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Feminist economics In the past, time use studies tended to measure only primary activities, and "respondents doing two or more things at once were asked to indicate which was the more important." This has been changing in more recent years. Feminist economists point out three main ways of determining the value of unpai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics "For instance, the value of time devoted to cooking a meal can be determined by asking what it could cost to purchase a similar meal (the output) in the market, then subtracting the cost of the capital goods, utilities and raw materials devoted to that meal. This remainder represents the value of the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics With this basic assumption underlying their calculations, the valuations produced serve to reinforce gender inequalities rather than challenge women's subordination." Criticisms are leveled against each method of valuation. The opportunity cost method "depends on the lost earnings of the worker so th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics " Critiques against the input-output methods include the difficulty of identifying and measuring household outputs, and the issues of variation of households and these effects. In 2011, a wide-ranging study was conducted to determine the amount of unpaid household work engaged in by residents of diff... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics Because this unpaid work is largely done by women and is unreported in economic indicators, it results in these contributions by women being devalued in a society. Research into the causes and consequences of occupational segregation, the gender pay gap, and the "glass ceiling" have been a significan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics While overt employment discrimination by sex remains a concern of feminist economists, in recent years more attention has been paid to discrimination against caregivers—those women, and some men, who give hands-on care to children or sick or elderly friends or relatives. Because many business and gov... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics She argues that although these jobs may appear exploitative, for many workers in those areas they present opportunities and ways to avoid more exploitative situations in the informal economy. Alternatively, Suzanne Bergeron, for example, raises examples of studies that illustrate the multifaceted eff... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics She highlights the alternative views of globalization created by feminists. First, she describes how feminists may de-emphasize the idea of the market as "a natural and unstoppable force," instead depicting the process of globalization as alterable and movable by individual economic actors including ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics These acquire different meanings when used describing the actions of males and females. Degrowth proposes to put care at the center of society, thus calling for a radical rethinking of human relations. It should be pointed out that degrowth is a concept that originated in the global north and is main... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics Additionally, many feminist economists propose utilizing non-traditional data collection strategies such as "utilizing growth accounting frameworks, conducting empirical tests of economic theories, developing country case studies, and pursuing research at the conceptual and empirical levels." Interdi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics Often feminist economists use country-level or smaller case studies focused on developing and often understudied countries or populations. For example, Michael Kevane and Leslie C. Gray examine how gendered social norms are central to understanding agricultural activities in Burkina Faso. Cristina Ca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics The Gender-related Development Index (GDI) was introduced in 1995 in the Human Development Report written by the United Nations Development Program in order to add a gender-sensitive dimension to the Human Development Index. The GDI takes into account not only the average or general level of well-bei... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics continues to become more widely recognized and reputed as evidenced by the numerous organizations dedicated to it or widely influenced by its principles. Formed in 1992, the International Association for Feminist Economics (IAFFE), is independent of the American Economic Association (AEA) and seeks t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Feminist economics Green economics incorporates ideas from feminist economics and Greens list feminism as an explicit goal of their political measures, seeking greater economic and general gender equality. is also often linked with welfare economics or labour economics, since it emphasizes child welfare, and the value ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177765 |
Islamic economics () is a term used to refer to Islamic commercial jurisprudence (, "fiqh al-mu'āmalāt"), and also to an ideology of economics based on the teachings of Islam that takes a middle ground between the systems of Marxism and capitalism. Islamic commercial jurisprudence entails the rules of transacting finan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Particularly in the Mughal India, its wealthiest region of Bengal, a major trading nation of the medieval world, signaled the period of proto-industrialization. In the mid-twentieth century, campaigns began promoting the idea of specifically Islamic patterns of economic thought and behavior. By the 19... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics According to Hasan Raza, after more than six decades of its formal/ informal existence, a consensus on the definition of has not yet emerged. Some definitions that have been offered include: Fiqh (religious law) has developed several traditional concepts having to do with economics. These included: An... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Some brief works might contain almost nothing related to matters of property, sales, finance Others do not gather questions on economic issues in one heading, the case in "Tawzih al-masa'il", a work of fatawa by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who although a pioneer of political Islam approached the subj... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Salman Ahmed Shaikh and Monzer Kahf insist on a clear distinction between the roles of "Fiqh" and Islamic Economics, Shaikh saying to be meritorious as a separate field of inquiry, cannot confine itself just to explaining and deducing laws in economic matters based on core principles. Since this funct... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics These tenets were "among the first economic regulations" and their philosophy can be seen today in modern Capitalism. Within Sharīah, El-Sheikh states, Gharar functions as a divine deterrent against asymmetric information and allows trade to prosper. Riba, ensures each transaction is conducted at a fa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics 805) wrote "al Iktisab fi al Rizq al Mustatab" [Earned Desired income], intended as advice to businessmen "in their endeavors to create income opportunities". Abu 'Ubaid al Qasim bin Sallam (d.839) was the author of "al-Amwal" (plural of "wealth"). Perhaps the most well-known Islamic scholar who wrote... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Medieval appears to have somewhat resembled a form of capitalism, some arguing that it laid the foundations for the development of modern capitalism. According to Turkish-American economist Timur Kuran, "not until the mid-twentieth century" was there any body of thought that could be called "Islamic e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Maulana ala Maududi's 1941 address "The economic problem of man and its Islamic solution" ("Insaan ka Maashi Maslah aur aus ka Islami Hul") is "generally considered to be one of the founding documents of modern Islamic economics" More conservative salafi have shown less interest in socioeconomic issue... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr and also cleric Mahmoud Taleghani developed an "Islamic economics" emphasizing a major role for the state in matters such as circulation and equitable distribution of wealth, and a reward to participants in the marketplace for being exposed to risk or liability. This version of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics In addition there have been hundreds of seminars, workshops and discussion groups around the world on and finance. In the U.S. a small number of patent applications have been filed for Sharia compliant financial service methods. What has been called one of "two versions" of "Islamic economy" existed d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics In banking this was done through the use of sales transactions (focusing on the fixed rate return modes) to support investing without interest-bearing debt. Many modern writers have strongly criticized this approach as a means of covering conventional banking with an Islamic facade. (Sohrab Behada has... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Funding for research has gone to Islamic Finance despite the lack of "scientific knowledge to back" the claims made for Islamic Finance. Enrollment has subsided in classes and second and third generation Islamic economists are scarce, some institutions have "lost their real direction and some have eve... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Most of consists of theology on economic matters." Another (M.N. Siddiqi) notes has been teaching "conventional economics from an Islamic perspective", rather than Islamic economics. Despite its start in 1976, as of 2009, 2013 was called still in its infancy, its "curricula frames, course structures, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics " Islamic economic institutes are not known for their intellectual freedom, and according to Muhammad Akram Khan are unlikely to allow criticism of the ideas or policies of their founding leaders or governments. The Centre for Research in Islamic Economics, an organ of the Jeddah University in Saudi A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Khan, "Islam introduced the distinction between private property and public property and made the rulers accountable to the people". Scholars F. Nomani and A. Rahnema state that public property in Islam refers to natural resources (forests, pastures, uncultivated land, water, mines, oceanic resources ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Unclaimed, unoccupied and heir-less properties, including uncultivated land ("mawat"), can be considered state property. During the life of Muhammad, one fifth of military equipment captured from the enemy in the battlefield was considered state property. During his reign, Umar (on the recommendation ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Involuntary means are inheritances, bequests, and gifts. Non-contractual acquisition involves the collection and exploitation of natural resources that have not previously been claimed as private property. Contractual acquisition includes activities such as trading, buying, renting, hiring labor etc. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics It was “charged with responsibility of carrying out the spirit of the system, setting conditions that preserve and enhance the public health and interests, protect the consumers, solve business and labor disputes, promote good market behavior, and ensure their observance.” M.A. Khan states, institutio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Further, "uninformed speculation" not based on a proper analysis of available information is forbidden because it is a form of "Qimar", or gambling, and results in accumulating "Maysir" (unearned income). Commercial contracting under conditions of "excessive uncertainty" (however that is defined) is a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics The above-mentioned reports are also used to justify the argument that the Islamic market is characterized by free information. Producers and consumers should not be denied information on demand and supply conditions. Producers are expected to inform consumers of the quality and quantity of goods they... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics However, the domination of the industry by debt-like instruments such as "murabaha" rather than risk-sharing products, has driven even some leading advocates and experts in Islamic banking (such as Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi) to talk about "a crisis of identity of the Islamic financial movement." The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics The concept of a public financial institution played a historic role in the Islamic economy. The idea of state collected wealth being made available to the needy general public was relatively new. The resources in the Bayt-al-Mal were considered God's resources and a trust, money paid into the shared ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Hybrid approaches, which applies classical Islamic values but uses conventional lending practices, are much lauded by some proponents of modern human development theory. has been disparaged for In a political and regional context where Islamist and ulema claim to have an opinion about everything, it i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics Farooq) argues that this unfortunate situation has arisen because the "preoccupation" among supporters of Islamic Economics that any and all interest on loans is "riba" and forbidden by Islam, and because risk-sharing alternatives to interest bearing loans originally envisioned for Islamic banking hav... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Islamic economics A former director of Pakistan Institute of Development Economics and the head of Pakistan's Economic Affairs Division, Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi, also called for "comprehensive Islamic reform to establish an exploitation-free economic system" and not just "mechanical substitution of profit for interest.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177778 |
Public property is property that is dedicated to public use and is a subset of state property. The term may be used either to describe the use to which the property is put, or to describe the character of its ownership (owned collectively by the population of a state). This is in contrast to private property, owned by ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=179497 |
Carbon audit regime A carbon audit regime is a means of accounting for quantifiable greenhouse gas control efforts. It establishes that the claimed reductions in emissions or enhancements of carbon sinks, has actually occurred and is stable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183390 |
Samuel von Pufendorf Freiherr (8 January 1632 – 13 October 1694) was a German jurist, political philosopher, economist and historian. He was born Samuel Pufendorf and ennobled in 1684; he was made a baron by Charles XI of Sweden a few months before his death at age 62. Among his achievements are his commentaries and re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183563 |
Samuel von Pufendorf Pufendorf left Jena in 1658 as Magister and became a tutor in the family of Peter Julius Coyet, one of the resident ministers of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden, at Copenhagen with the help of his brother , a diplomat in the Swedish service. At this time, Charles was endeavoring to impose an unwant... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183563 |
Samuel von Pufendorf Published under the cover of a pseudonym at Geneva in 1667, it was supposed to be addressed by a gentleman of Verona, Severinus de Monzambano, to his brother Laelius. The pamphlet caused a sensation. Its author directly challenged the organization of the Holy Roman Empire, denounced in the stronges... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183563 |
Samuel von Pufendorf In "De jure naturae et gentium" Pufendorf took up in great measure the theories of Grotius and sought to complete them by means of the doctrines of Hobbes and of his own ideas on jus gentium. His first important point was that natural law does not extend beyond the limits of this life and that it c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183563 |
Samuel von Pufendorf , ab expeditione Gustavi Adolphi regis in Germaniam ad abdicationem usque Christinae" and "De rebus a Carolo Gustavo gestis". In his historical works, Pufendorf wrote in a very dry style, but he professed a great respect for truth and generally drew from archival sources. In "De habitu religionis c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183563 |
Samuel von Pufendorf The theory, of course, has found no acceptance in the Roman Catholic Church, but it nonetheless made it possible for the Protestant governments to make a working compromise with Rome in respect of the Roman Catholic Church established in their states. In 1688 Pufendorf was called into the service o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183563 |
Samuel von Pufendorf This natural peace, however, is weak and uncertain. In terms of public law, which recognizes the state ("civitas") as a moral person ("persona moralis"), Pufendorf argues that the will of the state is nevertheless nothing more than the sum of the individual wills that are associated within it; henc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183563 |
Race to the bottom The race to the bottom is a socio-economic phrase to describe government deregulation of the business environment, or reduction in tax rates, in order to attract or retain economic activity in their jurisdictions. An outcome of globalization and free trade, it may occur when competition increases bet... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=184948 |
Race to the bottom This competition ended when Governor Woodrow Wilson tightened New Jersey's laws through a series of seven statutes. In academic literature, the phenomenon of regulatory competition reducing standards overall was argued for by A.A. Berle and G.C. Means in "The Modern Corporation and Private Property" ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=184948 |
Race to the bottom The term has also been used in the context of a trend for some European states to seize refugees' assets. International Political Economy scholars Daniel Drezner (of Tufts University) has described the "race to the bottom" as a myth. He argues that the thesis incorrectly assumes that states exclusive... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=184948 |
Race to the bottom When a state pursues either a race to the bottom or a race to the top strategy, it speaks to its overall environmental agenda. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=184948 |
Revolution OS is a 2001 documentary film that traces the twenty-year history of GNU, Linux, open source, and the free software movement. Directed by J. T. S. Moore, the film features interviews with prominent hackers and entrepreneurs including Richard Stallman, Michael Tiemann, Linus Torvalds, Larry Augustin, Eric S. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186501 |
Revolution OS He relates his early dealings with venture capitalists, the eventual capitalization and commodification of Linux for his own company, VA Linux, and its IPO. Brian Behlendorf, one of the original developers of the Apache HTTP Server, explains that he started to exchange patches for the NCSA web server daem... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186501 |
Revolution OS Every review noted the historical significance of the information, and those that noticed found the production values high, but the presentation of history mainly too dry, even resembling a lecture. Ron Wells of "Film Threat" found the film important, worthwhile, and well thought out for explaining the pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186501 |
Revolution OS Bearded throwback to the sixties, hacker Richard Stallman serves as the movement's spiritual leader while Scandinavian Linus Torvalds acts as its mild mannered chief engineer (as developer of the Linux kernel)." To Tim Lord, reviewing for "Slashdot", the film is interesting and worthy of viewing, with som... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186501 |
Ricardian equivalence The proposition (also known as the Ricardo–de Viti–Barro equivalence theorem) is an economic hypothesis holding that consumers are forward looking and so internalize the government's budget constraint when making their consumption decisions. This leads to the result that, for a given pattern of go... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193130 |
Ricardian equivalence In "Essay on the Funding System" (1820), Ricardo studied whether it makes a difference to finance a war with £20 million in current taxes or to issue government bonds with infinite maturity and annual interest payment of £1 million in all following years financed by future taxes. At the assumed in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193130 |
Ricardian equivalence The model was an important contribution to the theory of new classical macroeconomics, built around the assumption of rational expectations. In 1979, Barro defined the theorem as follows: "... shifts between debt and tax finance for a given amount of public expenditure would have no first-order ef... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193130 |
Ricardian equivalence Nevertheless, he argued that "it is much less clear that this complication would imply systematic errors in a direction such that public debt issue raises aggregate demand." In 1977, Gerald P. O'Driscoll commented that Ricardo, in expanding his treatment of this subject for an "Encyclopædia Britan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193130 |
Ricardian equivalence If the hypothesis is true, the rational consumers of the economy, who expect the government to raise taxes, try to reduce their consumption and increase their saving. The reality was that the net private saving as a percentage of GNP was 8.55 in the 1976–1980 period, and it decreased to 7.47 perce... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193130 |
Ricardian equivalence If these conditions hold, cuts in taxes imply a later pressure to raise taxes, since government has to fill the resource gap in the budget which is the result of the initial tax cut. So, rational agents will put the additional income from the tax cut into saving, and consumption does not rise. In ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193130 |
Ricardian equivalence When implementing comprehensive fiscal reforms which make public sector more efficient governments do not exert countercyclical efforts of course, but form the necessary conditions for regaining countercyclical potential. In this respect, clarifies the exact conditions necessary for countercyclica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193130 |
Fiscal multiplier In economics, the fiscal multiplier (not to be confused with the money multiplier) is the ratio of change in national income arising from a change in government spending. More generally, the exogenous spending multiplier is the ratio of change in national income arising from any autonomous change in s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier In certain cases multiplier values less than one have been empirically measured (an example is sports stadiums), suggesting that certain types of government spending crowd out private investment or consumer spending that would have otherwise taken place. This crowding out can occur because the initial... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier For example, suppose that a government spends $1 million to have a factory built. The money does not disappear, but rather becomes wages to builders, revenue to suppliers etc. The builders will have higher disposable income, and consumption may rise, so that aggregate demand will also rise. Supposing ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier This can be done in a period of recession or economic uncertainty, when unemployment of labor is high and other resources are underutilized. Increased spending by government increases the rate of aggregate demand, increasing business activity, which increases income, which further increases spending a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier Increased borrowing to finance additional government purchases might also be supposed to be designed to draw out of the circulating flow an amount equal to the additional government purchases, perhaps by crowding out private borrowing for investment spending. In the history of economic thought, the no... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier Whether an incremental increase to government spending will have a multiplier effect is thought to depend on circumstances in the economy: first, particularly on the extent to which unemployment of resources may be high, so that the additional demand represented by government purchases may be realized... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier An additional supply of low-risk government securities may simply provide vehicles for continued hoarding as short-term government securities are regarded as closely equivalent to cash. In such circumstances, policy to increase aggregate demand and total business activity by means of fiscal measures m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier Many economists subscribe to a consensus view in which monetary policy is preferred as a means of regulating the business cycle, and fiscal stimulus is regarded as effective only in circumstances in which monetary policy has become ineffective, because policy interest rates are approaching the zero lo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier Whether that would or should justify otherwise wasteful government spending is controversial, on the one hand, and on the other hand, whether the supposed wastefulness of government spending justifies reducing multiplier estimates that reflect only GDP effects to smaller estimates reflecting welfare e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier For example, building a new factory may lead to new employment for locals, which may have knock-on economic effects for the city or region. The following values are theoretical values based on simplified models that assume, for example, no changes in interest rates or the price level resulting from th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier According to Otto Eckstein, estimation has found "textbook" values of multipliers are overstated. The following tables has assumptions about monetary policy along the left hand side. Along the top is whether the multiplier value is for a change in government spending (ΔG) or a tax cut (−ΔT). The above... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier This admission has serious implications for economies such as the UK where the OBR used the IMF's assumptions in their economic forecasts about the consequences of the government's austerity policies. It has been conservatively estimated by the TUC that the OBR's use of the IMF's under-estimated fisca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Fiscal multiplier Therefore, spending could be targeted where it would do most benefit, and thus be magnified by the highest (closest to 1) MPC. This has traditionally been regarded as construction or other major projects (which also bring a direct benefit in the form of the finished product). Clearly, some sectors of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193717 |
Baron d'Holbach Paul-Henri Thiry, () (8 December 1723 – 21 January 1789), was a French-German author, philosopher, encyclopedist and prominent figure in the French Enlightenment. He was born Paul Heinrich Dietrich in Edesheim, near Landau in the Rhenish Palatinate, but lived and worked mainly in Paris, where he kept a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach Later he went on to marry his second cousin, Basile-Geneviève d'Aine (1728–1754), on 11 December 1750. In 1753, a son was born: Francois Nicholas who left France before his father died. Francois moved through Germany, Holland, and England before arriving in USA (per American family bible/German and Ital... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach It is thought that the virtuous atheist Wolmar in Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse" is based on d'Holbach. Holbach died in Paris on 21 January 1789, a few months before the French Revolution. The authorship of his various anti-religious works did not become widely known until the e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach Morellet, a regular attendee at D'Holbach's salon, described it as In a frequently narrated story about a discussion that had taken place in D'Holbach's salon, David Hume had questioned whether atheists actually existed whereupon D'Holbach had clarified that Hume was sitting at a table with seventeen at... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach The deistic Voltaire, denying authorship of the work, made known his aversion to d'Holbach's philosophy, writing that "[the work] is entirely opposed to my principles. This book leads to an atheistic philosophy that I detest." "Christianity Unveiled" was followed by others, notably "La Contagion sacrée"... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach Regardless, however, of the extent of Diderot's contribution to the "System of Nature", it is on the basis of this work that d'Holbach's philosophy has been called "the culmination of French materialism and atheism." D'Holbach's objectives in challenging religion were primarily moral: He saw the institu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach The prominent Catholic theologian Nicolas-Sylvestre Bergier wrote a refutation titled "Examen du matérialisme" ("Materialism examined"). Voltaire hastily seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the "Système" in the article "Dieu" in his "Dictionnaire philosophique", while Frederick the Great also dre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach Following Locke, d'Holbach defended private property, and stated that wealth is generated from labor and all should have the right to the product of their labor. He endorsed the theory of laissez-faire, arguing: However, D'Holbach also believed that the state should prevent a dangerous concentration of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach When d'Holbach's radically atheistic and materialistic The System of Nature was first published, many believed Diderot to be the actual author of the book. Based on the writing style, the Durants opine that the book was not written by Diderot although he may have composed the flowery address to Nature t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Baron d'Holbach When Rousseau eventually found out about this, he was furious with his friends for humiliating him. According to Marmontel, d'Holbach "had read everything and never forgotten anything of interest." Jean-Jacques Rousseau commented that d'Holbach could hold his own among scholars since he was learned and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195759 |
Prospect theory The prospect theory is an economics theory developed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979. It challenges the expected utility theory, developed by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern in 1944, and earned Daniel Kahneman the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 2002. It is the founding theory of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Prospect theory These two examples are thus in contradiction with the expected utility theory, which only considers choices with the maximum utility. The theory continues with a second concept, based on the observation that people attribute excessive weight to events with low probabilities and insufficient weight to ev... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Prospect theory The function formula_6 is a probability weighting function and captures the idea that people tend to overreact to small probability events, but underreact to large probabilities. Let formula_7 denote a prospect with outcome formula_8 with probability formula_9 and outcome formula_10 with probability for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Prospect theory In the case that formula_19, formula_33 and formula_34 prospect formula_35 dominates prospect formula_36, which means that formula_37, therefore: formula_38 As formula_39, formula_40, but since formula_41, it would imply that formula_6 must be linear, however dominated alternatives are brought to the ev... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Prospect theory If we set the frame to -$1,000, we have a choice between formula_52 and formula_53. In this case, the concavity of the value function in gains and the underweighting of high probabilities can also lead to a preference for buying the insurance. The interplay of overweighting of small probabilities and co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Prospect theory The exact point in which probability goes from over-weighted to under-weighted is arbitrary, however a good point to consider is probability = 0.33. A person values probability = 0.01 much more than the value of probability = 0 (probability = 0.01 is said to be over-weighted). However, a person has abou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Prospect theory Narrow framing is a derivative result which has been documented in experimental settings by Tversky and Kahneman, whereby people evaluate new gambles in isolation, ignoring other relevant risks. This phenomenon can be seen in practice in the reaction of people to stock market fluctuations in comparison ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Prospect theory That is, prospect A might be preferred to prospect B even if the probability of receiving a value x or greater is at least as high under prospect B as it is under prospect A for all values of x, and is greater for some value of x. Later theoretical improvements overcame this problem, but at the cost of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Prospect theory While it can predict the majority choice in all (one-stage) gambles in Kahneman and Tversky (1979), and predicts the majority choice better across four different data sets with a total of 260 problems than cumulative prospect theory did, this heuristic, however, fails to predict many simple decision sit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197284 |
Information good in economics and law is a type commodity whose market value is derived from information it contains. Examples include CDs containing pieces of music, DVDs containing movie content, and books containing short stories. Information goods are in contrast to material goods such as clothes, food, and cars. T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197963 |
Information good If incentive for creation is the dominant aspect of analyses, the protection of the creator is then likely to be dominant. A consumer may face uncertainty and not be able to assess accurately and reliably the utility of some information goods, such as novels, movies, and newspapers, before consumption ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=197963 |
Ibn Khaldun (; , ; 27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406) was an Arab scholar of Islam, social scientist and historian who has been described as the father of the modern disciplines of historiography, sociology, economics, and demography. Niccolò Machiavelli of the Renaissance and the 19th-century European scholars widely acknow... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=199169 |
Ibn Khaldun Under the Tunisian Hafsid dynasty, some of his family held political office; his father and grandfather, however, withdrew from political life and joined a mystical order. His brother, Yahya Khaldun, was also a historian who wrote a book on the Abdalwadid dynasty and was assassinated by a rival for being th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=199169 |
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