and National Scenario Poland, Netherlands, Belgium, Lithuania are the major exporting mushrooms countries in Europe and countries like UK, Germany, France, Russia are considered to be the major importing countries. Oyster mushroom cultivation is a sustainable business where different natural resources can be used as a substrate. The number of people becoming interested in this field is rapidly increasing. The possibility of creating a viable business in urban environments by using coffee grounds is appealing for many entrepreneurs. Since mushroom cultivation is not a subject available at school, most urban farmers learned it by doing. The time to master mushroom cultivation is time consuming and costly in missed revenue. For this reason there are numerous companies in Europe specialized in mushroom cultivation that are offering training for entrepreneurs and organizing events to build community and share knowledge. They also show the potential positive impact of this business on the environment. Courses about mushroom cultivation can be attended in many countries around Europe
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Fungiculture There is education available for growing mushrooms on coffee grounds, more advanced training for larger scale farming, spawn production and lab work and growing facilities. Events are organised with different intervals. The Mushroom Learning Network gathers once a year in Europe. The International Society for Mushroom Science gathers once every five-years somewhere in the world.
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Mikael Fortelius (born 1 February 1954) is a Professor of Evolutionary Palaeontology at the University of Helsinki and the coordinator of the Neogene of the Old World database of fossil mammals. His research involves the evolution of Eurasian land mammals and terrestrial environments during the Neogene, ecomorphology of ungulates, developmental biology, the function and evolution of mammalian teeth, and scaling problems (changes in size with growth or as species evolve). He is an expert on indricotheres. He has authored and co-authored a number of papers in peer-reviewed international journals as well as articles on popular science and other published material. He is married to Asta Irene Rosenström, and he has three children.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2193055
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Front velocity In physics, front velocity is the speed at which the first rise of a pulse above zero moves forward. In mathematics, it is used to describe the velocity of a propagating front in the solution of hyperbolic partial differential equation. Associated with propagation of a disturbance are several different velocities. For definiteness, consider an amplitude modulated electromagnetic carrier wave. The phase velocity is the speed of the underlying carrier wave. The group velocity is the speed of the modulation or envelope. Initially it was thought that the group velocity coincided with the speed at which "information" traveled. However, it turns out that this speed can exceed the speed of light in some circumstances, causing confusion by an apparent conflict with the theory of relativity. That observation led to consideration of what constitutes a "signal". By definition, a signal involves new information or an element of 'surprise' that cannot be predicted from the wave motion at an earlier time. One possible form for a signal (at the point of emission) is: where "u(t)" is the Heaviside step function. Using such a form for a signal, it can be shown, subject to the (expected) condition that the refractive index of any medium tends to one as the frequency tends to infinity, that the wave discontinuity, called the "front", propagates at a speed less than or equal to the speed of light "c" in any medium
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Front velocity In fact, the earliest appearance of the front of an electromagnetic disturbance (the precursor) travels at the "front velocity", which is "c", "no matter what the medium". However, the process always starts from zero amplitude and builds up.
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International Glaciological Society The (IGS) was founded in 1936 to provide a focus for individuals interested in glaciology, practical and scientific aspects of snow and ice. It was originally known as the 'Association for the Study of Snow and Ice'. The name was changed to the 'British Glaciological Society in 1945. With more and more non-British glaciologists attending its 'readings' and submitting papers for publication, the name was changed to the 'Glaciological Society' in 1962 and finally the Society acquired its present name in 1971. The IGS publishes the "Journal of Glaciology", "Annals of Glaciology" and "ICE", the news bulletin of the IGS. The "Journal of Glaciology" won the ALPSP/Charlesworth Award for the "Best Learned Journal of 2007." The Society has branches in different parts of the world, providing a further opportunity for those sharing a common interest to meet and exchange information: The Society honours glaciologists who have contributed significantly to the science of glaciology. At a Council meeting in Obergurgl, Austria in late 1962, the concept of an award for excellence in the discipline of glaciology took shape: not a gold medal but a hexagonal crystal of high-quality glass named the Seligman Crystal, after the Society's founder, Gerald Seligman. It is awarded 'from time to time to one who has made an outstanding scientific contribution to glaciology so that the subject is now enriched.' The Richardson Medal was created in 1993 to mark the retirement of the Secretary General, Mrs Hilda Richardson
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International Glaciological Society This award recognises outstanding contributions to the Society and to glaciology, and is normally awarded to members. Awardees include: Honorary Membership is the oldest of the Society's awards. It was first officially recorded in the 1962 Constitution, when the name of the Society changed from “the British Glaciological Society” to “the Glaciological Society”. (Prior to that date, a few eminent persons had been made "Honorary Members" on an informal and ad hoc basis.). There shall not exceed twelve in number. The following are Honorary Members: See also
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2201846
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Liroconite is a complex mineral: Hydrated copper aluminium arsenate hydroxide, with the formula CuAl[(OH)|AsO]·4(HO). It is a vitreous monoclinic mineral, colored bright blue to green, often associated with malachite, azurite, olivenite, and clinoclase. It is quite soft, with a Mohs hardness of 2 - 2.5, and has a specific gravity of 2.9 - 3.0. It was first identified in 1825 in the tin and copper mines of Devon and Cornwall, England. Although it remains quite rare it has subsequently been identified in a variety of locations including France, Germany, Australia, New Jersey and California. The type locality for is Wheal Gorland in St Day, Cornwall in the United Kingdom. It occurs as a secondary mineral in copper deposits in association with olivenite, chalcophyllite, clinoclase, cornwallite, strashimirite, malachite, cuprite and limonite.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2204442
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Anton Ausserer (5 July 1843 in Bozen (Bolzano), Tyrol – 20 July 1889 in Graz) was an Austrian naturalist specialising in spiders.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2206768
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Rim (crater) The rim or edge of an impact crater is the part that extends above the height of the local surface, usually in a circular or elliptical pattern. In a more specific sense, the rim may refer to the circular or elliptical edge that represents the uppermost tip of this raised portion. If there is no raised portion, the rim simply refers to the inside edge of the curve where the flat surface meets the curve of the crater bottom. Smaller, simple craters retain rim geometries similar to the features of many craters found on the Moon and the planet Mercury. Large craters are those with a diameter greater than 2.3 km, and are distinguished by central uplifts within the impact zone. These larger (also called “complex”) craters can form rims up to several hundred meters in height. A process to consider when determining the exact height of a crater rim is that melt may have been pushed over the crest of the initial rim from the initial impact, thereby increasing its overall height. When combined with potential weathering due to atmospheric erosion over time, determining the average height of a crater rim can be somewhat difficult. It has also been observed that the slope along the excavated interior of many craters can facilitate a spur-and-gully morphology, including mass wasting events occurring due to slope instability and nearby seismic activity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2206957
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Rim (crater) Complex crater rims observed on Earth have anywhere between 5X – 8X greater height:diameter ratio compared to those observed on the Moon, which can likely be attributed to the greater force of gravitational acceleration between the two planetary bodies that collide. Additionally, crater depth and the volume of melt produced in the impact are directly related to the gravitational acceleration between the two bodies. It has been proposed that “reverse faulting and thrusting at the final crater rim [is] one of the main contributing factors [to] forming the elevated crater rim”. When an impact crater is formed on a sloped surface, the rim will form in an asymmetric profile. As the impacted surface's angle of repose increases, the crater's profile becomes more elongate. The rim type classifications are full-rim craters, broken-rim craters, and depressions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2206957
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Macrosonics is the use of high amplitude sound waves for industrial applications. Applications include gas compression, cleaning of surfaces, plastic and metal welding, metal forming, machining, and chemical processing. Megasonic cleaning
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2209674
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Hot atom In physical chemistry, a hot atom is an atom that has a high kinetic or internal energy. When molecule AB adsorbs on a surface dissociatively, In case 2, B gains a high translational energy from the adsorption energy of A, and hot atom B is generated. For example, the hydrogen molecule, because of its light mass, gets a high translational energy. Such a hot atom does not fly into vacuum but is trapped on the surface, where it diffuses with high energy. Hot atoms are expected to play important roles in catalytic reactions. For example, a reaction of a hydrogen atom with hydrogen atoms on a silicon surface and a reaction of an oxygen atom with oxygen molecules on Pt(111) have been reported. Hot atoms can also be generated by degenerating molecules on a metal surface with UV light. It has been reported that the reactivity of an oxygen atom generated in such a way on a platinum surface is different from that of chemisorbed oxygen atoms. Elucidating the role of hot atoms on surfaces will lead to a deeper understanding of the mechanism of reactions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2211117
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Thouless energy The is a characteristic energy scale of diffusive disordered conductors. It was first introduced by the Scottish-American physicist David J. Thouless when studying Anderson localization, as a measure of the sensitivity of energy levels to a change in the boundary conditions of the system. Though being a classical quantity, it has been shown to play an important role in the quantum-mechanical treatment of disordered systems. It is defined by where "D" is the diffusion constant and "L" the size of the system, and thereby inversely proportional to the diffusion time through the system.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2213992
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Grigory Razumovsky Count Grigory Kirillovich Razumovsky (November 10, 1759 – June 3, 1837) was a Russian nobleman, political philosopher, botanist, zoologist and geologist. Razumovsky is known from his writings in the West as Gregor or Grégoire, who lost his Russian citizenship for openly criticizing the czarist system under emperor Alexander I, which he saw as pandering to the desires of a corrupt oligarchy of nobles. Gregor emigrated to western Europe, where was subsequently incorporated into the Bohemian nobility (Inkolat im Herrenstande) in 1811 and accorded the rank of count of the Austrian Empire. As a natural scientist, Gregor was the first to describe and classify "Lissotrion helveticus". He was the fifth son of the last hetman of Ukraine, Kirill Grigorievich Razumovsky and brother of prince Andreas Razumovsky, he is also the ancestor of all living members of the family as such, the Russian lines having gone extinct. In the field of geology, Razumovsky has been described as an "non-actualistic catastrophist". He was also an advocate of Neptunism. In 1788, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was the author of "Anecdotes et pensées philosophiques sur la Russie" (?) and of "Observations Minéralogiques sur les environs de Vienne" (1822).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2214460
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Adatom An adatom is an atom that lies on a crystal surface, and can be thought of as the opposite of a surface vacancy. This term is used in surface chemistry and epitaxy, when describing single atoms lying on surfaces and surface roughness. The word is a portmanteau of "adsorbed atom". A single atom, a cluster of atoms, or a molecule or cluster of molecules may all be referred to by the general term "adparticle". This is often a thermodynamically unfavorable state. However, cases such as graphene may provide counter-examples. In 2012, scientists at the University of New South Wales were able to use phosphine to precisely, deterministically eject a single silicon atom onto a surface of epitaxial silicon. This resulting adatom created what is described as a single-atom transistor. Thus, inasmuch as chemical empirical formulas pinpoint the locations of branching ions that are attached to a particular molecule, the dopant of silicon based transistors and other such electronic components will have the location identified of each dopant atom or molecule, along with the associated characteristic of the device based on the named locations. Thus, the mapping of the dopant substances will give exact characteristics of any given semiconductor device, once all is known.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2218753
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Royal Society Bakerian Medal The Bakerian Medal is one of the premier medals of the Royal Society that recognizes exceptional and outstanding science. It comes with a medal award and a prize lecture. The medalist is required to give a lecture on any topic related to physical sciences. It is awarded annually to individuals in the field of physical sciences, including computer science. The prize was started in 1775, when Henry Baker left £100 to establish a spoken lecture given by a Fellow of the Royal Society "on such part of natural history or experimental philosophy" as the Society shall determine. Clearly, this is to deliver a lecture of scientific interests and importance, and encourage sharing of knowledge with others. Source: Royal Society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2219220
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Pseudophysics is a pseudoscientific practice using the language of physics or discussing issues related to or pertinent to physics to promote ideas which are either incoherent or contradictory to known physics (experimental phenomenology). According to physicists, skeptics, and science writers, pseudophysics tends to be promoted by so-called "cranks", whose ideas lack peer review, lack falsifiable predictions, and/or blatantly contradict scientific facts and experimental results. Mathematical physicist John C. Baez famously invented a crackpot index to give an idea of what sort of claims and rhetoric were commonplace among pseudophysics proposals he had come across.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2220700
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Irumide Belt The is a Mesoproterozoic terrane of deformed basement and folded supracrustals, which occurs along the southern margin of an Archaean/Palaeoproterozoic unit called the Bangweulu Block in Zambia. Together with the Damara Belt, it separates the Congo and Kalahari cratons. The comprises deformed crystalline basement units dated at 2.7 and between 2.05 and 1.93 Ga, unconformably and in places structurally overlain by a supracrustal sequence of shallow water quartzites and pelites, the Muva Supergroup, in which sparse volcanic tuffs have given ages of between 1.88 and 1.85 Ga. This complex is intruded by limited granitoids at ca. 1.66-1.55 Ga and an extensive suite of syn-orogenic plutonic rocks at between 1.05 and 1.00 Ga.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2224380
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Bangweulu Block The is a cratonic unit that forms part of the Congo craton of central Africa. The however consists of Palaeoproterozoic granitoids and volcanics, and is overlain by a Palaeoproterozoic continental sedimentary succession, the Mporokoso Group, and does not preserve much direct evidence of Archaean protoliths. Indirect evidence of an Archaean ancestry for the is provided by detrital zircons within the Mporokoso Group, which indicate a local source area with zircons of 3.2, 3.0. 2.7 and 2.5 Ga, but more importantly, by xenocrystic zircon found in volcanic and granitic lithologies of the Bangweulu Block, and the area to the West, the Central African Copperbelt (Rainaud et al., 2003). This indicates the presence of a "ca". 3.2 Ga terrane called the "Likasi Terrane". The Banweulu Block is bordered on the west by the Kundelungu Plateau, on the southwest by the Lufilian Arc, on the southeast by the Kibaran Irumide Belt, and on the northeast by the Ubendian Belt. The block was formed during the Eburnian orogeny, with the crystalline basement dated at 1,835 Ma, implying last Eburnian magmatism. Post-Eburnian sediments include the Mporokoso Group, the Kasama Formation, the Luitikila and Luapula Beds, and Cenozoic alluvium from the Chambeshi River and the Kalungu, Lower Chambeshi and Lake Bangweulu Basins.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2224836
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Charles Oberthür (14 September 1845, in Rennes – 1 June 1924) was a French entomologist specializing in Lepidoptera. He was the son of François-Charles Oberthür. Oberthür named 42 new genera of moths. Oberthur acquired the collections of Jean Baptiste Boisduval (1799–1879), Achille Guenée (1809–1880), Jean-Baptiste Eugène Bellier de la Chavignerie (1819–1888), Adolphe de Graslin (1802–1882), Constant Bar (1817–1884), Emmanuel Martin (1827– 1897), Antoine Barthélemy Jean Guillemot and Henry Walter Bates (1825–1892). His immense collection, at the end of his life, contained 5 million specimens in 15,000 glass topped boxes of 50 x 39 cm. In 1916, it was the second largest private collection in world.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2225016
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Supersonic fracture Supersonic fractures are fractures where the fracture propagation velocity is higher than the speed of sound in the material. This phenomenon was first discovered by scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart (Markus J. Buehler and Huajian Gao) and IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California (Farid F. Abraham). The issues of intersonic and supersonic fracture become the frontier of dynamic fracture mechanics. The work of Burridge initiated the exploration for intersonic crack growth (when the crack tip velocity V is between the shear in wave speed C^8 and the longitudinal wave speed C^1. was a phenomenon totally unexplained by the classical theories of fracture. Molecular dynamics simulations by the group around Abraham and Gao have shown the existence of intersonic mode I and supersonic mode II cracks. This motivated a continuum mechanics analysis of supersonic mode III cracks by Yang. Recent progress in the theoretical understanding of hyperelasticity in dynamic fracture has shown that supersonic crack propagation can only be understood by introducing a new length scale, called χ; which governs the process of energy transport near a crack tip. The crack dynamics is completely dominated by material properties inside a zone surrounding the crack tip with characteristic size equal to χ. When the material inside this characteristic zone is stiffened due to hyperelastic properties, cracks propagate faster than the longitudinal wave speed
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2230778
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Supersonic fracture The research group of Gao has used this concept to simulate the Broberg problem of crack propagation inside a stiff strip embedded in a soft elastic matrix. These simulations confirmed the existence of an energy characteristic length. This study also had implications for dynamic crack propagation in composite materials. If the characteristic size of the composite microstructure is larger than the energy characteristic length, χ; models that homogenize the materials into an effective continuum would be in significant error. The challenge arises of designing experiments and interpretative simulations to verify the energy characteristic length. Confirmation of the concept must be sought in the comparison of experiments on supersonic cracks and the predictions of the simulations and analysis. While much excitement rightly centres on the relatively new activity related to intersonic cracking, an old but interesting possibility remains to be incorporated in the modern work: for an interface between elastically dissimilar materials, crack propagation that is subsonic but exceeds the Rayleigh wave speed has been predicted for at least some combinations of the elastic properties of the two materials.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2230778
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Melonite is a telluride of nickel; it is a metallic mineral. Its chemical formula is NiTe. It is opaque and white to reddish-white in color, oxidizing in air to a brown tarnish. It was first described from the Melones and Stanislaus mine in Calaveras County, California in 1866, by Frederick Augustus Genth. occurs as trigonal crystals, which cleave in a (0001) direction. It has a specific gravity of 7.72 and a hardness of 1–1.5 (very soft).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2231135
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Hans Jacob Hansen (August 10, 1855 – June 26, 1936) was a Danish zoologist, known for his contributions to carcinology (the study of crustacea). He was born in Bellinge and died in Gentofte. He participated on the first year of the Ingolf expedition to Iceland and Greenland in 1895.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2232965
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Ovicaprid In zooarchaeology and paleontology, ovicaprids or caprines are domestic sheep and goats taken together. Distinguishing sheep and goats from post-cranial skeletal remains has historically been difficult, so in many archaeological reports, the two are often reported in a single ovis/capra category. This is problematic because of their different roles in early animal husbandry. Nonetheless, experienced analysts using systematic criteria can distinguish the two with high reliability. They can also be distinguished using DNA analysis or collagen fingerprinting. Collagen has the advantage of surviving longer than DNA.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2234083
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Austin Model 1 Austin Model 1, or AM1, is a semi-empirical method for the quantum calculation of molecular electronic structure in computational chemistry. It is based on the Neglect of Differential Diatomic Overlap integral approximation. Specifically, it is a generalization of the modified neglect of differential diatomic overlap approximation. Related methods are PM3 and the older MINDO. AM1 was developed by Michael Dewar and co-workers and published in 1985. AM1 is an attempt to improve the MNDO model by reducing the repulsion of atoms at close separation distances. The atomic core-atomic core terms in the MNDO equations were modified through the addition of off-center attractive and repulsive Gaussian functions. The complexity of the parameterization problem increased in AM1 as the number of parameters per atom increased from 7 in MNDO to 13-16 per atom in AM1. The results of AM1 calculations are sometimes used as the starting points for parameterizations of forcefields in molecular modelling. AM1 is implemented in the MOPAC, AMPAC, Gaussian, CP2K, GAMESS (US), PC GAMESS, GAMESS (UK), and SPARTAN programs. An extension of AM1 is SemiChem (SAM1), which is implemented in the AMPAC program and which explicitly treats d-orbitals. A model for the AM1 calculation of lanthanide complexes, called Sparkle/AM1, was also introduced and is implemented in MOPAC2007. AM1 has been recently reparameterized, leading to the new RM1, or Recife Model 1, available in MOPAC2007, SPARTAN software, Hyperchem 8, etc
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2235169
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Austin Model 1 An extension of AM1 is AM1* that is available in VAMP software.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2235169
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Epsilonretrovirus is a waterborn genus of the "Retroviridae" family. It infects fish. The species include "Walleye dermal sarcoma virus", and "Walleye epidermal hyperplasia virus 1" and "2".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2239579
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Alpharetrovirus is a genus of the retroviridae family. It has type C morphology. Members can cause sarcomas, other tumors, and anaemia of wild and domestic birds and also affect rats. Species include the Rous sarcoma virus, avian leukosis virus, and avian myeloblastosis virus.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2239611
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Betaretrovirus is a genus of the "Retroviridae" family. It has type B or type D morphology. The type B is common for a few exogenous, vertically transmitted and endogenous viruses of mice; some primate and sheep viruses are the type D. Examples are "Mouse mammary tumor virus", enzootic nasal tumor virus (ENTV-1, ENTV-2), and simian retrovirus types 1, 2 and 3 (SRV-1, SRV-2, SRV-3).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2239651
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Deltaretrovirus is a genus of the "Retroviridae" family. It consists of exogenous horizontally transmitted viruses found in several groups of mammals. Examples are the "Bovine leukemia virus" and the human T-lymphotropic viruses.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2239740
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Spumaretrovirinae </ref> Spumaretrovirinae, commonly called spumaviruses (, Latin for "foam") or foamyviruses, are a subfamily of the "Retroviridae" family. Spumaviruses are exogenous viruses that have specific morphology with prominent surface spikes. The virions contain significant amounts of double-stranded full-length DNA, and assembly is rather unusual in these viruses. Spumaviruses are unlike most enveloped viruses in that the envelope membrane is acquired by budding through the endoplasmic reticulum instead of the cytoplasmic membrane. Some spumaviruses, including the equine foamy virus (EFV), bud from the cytoplasmic membrane. Some examples of these viruses are simian foamy virus and the human foamy virus. While spumaviruses will form characteristic large vacuoles in their host cells while "in vitro", there is no disease association "in vivo".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2239772
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Decipium was the proposed name for a new chemical element isolated by Marc Delafontaine from the mineral samarskite. He published his discovery in 1878 and a follow-up paper in 1881. Considered to be in the cerium group of rare earths. Later it was shown that decipium was a mixture of samarium and other rare earth elements.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2240892
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Shock sensitivity is a comparative measure of the sensitivity to sudden compression (by impact or blast) of an explosive chemical compound. Determination of the shock sensitivity of a material intended for practical use is one important aspect of safety testing of explosives. A variety of tests and indices are in use, of which one of the more common is the Rotter Impact Test with results expressed as FoI (Figure of Insensitivity.) At least four other impact tests are in common use, while various "gap tests" are used to measure sensitivity to blast shock. Julius-Peters KG is a notable German company which manufactures testing apparatus for these tests. A few materials such as nitrogen triiodide cannot be touched at all without detonating, and so are of purely academic interest. Some other compounds with a high sensitivity to shock, such as nitroglycerin and acetone peroxide, may detonate from a firm jolt and so cannot be legally transported in pure form. Acetone peroxide is often used by amateurs and terrorists as a means to detonate other explosives as well as acting as the main blasting agent, often resulting in injuries or death to those who underestimate its sensitivity. A number of methods are known to desensitize nitroglycerine so that it can be transported for medical uses, and it is also incorporated into other less sensitive explosives, such as dynamites and gelignites
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2242641
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Shock sensitivity Many practical commercial materials of intermediate sensitivity, such as gelignites and water gel explosives, can be safely handled as they will not explode from casual shocks such as being dropped or lightly knocked by a tool. However, they may explode if struck forcefully by a metal tool, and would certainly explode in the barrel if they were used in an artillery shell. Reliable initiation of such materials requires the small explosion of a detonator. Still less sensitive materials such as blasting agents like ANFO, are so insensitive that the impulse from the detonator must be amplified by an explosive booster charge to secure reliable detonation. Some polymer bonded explosives — especially those based on TATB — are designed for use in insensitive munitions, which are unlikely to detonate even if struck by another explosive weapon.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2242641
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Thermal Hall effect The thermal Hall effect is the thermal analog of the Hall effect. Here, a thermal gradient is produced across a solid instead of an electric field. When a magnetic field is applied, an orthogonal temperature gradient develops. For conductors, a significant portion of the thermal current is carried by the electrons. In particular, the Righi–Leduc effect describes the heat flow resulting from a perpendicular temperature gradient and vice versa, and the Maggi–Righi–Leduc effect describes changes in thermal conductivity when placing a conductor in a magnetic field. A thermal Hall effect has also been measured in a paramagnetic "insulator" and called the "phonon Hall effect". In this case, there are no charged currents in the solid, so the magnetic field cannot exert a Lorentz force. An analogous thermal Hall effect for neutral particles exists in polyatomic gases (known as the Senftleben–Beenakker effect). Measurements of the thermal Hall conductivity are used to distinguish between the electronic and lattice contributions to thermal conductivity. These measurements are especially useful when studying superconductors.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2243574
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Newton-second The newton-second (also newton second; symbol: N⋅s or N s) is the derived SI unit of impulse. It is dimensionally equivalent to the momentum unit kilogram-metre per second (kg⋅m/s). One newton-second corresponds to a one-newton force applied for one second. It can be used to identify the resultant velocity of a mass if a force accelerates the mass for a specific time interval. Momentum is given by the formula: This table gives the magnitudes of some momenta for various masses and speeds.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2244399
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Composite variety A composite variety is a plant population in which at least 70% of its progeny result from the crossing of the parent lines. A composite variety is a variety developed by mixing the seeds of various phenotypically outstanding lines possessing similarities for various characteristics like height, seed size, seed color, maturity etc. Crossing among the selected varieties is possible because the species used are open pollinated. Consequently composite varieties are genetically heterogeneous, and an exact reconstitution of the composite variety is not possible. Farmers can use their own saved seed for 3 to 4 years, after that seed should be replaced as the initial performance of the composite cross variety will have drifted from the original type.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2244564
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OVV quasar An optically violent variable quasar (often abbreviated as OVV quasar) is a type of highly variable quasar. It is a subtype of blazar that consists of a few rare, bright radio galaxies, whose visible light output can change by 50% in a day. OVV quasars have essentially become unified with highly polarized quasars (HPQ), core-dominated quasars (CDQ), and flat-spectrum radio quasars (FSRQ). Different terms are used but the term FSRQ is gaining popularity effectively making the other terms archaic. At visible wavelengths, they are similar in appearance to BL Lac objects but generally have stronger broad emission lines.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2247233
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Agrostology (from Greek , "agrōstis", "type of grass"; and , "-logia"), sometimes graminology, is the scientific study of the grasses (the family Poaceae, or Gramineae). The grasslike species of the sedge family (Cyperaceae), the rush family (Juncaceae), and the bulrush or cattail family (Typhaceae) are often included with the true grasses in the category of graminoid, although strictly speaking these are not included within the study of agrostology. In contrast to the word graminoid, the words gramineous and graminaceous are normally used to mean "of, or relating to, the true grasses (Poaceae)". has importance in the maintenance of wild and grazed grasslands, agriculture (crop plants such as rice, maize, sugarcane, and wheat are grasses, and many types of animal fodder are grasses), urban and environmental horticulture, turfgrass management and sod production, ecology, and conservation. Botanists that made important contributions to agrostology include:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2247377
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Toussaint de Charpentier (22 November 1779 – 4 March 1847) was a German geologist and entomologist. He was the author of "Libellulinae europaeae descriptae e depictae" (1840). was born in Freiberg, Saxony ( 22 November 1779 and died in Brieg 4 March 1847. Charpentier was the son of the Saxony geologist and "Berghauptmann" (head of the mining inspectorate), Johann Friedrich William von Charpentier and the brother of Johann von Charpentier. He studied geology and mining engineering at the Bergakademie Freiberg and continued his studies at the University of Leipzig. In the year 1802 Charpentier went to Prussia, where he accepted a place with the Silesia Oberbergamt (upper mining authority) in Breslau. Charpentier took over the management of Schweidnitz local mining authority in Schweidnitz until returning, in 1811, to the upper mining authority in Breslau. In 1828 his transfer to Dortmund as "Vizeberghauptmann" took place. 1830 he was appointed to a post in "Oberbergamtes" Dortmund. In the year 1836 he transferred to the Silesian mining authority in the same capacity. After 1819 he was transferred to Brieg and remained there up to his death in the same office. Charpentier published numerous writings on mountain structure and geology, in addition, to writing on his hobby, entomology. He published between 1829 and 1830 a new edition of the publications "Die europäischen Schmetterlinge" and "Die ausländischen Schmetterlinge" with Eugenius Johann Christoph Esper.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2250971
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Pierre Léonard Vander Linden (12 December 1797 – 5 April 1831) was a Belgian entomologist. He was the author of "Observations sur les Hyménoptères d’Europe de la famille des Fouisseurs" (1827–1829).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2251018
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Johann Heinrich Sulzer (18 September 1735, Winterthur – 14 August 1813, Winterthur) was a Swiss physician and entomologist. He studied medicine at the University of Tübingen and later started a medical practice in Winterthur. As a physician he distinguished himself in his work with smallpox vaccinations. In the field of entomology, he was the author of:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2251229
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Philogène Auguste Joseph Duponchel (1774 – 10 January 1846) was a French soldier and entomologist. was born in 1774 in Valenciennes, Nord, and died on 10 January 1846 in Paris. After studies in Douai, he joined the French Army when he was sixteen years old and took part in the campaigns of 1795 and 1796. Retiring from the army, he worked afterwards as a government administrator stationed in Paris. He was forced to retire again in 1816, aged 42 years, because of his opinions in favour of Napoleon Bonaparte. He then devoted himself to the study of insects. After twelve years of effort, Duponchel finished in 1838 "L’Histoire naturelle des lépidoptères de France", co-authored with Jean Baptiste Godart. This work consists of seventeen volumes (including twelve signed by Duponchel), 7600 coloured plates and 500 "boards" (which appear under the title "Iconographie des Chenilles" or "Iconography of the Caterpillars"). The volumes were published between 1832 and 1842, and within its pages the authors describe more than four thousand species of butterflies and moths. Duponchel was one of the founders of the Société Entomologique de France and was its first treasurer. He was a very close friend of Pierre François Marie Auguste Dejean, Auguste Duméril and Pierre André Latreille. He married Marie-Joseph-Désirée Ravet (d. July 1847) and had two sons. His son Charles-Edmond Duponchel (b. 7 April 1804), studied architecture and was an accountant first class at the "Ministère de la Guerre", and his son Auguste (d
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2251428
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