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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/box-stall-pen-details | Box Stall & Pen Details | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | Home » Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Box Stall & Pen Details
## Box Stall & Pen Details
BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION PLANS ARCHIVE
Publication Number: 5107
View as PDF: 5107.pdf
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/beef-cattle/silage-feed-bunks-0 | Silage Feed Bunks | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [
"Agriculture",
"Beef Cattle"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Beef Cattle » Silage Feed Bunks
## Silage Feed Bunks
BEEF CATTLE
Publication Number: 6167
View as PDF: 6167.pdf
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/gloster-census-profile-2010-2020 | Gloster Census Profile (2010-2020) | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home
» Publications
GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH GLYPH
## Gloster Census Profile (2010-2020)
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|-------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3716-207 | |
## Presentation File:
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/introduction-to-conservation-systems/ | Healthy Soils | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Audrey Gamble"
] | 2018-08-16 | [
"Healthy Soils",
"Farming",
"Conservation"
] | AL | ## Introduction to Conservation Systems
Soil conservation is an important part of conservation cropping systems. There are many benefits for producers who choose to employ soil conservation practices on-farm.
Learn more about conservation systems in this video featuring information from Kip Balkcom and Leah Duzy.
Download "A Simple Guide for Conservation Systems in the Southeast" here, (https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/60100500/SpecialPubs/ConsaSyGuide |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/cypress-twig-gall-midge | Cypress Twig Gall Midge | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Entomology",
"Pdic",
"Gall",
"Midge",
"Cypress"
] | NC | ## Cypress Twig Gall Midge
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
Cypress twig gall midges, Taxodionyia cupressiananassa , are tiny gnat-like flies (less than ½ inch long - males are even smaller) that are tan with clear wings and red-orange abdomens (females) or tan-orange abdomens (males). They are called "twig gall" midges even though their galls are actually formed on the midribs of compound leaves. Females lay their eggs on young, succulent leaves. Eggs are bright orange, slender, and are laid in clusters of about 15. The developing maggots induce the midrib to swell up into a noticeable gall ¾ to 1¼ in inch. New maggots are light orange, very small, and somewhat slender. An internal sclerite called the sternal spatula is visible right through the skin of older maggots. Mature maggots are fat, yellow to orange and then orange-red and are about ½ in inch long when mature. New galls are pink or pale green with a white bloom. The galls are spongy and each gall can contain a dozen or more larvae (the bigger the gall, the more maggots are found inside). Galls turn brown with age, eventually dropping from the tree as leaves are shed. Maggots pupate inside the galls and adults may emerge from galls that are still on the tree later in the season. Maggots usually overwinter inside fallen galls to pupate and emerge as adults the following spring. We have one, possibly two, generations per year in North Carolina.
## Host Plants
Cypress twig gall midge s only infest bald cypress and pond cypress. The galls are unsightly as the leaf eventually dies beyond the gall. Mature brown gails are unslightly and may be so abundant that they cause branches to droop.
Although sometimes mistaken for cones, cypress twig galls are caused by tiny midge maggots.
Attribution: Photo by Lacy L. Hyche, Auburn University, Bugwood.org
## Residential Recommendations
Collecting and destroying fallen balls in autumn or in early spring before the midges become active and start laying eggs should help reduce the number of galls in the new season. Insecticide treatment is not recommended because the galls do not really harm the tree and there is no good, practical treatment for controlling them. At least four species of tiny parasitic wasps attack twig gall midge and help keep their populations in check. Outbreaks are sporadic, and a tree that was heavily infested with galls one year may have only a few galls in subsequent years.
## Other Resources
- · Common name: cypress twig.gall midge , scientific name: Taxodomyia cupressianana sas (Osten Sacken) (Insecta: Diptera: Cecidomycidae). Gomez, C. and R. F. Mizell III. 2019 (reviewed). Featured Creatures. Entomology & Nematology, FDACS, DPI, EDIS Number: EENY-430.
- Cypress Twig.Galls Aordn Baldcypress. Boggs, J. 2016. Bug Bytes.
- Cypress Twig.Gall Midge . Vol. 4, No. 29. Layton, B. Jr. 2018. Mississippi State University Extension.
- Extension Plant Pathology Publications and Factsheets
- Horticultural Science Publications
- North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension center.
This Factsheet has not been peer reviewed.
## Author
James Baker
Publication date: April 2, 2019
## Reviewed/Revised: Feb. 15, 2024
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/cloverdale-census-profile-2010-2020 | Cloverdale Census Profile (2010-2020) | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Census",
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home
» Publications
Publications » Cloverdale Census Profile (2010-2020)
## Cloverdale Census Profile (2010-2020)
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3716-146 | |
| View as PDF: P3716-146.pdf | |
| Presentation File: | |
| cloverdale_census_presentation.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Adams County | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to | |
| all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | |
| SELECT A COUNTY | |
| Your Extension Experts | |
| Dr. James Newton Barnes | |
| Extension Professor | |
| Dr. Rachael Carter | |
| Extension Specialist II | |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills | |
| Associate Extension Professor | |
| Related News | |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998 Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374 Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375 Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/in-schools/quest-for-healthy-schools-initiative-helps-support-alabama/ | Quest for Healthy Schools Initiative Helps Support Alabama | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Jamilah Page"
] | 2018-06-28 | [
"In Schools",
"Nutrition",
"Live Well Alabama"
] | AL | ## IN SCHOOLS
Quest for Healthy Schools supports schools in improving nutrition and physical activity policies, systems, environments, and practices. Live Well Alabama is teaming with Alliance for a Healthier Generation and also local schools to help Alabama schools become healthier places to learn.
## Action Plans
SNAP-Ed educators identify local school wellness champions in SNAP-Ed eligible schools who are committed to lead the Quest for Healthy Schools. Action plans with our school partners thus far include focusing on physical activity breaks throughout the day, school wellness grant submissions, establishing school gardens, breakfast in the classroom, and increasing access to physical activity through bicycle rodeos, color runs, and safe routes to school. Join the Quest for Healthy Schools (1) (https://www.aces.edu/wp- content/uploads/2018/06/b-Join-the- Quest-for-Healthy-Schools-1.pdf)
## Engage Cookie Notice
- · Identify, recruit and assemble a diverse group of school administrators, teachers, staff, parents, and community members as a School Wellness Committee.
## Assess
- · Complete the Alliance for a Healthier Generation Healthy Schools Program School Wellness Assessment during two School Wellness Committee meetings.
## Plan
- · Support= the School Wellness Committee in utilizing strengths and areas for improvement to develop a School Wellness Action Plan including three achievable goals.
## Implement
- · Involve all stakeholders in taking action.
## Evaluate
- · Maintain contact with School Wellness Committee to document progress and address challenges. At the one-year anniversary of the School Wellness Action Plan, repeat the Alliance for a Healthier Generation Healthy Schools Program School Wellness Assessment.
## Celebrate
- · Encourage continued progress by also highlighting successes and rewarding stakeholders.
## Sustain
- · Continuously identify new or ongoing strengths and areas for improvement to update the School Wellness Action Plan.
For more information, contact healthyschools@auburn.edu mailto:healthyschools@auburn.edu).
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement. (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/usda nondiscrimination-statement/) |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AE473 | Citrus BMP Implementation in Florida's Gulf Citrus Production Area: Pesticides | University of Florida | [
"S. Shukla",
"R. E. Rouse",
"S. S. Shukla",
"E. A. Hanlon",
"K. Portier",
"T. A. Obreza"
] | 2019-12-11 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Citrus BMP Implementation in Florida's Gulf Citrus Production Area: Pesticides
S. Shukla, R. E. Rouse, S. S. Shukla, E. A. Hanlon, K. Portier, and T. A. Obreza
## Introduction
Citrus groves in the five-county Gulf region (Charlotte, Collier, Glides, Hendry, and Lee) are spread across 178,000 acres. These areas represent about 25% of both the total citrus acreage in the state as well as the total production volume. In the mid 1980s and early 1990s, the Citrus Production Area (GCPA) experienced an increase in commercial production of citrus. This tariff area occurred because that the GCPA had a warmer climate, sufficient water supply, and inexpensive land compared to the central ridge of Florida, which was the traditional citrus production area until that time.
Constant and dependable water supply from surface and groundwater sources is essential for profitable citrus production. In past several years, the lower west coast of Florida, encompassing most of the GCPA, faced both water quantity and quality issues. A major factor in these water issues has been the urban population growth in the coastal areas that have created increased water demand. The South Florida Water Management District (SFWDMM) estimates that water supply demands is expected to increase by 27% by 2020 (compared to 1995). Water supply issues must be addressed for present needs and future planning. In addition to water supply, the region also faces nutrient-loading issues that have impacted the ecosystem. A Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) program for the Caloosahatchee River, C139, and the Big Cypress Bays expected to be completed between 2009 and 2011. Located in Southeast Hendry County, the C139 basin (700 acres), is also hydrologically linked to Florida's Everglades through a stormwater treatment area (STA) and is already regulated, limiting phosphorus (P) discharges through required implementation of Best Management Practices (BMPs). The SFWDMB set a limit on P loading (adjusted for rainfall) that can be discharged from the C139 basin. For 2009, the target load 13.7 metric-twas while the actual wash was 52 metric-tons.
The development and implementation of citrus BMPs to address water quality issues is promoted actively by state agencies. The Gulf Citrus industry in association with UF/IFAS, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS), SWFP, and Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) has developed a citrus BMPs manual that was released in February 2006. The objective of the manual is to identify and implement the use of citrus BMPs within the GCPA to reduce environmental impacts.
Through a legislative process, FDACS can provide participating growers a presumption of compliance with water quality goals associated with the TMDL process if the grower agrees to implement a set of practices from the Best Management Practices (BMPs) manual. Essentially, presumptibility of compliance assumes that a grower has or will implement a selected set of BMPs and that the grower has taken necessary steps to comply with the intent of the TMDL goal.
Several of the citrus pesticide BMPs identified in the main valley have already been developed and implemented throughout the CGPA region. Some pesticide BMPs that were prevalent in the GPCA groves devised with proper management of excessive pesticide solution, washing of pesticide equipment on a concrete pace with sump, and spraying of outside rows using inward nozzles on one side while directing it away from water bodies or drainage ditches. A survey was conducted in cooperation with Gulf Citrus Growers Association (GCGA) and FDACS to quantify the current level of BMP implementation and to identify the BMPs that might be adopted with the help of cost-warranty programs. The goal of this document is to describe the survey and discuss the results for pesticide-related BMPs.
## BMP Survey
The survey was designed to capture groove-specific BMP adoption data with some general questions describing of Grove management, specific to pesticide management, and about the importance of BMPs with regard to water quality benefits and grove profits. The survey questionnaire consisted in some of BMPs with a focus on water quality differences and Grover's advice should a choice enter their responses for cases where they "disagreed with the practice." "I plan to use," "and would" would use if cost shared." "The would of course" "shared" was perceived as an important outcome from the survey because this choice determined the potential for implementation of a specific BMP if federal and/or state cost-share funds were made available to offset a portion of the implementation cost.
## Survey Procedure and Area
Sixty groves comprised the 115,791 acres of the surveyed area (Table 1). The surveyed acreage was distributed between large (100 acres), medium (250 - 1000 acres), and small groves (~ 25 acres). The survey was conducted by personal interviews rather than a mail-out walk-back technique.
From a water standpoint, percent of the area with such a specific BMP implemented is more important than percent of the total number of groves that implement a specific BMP. Therefore, almost all of the large groves in the region (10,170,480 acres) included in the survey. Seventy-five percent (982%) of medium-sized groves in GICPA were included in the survey. The area occupied by the small groves included in the survey was 1,639 acres. The grove name and location were kept confidential. Pesticide survey questions were coded as PI, PE, etc. The survey form (Appendix 1) indicates the question codes and associated questions. The total acreage for a specific practice was summed based upon grower response.
## Extent of Pesticide BMP Implementation in GCA
Effective measures have been taken in the past few years to optimize crop production in Florida. Pesticide use has successfully reduced the risk of crop damage from pests. Pesticides have been developed that are more post-specific and environmentally friendly. Development and implementation of Best Management Practices (BMPs) may also help protecting resources as well as the health of pesticide handlers.
Table 2 presents the coverage area as percent of acreage for individual pesticide BMPs for the survey choices: no, yes, would if cost-shared, and sometimes.
## Inspection of Pesticide Storage Areas (PI)
Routine inspections of pesticide storage areas to check for leaks and spills (PI) were conducted on 92% (106.496 acres) of the total surveyed area.
Transport of spilled pesticides to surface water and groundwater can be controlled or avoided if spills are controlled. Routine inspections of pesticide storage areas can help in early detection of leaks and spills.
## Storage of Containers in Contained Area (P2)
Storage of containers in a containment area to prevent (runoff into streams, ditches, and/or wellshead (P2) was practiced on 88% (102,144 acres) of the surveyed area. This practice was not implemented on a small surface area (5%, 84,834 acres) of the total surveyed area.
Storage of containers isolated from the surrounding environment, preferably in a roofed concrete or metal structure, is an important practice. Pesticide structures should be at least 50 feet from other structures than 100 feet from surface waters. Placing storage structures according to these requirements prevents or diminishes the chances of pesticides contaminating runoff water, which in turn can contaminate other surface water and groundwater sources.
## Management of Excess Pesticide Solutions (P3)
Excess spray solutions containing pesticides were managed properly by applying to a target site at labeled rates (P3) on 98% (113,591 acres) of the area.
Although it is always recommended to mix the pesticides in the amounts advised on the label, it is possible to generate excess mixed material. Since pesticides are highly toxic, even a small concentration could be fatal. Thus, applying of pesticide excess should be done in accordance with the label instructions.
## Turning off Spray Nazlez (PZ)
On a large percentage of the surveyed area (97%, 111,891 acres), pesticide handlers turned off sprayer nozzles at the trunk or foliage of the last tree in a row before they entered the new block (P4).
Pesticide handlers are trained to keep pesticide spraying limited to the desired area. To keep application within the targeted area, applicators should turn off the sprayer nozzles when spraying one of row is completed.
## Label Recommendations Concerning Wind Speed (PS)
Pesticide handlers from 94% (108,168 acres) of the surveyed area consistently followed label recommendations concerning wind speed when spraying pesticides (PS). On 4.3%-4.9(475 acres) of the surveyed area, this practice was only implemented some of the time.
A number of practices could be adopted to minimize spray drift. A few spraying systems are furnished with sensors that can map the image of a tree and store its dimensions in a computer, and the system turns on spray nozzles inches before the equipment is brought near the tree. Use of equipment that has these sensors is increasing, but it is not used widely throughout the industry. Nevertheless, standard applications equipment could be adjusted to keep spray drips to a minimum.
Nozzle Selection to Reduce Spray Drift (P(B, P7, PB, P9)
Nozzle selection to reduce spray drift (P6 was a consistent practice on 95% (109,791 acres) of the surveyed area, whereas on 2% of the area, nozzle selection was only followed sometimes. Growers representing 1,5% of the surveyed area reported that this practice was not needed because they had adapted some other technique for spray drift control.
Nozzle adjustment between beds and furrows to reduce spray drift (P7) was followed on 96% (111,371 acres) of the surveyed area.
Measures taken to reduce spray drift by adjusting spray pressure (P8) were adapted on 89% (103,056 acres) of the surveyed area in the GCPA. On about 3% of the surveyed area, this practice was utilized sometime, whereas on another 3% of the area this action was not practiced at all. Growers representing approximately 5% of the area did not consider the practice appropriate for their operations.
Another measure to reduce spray drift is the use of drift control materials (P9), which were utilized on 69°(79,535 acres) of the surveyed area. On approximately 19% of the area, this practice was utilized on an occasional basis.
Techniques that minimize spray drift include the following: use of nozzles that produce large droplets during application for adequate plant coverage; calibration and adjustment of nozzles between beds and furrows, adjustment of spray pressure, and mixing of drift control materials and agents with the pesticides. Efficient management of spray drift can be attained by implementation of one method or a combination of methods.
## Spray Direction (PTI0)
The practice of spraying the outside row inward using nozzles on one side only, with spray directed away from aquatic areas (P10), was utilized on 99% of the GCPA surveyed area.
Spray drift minimization through the methods discussed above plays any important role in avoiding contamination of surface waters. However, spraying pesticides with nozzles on the inward side to direct spray only toward the desired area could augment the effects of the other practices.
## Locked Storage Facilities (P11)
Agrichemicals were found to be stored in locked facilities (PI1) on 91% (105,011 acres) of the surveyed area. Growers representing a small percentage (4.6%, 5,039 acres) of the surveyed area would implement this practice with cost-share support.
Due to their toxic nature, pesticides chemical should be stored in an isolated facility with lockable doors. This management practice prevents easy access and also allows separation of other material forms from the pesticides, consequently preventing any chances of cross-contamination.
## Concrete Floors with 4-inch Lip (P12)
Prevalence of a concrete floor with a 4-inch lip (P12) was found on 49% (57,182 acres) of the surveyed land. Growers from a large portion of the surveyed area, 34% (39,570 acres), reported the absence of a concrete pad with a wide-fin ching-lip fluid-retaining lip. However, Cost-store programs could enhance the construction of properly designed concrete pads with the required retaining lip on 16% of the survey area, which is 46% of the area where this structure was absent.
Postcicle storage facilities with an impermeable surface, preferably a concrete pad, could minimize the amount of pesticides seicing into the ground in case of leakage or large spills. A 4-inch lip can contain and direct the spilled fluids to a pump for proper disposal, minimizing the risk of further contamination.
## Washing of Pesticide Equipment (P13)
Washinging of pesticide application equipment (P13) is done on a concrete pad with a 50% (25,696 acres) of the surveyed acreage, whereas cost-stem warm projected to increase this practice on another 31% (33,636 acres) of the surveyed area. On 16% (17,999 acres) of the land area, the practice of washing application equipment on a concrete pad with a swap was not done at all, and on another 16% of the surveyed area, the practice was implemented sometimes.
Similar to the above, washing practice, of pesticide application equipment on a concrete pad with suips safely controls wash water and allows proper disposal of the resulting solution. Wash-Hast Water Reuse (P14)
Collection and reuse of pesticide equipment wash water (P14) was not a popular practice as indicated by its use on only 23% (26,996 acres) of the total surveyed area. On 36% of the surveyed area, collection and reuse of wash water was not practiced at all, which corresponded to 38% of the surveyed area, where an interest in the practice was reported if it was supported through cost share.
Since washing of pesticide application equipment on a concrete pad with a swap was performed on only 31% of the surveyed land, collection and reuse of that water are low within the CGPA. This trend was due to the absence of a concrete pad with suimpsump in the surveyed groves. Cost-share programs to install concrete pads with suimpsump could increase implementation of both PI13 and PI16 by large percentages.
## Use of Devices to Prevent Back-Siphoning (P15)
Use of anti-spihoping devices or any other measure to prevent back-spihoping of chemicals into ditches, canals, or wells (P15) was a popular BMP measure, as it was adopted on 92% (107,036 acres) of the area. On only 4% of the area, this measure was not use at all.
Water sources can be protected by keeping water pipes above the level of pesticide mixture sites. This design reduces chances of back-spihoping of pesticide mixtures into the water source. If water is being pumped directly from the water source to the mixing tanks, a check valve, anti-spihoping device, or backflow-preventing device is recommended so that backspihoping could be avoided in case of pump failure.
## Use of Concrete Pad on Mixing Sites (P16)
Presence of a concrete pad with a supink on frequently issued sites for pesticide mixing (P16) may have found on 21/24(6,4058 acres) of the surveyed area. Only 20% of the area, a concrete pad with supink was not present. Further observation of the survey data revealed that growers from 43% of the surveyed area reported that this practice was not applicable on their groves. On a small percentage of the surveyed area, use of this practice would likely be limited with cost-share assistance.
In many cases, pesticides are mixed at over the same site year after year. The presence of a concrete pad with a supink can minimize contamination from small spills and leaks to surface water and groundwater sources. Mixing and/or leading of pesticide cause spills that have serious environmental consequences. Thus, mixing-loading operations should be performed on impervious concrete pads. Concrete pads are ready to clean and clean once and reduce the chances that the pesticide mixture will infiltrate into the soil below the pad.
## Location of Mixing/Loading Stations (P17)
Location of mixing/loading stations where runoff may not carry spilled chemicals into surface waters (P17) was prevalent on 92% (106,979 acres) of the surveyed area in the GCPA.
A well-constructed mix/load station reduces the chances of pesticide spillage. Properly stiled, the mix/load station provides the convenience of mixing and loading on an impermeable surface. Additionally, proper sitding reduces chances of environmental contamination.
## Use of Portable Mixing Stations (P18)
Use of portable mixing/loading stations or 'water-only' manure tanks (P18) was present on 81% (93,527 acres) of the total surveyed area. On an additional 10% of the area, this BMP was practiced only occasionally.
Another option for preventing contamination from mixing and loading activities is to use portable mixing stations. The portable nature of these stations reduces the chance of changing buildup, which can happen if the mixing/loading is done on a permanent site without a properly designed concrete pad. However, it is recommended that portable mixing/loading sites
be complemented with nurse tanks. Nurse tanks are used to store clean water for the sprayer, and they make it convenient for mixing/loading activities. Also taking into account the portable nature of these stations, they allow random sites to be chosen on the farm that are properly sited to avoid adjacent water bodies.
## Frequency of Use of the Same Temporary Mixing Station (PIS)
Use of the same temporary mixing station sites more than once in the same year (PI$^{9}$) was done on 34% (39,874 acres) of the surveyed area. On 15% (16,840 acres) of the surveyed area, use of temporary mix locations more once in the same year was an infrequent practice.
Mixing and loading done on a single site more than once in a can year promote chemical buildup from spills, especially if the site is not equipped with the appropriate concrete pad, four-inch lip, and sup .
## Additional BMP Implementation Using Government Programs
The success of any BMP program depends greatly on grower participation. To encourage involvement, state and federal agencies have created cost-share programs to partially defray the costs for selected BMPs. Survey information was analyzed to identify those BMPs that would be readily implemented if some form of cost sharing was available. Additionally, BPMs targeted for cost sharing should also greatly increase both human safety and environmental protection. Lastly, cost sharing targeted BMPs would have to be both financially supported and implemented by growers.
## B pesticide BMPs
Pesticide BMPs should optimize pest control, reduce costs of farm operations, conserve energy, and protect the environment. To attain these objectives successfully, a combination of management and structural BMPs is required. Coverage of pesticide BMPs in the GCPA, interpreted from the survey, was encouraging.
By far the most practiced BMPs were spraying of pesticides internally by using nozzles only one side while the directing spray away from any aquatic areas and management of excess spraying spray solutions. These two BMPs were practiced on more than 98%; (114,599 acres) of the GPCA area.
BPMs, such as turning off spray nozzle when changing rows, nozzle adjustment between beds and furrows, nozzles selection, and label recommendation concerning wind speed whenever sprays pesticide waste are produced on 94% (16,816 acres) to 96% (111,891 acres) of the GCPA survey area.
About 88 to 92% of the GCPA impacted BPMS such as storage of containers in a contained area to avoid runoff surface inspection, monitoring of spray pressure to reduce spray drift, location of mixed/load stations away from the surface water, insickness of pesticide storage area, use of locked facilities for storing pesticides, and prevention of back-sinking of chemicals into water sources. Although more than 68% of these BPMs were implemented on 80% to 99% of the total survey area, there were at least three practices that could be promoted through cost-sharing incentives.
A structural BMP, such as construction of a concrete pad with 4-inch lip in pesticide storage facilities, could be an expensive procedure, particularly when the storage facilities are old and do not meet new, recommended standards. Growers from 16% (18,164 acres) of the surveyed area supported the construction of the concrete pad if they received cost-share incentive.
Pesticide equipment has to be washed frequently, preferably after every use. However, the wash was likely contaminated with pesticide residue, posing a potential environmental risk if the wash water is not disposed of. This was not should be discarded but collected and applied to a pest-prone area. Allowing the wash water to enter the soil at the washing station can cause the water to contaminate water or groundwater. Thus, weighing campus stations constructed with impervious surfaces, such as concrete pads with swaps, allow proper handling and disposal of wash water. Growers representing 31% (33,663 acres) of the surveyed area in the GCAPA agreed to adopt washing of the equipment on a concrete pad with the support of the compost was kept in the government program. Usage of pesticide equipment was water could be possible if the pesticide is washed on the concrete pad. The two BMPs are intertwined with each other. The numbers for increases in acreage for the collection and reuse of wash water has been reported to increase from 23.3% to 38%. (41,683 acres) with cost share. The percent change for the two BMPs within this cost share is closer to each other. It seems that growers who did not already have the concrete pads on their grids before didn't invest in the initiative to investigate in the construction of one to adopt the premises where they supply them from the government.
Concrete pads with swaps are also recommended for mixing/loading on permanent stations. Only on 30% of the surveyed area, concrete pads with swaps were present on permanent mixing/loading stations.
On 43% of the area, growers reported that permanent mixing stations were not practical for their operations. Apparently, these growers used portable mixing stations (80%, 93,527 acres). Cost-share programs could bring slight improvement (5%) in the installation of concrete pads with swaps on permanent mixing/loading stations.
A few storage facilities still remain where new recommendations (including the use of Lockheed storage facilities) are not implemented. Current use of locked storage facilities was high within the GCAPA. However, this management practice could also see an increase in coverage by about 50% (4,039 acres) with cost-share programs.
## Summary
The citrus BMP survey quantified the level of pesticide BMP implementation in the GCAPA. Survey results indicated that most pesticide BMPs were already implemented within the GCAPA. It is evident that growers are mindful of the environmental health and implications and are actively implementing most pesticide BMPs, as evident from the survey, which indicated that 13 out of the 19 listed pesticide BMPs were practiced on at least 80% of the total surveyed GCAPA. This is the highest level of pesticide BMP implementation throughout the GCAPA is clear a indication that the citrus industry is proactively involved in reducing environmental impacts, which will be minimized when using pesticides according to BMPs. Based upon this survey, results, grower aware of the determination to effect waters quality if pesticides are handled appropriately.
Many BMPs are useful in prevention of pesticide in surface water bodies including:
- · Spraying of pesticides toward the crop and away from any aquatic areas, including ditches;
- · Measures for spray drip reduction (nouzle selection and adjustment, controlling spray pressure, and use of other drif ch control materials);
- · Regular inspection to check for leaks; storing of containers in contained areas;
- · Use of anti-siphoning devices.
These BMPs were implemented extensively by growers throughout the GCAPA.
An informative BMP manual has been developed for the GCAPA. This manual includes BPMs dealing specifically with pesticides. Continuous educational offerings dealing with changes in BPMs and water quality requirements should be offered for keen manager growers informed. Costs share may provide some incentives to the growers with the implementation of more expensive BMPs, especially those dealing with structures and security.
Although this survey has established consistent and hence use of pesticide BMPs, it is recommended that a similar survey be conducted in a few years to document the changes and coverage of BMP implementation. Studies like these provide much-needed feedback on the success of the BMP education and cost-share programs.
## For More Information
Boman, B., J. D. E. Gunter, and S. H. Futch. 2004 Best Management Practices for Citrus Groves in the Peace River and Manasota Basins.
http://cushumbipfs.iau.edu/cepecurier/Coverage/200x20LLogos.htm
Boman, B., J. K. T. Morgan, R. E. Rousseau, S. Shukla, I. Chamberlain, and M. Zekri. 2006. Best Management Practices for Gulf Citrus. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services: Tallahassee, Fallshae, Publ No. 5M-7.005.03. https://www.flordagwaterpolicy.com/BestManagementPractices.html.
Boman, B., and D. Tucker. 2008. Drainage Systems for Flotwood Citrus in Florida. https://edis.fias.usf.edu/CHI65.
Boman, B., and T. Obereza. 2008. Fermentation Nutrients Sources and Application Considerations for Citrus. https://edis.fias.usf.edu/CHI65.
Boman, B., S. Shukla, and D. Haman. 2009. Chemigation Equipment and Techniques for Citrus. https://edis.fias.usf.edu/CHI84.
Obreza, T.A., A.K. Alva, E. Hanlon, and R.E. Rouse. 1999. Citrus Grove Leaf Tissue and Soil Testing: Sampling, Analysis, and Interpretation. https://edis.fias.usf.edu/CHIO46.
Obreza, T.A., and K. Morgan (editors), 2008. Nutrition of Florida Citrus Trees. 2$^{nd}$ Edition. https://eds.iris.usf.edu/sS478 .
Obreza, T., and B. Rouse. 2004. Controlled-Release Fertilizers for Florida Citrus Production. https://edis.irs.usf.edu/sS431 .
Shukla, S., E. A. Hanlon, F. H. Jaber, P. J. Stoffella, T. O. Obreza, and M. Ozores-Hampton. 2010. Groundwater Nitrogen: Behavior in Flatwoods and Gravel Soils Using Organic Amendments for Vegetable Production. EDIS: https://edis.ifs.usf.edu/AE400 .
Shukla, S., R.E. Rouse, S.S. Shukla, E.A. Hanlon, K. Portier, and T.A. Obreza. 2010. Citrus BMP implementation in Florida's Gulf Citrus Production Area: Water, sediment, and aquatic weeds. EDIS: https://edis.ifs.usf.edu/AE405 .
Shukla, S., R.E. Rouse, S.S. Shukla, E.A. Hanlon, K. Portier, and T.A. Obreza. 2011. Citrus BMP implementation in Florida's Gulf Citrus Production Area: Nutrients. http://sisfs.ilu.edu/ae405 .
## APPENDIX 1
What is your business (circle all that apply)?
```
(_Owner of grove(s)
```
- () Citrus production manager
(\_) Caretaker
(\_) Consultant
() Chemical or equipment salesperson
(\_) Other (specify)
How many acres of citrus do you manage and which county (s)? \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
When you decide to use a citrus BMP, please rate how important it is for the BMP to return a net profit on the investment:
() Very Important (-) Moderately Important (-) Slightly Important (-) Not at all Important
When you decide to use a citrus BMP, how important it is for you to be certain that the BMP will prevent pollution:
() Very Important (-) Moderately Important (-) Slightly Important (-) Not at all Important
What type of irrigation system do you use?
() Micro-sprayer (-) Drip (-) Seepage (flurrow) - () Overhead
Table 1.
Distribution of surveyed area by grove size.
View Table
Publication #AE473
Release Date: December 12, 2019
Reviewed At: January 5, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-ae473-2010
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts Sanjay Shukla
This document is AE473, one of a series of the Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date February 2011. Visit the EDIS
website at https://cis.ifas.edu.au/ for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
- S. Shukla, professor, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; R. E. Rouse, associate professor, Horticultural Sciences Department; S.S. Shukla, engineer, UF/IFAS Southwest Florida Research and Education Center; E. A. Ilanlon, professor, Department of Soil, Water, and Ecosystem Sciences; K. Portier, former associate professor, Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation; and T. A. Obreza, interim associate dean and assistant director for Extension, Department of Soil and Water Sciences; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
3 Publication(s) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/bees-in-turf-1 | Ground-Nesting Bees in Turf | NC State Extension | [
"Terri Billeisen",
"Rick Brandenburg",
"Stephen Bambara",
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Insect",
"Bee",
"Insect Pest",
"Turfgrass Pest"
] | NC | ## Ground-Nesting Bees in Turf
Turffiles
## Description
Ground-nesting bees encompass mostly solitary species that create burrows in the ground or tunnel through wood and can range in size from ½ to ¾ inches in length. They can also come in a variety of colors such as blue, green, copper or metallic reddish-brown, depending on species. Leafcutter bees (Megachilidae spp.) are large, solitary bees that build nests in various environments. Mining bees (Andrenidae spp.) are also solitary and are slightly smaller than leafcutter bees, black with reddish hair covering the thorax and sometimes abdomen (Figure 1). Membrane bees (Colletidae spp.) are much smaller and very slender but can resemble some of the more unique mining bee species. Melittidae spp. are small, black bees that also can often be confused with smaller mining bee species. The only ground-nesting bees that can be social, depending on the species and environment, are sweat bees (Halictidae spp.). Haliclids are usually tiny, black bees that may or may not have a similar coloration to honey bees (Figure 2).
## Pest Status
Ground-nesting bees generally prefer warm, dry areas with sun exposure and well-drained soils containing little organic matter. They are more likely to build nests in areas with bare ground or sparse vegetation. Membrane bees can nest aboveground in hollowed-out stems of vegetation, rather than burrowing into the ground itself. Leafcutter bees have the most diverse nesting habits, including nesting in burrows underground, hollowed-out plant stems, wood, and rock crevices.
## Biology
Adult bees generally become active in mid-late spring when females excavate nesting burrows that generally reach six or more inches in depth. During the day, females collect pollen and nectar to carry back to the nest and form a 1/8 to ¼ in diameter "ball" that is placed within a small cell created
in the side of the burrow. Females lay a single egg on the pollen ball and when it hatches, the larva feeds on the pollen and continues to develop throughout the year. The new generation will emerge the following year in the spring.
## Damage
When bees are numerous, many holes may be in close proximity, giving the appearance the bees are a social species. They can also be misidentified as nuisance ant colonies due to the numerous mounds created by excavated soil at the turf surface (Figure 3). Damage to lawns and turf is usually minimal and control is rarely necessary unless the bees are numerous and perceived as a danger or annoyance. Solitary bees are not "programmed" to sting people and there is no mass attack signal as might be found with social Hymenoptera such as honey bees or yellowjackets.
## Control
## Cultural Control
To discourage adult nesting, prep the turf environment to make it less hospitable for females: irrigate the turf heavily, fertilize with organic matter, and use ground covers or heavy mulches in areas of bare soil. In areas where nests are present, tilling of the soil may help partially destroy tunnels but establishment of dense turf is the best discouragement to further nesting.
## Biological Control
No biological control options
## Chemical Control
Chemical treatment is almost never necessary. If it is desired in areas with heavy infestations, recommendations for insecticides approved for control of these insects in home lawns can be found under Bees and Wasps in INSECT CONTROL IN HOME LAWNS in the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual .
Recommendations for insecticides approved for use on sod farms, golf courses or other commercial sites can be found in COMMERCIAL TURF INSECT CONTROL in the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual .
For additional information on insect control and pesticide use, contact your county Cooperative Extension Center.
| Insecticide and Formulation | Amount per 1,000 sq ft |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------|
| carbyl* (Sevin) 80 WSP | 1.5 oz |
| pyrethroids* (Advanced Garden, Battle, Deltagard, Menace, Scimitar, Talstar, Tempo) | See label |
## References
For additional information, see University of Minnesota's Bee Lab section on ground-nesting bees
- · 2018 Pest Control for Professional Turfgrass Managers. Bowman, D. et al. 2017. NC State Extension Publication AG-408. 81 pp.
- · Extension Plant Pathology Publications and Factsheets
- · Horticultural Science Publications
- · North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
## Authors
Terri Billeisen
Extension Associate Entomology and Plant Pathology
Rick Brandenburg
Extension Specialist (Peanuts & Turf) & Department Extension Leader Entomology and Plant
Pathology
Stephen Bambara
Retired Extension Specialist (Home Ornamentals/Turf) Entomology & Plant Pathology
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology and Plant Pathology
Publication date: Oct. 25, 2017
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&TState University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/coahoma-county-economic-well-being-and-poverty | Coahoma County Economic Well-being and Poverty | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith",
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Extension Center for Economic Education and Financial Literacy"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication" Coahoma County Economic Well-being and Poverty
## Coahoma County Economic Well-being and Poverty
Filed Under: Economic Development, Extension Center for Economic Education and Financial Literacy PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3267-15
View as PDF: P3267-15.pdf
Publication File:
- ·
coahoma\_poverty\_presentation\_profile.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Ooama County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith
Associate Extension Professor
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter
Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills
Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith
Associate Extension Professor
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
...
next\_
last\_> |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/miamidadeco/2024/10/01/un-vistazo-a-la-fruta-tropical-lichi/ | Un Vistazo a la Fruta Tropical—Lichi | University of Florida | [
"Jeff Wasielewski"
] | 2024-10-01 | [
"Agriculture",
"Change Category",
"Crops",
"Farm Management",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture",
"Pests & Disease",
"SFYL Hot Topic",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension"
] | FL | ## Un Vista zo a la Fruta Tropical -- Lichi
Por Jeff Wasielewski, Laura Vásquez y Jonathan H. Crane
Nombre común:
Lichi
Nombre botánico:
Litchi chinenis
Familia: Sapindaceae
Variedades recomendadas: Mauricio, Brewster, Sweetheart,
Emperor
Acerca de la fruta: El lichi es de color rojo brillante y tiene una pulpa dulce y texturizada que rodea una sola semilla. La fruta se come fresca, además en helados, sorbetes y enlatados.
Temporada: La temporada principal es de junio a julio.
Por qué debería considerarlo: El érbol es una hermosa adición a un paisaje y la madera es muy densa. El sabor a fruta es bastante agradable y se disfruta fácilmente durante su temporada.
Tome en cuenta: El lichi ahora está bajo el ataque del 'acaro erinoso del lichi, una plaga grave que es muy difícil de controlar. La plaga afecta a las hojas, flores y frutos. Las flores a veces son dañadas por el gusano telaraña del lichi. El 'árbol también necesita varias horas de frio para florecer bien. Mauricio parece ser el fructífero más consistente.
Poda: El lichi puede ser dificil de podar ya que tiende a tener una gran cantidad de crecimiento vertical. Elimine las verticales fuertes y fomente el crecimiento lateral.
Plantar : Asegürese de no plantar el 'árbol demasiado profundo. Cave el hoyo más grande que el contenedor, pero vuelva a llenar el hoyo con el suelo nativo para que la primera raíz acamapanda de la planta esté al nivel del suelo o justo por encima. Proteja el 'árbol de daños mecánicos (cortadora de malezas y cortadora de césped).
Fertilizante: Use un fertilizante con muy bajo contenido de nitrógeno y alto contenido de potasio dos o tres veces durante la temporada de lluvia (mayo a octubre). Empape con hierro quelado (EDDHA) y use un rocio foliar de microelementos dos o tres veces de mayoa octubre.
Para obtener más información, consulte:. El Lichi en Florida, Lychee growing in the Florida home landscape y el Tropical Fruit Tuesdays webinar on Lychee
```
Fruita de lichi lista para ser cosechada. Photo credit: lan Maguire
```
## O
by Jeff Wasielewski
Posted: October 1, 2024
Category: Agriculture, Crops, Farm Management, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Fruits & Vegetables, Home Landscapes, Horticulture, Pests & Disease, Pests & Disease, SFYL Hot Topic, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Fair Feathered Friends: Youth Poultry Exhibits At The Fair
- Baby Corals Are So Cute!
- Help With Bees
- National Wildlife Day |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/plant-id/plant-profiles/bigleaf-hydrangea/index.html | Bigleaf Hydrangea - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2020-10-14 | [] | OK | ## BIGLEAF HYDRANGEA
Common Name: Bigleaf Hydrangea
Species Name: Hydrangea macrophylla
Family Name: Hydrangeaceae
Family Name: Hydrangeaceae
Plant Facts
Origin
Japan
Sun
Shade
Preference
## Plant Facts
Over wintering the flower buds is the biggest problem; endless summer produces flowers on old and new wood so it should flower even if flower buds get killed over the winter
## Leaf and Stem Characteristics
+
| Habitat/ Ecology | |
|--------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Soil Preference | Moist, well-drained |
| USDA Cold Hardiness Zone | 6 |
| Notes | Below pH 5.5 hydrangeas generally produce blue flowers, above 5.5 pink flowers |
Topics: |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/durham-county | Durham County Forestry Impacts | NC State Extension | [
"James Jeuck",
"Robert Bardon",
"Dennis Hazel",
"Corey Sugerik"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Durham County Forestry Impacts 2012
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Jan. 1, 2014
Authors
James Jeuck
Robert Bardon
Dennis Hazel
Corey Sugerik
[ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=durham- county#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/aquaculture/catfish-fingerling-producers-and-dealers/ | Catfish Fingerling Producers and Dealers | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Russell Wright"
] | 2024-05-03 | [
"Aquaculture",
"Fish & Water",
"Catfish"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-4676 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-38151054"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
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<article id="post-4676" class="post-4676 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-aquaculture category-fish-water category-fisheries tag-aquaculture tag-catfish tag-catfish-dealers tag-catfish-fingerlings tag-catfish-producers tag-fisheries first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Catfish Fingerling Producers and Dealers">
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Catfish Fingerling Producers and Dealers </div>
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<li>May 3, 2024</li>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/aquaculture/catfish-fingerling-producers-and-dealers/"></div><p>Following is a list of current catfish fingerling producers and dealers. The <a href="http://www.aces.edu">Alabama Cooperative Extension System</a> and <a href="http://www.auburn.edu">Auburn University</a> do not endorse these individuals or companies or the services and products they provide. This is a partial list of supplies known to be available in Alabama and adjacent areas as of September 2021.</p>
<h1>County</h1>
<h2>Blount County</h2>
<p><strong>Lane Pettit</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>5001 AL Hwy. 79, Blountsville, AL 35031</li>
<li>(205) 429-3415</li>
<li>By order only</li>
</ul>
<h2>Cherokee County</h2>
<p><strong>Southern Pond Liming,</strong> <strong>Daniel Davis</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>385 County Road 411, Piedmont, AL 36272</li>
<li>Office (256) 526-8453</li>
<li>Cell (256) 504-3034</li>
<li>dff@davisfishfarms.com</li>
</ul>
<h2>Chilton County</h2>
<p><strong>Chris Wood</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Thorsby AL</li>
<li>(205) 209-2778</li>
</ul>
<h2>Clark County</h2>
<p><strong>Tombigbee Catfish Farms, Norman Green</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>1114 Stave Creek Road, Jackson, AL 36545</li>
<li>(251) 246-4141</li>
<li>Cell (251) 769-4917</li>
</ul>
<h2>Dallas County</h2>
<p><strong>Willard Powe</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>15193 County Road 21, Marion Junction, AL 36759</li>
<li>(334) 381-3359</li>
</ul>
<h2>Geneva County</h2>
<p><strong>Lake Geneva Fish Hatchery, Don Marley</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>1182 Florida Street, Geneva, AL 36340</li>
<li>(334) 684-6473</li>
</ul>
<h2>Hale County</h2>
<p><strong>Treasure Lakes, Steve W. Brown</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>1005 11th Avenue NW, Fayette, AL 35555</li>
<li>(205) 454-2370</li>
<li>bigbassbrown@yahoo.com</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Locklear Sportfish, Chris Locklear</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Newbern, Alabama</li>
<li>(205) 233-3298</li>
<li><a href="mailto:chris@locklearsportfish.com">chris@locklearsportfish.com</a></li>
<li>www.locklearsportfish.com</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Deer Meadows Fish Company, Gregory N. Whitis</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>758 Lakewood Farm Road, Greensboro, AL 36744</li>
<li>(334) 352-2482</li>
<li>gnw@gregorynwhitis.com</li>
<li>www.gregorynwhitis.com</li>
</ul>
<h2>Jefferson County</h2>
<p><strong>Alabama Aquarium and Pond Services</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>368 Chelsea Springs Dr., Columbiana, AL 35051</li>
<li>(205) 663-6888</li>
<li>Fax (205) 620-0808</li>
<li>contactus@alabamaaquarium.com</li>
<li>www.alabamaaquarium.com</li>
<li>Services: pond consultation and design, water analysis, electrofishing, game fish and forage stocking, fountain and aerator installation, liming, fertilization, pond mapping, and pond management surveys</li>
</ul>
<h2>Lee County</h2>
<p><strong>Mac’s Fish Farm, Wayne McLendon</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>1122 Lee Road 44, Opelika, AL 36801</li>
<li>(334) 749-0986</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>SE Pond Management, Kedric Nutt and David Kastner</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>9944 U.S. Hwy. 280, West Waverly, AL 36879</li>
<li>(334) 887-7663</li>
<li>sepond-opelika@aol.com</li>
<li>www.sepond.com/index.htm</li>
</ul>
<h2>Marshall County</h2>
<p><strong>AquaServices, Brian and Troy Goldsby</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>23360 Hwy. 431 Guntersville, AL 3597</li>
<li>(888) 669-3337</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Southern Pond Professionals, Mason Grimes</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>1129 County Hwy 38 Horton, Alabama 35980</li>
<li>(205) 820-9977</li>
<li>Cell (205) 569-1895</li>
<li>mason@southernpond.pro</li>
<li>www.southernpond.pro/</li>
</ul>
<h2>Montgomery County</h2>
<p><strong>American Sportfish, Sawyer Chiles, and Sean McNulty</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>P.O. Drawer 20050, Montgomery, AL 36120</li>
<li>(334) 281-7703</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Pond and Lake Services, Robby Mays</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Pike Road, AL</li>
<li>(334) 746-1648</li>
<li>robby@pondandlakeservices.net</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Southern States Game and Fish Hatchery</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>700 Meriwether Road, Pike Road, AL 36064</li>
<li>(334) 799-8861</li>
</ul>
<h2>Pike County</h2>
<p><strong>Pond Stocker II</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>91 County Road 1158, Troy, AL 36079</li>
<li>(334) 372-4398</li>
<li>pondstocker2.com</li>
</ul>
<h2>Russell County</h2>
<p><strong>T&T Aquatics, Rick Bingham</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>106 Maringo Creek Road, Phenix City, AL 36869</li>
<li>(706) 887-2222</li>
</ul>
<h2>Shelby County</h2>
<p><strong>SE Pond Management, Norman Latona and Scott Cherones</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>P.O. Box 69, Saginaw, AL 35137</li>
<li>(205) 664-5596</li>
<li>Fax: (205) 620-1365</li>
<li>www.sepond.com/index.htm</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Alabama Aquarium and Pond Services</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>368 Chelsea Springs Dr., Columbiana, AL 35051</li>
<li>(205) 663-6888</li>
<li>Fax (205) 620-0808</li>
<li>contactus@alabamaaquarium.com</li>
<li>www.alabamaaquarium.com</li>
<li>Services: pond consultation and design, water analysis, electrofishing, game fish and forage stocking, fountain and aerator installation, liming, fertilization, pond mapping, and pond management surveys</li>
</ul>
<h2>Tallapoosa County</h2>
<p><strong>Justin Nelson</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>501 Sulpher Spring Road, Tallassee, AL 36078</li>
<li>(256) 397-4594</li>
</ul>
<h2>Tuscaloosa County</h2>
<p><strong>Honey Hole Fisheries, Jeff Bagwell</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>17016 Romulus Road, Ralph, AL 35480</li>
<li>(205) 333-3665</li>
<li>Cell (205) 799-0192</li>
<li>www.honeyholefisheries.com</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Bob Crane</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Fosters, Alabama</li>
<li>(205) 331-2021</li>
</ul>
<h1>Regional</h1>
<p><strong>Aquatic Environmental Services, Greg Grimes</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>2050 Howell Bridge Road, Ball Ground, GA 30107</li>
<li>(770) 735-3523</li>
<li>http://lakework.com</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Edges Aquatic Services, Keith and Kimberly Edge</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>2829 Briarcliff Road, Soperton, GA 30457</li>
<li>(912) 529-3315</li>
<li>Cell (478) 697-8997</li>
<li>kkedgel.yahoo.com</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Great Lakes and Land Co., Matt Headrick</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>2560 Lower Big Springs Road, LaGrange, GA 30241</li>
<li>(706) 523-0590</li>
<li>(706) 756-2411 (Georgia office)</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Solitude Lake Management</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>6835 Shiloh Road Unit E_C-12, Alpharetta, GA 30005</li>
<li>(888) 480-5253</li>
<li>(678) 279-2946 (Georgia office)</li>
<li>Fax (888) 358-0088</li>
<li>www.solitudelakemanagement.com</li>
</ul>
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/commercial-applicator/pesticide-safety-education-program-frequently-asked-questions/ | Commercial Applicator | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sonja Thomas"
] | 2024-01-18 | [
"Commercial Applicator",
"Pesticides",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | extension
## Pesticide Safety Education Program Frequently Asked Questions
## What kind of permit do I need?
A commercial applicator is a permitted applicator who uses or supervises the use of restricted-use pesticides and other pesticides for any purpose or on any property and applied with compensation other than trading of personal services between producers of agricultural commodities. Commercial applicants shall be further identified according to the type of pesticide application they are engaged in. There are over 20 categories in Alabama for commercial applicators. Contact the Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries (ADAI) to help determine which permit you need.
A private applicator is a permitted applicator who uses or supervises the use of any pesticide that is classified for restricted use for purpose of producing any agricultural commodity on property owned or rented by him or his employer or if (applied without compensation other than trading of personal services between producers of agricultural commodities) on the property of another person.
## Who do I contact to get a commercial permit?
To receive a new commercial applicators permit, contact the ADAI for testing dates and locations.
- · Email: cert@agi.alabama.gov(mailto:cert@agilaba.gom)
- Phone: (334) 240-7243
- Fax: (334) 240-7168
## How do I get a private permit?
There are three ways to get your private permit.
- 1. Find the nearest training available through your local Extension office. |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/manateeco/2021/06/22/sustainable-food-and-you/ | Sustainable Food and You! New Series in Manatee and Sarasota County | University of Florida | [
"Nelly Nelson"
] | 2021-06-22 | [
"Events",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Health & Nutrition",
"Home Management",
"Work & Life",
"farmer's market",
"Food Is Our Middle Name",
"nutrition and health",
"sustainable food"
] | FL | ## Sustainable Food and You! New Series in Manatee and Sarasota County
Have you ever wondered how food shopping practices and consumption affects our environment and the planet? Would you like to learn how to select food options that support the community and are better for your health?
```
" "Sustainable eating is about choosing foods that are healthful to our environment and our bodies. According the 2019 EAT-I ance commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems, a global shift toward more plant - based foods would help feed the world's growing population a nutritious and sustainable diet. This plant-based eating style includes more legumes (beans, peas, lentils, peanuts), whole grains, vegetables, fruits and nuts, and less animal-based foods, especially red meat, and processed meat. Limiting refined grains and added sugars is encouraged as well." Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Sarah Klemm, RDN, CD, LDN
```
## Some Tips for Sustainable Eating
Modifying behavior to incorporate sustainable eating habits lessens the negative impact we have on the planet, utilizes local resources, and supports sustainable farming. Here are some tips to get you started:
Grow something: Creating an herb garden is simple and inexpensive. Incorporating the herbs you grow in your daily cooking routine rewards you with a greater appreciation for what it takes to grow your own food.
Shop locally : Buying from local producers and markets is a fun way to support the community. It saves money, energy, and fuel by not requiring food to be packaged and trucked in from other places, and it supports the local economy by keeping dollars in the community. This GIS map (http://ow.ly/Aak850F5uBh) has all the information you need! Whether you've just moved to Manatee County or are a life-long resident, this tool can help you locate local agricultural commodities and agricultural businesses. The map is user-friendly and allows you to search by food category (fruits, vegetables, etc.), a location nearest your home, and business type (produce stand, pickup, etc.)
Eat seasonally: Focus on foods that are available in season where you live, and you will be supporting sustainability.
Rethink your grocery list: Save money by opting to purchase food in bulk. You can lower your risk of health problems and boost your energy by choosing minimally processed foods and adding more plant-based foods.
This free webinar is part of the Sustainability Series Lunch and Learn presentations, offered by the Sarasota County and Manatee County Extension offices. The webinar will be hosted by Sarasota County
agent, Dr. Maria Rometo, and Manatee County agent, Nelly Nelson.
Webinar attendees will gain an understanding of how food shopping practices impact the planet, learn some money savings tips, and discover ways to improve eating habits.
```
/* We are the Institute of Food of Agricultural
Sciences at the University of Florida. A
significant portion of our efforts IFAS-wide is
dedicated to food: growing food, improving
nutrition and taste, getting food to market,
improving the environment supporting
agricultural efforts, and so much. more. Chris
Vivian
#FoodsOurMiddleName
Where: "Sustainable Food & You!" webinar will take place via Zoom at
12:00 p.m. ET.
When: March 23th, April 26th, June 23th, 2022 and will be hosted by
Sarasota County agent, Dr. Maria Rometo, and Manatee County
agent, Nelly Nelson.
Registration link for the Webinar:
https://www.eventbrite.com/e/sustainable-food-and-you-lunch-
and-learn-webinar-tickets-19234216960?aff=ebdsoporgprofilc
```
#FoodsOurMiddleName
Where: "Sustainable Food & You!" webinar will take place via Zoom at 12:00 p.m. ET.
When: March 23th, April 26th, June 23th, 2022 and will be hosted by Sarasota County agent, Dr. Maria Rometo, and Manatee County agent, Nelly Nelson.
Registration link for the Webinar:
https://www.eventbrite.com/e/sustainable-food-and-you-lunchand-learn-webinar-tickets-19234216960?aff=ebdsoporgprofilc
by Nelly Nelson
Posted: June 22, 2021
Category: Events, Fruits & Vegetables, Health & Nutrition, Home
Management, Work & Life
Tags: Farmers Market, Food Is Our Middle Name, Nutrition And
Health, Sustainable Food
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Need CEUs - Finding Classes Are Cancelled, We Got You!
- · Oh To Okra, A Summer Time Vegetable!
- · Shop Local In Manatee County
- · Land Judging Competitors Qualify For State Contest |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/conservation-tillage-row-crop-soils/soil-health-steward-myron-johnson/ | Soil Health Steward: Myron Johnson | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Myron Johnson"
] | 2018-08-09 | [
"Conservation Tillage",
"Soil Health",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | extension extension ALANAAAM&UBERNUNIVERSITIES
Myron Johnson discusses soil health stewardship. Johnson operates Double J Farms, Inc. in Headland, Alabama in Henry County. Johnson said water infiltration is an extremely important factor in soil health.
Learn more about Double J Farms and water infiltration improvement practices through this edition of Alabama Soil Health Stewards with Myron Johnson. |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/redwater-census-profile-2010-2020 | Redwater Census Profile (2010-2020) | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Redwater Census Profile (2010-2020)
## Redwater Census Profile (2010-2020)
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3716-353 | |
| View as PDF: P3716-353.pdf | |
| Presentation File: | |
| redwater_census_presentation.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Leake County | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | |
| SELECT A COUNTY | |
| Your Extension Experts | |
| Dr. James Newton Barnes | |
| Extension Professor | |
| Dr. Rachael Carter | |
| Extension Specialist II | |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills | |
| Associate Extension Professor | |
| Related News | |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998 Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374 Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375 Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/farm-management-and-finance/budgets/videos-and-instructions/site-files/docs/horticultural-enterprise-budget-software-guide.pdf | Microsoft Word - OSU Horticultural Enterprise Budget Software Guide v2.1 | Oklahoma State University | [
"rvsahs"
] | Error: time data "D:20201117162859-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## OSU Horticultural Enterprise Budget Software Advanced User's Guide
Roger Sahs, Damona Doye, and Darrel Kletke'l
Oklahoma State University Department of Agricultural Economics 515 Agricultural Hall Stillwater, OK 74078 http://agecon.oksstate.edu/budgets/
Phone: 405-744-9836
E-mail: roger.sahs@okstate.edu
November 2020
The information given herein is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Cooperative Extension Service is implied.
Funding support from The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation for the original enterprise budget software project was greatly appreciated. Horticulture budgets have been adapted from other commodities with the funding support of USDA - Risk Management Agency.
Ohlehoma Stoa Univerity, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11 46 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, religion, disability or status as a veteran in any of his policies, practices or procedures. This includes that is not limited to admissions, employment, financial and educational services.
SOFTWARE INSTALLATION..............................................................................................................3 Online Users...................................................................................................................................3 GETTING STARTED .............................................................................................................................3 Terminology .......................................................................................................................................4 SOFTWARE OPERATION ........................................................................................................................5 Macro Settings ....................................................................................................................................5 Load a Budget File..................................................................................................................................7 The Start-Up Form ....................................................................................................................................7 Worksheet Data Entry ................................................................................................................................10 Erasing Default Information ....................................................................................................................12 Breakeven and Sensitivity Analysis........................................................................................................12 Print Reports ......................................................................................................................................13 Generate Cash Flow Report ..................................................................................................................14 Saving a Customized Budget................................................................................................................14 Restarting a Customized Budget............................................................................................................14 Re-opening a Customized Budget ........................................................................................................14 Error Messages....................................................................................................................................15 HORTICULTURAL BUDGET WORKSHEETS ............................................................................................17 Production ............................................................................................................................................17 Other Income .......................................................................................................................................17 Seed - Watermelon............................................................................................................................17 Establishment - Blackberries, Blueberries, Grapes, Improved Pecans, and Peaches................17 Fertilizer ............................................................................................................................................18 Custom Harvest - Improved and Native Pecans..............................................................................18 Pesticides ..............................................................................................................................................19 Crop Insurance - Peaches.......................................................................................................................20 Labor Categories and Summary............................................................................................................20 Annual Operating Capital .......................................................................................................................20 Post-Harvest
Re-opening a Customized Budget .......................................................................................................14 Error Messages....................................................................................................................................15 Horticultural Budget Worksheets ............................................................................................................17 Production ............................................................................................................................................17 Other Income .......................................................................................................................................17 Seed - Watermelon............................................................................................................................17 Establishment - Blackberries, Blueberries, Grapes, Improved Pecans, and Peaches................17 Fertilizer ...............................................................................................................................................18 Custom Harvest - Improved and Native Pecans..............................................................................18 Pesticides ..............................................................................................................................................19 Crop Insurance - Peaches.......................................................................................................................20 Labor Categories and Summary............................................................................................................20 Annual Operating Capital ....................................................................................................................20 Post-Harvest
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................................................26
## OSU Horticultural Enterprise Budget Advanced User's Guide November 2020
## INTRODUCTION
The OSU Enterprise Budget software is designed to facilitate the development of budgets that are appropriate to a geographic region. Users are allowed to override defaults with their own values to totally customize the budget if their experience and farm records indicate different values and production practices. Our intent is to provide software that is flexible and userfriendly, with default values that are reasonable for items that are difficult to calculate, for example, per acre machinery costs for a specific crop. Additionally, the software is to serve as an educational tool and resource. Links to many references are provided, such as OSU fact sheets and current reports, Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics Service data, and, in some cases, expert opinion. Where possible, web-links are built into the spreadsheets to provide users who have Internet access direct links.
The farm size, cropping plan, and machinery inventory are important determinants of crop budget costs. Farm acreage was defined for two different sizes (small and medium) in order to develop budget default values (Figure 1). Cultural practices and tillage operations were developed through several sources, including consultations with state and area Extension specialists, and a machinery survey of producers. MACHSEL (Kletke and Sestak), a machinery selection spreadsheet template, was used to estimate the costs for a particular machinery complement on a given size farm in a region. Machinery cost estimation is based on equations (some in modified form) from the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE).
In the spreadsheets, numbers can be entered specified with many values to the right of the decimal point (for example, 1/3 could be entered as 33.3333333%). However, some cells are formatted so that zero, one or two values to the right of the decimal place appear in the form (exact values may still be viewed in the cell label at the top of the screen). Calculations in the spreadsheets will be based on the exact value entered whether or not it appears in the form. For the summary page, values are rounded to the nearest two decimal places and/or cents.
Three descriptions will be used in this guide to emphasize the appropriate use of the software and repercussions of misuse of the software:
Warning: Information concerning a procedure or computer setting that may cause software/hardware problems if not followed correctly.
Caution: Information about a procedure that may cause inaccurate data to be introduced into the financial estimates if not used correctly.
Note: Information that requires other special emphasis.
## SOFTWARE INSTALLATION
We recommend that you copy the Enterprise Budget files to the hard drive of your computer for use. This will ensure that any customized budgets will not be saved over the original budget templates.
## Online Users
Budget files may be accessed at: http://www.agecon.okstate.edu/budgets/user\_login.asp An alternative is from the OSU Agricultural Economics Department's home page (http://www.agecon.okstate.edu/, click on Extension, Farm Management and Finance, Budgets, and User Login at left). Type your login and password that were provided via email.
## GETTING STARTED
The OSU Enterprise Budgets are Excel-based spreadsheets. Each budget is an Excel workbook with multiple worksheets within the workbook. To use a budget, you will need Excel 2010 (or a later version). Open Excel by clicking on the Excel icon. Users will see File on the upper lefthand corner of the screen. Click on it and then click Help .
## Terminology
Figure 2 shows the tabs for worksheets in the wheat budget and identifies terms used in this guide.
Command button fonts are color-coded. A blue font indicates a decision task via popup form. Orange fonts are information references and black fonts are generally location links.
## SOFTWARE OPERATION
## Macro Settings
Your computer may have a few settings to adjust before the enterprise budgets will function properly. For the macros to operate, the macro security must be set prior to opening a budget file. In Excel 2010 and later versions, click on File on the upper left-hand corner of the screen and then Options .
## Click Trust Center and then Trust Center Settings.
Click Macro Settings, choose Enable all macros, and click OK .
Load a Budget File.
In Excel 2010 and later, click File on the upper left-hand corner of the screen, Open , locate the OSU Budgets (or the directory in which you copied the Enterprise Budgets) and then click on a selected file name .
## The Start-Up Form
When a budget file (or workbook) is opened, a form appears which allows you to specify information used to calculate the base budget. A peach budget start-up form is shown below:
An indication of the size of the peach enterprise is needed to estimate machinery and equipment costs. If the commodity is a multiyear enterprise with more than one production period, the productive life (e.g., orchard life, vineyard life) must be entered to allocate preproducitive costs over the producive years of the enterprise.
For watermelon budgets, the user must first select from three basic genetic classifications, for example, open, hybrid, or seedless. A list of default varieties is then available for selection. The user will also need to specify the planting timeframe that defines planting and pesticide operation schedules. In a similar fashion, a grape budget user must first select from six basic varietal categories.
Note : The county selection is for description purposes only. Other Country is the appropriate choice for operations outside of Oklahoma. The user may edit the red label in the budget summary header to a specific county and state if desired.
The user may specify whether the crop will be on land they own, cash rent, or share rent. This selection is reversible only by choosing Restart. If the land arrangement is cash rent, the input sheet allows the producer to enter the cash rent amount per acre. If share rent is chosen, the user specifies the percent of the crop they receive, which will be used as the default output share throughout the budget. Defaults for other input and output share amounts are based on industry trends, but may be changed as appropriate.
The user may specify whether the budget is for dryland or irrigated crops. If irrigated is chosen, the user will be able to view the default irrigation cost information and make changes; otherwise, no direct link from the budget sheet to the irrigation sheet is shown. While it is possible to start out with a dryland budget and begin to convert it to an irrigated budget by clicking on the Irrig tab, the preferred method is to start a new budget, noting on the start-up form that it is irrigated rather than dryland.
Note : On native pecan budgets, the dryland setting is the only available choice.
In general, default machinery costs are determined by farm organization in horticultural budgets. The user may specify whether the farm's total acreage is devoted primarily to the enterprise budget crop or composed of several crops typical of the region specified. However, native pecans are assumed to be part of a diversified operation, thus the user may specify the tractor complement size instead. Two tractor complements may be selected where each is defined by the largest PTO horsepower (hp) unit available: small - 45 hp, and medium - 95hp.
Caution : If an enterprise budget scenario is changed in size dramatically (for instance, acreage changes from 5 to 50), a new budget should be started because the start-up form specifies machinery and equipment defaults that match farm size and acreage. To evaluate a different size enterprise after new information has been entered in budget forms, the user may wish to save the budget file ( Choose File , Save As , and specify a name) prior to reopening the budget via the Restart button. Grape and watermelon budgets alert the user to save the current session before switching to a different variety selection. In general, default values and/or customized settings may be erased when different information is specified in the start-up form.
Note : You may add varieties for future reference in the grape and watermelon budgets. Scroll through the variety type(s) using the scroll bar (or arrow keys) and select Add new variety . Enter the new variety properties and click on OK . The new item will be added to the bottom of the list. To use the item, scroll to the bottom of the list and select it.
Note : On various pop-up forms, buttons with a ? (question mark) label are available to assist the user with entry items and/or provide additional information as to the general use of the form.
Once the start-up form is completed, click on OK . A budget summary sheet will appear (see below). Values in budgets are specified on a per acre basis. The budget should be further
customized by clicking on the budget items in blue (hyperlinks) which link to supporting sheets. The hyperlinks change color once they have been used, allowing the user to note items they have visited and ones they may still need to view. You may also click on the tabs at the bottom of the sheet to move to a specific sheet within the workbook.
Note: It is important to follow through and check all supporting sheets to ensure that the assumptions match the budget specified. Some modification may be needed on many or all sheets.
Sections that follow describe information in each tabbed sheet. The tabs may include Yield, Other Inc(ome), Seed, Fertilizer, Harvest, Ins(urance), Disease, Insects, Weeds, Total labor (with separate sheets by labor category), Hauling, Post Harvest, Machinery, Equip(ment), Irrig(ation), C(ash) Rent, Other Exp(enses), and IFFS. In multiyear budgets, Est Summary (preproductive expense summary), Pre Plant (year prior to planting), Est (establishment/planting year), and Pre Prod (year(s) prior to first harvest season) are included.
Note: If you use the tabs at the bottom of the sheet to move from worksheet to worksheet within a budget, your cursor will return to the spot where you last left it on the previous worksheet.
## Worksheet Data Entry
All budgets initially include default values, such as average prices, yields, etc. To change the default values to match a particular farm operation, click on the hyperlink item in the budget summary or select the worksheet tab located near the bottom of the screen. This accesses a second, specific worksheet. For example, let's say that you are interested in changing the default data for Insecticide use in the grape budget. On the grape budget under OPERATING INPUTS, click on Insect Control (blue input link), and the following worksheet will appear:
AGEC-322 Pesticide Recordkeeping Requirements for Crop Production EPP-7319 Home Tree Fruit Production and Pest Management
CR-6240 Commercial Peach-Nectarine Insect and Disease Control
View these and other OSU Publications at:
unless a pop-up menu allows you to select the name of the month. Lists of default items in popup forms are in alphabetic order.
To move from one cell to another, use the arrow keys or click with the mouse on the next cell. Within a form, the Tab key moves your cursor on the cell to the right. The Enter key moves your cursor down one row. Enter numbers as decimals in worksheets; fractions are not allowed. For example, 1/3 should be entered as 0.33. You can make changes to the default data by placing the cursor in one of the yellow cells and double-clicking. If you double-click on a line containing information from a prior session and make changes, your data will be updated on this line. For instance, in the Insecticide worksheet (shown above), if you double-click on a blank line and select an item, it will be added to the existing entry. Double-clicking on the line with Sevin 4F will bring up the following form:
The pop-up forms summarize information either specified by the user or OSU-specified default data. Use of the pop-up form is required if you wish to retain item changes for future sessions.
Note: Changes made in the worksheet without the use of the pop-up form do not change information stored in the user's database. Consequently, the item's contents as shown in the worksheet may not match the form's contents for that same item.
At any time, the user may access default (OSU specified) information by clicking on Reset Defaults . This may be especially useful after a database update as discussed later.
Note: In addition to Insecticides, new items may be added in Fertilizer, Disease, Weeds, and Equipment Inventory (for grapes and blackberries) in horticultural budgets. The process for adding and modifying items in these sheets is similar.
Not all changes require the use of pop-up forms. If, for example, you want to change the grape price in the grape budget, go to the budget summary sheet, click on the varietal type (highlighted in blue) in the Production section, and then make the change in the appropriate green cell on the Yield worksheet.
## Erasing Default Information
If default information is not relevant to your operation, highlight the cells to be erased, choose Edit from the main menu bar, Clear , Contents . Or, you may highlight the cells to be erased and press the Delete key. Type in a zero or use the Delete key to clear the contents of individual cells. Only erase yellow or green input cells. A cell protection message appears if the user attempts to erase protected tan or blue cells.
Warning: Using the space bar to clear contents may result in a #Value! sign or a Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) Error.
## Breakeven and Sensitivity Analysis
The enterprise budget provides information on break-even prices and yields given budget specifications. In a summary table at the bottom of the Budget sheet, two breakeven yield and price levels are shown: one above operating costs, the other above total costs (both operating and fixed). The breakeven yield is the yield needed to cover costs given the expected price and other income. The breakeven price is the price needed to cover costs given the expected yield and other income.
Sensitivity tables display the return per acre over operating costs and above all specified costs. The sensitivity tables allow the user to adjust the percentage change in crop yields and/or percent change in crop price.
## Print Reports
Summary sheets are available for each worksheet tab in the budget (wheat is shown here).
The user may choose to print all or individual reports. Clicking on Print Preview will allow all selected reports to be viewed prior to printing. Choose Close (or Next in the case of a multiple page report) to view reports while in the print preview mode. You may then print selected reports by deactivating Print Preview and clicking on OK . Black and White Only is the default setting. To preview and/or print with shading or in color, de-select Black and White Only .
Warning : Make sure a printer is currently installed prior to opening up a budget file. Failure to do so will not allow the print module to function properly and may also result in the removal of screen color formats if Black and White Only is selected. The user is encouraged to close out the budget session without saving and a printer should be installed prior to the next budget session.
## Generate Cash Flow Report
Cash flow files may be generated by clicking on the Generate Cash Flow button. If OK is selected, the cash flow report is automatically updated and the user is asked to specify a filename. The cash flow content can be viewed later for reference purposes using the IFFS tab along the bottom of the Excel screen. The output sheet is essentially a "snapshot" of the cash flow file.
In all cash flow reports, tax and insurance allocations may be specified as operating expenses or included in "Land or Other Fixed Charges".
Note: If a budget is modified, the Generate Cash Flow button must be used to update the report before the numbers shown in the IFFS tab or printed in a report will be accurate.
## Saving a Customized Budget
To save a 2010 or later version formatted budget file, click File on the upper left-hand corner of the screen, Save As , and give the budget a new name so as not to replace the original budget template.
Note: You may want to save a customized budget before printing it so that the correct file name will print at the bottom of the page.
## Restarting a Customized Budget
To evaluate a different enterprise budget scenario, press the Restart button . A pop-up menu confirms your intention before you access a start-up screen containing the information previously entered. If you do not want to modify information on this screen, click Cancel . If you want to modify the start-up data, make the appropriate changes and click on OK . Pressing OK will save information in this start-up form as new defaults.
Caution : In general, various inputs automatically increase or decrease if a different budget acreage or stocker herd size is specified. The notable exception applies to the cow-calf budget where it is important to update the appropriate number of head shown in supporting worksheets to correspond with the new scenario.
## Re-opening a Customized Budget
When you re-open a budget that you have saved from a prior session, you will get a start-up screen that contains the information previously entered. If you do not want to modify information on this screen, click Cancel . If you want to modify the start-up data, make the appropriate changes and click on OK . Pressing OK will modify new defaults to match the startup data.
## Error Messages
All budget workbooks were developed in Microsoft Excel and utilize VBA to handle data manipulation and provide the user interface. If you encounter a VBA error, you will receive popup message similar to this:
Press End to ignore the code error and continue running the program. However, there may be errors in logic and/or calculations as a result. The user should document the series of steps leading to the error message, save the file, and notify:
Roger Sahs, Extension Assistant 520 Ag Hall Oklahoma State University (405) 744-7075 roger.sahs@okstate.edu
## HORTICULTURAL BUDGET WORKSHEETS
## Production
All crop production information is located on the Yield sheet. Default yields are based on field trials or expert opinion. The default price is based on a 10-year annual average for all budgets except grapes (Oklahoma Grape Growers Survey) and blueberries/blackberries (expert opinion). The Averages button provides reference to historical price data. An input row, "Your Value", below the default specification allows the user to enter changes.
In most budget settings, clicking on the Month(s) button brings up a form allowing the producer to specify month(s) of crop sales as well as monthly sale prices. Horticultural budgets do not contain seasonal price indices, resulting in equal monthly default prices in the sales form. The user may adjust any sale months and/or prices in the form. If the sale month is changed from harvest, a message will remind the user to adjust the annual capital month in the Parameters section to match the first month of sales. This allows the budget's operating interest to calculate accurately. If multiple sale months are specified, a weighted average price will appear in the budget summary.
If you first enter specific prices in specific months but later want to reset the price series back to the default setting, use the Reset Default Prices button. The resulting price series reflects the default estimated harvest price (or user-specified price if an entry was made in "Your Value"). To restore the initial default price and distribution, the user must also delete the "Your Value" price contents.
Note: Resetting the price does not reset the distribution of sales to 100 percent at harvest.
## Other Income
The Other Income sheet allows the user to specify any other income generated, the month received, and the amount per acre. Two lines are reserved for government payment categories.
## Seed - Watermelon
Use this sheet to specify transplant rate, plant price, and planting date. A change in the planting date will automatically adjust the default harvest date based on the variety's days to maturity.
## Establishment - Blackberries, Blueberries, Grapes, Improved Pecans, and Peaches
Budgets that contain establishment (also known as preproductive) expenses are prorated as a fixed cost in the enterprise budget summary. Preproductive cost determination and allocation are based on the cost recovery method where annual costs are accrued to a future value at the end of each preproductive period. The total cost is then amortized over the productive life of the enterprise specified adjusted by the length of the preproductive period in years.
Clicking on the Establishment link in the budget summary sheet will transfer the user to a cost summary of cultural practices prior to first harvest. Clicking on a production item link allows the user to make further revisions. Expenses related to each preproductive period may be transferred to a cash flow report individually.
Fertilizer
Up to eight fertilizer applications may be specified in the Fertilizer sheet. Data needed includes the fertilizer type, month of application, pounds applied per acre, acreage applied, percent nitrogen (N), percent phosphorus (P), percent potassium (K), fertilizer price per ton, and custom application charge. Default fertilizer applications are specified but can be modified. Alternatively, another fertilizer can also be entered directly in the worksheet by double-clicking within the yellow cells. A pop-up form of available fertilizers, the acreage applied (default is the user-specified budget acreage), the percent N, P, and K, the price per ton, and custom rates are provided. The worksheet automatically calculates the price per pound of the fertilizer. The user may indicate the pounds of P and K needed for fertilizer requirements, residual soil nitrogen (default is zero), and adjust application practices to meet those needs. The Fertilizer Rates button provides N, P, and K recommendations based on Oklahoma State University (OSU) field tests.
Use the Lime Application button to enter lime costs. In multiyear budgets that contain establishment expenses, lime application costs may also be entered within the preplant year summary by clicking on the Lime button. The input sheet for lime is similar to that of fertilizer. Entries include month of application, tons applied per acre, acreage applied, percent Effective Calcium carbonate Equivalent (ECCE), and the price per ton. If lime is applied during fruit bearing years, the years over which the costs should be prorated is also provided. Specified custom application costs are also prorated and included in the Custom Hire budget item.
The Fertilizer Calc button is used to toggle on or off the automatic computation of nitrogen to meet yield requirements. The default mode automatically calculates the amount of the fertilizer shown in the first line of the form to meet the yield goals. Manual adjustments in the type and amount applied can be made with the fertilizer calculator turned off. A message appears below the fertilizer table if applied nitrogen does not meet the yield requirements. Similarly, if the nitrogen level in the soil matches or exceeds nitrogen requirements, a message suggests a potential reduction of nitrogen application(s). The nitrogen message appears only if the application is 10 pounds over or under the amount required. Phosphorus and potassium messages appear only if the application is 5 pounds over or under the amount as specified by the user.
## Custom Harvest - Improved and Native Pecans
The Custom Harvest link in the budget summary allows the user to specify harvest operations and costs for owned or custom work in the Harvest sheet. In general, if owned machinery is selected, all operating costs will be included in the Machinery Fuel, Lube, Repairs budget item and Custom Harvest costs will be zero. If custom harvest is selected, Custom Harvest cost is shown as a percentage of the crop proceeds received by the custom harvester.
Note: In an owner-operator situation , the budgets assume the party uses owned harvest machinery and equipment unless the user clicks on the Custom option button. A custom harvest selection only impacts harvest operations and does not involve additional cost shares as noted with the landlord discussion below. A default custom rate (50% of the crop) is based on industry observations by OSU specialists.
In a tenant (lessee) situation, the budgets assume the party uses owned harvest machinery and equipment and charges the landlord a percentage of the crop to cover harvest costs. In effect, the custom rate charged is equal to the share of the crop specified in the Start-up form or on the Yield sheet during the session. The Custom option button and corresponding Custom Harvest Information link are disabled. Other cost shares are typically involved in the pecan lease agreement and may be modified as needed.
In a landlord (lessor) situation, the budgets assume the party uses a custom operator (tenant) to harvest pecans and receives the remaining balance of the proceeds based on the custom rate paid. In effect, the difference between harvested crop revenues and the share of the crop received (as specified in the Start-Up form or on the Yield sheet) defines the custom rate paid. The Owned Harvest Equipment option button and View Owned Equipment link are disabled. Other cost shares are typically involved in the pecan lease agreement and may be modified as needed.
Clicking on the View Owned Equipment button allows the user access to the Owned Harvest Machinery Cost summary section for further analysis. Total variable and fixed costs are calculated only if the Owned Harvest Equipment option button is active. The user may make changes in the cost summary by entering values directly into the "Your Value" column. Clicking on the Harvest Cost Estimator button provides a shaker and harvester expense review as well as the option to add any miscellaneous expenses into the "Other" column.
Although the budget software does not have a Machinery Leasing option button, the owneroperator or tenant may incorporate the costs of a leased harvest machine by following these steps:
- 1. Activate Owned Harvest option button.
- 2. Adjust fixed cost to zero if appropriate (all harvest machinery and equipment is leased) in the "Your Value" column of the Owned Harvest Machinery Costs summary; otherwise, lower fixed costs to omit the item(s) leased.
- 3. Adjust variable costs if necessary. Since fuel, lubricant, and labor costs are the same whether a machine is owned or leased, these operating items may not need adjustment. Repair costs for leased machines may need to be lowered, because short-term leased equipment typically have considerably lower hourly repair costs than an item owned for its complete useful life.
- 4. Enter the lease or rental cost in the Other Expense section. Since there are various types of leasing arrangements (per day, week, month, etc.), the user will need to convert the rental amount (including any delivery costs) to an acre basis given the specified budget acreage.
## Pesticides
Pesticide applications and associated costs incurred for various programs including weed, insect, and disease control are provided on separate screens. Each pesticide sheet allows data entries including the pesticide name, month of application, application unit, unit(s) per acre to apply, acreage applied, cost per unit, and charge for custom application. One or more default pesticide applications have been specified, but as with the fertilizer sheet, the user can modify them. By double-clicking in the pesticide table yellow cells, a pop-up form of typical pesticides, rates, and prices is shown. The user can choose a pesticide from the provided list or build a list of customized pesticides for future reference. This is accomplished via the at the bottom of the pesticide scroll list. Each pesticide sheet also calculates the cost of chemical
(cost per unit times units per acre) and the cost of application (cost of chemical plus any custom application charges) per budget acre.
In addition, disease control measures may be entered individually or as a combined cost for all items. Select the Itemize option button to enter detailed cost information. Click on OK to proceed with your choice. A cost summary of practices is shown with links to each disease control. Data may be entered directly or by double-clicking within each disease control table. To specify a total value that summarizes all disease control information, select Combined and click on OK to proceed. This choice will override all individual settings with a value reflecting all controls. Use of Combined does not allow custom costs associated with disease control to be included in custom hire calculations shown in the machinery sheet or budget summary.
Note: To remove the costs associated with a default pesticide, you must delete both the cost of the pesticide as well as the custom application cost, if any.
## Crop Insurance - Peaches
Use this sheet to enter the cost per acre of crop insurance. You may also record some descriptive information about the policy (approved APH yield, yield coverage level, crop price election, the value of coverage). Only the cost per acre value is used in any budget calculations.
## Labor Categories and Summary
Clicking on any Labor item in the budget summary will link the user to a cost summary of all labor categories within each horticultural budget. The user may use the specified costs or make changes by clicking on the category button listed.
## Annual Operating Capital
The cash needed to pay monthly bills may be borrowed from an agricultural lender where interest is charged based on the interest rate and duration money is borrowed. Or, money may be "borrowed" from farm or family savings to cover shortfalls, resulting in foregone interest income. Operating capital requirements are estimated on an annual basis by determining how long each expense is invested in the enterprise before it is recovered through the sale of all or part of the enterprise's production. The annualized capital needs for a given month are the difference between receipts and expenses for the month divided by 12 plus the previous month's annualized capital requirements. If the balance for any month is zero or less, the annualized capital balance is set to zero as a base for the following months. Monthly capital needs are totaled to obtain the annual capital requirements, and hence the annual operating capital charge. The user can make changes to the default interest rate charged on operating capital by adjusting the percentage on the Parameters sheet.
The annual capital month is the month when outstanding interest charges on annual capital are terminated and is generally assumed to coincide with the month of production. The default annual capital month in the crop budgets generally assumes that the sales month coincides with the harvest month. As previously mentioned, if the user does not employ the default budget sales month, a message will prompt the user to adjust the annual capital month in the Parameters sheet to reflect the revised sale month (or the first month of sale in the case of multiple months). This will allow the budget's operating interest to calculate accurately.
## Post-Harvest
In general, the user may specify the post-harvest expense item, month of occurrence, and dollars per acre expense. Watermelon expenses are limited to two items, harvesting and marketing per pound. The user may make changes in the default rates by entering values in the "Your Value" column. The dollars per acre is automatically calculated. In the peach budget, the user may specify the units per acre and the cost per unit resulting in automatic per acre calculations. One line is reserved for carton expenses.
## Parameters
Parameters are items such as wage rates, fuel prices, tax rates and interest rates used in determining the opportunity cost on investments. Several variables listed in the Parameters sheet are used in all budget calculations: labor wage rates, fuel prices, annual operating and machinery loan interest rates, tax and insurance rates for machinery, harvest month, opportunity interest on owned land, ad valorem tax rate on land, value of land per acre, and the percent of overhead costs to be allocated to the enterprise. In multiyear budgets, the real interest rate used in adjusting preproduction costs is also requested. In default budgets, land is a residual claimant against the returns shown in the budget summary. However, the opportunity cost of land and real estate taxes may be included through data entry in the Parameters sheet. If such costs are included, returns above all specified costs are defined as returns to management risk, and overhead in the budget summary.
## Machinery
Non-harvest machinery costs are summarized in the Machinery sheet with links to non-harvest operations and other details. The default assumes non-harvest machinery is owned. Non-harvest costs are representative for the farm size/organization and the machinery complement initially specified at start-up, the level of custom service selected, and the operations based on information in the Non-Harvest Operations section. The non-harvest machinery cost sheet has buttons to View Parameters , Non-Harvest Operations, Labor Categories , and More Information .
The user has three machinery selections available in the effort to build a cost scenario that best represents the field operations performed using owned machinery and/or custom operators.
If Use Owned Equipment Only is selected, the machinery cost structure assumes the farm size/organization and the machinery complement initially specified at start-up and the default operations shown in the Non-Harvest Operations section. With this choice, the Non-Harvest Operations section is primarily available for reference purposes only. A 0.5 times over means that half the budget acreage is covered (for instance, with a spraying operation) annually or all the acres are covered every two years. Modifying the Non-Harvest Operations section will not change the default cost calculation for owned machinery (any frequency or timing revisions may influence the allocation of such costs if exported to a cash flow report, however). The user may enter cost revisions concerning owned machinery in the " Your Value " column in the NonHarvest Machinery Cost summary. For assistance in calculating costs for a farm's machinery complement, refer to MACHSEL $^{2}$. If the user
changes any settings in the Parameters sheet via View Parameters (e.g., fuel prices), automatic cost revisions are made in the default column. Custom applications that are listed in the fertilizer or pesticide sections are included in total custom machinery costs within the Non-Harvest Machinery Cost summary.
- 1. If Use Custom Work Only is selected, the user may revise custom costs per acre by specifying the operations performed, frequency, and custom rate per acre in the Non-Harvest Operations section. The default custom rate data is based on OSU CR-205. Average custom rates for the Oklahoma reporting regions in the publication were selected to roughly correspond with the production regions in the budget template.
Caution : To prevent cost duplication, fertilizer and pesticide operations listed within the Non-Harvest Operations section are eliminated from cost calculations if custom applications in the Fertilizer and Pesticide sheets are also provided. It is recommended that further adjustments be performed separately in the fertilizer or pesticide information tables by identifying the custom operations with a custom application charge.
- 2. If Use Owned Equipment and Custom Work is selected, four categories of field operations (Fertilizer, Pesticide, Planting, and All Other) may be divided between either choice. If a category is identified as custom performed, a pop-up message reminds the user as to the operations that fall under the selection. As more field operation categories are custom performed, the costs for owned machinery decline accordingly. This may be a useful cost comparison when analyzing owned machinery and custom operations. For small operations or new machinery complements, the cost of custom work may be lower. If so, a choice to use the lower custom cost may be specified.
Caution : As mentioned with Use Custom Work Only , additional revisions may be made in the Non-Harvest Operations section. In addition, specified custom operations are identified as checked boxes at the left-hand side of the Non-Harvest Operations section. The user may make additional refinements as to the number of operations custom performed by checking or un-checking items. The user should press the Recalculate Selected Custom Cost button to update cost calculations if revisions are made. The user should make any necessary adjustments in the fertilizer or pesticide sections to avoid duplication in custom operations.
Note : While the user may make numerous revisions in the custom cost structure, automatic adjustments in owned machinery costs are limited by field operation category selections and parameter revisions.
Renting tractors and other farm equipment is another means of acquiring machinery services. The user may include non-harvest rental practices in the machinery section by following these steps:
Adjust fixed costs to zero in the "Your Value" column within the Non-Harvest Machinery Cost summary if all non-harvest machinery and equipment is rented; otherwise, lower fixed costs to omit the leased item(s).
Machinery operating costs only occur when a machine is used. Budget examples include fuel, lubrication, and repairs. Only implements with engines incur a fuel cost and the rate of fuel consumption depends on the PTO hp.
## Annual Fuel Cost = PTO hp * FCM * Fuel Price Per Gallon * HOURS
FCM is the Fuel Consumption Multiplier and HODRS is the number of hours the power unit is used. The Fuel Consumption Multiplier is the rate of fuel usage in gallons per hour and is assumed to be 0.048.
Repair cost equations estimate the total annual repair costs based on the accumulated hours of lifetime use. Repair and maintenance calculations are based on ASAE referenced equations.
$$\begin{array} { l } { { \mathrm { N u m a l } \, R e p a i r \, C o s t = \frac { \langle \Lambda _ { 1 } \rangle \cdot \Lambda _ { 2 } \rangle \cdot \Lambda _ { 3 } \rangle } { \langle \Lambda _ { 1 } \rangle \cdot \Lambda _ { 2 } \rangle \cdot \Lambda _ { 3 } \rangle } } \end{array}$$
RC1 is the ratio of total lifetime accumulated repairs to the initial list price of the machine. RC2 and RC3 determine the timing of repair costs over the life of the machine. Percent Life is the proportion of machine life that will have expired when the current operator trades in or no longer uses the machine. The estimated number of years of use is defined as YEARS . The formula for estimating percent life is:
$$\Pr e c \, L i f e = \frac { Y E A R S * H O U R S } { H o u r s \, \, F i l e } \quad \quad \times \, 1 0 0$$
Total annual machinery operating costs per complement are allocated to the enterprise by multiplying the implement's cost per hour by the number of hours per acre each machine is used in performing a field operation.
Machinery fixed costs accumulate whether or not a machine is used. Types of ownership costs include depreciation, interest, taxes, and insurance. Used equipment has lower ownership costs. However, increased repairs and down time may offset fixed cost savings.
Depreciation represents an attempt to spread the investment cost or purchase price of durable assets over their productive lifetime. It is typically the largest cost associated with ownership reflecting normal machine wear and obsolescence. Depreciation should reflect the actual decline of value during ownership and a modified double-declining balance method is used to illustrate
this relationship. The major modification is the addition of a factor that typically yields a high first year depreciation. Salvage value is determined by the following equation:
the budget information is exported to cash flow report, all labor costs are presumed to be cash costs.
## Equipment - Blackberries and Grapes
In the blackberries and grapes budgets, trellis system costs are summarized in the Equip(ment) sheet with a link to separate system inventories via the Trellis System button . Modifications or additions can be made directly in the green cells within the costs summary or through a form accessed by double-clicking the yellow cells in the trellis system table.
Note : The year of installation is necessary in order to accurately allocate construction and annual labor during the preproductive period. Repair costs are determined by the user as a percentage of the purchase price. See the machinery section for additional details on fixed costs.
## Irrigation
The user will not ordinarily access this sheet unless irrigation is specified via the start-up form. If you specify an irrigated crop at the beginning, direct links to Irrigation (action) sheet are through the Irrigation Labor or Irrigation Fuel, Lube , Repairs hyperlinks in the Operating Inputs section of the budget summary sheet. The user is offered a choice of several irrigation systems and pump power sources. Additional refinements that impact variable and fixed costs may be made by clicking the Irrigation Details button.
Total operating costs are dictated by the cost of water per acre-inch and the calculated total inches of water to be applied as shown in the Irrigation Costs summary. The amount of water required is based on system efficiency, average rainfall, and crop water requirements. By pressing the View Avg . Rainfall button, monthly average rainfall by region covering 30 years is available to evaluate the appropriate water application sequence by month. Default costs may be modified with entries in the "Your Value" column.
In addition to efficiency and water availability, the initial capital requirement is a fundamental component that influences the fixed costs of an irrigation system. Such determinations may be made in the Initial Irrigation Investment Cost section via the Irrigation Details button. Fixed cost items include depreciation, interest, insurance, and taxes.
Hours of irrigation labor per acre are generally greater for surface systems than with circular sprinkler irrigation. The wage rate provided in the Parameters sheet will also impact irrigation labor costs.
## Cash Rent
If cash rent is specified, the user is allowed to change the amount and payment month(s) via the Adjust Rental Amount button in the C(ash)Rent sheet.
## Other Expense
The Other Expense sheet includes items not accounted for in other sections. The user specifies the expense item, month of occurrence, and the dollars per acre expense.
## REFERENCES
AAEA Task Force. "Commodity Cost and Returns Estimation Handbook." February 2000.
Kletke, D and R. Sestak. "The Operation and Use of Machsel: A Farm Machinery Selection Template." Computer Software Series CSS-53, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oklahoma State University, 1991.
Oklahoma Agricultural Statistics Service.
Sahs, R. "Oklahoma Cropland Rental Rates." OSU Current Report 230, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University.
Sahs, R. "Oklahoma Farm and Ranch Custom Rates." OSU Current Report 205, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University.
Sahs, R. "Oklahoma Pasture Rental Rates." OSU Current Report 216, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University.
Stafne, Eric. Oklahoma Grape Growers Survey, 2006.
USDA Census of Agriculture. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1984/84-60.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090305154122-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## RUMINAL DISAPPEARANCE OF EXTRACTED SOYBEAN MEAL AND MEAT MEAL
A. L. Goetsch
J. R. Barrio 1, D. C. Weakley 2, and F. N. Owens 3
## Story in Brief
Soybean meal (SBM and meat meal (MM) in original form, rinsed with buffer or following buffer extraction at pH 5 or 7, were ruminally incubated for various times up to 72 hours in the rumen of heifers fed 20 (R) or 80 (C) concentrate diets. In situ dry matter and nitrogen disappearance (DMD, ND) for SBM and MM tended to be greater for the roughage than the concentrate diet at shorter times of incubation but greater for the concentrate than the roughage diet for incubation times over 24 hr. For untreated SBM, disappearance at 4 hr of incubation was higher for the 20 percent than the 80 percent concentrate diet. Extraction reduced the extent of ND from SBM but not from MM. DMD and ND were not markedly altered by pH of extraction (5 vs 7). Differences in ND between C and R diets cannot be explained simply by loss of soluble protein since differences continued beyond the time for soluble protein to be removed.
## Introduction
Ruminal pH has been suggested to be a primary factor which alters protein digestion in the rumen, presumably due to differences in solubility of protein at different pH. Removal of soluble protein should occur during the first few hours of ruminal incubation. Prolonged effects of ruminal pH on rate of substrate disappearance after rapidly solubilized materials are gone are not well defined, though treatment of protein with acetic acid may reduce in situ ND. Protein solubilization could theoretically alter subsequent protein disappearance, however, pH also could influence microbial degradation capacity. The objectives of this experiment were to detect and quantitate the effect of removal of soluable materials from soybean and meat meal on in situ dry matter and nitrogen disappearance in heifers fed a concentrate or a rougheage diet.
## Materials and Methods
Two Hereford heifers (482 lb), fitted with ruminal cannulas (10.2 cm i.d.), were used in a crossover experiment. Animals were fed diets at 1.7 percent body weight (dry matter basis) in four equal feedings per day. Diets were 20 and 80 percent roughease, made isontrogenous by addition of soybean meal. Prairie hay was varied to achieve the different roughage levels. Periods lasted 15 days, with dacron bags being incubated the last three days of each period. Substrates tested and incubation times are presented in Table 1. SBM and MM were extracted with McDougalls buffer adjusted to pH 5.0 or 7.0 for six hours at 39 C in a shaking water bath. After extraction, samples were sieved
| Substrate | Preparation | Incubation times, hr |
|--------------|-----------------|------------------------|
| Soybean meal | None | 4, 12, 24, 48 |
| Meat meal | Extracted, pH 5 | 4, 12, 24 |
| Soybean meal | Extracted, pH 5 | 4, 12, 24 |
| Meat meal | Extracted, pH 7 | 4, 12, 24 |
| Soybean meal | Extracted, pH 7 | 4, 12, 24 |
| Meat meal | Rinsed, pH 6 | 4, 12, 24, 48, 72 |
| Soybean meal | Rinsed, pH 6 | 4, 12, 24, 48 |
using dacron cloth to retain the insoluble residues. Residues were dried at 60 C for 10 hours and screened through a 2 mm sieve prior to placing into bags. On removal of bags from the rumen, bags were rinsed with tap water until rinsing water was clear. Bags were then dried at 100 C and residual dry matter was determined. Nitrogen contents of bag plus the residue were measured. Blank bags were similarly incubated to partially correct for influx of material from the rumen. Rates of DMD and ND were calculated by regressing amounts of residual material against time. Ruminal fluid samples were obtained at times at which bags were placed in the rumen and analyzed for pH and ammonia N (NH$\_{3}$-N) concentration.
## Results and Discussion
Ruminal pH was higher (P
SBM and MM were extracted at pH 5 or 7 to study effects of removal of the soluble proteins on in situ digestion. ND of SBM at 4 hr was reduced by extraction at pH 5 or pH 7 (Figure 3), presumably due to removal of soluble components. ND of untreated MMA at 12 and 24 hr was intermediate to MM extracted at pH 7 and 5 (Figure 4). Animal protein sources may respond differently to ruminal pH conditions than vegetable protein feeds.
DMD and ND of SBM extracted at pH 5 and 7 did not greatly differ. Higher rates of DMD and ND averaged across feedstuffs, were observed for the R diet than for the C diet (P
Likewise, values tended to be greater for the C diet with SBM extracted at pH 7. Differences at later times were smaller, possibly reflecting different quantities or types of proteins being lost during preincubation treatment. The parallel lines for ND (Figure 3) suggest that ND of SBM was not altered by extraction and that the main effect of extraction was in removal of the soluble N fraction.
To determine whether presence of soluble protein altered DMD on ND in situ, rinsed SBM and MM were incubated together. Rates of disappearance were midway between rinsed MN and SBM, suggesting that
In appearance were midway between rinsed MN and SBM, suggesting that degradation of the two protein sources was occurring independently. Previously, some workers have suggested that in situ digestion rates are not additive. Our results indicate that in situ digestion rates for SBM and MM were additive. Interference with washing procedures or problems with inoculation or removal of end products from bags may complicate incubation of certain substrates together. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/ag-policy-and-law/farm-bill.html | Farm Bill - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-04-06 | [] | OK | ## FARM BILL
I is an omnibus bill des authorization j for food and programs over rs . Although it isn't i slation that affects riculture, this bill ¿ey programs agricultural issues ir horizon. The I was the Act of 2014. The s the Agriculture nt act of 2018.
## Learn More about Past and Current Farm BillS
The 2019 Farm Bill - (https://youtu.be/D5iZozUzwsc) What is it? Why do we have the 2019 ( https://youtu.be/6DkfrarmBill? B2PEb4 )
Farmer's Guide - (https://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs2018 Farm Bill and-services/farm-bill/index)
The 2018 Ag /fact-sheets/overview-of-theImprovement agricultural-improvement-act-of- 2018.html)
The (fact-sheets/overview-of-theAgricultural agricultural-improvement-act-of- 2018.html)
Agricultural(https://www.choicesmagazine.org/choicesAct of 2014 magazine/theme-articles/deciphering-key- Key provisions-of-the-agricultural-act-ofProvisions 2014/theme-overview-deciphering-keyprovisions-of-the-agricultural-act-of-2014)
¶d many of the established in the Act of 2014 or but made multiple
## Farm
m bill was the Act of 1933, and ural Act of 1949 : permanent farm ien, farm bills have e Agriculture Act ms that have a ing date. In recent is has been a 5 ame. The most bill was the Act of 2014. The irect payments, clical payments ayments for all nmodities, and em with pride and ´tection programs ·ultural s .
## ning
## 'rserved lers and hers
¥ support nd underserved ¶ ranchers are also ¿ farm bill, and
ket improvement
ll as additional
¿ crop insurance.
formation on
j are eligible for
ams, contact your
' extension agent
IFSA office. |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/covid-19-resources-for-local-governments | NA | NA | [] | null | [] | MS | ## COVID-19 Resources for Local Governments
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under:
City and County Government, Coronavirus
Publication Number: P2344
View as PDF: P2344.pdf
As we all navigate new challenges resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, we recommend that local governments review the following information.
## Immediate steps local governments should take:
- 1. Identify, monitor, and closely document all expenditures incurred because of the coronavirus.
- a. Classify each item as a pre-budget expense versus a non-budgeted expense.
- b. This should be done even if there are no currently identified reimbursement programs.
- 2. Begin to identify projected revenue shortfalls.
- a. Implement cost-saving measures as needed based on projected revenue shortfalls.
## CARES Act
Local governments in Mississippi do not meet the 500,000-population threshold for direct payment of CARES Act funds. The state will receive funding and have discretion on how or if funds will be distributed to local governments. Documenting any expenses related to the coronavirus will be vital if these funds become available.
Funding for specific areas (for example, law enforcement, arts, airports, public transportation systems, etc.) may be made available from the CARES Act through existing federal agencies and grant programs. Many of the details related to these programs are forthcoming. If you have active grants, we recommend that you contact the funding sources about additional opportunities.
## FEMA Public Assistance
Consistent with the president's national emergency declaration for the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic on March 13, 2020, FEMA urges officials to, without delay, take appropriate actions that are necessary to protect public health and safety pursuant to public health guidance and conditions and capabilities in their jurisdictions. FEMA provides guidance on the types of emergency protective measures that may be eligible under FEMA's Public Assistance program in accordance with the COVID-19 emergency declaration in order to ensure that resource constraints do not inhibit efforts to respond to this unprecedented disaster. Detailed information can be viewed here: https://www.msema.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/4528-Public-Assistance-ApplicantBriefing.pptx .
## Families First Coronavirus Response Act (FFCRA)
The federal Families First Coronavirus Response Act (FFCRA) went into effect on April 1, 2020. It requires certain employers to provide their employees with paid sick leave or expanded family and
medical leave for specified reasons related to COVID-19. New employee notice posters are required to
be posted in workplaces. Complete information can be found
here: https://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/pandemic/ffcra-employer-paid-leave .
## For More Information
## Jason Camp, PhD
Extension Instructor
Center for Government and Community Development
Mississippi State University Extension Service
jason.camp@msstate.edu
662) 325-3141 (voice)
For more helpful resources related to COVID-19, please visit our web site at http://extension.msstate.edu/coronavirus .
M2344 (POD-04-20)
By Jason Camp , PhD, Extension Instructor, Extension Center for Government and Community Development.
Copyright 2020 by Mississippi State University. All rights reserved. This publication may be copied and distributed without alteration for nonprofit educational purposes provided that credit is given to the Mississippi State University Extension Service.
Produced by Agricultural Communications.
Mississippi State University is an equal opportunity institution. Discrimination in university employment, programs, or activities based on race, color, ethnicity, sex, pregnancy, religion, national origin, disability, age, sexual orientation, genetic information, status as a U.S. veteran, or any other status protected by applicable law is prohibited. Questions about equal opportunity programs or compliance should be directed to the Office of Compliance and Integrity, 56 Morgan Avenue, P.O. 6044, Mississippi State, MS 39762, (662) 325-5839.
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. GARY B. JACKSON, Director
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the weebteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. Jason Camp
Extension Specialist II
Municipal Government, Tax Assessment and Collection, Local Government Technical
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## Related Publications
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https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/CG022 | 2024–2025 Florida Citrus Production Guide: Brown Rot of Fruit | University of Florida | [
"Megan M. Dewdney",
"Evan G. Johnson"
] | 2024-08-20 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## 2024-2025 Florida Citrus Production Guide: Brown Rot of Fruit
Megan M. Dewdney and Evan G. Johnson
Management of brown rot, caused by Phytophthora nicotinase or P. palmaivora , is needed on both processing and fresh-market fruit. While the disease affects all citrus types, it is usually most severe on Hamlin, Navele, and other early-martyring sweet orange cultivars. See chapter 31, "Phytopthora Foot Rot, Crown Rot, and Root Rot." for information on other phytophthora diseases.
Phytophthora brown rot is a localized problem, usually associated with restricted air and/or water drainage. It commonly appears from mid-August through October following extended periods of high rainfall. It can be confused with fruit drop from other causes that at time of year. If caused by P. nicotinae, brown rot is limited to the lower third of the canopy because the fungus-like organism is splashed onto fruit from the soil. P. palmoviridae produces abundant saponate on infected fruit that can splash onto fruit throughout the canopy.
Early-season inoculum production and spread of Phytophthora spp are minimized with key cultural practice modifications. Skifting of trees reduces the opportunity for soilborne inoculum to contact fruit in the canopy. The edge of the herbicide strip should be maintained just inside of the diireline of the tree to minimize the exposure of bare soil to direct impact
Fruit on the ground become infected and produce inoculum, especially in P. palmivora , where fruit-grown sparona can readily splash upward into the tree canopy. The sporangia can infect green fruit and result in root infection in the canopy as early as July. The beginning of the epidemic is very difficult to detect before the rice are colored and showing typical boom symptoms of application of herbicides and other options dislocationside low-hanging fruit. Furthermore, trees affected by hanglonging (HILb. citrus greening) are prone to premature drip. Early stage inoculum production from fall may be reduced by residual herbicides early in the summer rather than late summer post-emergence herbicides application that can knock off the fruits.
Before the first signs of brown rot appear in late July, a single spray application of Alitele, Phostrol, ProPhyl, or another product with a FRAC POT (formerly FRAC 33) mode of action should be made. Doing so protects fruit, usually through most of the normal infection period. Alternatively, the newer fungicides Orodis Ultra (FRAC 40)+9Revus(FRAC 40) can be used from September to November, before symptoms of the brown rot. If more than one disease management application is required in a season, rotate to an alternate mode of action resistance management. Phytophthora spp. resistance to FRAC POT containing products has been observed in California although not in Florida at this time. No more than 20 lba/year"ofAlitele should be applied for the control of all phytophthora diseases. Alitele, Phostrol, and ProPhyl are systemic fungicides that protect against hostverspath infection and provide 60-90 days control. It is not legal to use products containing phosphates salt without a fungicide label for disease management. Orondis Ultra and Revus are also systemic and estimated to protect fruit up to 30 days, but the full period of protection is not yet certain. Copper fungicides are primarily protective but are capable of killing sparagmona on the fruit surface, thus reducing inoculation. They may be applied until August before or after the appearance of brown rot and provided protection for 45-60 days. If the rainy season prolonged is interrupted, the fall, a follow-up application of either systemic fungicide fungicide at one-half of the label rate or copper in October may be warranted. If a second application is needed, followed the preharvest intervals carefully (see chapter 44, "Pesticides Registered for Use on Elionde Citrus," With average-quality copper products, usually 2-4 lb of metallic copper per acre are needed for control.
Precautions should be taken during harvesting to exclude fruit affected by brown rot from field containers because this could result in rejection at the processing or packing facility.
## Recommended Chemical Controls
READ THE LABEL.
View Table
Release Date:
August 21, 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-cg022-2023
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Megan Dewdney
View PDF
Disclaimers
The use of trade names in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information. UF/IFAS does not guarantee or warranty the products named, and references to them in this publication do not signify our approval to the exclusion of other products of suitable composition.
Use pesticides safely. Read and follow directions on the manufacturer's label.
## About this Publication
This document is PP-14,8 one of a series of the Plant Pathology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date December 1995. Revised annually. Most recent revision May 2024. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication. © 2024 UF/IFAS. This publication is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
## About the Authors
Megan M. Dewdney, associate professor, and Evan G. Johnson, former research assistant scientist, Plant Pathology Department; UF/IFAS Citrus REC; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611. |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2023/01/26/miami-dade-4-h-teens-head-to-washington-d-c-to-showcase-skills-in-agricultural-technology/ | Miami-Dade 4-H teens head to Washington D.C. to showcase skills in agricultural technology | University of Florida | [
"Lourdes Mederos"
] | 2023-01-26 | [
"4-H & Youth",
"Curriculum",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"agriscience",
"agritech",
"agrotechnology",
"Cooperative Extension",
"Florida 4-H",
"Florida Cooperative Extension Service",
"Food Insecurity",
"food security",
"hydroponics",
"Ignite by 4-H National Conference",
"indoor vertical farming",
"Miami-Dade Count y Public Schools",
"STEM",
"teens",
"U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Vivek H. Murthy",
"UF/IFAS Extension Miami-Dade County",
"urban food farming",
"USDA",
"vertical farming",
"workforce development"
] | FL | ## Miami-Dade 4-H teens head to Washington D.C. to showcase skills in agricultural technology
Last summer, 4-H teens from Miami-Dade County worked on a fiveweek apprenticeship to address food insecurity by growing food in unconventional spaces in Overtown.
Now, two of the six interns will take what they learned to the Ignite by 4-H national conference.
This March, Grace Aquino, 17, and Karol Gonzalez, 18, will travel to Washington, D.C., to co-present with UF/IFAS Extension Miami-Dade agents what they learned and developed during the apprenticeship.
As part of the four-day conference starting March 9, delegates participate on panels and workshops and enjoy entertainment while
making connections among attending 4-H's. At the conference, participants work to transform their initial idea into a program or process that can be implemented in communities.
This year, the conference will feature U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Vivek H. Murthy and provide participating youth from across the country the opportunity to explore the best 4-H has to offer in STEM, agriscience, healthy living, career readiness and emotional well being.
Last summer, Aquino and Gonzalez, along with four other 4-H members from various high schools, explored basic concepts of controlled environment agriculture as part of the AgriTech Apprenticeship program. University of Florida scientists from the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS), along with South Florida nonprofits and businesses representing the hydroponic farming and food industry, led students on a five-week, hands-on training.
## 'This program has helped me take a bigger step towards my future goals. It has taught me about nutrition,
step towards my future goals. It has taught me about nutrition, agriculture, leadership and teamwork,' Gonzalez said.
The growing agrotechnology industry promotes food security by developing environmentally sustainable technology for food production using vertical gardens, hydroponics, precision technology and more.
"The group gained invaluable life lessons that have prepared them for future success," said Kenan Bridges, one of two 4-H agents at UF/IFAS Extension Miami Dade County who led and facilitated the program. "Every student participating in this program was a first time 4-H'er. Their exceptional performance led to the offer of presenting at the national conference, an extremely high honor for members. I believe this is a testament to the power of our positive youth development program."
During the program, the teens not only learned about how agrotechnology can enhance food security, but also cultivated entrepreneurial and innovative engagement in food systems and agricultural sciences. During the conference, delegates and agents will co-present Connecting Youth in Urban Communities with AgriTech , highlighting key elements and outcomes of the summer program.
'With the environmental and public health challenges of this century, it is essential to prepare the next generation with the skills of innovation and resilience. This unique program empowers students to solve today's issues for tomorrow's future,' Kenan said.
## ABOUT UF/IFAS
The mission of the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) is to develop knowledge relevant to agricultural, human and natural resources and to make that knowledge available to sustain and enhance the quality of human life. With more than a dozen research facilities, 67 county Extension offices, and award-winning students and faculty in the UF College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, UF/IFAS brings science-based solutions to the state's agricultural and natural resources industries, and all Florida residents.
```
ifas.ufl.edu | @ UF IFAS
```
WHY FOOD IS OUR MIDDLE NAME
Feeding a hungry world takes effort. Nearly everything we do comes back to food: from growing it and getting it to consumers, to conserving natural resources and supporting agricultural efforts. Explore all the reasons why at ifas.ufl.edu/food or follow #FoodsOurMiddleName .
```
by Lourdes Mederos
Posted: January 26, 2023
```
Category: 4-H & Youth, Blog Community, Curriculum, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Teaching
Tags: Agriscience, Agritech, Agrotechnology, Cooperative Extension, Florida 4-H, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Food
Insecurity, Food Security, Hydroponics, Ignite By 4-H National Conference, Indoor Vertical Farming, Miami Dade Count Y Public
Schools, STEM, Teens, U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Vivek H. Murthy, UF/IFAS Extension Miami-Dade County, Urban Food Farming, USDA, Vertical Farming, Workforce Development
More From Blogs.IFAS
UF/IFAS expert explains what to expect when midesg evades your pond, lake
Researching the Next Niche Crop in South Florida: New Br eeds of Pumpkins, Calabazas Making Headway
Celebrate plastic-free: Expert shares tips to minimize holiday waste
waste |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/stjohnsco/2020/12/30/news-from-the-hastings-triage-lab-corn-smut/ | News from the Hastings Triage Lab: Corn Smut | University of Florida | [
"Prissy Fletcher"
] | 2020-12-30 | [
"Agriculture",
"Pests & Disease",
"corn",
"Smut"
] | FL | ## News from the Hastings Triage Lab: Corn Smut
Corn smut discovered on sweet corn variety trial!
Smuts, caused by Basidiomycetes (second largest phylum of fungi), include about ~1,200 species of fungi. This includes the pathogen Ustilago maydis , which causes the common smut. Smuts can also affect sugarcane and onions, and can result in a yield reduction, but rarely exceed 2% of losses. However! There is a silver lining to this menace - it's actually a delicacy in Central America called "huitlacoche." With that said, I could not find anyone at the center willing to give it a try, even with the assistance of a certified chef.
If this disease is found in Corn - common smut your field, the spores can overwinter in the soil for years. Infections take place locally, not systemically, which is why the galling can be irregular within an ear. Any environmental condition that results in poor pollination will increase the likelihood of this disease in corn. Resistant hybrids, sanitation and crop rotation will be the ideal management plan.
Contact Dr. Marcio Resende and Dr. Wendy Mussoline for details about the Fall 2020 sweet corn variety trial.
References: Munkvold & White, Compendium of Corn Diseases, 4th Edt. Agrios, Plant Pathology, 5th Edt.
O
by Prissy Fletcher
Posted: December 30, 2020
Category: Agriculture, Pests & Disease
Tags: Corn, Smut |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/the-plant-doctor-biscogniauxia-hypoxylon-dieback-oaks | The Plant Doctor - Biscogniauxia (Hypoxylon) Dieback of Oaks | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Clarissa Balbalian",
"Alan Henn"
] | null | [
"Plant Disease",
"Trees",
"Agriculture"
] | MS | " Publications " Information Sheets
## Home » Publications » Information Sheets
The Plant Doctor - Biscogniauxia (Hypoxylon) Dieback of Oaks
## The Plant Doctor - Biscogniauxia (Hypoxylon) Dieback of Oaks
| INFORMATION SHEETS | Filed Under: Plant Disease and Nematode Diagnostic Services, Trees |
|----------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: IS1798 | |
Biscongiauxia dieback (formerly called Hypoxylon canker or dieback) is a common cause of oak dieback in Mississippi. This disease, caused by either of two fungi, Biscogniauxia atropunctata or B. mediterranea, is found throughout the United States and is especially common in the South.
All oaks are susceptible to Biscogniauxia sp., especially trees in the red oak subgroup. The most frequently and severely affected include black, blackjack, laurel, live, post, southern red, Texas red, water, and white oaks. Although the disease is most common on oaks, other tree species such as maple, hickory, beech, sycamore, basswood, and hornbeam also can be infected.
Biscongiauxia dieback is a disease of stressed trees. The fungus enters the tree through wounds and natural openings in the bark. In healthy trees, the fungus survives in small colonies in the bark and sapwood and is kept in check by the tree's natural defenses. Stresses such as drought, heat, wounds, root damage, toxic chemicals, and other diseases reduce the tree's defenses and give the fungus an advantage. In stressed trees, the fungus is able to grow rapidly and release spores that start new colonies. The fungus is favored by warm (85-95ºF), dry conditions. In Mississippi, outbreaks of this disease often are seen a year or two following a significant drought.
The fungus disrupts the flow of water and nutrients through a tree by destroying the plant's nutrientconducting tissues (sapwood). Biscogniauxia sp. is a white rot fungus that decays sapwood by breaking down the cellulose and lignin in the wood. This gives the wood a white coloration and a spongy texture. Strands (hypha) of the fungus stain the wood black as they grow, causing black lines in the sapwood, referred to as zone lines.
Symptoms of Biscogniauxia dieback mimic general water stress and include the following:
- · Smaller than normal leaves that make the crown of the tree look thin
- Dead branches
- Yellowing or wilting leaves
- Brown sapwood
Because the symptoms are so generic, diagnosis of Biscogniauxia dieback relies on visible signs of the fungus. The fungus forms a cushion-like mat, called a stroma, between the wood and the bark of the tree. Pressure from this cushion causes the bark to peel off in patches or long strips, exposing the stroma. The tan-colored stroma is covered with spores, giving it a powdery look. Over time, the stroma turns silvery-gray and black pimple-like structures appear on its surface. An old stroma often
is completely black in color. Stromata are the most obvious sign of this disease and make it easy to identify in the field.
No chemicals are registered for Biscogniauxia dieback of oaks. Management centers on preventing the disease and getting rid of infected trees quickly.
## Management options include the following:
- Avoid wounding trees.
- Maintain good cultural practices such as fertilizing properly (based on a soil test), preventing or relieving compacted soil, and watering during hot, dry weather.
- Pruning out dead or declining limbs may control the spread of the fungus on a tree, especially if combined with good cultural practices that increase the vigor of the tree and eliminate stresses. Infected wood should be destroyed immediately to keep the fungus from spreading.
- Severely infected trees should be cut and burned. Ideally, the stumps should be destroyed, as well.
## Information Sheet 1798 (POD-03-23)
By Clarissa Balbalian , Diagnostic Laboratory Manager, Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Entomology and Plant Pathology, and Alan Henn , PhD, Extension Professor, Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Entomology and Plant Pathology.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
Dr. Alan Henn
Extension Professor
## Related Publications
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Pecan Production: Establishing an Orchard
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2896 Signs and Symptoms of Emerald Ash Borer
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2916 Mayhaw Diseases
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/poultry/nutrient-management-planning-for-broiler-afos/ | Nutrient Management Planning for Broiler AFOs | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Joyce A. Tredaway",
"C. C. Mitchell",
"T. W. Tyson"
] | 2018-08-08 | [
"Poultry",
"Nutrient Management",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/e-pest-alerts/site-files/documents/2015/canola-disease-update-december-15-2015.pdf | Microsoft Word - PA14-45.docx | Oklahoma State University | [
"rgranth"
] | Error: time data "D:20151215093909-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University 127 Noble Research Center, Stillwater, OK74078 405.744.5527
Vol. 14, No. 45
http://entoplp.okstate.edu/Pddl/
Dec 15, 2015
## Canola Disease Update
John Damicone, OSU Extension Plant Pathologist
The canola crop is off to a good start this fall with adequate soil moisture in most production areas, which should greatly improve winter survival. In the past couple of years, early hard freezes and dry winters have made winter survival a challenge. However, when weather conditions are favorable for the crop, generally they also favor plant disease development. In visits to my plots this fall, I have observed only a low level of the leaf spot phase of black leg disease (Figure 1). Plant size in my plots is running small because they were replanted. Dr. Josh Lofton, OSU Cropping System Specialist, recently observed more severe levels of leaf spot ( Figure 2 ) in his plots which had larger plants with more vigorous canopy development. Leaf spots are the first symptoms of black leg disease. The spores that cause leaf spot are produced
on infested stubble left on the soil surface from the previous crop These spores are airborne and infect leaves from fall to spring during rainy weather. Generally, fall infections are more damaging because the development of stem cankers progresses slowly as the fungus grows from the leaves, through the petioles, and into the lower stem. If mild weather progresses in to the winter, we could see further disease development and more severe black leg.
Fig 1. Leaf spot on winter canola caused by the black leg fungus. The dark pepper-like spikes in the spot are fruiting bodies of the fungus.
Fig 2. Increasing black leg severity on canola leaves from left to right. The fungus advances from the leaves, into the petiole, and finally the lower stem where it causes stem cankers that can reduce yield.
Management of black leg relies primarily on planting resistant varieties and less commonly on fungicide application. Fungicide application in the fall is targeted to protect against leaf spot development. Growers in the UK use a 10% infection threshold to recommend a fungicide application. Our results with fungicide sprays have resulted in improved yields in some, but not all trials depending on the fungicide used and the number of applications. Given the low current canola prices, our inability to identify a single application timing that is effective, and the inconsistent yield responses observed, I have been hesitant to make fungicide recommendations on winter canola.
Selecting resistant varieties is the most commonly used approach to managing black leg around the world. There are two types of resistances to black leg in canola. Major gene resistance, also called seedling resistance because it protects against leaf spot on young plants, is most effective. However, major gene resistance can be rendered ineffective by new races of the black leg fungus. The Round Up-Ready varieties we have tested to date do not have resistance to leaf spot and probably lack effective major resistance genes. We have identified seedling resistance in a few conventional (non-Round-Up Ready) varieties and hybrids. The second type of resistance is adult plant resistance to canker development in the spring. This type of resistance is more stable but generally only partially effective. We have worked hard since 2010 to screen germplasm in the field to identify adult plant resistance. Results have been limited by dry conditions, poor winter survival, and a lack of a known susceptible check variety. Results suggest that most varieties and hybrids we grow have some level of partial resistance. I believe this because we have identified aggressive races of the fungus all around the state, but the impact of the disease has generally been minimal. We are currently increasing seed of a variety named 'Euro' that we received from colleagues in France. 'Euro' is reported to lack
both major gene resistance and adult plant resistance. We hope that including this variety in future field trials will help us better identify adult plant resistance.
## Dr. Richard Grantham - Director, Plant Disease and Insect Diagnostic Laboratory
The pesticide information presented in this publication was current with federal and state regulations at the time of printing. The user is responsible for determining that the intended use is consistent with the label of the product being used. Use pesticides safely. Read and follow label directions. The information given herein is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Cooperative Extension Service is implied.
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, and Title IX of the Education Amendments at 1972 (Higher Education Act), the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal and state laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, genetic information, sex, age, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, disability, or status as a veteran, in any of its policies, practices or procedures. This provision includes, but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services. The Director of Equal Opportunity, 408 Whitehurst, OSU, Stillwater, OK 74078-1035; Phone 405-744-371; email: ee@okstate.edu has been designated to handle inquiries regarding non-discrimination policies: Director of Equal Opportunity. Any person [student, faculty, or staff] who believes that discriminatory practices have been engaged in based on gender may discuss his or her concerns and file informal or formal complaints of possible Violation of Title IX with OSU's Title IX Coordinator 405-7449154.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources. |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/extension-gardener-handbook/19-landscape-design | 19. Landscape Design | NC State Extension | [
"Anne Spafford",
"Michelle Wallace",
"Cyndi Lauderdale",
"Lucy Bradley",
"Kathleen Moore"
] | null | [
"Landscaping",
"Soil Conservation",
"Water Conservation",
"Hardscape",
"Landscape Design",
"Garden Design",
"Private Space",
"Plot Plan",
"Public Space",
"Energy Conservation",
"Pathway"
] | NC | ## 19. Landscape Design
Outline
| Objectives | |
|--------------------------------------------------------|----|
| Introduction | |
| Design Principles | |
| Design Concepts | |
| Understanding Space in Landscape Design | |
| Applying Design Principles | |
| Six Steps to a Landscape Design | |
| Step 1: Develop a Base Plan | |
| Step 2: Conduct a Site Survey | |
| Step 3: Identify Activities and Uses for the Landscape | |
| Step 4: Locate and Develop Use Areas | |
| Step 5: Design | |
| Step 6: Install the Landscape | |
| Case Study-Think about IPM: Failing Tree | |
| Frequently Asked Questions | |
| Further Reading | |
| Chapter Text Hyperlinks | |
| For More Information | |
| Contributors | |
| Appendix A Garden Journaling | |
| Appendix F History of Landscape Design | |
| Appendix G Permaculture | |
This chapter teaches people to:
- Explain the basic principles of landscape design.
- Describe the process of creating a landscape design.
- Recognize the environmental factors that influence landscape design.
- Identify design opportunities for water, energy, and wildlife conservation.
- Recommend appropriate plants for a landscape given site and design conditions.
## Introduction
Landscape design is both an art and a purposeful process. It is the conscious arrangement of outdoor space to maximize human enjoyment while minimizing the costs and negative environmental impacts. A well-designed home landscape is aesthetically pleasing and functional, creating comfortable outdoor spaces as well as reducing the energy costs of heating and cooling the home. It offers pleasure to the family, enhances the neighborhood, and adds to the property's value. With a little forethought and planning, the designer can maximize the property's use and people's enjoyment of it; establish a visual relationship between the house, its site, and the neighborhood; and contribute to a healthy local ecosystem.
The planning process, possibly the most important aspect of residential landscaping, is often neglected. We can see the effects: overcrowded and overgrown plantings, lawns with scattered shade trees, a narrow concrete walk, trees and shrubs planted too close to structures (Figure 19 -1), every plant a different species, or too many of the same plant. The result can be unattractive and may not serve the family's needs. Good landscape design creates a satisfying environment for the user while saving time, effort, and money and benefiting the environment.
In this chapter, we review the principals of design, including understanding the use of space in the landscape. These principles can be applied by using six steps to create an attractive, functional landscape. The steps provide an organized approach to developing a landscape plan, including an in-depth look at specific design considerations to improve the landscape environment. Appendix F gives a brief history of landscape design. To learn more about landscape design, refer to the additional resources at the end of this chapter.
Attribution: Scott S (scott@eric), Flickr CC BY 2.0
## Design Principles
When we develop and implement a landscape design, we rely on a dynamic process that addresses all aspects of the land, the environment, the growing plants, and the user's needs. This process ensures a pleasing, functional, and ecologically healthy design. Fundamental design conceptsscale, balance, unity, perspective, rhythm, and accentform the basic considerations in design
development. Simplicity, repetition, line, variety, and harmony are organizing principles. We use these principles to apply design concepts to landscape features, such as plants and hardscape materials. Understanding spatial organization is also integral to the art of landscape design. The resulting design is implemented in three-dimensional space. The space changes as we use it, as plants grow, and as nature contributes its full range of environmental conditions.
## Design Concepts
These basic concepts underlie a design's composition: scale, balance, unity, perspective, rhythm, and accent.
Scale is the proportion between two sets of dimensions-for example, the height and width of a tree compared to a house, or the size of a plant container compared to an entryway. Carefully consider both the mature height and spread before including a plant in the landscape (Figure 19-2). If the full-grown size is too large, a plant can overwhelm the design. If plants remain small at maturity, they may look inappropriate as a background border.
Balance refers to creating equal visual weight on either side of a focal point, creating a pleasing integration of elements. There are two types of balance: symmetrical and asymmetrical. Symmetrical balance describes a formal balance with everything on one axis, duplicated or mirrored on both sides. Symmetry is commonly seen in formal gardens (Figure 19-3). Asymmetrical balance describes an equilibrium achieved by using different objects. For example, if a large box is placed on one side of a scale, it can be counterbalanced by several smaller boxes placed on the other side. Asymmetrical balance occurs in landscaping when a large existing tree or shrub needs to be balanced out by a grouping or cluster of smaller plants (Figure 19-4). Balance can also be achieved by using color or texture.
Unity is achieved when different parts of the design are grouped or arranged to appear as a single unit. The repetitions of geometric shapes, along with strong, observable lines (Figure 19-5), contribute to unity. Ground covers and turfgrass act as unifying elements in a landscape. A unified landscape provides a pleasant view from every angle. A landscape with too many ideas in a small space lacks unity. Too many plant varieties, accent plants, lawn accessories with contrasting forms, textures, or colors violate the principle of unity by distracting the viewer from a coherent visual theme that unites the landscape's individual elements.
Perspective is our visual perception of three-dimensional space. Certain techniques can make a space appear small, while others can make a space seem larger. Usually the goal in residential landscaping is to make a space appear larger. A strong accent in the center of a space can draw one's eye and make the space seem larger (Figure 19-6). Overhead tree canopies or structures make the space feel more confined or smaller. Many backyards have an area of grass surrounded by a border of shrubs. The border brings the eye to a boundary and makes the space appear confined.
Effective use of color can expand the space. Distant objects appear fine-textured and gray to the eye, so using gray, fine-textured plants at the landscape boundary can expand the apparent distance between the viewer and the plant. Tapering walkways or plantings toward a vanishing point
can also create an illusion of distance. Using strong colors and coarse textures in the front of a border help to expand the area. To make the space appear smaller, reverse this concept and use strong colors and coarse textures in the rear and softer colors and finer textures in the front.
Rhythm is the repetition of design elements. Repetition helps draw one's eye through the design. Rhythm results when elements appear in a definite direction and in regular measures. Both color and form can be used to express rhythm (Figure 19-7).
Accent is the inclusion of an element that stands out in an orderly design. For example, silvery leaves stand out against a background of fall red maple leaves (Figure 19-8). Without accent, a design may be static or dull. An accent can be a garden accessory, plant specimen, a plant composition, or a water feature. Boulders are often used as accents, but they can be overused. To look natural, boulders should be partially buried. Water does not spring from the highest point of land in nature. So to appear most natural, water features should have their source below grade of other landscape features.
## Understanding Space in Landscape Design
We customarily use paper or a computer to create a landscape plan. When we implement the plan, we build a three-dimensional space in which people engage. People engage in the world and are affected by it every time they venture outdoors. Landscapes are dynamic spaces -they are always changing. Plants change with the seasons, grow, age, flower, reproduce, and provide habitat for other creatures and species. In a well-calculated landscape plan, the designer addresses elements of space and change. Beyond this, our experience in a landscape becomes a major factor in the
overall impact a place has on our lives. In landscape planning, better outcomes and richer environments can be achieved when we understand spatial definition and the importance of transition between different land uses and different planes of space.
The world consists of three different planes of space that affect human experience. As we engage in the world, we are always surrounded by these three planes-horizontal, vertical, and overhead. As the volumes of these different planes change, the way we experience the space changes. In the landscape, for example, an enclosed space created by a dense canopy has a different feeling than an open pasture. One space is shaded and dark, while the other is sunny and open. Our purpose in understanding these differences is not to pass judgment on them. Rather, it is to accept that these different kinds of spatial experiences exist. We recognize that the more transitional spaces a person goes through in moving from a completely enclosed environment to a completely open environment, the more seamless and connected the experience becomes.
Addressing the hierarchy, or order, of space and scale is also important. Specifically, land use can be determined by the scale of a space. Roads, for example, have a defined hierarchy. All lanes may be a standard size (large enough to accommodate one vehicle), but streets are designed to accommodate a certain amount of traffic. As such, a level one road south such as an interstate may have four lanes in each direction. A level two road has only three lanes in each direction. A level three road has two lanes in each direction, and a level four road may have only a single road in one direction. By developing a hierarchy of land uses within a landscape, different landscape elements can be appropriately scaled to accommodate different activities and to create different experiences.
For example, a level one path to the front of the house should be scaled to accommodate at least two individuals (4½$\_{to}$ 5 feet wide). As paths connect, they should gradually scale down in size. So all the paths that connect to the main entrance path should be level two (2½$\_{to}$ 3-feet wide). And paths in the landscape meant for an individual experience should be level three (1 to 2½$\_{to}$ 3-feet wide). Likewise, space designed for an individual is smaller than space for a small group or a large party. Spatial definition of the three planes of space also helps to enhance our experience. The more clearly defined the plane, the easier it is to interpret. For example, a walkway that is defined using a hardscape such as brick clearly sends a message to people that this surface is for walking. What prevents someone from walking on this path? If the horizontal ground plane is clearly defined, then people intuitively understand where they should walk and where they should not. What prevents someone from cutting through a landscape? A designer can change the horizontal ground plane to reduce unintended land use by planting a tall ground cover. The increased vertical plane makes cutting through the landscape and not using the designated path undesirable.
Understanding three-dimensional space in landscape design is essential. Each plane of space and the transitions between planes are discussed in more detail below. We also discuss how to organize landscape spaces during the design process by using garden rooms, focal points, patterns, and geometry to create functional, appealing spaces.
## Horizontal Ground Plane
The ground plane functions as the floor of the landscape. Examples include lawns, patios, terraces, decks, and walkways. This plane influences the route by which people move through and experience the landscape. Materials can vary significantly, including compacted soil; plant materials such as lawn or moss and ground covers; crushed gravel; man-made products such as concrete, bricks, and rubber; and wood surfaces and products like lumber, mulch, and bark chips. Figure 19-9 illustrates the use of different materials to define the horizontal ground plane for walking through the landscape. The lower path is defined using irregular flagstone set in screenings, while the upper path is constructed of wood. Note the elevation change of a single step. People risk tripping and falling when an elevation change is one step or less. To intuitively heighten our attention, the designer has changed the materials of the ground plane. In addition, the ground covers on either side of the path begin to build up the vertical plane. The path, therefore, is clearly defined. Imagine
someone moving through the landscape and reaching the point before he or she steps up to a new height. Notice how the tree helps to create a gateway by increasing the vertical plane and adding an overhead plane. Our senses are heightened to pay attention to change. Notice how the elevated walkway is further defined with small posts that mark the walkway's edges by a subtle increase in the vertical plane. As we pass through this gateway, notice how the vegetation that flanks the path also increases in height. This further defines the pedestrian corridor. We know where to walk.
## Vertical Plane
Vertical planes create the outdoor walls, enclose the space, and serve as a backdrop to enhance other elements within the space. Vertical elements frame certain views both inside and outside of the space and terminate the sightline. Examples in the landscape include trees, shrubs, walls, fencing, lampposts, and pillars. The vertical plane is defined by building facades that create an outdoor hallway. The transition from the ground plane (defined by a lawn or walkway) to the vertical plane is created through the use of edging, ferns, and vines (Figure 19-10). Breaking down the space into its elements, the ground plane is defined by the brick walkway. Moving from the horizontal plane to the vertical plane, the vertical plane is built up with the introduction of edging on either side of the path, then with the ferns along with the vines and the brick. The walls terminate our sightline and direct our vision toward the terminus in the path and the change in land use up ahead.
Vertical planes in the landscape do not need to be continuous to define space. For example, a repeating allée of trees, which can be used to define both a pedestrian and a vehicle corridor, is not a solid wall. The viewer mentally fills in the blanks in the allée to create the feeling of entering a tunnel. When trees and plants are used in succession and repeated, movement is created (Figure 19-11). One's eye continuously moves to the next set of trees, and the user is propelled forward.
## Overhead Plane
The overhead plane defines the ceiling of an outdoor area that we often feel more than see. This plane serves as protection from the elements. Psychologically it provides a sense of shelter and protection. The feeling of "being under" creates a strong sense of enclosure. The overhead plane can provide an exceptional sensory experience from the character and color it creates as sun and shade patterns land on leaves. Our sensory experience also changes as the height of the overhead plane rises or falls with the tree canopy, with steps or paths that move up or down within the horizontal ground plane, and with the gradual transition that happens as we move from a completely open to a completely closed environment. Examples of overhead planes include tree canopies, overhead structures, awnings, and umbrellas. In Figure 19-12, the overhead plane is established by a continuous trellis with a repeating motif inspired by carrots. The trellis that creates the overhead plane includes colored plexiglass that casts a colored reflection on the walkway. The reflection changes as the sun moves across the sky. As the planted vines fill out seasonally, one's experience of walking under the gigantic carrot trollies changes. Someone may even identify with a rabbit and wonder what it must be like to run through the garden undetected. The space goes from being open to being enclosed.
## Transitional Spaces
Transitional spaces are the spaces that connect one outdoor area to the next; examples include doorways, hallways, and platforms. These spaces also provide transitions between the different planes of space. Well-defined transitional spaces use exposure to similar materials (such as plants and paving) to gradually introduce new spaces to people from one outdoor area to the next. Examples of transitional spaces or transitional elements include entrance gates, paving changes, planted alleys, gateway arbors, edging, and bridges.
Figure 19-13 illustrates the use of a gateway as a major transitional element within a garden. Transitional spaces help to set the stage for the adventure of being in the landscape and moving from one place to the next. The scale of this gateway intuitively suggests that we are leaving one
type of garden space and going into another with a different character. In the foreground, the horizontal ground plane changes as the Chapel Hill gravel paving meets the granite edging. The edging is still a part of the horizontal ground plane. As the paving meets the granite curbing, it begins building up the vertical plane. The vertical plane continues to grow with the increase in height created by plants. The paving also changes under the gateway to a gray flagstone paving pattern.
As we move out of the structure, the horizontal ground plane transitions into informal gray crushed granite fines. Note that the gray color helps to create a transition among all these different elements.
The large structure completely encloses the user. Despite the large size, the structure is scaled to human size and the volume of space is considerably smaller than the next space you enter. As we exit the structure, the volume of space increases as the overhead plate is determined by the height of the tree canopy. This is a very common pattern used in architecture. The feeling generated by this space is used in churches across the world. Imagine entering a church. The entrance corridor usually has a low ceiling. Then the overhead plane is elevated in the main body of the church, rising to become a cathedral ceiling that evokes an emotional response in the user, frequently one of awe.
## Garden Rooms
A room can be defined as a space enclosed by walls, a floor, and a ceiling, as well as a place where activities happen. This same definition applies when describing an outdoor room, with one difference. The materials used to define an outdoor space are dynamic and in some cases lack a ceiling or overhead plane. Garden rooms are the destinations within a landscape. Even small properties have enough space to accommodate a single room. The scale should be determined by the room's function. Is the space used for entertainment? Or is the space used by a single individual -say for reading? Who is using this space-young children, teenagers, adults? The character of the space can be defined using materials that address both the function and the users. Each plane of space should be defined. The furniture in the room should address the users' needs and express the character that distinguishes the space. Examples of garden rooms include an outdoor dining room, vegetable garden, reading room, entertainment space, kitchen, fire pit, and playground.
Figure 19-14 is a large outdoor room. We enter the room through a doorway created by a bump out of the building façade on one side and a half wall made of the same material on the other side. The ground plane consists of a different stone material. The mounted wall fountain is centered on the entrance into this garden room to grab our attention and entice us into the room. The fountain also muffs the sounds of voices as people engage in conversations. As we enter the room, the ground plane increases, the walls are moved back, and the volume of the space increases. The rhododendron planted above the wall further affects the scale of the space and increases the feeling of enclosure. The furniture color is influenced by the blue hues of the plants and stone. Figure 19-15 is an outdoor dining room for two. In this residential outdoor dining area scaled for two, the ground plane is defined with flagstones set in granite fines. The ground plane is defined differently from the walkway because the material has changed and the space has increased in volume. The edges of the patio are transitioned into the vertical plane with the granite curb edging. The plants immediately surrounding the patio are low growing and increase in size moving away from the patio. Both the perennials and the trees help to define the scale of the space. Notice how the ceramic pots repeat the color of the furniture.
## Focal Points
Focal points consist of carefully placed objects that direct a person's line of sight. Their purpose in the garden is to propel movement and entice the user to make a decision: How do I proceed at this bend in the path? Do I continue down the path that offers the same experience or choose the one that teases the senses by offering a sculpture, a specimen tree, a bridge, or an interesting boulder? When a focal point is well-placed on a user's journey, he or she does not feel manipulated. The journey through the garden is like a story that starts when one enters the garden. The story continues as one moves through twists and turns along a path, guided by focal points that
foreshadow what happens next. Eventually a climax in the garden journey occurs at a destinationthe garden activity room. The story, however, is not over. It resumes as one leaves the room and the gradual transition out of the space begins to move to the next destination or to leaving the garden.
In Figure 19-16, the building has an interesting roof line with a wind vane on top. The building has an interesting roof line with a wind vane on top. Although we cannot see what it is, the wind vane grabs our interest from far away. More than likely, curiosity drives us to discover what is ahead. Figure 19-17 is our focal point destination. On arriving at the wind vane, we discover the quaint colorful building, which houses the restroom for the garden. While the building is a strong focal point that functions as a driving force within the garden, smaller objects within the garden--such as garden art or plant specimens--also serve to propel us on a journey.
## Pattern Language
Pattern language is a philosophy developed by Christopher Alexander (Professor Emeritus of Architecture at the University of California, Berkeley). Pattern language describes recognizable patterns in nature and human society that have developed over the ages and impact the way people live. Dr. Alexander defined the concept of a pattern language in the 1970s and spent his career studying patterns in the landscape created by nature and in society that influence lifestyles, communities, and architecture. His books, including The Timeless Way of Building and A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction, have influenced the way designers (architects, landscape architects, interior designers, and planners) create the spaces we use in daily life. As a result, Professor Alexander's ideas have affected millions of people. The number of patterns that can be observed and experienced daily is innumerable. Incorporating patterns into the garden experience enhances the user experience. In Figure 19-18, a window garden is a pattern that brings the outdoor environment closer to home. A window garden breaks up the built outdoor facade, and it changes the view of the outdoor environment from the outside and inside of the building. The human eye is trained to see what is in the foreground and tends not to notice the things faraway as much. In Figure 19-19, an edible garden is a pattern built on humanity's agrarian roots and driven by activity. To live, people must eat. The ability to sustain ourselves by growing food is empowering. Figure 19-20 provides a bench in the garden for sitting. It seems like such a simple pattern. Yet magical life experiences take place on benches--enegages, first kisses, lunch. A bench provides an opportunity to become a part of the garden, not just an observer in the garden. A garden seat is used if there is a view, something of interest around it. It is not used if a view does not exist.
## Garden Geometry
Geometry is part of the everyday world and influences the places where we live. A direct relationship exists between two objects on a plane. Because this relationship exists, a landscape designer must pay attention to the architecture before situating new objects or creating new spaces. Regardless of the geometry selected (for example, rectilinear, curvilinear, radial, or arctangent), the space and proposed objects must relate to the existing architecture (Figure 19-21a-d). The first image is a bubble diagram used for determining best locations for required activities and how much space those activities need, and for studying the relationship and circulation between activities and locations. The next step is determining which layout (geometry) is most appropriate. The following geometries are all based on the same bubble diagram. Note that everything in the bubble diagram remains the same. Only the SHAPE of each element changes.
Invisible guidelines extend out of the building at different angles of different degrees. A grid can be formed using known points on the architecture, such as the corner of the building, the center line of the window or door, and the edge of a porch. Objects placed in the landscape should have a direct
geometric relationship with the building and with each other. For example, by placing a specimen tree on the centerline of a bay window, the designer ensures that the tree becomes a focal point for users looking outside into the garden from within a building.
It is important to understand that there are many ways of creating space in landscape design. No one method works for each landscape plan. A carefully laid out landscape plan with defined planes and transitions combined with good geometry and including objects that relate to garden features and buildings enriches our experience and the environment.
## Applying Design Principles
Simplicity, repetition, line, variety, and harmony are used in landscape design to create a visually appealing composition.
Simplicity strives to create spaces, not fill them. "Less is more." Not every square foot of the landscape must be filled . Most residential landscapes consist of limited space, so the number of tree and shrub species used should also be limited. It is more effective to incorporate groups of one type of plant than to install one or two each of a wide variety of plants. Create simple lines and curves that add interest rather than irregular lines that might detract from the design (Figure 19-22).
Repetition in the landscape should not be confused with monotony. Repetition contributes to unity and simplicity. It makes a strong foundation for the landscape design like the chorus repeated in a song (Figure 19-23).
Line forms real and imaginary lines in the landscape and plays an important role in the creation of small and large spaces. Draw the viewer's eye through the landscape by grouping plants or hardscape elements (Figure 19-24). The eye is unconsciously influenced by the way groupings fit and flow on both horizontal and vertical planes.
Variety created through diverse and contrasting forms, textures, and colors is a hallmark of good landscape design. By avoiding uniformity, variety reduces monotony in a design. Adding elements with opposite qualities or contrast heightens visual interest and increases viewer satisfaction with
the design (Figure 19-25).
Harmony balances the other design principles by pulling the individual components together and creating a cohesive whole, ensuring that all parts of the design relate to and complement each other (Figure 19-26).
## Six Steps to a Landscape Design
In the first part of this chapter, we introduced the principles and concepts that underlie landscape design. In this section, we focus on the mechanics of developing a landscape plan. Planning a residential landscape begins with evaluating the entire space and the overall desired effect of the final design. We begin the design process by determining the user's needs and desires and the site's environmental and physical conditions. With this information, the desired features-such as trees, shrubs, grass, walkways, parking areas, a vegetable garden, patio, deck, mailbox, screening wall, and outdoor lighting-can be organized into a cohesive design. By using the following six steps, we can take a straightforward, organized approach to developing and implementing a landscape that reflects the user's wants and needs and allows for future growth and change.
## Step 1: Develop a Base Plan and Site Inventory
## Step One: Develop Base Plan and Site Inventory
A base plan is a bird's eye view of the site drawn to scale. A plot plan of the property, as shown in Figure 19-27, is an excellent place to start. Sometimes a plot plan is provided when property is purchased. If not, check with the local county assessor's office or the NC County GIS, Tax and Deed website. The plot plan should include property lines, show the placement of the house on the property, and indicate the driveways, easements, and any other limitations. Be sure to check for any setbacks or streams on the property that could have their own set of legal parameters. Locating the exact property boundaries is important when a fence is part of the final design. Most property boundaries do not extend all the way to the road. Plants or hardscape installed in a state, county, or city right-of-way, such as between a sidewalk and the road, may be torn up for roadway or to access utilities.
Next, gather and record information on the property's history. What was there before the current house was built? What is the history of land care? Was the property previously farmland? Have old buildings been removed, potentially leaving lead paint or plumbing behind? See Age-439-78, Soil Facts: Minimizing Risks of Soil Contaminants in Urban Gardens , for specific design strategies.
Use the plot plan to develop an up-to-date inventory of existing built features (such as the house, power lines, septic tanks, underground utilities, exterior lighting, and roof overhangs) as well as existing plants and beds, landscape features, and hardscape locations on the site. The height, style, and exterior elements of the home, as well as the construction materials used, should be noted to help with design decisions. Measure and note on the plot plan any other structures and hardscapes that may have been added, such as patios, driveways, or sidewalks.
When all of the information has been gathered and marked on a rough sketch, transfer it to a final base plan. Make sure to draw to scale. Depending on the size of the property, a suitable scale, for an average homeowner landscape, is 1 inch equals 10 feet (½⁄10-inch scale). For a small property or courtyard a¼⁄1-inch scale may be more appropriate. Other popular landscape scales are 1:4, 1:5, 1:8, 1:10, 1:16 and 1:20. Scales of 1:4, 1:8 or 1:16 match the common increments used on a conventional ruler, but scales of 1:10 and 1:20 are used by engineers and landscape architects. Suggested symbols are shown in Figure 19-28. Be sure to indicate a north arrow on the plan. Locate any existing features on the property and the house, and be sure to include the following items:
- · Aboveground and underground utilities (see "Locating Utilities" below.)
Mark these features on the base plan as shown in Figure 19-29.
## Triangulation
Trigunlation helps accurately determine the location of existing trees and shrubs on the property so they can be marked on the base plan. To triangulate, use two known fixed points. Corners of a house or other structures, walkway corners, or mailboxes are good places to start. Measure to the center of the plant from these two locations and make note of the distances. Use a scale to transfer these plant centers to the base plan.
## Locating Utilities
Call 811, a free utilities location service, before you complete the base plan and 48 hours before digging is scheduled (Figure 19-30). This service notifies the electrical, phone, gas, water, and sewer utilities to come and mark the property. A different color spray paint is used for each utility. Generally, the utility line is located underground in a 5-foot zone around the marked line, 2.5 feet on either side of the line. These areas should be considered "no digging zones." Utilities should be marked when the base plan is being developed as some design decisions may be based on where lines run. The service must return and mark again before landscape installation if the lines have faded. Figure 19-31 is an example of what can happen when utility lines and right-of-ways are ignored by a gardener.
## Tips for Drawing on a Base Plan
- Have adequate paper to write on. Or better yet, make several enlarged copies of the plot plan to draw on and record measurements.
- Enlist the help of a partner. Having two people hold and read a measuring tape is much easier.
- Use a long measuring tape or invest in an inexpensive measuring wheel if the property is large. Piecing together measurements because the tape is too short can lead to errors. A 100- to 200foot tape measures most things in an average yard.
- Record measurements carefully and legibly to avoid having to re-measure.
Inventorying the property and recording existing structures and features of the landscape also provides an opportunity to identify the positive and negative aspects of the existing landscape. One goal of effective landscaping is to create a definite relationship between the house and its environment. Note plants that should be retained and worked into the new landscape or planting. Some trees and shrubs may simply require pruning, while others may need to be relocated or removed entirely. Any neighborhood association guidelines and restrictions need to be considered. After locating the existing plants and beds on the plot plan, identify individual plants. A detailed evaluation of the negative and positive aspects of the existing landscape includes the following considerations.
## Consider the house and existing hardscape:
- · What is the architectural style or character?
- · Is this new or established construction?
- · Is it one story or two (or more)?
- · Is it rustic or formal, modern, or traditional?
- · What are the construction materials? What color?
- · Are there walkways, walls, fences, patios, and decks that are improperly sized, in the wrong location, or in disrepair?
## Consider the views:
- · What are the views both within and beyond your property line?
- · Where are the locations from which the landscape is viewed from inside and outside the home? Examples include views through a kitchen or sitting room window or from an existing porch or the street.
- · Are the current views pleasing, or would additional plantings or hardscape add more interest to that area?
- · Do any views need screening?
## Consider plant density:
- · There "overplanted" beds or areas that should be thinned?
- · Are there sparse areas that would benefit from the addition of plants?
- · Are there random individual or small groups of plants scattered incoherently across the site?
- · Is there too much lawn or not enough?
## Consider mature size of existing plants:
- · Are there plants that are or will become oversized, creating a hazard or high maintenance?
- · Are there undersized plants that look lost or out of scale and need to be moved or combined in a mass for better visibility?
## Consider environmental benefit of existing plants:
- · Do the plants properly address the impact of sunlight on summer cooling and winter heating for the residence?
- · Are there any long-lived, native woody ornamental species, like willow oak ( Quercus phellos ), red maple ( Acer rubrum ), or bald cypress ( Taxodium distichum ), which are desirable and should be preserved?
- · Do the existing plants offer a biodiversity of species that benefits the local ecosystem?
- · Are any of the existing plants invasive species like privet ( Ligustrum sinense or L. japonica ), Japanese wisteria ( Wisteria floribunda ), Chinese wisteria ( W. sinensis ), or English ivy ( Hedera helix ) that should be removed?
Consider health of plants:
## Consider design contributions of existing plant material:
- Do existing plant forms, textures, and colors contribute to coherent, unified design?
- Do existing plants offer seasonal interest?
Figure 19-29. Existing features on the property including plants, hardscape elements, topography and features to take into consideration, such as drainage and the view of the neighbor's house.
Attribution: Renee Lampia
Attribution: Cynthia Wagoner
Beas needed to be moved because they were planted in the right-of-way.
Attribution: Danelle Cutting
## Step 2: Conduct Site Survey to Identify Environmental Factors
Understanding the environmental factors that exist on a site is critical to designing a functional, healthy landscape. By accurately incorporating knowledge of site-specific environmental considerations into the design, we can create a landscape that is easier to install and maintain and is more ecologically friendly. The site needs to be carefully studied for more than one season. The environmental features, including sun and wind exposures, sight lines, sound transmission, soil conditions, water flow and drainage issues, and existing landscape, must be analyzed. The results can be noted on an overlay created by taping a sheet of tracing paper over the plot plan.
## Sun and Shade
The way the sun affects the house and site at different seasons greatly influences the overall design. Good plant placement is based on knowing the sun's direction at different times throughout the day as well as at different times of the year. The yard needs to be observed throughout the day to determine which areas receive full sun (more than six hours a day), partial sun, and primarily shade. Understanding sun exposure helps us make design decisions like planting trees to provide shade to a patio in the summer or recognizing that putting a vegetable garden in an area that receives only partial sun results in little fruit when it comes time to harvest. Assessing winter and summer sun angles, as shown in Figure 19-32, tells us where to leave open areas that allow the winter sun's rays to heat the house and outdoor living areas.
## Wind
Knowing the direction of prevailing winter winds is crucial for deciding where to locate a windbreak, which can be especially important in the mountains or on the coast. Understanding wind patterns is also important to refrain from including structures or plants in the design that block summer breezes from outdoor living spaces. Mark the source and direction of winds on the plan overlay to visualize where a protective wind screen should be added or where breezes should be allowed to enter the landscape unimpeded.
## Sights and Sounds
Walk the property to note what is visible in various directions. Standing on the front step, is the view pleasant? What is the view from the deck in the backyard? Also note the source of any objectionable noise on the site analysis overlay. Think, too, about the views from inside the home and looking out into the yard. On the site analysis overlay, identify views on which attention should be focused, as well as those that should be screened.
Soils
The native soils in North Carolina vary from light sand to heavy clay. In addition, many families are confronted with the difficult task of landscaping in urban soils" that may include mortar, bricks, sheetrock, plywood, plastic, and other leftovers from construction. Often during the construction of a home, the top layer of soil is removed, leaving compacted subsols mixed with construction debris that are unsuitable for plant growth. Have the soil tested, and on the site plan make note of both the soil type and the topsoil depth. Evaluate the soil in several sections of the property as soil types can change over a short distance, particularly if there is a change in elevation.
## Water
Review a topographical map of the site and walk the property to examine stormwater patterns. Look for evidence of erosion and note any poorly drained or low areas that remain wet for several days after a rain. For the areas with evidence of erosion, examine rainwater harvesting options to reduce the amount of water flowing through these areas after a rain event. Use cisterns or rain barrels to harvest roof runoff and store it for later use (Figure 19-33). Consider contouring slopes to slow the runoff, minimize erosion and provide time for water to soak into the soil. Design options for addressing low-lying areas include installing an underground drainage system, building raised beds, grading, or planting a rain garden.
Overall, by addressing these environmental factors, we can create a design that is in harmony rather than in conflict with the observed natural patterns. This strategy leads to a successful, attractive, low maintenance, and ecologically beneficial landscape.
## Step 3: Identify Activities and Uses for Landscape
To design a landscape that is aesthetically pleasing, enjoyable, and functional, we need information from the people who will use the space. What are their personal needs and wants, what functions do they want the space to fulfill? What activities will occur regularly in the future landscape? Checklist 19-1 is a printable list of possible uses and activities to consider when planning a landscape. Ultimately, the activities identified for a given landscape provide direction toward a design that suits all the users.
Planning Enough Space for a Deck or Patio
A landscape wish list may be long. Adequate space to comfortably incorporate the items on the list is essential. In the case of decks and patios, it is better to go too large rather than too small. A deck or patio for outdoor entertaining should comfortably accommodate the maximum number of guests who will be using the space. Wall seating around the edge of a patio and built-in benches for a deck take advantage of space and limit the need for extra furniture (Figure 19-34). Measure outdoor furniture planned for the space and allow 2 to 3 feet of walking room around chairs. Using the plot plan scale, cut out paper patio furniture pieces sized to scale. Place and move pieces on the plot plan to help find an ideal location. People are accustomed to more elbowroom outside. Stake off the space to see if it is the right size, if the planned location takes advantage of good viewpoints in the yard and beyond, and if the site is out of direct traffic patterns to and from the house.
Attribution: Field Outdoor Spaces, Flickr CC BY 2.0
## Step 4: Locate and Develop Use Areas
A residential landscape consists of areas that are used for different purposes. In this step, we divide the site into several separate areas-each serving a purpose, but all combining into the overall design.
In residential landscapes, three general areas-public, private (family), and service (utility)-are used to organize activities and uses. Each area is developed to meet the user's needs and priorities (Checklist 19-2). After categorizing the activities, we can locate these areas for various uses on the
plot plan. Try to provide enough space for each activity within a given use area. Using another overlay sheet of tracing paper taped over the plot plan, note these uses are drawing bubbles to indicate use areas on the overlay helps to loosely define spaces for each activity (Figure 19-35).
The public use area is usually in the front of the house. The private use or family area is often in the back of the house. And the service area is generally in the backyard or side yard. It is important to locate and then develop each area so that it meets user needs, contributes to an attractive overall landscape, and addresses environmental factors identified in Step Two .
## Public Use-Entrance Areas and Front Yards
The public use area is most often seen by passersby and guests and usually includes the front yard, drive, walks, and main entrance to the home. A first consideration is to direct visitors to the front door. This can be accomplished with several landscape features.
First, consider the front walk. This walk should be comfortable for two people walking side by side--a minimum of 4½ feet is recommended. The front entrance can be enhanced by a walkway with an interesting surface texture, such as brick, slate, concrete pavers, aggregate, or stained concrete ( Figure 19-36 ).
Outdoor lighting improves safety and directs pedestrian traffic to the entrance after dark. Low, indirect lighting can safely light paths. Municipalities and other government agencies are moving toward decreasing light pollution. For these reasons, incorporate appropriate light schemes into the landscape, including down-lighting of specimen plantings and hardscape. Another environmentally sustainable solution is solar lighting.
To help guide visitors to an entrance area add a focal point-for example, an interesting tree with ground cover underneath or a planter with a specimen shrub. Trees, shrubs, and grass can be used to focus attention on the entryway. Hardscape elements, including rocks, planters, trellisises, arbors, and water features can also draw focus to the entryway.
Vehicle parking needs to be considered. If off-street parking is needed to accommodate visitors' cars, consider locating these spaces where they are easily accessible to the front entrance. Allow enough room for a door to swing open and a surface where someone exiting a vehicle can stand.
When planning the foundation areas, consider the mature size, color, texture, and number of plants needed. Consider the individual character of a plant so that as it matures it grows without major maintenance. Modern house foundations are often attractive and do not need to be hidden by dense borders of plant material.
If trees are desired near the house structure, choose a tree with a small canopy when fully grown so the branches do not interfere with the porch or roof. Placing tall trees in the backyard, and medium or small ones on the sides and in front, highlights the house (Figure 19-37 ). Examples of small canopy trees are dogwood ( Cornus florida ), Japanese flowering apricot ( Prunus mum e ), Japanese maple ( Acer palmatum ), eastern redbud ( Cercis canadensis ), sourwood ( Oxydendrum arboreum ), and serviceberry ( Amelanchier spp.), Tree-form evergreen shrubs are also useful, such as yaupon holly ( Ilex vomitoria ), camellia ( Camellia japonica ), inkberry holly ( Ilex glabra ), or wax myrtle ( Myrica cerifera ). When selecting trees or shrubs to frame a front entry, consider each plant's texture, color, shape, and size at maturity. The goal is to enhance the total visual effect while not blocking doors or windows or creating future maintenance issues from either plant root systems or branches and foliage.
While a front lawn is a very common feature, consider reducing the amount of area planted with turfgrass. Unless there are designated uses for a turf area in the front yard, the costs, labor, and chemical inputs often involved in maintaining a lawn can be avoided by planning a turf-free front
landscape. Incorporate masses of ground covers or mulched areas in the front landscape to create interesting lines. A front yard without a lawn can be beautiful and inviting, more easily maintained than a lawn, and contribute to a sustainable, environmentally friendly landscape (Figure 19-38).
## Private Use -Family Activity Areas
When designing areas to be used privately by the family, refer back to the needs identified in Step 3 . With North Carolina's pleasant climate, outdoor activities can be enjoyed most of the year, so decks, patios, and terraces should be considered an integral part of the residential landscape. The outdoor living areas should be easily accessible to the indoor living and kitchen areas of the home and should include private areas with attractive views.
Hot tubs, swimming pools, plant containers, raised beds for edibles, flower and woody ornamental gardens, water features, and sculptures are features that enhance an outdoor living area. Be sure to include space for recreation and sports. Some families enjoy basketball, tennis, or swimming, which requires special planning. If adding a large recreational feature like a tennis court or a swimming pool is not affordable with the initiative landscape installation but is desired for the future, be sure to leave enough space in the private use area.
Consider children's needs for landscape space (Figure 19-39). Sandboxes, swing sets, playhouses, and toys should be located in the family activity area. Consider how children's needs and the use of that space will transition as the children grow up. Because play spaces are generally placed in major sight lines from the house, they are ideal for future focal points, such as a water feature or specimen plant.
## Utility or Service Use Areas and Side Yards
Every residential landscape requires an area where gardening equipment, garbage cans, firewood, bicycles, and other items can be stored. Often these items end up at one side of the garage, behind the back porch, or under the deck. Set aside a certain amount of space for these necessities. Try to provide space for an outside utility building that is easily accessible (Figure 19-40).
Remember to keep the back of the site accessible to vehicles. Access facilitates major landscape maintenance tasks (like tree removal) or the addition of new landscape features, such as a concrete patio or a swimming pool.
If desired, spaces for gardening such as a greenhouse, beds for vegetables, or a compost pile can be provided in this area. As noted above, however, edibles can be integrated into the private use areas. If unsightly utility areas are visible from the house or patio, a screening wall or hedge may be needed (Figure 19-41). Do not forget to screen off unsignly areas from the neighbors.
A side yard is often the location for house utilities, including electricity and natural gas meters, cable access, or air-conditioning units. Homeowners do not typically spend a lot of money on their side yards because they do not spend a lot of time there. These utilitarian spaces can still be incorporated into the overall landscape at little cost by using attractive, functional access paths and screening materials. Be sure to keep plants and any screening structures away from utilities, both for ease of maintenance and to ensure good air flow.
Attribution: Lucy Bradley ccBY 2.0
## Step 5: Design
Once the site has been analyzed, the activity wish list made, and bubble diagrams drawn (Figure 19-35) to best locate the activities and elements, the landscape layout can be determined. A landscape can be informal, formal, or a combination of the two. Informal landscapes tend to have
curvilinear lines and winding paths. Formal landscapes have more formal planting beds and pathways with rectillinear lines.
A combination landscape might have a formal layout, but informal, loose plantings within the framework. Selecting the overall landscape layout is critical because it helps set the mood and energy of the space. It is important to get the layout right the first time as it can be time consuming and expensive to start over. The overall goal of this step is to get all the pieces of design to fit together like a puzzle so the final landscape, even after multiple installation phases, appears to be a unified, well-thought-out design.
Landscaping guided by a series of arbitrary "rules" such as "always plant shrubs in groups of three or five" and "never plant annuals in the public area" does not consider the needs of individual families and sites. Such landscaping rarely results in good design. Good design does not have to be limited by such so-called rules. Our objective in designing a landscape is not only creating good visual relationships. A successful landscape provides meaningful and useful spaces for people and their animals that fit with a family's desired aesthetic preferences. And a successful landscape promotes environmental stewardship. Developing a landscape design requires an understanding of the dynamic nature of the landscape. When we create a final design plan, we rely on basic design considerations, environmental design considerations, plant selection guidelines, and plan preparation instructions.
## Basic Design Considerations Emphasis by Grouping Plants
Rhododendrons, azaleas, dogwoods, or other woody ornamentals and herbaceous perennials can be mass-planted in informal beds (Figure 19-42). Try to locate the plants so that a natural scene develops as they mature. Plant the shrubs or trees together in one large bed and mulch well. Planting woody perennials in masse also provides winter structure for the landscape. Consider adding bulbs or borders that have masses of herbaceous perennials or annuals for seasonal color.
## Provide Privacy
If the site analysis reflects a need to screen unsightly views, provide a noise barrier, or create privacy, plant evergreen shrubs or build a fence (Figure 19-43). If room and time allow, a natural evergreen hedge is a good screening option. Vines on trellises create effective screens in tight spaces. Many trees, shrubs, and vines that make good screens grow very well in North Carolina. Although deciduous plants lose their leaves in the fall, investigate their stem size and arrangement because a densely branched deciduous shrub can work as an effective and interesting screen even after its leaves have dropped.
## Specimen Plants
In selecting specimen plants, consider quality-not quantity. By definition, specimen plants are plants grown alone for ornamental effect, rather than being massed with other plants as are bedding plants or edging plants (Figure 19-44). Specimen plants are located in the design to create focal points and draw attention to a specific area.
## Succession
We must design for time, or succession, when dealing with living, growing plant material. The initial planting should be based on the mature size of the plants. Although the entire space will not be filled, young, new plants should be placed so they will have space to grow and attain their mature size. Plan for the in-between areas in the newly planted garden so these open areas do not become weed-filled. One option is regular mulching with an organic material, such as pine fines , shredded
leaves, or double-hammeded hardwood mulch. All of these mulches suppress weeds, look attractive, conserve moisture, and protect and build healthy soil. Gaps can also be filled temporarily with annuals for a few years as long as they do not overcrowd or compete with permanent plantings.
Do not overcrowded plants during initial planting to create an "instant landscape" (Figure 19-45). Planting twice as many as needed, thinking they will be thinned out in a few years, doubles the cost of the job, and often the thinning never happens. Plants become overcrowded and compete for water and nutrients. Stressed, overcrowded plants are more susceptible to depredation by insects and plant diseases. Pests lead to unattractive, maintenance-intense plants that eventually need to be removed because they are unhealthy.
## Ecologically Based Design Considerations
Residential landscapes are part of a larger landscape and ecological community. When we design an environmentally friendly landscape, we protect the site's natural elements and treat the landscape as a living system. We consider reducing energy, water, and material inputs, and avoid the use of toxic or prohibited materials. The following environmentally friendly design techniques and considerations are based on valuing ecosystem services in the landscape.
## Designing for Water Conservation
Traditional landscape designs often incorporate the removal of all water offsite as quickly as possible. In an ecologically based design, water is not treated as a waste product to be captured and conveyed offsite. Instead, we view water as a resource to be captured and used in the landscape. The idea is to balance water inputs from precipitation, surface flow, and piped-in sources with outputs from evapotranspiration, runoff, and water that infiltrates into the soil. This balance helps prevent negative environmental effects such as erosion and surface and groundwater pollution. We rely on the following design techniques and concepts to achieve water conservation and balance:
- · Hardscapes create a slight slope on driveways and sidewalks to allow water to flow into the landscape rather than being diverted to the stormwater system. Where possible, use permeable surfaces for sidewalks, patios, and driveways (Figure 19-46) to allow water to soak into the ground.
- · Earthworks such as earthen berns and swales are used to contour the land to slow and capture rainwater, allowing it to infiltrate the soil. A swale is a trench dug perpendicular to the slope of the land. They are most effective on gentle slopes of less than 30 degrees. Begin installing swales as high in the landscape as possible, capturing water before it builds momentum and causes erosion. Continue building swales down the slope to promote infiltration and minimize stormwater runoff. A berm is a mound of soil that holds water in a plant's root zone. Terracing can also slow down water movement (Figure 19-47).
- · Rain gardens are designed to capture and infiltrate rainwater into the landscape (Figure 19-48). Select a location in full or partial sun that is at least 2 feet above the water table. The site should also be between the source of stormwater runoff (roots and hardscapes) and where the water leaves the property. Do not place the rain garden within 10 feet of the house foundation or within 25 feet of a wellhead or a septic system drain field. Avoid underground utilities. Use "Sizing Your Rain Garden," a sizing chart, to calculate the size of water garden needed to manage a site's stormwater. Dig a hole 4 to 6 inches deep with a slight depression in the center. Use the soil removed from the hole to create a berm along the side of the rain garden opposite the side into which the water flows. Cover the berm with mulch or grass to prevent erosion. Create a filter bed by slightly recessing the garden and adding compost to whatever soil is already on site. Compost works well with all soil types, adding valuable nutrients and microbes. In sandy soils it slows infiltration rates, and in clay soils it improves infiltration and pore space. Do not add sand to a filter bed as it can cause clay soils to become brick-like. Install
plants that can withstand both short periods of standing water and periods of drought. Then cover with 2 to 3 inches of hardwood mulch.
- · Green roofs or a living roof are partially or completely covered with vegetation and some type of growing medium, planted over a waterproof membrane. It may also include additional layers such as a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. Green roofs yields several important environmental benefits, including reducing stormwater runoff, restoring the natural water cycle in urban settings, enhancing biodiversity, and lowering outside building temperatures (Figure 19-49). In addition, green roofs increase awareness of stormwater management issues.
- · Rain barrels and cisterns are containers placed under downspouts to capture and store rainwater until it is needed for landscape irrigation. These containers prevent uncontrolled runoff. They can also be used to collect condensate from air conditioners, allowing the water to be used as needed for landscape irrigation and conserving water, energy, and money. This reliable, high-quality source of water is available during summer months when irrigation needs are highest. In the best-case scenario, rain barrels can be used in concert with rain gardens, directing any runoff from barrels to a rain garden.
- · Gray water is water discharged from bathtubs, showers, wash basins (except the kitchen sink), dishwashers, and clothes washers. Using gray water saves money by reducing the amount of tap water purchased for use in the garden and landscape as well as the energy that would have been used to treat and transport tap water. Using gray water also saves the energy that would have been used to transport and treat the gray water if it had entered the wastewater treatment system. A person who lives in a new home with water efficient fixtures generates approximately 35 gallons of gray water per day (12,320 gallons per year), while a person in an older home generates approximately 46 gallons per day (16,922 gallons per year). To protect groundwater and public health, rely on these requirements for safe use of gray water:
- The water must be used on the residential property where it was discharged. It must not be allowed to run off onto adjoining property, roadways, or into ditches or storm drains.
- The water must be applied to the landscape as soon as practical (within 24 hours of production).
- Apply the water directly to the ground. Do not spray it.
- Do not use gray water when laundering diapers, dying clothes, or when using any detergents, solvents, or other products that might be hazardous to the environment.
- Do not use gray water if any resident of the house has an infectious disease, such as diarrhea or hepatitis, or if any resident has internal parasites.
- Do not drink or apply gray water to edible crops (except those with a heavy rind like citrus and nuts).
- Include the capacity to divert gray water to the sewer system when desired.
- Check current state laws, local ordinances, and homeowner association covenants and restrictions prior to installing a gray water system.
## 1,000 square foot roof produces 630 gallons of runoff in a 1-inch rainstorm.
Other recommended design practices for water conservation include:
- Group plants according to water needs, such as "high water use" or "no supplemental water."
Applying good design practices to conserve water in the landscape also conserves the energy that would have been required to provide that water.
## Designing for Energy Conservation
Landscape plants provide shade (protection from radiant heat), minimize air movement (insulation), and cool the air through transpiration (release of water from leaves which then evaporates, a process that consumes energy and results in heat reduction).
The passive energy-conserving impact of a plant species depends on its size, whether it is deciduous or evergreen, the shape of its canopy, and the density of its foliage. Trees, shrubs, and vines are all effective, although arbors or tillres have to be included for vines or to espalier shrubs and trees.
Locate deciduous trees where the greatest benefit is derived from summer shade and winter sunon the western side to protect the home from noon to sunset. There is also some benefit to planting on the eastern side to protect from sunrise to noon. Shade not only structures but also outdoor seating areas, walls, and hardscapes. Pay particular attention to shading windows, which are most vulnerable to heat gain. Shading air conditioners can reduce the air temperature inside the home, but be sure to allow for adequate air flow around the unit. Use trees to shade the walls rather than the roof of the house. Tree limbs over the roof shed litter that clogs rain gutters. If heavy limbs fall during a storm, they can damage the house.
Create a windbreak by identifying the prevailing winter and installing evergreen trees upwind from the house. One row of trees is effective, but a windbreak of up to five rows that includes several different species is more effective. The windbreak also serves as a privacy screen. A biodiverse windbreak (or screen) consisting of native plants also provides sources of food and shelter for beneficial insects and wildlife, including birds.
Do not over-plant! Too many trees and shrubs near the house can cause moisture problems that lead to mildew, mold, and high humidity. The wind and the sun should periodically dry the area around the home. Over-shading a home may result in higher energy and maintenance bills because lights have to be used more often and an air conditioner may be needed to control humidity.
Carefully positioned trees, shrubs, and vines can save up to 25% of a typical household's energy consumption for cooling and heating. Combining these landscape ideas with proper insulation and conservation habits should produce a significant decrease in energy consumption.
## Designing for Wildlife Conservation
Landscapes are ecosystems. Ecosystems require a diversity of plants in various layers or levels to provide adequate habitat for wildlife. Consider including a water feature with shallow edges to provide drinking and bathing water for wildlife. Selecting native plants helps to attract birds, pollinators, and beneficial insects to the yard. See chapter 20, "Wildlife," for specific tips on attracting and managing wildlife in the landscape.
## Designing for Food Security
Incorporating edibles into the entire landscape instead of only in a vegetable garden is a way to make the landscape more eco-friendly. Doing so also makes more efficient use of space by incorporating plants that perform multiple functions (add beauty to the garden, provide food and cut flowers, and attract pollinators). It is not necessary to substitute edible plants for all ornamentals, but many edible woody landscape plants have high ornamental value. The goal is to progress from the
typical backyard vegetable garden and develop a plan that uses edible plants to solve functional landscape problems. Plan for year-round harvest by selecting a variety of plants that ripen at different times throughout the year.
Edibles are available that meet most plant selection design criteria. For trees, consider fruit and nut trees. Most deciduous fruit trees (including apple, fig, pear, cherry, peach, and plum) come in a variety of sizes ranging from a mature height of 8 feet to a mature height of 30 feet. Select one to fit the space. Be sure to provide adequate sunlight as fruit trees require 6 to 7 hours a day. For seasonal color, instead of purchasing annual flowers consider colorful vegetable plants. The bright stems of rainbow chard spruce up any planting bed. Kale comes in many varieties that have interesting colors and textures (Figure 19-50).
Instead of planting ornamental ground covers, think about planting strawberries or evergreen raspberries. An area with well-drained soil that receives at least 6 to 7 hours of direct sunlight produces strawberry plants with lush green foliage, spring blossoms, and early summer fruit. Rosemary, thyme, oregano, lavender, and many other herbs offer a variety of design options. Some are evergreen, some are shrublike, some create creeping ground covers, and all have colorful blooms and unique fragrances.
Blueberry bushes are a good substitute for a privet ( Ligustum sp.) or hedges of Asian hollies (for example, llex cornuta 'Burfordii'). Rabbitieye cultivars are more widely adapted to different soils than highbush cultivars. Rabbitieye blueberries do not tolerate the cold climate of the mountains but grow well in full sun all across the NC Piedmont and coastal plain. Acid soil (with a pH of 4.5 to 5.5) usually promotes the best growth. Include two or more cultivars in the design to ensure proper pollination. Read more in chapter 14, "Small Fruits."
## Designing to Minimize Maintenance
To make the landscape more efficient and less frustrating to maintain, consider these design suggestions:
- · Avoid sharp angles, tight corners, narrow lawns, and irregular edges that are hard to mow and water.
- · Reduce turfgrass areas-lawn is labor- and material-intensive, requiring regular mowing and other maintenance tasks plus irrigation, fertilizer, and other chemicals.
- · Choose plants whose growth habit and mature size meet the design requirements to minimize pruning and shearing to maintain the desired size and shape.
- · Look for plants that are drought-tolerant, wind-resistant, and adapted to low fertilization to save on maintenance.
- · Group plants with the same water needs together to save time and money on irrigation.
- · Locate the compost bin near where the green waste is generated.
- · Consider minimizing the removal of organic material from the landscape in the design. Practice the law of return. For example, leave grass clippings on the lawn to enrich and protect soil, which feeds the grass, saves the labor of collecting and bagging clippings, and conserves the energy expended to truck them away. Plant deciduous trees and shrubs in large beds where leaves can accumulate and biodegrade to enrich and protect soil. This practice also conserves water, labor, and energy.
## Designing for Wildfire Resistance
If wildfire is a potential problem, create at least a 30-foot defensible space around the house (more if the house is on a slope or if the surrounding vegetation is particularly flammable) by removing flammable material from the area surrounding the building. Identify the prevailing wind, which is the
direction from which the fire is most likely to approach. Be sure not to design storage for firewood, building materials, or other flammable landscape materials on that side of the yard. Remove any dead vegetation within the defensible space. Eliminate fuel ladders, plants of varying heights located near each other, which provide a means for the fire to jump to the canopy. Leave open space between plants or groups of plants within the defensible space. Do not plant within 5 feet of any structure or use dense masses of plants.
## To learn more about Permaculture, another ecologically based approach to landscape design see Appendix G.
## Plant Selection
Plants are the dynamic heart of a landscape, and thoughtful plant selection is essential to developing a beautiful, earth-friendly landscape. Proper plant selection and placement create an appealing landscape, improve property value, beautify the community, and build a healthy local ecosystem. Selecting the right plant for the right place reduces the need for irrigation water, fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides, and labor.
Plants can be selected for their aesthetic or ecological value to fulfill specific functions such as screening or noise control. Plants are incorporated into the design to fill several visual and sensory roles in the landscape. Plants form a structural framework for the garden and yard, establish horizontal and vertical diversity and transition, and provide focal points. They can be used for screening and creating seasonal impact with foliage, bloom, tug, or trunk architecture. Many plants add fragrance to the environment. Selections based on ecological value can reduce lawn area, control erosion, and add biodiversity by attracting, hosting, and feeding pollinators, beneficial insects, and other wildlife-including birds.
Native plants or cultivars of native species benefit the local ecosystem in a myriad of ways including by supporting insects, the primary food source for nesting birds and other native fauna. In addition, they attract native pollinators, including birds, bats, butterflies, bees, and moths as well as providing preferred food, shelter and habitat for wildlife. Native plants also enhance the beauty of all types of gardens-from formal to informal designs-and provide a sense of place and regional history. An extensive variety of native plants occur in North Carolina and they can be used to incorporate elements of local natural systems. See chapter 12, "Native Plants" for more information. There are also a variety of non-native ornamental species that thrive in North Carolina. When selecting nonnatives make sure they are well adapted to the site's growing conditions but are not designated as weedy or invasive or considered a threat to natural habitats.
Avoid invasive plants such as English ivy (Hedera helix), privet (Japanese and Chinese Ligustrum spp.), Japanese and Chinese wisteria (Wisteria floribunda and W. sinensis), and Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicerja aponica ), all of which are detrimental to the local landscape and environment, including undeveloped natural areas. For lists of invasive plants, see the NC Invasive Plant Council, Going Native: Urban Landscaping for Wildlife with Native Plants , or the NC Native Plants Society .
To put the right plant in the right place, we must understand each plant's environmental requirements and its design characteristics. For example, choose drought-resistant or low-moisture plants for a location with limited available water. Or select a mounding, low-growing broadleaf evergreen for a low hedge next to a walkway.
## Environmental requirements of the plant to consider include:
- · Moisture needs
- · Light exposure:
A plant's designated USDA Hardiness Zone (the USDA has an interactive zone map on their website) is a starting point for understanding its environmental requirements. Plant tags at nursery centers also provide environmental information. For the most accurate, research-based information on specific plants, use plant databases from credible websites such as the North Carolina Extension Gardener PlantToolbox at NC State University or other university extension programs as well as books by reputable horticulturists, botanists, and ecologists.
Key design factors to consider in plant selection include plant growth habit, mature size, bloom cycle, and seasonal interest.
A plant's growth habit determines its mature form, shape, and texture, which dictate how a plant occupies and accents the space and integrates into the landscape layout. Texture, form, shape, and size are physical characteristics of plants that provide interest, variety, and aesthetic appeal in a landscape. Based on these characteristics, some plants have more visual value in relation to the surroundings. Some are more functionally dominant, and some dominate simply by size. Select plants with upright forms and coarse textures for high visual impact. Low or prostrate forms and fine textures are less dramatic and have lower visual impact. When selecting plants for specific locations in the design, consider that the visual value also depends on the viewing distance, the season, light conditions, and adjacent plant material and structures.
Knowing the mature plant size is critical for spacing plantings to accommodate both mature height and width. Also consider mature sizes of nearby plants and distance from any nearby structures. Plants near buildings should be located half their mature width plus a minimum of 1 foot away from the structure. For example, a shrub that grows to be 5 feet wide should be planted 3½ feet (2½ feet + 1 foot) away from a structure. Choose plants that have the desired mature size versus ones that require constant pruning and maintenance to keep them the desired size.
Choose plants with different bloom cycles and foliage color to provide year-round color and to attract pollinators. Flowering trees provide pastels in spring. Beds of perennials and annuals furnish vivid hues in summer, and hellevoffs before bursts of color in late winter. Many plants have more attractive foliage than flowers. In addition to innumerable shades of green, plants offer leaves of other colors. Many plants have variegated leaves with multiple colors on each leaf. Some variegated leaves have stripes of different colors (usually white, cream, or yellow and green). Others have patches or blotches of color, including combinations of white, cream, or yellow and green; pink, purple, and green; or yellow, orange, red, copper, and green.
To create seasonal interest, consider bloom color and time, foliage texture and color, fruit color and time, and twig and bark texture and color to achieve visual accents in every season. For example, evergreens add winter color and unity. When possible, select plants that provide year-round interest. A river birch ( Betula nigra ), has attractive spring flowers, beautiful fall or midsummer color, and exfoliating (shedding) bark for winter interest. Concentrate color where accent is desired, but when considering plant colors, remember that more is not necessarily better. In a good design, the main
plant colors are the shades of green that set off the seasonal accent colors. Be wary of using too many evergreens as they can be visually "heavy" and not provide as much seasonal change as deciduous plants.
When selecting plants for a landscape, choose the woody ornamentals (trees and shrubs) first because they establish the borders, hedges, and specimen plantings that give structure and form to the green portion of the landscape. Create groups of shrubs and trees with similar environmental needs in mulched beds with curved edges rather than scattering plants throughout a lawn. Woody ornamentals often have extensive feeder root systems, and large trees can have feeder roots that extend twice the canopy diameter. These roots compete for resources with other plants, including turfgrass. Using large sweeps of perennials and ornamental grasses achieves winter form and interest.
Make sure final plant selections are appropriate for the site and the design. For example, choose a tall evergreen like a native arborvitae cultivar ( Thuja occidentalis ) and locate several to establish a screen or a windbreak. Select large deciduous trees planted well away from the house foundation on the south and west exposures to mitigate hot summer temperatures. For shady areas, consider masses of herbaceous shade-tolerant perennials like Indian pink ( Spigelia marilandica ), foamflower ( Tiarella cordifolia ), white wood aster ( Eurybia divicarata ), and green-and-gold ( Chrysogonum virginianum ) around shade-tolerant evergreen plants such as Christmas fern ( Polysichtum acrostichoides ) or anise tree ( Illicium floridanum ).
Prior to this step, the plants in a design are abstract concepts that fulfill design specifications: a 30foot by 20-foot deciduous shade tree or a 4-foot by 4-foot evergreen shrub. Delineating the environmental conditions where each plant will be placed allows us to select the genus and species for each spot. Again the NC State Extension Plant Database is a valuable resource for identifying recommended options.
Once the specific plants are selected, they can be drawn to scale at their mature size on the plan as shown in Figure 19-51. Drawing plants to scale on the plan is an accurate way of determining quantities needed of each plant. Use symbols on the plan to clearly convey information about the plants and to allow the inclusion of details in the design. Figure 19-28 provides some commonly used symbols. Trees should be drawn with symbols that are transparent so the elements under the tree's canopy can be seen easily. In contrast, ground covers can be darkly or deeply drawn as nothing is planted underneath them. Evergreen versus deciduous trees and shrubs should be graphically easy to distinguish.
## The true test of good landscape design is to ask the following two questions:
Does the design meet the user's needs and expectations?
Does the design respond sensitively to the site?
## Preparing Final Plan
Using the fundamental design principles outlined at the beginning of this chapter and applying the results of Steps 1 through 5, we can develop the final landscape design plan that incorporates the design considerations and plant selections. This final plan (Figure 19-51) shows all changes to be made to existing site features like walks or driveways and any additions, such as a deck, pool, or patio. The final plan also shows the location of all plant material. Figure 19-52 assigns numbers to the plants on the plot plan and Table 19-1 gives a suggested plant list. Learn more about each of the plants listed on the North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox . In selecting plant size on the plant list, resist the temptation to have an "instant landscape." Small plants establish faster and are more economical. Large trees and shrubs may achieve an instantaneous effect, but transplant stress increases with plant size.
Table 19-1 . Plant details for plants in Figure 19-52.
| Plot Plan Reference | Plant Type Indicated in Plot Plan | Botanical Name | Common Name(s) | Cultivar(s) | Mature Height |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|------------------|
| 1 | Evergreen tree (max spread 15'-20') | Magnolia virginiana | Sweetbay Magnolia | 20'-50' | |
| 2 | Deciduous tree (max spread 15'-20') | Amelanchier × grandiflora (A. arborea × A. lavéis hybrid) | Serviceberry; Juneberry | ‘Autumn Brilliance, ‘Ballerina,’ ‘Princess Diana’ | 20'-25' |
| 3 | Deciduous shrub/small tree (max spread 15') | Ilex verticillata | Winterberry | ‘Winter Red’ with ‘Southern Gentleman’ | 10'-12' |
| 4 | Deciduous small shrub (max spread 5') | Itea virginica | Sweetspire | ‘Little Henry,’ ‘Merlot’, ‘Saturnia’ | 3'-5' |
| 5 | Evergreen shrub (max spread 5') | Myrica pumila syrn M. Cifera terra (dwarf) | Dwarf Wax Myrtle | ‘Don's Dwarf,’ ‘Don's Other Dwarf’ | 4'-6' |
| 6 | Rain garden plants | Viburnum wifidulum | Blackhaw Viburnum | 10'-20' | 10'-23' |
| 6 | Rain garden plants | Rudbeckia hirta | Black-Eyed Susan | 2'-3' | 2'-3' |
| 6 | Rain garden plants | Chelone glabra | Turtlehead | 1'-3' | 1'-3' |
| 6 | Rain garden plants | Asclepias incarnata | Swamp Milkweed | 2'-4' | 2'-4' |
| 6 | Rain garden plants | Chasmanthium latifolia | River Oats | 2'-5' | 2'-5' |
| 6 | Rain garden plants | Cheltra alnifolia | Sweet Pepperbush; Summersweet | ‘Ruby Spice,’ ‘Sixteen Candles’ | 4'-10' |
| Plot Plan Reference | Plant Type Indicated in Plot Plan | Botanical Name | Common Name(s) | Cultivar(s) | Mature Height |
|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|
| 7 | Deciduous tall shrub/small specimen tree (max spread 15') | Chionanthus virginicus | Fringe Tree | 12'-20' | |
| 8 | Evergreen screening hedge tall shrub/tree (max spread 5') | Ilex vomitoria | Yauphon Holly | ‘Will Fleming, ‘Scarlet’s Peak’ | 10'-20' |
| 9 | Deciduous hedge shrub (max spread 5') | Vaccinium corymbosum | Highbush or Rabbiteye Blueberry | ‘Climax, ‘Premier, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, ’Tíblue, 'Forest Pansy, 'Hearts of Gold,' 'Ruby Falls' | 6'-12' |
| 10 | Deciduous screening hedge tall shrub | Aesculus parviflora | Bottlebrush Buckeye | 8'-12' | 8'-12' |
| 11 | Deciduous small specimen tree (max spread 15'-20') | Cercis canadensis | Eastern Redbud | 15'-20' | 15'-20' |
| 12 | Ornamental grass | Muhlenbergja cappillaris | Pink Muhlygrass | 2'-3' | 2'-3' |
| 13 | Mixed groundcovers | Mazus miquelii | Mazus; Cupflower | 4'-6' | 4'-6' |
| 13 | Mixed groundcovers | Chrysogonum virginianum C. virginianum var australe | Green and Gold; Goldenstar | ‘Allen Bush’; C. virginianum var australe ‘Eco- Lacquered Spider’ | 4'-8' |
| Plot Plan Reference | Plant Type Indicated in Plot Plan | Botanical Name | Common Name(s) | Cultivar(s) | Mature Height |
|------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|
| 14 | Deciduous small specimen shrub (max spread 5') | Hydrangea quercifolia | Oakleaf Hydrangea | 'Pee Wee,' 'Ruby Slippers,' Munchkin,' 'Sykes Dwarf' | 2'-4' |
| 15 | Deciduous or evergreen small shrub (max spread 5') | Fothergilla gardenii | Dwarf Fothergilla | 'Mount Ain' (F. gardenii × F. major hybrid) | 3'-5' |
| 16 | Deciduous or evergreen small shrub (max spread 5') | Loperpetalum chianense | Chinese Fringe-Flower | 'Shang-hi' (Purple Diamond™), 'Shang-lo' (Purple Pixie™) | 2'-5' |
| 17 | Deciduous large specimen tree (existing) | Acer rubrum | Red Maple | | 40'-60' |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Aquilegia canadensis | Columbine | 2'-3' | 18 |
| 19 | Mixed shade garden | Carex flaccosperma | Blue Wood Sedge | 6'-12" | 18 |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Eurybia dvariata | White Wood Aster | 1'-2.5' | 18 |
| 19 | Mixed shade garden | Geranium maculatum | Wild Geranium | 1.5'-2' | 18 |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Gallenia trifoliata | Bowman's Root | 2'-4' | 18 |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Huechera americana | Alumroot/Coral Bells | 1'-2' | 18 |
| 19 | Mixed shade garden | Illicium floridanum | Florida Anise Tree | 5'-8' | 18 |
| Plot Plan Reference | Plant Type Indicated in Plot Plan | Botanical Name | Common Name(s) | Cultivar(s) | Mature Height |
|------------------------|---------------------------------------|-----------------------------|----------------------|---------------|------------------|
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Iris cristata | Dwarf Crested Iris | 'Alba' | 6"-8" |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Qsmunda cinnamomaea | Cinnamon Fern | 3'-5' | |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Polygonatum biflorum | Solomon's Seal | | 1'-3' |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Polystichum acrostichoides | Christmas Fern | | 1'-2' |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Silene virginica | Fire Pink | | 1'-1.5' |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Spigelia marilandica | Indian Pink | | 1'-2' |
| 18 | Mixed shade garden | Stylophorum dipylum | Celadine Poppy | | 1'-2' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Asclepias tuberosa | Butterfly Milkweed | | 1'-2,5' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Baptisia alba | White Wild Indigo | | 2'-4' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Baptisia tinctoria | Yellow Wild Indigo | | 2'-3' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Coreopsis auriculata | Lobed Tickseed | | 6"-8" |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Careopis garden | Lance-Leaf Tickseed | | 1'-2' |
| Plot Plan Reference | Plant Type Indicated in Plot Plan | Botanical Name | Common Name(s) | Cultivar(s) | Mature Height |
|-----------------------|-------------------------------------|----------------------|---------------------------|----------------|-----------------|
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Echinacea purpurea | Coneflower | | 2'-5' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Autrochiium fistosum | Joe Pye Weed | 'Atropurpurea' | 4'-7' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Helenium flexuosum | Purple- Headed Sneezeweed | 1'-3' | 1'-3' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Hibiscus coccineus | Scarlet Rose- Mallow | 6'-8' | 19 |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Hibiscus moscheutos | Crimson-Eyed Rose Mallow | 3'-6' | 19 |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Iris virginica | Virginia Blueflag | 1'-3' | 19 |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Lilatis spicata | Blazing-Star | 2'-4' | 19 |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Lobelia cardinalis | Cardinal Flower | 2'-4' | 19 |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Monarda didyma | Bee Balm | 2'-4' | |
| Plot Plan Reference | Plant Type Indicated in Plot Plan | Botanical Name | Common Name(s) | Cultivar(s) | Mature Height |
|-----------------------|-------------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|-----------------|
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Panicum virgatum | Switchgrass | 3'-6' | |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Poenstemon digitals | Tall White Beardtongue | 'Husker Red' | 2'-3' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Schizachryrium scoparium | Little Bluestem | 2'-4' | |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Solidago rugosa | Golden Rod | 'Fireworks' | 2.5'-3' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Stokesia laevis | Stokes' Aster | 'Peaches Pick,' 'Colowheel,' 'Mary Gregory,' 'Alba' | 1'-2' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Symphyotrichum oblongifolium | Aromatic Aster | 'October Skies' | 1'-3' |
| 19 | Mixed herbaceous perennial garden | Veronicastrum virginicum | Culver's Root | 4'-7' | |
| 20 | Shade pergola | Lonicera tempérivens | Coral Honeysuckle | 'Major Wheeler' | 15'-20' |
## Step 6: Installing the Landscape
The final plan ensures that all landscape work done on a property blends over time into the desired final outcome, creating a harmonious composition and providing physical and psychological comfort. Even with a completed plan, landscape development can be a long-term process. There is no need
to develop an entire property at once. Completing the landscape over a period of several years might be economically more feasible and may ultimately improve the overall design. An extended installation time frame allows more opportunity to evaluate plants as they grow and mature and consider the impact and desirability of planned hardscape features. The additional time can also help better identify those parts of the landscape that supply essential functions and those that have to be installed before other elements of the landscape can be incorporated. By establishing priorities, we can implement the landscape in stages (for example, front yards versus backyards or hardscapes; then large plant material; then small).
When you prioritize elements for installation in a landscape, consider user needs and budgetary constraints. Budget should always be kept in mind as costs of installing various landscaping features can vary greatly. If shade is needed for a patio area, the least expensive is to plant a shade tree and wait several years. At an increased cost, an arbor can be installed for instant shade. A large standing umbrella can be purchased at a modest cost. If the design calls for a grassy play area, a lawn can be started from seed in the fall or spring (depending on the turfgrass selected), and you can wait a season for it to be ready for use. For quicker results, you can choose the more expensive option of laying sod, allowing the grass to be ready for use much sooner.
A landscape installation can be very simple or extremely complicated. Homeowners should evaluate the skills and materials needed for installation and associated costs to determine whether these are DIY projects or whether money and time would be better spent by hiring a professional. Permanent structures or large hardscape elements, including irrigation systems, outdoor lighting, stone walls, decks, pools, and patios, may require skills that go beyond those of the average homeowner. When the job seems too big, call in a professional, licensed landscape contractor. North Carolina state law requires that anyone using the title "landscape contractor" must be registered by the Landscape Contractors Registration Board. A landscape contractor must pass exams covering soils, grading, plants, and various other topics. Be aware, however, that anyone who thinks they do landscape work can set themselves up in business as a "landscaper," "landscape installer," or "landscape designer." Be sure to check references, visit other installations by the contractor, and check with the Better Business Bureau to make sure the contractor is licensed and bonded.
## Construction Materials
We often think of landscaping and planting as synonymous. But landscaping also includes the incorporation of several important hardscape features, such as walls, patios, outdoor lighting, walks, and decks that are integral to a design. Although most people evaluate the success of landscape development in terms of the selection and condition of the plant materials, most well-designed landscapes contain a balance of construction and plant materials. Carefully designed and executed paved surfaces, fences, walls, overhead structures, and edging materials are attractive, and they can reduce routine maintenance.
Factors that influence the choice of materials include existing architectural and landscape features, cost, and sustainability. When selecting hardscape material, consider the principles of unity, rhythm, accent, and repetition. If possible, repeat materials and colors already used on the home. This achieves a major objective of good landscaping design: to establish a visual relationship between the house and the site. Use building materials that blend well in the local natural environment and relate to the home. For example, use wood shingles on a gazebo roof that match the home's roof on a wooded site, or select stone for retaining walls that reflects a stone chimney in an area where the
stone is found naturally. Natural construction materials often combine well with resource efficient landscapes. Weathered wood, natural stains, concrete, and earth tones in brick usually blend with existing construction materials and relate to the natural environment.
The landscape materials can contribute to sustainability when we select renewable, local, and lowenergy input materials. Explore options for using recycled materials and energy efficient materials in the landscape. Used bricks or broken concrete can be used for retaining walls. Recycled plastic material may be an appropriate choice for decking or fences. Consider the safety of re-purposing items before including them in the landscape. For example, the chemicals in croeseote-impregnated railroad ties or lumber treated with chromated copper arena (CCA) can leach into the soil. Better options exist, such as untreated cedar, for use in gardens and near food crops.
Consider any potential environmental impact of selected materials, both the impact of using them and the impact of their production, packaging, and marketing. Limit the amount of impermeable surfaces, which collect heat and increase stormwater runoff. Consider using a permeable paving system--such as gravel or pavers that have open centers for planting grass--for patios, walkways, and driveways to promote infiltration, improve drainage, and limit runoff (Figure 19-46). Select energy-conserving constructions materials. Remember that light pollution is a problem in urban and suburban areas and even affects migrating birds, moths and butterflies. Eco-friendly lighting schemes use down-lighting and solar power, and turn off automatically when not needed. Irrigation systems may include precipitation gauges so they automatically shut off when nature provides water.
## Wood
Wood construction offers a readily available and relatively simple way to create functional, pleasing outdoor garden features. Try to find lumber that is not warped or splintered and that has the fewest knots. Painting, staining, or sealing wood decks and fences prolongs their life. Selecting the proper kind of wood is important because the finished product must withstand adverse weather and insect attacks.
The heartwood of a decay-resistant species such as redwood, cypress, or western red cedar is optimal for landscaping construction. Various outdoor grades of these woods are available, but all are quite expensive. Pressure-treated lumber is more economical and can be satisfactory for most wood projects. This lumber must meet certain standards for various uses and is marked accordingly. Several yellow pine species native to the South are used for treated lumber.
The primary concern with using pressure-treated wood in raised-bed gardens has been with the arsenic in wood treated with CCA, chromated copper arsenate. In 2004, the EPA restricted the use of CCA, and it is no longer available to the public. ACQ is an alternative wood-treatment chemical that contains no arsenic, chromium, or any other chemical considered toxic by the EPA.
Review safety guidelines for the use of pressure-treated wood available where you purchased the lumber. Some key recommendations include the following:
- · Do not breathe the dust.
- · After handling wood, wash hands before eating, drinking or using tobacco products.
- · Wash clothes separately before reuse.
- · Do NOT burn scraps of pressure-treated wood.
## Wood Alternatives
Durable and low maintenance wood-alternative products made with recycled wood plastics and sawdust are commercially available. These products do not need to be painted, stained, or sealed and are as easy to cut and install as real wood. The use of composite wood materials made from
recycled plastic for decks and screening walls is very popular in modern landscaping. It is often three times the cost of pressure-treated wood, but it requires little to no maintenance.
To save material when designing a structure to be built with lumber or a wooden alternative, try to use the entire board. Common lumber lengths are 8, 10, and 12 feet. Longer boards are progressively more expensive. A deck designed to be built with 10-foot lumber would be much less expensive than a deck built 10 feet 8 inches long. Also, remember that the structure must work with the outdoor scale. Instead of an 8-foot ceiling and walls 12 to 15 feet apart, outdoor spaces might be defined by a 25-foot-tall tree canopy or the backyard fence 75 feet away. Try to buy just the amount of pressure-treated wood needed as it cannot be recycled.
## Brick
Brick is one of the easiest construction materials to use and is readily available. Building a simple walk, terrace, or patio can be a weekend do-it-yourself project. Laying brick on sand (with or without mortar) is an acceptable landscape practice. Aggregate concrete also makes excellent terraces and patios.
Always keep in mind the life of the landscape. Products that cost more upfront often outlast cheaper alternatives.
## Case Study Think About IPM: Falling Tree
You have a sick eastern redbud tree. It has black spots on the leaves and many leaves are dying and falling off. You are wondering if you can give it some type of fertilizer or if there is something that can be sprayed on it to get rid of the black spots?
Review the five IPM steps summarized in this section and conduct some background research on the eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis).
- 1. Monitor and scout to determine pest type and population levels.
- 2. Accurately identify host and pest.
- 3. Consider economic or aesthetic injury thresholds. A threshold is the point at which action should be taken.
- 4. Implement a treatment strategy using physical, cultural, biological, or chemical management, or combine these strategies.
- 5. Evaluate success of treatments.
## Monitor and scout to determine pest type and population levels.
This tree has been struggling for some time, but recently a noticeable black spot problem has appeared on the leaves. A sample could be sent to a diagnostic lab to determine which disease may be causing the black spots. But a more cost effective response simply requires digging a little deeper to reach the root of the problem.
Use the steps outlined in chapter 7, "Diagnostics" to help you identify the problem. Once the tree species is confirmed, examine both the healthy and damaged leaves carefully. The following questions will help you accurately identify the problem. Responses are included in italics.
- Step 1. Identify the plant: I looked up "redbud" on the NC State Extension Plant Finder. I also checked some gardening books I own and I have a Cercis canadensis tree.
Step 2. Describe the problem: The black spots started showing up three weeks ago and are spreading rapidly. The tree looks very sick.
## Step 3. Identify what is normal:
What does the healthy part of the plant look like? Bright green, lush leaves, with no spots.
What does the unhealthy part of the plant look like? Leaves have between 3 and 20 black spots. The leaves are turning yellow or brown and are falling off.
Have you had a soil test? No (For information on how to submit a soil test see "Soils and Plant Nutrients," chapter 1.)
## Step 4. Cultural practices:
Age and history of plant: It has been in the ground three years and over the last two years it has been declining.
Irrigation: I watered the tree for the first summer, but now I don't water at all.
Fertilizer: I put some organic fertilizer on the last two springs but not this year.
Maintenance: I prune off any dead branches in the fall and rake the leaves. I also put a layer of compost around the roots each fall.
## Step 5. Environmental conditions:
Are there any significant water issues? Yes , we do get standing water for a day or so after significant rainfall (Figure 19-53).
What is the soil like? It is a clay soil, very red .
Describe the light. How many hours of sunlight? It is planted in a shady corner of the yard at the corner of the property. This part of the yard gets only 3 to 4 hours of filtered sun a day.
Describe any recent changes or events: Sun exposure has stayed the same, but the neighbors installed a fence last spring that is about 2 feet away from the tree.
## Step 6. Signs of pathogens and pests:
On the leaves: There are round black spots on the leaves and in the center of some there appears to be a small structure.
On the stems: I do not see any evidence of insects or fungus on the stems.
On the roots and in the soil: There is an ant nest near the base of the tree and I saw a cluster of eggs. There were also a few beetles crawling around. I detected a foul odor when digging near
the roots.
## Step 7. Symptoms:
On the leaves : The leaves are wilted and some are turning yellow or brown and falling off.
On the buds/flowers : It is not flowering yet.
On the stems : The branches where leaves have fallen off are dead and appear to have brown streaks inside.
On the roots : I did not remember how deeply I planted it. When I scraped back the soil, I was able to remove 3 inches before I got to the "root flare" on the trunk. The roots were dark colored and slimy feeling.
## Step 8. Distribution of damage in the landscape:
Are other plants in the landscape affected? No.
Step 9. Distribution of damage on the plant and specific plant parts:
Where is the damage seen on the plant? In approximately 50% of the canopy.
Step 10. Timing:
When did you notice this problem? The tree never took off after planting. It has been declining over the last two years and this spring it has really started to look bad.
You hypothesize this plant is suffering from a disease because there were signs of disease and though you saw insects, none of them were actually on the plant itself. Because there are symptoms on the leaves, stems, and roots, you suspect that it is primarily a vascular problem. It is not affecting any other plants in the landscape. Though you could send of a sample to the NC State Plant Disease and Insect Clinic for a diagnosis of the disease, based on the facts gathered, poor cultural practices are likely at fault. The location of the tree is a primary concern. C. canadensis prefers welldrained soil and full to partial sun, not shade. You found three inches of soil before the root flare which indicates that this tree was planted too deeply. The heavy clay soil, and the fact that there is standing water for several days means the soil is compacted and that leads to root and vascular problems. The addition of a concrete path could have further exacerbated the root compaction. This tree is planted in the wrong place.
## 3. Consider economic, aesthetic, and injury thresholds.
Although you would like this tree to live, it is not a prize tree that you are willing to make heroic efforts to save. Furthermore, from looking at the samples, the injury is severe enough to warrant investigation. The tree is not going to survive without intervention.
## 4. Implement a treatment strategy using physical, cultural, biological, or insecticide control, or combine these strategies.
Physical. It is a diseased tree and would probably not survive transplanting to a more appropriate location. It should be removed from the site. Review the steps to completing a proper site analysis outlined in this chapter. A good site analysis can help avoid these types of problems in the future. Contouring a yard can help mitigate standing water problems.
Cultural. Many other plants thrive in shady, damp growing conditions. Matching a plant to the site is essential. Conduct a soil test and properly amend the soil before planting. Plant at a proper depth and provide regular maintenance including mulching, pruning, and fertilizing.
Biological. There are no recommended biological controls.
Chemical. There are no recommended chemical controls.
## 5. Evaluate treatment success.
You have started a folder with your site analysis and landscape design ideas. Your garden journal helps you keep track of any new plants chosen as well as how they and existing plants are growing.
Attribution: John Whitlock (johnwhittlock), Flickr cc by 20
## Frequently Asked Questions
- 1. Do you have anyone who can draw up a landscape plan for me?
No. We cannot make a recommendation due to the time required and conflict of interest with members of the community providing that service in the green industry. NC State Extension has several resources to help you get started with planning a landscape, including Bulletin AG-508-2,
How to Plan and Design a Wise-Water-Use Landscape . These resources are available on the NC State Extension website. Check your local Cooperative Extension center website for a list of upcoming classes related to landscaping design.
## 2. Where can I get a list of plants that grow well in this area?
NC State Extension has a searchable plant database that lists plants appropriate for various regions in North Carolina. You can search by height, light requirements, flower color, leaf color, what a plant attracts, zones, and much more.
## 3. What is the difference between a landscape architect , a landscape contractor , and a landscape designer ?
A landscape architect is an individual who holds a professional license to practice landscape architecture through the NC Board of Landscape Architects (NCBOLA). A list of licensed landscape architects is available on the NCBLOA website. Landscape architects who are licensed in North Carolina must have graduated from a college program approved by the Landscape Architect Accreditation Board (LAAB) and have four years of experience in landscape architecture. A landscape architect has a seal bearing his or her name, certificate number, and the legend "NC Registered Landscape Architect." Landscape contractors, who often also do design work, are licensed by the state of North Carolina. Landscape designers are not licensed or regulated by the state but there are other certifications they can earn. They may draw up plot plans, but hardscape elements or alteration of sites, including grading and drainage plans, should be prepared by a licensed professional. Anyone doing irrigation work has to be certified by the state.
## 4. Where should I place trees to maximize their potential to conserve energy?
Trees help us save energy in many ways. To block solar heat in the summer but let much of it in during the winter, use deciduous trees. Deciduous trees with high, spreading crowns can be planted to the south of the home to provide maximum summertime shading. Trees with crowns lower to the ground are more appropriate to the west, where shade is needed from lower afternoon sun angles. Use allées of trees to channel summer breezes toward the home. To deflect winter winds, create windbreaks of dense evergreen trees or shrubs between the house and direction from which prevailing winds originate. Consider shading outdoor air conditioning units for maximum energy savings. Plant all trees far enough away from the home so that when they mature, their root systems do not damage the foundation and branches do not damage the roof.
"If you have questions about this chapter contact your local expert at your local N.C. Cooperative Extension center.
## Further Reading
Alexander, Rosemary. The Essential Garden Design Workbook: Second Edition. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Inc., 2009. Print.
Bales, Suzy, ed. Suzy Bales' Down to Earth Gardener: Let Mother Nature Guide You to Success in Your Garden . Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, Inc., 2004. Print.
Bender, Steve, and Felder Rushing. Passalong Plants. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002. Print.
Bender, Steve, ed. The Southern Living Garden Book. Birmingham, Alabama: Oxmoor House, Inc., 2004. Print.
Booth, Norman K., and James E. Hiss. Residential Landscape Architecture: Design Process for the
Private Residence . 6 th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 2012. Print.
Bost, Toby, and Jim Wilson. The Carolinas Gardener's Guide . Franklin, Tennessee: Cool Springs Press, 2005. Print.
Chaplin, Lois Trigg. The Southern Gardener's Book of Lists : The Best Plants for All Your Needs , Wants, and Whims. Lanham, Maryland: Taylor Trade Publishing, 1994. Print.
Chatto, Beth. The Damp Garden . 1982. London: Orion Books Ltd, 1998. Print.
Chatto, Beth. The Dry Garden . 1978. London: Orion Books Ltd, 2002. Print.
Cornelison, Pamela, and the Editors of Sunset Books . Landscaping Southern Gardens. Menlo Park, California; Sunset Publishing Corporation, 2006. Print.
Cox, Martyn. Big Gardens in Small Spaces: Out-of-the-Box Advice for Boxed-in Gardeners . Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Inc., 2009. Print.
Creasy, Rosalind. Edible Landscaping . 2 nd ed. San Francisco, California: Sierra Club Books, 2010. Print.
Darke, Rick, and Doug Tallamy. The Living Landscape: Designing for Beauty and Biodiversity in the Home Garden . Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Inc., 2014. Print.
Eddison, Sydney. Gardening for a Lifetime: How to Garden Wiser as You GLYPH(cmap:df00)row Older. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Inc., 2010. Print.
Fell, Derek. Vertical Gardening: GLYPH(cmap:df00)row Up, Not Out, for More Vegetables and Flowers in Much Less Space . Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, Inc., 2011. Print.
Frankco, David A. Palms Won't GLYPH(cmap:df00)row Here and Other Myths: Warm-Climate Plants for Cooler Areas . Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Inc., 2003. Print.
Halpin, Anne Moyer. Gardening in the Shade . Des Moines, Iowa: Better Homes and Gardens Books, 1996. Print.
Hastings, Don. Month-By-Month Gardening in the South: What to Do and When to Do It. 2nd ed. Atlanta, Georgia: Longstreet Press, 1999. Print.
Heriteau, Jacqueline. The National Arboretum Book of Outstanding Garden Plants: The Authoritative GLYPH(cmap:df00)uide to Selecting and GLYPH(cmap:df00)rowing the Most Beautiful, Durable, and Carefree Garden Plants in North America . New York: Simon & Schuster Inc., 1990. Print.
Ingels, Jack. Landscaping Principles & Practices . 7 th ed. Independence, Kentucky: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.
Kellum, Jo. Ortho's All about Landscaping . Des Moines, Iowa: Meredith Books, 1999. Print.
Messervy, Julie Moir. Home Outside: Creating the Landscape You Love . Newtown, Connecticut: The Taunton Press, Inc., 2009. Print.
Pick the Right Plant: A Sun and Shade GLYPH(cmap:df00)uide to Successful Plant Selection . Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1998. Print.
Polomski, Bob. Month-By-Month Gardening in Carolinas . Franklin, Tennessee: Cook Springs Press, 2006. Print.
Reed, Sue. Energy-Wise Landscape Design: A New Approach for Your Home and GLYPH(cmap:df00)arden . Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada: New Society Publishers, 2010. Print.
Reich, Lee. Landscaping with Fruit. North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Publishing, 2009. Print.
Shafer, Karleen, and Nicole Lloyd. Perennial Reference GLYPH(cmap:df00). St. Paul, Minnesota: The American
Phytopathological Society, 2007. Print.
Smith & Hawken: The Book of Outdoor Gardening . New York: Workman Publishing Company, Inc., 1996. Print.
White, Hazel. Sunset Hillside Landscaping: A Complete Guide to Successful Gardens on Sloping Ground . 2 nd ed. Menlo Park, California: Sunset Publishing Corporation, 2007. Print.
Young, Beth O'Donnell. The Naturescaping Workbook: A Step-by-Step Guide for Bringing Nature to Your Backyard . Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Inc., 2011. Print.
## Chapter Text Hyperlinks
North Carolina County GIS, Tax and Deed Site
NC State SoilFacts: Minimizing Risks of Soil Contaminants in Urban Gardens, AG-439-78
NCDA&CS Agronomic Services - Soil Test Forms & Information
USDA "Understanding the Soil Test Report"
NCDEQ Division of Water Resources Frequently Asked Questions
Sizing Your Rain Garden (retired)
Conserving Energy with Plants , HIL-631
North Carolina Invasive Plant Council
Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council
NC State GOING NATIVE, Going Native: Urban Landscaping for Wildlife with Native Plants
North Carolina Native Plant Society
Plant Hardiness Zone Map , by USDA Agricultural Research Service
North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox
North Carolina Board of Landscape Architects
Rainwater Harvesting for Homeowners , NC State
## For More Information
## NC State Resources
- · Coastal Landscapes: Resources
- · Growing Edibles in the Landscape
- · Minimizing Risks of Soil Contaminants
- · NC Soastal Landscaping Designs
- · Permaculture Organic Farming Course with Dr. Will Hooker (36 videos)
- · Rainwater Harvesting for Homeowners
- · Wildlife Friendly Landscapes
## More NC State Resources Other Resources
- · Basic Principles of Landscape Design, by University of Florida, IFAS Extension
- · Conserving Water in Your Landscape, HGIC-1724, by Clemson Cooperative Extension
- · Energy Efficient Home Landscapes, by American Society of Landscape Architects
- · Home Landscape Planning; 12 Steps to a Functional Design, by Iowa State University
- · Planning the Home Landscape - Earth-Kind® Edition, by Texas A&M
- · Sustainable Landscapes, by University of Delaware Botanic Gardens
## Contributors
## Authors:
Anne Spafford, M.L.A., Associate Professor, Department of Horticultural Science and Adjunct Faculty Member Department of Landscape Architecture, NC State University
Michelle Wallace, M.L.A., Extension Agent, Durham County
Cyndi Lauderdale, Extension Agent, Wilson County
Lucy Bradley, Lucy Bradley, Associate Professor and Extension Specialist, Urban Horticulture
Kathleen Moore, Urban Horticulturist, Department of Horticultural Science
Contributions by Extension Agents: Travis Birdsell, Donna Teasley, Julie Flowers, Susan Brown
Contributions by Extension Master Gardener Volunteers: Renee Lampila, Margaret Jenkins, Barbara Goodman, Jackie Weedon, Karen Damari, Connie Schultz
Based on text from the 1998 Extension Master Gardener manual prepared by:
M.A. Powell, Extension Specialist, Department of Horticultural Science
Erv Evans, Extension Associate, Department of Horticultural Science
## How to cite this chapter:
Spafford, A., M. Wallace, C. Lauderdale, L.K. Bradley, and K.A. Moore. 2022. Landscape Design, Chapter 19. In: K.A. Moore, and L.K. Bradley (eds). North Carolina Extension Gardener Handbook , 2nd ed. NC State Extension, Raleigh, NC.
## Authors
Anne Spafford
Associate Professor, Landscape Architect Horticultural Science
Michelle Wallace
Extension Agent, Agriculture - Horticulture N.C. Cooperative Extension, Durham County Center
Cyndi Lauderdale
Extension Agent, Agriculture-Horticulture N.C. Cooperative Extension, Wilson County Center
Lucy Bradley
Extension Specialist, Urban Horticulture Horticultural Science
Kathleen Moore
Program Assistant Horticultural Science
Publication date: Feb. 1, 2022
AG-831
## Other Publications in North Carolina Extension Gardener Handbook
- Soils & Plant Nutrients
- Composting
- Botany
- Insects
- Diseases and Disorders
- Weeds
- Diagnostics
- Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
- Lawns
- Herbaceous Ornamentals
- Woody Ornamentals
- Native Plants
- Propagation
- Small Fruits
- Tree Fruit and Nuts
- Vegetable Gardening
- Organic Gardening
- Plants Grown in Containers
- Landscape Design
- Wildlife
- Youth, Community, and Therapeutic Gardening
Appendix A. Garden Journaling
Appendix B. Pesticides and Pesticide Safety
Appendix C. Diagnostic Tables
Appendix D. Garden Tools
Appendix E. Season Extenders and Greenhouses
Appendix F. History of Landscape Design
Appendix G. Permaculture Design
Appendix H. Community Gardening Resources
Appendix I. More NC State Resources
Glossary
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/by-ingredients/live-well-recipe-skillet-spaghetti/ | Live Well Recipe: Skillet Spaghetti | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-25 | [
"Recipes",
"Nutrition",
"Healthy Eating"
] | AL | ## Live Well Recipe: Skillet Spaghetti
This Skillet Spaghetti recipe is sure to please the Kiddos! One pot meals are a great way to use lots of healthy veggies, and cleanup is a breeze! Here's a list of what you'll need. Serves six.
## Ingredients
1 jar pasta sauce, 28 ounces
2% cups water
1 12-ounce package spaghetti, broken in half
2 medium zucchini, peeled and diced very small
1 cup mozzarella cheese, shredded
Add cooked hamburger for a meal with meat.
## Directions
In a large skillet, mix pasta sauce and water. Bring to a boil.
Add spaghetti and zucchini, Stir well. Make sure spaghetti is covered by the sauce. Add water if needed.
Bring to a boil. Cover and simmer for 25 minutes.
Stir often. Add water if needed.
Top with cheese.
Download the recipe here: Printable Skillet Spaghetti (https://www.aces.edu/wp content/uploads/2018/07/FCS\_2196\_LiveWellAlabamaRecipeCards\_SkilletSpaghetti
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement ( https://www.acs.edu/blogtopics/live-well-alabamausda-nondiscrimination statement )
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/ipm-farming/high-tunnels-and-other-season-extension-techniques/ | High Tunnels and Other Season Extension Techniques | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Ayanava Majumdar"
] | 2018-07-31 | [
"Agriculture",
"Farming",
"Pest Management",
"Season Extension"
] | AL | ## Getting Started With Season Extension Techniques
Spurred by enthusiasm for fresh, local agricultural products, farmers are increasing the availability of their crops beyond the traditional outdoor growing season. Premium prices and an extended income stream are some of the advantages farmers pursue with season extension techniques. Main strategies for creating extended-season sales include: growing in greenhouses, high tunnels (https://www.sare.org/LearningCenter/Topic\_Rooms/High-Tunnels-and-Other-SeasonExtension-Techniques/Seasons-Extension-An Overview#Hightunnels)(or "hoop houses" https://www.sare.org/Learning+Center+Topic-Rooms/High+ T unnels-and-Other-Season-Extension-Techniques/Seasonation-An-Overview#Hightunnels)(or "under temporary row covers; storing non-perishable crops for sale in the off season; or minimally processing crops.
Commercial hoop house production has increased rapidly in recent years because these structures promote increased crop quality and productivity, and extend the growing season. This leads to rapid payback on investment. The growing environment inside a hoop house is different from the field, and thus crop management differs in many key areas. The High Tunnels and Other Season Extension Techniques topic room includes information to help you explore and implement season extension strategies on your farm. In addition, learn more about local food systems (https://www.sare.org/LearningCenter/Topic-Rooms/Farm-to-Table-Building-Local-andRegional-Food-Systems) in another SARB topic room.
## Season Extension Types and Construction
## High Tunnels or Hoop Houses
High tunnels, or hoop houses, are simple greenhouse-like structures over bare ground, without the elaborate heating and cooling systems of a greenhouse. They rely primarily on passive solar heating and passive ventilation. High tunnels generally have steel pipe frames set into the ground and are covered with one or two layers of greenhouse-grade plastic. They are irrigated using drip systems, hand watering or small sprinklers. Roll-up sidewalls, usually hand cranked but sometimes automated, provide ventilation in hoop house construction. They may also have end-wall vents (lovers) or ridge vents. Crops grow in the ground, raised beds or containers. The ground may be bare, or it may be covered with landscape fabric, plastic mulch or an organic mulch such as straw. Guides for high tunnel design and construction are abundant; check out the Types and Construction section of the topic room for Extension guides with detailed hoop house plans, including photos and designs.
## Overview of High Tunnel Production
Smaller hoop houses may be Quonset shaped (half-circle frame) while larger tunnels are Gothic shaped (peaked frame). Gothic frames shed snow well. Both designs are best with internal bracing to provide stability during wind or snow. Ground posts must be securely anchored to ensure structural stability. Multi-bay high tunnels are built side by side to cover more acreage with less exposed surface area. They require gutters and structural reinforcement to handle rain and snow shed from the top of the bays. Multi-bay high tunnels are generally not considered four-season structures in regions with snowy winters, as they cannot bear a snow load.
## Greenhouses
Greenhouses tend to be similar in size to high tunnels or larger, often with more structural strength. They may or may not have a permanent foundation. They are covered with one or two layers of greenhouse plastic, rigid polycarbonate or glass. Greenhouses have supplemental heat from a furnace or boiler, and automated ventilation with fans and/or louvers. As greenhouse heating, cooling and irrigation are automated, full electrical service is required.
## Special Considerations for Seasonal High Tunnel
## Production
The growing environment inside a high tunnel varies in many important ways from field production, and those differences will influence the way crops are managed.
## Cultivar Selection and Variety Trials
The desirable characteristics of crop cultivars/varieties for seasonal high tunnel production are much the same as field production: good yield, high quality and pest tolerance. However, depending on the season, hoop house cultivar type is not suitable for higher temperatures and relative humidity. tolerate freezing, or have their day-length requirement met. Thus, the best field cultivars/varieties are often ideal not for commercial crop house family plants. Pest pressure is also different, so tolerance to diseases is equivalent, at least, that are all precalced ( https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy\_php.html ).
## Fertility Management
In a seasonal high tunnel, plant growth may start earlier, last longer and/or lead to a significant increase in biomass and yield. Thus, nutrient needs may vary from field production, so plan fertilization accordingly. In addition, salt accumulation is a greater concern in a hook house because rainfall does not leach nutrients from the soil. In a high tunnel, carefully monitor soil fertility status, including soluble salts, and conduct plant tissue analyses when making fertility decisions. Soil test annually in high tunnels, as pH can rise quickly in the absence of rain.
## Pest Management
Many foliar diseases are eliminated from high tunnels, as rain and soil splashing are eliminated. However, due to higher humidity levels, a handful of diseases become more severe inside; thus proper ventilation is critical. Higher temperatures, the exclusion of rain and a humid microclimate inside the plant canopy can promote certain insect pests, especially if there is little or no follow period. Aphids, thrips, spider mites and whitefells are common insect pests inside high tunnels. The good news is that high tunnels are an excellent setting for using biological control agents due to the high value of the crops, the enclosed space (if ventilation openings are covered with mesh screens) and controlled environmental conditions that improve persistence. The Pest Management section of the topic room includes resources on such hoop house pest management strategies as tomato grafting for disease resistance, beneficial insects, physical pest exclusion and biofumigation.
## Water Management
To take full advantage of hoop house farming, one must precisely control the supply of water to crops. Use drip irrigating to deliver water directly to the root zone, without wetting the foliage. This helps avoid foliar diseases and the washing off of foliar bioinsecticides. When there is plenty of light, high temperature and low humidity, crops will use a lot of water, but be careful not to overwater, as excessively wet soil can be difficult to dry out. Use soil-moisture monitoring devices to match the amount and timing of water to the crop's needs. Consider providing soluble fertilizers through the drip system to "spoon feed" crops.
## Temperature Management
In some hoop houses, the sun may satisfy all energy needs, with the soil acting as a nightly heat reservoir. Other hoop houses may have supplemental or emergency heating systems. High tunnels in colder climates where heat-loving crops are produced on the "showders" of the growing season will typically have furnaces or boilers to maintain the optimal temperature for growth. Understanding the temperature requirements of the crop, and then ventilating or heating to maintain that temperature is critical. Important energy conservation measures for high tunnels range from sealing cracks around doors and ventilation louvers to installing night-time heat curtains. Low tunnels can be instrumental in retaining heat stored in the soil during the night. Some high tunnels are also using renewable fuels to provide heat, such as biodiesel, shell corn, wood and solar hot water collectors. For low-growing crops, heating the soil with circulating water pipes below ground may be more efficient than heating the air inside the tunnel. The Temperature Management section of the Season Extension topic rumour includes resources on the important topics of energy
## Marketing and Economics
Thousands of commercial high tunnels are in use around the country because they make economic and marketing sense for many growers. High tunnels generally allow for improved pest control, making them a good option for organic production.
However, carefully consider the potential costs and returns prior to getting into high tunnel farming. A possible avenue of support is through the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, which offers financial assistance for high tunnel construction.
The net profit from high tunnel crops ranges from just a few cents per square foot up to several dollars per square foot, depending on yield, production expenses and grower skill. Labor is a special consideration. Be aware that high tunnel farming is relatively labor intensive and requires skill, and that such labor must be available to perform tasks in a timely fashion to ensure profitability. The Marketing and Economics section of the topic room includes resources on both hoop house production and general business planning, which may be of help.
## Storing Crops
Storing field crops such as carrots or potatoes can lengthen their marketing window, which is another approach to season extension. The length of time that crops can be stored is a function of their postharvest physiology as well as pre-storage activities, including how they are produced, harvested and handled. Optimal storage conditions vary among crops. Five common sets of storage conditions for vegetable crops are:
- · Cold and moist = 32°F and 90-95 percent relative humidity (RH). Beets, cabbage, carrots, parsnip, turmps, etc.
- · Cold and dry = 32°F and 65-70 percent RH. Garlic and dry onions.
- · Cool and moist = 45°F and 90 percent RH. Potatoes for table stock.
- · Warm and moist = 57°F and 85-90 percent RH. Sweet potatoes.
- · Warm and dry = 55°F and 50-70 percent RH. Winter squashes, including pumpkins.
Storage options include cold collars or root collars, walkin coolers and cold rooms fitted with air conditioners and temperature-override controllers. Cold collars are a low-cost, low-energy-use option, but may lack the environmental control of other options. Walk-in coolers use refrigeration systems and are widely found on wholesale farms, supermarkets and other places that handle large volumes of fresh produce. Cold rooms are widely used on fans with small volumes of storage produce.
Air conditioner temperature-override controllers such as CoolBot™ units allow residential air conditioners to provide cooling in small-scale storage units. These units require a sealed, well-insulated storage room to be effective, and they may have trouble cooling down produce with a lot of field heat in it.
## Light Processing of Crops
Field crops can be preserved and sold in the off-season through light processing techniques such as canning, dehydrating or freezing. To learn more about processing, see the Food Safety (https://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/Topic-Rooms/Farm-toTable-Building-Local-and-Regional-Food-Systems/Local-FoodSafety/) Food and Food Processing
(https://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/Topic-Rooms/Farm-toTable-Building-Local-and-Regional-Food-Systems/Local-FoodFoodProcessing) Sections of the Farm to Table: Building Local and Regional Food Systems (http://www.sare.org/learning. Center/Topic-Rooms/Farm-toTable-Building-Local-and-Regional-Food-Systems) topic room. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/fapc-food-and-agricultural-products-center/oriented-strand-board-as-a-building-material-fapc-145.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20170322113626-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Robert M. Kerr Food & Agricultural Products Center
## FOOD TECHNOLOGY FACT SHEET
## Adding Value to OKLAHOMA
405-744-6071 · www.fapc.biz · fapc@okstate.edu
## Oriented Strand Board as a Building Material
## Salim Hiziroglu
FAPC Wood Products Specialist
## Introduction
Since the mid-1980s, oriented strand board (OSB) has been one of the most commonly used engineered wood-based panels for structural construction in residential sectors in North America. OSB was first produced in Canada in 1964, but it did not find its solid status in the market until the mid-1980s.
The number of OSB mills increased by more than 50 percent from 1990 to 1997. Today, total OSB production in North America is approximately 706 million ft$^{3}$ (20 million m$^{3}$), and there are about 20 companies that manufacture OSB in the United States, Canada and Europe.
Forest products companies are utilizing raw materials more efficiently with better technologies in more environmentally friendly ways. With this approach to managing forests, engineered wood composite products such as OSB have gained a significant role in the world market. A decline in plywood manufacturing in many countries, due to limited large log supplies and environmental concerns, will increase production of OSB in the future. OSB production is expected to continue to increase in North America and Europe and have the main share in the structural wood composite market.
This fact sheet summarizes basic manufacturing steps of OSB and some of its properties as a building material.
## Basic Manufacturing Process of OSB
OSB is manufactured from fast-growing, small trees. West Coast inland mills producing OSB primarily use lodgepole pine logs averaging 10 to 12 inches
in diameter at the breast height (DBH). Mills in the South use pine plantation thinning, Southern Pine and soft hardwoods species such as aspen with an average DBH of 8 inches.
Short segments of the logs are washed and debarked prior to strand production by using disk or ring type flakers. Generally, strand size is approximately 0.5 inch by 3 inches by 0.02 inch depending on the type of process and raw material. Size of the strands can be modified based on target specifications of the panel.
Since the moisture content of the strands ranges from 40 to 75 percent, they are dried to 5 to 10 percent moisture in large, rotating single-pass or triple-pass dryers with an inlet temperature of as high as 1,250°F.
Dried strands are classified into two sections using various sizes of screen. Larger strands are used for the face layers while the smaller strands are laid out in the core layer. Face and core layer strands are mixed separately with an exterior binder in a drum-type rotating blender. Depending on the process, a certain percentage of wax and other chemicals also can be applied during the blending process.
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate strand orientation of typical OSB and a general manufacturing flow chart of OSB, respectively.
In OSB manufacturing, phenol formaldehyde (PF) and diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI) are two types of water-resistant resin commonly used as binder. Strands coated with one of these resins are ready for mat formation, which is the most important process determining properties of the panel.
A simple design of spinning disks is used in the forming of the strands. Face and core layers of the mat are oriented opposite each other and sequentially dropped on the conveyor belt. The mat thickness
depends on the final thickness of the pressed panel and its density.
In a general OSB plant, forming lines are about 6to 8-feet wide. The mat is carried toward the press and a cross saw trims the mat to the desired panel length. Individual mats are loaded into a multi-opening press having 10 to 20 openings depending on the plant's capacity.
A combination of pressure and temperature is applied to cure the resin and give stiffness to the panel. Typical press parameters include a temperature of 400 to 425°F and a pressure of 650 to 800 psi for approximately 4 to 6 minutes. Pressed panels are removed from the press line and conditioned on a rotating cooler prior to cutting them into desired dimensions.
The panels are later sanded to improve their surface roughness. Certain processes, such as profiling with tongue and groove edges or the raised screen pattern on one face to eliminate slipping in roof application, can also be applied to the surface of the panels for special applications.
## Applications
OSB is extensively used for wall sheathing, floor underlayment, roof cover and I-joist in both com-
mercial and residential building. OSB also is used in furniture, reels, trailer liners and recreational vehicle floors. Figure 3 shows siding and I-joist application of OSB in building construction.
Similar to other wood products, OSB also is prone to decay when conditions are optimum for biological microorganisms, such as fungus. Zinc borate and oxine copper are sprayed as fungicides to enhance resistance of OSB to biological deterioration. In general, OSB is not used for applications where there is direct contact with a moisture source, such as soil. However, brief periods of exposure to rain during the installation of OSB in residential construction should not cause any significant problems in terms of its dimensional stability.
| PROPERTY | PLYWOOD | OSB |
|------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------|----------------------|
| Bending strength | Modulus of elasticity | 1,0-1,9_10$^{6}$ psi |
| Modulus of rupture | 3,000-7,000 psi | 3,000-4,000 psi |
| Tensile strength | 1,500-4,000 psi | 1,000-1,500 psi |
| Compression strength | 3,000-5,000 psi | 1,500-2,500 psi |
| Shear strength | 600-1,000 psi | 1,000-1,500 psi |
| Linear expansion (From 30% to 90% Relative humidity) | 0.15 % | 0.15 % |
wood. If the surface of OSB is extensively sanded, it can even be used as substrate for overlays for special structural applications.
- · Since OSB is manufactured from small diameter trees, it has a very low negative impact on environment as compared to plywood. One short coming of OSB is its lack of printability compared to plywood and its higher thickness swelling than plywood under the extreme conditions.
## The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Bringing the University to You!
The Cooperative Extension Service is the largest,most successful informal educational organization in the world. It is nationwide system funded and guided by a partnership of federal, state, and local governments that delivers information to help people help themselves through the land-grant university system.
Extension carries out programs in the broad categories of agriculture, natural resources and environment; home economics; 4-H and other youth; and community resource development. Extension staff members live and work among the people they serve to help stimulate and educate Americans to plan ahead and cope with their problems.
Some characteristics of the Cooperative Extension system are:
- · The federal, state, and local governments cooperatively share in its financial support and program direction.
- · It is administered by the land-grant university as designated by the state legislature through an Extension director.
- · Extension programs are nonpolitical, objective, and based on factual information.
It provides practical,problem-oriented education for people of all ages. It is designated to take the knowledge of the university to those persons who do not or cannot participate in the formal classroom instruction of the university.
- · It utilizes research from university, government, and other sources to help people make their own decisions.
- More than a million volunteers help multiply the impact of the Extension professional staff.
- · It dispenses no funds to the public.
- · It is not a regulatory agency, but it does inform people of regulations and of their options in meeting them.
- Local programs are developed and carriedoutin full recognition of national problems and goals.
- · The Extension staff educates people through personal contacts meetings, demonstrations, and the mass media.
- · Extension has the built-in flexibility to adjust its programs and subject matter to meet new needs. Activities shift from year to year as citizen groups and Extension workers close to the problems advise changes.
| For More Information | The Canadian Wood Council |
|--------------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| 7011 S. 19 th | 99 Bank St. Suite 400 |
| Tacoma, WA 98466 (235)565-6600 | Ottawa, Ontario |
| www.apawood.org | Canada 1 -800-463-5091 www.cwc.ca |
PFS Research Foundation 2402 Daniels St Madison, WI 53718 (608) 221-3361 www.pfscorporation.com | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2023/07/13/uf-experts-florida-watermelon-growers-sold-a-bumper-crop-this-year-and-still-lead-the-nation-in-production/ | UF experts: Florida watermelon growers sold a bumper crop this year – and still lead the nation in production | University of Florida | [
"Brad Buck"
] | 2023-07-13 | [
"UF/IFAS",
"Bob Hochmuth",
"consumers",
"crop",
"Food and Resource Economics",
"growers",
"harvest",
"Leader",
"North Florida Research and Education Center-Suwannee Valley",
"Southwest Florida Research and Education Center",
"Tara Wade",
"watermelons"
] | FL | ## UF experts: Florida watermelon growers sold a bumper crop this year - and still lead the nation in production
While many of you enjoy sweet, cool watermelon as a treat or snack this summer, remember where it comes from - the sweat of farmers, and some Florida growers say they had their best season ever.
The bountiful season, which ends in most of Florida in late June or early July, continues a trend - Florida leads the nation in watermelon production.
From 2010 to 2021, Florida growers ranked No. 1 in the United States with an average of 22,616 acres of watermelon harvested per year, according to a new UF/IFAS Extension document. Texas runs a close second with 22,016 acres, followed by Georgia at 20,291.
"Florida watermelon growers do well because they can take advantage of relatively high prices early in the season," said Tara Wade, an assistant professor of food and resource economics at the UF/IFAS Southwest Center. Courtesy, UF/IFAS.
Research and Education Center and lead author of the document.
Harvests were especially good this year. Growers in the Suwannee Valley region say they had their best season in history, said Bob Hochmuth, assistant director of the UF/IFAS North Florida Research and Education Center-Suwannee Valley.
'First, there is a regional nature to the watermelon acreage in Florida. These seasons normally overlap somewhat, and when there is an overlap, farmers can 'fill the pipeline' quickly,' Hochmuth said. 'But this year, the production in South Florida declined a bit early,
Bob Hochmuth, assistant director of the UF/IFAS North Florida Research and Education Center-Suwannee Valley, seen with a watermelon in the field. By Robert Annis, UFIFAS.
Additionally, on the tail end of the Suwannee Valley season, farmers normally overlap with Georgia's season, which is very long. But this year, cold temperatures in Georgia, lots of rain and other factors slowed the crop progress in Georgia - again leaving the Suwannee Valley alone to meet the high demand through most of June, Hochmuth said.
"To have this happen on both the front and back end of any region's season is quite unusual," he said. "So, to say it was a matter of supply and demand seems very textbook, but that was the case in May and June."
To accommodate this high demand for a long period of time is not easy and requires excellent crop care. Florida watermelon growers are experienced and excellent growers, Hochmuth said.
Part of this year's success came from partnerships between the industry and UF/IFAS research and Extension to provide information on disease management and extended water and nutrient programs, keeping the crops healthy and productive much longer than normal.
Watermelons grow throughout the state, with concentrations near Immokalee, Belle Glade, Arcadia and the Suwannee Valley. The latter region produces a third of Florida's watermelon crop and typically harvests from mid-May through June. Watermelons grow well in sandy, well-drained soils and with plenty of warm days and sunshine, Hochmuth said.
'The Suwannee Valley is a prime production area,' he said. 'Modern drip irrigation and precision fertilizer practices used in Florida help make high yields and a great-quality watermelon. The industry today demands mostly seedless watermelons and prefers a medium size of about 15 to 18 pounds.'
## ###
## ABOUT UF/IFAS
The mission of the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) is to develop knowledge relevant to
leaving the Suwannee Valley pretty much alone to meet this demand. That was difficult to do this year with high demand for watermelon in May and June."
agricultural, human and natural resources and to make that knowledge available to sustain and enhance the quality of human life. With more than a dozen research facilities, 67 county Extension offices, and award-winning students and faculty in the UF College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, UF/IFAS brings science-based solutions to the state's agricultural and natural resources industries, and all Florida residents. ifas.ufl ed u / @UF\_IFAS
## WHY FOOD IS OUR MIDDLE NAME
Feeding a hungry world takes effort. Nearly everything we do comes back to food: from growing it and getting it to consumers, to conserving natural resources and supporting agricultural efforts. Explore all the reasons why at ifas.ufl ed u / food or follow #FoodsOurMiddleName
2
by Brad Buck
Posted: July 13, 2023
Category: UE/IFAS
Tags: Bob Hochmuth, Consumers, Crop, Food And Resource
Economics, Growers, Harvest, Leader, North Florida Research And
Education Center-Suwannee Valley, Southwest Florida Research
And Education Center, Tara Wade, Watermelons
More From Blogs.IFAS
Florida-Friendly landscape professionals are good for the environment, your wallet
UF/IFAS professor to train for national leadership
Full steam ahead: Warm vapor and a low-dose herbicide control harmful citrus weed |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/ventilating-to-cool-modern-grower-turkeys | Ventilating to Cool Modern Grower Turkeys | NC State Extension | [
"Sanjay Shah",
"Jesse Grimes",
"Isaac Singletary"
] | null | [
"Poultry",
"Turkey",
"Agriculture",
"Extension Services"
] | NC | ## Ventilating to Cool Modern Grower Turkeys
A guide for turkey producers, integrator personnel, ventilation professionals, Extension personnel, students, and researchers
North Carolina is the second largest turkey-producing state in the U.S. after Minnesota, producing 32 million birds in 2011. Aside from disease and feed cost, heat stress is the most significant management challenge facing the N.C. Turkey industry. Since this review covers ventilation for cooling of heavy strains of turkeys during the growing period after brooding, minimum ventilation will not be discussed.
North Carolina summers have become warmer. For example, average air temperature during the summer (May-September) in Clinton, the county seat of Sampson County, which is the largest turkey-producing county in N.C., averaged 1.5°F higher during 2007-2012 than the 30-year (19712000) average of 75.2°F. During July 2012 (hottest month on record), 342,500 turkeys died of heat stress in a 10-county region in eastern North Carolina (James Parsons, personal communication, 20 August 2012). Additionally, the following turkey-related factors can increase heat stress in today's turkey.
Body weight :Turkeys are being marketed at a heavier weight. An average N.C. turkey weighed 35.4 lb in 2011, up from 25.2 lb in 2000 (NCDACS,2012). A bigger bird takes longer to cool down because it has less surface area per unit weight and a deeper core than a smaller bird; thus, larger birds are at a greater risk of heat stress. There are reports that during July 2012, turkeys that survived the daytime heat perished at night because of warm and muggy conditions.
Lean genetic lines and high-energy diets: Lean genetic lines and high-energy diets have a synergistic effect on heat production. Being faster growing, modern turkeys are fed a higher-energy diet than the older genetic lines. Being leaner, modern turkeys have higher metabolic rates and heat production than the older turkeys. Chepete and Xin (2002) reported that the 1992-1998 line of turkeys produced more heat than the 1974-1977 line; a 45-lb turkey from 1992-1998 produced 170% more heat than the same size of bird from the 1974-1977 line (Figure 1). Havenstein et al. (2002) reported that energy content in the 2003 diet was consistently higher than the 1966 diet; the 2003 diet for 17 weeks or older turkeys had 18% higher energy content than the 1966 diet. Havenstein et al. (2007) also reported that during hot and humid weather, turkeys older than 9-10 weeks fed the 1966 low-energy/high-protein diet generally performed better than those fed the 2003 high-energy/low-protein diet. While data are not available, the current genetic line could produce more heat than the 1992-1998 line studied by Chepete and Xin (2002).
There is a need to re-examine the way we ventilate to cool grower turkeys. But first, let's discuss psychrometrics and related concepts.
Attribution: Source: Chepete and Xin, 2002
## Psychometrics and Related Concepts
Psychometrics is the study of the physical and energy-related properties of moist air; its knowledge improves our understanding of ventilation and cooling. If we know two properties of moist air (such as dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures), all other properties can be calculated with a psychrometric chart or calculator. There are many free online psychrometric calculators. Munters Corp. also has a free psychrometric app, PsychroApp™ for the iPhone, iPod touch, or iPad. Because we have not tested these tools, we cannot guarantee their accuracies. Although a detailed discussion of psychrometrics is beyond the scope of this publication, we present here some useful concepts.
Dry-bulb temperature : This is the temperature measured with an ordinary thermometer or temperature sensor, which we usually just call temperature .
Wet-bulb temperature: When the bulb of a thermometer is wrapped with a moist cloth and air is drawn over it, the thermometer will read lower than the dry-bulb temperature because heat from the surrounding air will cause the water to evaporate and the thermometer bulb to cool down. This temperature, known as the wet-bulb temperature, will be lower in the drier, desert climate of Arizona than in North Carolina.
Relative humidity (RH): Expressed as a percentage, RH is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air at a certain temperature to the maximum amount of water vapor that the air can hold at that temperature without condensing. Moisture-holding capacity of air nearly doubles with every 20°F
rise in temperature. As RH increases, people become uncomfortable because the sweat does not evaporate as rapidly off of their bodies. In Arizona, RH will be generally much lower than in North Carolina, which is more humid.
British thermal unit (BTU): This is a commonly used unit of heat energy. It is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of water by 1°F. For reference, 1 gallon of propane has 92,000 BTU of heat energy.
Sensible heat and latent heat: Heat energy that causes the temperature to increase without a change of state (say, from ice to water) is sensible heat. While 1 BTU is needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1°F, for 1 lb of ice, we need only 0.56 BTU.
Iatent heat is that heat energy that causes a change in state (such as from liquid to vapor) without a change in temperature. When water at 80°F evaporates, 1,048 Btu of (latent heat of vaporization) is transferred into the air per lb of water evaporated without a change in temperature. If water vapor were to condense back into liquid at 80°F, 1,048 Btu/lb of heat would be released back into the liquid (latent heat of condensation). At the boiling point of water (212°F), Iatent heat of vaporization is only 970 BTU/lb of water. Similarly, at 32°F, when water freezes or ice melts without change in temperature, 144 BTU/lb of energy is released (latent heat of freezing) or absorbed (latent heat of melting).
Because water needs more energy to heat up than dry air and a large amount of heat is released or absorbed when water changes phase, despite water vapor being a small fraction (about 2% by mass at 80°F in saturated air), it accounts for a disproportionately large fraction of the energy content of air. In saturated air at 80°F, 56% of the energy is due to water vapor and only 44% due to the dry air fraction.
Turkeys produce both sensible heat and latent heat. The purpose of the ventilation system is to remove all the sensible or latent heat produced by the bird; otherwise, the turkey's body temperature will rise and it will die. Therefore, information on sensible heat loss is required to calculate hotweather ventilation rates, which are adequate for removing all the moisture produced. Latent heat production information is required for cold-weather ventilation rate calculation.
Ethalpy: Ethalpy is the heat energy content of the air (BTU/lb-dry air) and is read from the psychrometric chart. More heat can be removed from its barn if a fresh air has lower enthalpy. Air at a temperature of 80°F and RH of 40% will have an enthalpy of 29 BTL/u lb dry air. However, if the air has a temperature of 80°F and RH of 80%, its enthalpy will be 39 BTL/u lb dry air. Since water vapor can store more energy than air, the more humid air holds more energy and removes less energy.
One pound of dry air at 80°F and 40% RH occupies 13.8 ft3 of space (from the psychrometric chart); therefore, a 48-in. fan moving 20,000 cfm will pull in 1,449 l/min of dry air. The more humid air (80% RH) will bring in 869,400 BTL/hour more heat than the 40% RH air, which is the same as burning 9 gallons of propane every hour! This clearly shows the importance of RH.
Efficiency of evaporative cooling system: This term is used to calculate the effectiveness of evaporative cooling systems (evaporative cool cell pads, fogging, and misting) used in turkey houses. The efficiency (Eff., %) of an evaporative cooling system is:
$$\mathrm E f f = \frac { T _ { - } T _ { n } ^ { \prime } } { T _ { - } T _ { u } ^ { \prime } } \times 1 0 0 \cdot [ 1 ]$$
where T and T$\_{wb}$ are outdoor dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures and T$\_{n}$ is the inside dry-bulb temperature after evaporative cooling. Let's assume T is 100°F, Twb is 65°F, and T$\_{n}$ is 74°F. Hence, the cooling efficiency is 75%.
In theory, if the air is very hot and dry and the system design is perfect, the air temperature could be reduced to its wet-bulb value. In North Carolina, for design, we assume that evaporative cool cell pads are 75% efficient and foggers have efficiencies of 25% to 35%.
## Heat Loss Mechanisms in Turkeys
Sensible heat is transferred through conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction occurs when two bodies with different temperatures touch one another and heat moves from the warmer body to the colder body. Convection happens when moving fluid transfers heat to a colder body or transports heat away from a warmer body. Radiation occurs when a colder body receives heat energy from a warmer body in the form of electromagnetic waves that can travel through air or vacuum, as in the sun warming up the earth. For example, while a turkey with a body surface temperature of 88°F will receive heat from a hot, uninsulated roof at 120°F during daytime, at night as the roof temperature decreases to 70°F, the roof will receive heat from the turkey.
Latent heat loss occurs mainly through evaporation or sweating in humans. However, turkeys cannot sweat and lose latent heat through panting and fecal excretion (including heat stress-induced diarrhea, also referred to as 'flushing'). As temperature increases, turkeys increasingly use compound ventilation, a combination of breathing (high frequency, low tidal volume) with paniting (lower frequency, higher tidal volume) to maintain body temperature (Brown-Brandl et al., 1997a).
Heat exchange through conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation are interrelated and will depend on environmental conditions. As temperature increases, due to a smaller temperature difference between the turkey's body surface and the surrounding air, sensible heat loss decreases (Table 1). Similarly, as RH increases, the turkey's ability to lose latent heat decreases (Table 1).
| Sex | Weight, lb | Temperature, F | RH, % | As percent of total heat loss$^{1}$ |
|--------|--------------|------------------|---------------|---------------------------------------|
| | | | Sensible heat | Latent heat |
| Male | 19.7 | 65 | 76 | 69 |
| Female | 9.6 | 64 | 85 | 72 |
| Male | 19.7 | 77 | 52 | 56 |
| Female | 9.6 | 79 | 63 | 28 |
## Thermal Regulation and Environmental Stresses in Turkeys
Except when very young, being homeotherms, turkeys can maintain their body temperatures within a narrow range of ambient air temperature without much effort; the turkey performs best in this zone of thermal comfort (MWPS-1, 1983). However, the zone of thermal comfort depends on several different factors and changes with age. Whereas day-old pouls prefer a temperature of 90°F to 92°F, 40-lb tons prefer a much lower temperature range of 65°F to 67°F. Once the ambient temperature increases above (or decreases below) the zone of thermal comfort, the turkey uses
various behaviors (such as standing up to lose heat) and autonomic (panting) responses to decrease or increase metabolic heat production (and/or heat losses) to maintain body temperature. Ventilation and cooling must be provided to prevent the barn temperature from approaching the upper critical temperature for the turkey when the body temperature begins to increase, which may result in death.
Temperature and RH both affect the turkey's well being, and they affected effects of t oms and tem ns in slightly different ways. Researchers have evaluated the effect of temperatures and wet-bulb temperature (as a surrogate for RHD) on physiological parameters (such as heart rate), heat production, or performance. Brown-Brandl et al. (1997b) developed the temperature-humidity index (THI$\_{tom}$) for 6-to 20-week toms (equation [2] for 15-week toms presented below). Xin et al. (1992) developed THLHben for 15-16 week then turkeys (equation [3]).
$$\mathrm { T H I _ { \tau } m = 0. 5 3 T + 0. 4 7 T _ { u b } \{ 2 \}$$
THI$\_{then}$ = 0.74T + 0.26T$\_{ub}$ [3]
In both equations [2] and [3], T and T$\_{wb}$ are dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures ('C'), respectively. At 15-16 weeks of age, the hens seem to be much more affected by temperature (equation [3]) than tom s are (equation [2]). Being taller and having a longer snoo d, larger dewlap, and major caruncles helped the tom dissipate heat more effectively than the hen. Table 1 also shows that in the higher temperature range, at about comparable temperature and 11% higher RH, tom s lost more heat as sensible heat than hens did. However, during the July 2012 heat wave, more fully grown tom s than hens succumbed to heat stress, probably because the much-larger tom with a deeper core and lower surface area per unit mass cooled down slower than the hen.
The THI equations presented above could be used to improve animal performance and welfare in naturally ventilated barns, but an increasing number of turkey grow-out barns are tunnel ventilated, where high air velocities also contribute to cooling. Tao and Xin (2003) developed a temperature, humidity, and air velocity index (THVI) for broilers. These indexes are based on short-term observations of acute effects. But the bigger concern may be the impact of prolonged (8-10 hours) and repeated sub-lethal hot and humid conditions on animal performance. A THVI that looks at chronic effects on turkey performance probably may be more useful.
Turkeys handle environmental stresses better than chickens (Brown-Brandl et al., 1997a; Yahav, 2000). Although hot weather increased panting and caused respiratory alkalosis, reducing broiler growth rates, it did not affect turkeys as much (Yahav et al., 1995). There are several reasons for this. Because the chicken has been more aggressively selected for increased body weight than the turkey, the chicken has a relatively smaller cardio-pulmonary system, which reduces its ability to handle heat stress. Being taller, a turkey will have more air circulation beneath its body. A turkey can dissipate a disproportionately larger amount of heat than a broiler through its bare head and neck regions. As is clear from Figure 2, the head region, which is 15°F warmer than the feather-covered body, is much more effective at losing heat. Finally, a turkey's compound ventilation system seems to be quite effective in reducing heat build-up.
Attribution: Source: M. Czarick, University of Georgia
## Turkey Barn Ventilating and Cooling Systems
The purpose of hot-weather ventilation is to maintain acceptable temperatures inside the barn, and this is achieved by removing all the heat that is produced (from animals and equipment, and through solar heat gain). Earlier, the objective of hot weather ventilation was to keep the barn temperature within 3'F to 5'F of ambient temperature. The older line of turkeys produced less heat and because of technology constraints (such as less powerful controllers), trying to maintain inside temperatures slightly above ambient temperature made sense. However, in the 21st century, because of better technology and greater need for cooling, hot-weather ventilation and cooling should be optimized for animal performance and welfare.
When designing a hot-weather ventilation system, we consider three aspects, namely (a) airflow rate, (b) temperature of the fresh air, and (c) air speed. If the fresh-air temperature is below the desired temperature of the barn, moving enough air will remove enough heat to keep the animals comfortable. However, if the air temperature is higher, we must either cool the air (mostly through evaporative cooling), create a wind-chill effect using high air speeds, or do both. Simply moving excessive amounts of air through the barn without adequate cooling will not always keep the birds comfortable; for example, if the air temperature is very high, high airflow rates will cause the birds to overheat. Similarly, excessive evaporative cooling with inadequate airflow rate will make the house humid and the litter wet.
There are three types of hot weather ventilation systems: naturally ventilated, sidewall (or crossventilation), and tunnel systems, and it is in the tunnel system that all three hot-weather ventilation aspects can be best balanced. Cooling is provided with misting/fogging systems in naturally or sidewalk-ventilated barns, while tunnel barns can use evaporative pad cooling or misting/fogging. All three types of ventilation systems are discussed here.
Naturally ventilated barns: Naturally ventilated barns rely on natural air movement through curtains and large, sliding, screened doors to bring in fresh air. These barns also have circulation fans. Although some grow-out barns still have manually operated curtains, most barns have curtains that are controlled by thermostats. Because a naturally ventilated barn relies on wind and buoyancy forces to provide air exchange, a vaulted roof with ridge or chimney openings is required. The underside of the roof should be insulated with a 1-inch thick polystyrene foam board to reduce
radiational heat gain and eliminate condensate dripping down from the roof onto the birds in cool and cold weather. An uninsulated metal roof can get very hot in summer and increase bird discomfort (Figure 3).
Nowadays, most naturally ventilated barns have a hybrid ventilation system-in winter, they use ventilation fans on the north side and inlets (on both sides) while in warm weather, curtains are lowered to provide greater air exchange, and the system reverts to natural ventilation. Such a hybrid system generally has poor air distribution because it is leaky. Two 36-in. fans with typical airflow rate of 10,000 cfm per fan can provide minimum ventilation for 5,000 40-lb toms.
Circulation fans in naturally ventilated barns create some air movement, but they contribute little to air exchange. The total capacity (cfm) of circulation fans installed in naturally ventilated barns depends on the turkey integrator but can range from 75% to 100% of the capacity of tunnelventilated barns. Typically, 36- to 48-in. circulation fans are placed along the long axis of the barn. Fresh air is brought in and stale air exhausted through the screened doors at opposite ends. A 48-in. circulation fan will cover a total floor area of 1200 ft^(60 ft x 20ft) while a 36-in. fan will cover 675 ft² (45 ft × 15 ft). Up to seven 48-in. or nine 36-in. fans would be needed to cover a 400-ft-long barn, but this arrangement will provide cooling mainly in the middle, leading to crowding. Midwest Plan Service (MWPS) (MWPS-32, 1990) recommends angling the fans at about 15° sideways so that the air moves in a 'rotational racetrack' pattern through the barn (Figure 4). Because the fan spacing can be increased up to 25 fan diameters for the racetrack design (MWPS-32, 1990), only 10-12 36 in. fans would be needed to cover the barn.
The height of the circulation fan above the floor and its tilt angle are important in ensuring adequate air speed over the birds. A clearance greater than 40 in. between the fan and the floor reduces the fan's effectiveness. Bottcher et al.(1995) recommended that fans be tilted 10º to 20º downward (as measured at the shaft) from the horizontal. While tilting at 10º threw the air farther, a 20º tilt provided greater lateral coverage (Bottcher et al., 1995). We measured an air speed of 400/ftmin, 36 in. above the floor, 40 ft in front of a fan that was angled downward but when the fan was not angled downward, it was less than 200 ft/min. Angling the fan upward is undesirable because it will pull some of the heat that has accumulated at the top toward the birds.
During hot weather and with large birds, evaporative cooling (fogging or misting) will be required to prevent catastrophic heat build-up. In fogging, pressures between 200 to 1,000 psi produce very fine droplets and when these droplets evaporate in the air, they reduce the temperature of the air while increasing its RH. A gallon of evaporated water will convert about 73,000 BTU of tensile heat into latent heat. Bottcher and Czarick.(1997) recommended 1 gal/hr from every 1,000 cfm for tunnel ventilation, and this value could also be used for natural ventilation. Under summer design conditions for Raleigh (92°F dry-bulb and 46% RH, MWPS-1, 1987), using psychometrics, 1 gal/hr of fogging per 1,000 cfm of ventilation can reduce the temperature by 10°F if all water is evaporated. But with 200 psi, only a fraction of the water is evaporated and efficiencies range between 25% to 35% (equation [1]), which would result in a temperature drop of 6°F under Raleigh design conditions. However, even when a large fraction of the water is deposited on the birds and litter, it will provide additional cooling, as discussed later. With higher operating pressures or in drier climates, higher water flow rates could be used. Typically, nozzle flow rates range from 1 to 2 gal/hr. Foggers are operated by a thermostat; at lower temperatures, they are operated intermittently but if temperatures continue to rise, they are used continuously. Placing fogger nozzles in front of the circulation fans or fans pushing air into the barn will allow the droplets to be dispersed widely and
evaporate better, providing more cooling. Because fogging requires higher pressures than misting (120 to 140 psi), more expensive equipment and greater maintenance are required; therefore, turkey producers generally prefer misting.
In misting, water pressures are 120 to 140 psi and nozzles have flow rates of 3-4 gal/hr. Misting rates of 1 gal/hr for every 1,000 cfm of circulation fan capacity, or 7 to 10 gal/hr nozzles with a 36-in. fan, seem to be reasonable. Nozzles mounted directly on the fans are preferable to mounting these nozzles separately, but be careful to avoid caking on the fan. Misters are also operated by thermostat with intermittent operation at lower temperature and continuous operation at higher temperature. Because of lower pressure than fogging, water droplets are larger and end up on the birds and litter. Evaporation of droplets landing on the bare surfaces of the head and neck of the turkey probably provides considerable cooling. However, there is no information in the literature regarding the efficiency of misting in naturally ventilated barns. Compared with fogging, misting may create more wet litter problems.
Sidewall-ventilated barns: In these barns, fans are set just inside the open sidewall either along one side or alternating along both sidewalls (Figure 5). The air is pushed into the barn by the fans and exhausted through the curtain and end-door openings. Ventilation professionals have been designing tunnel ventilation systems with evaporative cooling in eastern N.C. and S.C. using rates of 1 to 1.cfn/lb or 12-14 cfn/ft² of barn area based on current stocking densities. Using a ventilation rate of 1 cfn/lb, a 40 ft × 500 ft bar with 5,000 45-lb tons would need 225,000 cfm of ventilation provided by 10-14 48-in./or 20-22 36-in. fans. However, even with this high ventilation rate, higher than that for a tunnel house of the same size (discussed later), the entire floor area will not covered. The rule of thumb is that a fan pushing air into the barn will move air 15 times the fan diameter in front and 2.5 times the fan diameter on each side (for a total of 5 fan diameters along the width). Therefore, 22 36-in. fans would cover only 330 ft³ of the 500-ft long house, whereas the 11 48-in. fans would cover only 220 ft³ To cover the entire length of the house, 33 36-in. or 25 48-in. fans would be needed, which would be prohibitively expensive. Instead of increasing the number of fans, angling the 48-in fans sideways at about 40° will greatly improve the coverage in the barn (Xin et al., 1994). Unlike the minimum ventilation fans, mild and summer ventilation fans should be installed on the south wall and angled toward the east to take advantage of the predominant wind direction, which is south to southwest.
On very hot days, evaporative cooling will be needed. Czarick recommended 1 gallon/hr from every 1,000 cfm for tunnel ventilation, and this value may also apply to sidewall ventilation. Mounting the nozzles directly on the fan or close it to with the spray slightly angled into the airstream will allow the droplets to be dispersed widely, reducing wet spots. Although MWPS (MWPS-34, 1990) recommends reducing the maximum ventilation rate by 40% when evaporative cooling is provided, this will result in a much greater portion of the house receiving no airflow than if no evaporative cooling is provided.
Tunnel-ventilated barns: Tunnel-ventilated turkey grow-out barns are becoming more popular in North Carolina. In these barns, fresh air is brought in through large openings at one end of the barn and exhausted through the other end with fans (Figure 6). The resulting high air speeds (600 ft/min or higher) provide considerable wind chill effect. These air speeds are average values obtained by dividing the total ventilation rate (cfm) by the cross-sectional area of the barn and are not the speeds at bird height.
Tunnel ventilation is more appropriate for barns that have high length/width ratios, preferably, 10/1 or higher. For example, there are two barns 50 ft × 400 ft and 40 ft × 500 ft and both have drop ceilings the same height (say, 8 ft) from the floor. Both barns have the same area and hold the same number of birds and would therefore have the same ventilation rate (say, 200,000 cfm). However, compared to the 50 ft × 400 ft which has a cross-sectional area of 400 ft² (8 ft × 50 ft) and an average air speed of 500 ft/min (200,000/400), the 40 ft × 500 ft barn, with a cross-sectional area of 320 ft² (8 ft
× 40 ft), would have an average air speed of 625 ft/min (200,000/320)! Therefore, to convert short barns into tunnel ventilation, you have to install excess fan capacity to the high air speeds required for adequate wind chill. For 300- to 350-ft barns, a target air speed of 500 ft/min is more realistic.
Unlike broilers, there are no published data on air speed effect on turkey performance, but high air speeds reduce heat stress in turkeys (Figure 7). Hence, we need to investigate the effects of high air speeds (up to 800 ft/min?) not just on turkey performance but also on economics, as more fans and electrical energy will be required. Despite additional electricity costs, broilers receiving 24 hr of 550 ft/min air speed provided $129 more in returns than those that received 12 hr of 550 ft/min and 12 hr of 325 ft/min (Dozier et al., 2006). Sustained cooling of large turkeys through the night might result in birds eating more during the cool part of the day to gain more weight.
We do not have recently published ventilation data for turkeys. The MWPS recommends 0.8 cfm/lb for growers (MWPS-32, 1990), which may be inadequate for current conditions. As mentioned earlier, tunnel-ventilation systems with evaporative cooling in eastern N.C. and S.C. are being designed using rates of 1 to 1.1 cfmn/lb or 12-14 cfnm/ft² of barn area based on current stocking densities. Based on the sensible heat production data for the 1992-1998 turkeys (Table 1 and Figure 1), about 0.9 cfm/lb would be required, assuming that heat losses and gains from other sources and sinks are negligible compared to the heat produced by the birds. Because the current line of turkeys will surely produce more heat than the 1992- 1998 line of turkeys (Figure 1), and we desire an air speed of about 600 ft/ min, the ventilation rate of 1 to 1.1cfm/lb used by ventilation professionals may be more appropriate. In a 40 ft × 500 ft barn with a cross-sectional of 320 ft², 5,000 40-lb tons would require about 180,000 cfm, which would produce an air speed of 560 ft/min if a design rate of 0.9 cfm/lb of bird marketed is used. If a ventilation rate of 1 cfmn/lb is used, for the same house, the ventilation rate required is 200,000 cfm and the air speed is a mode desirable 625 ft/min. In a 50 ft × 400 ft barn (cross-sectional area of 400 ft²), even with a ventilation rate of 1.1 cfm/lb, the air speed will only be 550 ft/min.
When ambient air is above 95°F, running hot air over the birds can actually increase heat stress. In tunnel barns, the fan end may be warmer than the inlet end by as much as 6°F because as air travels through the house, it picks up heat. Therefore, funnel-ventilated turkey grow-out barns need evaporative cooling. However, evaporative cooling should be used only when the RH is below 70% (usually between 10 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. in N.C. during summer). In humid weather, air cannot absorb much more additional water vapor and the temperature drop may be too small to justify running it. Operating the evaporative cooling system too early in the staging of the tunnel-ventilation system will also result in wet litter because low air speeds in the house will not have as much energy to disperse the water droplets widely and low temperature (generally, high humidity) will reduce evaporation. Therefore, it is important to match the water application rate of the evaporative cooling system with the airflow rate.
The most effective evaporative cooling system is the recirculating pad. In this system, as warm air is pulled through a wet pad, sensible heat in the air is transferred to the water. As evaporation occurs, the air is cooled even though its RH increases. Such systems are more effective in the drier parts of the U.S., but even in North Carolina, during the hottest part of the day when RH is slow, they can reduce temperature by more than 20°F. Bottcher and Czarick (1997) reported system efficiency (equation [1]) of up to 89%, thought for design we use 75%. There is no research on turkeys, but Xin et al. (1994) reported that in broilers, the pad system provided greater cooling than fogging.
Sizing the pad area in relation to the maximum ventilating rate is very important. For a 6-in. thick cellulose pad, the generally recommended pad airflow rate is 350 cfm per square foot of pad (or 350 ft/min pad velocity) for a static pressure drop of about 0.1 to 0.15 in. water column, a range commonly used in sizing fan capacity in livestock barns. So, for a maximum ventilation rate of 200,000 cfm, about 570 ft² (200,000/350) of pad area is needed. With undersized pad area, there
may be excessive pad velocity resulting in greater pressure drop, which will reduce fan airflow rate, which will reduce air speed in the house and provide less cooling. Optimizing the pad area will reduce pressure drop, increasing both air speeds in the tunnel house and temperature drop at the pad, improving bird cooling. Proper pad area will also increase fan efficiency, resulting in more air being moved through the house per unit of electricity used. Pad velocity and air speed inside the house are different, though they are related.
Another type of evaporative cool cell pad is a fogging pad system in which water is sprayed on the pad with nozzles on the outside. It can drop temperature by as much as 13°F (Bottcher and Czarick, 1997), but it is losing ground to the recirculating pad because of lower efficiency and high water losses under windy conditions.
Evaporative cooling can also be provided by the fogger or misting system described earlier. Bottcher et al.(1989) reported an 11°F drop in temperature and an efficiency of 59% when misting 24-lb hen turkeys at a ventilation rate of 7.5 ffrm/bird, much lower than desirable tunnel-ventilation rates. Bottcher and Czarick (1997) recommended fogging rates of 1 gal hr per 1,000 cfm of ventilation capacity. Ten to 15 nozzles (1-gal/hr) are mounted along the width of the house in each line, and the lines are about 15 ft apart near the tunnel inlet and 25 to 30 ft apart near the middle of the house (Czarick , 2009). No nozzles lines are placed in the last 100 ft of the house to minimize wetting of the fans (Czarick, 2009). These multiples lines of nozzles are set in different timer stages that are progressively triggered if the temperature keeps rising. Running fogger lines along the length of the house as opposed to across the width of the house can cause droplets to coalesce, become large, and deposit on the birds or floor instead of evaporating in the air. Although foggers are used in conjunction with recirculating pads in heavy-broiler houses, we have not seen them being used jointly in turkey barns.
In summary, compared with naturally and sidewall-ventilated barns, tunnel-ventilated barns with evaporative cooling are probably the most effective in reducing heat stress in turkeys in North Carolina because they provide very good air exchange, cooling, and wind chill. Based on experience with broilers, the recirculating pad system is probably the most effective at reducing air temperatures. However, there is a need to ascertain the benefit-cost of tunnel ventilation system with high air speed for turkeys.
## References
Bottcher, R.W. and M. Czarick, III. 1997. Tunnel Ventilation and Evaporative Cooling for Poultry, AG554. Raleigh, NC: NC State University Cooperative Extension Service.
Bottcher, R.W., G.R. Baughman, and D.J. Kesler. 1989. Evaporative cooling using pneumatic misting unit. Trans. ASAE 32:671-676.
Bottcher, R.W., J.R. Magura, J.S. Young, and G.R. Baughman. 1995. Effects of tilt angles on airflow for poultry house mixing fans. Appl. Eng. Agric. 11:721-730.
Brown-Brandl, T.M., M.M. Beck, D.D. Schulte, A.M. Parkhurst, and J.A. DeShazer. 1997a.
Physiological responses of tom turkeys to temperature and humidity change with age. J. therm. Biol. 22:43-52. Ø
Brown-Brandl, T.M., M.M. Beck, D.D. Schulte, A.M. Parkhurst, and J.A. DeShazer. 1997b.
Temperature humidity index for growing tom turkeys. Trans. ASAE 40:203-209.
Chepete, J.H. and H. Xin. 2002. Heat and moisture production of poultry and their housing systems: literature review. ASHRAE Trans. 108:448-466. Ø
Czarick, M., III. 2009. Keeping birds cool during hot weather. Athens, GA: Univ. of Georgia. Ø
Dozier, W.A., III. J.L. Purswell, and S.L. Branton. 2006. Growth responses of male broilers subjected to high air velocity for either twelve or twenty-four hours from thirty-seven to fifty-one days of age. J. App. Poult. Res. 15:362-366. Ø
Havenstein, G.B., P.R. Ferket, J.L. Grimes, M.A. Qureshi, and K.E. Nestor. 2007. Comparison of the performance of 1966- versus 2003-type turkeys when fed representative 196 and 2003 turkey diets: growth rate, livability, and feed conversion. Poult. Sci. 86:232-240. Ø
MWPS-1. 1987. Structures and Environment Handbook, 11th ed. Ames, IA: Midwest Plan Service. Ø
MWPS-32. 1990. Mechanical Ventilating Systems for Livestock Housing, 1st ed. Ames, IA: Midwest Plan Service. Ø
MWPS-34. 1990. Heating, Cooling, and Tempering Air for Livestock Housing, 1st ed. Ames, IA: Midwest Plant Service. Ø
NCdacns. 2012. Turkeys. Raleigh, NC: NC Dept. of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Ø
Ota, H. and E.H. McNally. 1961. Heat and moisture production of Beltsville White turkeys. Poult. Sci. 40:1440 (abstracts). Ø
Tao, X. and H. Xin. 2003. Acute synergistic effects of air temperature, humidity, and velocity on homeostasis of market-size broilers. Trans. ASAE 46:491-497. Ø
Xin, H., I.I. Berry, G.T. Tabler, and T.L. Barton. 1994. Temperature and humidity profiles of broiler houses with experimental conventional and tunnel ventilation systems. Appl. Eng. Agric. 10:535542. Ø
Yahav, S. 2000. Domestic fowl - strategies to control environmental conditions. Avian Poult. Biol. Rev. 11:81-95. Ø
Yahav, S., S. Goldfeld, I. Plavnik, and S. Hurwitz. 1995. Physiological responses of chickens and turkeys to relative humidity during exposure to high ambient temperature. J. therm. Biol. 20:245-253.
## Authors
Sanjay B. Shah
Extension Specialist and Associate Professor Biological & Agricultural Engineering
Jesse L. Grimes
Professor Prestage Poultry Science
Isaac Singletary
Engineer Munters AB
Publication date: April 1, 2013
Reviewed/Revised: Jan. 16, 2025
AG-775
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/mrec/2022/03/28/buyer-behavior-change-climate-initiations-among-critical-topics-at-uf-ifas-ag-policy-outlook/ | Buyer behavior change, climate initiatives among critical topics at UF/IFAS Ag Policy Outlook | University of Florida | [
"Tory Moore"
] | 2022-03-28 | [
"Agribusiness",
"Agriculture",
"Farm Management",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"agricultural economics",
"Florida Agricultural Policy Outlook Conference",
"Food and Resource Economics",
"Food and Resource Economics Department"
] | FL | ## Buyer behavior change, climate initiatives among critical topics at UF/IFAS Ag Policy Outlook
Last Updated on March 29, 2022 by Tory Moore
Speakers from across the country shared new research and insight
- - including data about consumer behavior change since the pandemic began, Florida and national policy updates and crop
outlooks for some of Florida's largest commodities. It was all part of last week's annual UF/IFAS Florida Agricultural Policy Outlook economic conference.
Here, we'll bring you some highlights of the conference.
## State, federal and international ag policy
UF/IFAS fared well with its budget in this year's legislative session and the budget is currently awaiting the governor's signature. State dollars that help fund UF/IFAS directly flow down to benefit residents and provide farmers with the research and information they need to face daily challenges.
Looking ahead, the 2023 Farm Bill will be important to watch as well as the dynamics of newly elected officials after the 2022 election cycle.
Experts discussed rising inflation and worldwide supply chain issues. These will be key issues for businesses and policymakers to manage over the next year.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture's priorities in 2022 include addressing climate change, advancing racial justice equity and opportunity, creating more and better market opportunities and tackling food and nutrition insecurity.
Speakers deemed COVID-19 a permanent disruptor to food systems, at least in the United States. Many consumers have shifted to online grocery shopping. COVID-19 might have prompted these changes, but this is likely here to stay.
Additionally, relationship building was critical for farmers throughout the pandemic and will be important going forward. Farms with direct-to-consumer sales had a higher rate of business survival. The biggest barrier to customers buying directly from farmers was simply awareness of where to shop.
Research presented suggests that growers that focus on relationship building and budget for marketing to local consumers pays off in the long run. Online food sales may be here to stay, but direct-to-consumer sales are a huge opportunity for growers, experts said.
## Florida Crop Outlooks
Experts shared crop outlooks for horticulture, citrus, vegetables, berries, peanuts and row crops and while each commodity has its own unique challenges one thing was certain - growers must account for changes in consumer buying habits and increased input costs.
## Disaster Impact Assessments
Agriculture continues to face uncertainty due to policy priorities within the state and beyond, global supply chain issues, and more. This makes risk management essential for growers which includes knowing the cost of producing their crop, evaluating marketing opportunities and a continued awareness and engagement in policy and legislative decision making.
The full speaker and topic line up with detailed speaker bios is available for more information.
If you missed this year's conference, be sure to attend next March. When available, information on next year's conference will be posted here.
```
```
Category: Agribusiness, AGRICULTURE, Farm Management, UF/IFAS, UE/IFAS Research Tag: Agricultural Economics, Florida Agricultural Policy Outlook Conference, Food And Resource Economics, Food And Resource Economics Department, Food Is Our Middle Name
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · New Video: Mites Of Industrial Hemp In Florida
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/seminoleco/2020/08/24/water-wednesday-water-gone-virtual/ | Water Wednesday Recap – Water Gone Virtual | University of Florida | [
"Yilin"
] | 2020-08-24 | [
"Conservation",
"Crops",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Lawn",
"Water",
"Florida Water",
"Morgan Pinkerton",
"MREC",
"Tina McIntyre",
"UF IFAS Extension Water Agents",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Virtual Water",
"water conservation",
"water footprint",
"Water Wednesday",
"yilin zhuang"
] | FL | ## Water Wednesday Recap - Water Gone Virtual
Do you know how much water you use on a daily basis? Have you heard of virtual water? Did you know that water is used to create nearly every product out there, including our food? Last Water Wednesday, we invited the Sustainable Ag and Food Systems Agent, Morgan Pinkerton, and the Florida-Friendly Landscaping Agent, Tina McIntyre, to talk about the virtual water concept and how it is used to measure our water use.
## What is virtual water?
Virtual water is the total amount of water use to make a product. We sometimes will refer to this as the invisible water that we use. The average person uses around 1,800 gallons/day of virtual water. At this rate, our supply of clean freshwater is quickly depleting.
There are three main types of water that make up virtual water: blue, green and grey water.
- · Blue water is what we normally think of as water. It is the water we drink, the water found in the aquifer below us, our lakes, rivers and streams, and the water we use in our homes.
- · Green water is water that is stored in the soil or plants. This water comes down as rain and is taken up by plants where it is used to grow or produce fruits/flowers.
- · Grey water is water that has become polluted in some way. It is no longer water that we can readily consume or use. For example, when you wash your clothes, the dirty, soapy water that is left after the wash is grey water. Reclaimed water that municipalities use to water lawns is a large-scale form of gray water because it is made from wastewater flushed from our toilets.
The food that we eat contains virtual water which contributes to how much water we use every day. You may think that one cup of coffee will take one cup of water to make, but it is actually more like 592 cups of water. Why is this? The coffee beans that were ground
up to produce your cup of coffee came from a plant. That plant took about 3 to 4 years to produce those coffee beans, meanwhile the plant needed water to survive and grow. When we consider the food we eat, on top of all the water we use, our daily water consumption in pretty steep.
## What can you do to conserve water?
Florida does not have enough water to sustain population growth and development if we do not change how we use our water . Watch the Water Wednesday recording - Does Florida Have Enough Water?
There are a few simple things we can all do at home to save water :
- · Limit water use to when it is necessary;
- · Install water efficient devices and appliances;
- · Use a reusable water bottle for drinking water ;
- · Think about the foods you are eating and their virtual water cost;
- · Support local farming;
- · Use Florida-Friendly Landscaping and select plants that need less irrigation; remember irrigation is a supplement to the rain fall, not the other way around;
- · Collect rainwater for watering your lawns/plants;
- · Calibrate your irrigation system with the catch-can method
- · Educate yourself about water issues and conservation practices;
Watch the recording to learn more about virtual water:
o
by Yilin
Posted: August 24, 2020
Category: Conservation, Crops, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Fruits
&Vegetables, Lawn, Water
Tags: Florida Water, Morgan Pinkerton, MREC, Tina McIntyre, UE
IFAS Extension Water Agents, UF/IFAS Extension, Virtual Water,
Water Conservation, Water Footprint, Water Wednesday, Yilin
Zhuang
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https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/4H247 | 4-H Projects: Frequently Asked Questions | University of Florida | [
"Joy C. Jordan"
] | 2018-07-30 | [
"7. 4-H Youth Development"
] | FL | ## 4-H Projects: Frequently Asked Questions
Joy C. Jordan
This fact sheet is 4HS FS101.14, 4-H Projects: Frequently Asked Questions, one of a series for staff providing a basic overview to the Florida 4-H program within UF/IFAS Extension.
## What is a 4-H project?
"project" is a series of learning experiences of six hours or more within an area of interest. A list of the various projects and project handouts can be found on the Florida 4-H Projects Page, along with a list of state supported curricula http://Florida4h.org/programs\_/. Youth enrolled in projects are encouraged to gain knowledge and skills in that project area, as well as gain skills in communications, leadership, citizenship, and science.
## Must all 4-H'ers enroll in projects?
Yes. The key learning experience for 4-H youth is through projects.
## When do youth enroll in projects?
Annually. Every year, youth in 4-H Clubs choose the projects they wish to explore during the coming year. Ideally, youth should enroll in 4-H Online (the Florida 4-H Enrollment System) and receive their project manuals within the first month of the new 4-H Club year.
4-H'ers participating in organized special-interest, day camp, residential camps, or classroom projects directed by adults are enrolled in the project through their group registration, and their enrollment is likewise entered in 4-H Online annually.
However, in most counties, a 4-H member can select, enroll in, and complete projects at any time throughout the year.
## How many projects can 4-H'ers enroll in during the year?
As many as they think they would like to do . There is no statewide policy setting limits on 4-H project enrollment. In Florida, the average youth in 4-H clubs enroll in two to three projects a year. It is recommended that younger 4-H's select only one or two projects at a time.
Children in the Cloverbuds program will enroll in Exploring 4-H. For more information on programming for children ages 5-7 please review the Volunteer Training Series publication; 4-H Cloverbuds Program: 4-H for Younger Members https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/4h369.
Due to costs and limited availability of some project materials, counties may set guidelines limiting youth to a set number of projects within a given year. Over the course of time, youth have numerous choices and opportunities.
## Do 4-H'ers have to complete all their projects?
No. 4-H is an non-formal educational program where youth may choose to explore several projects of interest within a given year, then elect to complete one or more.
It is recommended that youth complete at least one project annually. There are varying levels of recognition for the completion of projects and supporting activities within the state awards and recognition system.
## What do 4-H'ers have to do to complete a project?
Youth have completed a project when they have met their goals and completed their 4-H Project Report forms to show evidence of project activities, events, and learning experiences. Projects may be completed at a club level (reviewed by your club/group leader) or submitted for county recognition.
Projects taken through a leader-led group (e.g., special interest series, day or specialty camps, or 4-H in the classroom projects) are concluded at the completion of the group experiences.
## What do 4-H'ers get if they do complete the project?
Most counties' project recognition begins with certificates of completion. Project reports submitted to the county may also be reviewed and evaluated against set standards for additional recognition and awards including ribbons, pins, monetary scholarships, or gifts from specific project donors.
Statewide, at age fourteen, youth may submit a cumulative record of their 4-H projects, called a 4-H Portfolio . This portfolio will be evaluated, and outstanding youth will be selected for opportunities to compete for state-sponsored national trips and college scholarships.
## When is a project completed or over?
The project is over or "completed" when a 4-H er has completed the activities he or she has chosen and submitted completed project reports for club leader review or county recognition. Projects are designed to be completed within the year; however, there is nothing preventing a child from working at his or her own pace. The child may simply re-enroll in the same project until the experiences have been completed and the project report has been turned in. Some youth elect to enroll in the same project year after year, identifying new goals for themselves annually.
## Is being an officer in a club a project?
No. Youth in 4-H clubs are provided many additional learning and leading opportunities, such as being club officers. This is not a project. Enrolling in and completing a series of learning activities and experiences in the Leadership Project, however, counts as a 4-H project.
## Is club community service a project?
No. Each 4-H club in Florida is expected to complete at least one community service activity per year. If the club decides to do a roadside clean-up, for instance, this is simply a club community service activity . A single activity is not a project.
Service Learning/Citizenship projects are available that the club, as a whole, can elect to complete. These projects guide youth individually or as group through a more comprehensive process of planning, conducting, and evaluating their service to others or the community.
## What is expected of 4-H'ers when they enroll in a project?
There are certain essential steps to most 4-H projects. Generally speaking, youth will:
- · Set goals and identify things they want to learn or accomplish in the project.
- · Participate in learn-by-doing activities within the project.
- · Participate in supporting events and activities within the project area to show , demonstrate, or exhibit the knowledge, skills, or products resulting from the project.
- · Reflect and record the experiences from these activities as they complete the project work, using the 4-H Project Report.
- · Gain recognition for their accomplishments before peers and others in the community.
## Do 4-H'ers have to do a demonstration to be in a project?
No. Enrolling in a project does not require youth to present a demonstration to peers or others of what they have learned. However, this is a strongly encouraged experience. It is the first step to building the personal skills and confidence that 4-H promotes.
Demonstrating -showing and telling others about the project and sharing how to do something-is a simple way to share their enthusiasm for a project they enjoy.
Demonstrations also do not have to take place at competitions, although 4-H does offer these opportunities for youth when they are ready.
## Do 4-H'ers have to be in a project to participate in a competitive demonstration or judging contest?
Yes-usually . In order to participate in a competitive demonstration or a contest supporting a project area, youth must be enrolled in that project. The project materials and the learning experiences in the project give youth the knowledge, skills, and experiences they need to be prepared for the competitions that demonstrate their scholarship in a chosen project area.
The exception is a public speaking contest. Youth can be enrolled in any project area to compete.
## Under what circumstances are Livestock Judging or Consumer Choices considered projects?
Livestock Judging and Consumer Choices are two competitive events designed to support youth enrolled in either livestock projects (i.e. beef, sheep, swine, etc.) and consumer education projects. Livestock Judging and Consumer Choices have state-supported curricula that provide group/leader-directed experiences for conducting special interest project groups for youth not enrolled in the individual 4-H projects.
If youth participate in these experiences through an organized group-enrolled/reported special-interest group, they may count as projects.
Youth who are already enrolled in selected related projects, such as beef, sheep, or other livestock projects, should report livestock judging as a project activity , not as a separate project. Youth who are already enrolled in consumer-related projects should do the same.
## Resources
Jordan, J.C. (2006). Essential elements and best practices of 4-H project experiences. 4HS FS101.13. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Further information on 4-H curricula, projects, events, recognition opportunities, and guidelines is available at http://florida4h.org.
Publication #4HS FS 101
Release Date: July 31, 2018
Reviewed At: January 27, 2022
DOI: 10.32473/edis-4h247-2006
Critical Issue: 7. 4-H Youth Development
Contacts: Sarah Hensley
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is 4HS FS 101.14, one of a series of the 4-H Youth Development Program, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date November 2006. Revised June 2015 and July 2018. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Joy C. Jordan, associate professor, Department of Family, Youth and Community Sciences; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
## 4-H 101 Fact Sheets
6 Publication(s)
## AHHS109, EsmataHIeets
## 6pudicalisation(s)
University of Florida |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/management-of-yellow-nutsedge-in-sweetpotato | Management of Yellow Nutsedge in Sweetpotato | NC State University | [
"Shawn Beam",
"Katie Jennings"
] | null | [
"Weed Management",
"Sweet Potato",
"Nutsedge",
"Weed Control",
"Weed Identification"
] | NC | ## Management of Yellow Nutsedge in Sweetpotato
## Introduction
Yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentatus) is the second most troublesome weed behind Palmer amaranth ( Amaranthus palmerii ) and third most common weed in North Carolina sweetpotato (Webster 2010) (Figure 1) behind Palmer amaranth and carpetweed (Molligo verticillata ). Yellow nutsedge is a perennial sedge with an upright growth habit. Sedges are often confused with grasses and rushes due to their similar appearance. However, sedges are easily distinguished from grasses because they have triangular stems rather than the round or oval stems of grasses or rushes (DeFelice 2002) (Figure 2). Plants in the sedge family can be easily identified as edges by cutting across the stem with a knife and observing whether the stem is triangular.
Yellow nutsedge also can easily be confused with another common sedge species-purple nutsedge. Several key features can help you easily distinguish between yellow and purple nutsedge. The first is the leaf blade; the yellow nutsedge leaf blade tapers to a long, sharp point, whereas purple nutsedge has a more blunt leaf tip ( Figure 3). Another key feature is how the tubers grow and the way they are attached to the mother plant. In yellow nutsedge, the tubers grow and are directly attached to the mother plant. Purple nutsedge, however, has tubers that grow in a chain-like fashion away from the mother plant. A final difference is the flower heads, which are yellow in yellow nutsedge and purplish red in purple nutsedge (Bryson & DeFelice 2009) (Figure 4). There are also species of annual seeds that emerge from each seed year, sometimes confusing identification of yellow nutsedge. Many of these species grow in dense mats, some smaller than or as large as yellow nutsedge. Some of these species are common to crop fields and others are not.
## Reproduction and Growth Habit of Yellow Nutseedge
Yellow nutsedge can grow and survive in almost any climate but prefers warm, moist areas (DeFelice 2002). This environmental preference helps explain why yellow nutsedge is such a problem across the southeastern United States. Yellow nutsedge reproduces and spreads by producing rhizomes and tubers. These tubers can survive in the soil for three to five years and germinate from several inches deep. The number of tubers in the soil can rapidly increase; a single tuber can produce more than 360 tubers in 16 weeks during the growing season (Webster 2005a). Yellow nutsedge spreads rapidly within a field. If left undisturbed, it will grow in patches that will enlarge at approximately 1 square yard per year (Webster 2005b). Cultivation can rapidly spread yellow nutsedge tubers and rhizomes across fields and establish new patches. Tubers can also be transported between fields on cultivation equipment. To prevent the spread of yellow nutsedge to new fields, it is best to cultivate fields infested with yellow nutsedge last and then thoroughly clean the cultivation equipment before leaving the field (Webster 2005b; Meyers and Shankle 2016). One option for cleaning cultivation equipment is to power wash it in a noncrop area.
## Impacts of Yellow Nutedge on Sweetpotato Yield and Quality
Yellow nutsedge competes with sweetpotato for water, nutrients, light, and space. This competition often leads to reduced yield and quality. Yellow nutsedge can affect quality by causing small sweetpotatoes or by growing rhizomes through the storage roots (Figure 5). Yield loss from interference with yellow nutsedge depends on the density of the yellow nutsedge. Even with as few as 15 yellow nutsedge plants per square yard two weeks after sweetpotato transplanting, predicted marketable yield loss is as much as 35 percent less than weed-free sweetpotato. At densities of more than 60 yellow nutsedge per square yard two weeks after sweetpotato transplanting, marketable yield loss is greater than 60 percent (Meyers and Shankle 2015). Other research has shown a marketable yield loss of 623 pounds per acre for every week during the growing season that yellow nutsedge is allowed to compete with the crop (Beam 2016).
Attribution: Stephen L. Meyers, Mississippi State University
## Managing Yellow Nutsedge in Sweetpotato
Control options for yellow nutsedge in sweetpotato are limited. The only registered herbicides for application in sweetpotato that have activity on yellow nutsedge are fomesafen (Reflex) and Smetolachlor (Dual Magnum). Fomesafen only has preemergence activity on yellow nutsedge. Fomesafen must be applied to the preformed bed prior to sweetpotato transplanting and prior to nutsedge emergence. In addition, fomesafen must not be applied alongside flumioxazin. Rather, growers should select either fomesafen or flumioxazin depending on the weed profiles of their specific fields. It should also be noted that while fomesafen can suppress yellow nutsedge, it is unlikely to result in complete control. There are potential carryover concerns with fomesafen, so herbicide labels should be read thoroughly before use. Similarly, S-metolachlor only has preemergence activity on yellow nutsedge. If yellow nutsedge has emerged, S-metolachlor will not control this weed. S-metolachlor should be applied to weed-free sweetpotato 7 to 14 days after transplanting to reduce the risk of injury to the developing sweetpotato storage roots. If S-
metolachlor is applied to sweetpotato too soon after transplanting and heavy rains occur, injury, such as shortening and rounding of roots, can occur (Blankenship et al. 2021; Meyers et al. 2010; Meyers et al. 2013).
Other methods to control yellow nutsedge in sweetpotato include cultivation and hand removal. Standard cultivation equipment can be effective at removing yellow nutsedge between rows if cultivation is timely (J.R. Schultheis, personal communication). Yellow nutsedge is quick to set tubers, so to effectively control yellow nutsedge with cultivation, do so soon after emergence so that the plants are killed and not allowed to develop tubers to be redistributed across a field during the cultivation process (Webster 2005a; Meyers and Shankle 2016). To remove in-row yellow nutsedge, you would need specialized cultivation equipment. Several companies manufacture plastic-lined finger cultivators for in-row cultivation of sweetpotato and other vegetable crops. Jonathan Schultheis, NC State University Extension specialist for sweetpotato, stated that cultivation can only be performed until the canopy starts to close, approximately 30 to 35 days after transplanting (personal conversation March 2, 2016).
Hand removal of yellow nutsedge is possible but is very expensive ($200 to $400 per acre) compared to other weed control methods (Ted. Burch, grower, personal communication in a telephone conversation January 23, 2018). When hand removing yellow nutsedge, both the stem and root system must be removed. Yellow nutsedge cannot be difficult to remove by hand, as it is prone to snap off at the soil line and can rapidly regrowth.
## References
Blankenship, C. D., K. M. Jennings, D. W. Monks, S. L. Meyers, D. L. Jordan, J. R. Schultheis, D. H. Suchoff, L. D. Moore, S. J. Ippolito. 2024. "Effect of S-metolachlor and flumioxazin herbicides on sweetpotato treated with and without activated charcoal applied through transplant water." Weed Technology 38, e50. doi:10.1017/wet.2024.48 .
Beam, S. C. Influence of Herbicides on the Development of Internal Necrosis of Sweetpotato and Herbicide Tolerance of Sweetpotato. Master's thesis. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University, 2016. 88 p.
Bryson, C. T., M. S. DeFelice eds. 2009. Weeds of the South. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. 468 p.
DeFelice, M. S. 2002. "Yellow Nutsedge Cyperus esculentus -Snack Food of the Gods." Weed Technology 16:901-907.
Flessner, M. L. 2016. Virginia Tech Weed Identification Guide. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University: Department of Plant Pathology, Physiology, and Weed Science.
Meyers, S. L., K. M. Jennings, J. R. Schultheis, D. W. Monks. 2010. "Evaluation of Flumioxazin and S-metolachlor Rate and Timing for Palmer Amaranth ( Amaranthus palmeri ) Control in Sweetpotato." Weed Technology 24:495-503.
Meyers, S. L, M. W Shankle. 2015. "Interference of Yellow Nutseged (Cyperus esculentus) in 'Beauregard' Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas)." Weed Technology 29:854-860.
Meyers, S. L, M. W. Shankle. 2016. "Postemergence Yellow Nutsege Management in Sweetpotato." Weed Technology 30:148-153.
Meyers, S. L., K. M Jennings, D. W. Monks, D. K. Miller, M. W. Shankle. 2013. "Rate and Application Timing Effects on Tolerance of Contingon Sweetpotato to S-metolachlor." Weed Technology 27:729734.
North Carolina State University. 2016. TurfFiles: Center for Turfgrass Environmental Research & Education. North Carolina State University.
Webster, T. M. 2005a. "Mulch Type Affects Growth and Tuber Production of Yellow Nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus)" and Purple Nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus)." Weed Sci 53:834-838.
Webster, T. M. 2005b. "Patch Expansion of Purple Nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus) and Yellow Nutsedge (Cyperorus esculentus) With and Without Polyethylene Mulch." Weed Sci 53:839-845.
Webster, T. M. 2010. "Weed Survey-Southern States. Vegetable, Fruit, and Nut Crops Subsection." Proc South Weed Sci Soc 63.
## Authors
Shawn C. Beam Graduate Student Horticultural Sciences
Katie M. Jennings Associate Professor, Weed Scientist for Vegetable and Small Fruit Crops Horticultural Science
Publication date: Nov. 26, 2024 AG-837
There is an alternate English language version of this document here: Manejo del Coquillo Amarillo en el Cultivo de Camote
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2014/11/17/gifts-that-keep-giving/ | Holiday Gifts that Keep Giving | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2014-11-17 | [
"Giving",
"Green Living",
"Healthy Housing",
"Holidays",
"Recycling",
"Water conservation"
] | GA | ## Holiday Gifts that Keep Giving
Written by
November 17, 2014
Pamela Turner
I have always enjoyed gifts - both the giving and receiving of them. According to researchers, I am not alone. Gift giving is an important part of human interaction and psychologists say that the givers often reap the biggest psychological gains. When someone takes time to thoughtfully select a gift for me, it means so much more than a check or cash; however, I am not against receiving money. In some instances and circumstances it is a very thought and generous gift. Is a y that thinking of my husband who lives across the ocean. He is a practical man. For Valentine's Day he mailed me a card filled with postage stamps.
My favorite types of gifts to give are ones that "live on" or continue to be used throughout the year. I came up with some ideas to get you thinking about how you can encourage people you care about to live greener, have fun and enjoy life.
Nature Lover. Fill a backpack with some of the items below. Attach a walking stick and some natural decorations like pinecones and holly, and it's ready to give.
- · Bird feeder
- · Bird identification book
- · Binoculars
- · Compass
This is for a western friend. It's a backpack filled with my bird identification book from a class at the U of Idaho, binoculars, magnifying glass, suet feeder and a picture made out of dried flowers from my garden.
"Grown Locally" Around the World. Fill a basket, or other type of reusable container, with items that are "local" for you. For me these items are:
- · Honey from the family ranch in Montana
- · Wine from Austria where my husband lives
- · Peanuts from Georgia where I live
- · Meyer lemons and Satsuma oranges from my fruit trees
I added a book on Vienna (Wien) and a handkerchief that I was given many years ago and has never been used.
## Gardening is fun! Fill a garden rug, basket or other type of container with items like:
- Solar-powered pathway lights
- Gardening gloves
- Potted plant, like a rosemary tree
- Seeds or bulbs
- Spray nozzle for the garden hose
- Garden weeding tool
- Book on native plants and/or pests
- Wind chime or piece of yard art
This is a great gift for my Texas friends. I am passing along gardening and bug books from when I lived in TXalong with gloves, seeds, a hand rake, and a framed picture made from dried flowers from my TX garden. All packaged in a wooden rug.
## For The Recycler in You. Fill a reusable bag or container you no longer need, or use, with items like:
- · Compost container
- · Rechargeable batteries and a charger
- · Lunch bag filled with reusable containers
- · Insulated tumblr
- · Bag for storing plastic bags
- · Doormat made from recycled material
## A Greener Home. Fill a bucket or dishpan with an assortment of items that contribute to improving the indoor air quality. Some suggestions:
- Gloves
- Microfiber cloth
- UGAGreen Cleaning Recipe Cards
- Spray bottles with waterproof labels
- Essential oils
- Ingredients to make green cleaning products
- Green cleaning safety tips
## Here's to A Healthy Home! Fill a basket or container that can be used to hold magazines, mail or other clutter with items that promote a healthy home environment, like:
- Radon test kit
- Humidistat to measure moisture
- Carbon monoxide detector
- Microfiber cloth for cleaning and dusting
- Flameless candle
- Door mat
- Food storage containers to keep pests out
- Help Yourself to Healthy Home booklet
- Home Maintenance Checklist
I filled my water basket with a shower timer, low flow shower head, faucet aerator, toilet tank bag, tips on conserving water, and added a "love is washcloth that I have had for many years.
## Energy Saver. Tool bag filled with items that encourage conserving energy, like:
- · An LED light and/or an LED nightlight
- Electric outlet insulators or gaskets to stop air leaks in outlets and switches
- Advanced, or Smart , power strip , designed to reduce energy use
- Cordless drill with ENERGY STAR certified battery charger
- Programmable thermostat
- Door draft stopper to place along the bottom of the exterior door
- Energy Use Meter
- Air Filter whistle (indicates that the air filter needs changed)
- Programmable light timer
For gift tags and cards, use postcards you bought and never got around to sending. These are only a few of the ones I bought and never sent.
Happy holidays from the University of Georgia Extension! For information sheets to include in your gifts, call your local county Extension office in Georgia (1-800-ASK-UGA) or go online and print them out @ www.gafamilies.org/home . If you live in another state, find the Cooperative Extension service in your state on the U.S. Department of Agriculture website - NIFA.
Disclaimer: Mention of any products does not indicate an endorsement or recommendation.
Posted in: Giving, Green Living, Healthy Housing, Holidays, Recycling, Water conservation
Tags: energy-conservation, Extension, gift giving, green cleaning, green gifts, Healthy Homes, home safety, locally grown, nature, Radon, recycle, reuse, UGA, University of Georgia, water conservation
Pamela Turner
## 2 responses to "Holiday Gifts that Keep Giving"
RebeccaM Chenhall November17,2014
Thanks for the great gift ideas. I especially like the nature lover and gardening ideas for my sister's Christmas gift.
## ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Becky Chenhall
Radon Educator
College of Family & Consumer Sciences
770-267-1324
## Reply
## Giving Green & Healthy Gifts | UGA GreenWayNews
December14,2015
[...] Gifts that keep giving include things like a membership to the local botanical gardens, national park membership, pottery classes, singing lessons, and energy saving devices. More ideas in an earlier blog. [...]
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https://extension.okstate.edu/articles/2022/volunteer_of_the_year.html | McTague named State 4-H Volunteer of the Year - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-06-30 | [] | OK | Jayme McTague, right, was named the 2022 State 4-H Volunteer of the Year. She was also recognized as Volunteer of the Year in the Southeast District and Pontotoc County. She is pictured with Missy Quintero, Oklahoma 4-H Volunteer Board president. (Photo by Todd Johnson, OSU Agricultural Communications Services)
## McGague named State 4-H Volunteer of the Year
Thursday, June 30, 2022
Media Contact: Trisha Gedon | Communications Specialist | 405-744-3625|
trisha.gedon@okstate.edu(mailto:trisha.gedon@okstate.edu)
## Share
When Jayme McTague's family moved to Ada, she knew she wanted her kids involved in the Oklahoma 4-H Youth (https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/4h-youthdevelopment/index.html) development program. After a trip to the Pontotoc County Fair and a visit to the local Oklahoma State University Extension(https://extension.okstate.edu/) office, she learned Ada didn't have an active club at that time.
Through hard work and determination, McTague got an active program going in the Ada community. That dedication over the last seven years to Oklahoma 4-H was recognized recently when McTague was named the 2022 State 4-H Volunteer of the Year at the 4-H Parent/Volunteer
Conference at OSU in Stillwater. This award is presented to volunteer leaders with less than 10 years of service. She was also recognized as the Southeast District Volunteer of the Year and the Pontotoc County Volunteer of the Year.
"I'm a 4-H alumna, and my parents were my leaders. I had such a positive experience as a 4-H'er that I knew it was something I wanted for my own kids," McTague said. "It's the best organization in the country. I had so many amazing opportunities due to my involvement - winning trips to Denver and Washington, D.C., and attending State 4-H Roundup - I wanted to give my kids and other kids those same opportunities."
With support from her family, she helped build a successful program in Ada. Her parents encouraged her along the way, and McTague is incorporating into the program some of the things they did as leaders years ago.
McTague said the journey to establish a club wasn't always smooth sailing, and part of the effort involved teaching people about 4-H and OSU Extension.
"When we first started seven years ago, there were about four kids who showed up. But we just kept going, and now, we've grown to about 30 club members;" she said. "It's fun to see these children who didn't really even know what 4-H was grow and build confidence in themselves."
Pontotoc County 4-H'er Lexi Jacobs said McTague is known for cheering on club members.
"She comes to watch us show our pigs. Jayme also helps us learn life skills," Jacobs said. "We get to work in the concession stand during livestock shows, and during our volunteer hours, we learn things like the proper way to serve customers, the correct way to count money back and how to positively represent Ada 4-H by making eye contact and being polite."
Becky Walker(https://extension.okstate.edu/county/pontotoc/profiles/becky-walker.html), OSU Extension 4-H educator in Pontotoc County (https://extension.okstate.edu/county/pontotoc/index.html), said McTague is a go-getter.
"She gets right in there and works alongside people. She's such a motivator to people," Walker said. "She can make you believe you can do anything and encourages people by being right alongside them. One thing I really love about Jayme is that she not only thoroughly supports her own kids 4-H work, but she is supportive and encouraging, and loves to be part of other 4-H members' projects and activities."
Walker said serving the community has always been a priority for McTague and her 4-H members. Some of their activities include making motivational signs to hang in the Ada Washington Grade Center, filling stockings for Mama T's Homeless Shelter, collecting blankets and pet toys for PAWS, donating clothing to help stock Ada Public Schools' clothes closets and making bedtime bags for the Ada Youth Shelter.
Not only does McTague serve as the club leader, she has also been a die-hard camp chaperone, according to Walker. She encourages campers to try new things and runs to the store to pick up items that didn't get packed.
"I don't think she knows how appreciative I am of her excitement to help me with workshops and to just be at camp to play the mom role to so many," Walker said. "She gets right in there and participates along with the kids. I'm excited to walk this journey with Jayme."
And it's easy to see McTague's enthusiasm for her role.
"Being a 4-H volunteer brings me a lot of joy," she said. "I love seeing the members come in, grow in the experience and discover their own special talents. We're here to help them grow, and I'm glad I get to be part of that."
## Share
```
4-H (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=4-H)
OSU Agriculture (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=OSU%20Agriculture)
OSU Extension (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=OSU%20Extension)
Outreach and Engagement (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=Outreach%20and%20Engagement)
volunteering (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=volunteering)
``` |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/sipsafe-panola-county-profile | SipSafe Panola County Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Jason Barrett",
"Mr. Justin Wayne Palmer"
] | null | [
"SipSafe",
"Publications"
] | MS | ## SipSafe Panola County Profile
Filed Under: SipSafe
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P4002-54
View as PDF: P4002-54.pdf
The SipSafe program, conducted by the Mississippi State University Extension Service and funded by a grant from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), is working to reduce lead exposure in children ages birth to 5 years by screening water in qualifying schools and childcare facilities.
- · In Panola County, 461 children were served. There are about 877 children enrolled in Panola County, based on a July 2024 report of licensed childcare facilities in Mississippi from MSDH.
- · 76 samples were taken.
- · 0.0% of the results were over 10ppb. 10ppb is the proposed EPA action level for lead in drinking water.
- · 4 facilities were sampled. There are 12 facilities located in Panola County.
This data was collected between 2021 and 2024.
For more information, contact Justin Palmer at 662.325.0520 or justin.palmer@msstate.edu.
Department: MSU Extension-Panola County.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webtteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. Jason Barrett
ASSc Extension Prof., Assoc Dir
Water & Wastewater Utilities, Economics & Natural Resources, Community Development,
Mr. Justin Wayne Palmer
Extension Associate I
SipSafe
Your Extension Experts
Dr. Jason Barrett
ASSc Extension Prof., Assoc Dir
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4002-10
SipSafe Choctaw County Profile
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ... next\_ last\_2 |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/jumping-worms | Jumping Worms | NC State Extension | [
"Matt Bertone"
] | null | [
"Soil",
"Worm",
"Earthworm",
"Garden Pest",
"Jumping Worm",
"Crazy Jumping Worm"
] | NC | ## Jumping Worms Introduction
Although earthworms (terrestrial oligochaetes) are supposed to be a gardener's best friend, many species in the United States are not native and some are destructive. One of the most notorious groups of earthworms are the so-called "Asian crazy / jumping" worms (referred to as "jumping worms" from here on out), known locally sometimes as snake worms, Alabama jumpers, and Georgia jumpers. Despite some of these names, jumping worms are native to regions from East Asia through Australia, but have been moved by humans all over the world, especially in soil and planting pots. They are in the family Megasocelidae, and the most often referenced species is Amythanas agrestis , though there are other species in that genus and other related genera (e.g. Amythnas tokioensis and Metaphire hiligendorf ) that can be common. Multiple species can even be found together in landscapes.
Despite news reports suggesting these worms are new to the United States and North Carolina, jumping worms have been in the country since at least the late 1800s. Amythnas agrestis has been in the United States since 1939 (first found in Baltimore, MD; Chang et al. 2016) and recorded in North Carolina since at least 1978 (Reynolds 1978). These worms may be locally abundant but appear to be patchy and unpredictable in their presence.
## Description
Jumping worms (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4) represent a diverse group with several species known in North Carolina. The three most common species (Amythnas agrestis , Amythnas tokioensis , and Metaphire hiligendorf ) are all larger worms when mature, from 1-7'' in length (30-170 mm) with a body width of 1/8-1/3' (3-8 mm). However, smaller species of jumping worms do exist.
Earthworms are difficult to ID by non-experts, as it's often required to dissect specimens or use microscopes to see details on the body. Jumping worms can generally be told apart from other earthworms by the following characteristics:
- · often brown in color with a light, cream-colored saddle (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4); some have an iridescent sheen (Figure 4)
- · the "saddle" (citellum) is near the head region, flush with the rest of the body, and goes entirely around the earthworm (Figure 2) [Note: the saddle is only seen in mature earthworms]
- · a single band of short, stout hairs entirely surrounds most body segments; my need hand lens or microscope to see (can be seen on some segments in Figure 3 and Figure 4)
Despite being called "jumping" or "crazy" worms, only some species flaiil in response to being disturbed. Also some other types of worms behave erratically when touched or approached. Thus the jumping behavior is not always the best way to identify these earthworms.
metals from the soil which can accumulate in predators who eat them. The removal of surface organic matter is also a major risk to other organisms. It eliminates the food source for many other animals, including millipedes, springtails, and other invertebrates (which can further affect predators up the food chain). Removing leaf litter on the soil surface also decreases habitat for salamanders, ground-nesting birds, plants, and many other species, which has a negative impact on native biodiversity. Finally, jumping worm activity can cause changes in the physical characteristics of soil, contributing to erosion and changes in water permeability.
It is difficult to control jumping worms when they are already present in an area. There are no chemicals available for controlling earthworms, and compounds that might work against jumping worms would also kill other earthworms. Leaf litter can be raked aside and any jumping worms can be hand removed and placed in a bucket of soapy water, rubbing alcohol, in a freezer, or in a bag left out in the sun to kill them. This can remove at least some of the individuals from the environment, which may help reduce future populations.
The most important form of management is preventing the worms from establishing in an area in the first place. This can be done several ways:
- · when purchasing mulch and other ground cover, make sure it is free of worms and cocoons (if possible); composted materials that attain proper, high temperatures for the right amount of time (104-130°F for three days) can kill cocons, reducing the risk of them coming in on such materials
- · when buying plants, inspect the soil for worms or cocoons; purchasing plants with bare roots can help avoid contaminated soil
- · refrain from swapping plants dug up from the ground, leaf litter, and soil with neighbors
- · avoid purchasing jumping worms for fish bait; accidental releases can allow them to invade new areas
- · clean soil from items, vehicles, etc. that are being moved from one area to another, especially if the area of origin has jumping worms present
Remember, if it has soil, it can have jumping worms!
## References
Chang, C. H., Snyder, B. A., & Szlavezcz, K. (2016). Asian pheretimoid earthworms in North America north of Mexico: an illustrated key to the genera Amythas. Zootaxa , 4179(3), 495-529.
Reynolds, J. W. (1978). The earthworms of Tennessee (Oligochaeta). IV. Megascolidae, with notes on distribution, biology and a key to the species in the state. Megadrilogica , 3(7), 117-129.
Chang, C. H., Bartz, M. L., Brown, G., Callaham, M. A., Cameron, E. K., Dávalos, Á., & Szlavecz, K. (2021). The second wave of earthworm invasions in North America: biology, environmental impacts, management and control of invasive jumping worms. Biological Invasions , 1-32.
## Author
Matt Bertone
Director, Plant Disease and Insect Clinic Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Sept. 2, 2021
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/lee-county-forestry-impacts-2020 | Lee County Forestry Impacts 2020 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Suzanne Teague",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Natural Resources",
"Economics"
] | NC | ## Lee County Forestry Impacts 2020
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 9, 2022
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Suzanne Teague
Rajan Parajiuli
Robert Bardon
[ ] View/Download PDF http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=lee-countyforestry-impacts-2020#zoom=page-fit N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.ncsu.edu/grazing-practices-review | Grazing Practices: A Review of the Literature | North Carolina State University | [
"D. L. Osmond",
"D. M. Butler",
"N. N. Ranells",
"M. H. Poore",
"A. Wossink",
"J. T. Green"
] | null | [
"Best Management Practice",
"Water Quality",
"Water Pollution",
"Grazing",
"Grazing Management",
"Grazing Issues",
"Animal Health"
] | NC | ## NC State University
## Page Not Found
Sorry, the page you're looking for cannot be found. Try using the search below to find what you're looking for.
| | TOP SEARCHES |
|-------------------|---------------------|
| Moodle | ▶ Libraries |
| Jobs | ▶ Majors |
| Academic Calendar | ▶ Maps |
| Tuition | ▶ Campus Wifi Setup |
| Campus Directory | ▶ Wolfline Buses |
| Gmail | ▶ Dining |
| MyPack | ▶ Social Media | |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/alabama-soils-blackland-prairie/ | Healthy Soils | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Audrey Gamble"
] | 2018-08-21 | [
"Healthy Soils",
"Farming",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | ## Alabama Soils: Blackland Prairie
The band of dark-colored soils extending through Central Alabama and curving upward in to northeastern Mississippi is known as the Black Belt or Blackland Prairie. This region gets its name from the prairie-like vegetation that is common in the area. The Black Belt is part of the Coastal Plain, but these soils formed from clayey deposits laid over a soft limestone, known as Selma chalk.
The Black Belt is the only region in Alabama with extensive regions of alkaline soils (soil pH> 7). Early settlers discovered these clayey soils held more nutrients and were generally more productive than the sandier Coastal Plain soils. For this reason, many of the large, antebellum cotton plantations were located in the Black Belt region of Alabama and Mississippi. Black Belt soil color is dark because of the humus, or decomposed organic
matter, that often coats the clay particles. However, severe erosion due to intensive farming practices removed much of the dark, rich topsoil.
## Considerations
Though the soils are clayey and can become sticky when wet, they soil can still be worked by hand. Many soils in this region are now low in fertility due to historic erosion of topsoil. Because most of these soils are high in clay, they have poor internal drainage (water doesn't freely move through them), and B horizons are often not clearly evident. Water escapes evaporation. Ponds are easy to construct in these clayey soils, therefore aquaculture is a prominent business in the Black Belt. Livestock also thrive on prairie-like grasslands in the region. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/plant-id/plant-profiles/tumble-windmillgrass/index.html | Tumble Windmillgrass - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2020-07-17 | [] | OK | ## TUMBLE WINDMILLGRASS
Common Name: Tumble Windmillgrass
Other Names: Windmillgrass
Species Name: Chloris verticillata Nutt.
Plant Type: Grasses & Grass-like
Family Name: Poaceae
Plant Facts
| Distribution in the U.S. | |
|----------------------------|----|
| Distribution in | |
| Oklahoma | |
## ID Characteristics
| Field Identification Characteristics | + |
|----------------------------------------|-----|
| Leaf and Stem Characteristics | + |
| Floral Characteristics | + |
| Habitat/Ecology | + |
|-------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Soil Type | All types |
| Habitat | Lawns, pastures, deteriorated rangeland, roadsides and waste areas |
| Successional | Mid |
| Stage | |
Topics: |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/rankin-county-economic-well-being-and-poverty | Rankin County Economic Well-being and Poverty | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith",
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Extension Center for Economic Education and Financial Literacy"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Rankin County Economic Well-being and Poverty
## Rankin County Economic Well-being and Poverty
Filed Under: Economic Development, Extension Center for Economic Education and Financial Literacy PUBLICATIONS Publication Number: P3267-62
View as PDF: P3267-62.pdf
Publication File:
- rankin\_poverty\_presentation\_profile.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Rankin County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith
Associate Extension Professor
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes
Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter
Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills
Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
...
next\_
last\_ |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/row-cover-crop-soils/soil-health-stewards-ricky-wiggins/ | Cover Crops | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Ricky Wiggins"
] | 2018-08-14 | [
"Farming",
"Healthy Soils",
"Cover Crops"
] | AL | ## Soil Health Stewards: Ricky Wiggins
Ricky Wiggins discusses soil health stewardship. Wiggins operates Wiggins Farm in Andalusia, Alabama in Covington County. The family farm has been operating for more than 45 years.
Wiggins said when he began working with his dad in 1972, the farm used conventional tillage practices. Years later, Wiggins and his father decided to try strip tiling. Wiggins Farm has used conservation tillage ever since. Learn more about Wiggins Farm's use of cover crops in this edition of Alabama Soil Health Stewards with Ricky Wiggins. |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/randolph-county-forestry-impacts-2020 | Randolph County Forestry Impacts 2020 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Suzanne Teague",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Natural Resources",
"Economics"
] | NC | ## Randolph County Forestry Impacts 2020
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 9, 2022
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Suzanne Teague
Rajan Parajiuli
Robert Bardon
[ ] View/Download PDF http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=randolph- county-forestry-impacts-2020#zoom=page-fit N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/cumberland-county-forestry-impacts-2018 | Cumberland County Forestry Impacts 2018 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Morgan Hoy",
"Olakunle Sodiya",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Cumberland County Forestry Impacts 2018
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
July 10, 2020
Authors
Rajan Parajuli
Stephanie Chizmar
Morgan Hoy
Olakunle Sodiya
Robert Bardon
❑ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=cumberland- county-forestry-impacts-2018#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/peanut-information/peanut-disease-management | Peanut Disease Management | NC State Extension | [
"LeAnn Lux",
"Barbara Shew"
] | null | [
"Peanut Production",
"Field Crop",
"Legume",
"Field Crop Disease",
"Peanut Disease"
] | NC | ## Peanut Disease Management
Department Crop & Soil Sciences Publication Date
Jan. 8, 2025
Authors
LeAnn Lux
Barbara Shew
☐ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=peanut disease-management#zoom=page-fit
## Other Publications in 2025 Peanut Information
Extension Personnel Working With Peanuts Situation and Outlook Peanut Seed Peanut Production Practices Peanut Weed Management Peanut Insect and Mite Management Peanut Disease Management Peanut Nematode Management Planting, Harvesting, and Curing Peanuts Guidelines for the North Carolina Peanut Production Contest and Group of Sixty Compatibility of Agrochemicals Applied to Peanut Peanut Growth and Development and Peanut Industry Terminology Risk of Pests in Peanut, Integrated Pest Management, and Pesticide Stewardship Variety Development Results From Large-Plot On-Farm and Research Station Trials
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/sfrc/2020/06/09/sfrc-serves-juliana-navarro/ | SFRC Serves: Juliana Navarro | University of Florida | [
"Kim Scotto"
] | 2020-06-09 | [
"Coasts & Marine",
"Community Volunteers",
"Conservation",
"Water",
"Nature Coast Biological Station",
"NCBS",
"SFRCServes",
"students"
] | FL | ## SFRC Serves: Juliana Navarro
Welcome to our Summer Blog Series, SFRC Serves . On Tuesdays and Thursdays we are sharing stories of how our students and alumni give back to their communities.
Name:
Juliana Navarro
## Program:
Marine Sciences Major, '20
Juliana is a recently graduated Marine Sciences alum from Cape Canaveral, Florida.
"I had a few different volunteer experiences through my time at UF but my favorite and the most meaningful by far was my
work with the Nature Coast Biological Station.
I started volunteering there in September of 2018, and learned so much in that time. The station is located on the Gulf of Mexico in Cedar Key, a coastal fishing village transitioning to sustainable aquaculture."
"My volunteering was primarily as an environmental educator. I led field trips where kids came out and learned about coastal ecosystems, marine biology, sustainability, and a bit about our research. I also gave guests tours of our aquarium.
I loved my volunteering because I got to help people connect to the environment and foster change in their lifestyles." - Juliana Navarro
```
by Kim Scotto
Posted: June 9, 2020
Category: Coasts & Marine, Community Volunteers, Conservation,
Water
Tags: Nature Coast Biological Station, NCBS, SFRCServes, Students
```
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · SFRC Serves: Allie Marshbanks
- Florida Land Steward Update, June 21, 2024
- · Florida Land Steward Update, August 16, 2024
- · SFRC Serves: Cayley Buckner |
https://extension.okstate.edu/announcements/family-and-consumer-sciences-newsletters/make-food-choices-that-support-growth-and-development-december-2023.html | Make Food Choices that Support Growth and Development - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2023-11-27 | [] | OK | ## Make Food Choices that Support Growth and Development
Monday, November 27, 2023
As a parent or caregiver, many decisions must be made regarding children, including what to feed them. It's critical to ensure children eat enough food to support optimal growth and development but also to help them develop eating behaviors that can inhibit the development of obesity and related chronic illnesses in childhood and adulthood.
Research has begun to explore the influence of children ' s consumption of ultra-processed foods, or UPFs, said Ashlea Braun, Oklahoma State University Extension nutrition specialist.
'The Nova Food Classification System defines these foods as 'industrial formulations typically with five or more and usually many ingredients not commonly used in culinary preparation,' Braun said. "Research shows that children consume about 70% of their daily calories from UPF, while
adults consume nearly 60% of their daily calories from UPF. Although there aren't any recommendations for the amount of UPF that can be consumed in a day, excessive consumptions have been linked to an increased risk of chronic illness."
For example, research in 2021 found that each additional serving of UPF per day is associated with a 5% increased risk of overall cardiovascular disease. Not only are there long-term risks associated with excessive consumption of UPF, but introducing these foods too early and/or in excess in childhood may have unique impacts on health risks. Braun said research has shown children have worse locomotor development and cardiovascular fitness when they have a higher intake of UPF.
"When introduced too early, these highly processed foods may influence a preference for them," she said. "For many children, fast-food meals are the norm, and these foods are hyperpalatable, which may make children more likely to eat them over time."
Foods that are recommended for consumption among children, including fresh fruits, vegetables, lean meats, whole grains, and dairy may not be as appealing in comparison to UPF. And, some families plagued by food insecurity or residing in underserved communities, UPF may be the only foods to which they have constant access.
'These foods can be beneficial in these scenarios as they are shelf-stable, carry low risk of foodborne pathogens, and are easy to prepare for consumption,' Braun said. 'Some of these foods are fortified and/or enriched with nutrients to minimize the risk of nutrient deficiencies. Therefore, for families with low access to fresh foods, UPF can fill gaps in nutrition.'
Parents and caregivers need to know the answer to this problem is not to consume zero UPF. Instead, prioritize consuming and improving access to minimally processed foods.
"Even if food to which families have access consists primarily of UPF, making choices that are relatively low in added sugars and salt, and higher in vitamins, minerals, protein, fiber and unsaturated fat, can help maximize choices." Braun said. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/aquatic-weed-management-herbicides.html | Aquatic Weed Management: Herbicides - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Michael P. Masser",
"Tim R. Murphy",
"James L. Shelton"
] | 2017-01-02 | [] | OK | ## Aquatic Weed Management: Herbicides
Published Feb. 2017 | Id: SRC-361
By Tim R. Murphy, Michael P. Masser, James L. Shelton
Print-friendly PDF (/fact - sheets/print- publications/srac/aquatic-weed management-herbicides-srac361.pdf)
JUMP TO: Herbicide Selection / Application Timing / Application Methods / Herbicide Dosage / Precautions
Managers can quickly and economically control problem weeds in commercial fish ponds with aquatic herbicides. However, herbicides are just one method of managing aquatic weeds. There are also: 1) preventive methods such as proper pond site selection and construction, fertilization, and periodic draw-downs; 2) biological methods such as grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella); and 3) mechanical methods such as cutting, seining, and raking. Using a combination of methods, within a comprehensive plan, is the most cost effective and environmentally safe way to manage aquatic weeds. SRAC-360, Aquatic Weed Management - Control Methods, contains additional information on the various methods used to control undesirable weeds in fish ponds. Once undesirable weeds are eliminated, applying fertilizer periodically will stimulate planktonic algal blooms that suppress the growth of submerged weeds.
Share Fact Sheet
## Herbicide Selection
The effectiveness of herbicides varies (Table 1). The first critical step in selecting an appropriate herbicide is identifying the weed. The herbicide selected must be labeled for use with food fish. It is important to note any water-use restrictions that may prevent the application of a herbicide in a particular situation on a specific body of water (Table 2). Restrictions on secondary water uses (i.e., swimming, livestock watering, and irrigation) also must be considered before a herbicide is applied.
| Aquatic group and vegetation | Copper and copper complexes | 2,4- D | Rewa (diqu |
|----------------------------------|----------------------------------|----------|---------------|
| Algae | planktonic | E | P |
| | filamentous | F | G |
| | Chara/Nitella | E | P |
| Floating Plants | duckweeds | P | F5 |
| | salvinia | P | G |
| | water hyacinth | P | E |
| | watermeal | P | F |
| | Copper and copper complexes | 2,4- D | Rewa (diqu |
|-------------------|----------------------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
| Submerged Plants | Submerged Plants | Submerged Plants | Submerged Plants |
| coottail | P | G | E |
| elodea | P | E | |
| fanwort | P | F | G |
| naials | P | F | E |
| parrotheather | P | E | E |
| pondweeds | P | P | G |
| | Copper and copper complexes | | |
|-------------------|----------------------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
| Submerged Plants | Submerged Plants | Submerged Plants | Submerged Plants |
| cointail | P | G | E |
| | | | |
| elodea | P | | |
| | | | |
| fanwort | P | | |
| | | | |
| naiads | P | | |
| | | | |
| parrotheather | P | | |
| | | | |
| pondweeds | P | | |
| | | | |
| emergent Plants | | | |
| alders | P | E | F |
| | | | |
| arrowhead | P | E | G |
| | | | |
| buttonbush | P | F | F |
| | | | |
| cattails | P | F | G |
| | | | |
| common reed | P | F | F |
| | | | |
| water lilies | P | E6 | P |
| | | | |
| frog's-bit | P | E | E |
| | | | |
| pickerelewweed | P | G | G |
| | Copper and copper complexes | 2,4- D | Rewa (diqu |
|----------------------|-------------------------------|----------|--------------|
| sedges and rushes | P | F | F |
| spike rush | P | G | |
| smartweed | P | E | F |
| southern watergrass | P | P | |
| water pennywort | P | G | G |
| water primrose | P | E | F |
| willows | P | E | F |
Registered as of 4/99 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
- 2 E = excellent control, G = good control, F = fair control, P = poor control, blank = unknown or no response
Hydrothol® formulations.
- Aquathol formulations.
- Liquid 2,4-D formulations.
- Granular 2,4-D formulations.
Table 2. Restrictions on the use of water after treatment with aquatic herbicides$^{1}$(number of days after treatment before use in private waters only).
| | Livestock | Livestock | Livestock |
|--------|-------------|-------------|-------------|
| Common | Human | Human | Human |
| name | Use | Use | Use |
| name | Drinking | Swimming | Fish |
| | Livestock | |
|----------------------|-------------|----|
| copper sulfate$^{2}$ | 0 | 0 |
| copper complexes | 0 | 0 |
| 2,4-D | - | - |
| diquat | 2-3 | 0 |
| endothall$^{4}$ | 7-25 | 1 |
| glyphosate$^{5}$ | 0 | 0 |
| fluridone$^{6}$ | 0 | 0 |
1 Aquatic vegetation control (particularly algae) can cause low dissolved oxygen, which can stress and/or kill fish. It is best to treat most aquatic vegetation early in the growing season, when the plant is rapidly growing. Treating small areas (e.g., one-fourth of the pond at a time) at 10- to 14-day intervals usually prevents serious oxygen depletion.
- 2 If water is for drinking, the elemental copper concentration should not exceed 1.0 ppm (i.e., 4.0 ppm copper sulfate).
- 3 Depends on formulation. Read the label.
- 4 Length of use restriction for endothall varies with the concentration used. Read the label.
- 5 Do not apply within 0.5 mile of a functioning potable water intake.
- 6 Do not apply within 0.25 mile of a functioning potable water intake.
- 6 Water restrictions on 2,4-D vary with formulation, rate and time of year. Read the label.
## Application Timing
The best time to apply a herbicide is in the spring when water temperature is between 70 and 80F. At this time of the year, weeds are small and easier to control than during the summer, and levels of dissolved oxygen in the water are usually higher. Aquatic herbicides are not toxic to fish when applied according to label directions. However, after aquatic weeds are killed the decomposition process consumes oxygen and can reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. If large quantities of aquatic weeds are killed, their
decomposition can reduce the dissolved oxygen concentration to such a low level that fish die. It is important to observe fish closely for 1 week after treatment. Have emergency aeration equipment handy and aerate the pond if fish seem stressed. Treating a bond with herbicides during the hot summer months is risky, because at this time of year dissolved oxygen concentrations tend to be lower and weed biomass higher. Treating only one-fourth to one-third of the total surface area of a pond at one time can minimize the risk of depleting dissolved oxygen. However, some herbicides cannot be used for partial pond treatments. During the summer, even partial treatments may be risky in some ponds.
## Application Methods
The herbicide formulation and the weed species determine the application method. Many herbicides can be applied directly from the container, while others must be diluted with water first.
To treat large areas you will need a mechanical sprayer or spreader and a power boat to ensure adequate distribution of the chemical. Sprayable herbicide formulations can be applied with hand-held or mechanical pressurized sprayers or with a boat bailer. Injecting the chemical near the outboard motor propwash will help it disperse. Hand-operated or mechanical rotary spreaders can be used to apply granular or pelleted formulations. Soluble crystals, such as copper sulfate, can be dissolved in water and sprayed over the pond; or, the required
amount can be placed in burlap bags and dragged behind a boat, or suspended in the water near an aerator, until the herbicide dissolves. If herbicide will be applied to emergent weed foliage, adding a surfactant to the chemical may help it wet and penetrate the foliage. Use only registered aquatic surfactants and follow product label directions. Surfactants are not recommended when treating submerged weeds.
## Herbicide Dosage
Aquatic herbicides must be applied at labeled rates. Application rates were developed from extensive research and provide effective, yet safe, weed control. Applying an excessive rate of a herbicide does not provide better weed control but does increase the cost of the treatment and may increase the risk of injury to fish and other organisms. Applying less than the recommended rate usually results in poor weed control.
Some herbicides, such as those for control of emergent plants, are applied on the basis of the area to be treated. Others, such as those used to control certain submerged weeds, are applied on the basis of the volume of water to be treated. Read the label instructions carefully, because mistakes in calculating treatment rates can be costly and dangerous.
## Surface Acre Treatments:
The amount of herbicide needed for a surface acre treatment is determined by the following formula:
F = Ax R
F = Amount of formulated herbicide product.
A = Area of the water surface in acres
R = Recommended rate of product per surface acre
## Acre-Foot Treatments:
An acre-foot of water equals 1 surface acre of water that is 1 foot deep. The number of acre-feet of water can be found by multiplying the number of surface acres times the average water depth. The amount of herbicide needed for an acre-foot treatment is determined by the following formula:
F = A x D x R
F = Amount of formulated herbicide product
A = Area of the water surface in acres
D = Average depth of water in feet
R = Recommended rate of product per acre-foot
## PPMW Treatments:
Some treatment rates are given as the final concentration of the chemical in the water body on a part per million by weight (ppmw) basis. The amount of herbicide needed for a ppmw treatment is determined by the following formula:
F = (A x D x CF x ECC ) + l
F = Amount of formulated herbicide product
A = Area of the water surface in acres
D = Average depth of the water in feet
CF = 2.72 pounds/acre-foot (the conversion factor-CF-
when total water volume is expressed on an acre-foot basis;
2.72 pounds of a herbicide per acre-foot of water is equal to 1 ppmw)
ECC = Effective chemical concentration of the herbicide's active ingredient that is needed in the water to control the weed
I = The total amount of active ingredient divided by the total amount of active and inert ingredients.
For liquid products, I = pounds of active ingredient ± 1 gallon
For dry products, I = percent active ingredient ± 100%
## Aquatic Herbicides
The herbicides discussed in this section are labeled for use in commercial fish production ponds. Before using any herbicide, read and understand the label.
## Copper Sulfate
(Various trade names)
Copper sulfate, often called "blue stone," is primarily used to control algae. It is a contact herbicide. However, it does not control algae such as Pithophora. Copper can interfere with gill functions and, if improperly used, can be toxic to fish and zooplankton. Trout and koi are particularly sensitive to copper. However, most fish kills after copper sulfate treatment are related to a massive algae kill and the subsequent depletion of dissolved oxygen.
The effectiveness and safety of copper sulfate are determined by pH, alkalinity, hardness, water temperature, and several other environmental factors. In water with an alkalinity ≤ 50 ppm, the rate of copper sulfate needed to control algae can be toxic to fish. Copper treatment at water alkalinities of ≤ 20 ppm is extremely risky and should be avoided. In high alkalinity water (≥ 250 ppm), copper sulfate quickly precipitates out and is not effective for algae control. The toxicity of copper sulfate to fish increases as water temperature increases. Avoid copper sulfate applications during hot summer months.
## Chelated Copper
(Cutrine®, Komeen®, K-Tea®, others)
Copper that is held in an organic complex is known as chelated copper. Chelated coppers are used to control planktonic and filamentous algae. Chelated copper formulations do not readily precipitate in high alkalinity waters, but stay in solution and remain active longer than copper sulfate. Chelated coppers are sometimes mixed with other aquatic herbicides (e.g., diquat) to better control algae as well as certain species of submerged plants (see labels). Chelated copper is less corrosive to application equipment than copper sulfate. It is also slightly less toxic to fish. However, in water with low alkalinity (≤ 20 ppm), or in water
with an alkalinity of ≤ 50 ppm that contains trout, it is extremely risky to use chelated copper, particularly during the hot summer months.
## Diquat
(Reward®, Weedtrine-D®)
Diguat is a contact herbicide that can be sprayed on or injected into water to control submerged weeds and filamentous algae; or, it can be sprayed on duckweed (Lemna minor and Spirodela polyrhiza ) or emergent vegetation. Repeated applications on surface mats of algae (e.g., Pithophora) may be necessary. An approved non-ionic surfactant is required when diquat is used as a foliar application. Diquat binds tightly to clay particles and is not effective in muddy water or on mucoated weeds. Diquat quickly kills plants and should be used as a partial pond treatment for dense vegetation.
## Endotholl
(Aquathol®, Hydrothol®)
Two salts of endothall are used for aquatic weed control. A dipotassium salt (trade name Aquathol®) is available as a granular or liquid formulation. Hydrothol® is available as a liquid or granular formulation and is a mono-(N, Ndimethylalkylamine) salt of endothall. Hydrothol® is more toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates, so Aquathol® is generally used in commercial ponds. Hydrothol® controls algae (filamentous and stoneworts) and many submerged weeds. Aquathol® controls many submerged weeds but is not effective for filamentous and macro-algae control. Both Aquathol® and Hydrothol® are contact herbicides and may be used for spot or partial pond treatments.
## Fluridone
(Sonar®)
Fluridone controls most submerged and emergent weeds and is available in a liquid or pellet formulation. Liquid formulations also control duckweed and watermeal. Fluridone is a translocated herbicide that slowly kills plants over a 30- to 90day period. Its slow action generally prevents the depletion of dissolved oxygen. Fluridone is not effective as a spot treatment. The entire pond must be treated to control the target weed.
## Glyphosate
(Rodeo®)
Glyphosate is a foliar-applied, translocated herbicide used to control most shoreline vegetation and several emergent weeds such as spatterdock (Nunphar luteum) and alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides). Glyphosate translocates from the treated foliage to underground storage organs such as rhizomes. It is most effective when applied during the weed's flowering or fruiting stage. An approved non-ionic surfactant should be used with glyphosate (Rodeo® formulations only). If rain falls within 6 hours of application, the effectiveness of glyphosate will be reduced.
## 2, 4-D
(Various trade names)
2,4-D is a translocated herbicide that is available as a granular or liquid formulation. Granular 2,4-D controls submerged weeds such as coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) and emergent weeds such as water lily (Nymphaea spp.) and water shield (Brasenia schreberi). Liquid formulations of 2,4-D are used to control floating weeds such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and several emergent weeds. 2,4-D is available as an ester or amine formulation. Amine formulations are slightly better for aquatic applications because they are less toxic to fish, although the granular ester form is safe to use. Only those formulations of 2,4-D that are labeled for aquaculture are legal to use in culture situations.
The information and suggestions included in this publication reflect the opinions of Extension fisheries specialists based on field tests and treatment experience. Management suggestions are based on research and are generally effective. Conditions or circumstances which are unforeseen or unexpected may lead to less than satisfactory results even when best management practices are used. Neither the Cooperative Extension Service nor the Southern Regional Aquaculture Center assumes responsibility for such occurrences. All risk shall be assumed by the applicator.
All aquatic herbicides must be registered and labeled for use by the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Agriculture. The status of herbicide label clearances is subject to change and may have changed since this publication was printed. County Extension educators and appropriate fisheries/aquaculture specialists are advised of changes as they occur. Please check with your Extension Service if questions arise.
The applicator is always responsible for the effects of herbicide residues on livestock and crops, as well as problems that could arise from drift or movement of herbicide from his/her property to that of others. Always read and follow carefully the instructions on the container label. For additional information on aquatic vegetation information and management see the following Web site: http://wildthings.tamu.edu/ aquaplant .
The pesticide information presented in this publication was current with federal and state regulations at the time of printing. The user is responsible for determining that the intended use is consistent with the label of the product being used. Use pesticides safely. Read and follow label directions. The information given herein is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Cooperative Extension Service is implied.
For more information about aquaculture in Oklahoma, see our OSU county Extension agent or contact Marley D. Beem, Extension Aquaculture Specialist, 303D Ag Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078-6013 (phone: 405-744-3854).
The work reported in this publication was supported in part by the Southern Regional Aquaculture Center through Grant No. 98-38500-5865 from the United States Department of Agriculture, Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service.
Michael P. Masser Texas A&M University
Tim R. Murphy University of Georgia
James L. Shelton University of Georgia
## Print-friendly PDF /(fact sheets/print publications/srac/aquatic-weed management-herbicides-srac 361.pdf)
## Topics:
Insects, Pests, and Diseases /(topics/plants-and-animals/insects-pests-and-
disease pond Management /(topics/environment-and-natural-resources/pondmanagement/)
Weed Control /(topics/plants-and-animals/insects-pests-and-diseases/weedsand-invasive-plants/weed-control/)
Weeds & Invasive Plants /(topics/plants-and-animals/insects-pests-and diseases/weeds-and-invasive-plants/)
Weeds, Algae & Other Pond Problems /(topics/environment-and-natural resources/pond-management/weeds-algae-and-other-pond-problems/)
## Was this information helpful?
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/weed-management-on-organic-farms | Weed Management on Organic Farms | North Carolina State University | [
"Denise M. Finney",
"Nancy G. Creamer",
"David W. Monks",
"Katie M. Jennings",
"Wayne E. Mitchem"
] | null | [
"Organic",
"Weed Management",
"Weed",
"Farm Production",
"Organic Farming",
"Organic Production",
"Weeding"
] | NC | ## Weed Management on Organic Farms
CEFS
by Denise M. Finney and Nancy G. Creamer
Special Topic: Cultivation Practices for Organic Crops
by David W. Monks, Katie M. Jennings and Wayne E. Mitchem
Organic farmers struggling to develop effective and economical weed management practices are not alone. Farmers rank weeds as the number one barrier to organic production (Walz, 1999). And organic farmers cite weed management as their number one research priority.
In approaching weed management within an organic system, it is important to remember the central goal: to reduce weed competition and reproduction to a level that the farmer can accept. In many cases, this will not completely eliminate all weeds. Weed management should, however, reduce competition from current and future weeds by preventing the production of weed seeds and perennial propagules -the parts of a plant that can produce a new plant. Consistent weed management can reduce the costs of weed control and contribute to an economical crop production system.
This chapter describes weed control strategies for organic farms based on weed characteristics and an integrated cropping system approach:
- · What is a weed? Weedy plants share common characteristics that must be considered.
- · Preventing weeds. Crop rotations , cover crops, stale seedbed preparation, soil solarization, proper sanitation, and composting can prevent weeds from emerging and spreading.
- · Increasing crop competitiveness . Choosing the right cultivar, using transplants, seeding correctly, ensuring crop health, and applying mulches can give crops a competitive advantage.
- · Special topic: Cultivation practices for organic crops . Using the right cultivation tools at critical times can contribute to a cropping system that limits both emerged and future weeds.
- · Additional tools for weed management . Animals and approved herbicides can supplement cultural practices for weed control on organic farms.
- · What researchers are doing . High-tech weed control, natural weed control, crop breeding, and cropping systems are key weed research areas.
- · Advantages of organic production . Organic practices can create conditions that naturally limit weeds.
Attribution: Photo courtesy of USDA.
## Chapter Contents
## What Is a Weed?
## Preventing Weeds
Crop Rotations
Cover Crops
Stale Seedbed Preparation
Solarization
Sanitation and Composting
## Increasing Crop Competitiveness
Crop Cultivar Selection
Planting Strategies
Crop Health and Vigor
Applying Mulch
## Special Topic: Cultivation Practices
Overview
Cultivation Tools: Cultivation Before Planting
Cultivation After Planting - In-row
Cultivation After Planting - Between-row
Weeds that Resist Cultivation
## Additional Tools for Weed Management
Animal Labor
Approved Herbicides
What Researchers Are Doing
Advantages of Organic Production
Contacts for Further Information
Recommended Reading
## What is a Weed?
Despite its general acceptance, the term weed is not easily defined. What some farmers consider a weed, others will find innocuous or even charming. And what one may call a weed in a soybean crop, another may call a wildflower in a forest setting. Our perceptions of what a weed is will vary based on location, plant species, population size, and other factors. On a farm, weeds are those plants that negatively affect crop production. First and foremost, weeds compete with market crops for resources, such as light, nutrients, and water, and potentially reduce crop yields. Weeds also lead to increased production costs - the costs of controlling them and the insects and diseases
they harbor. During harvest, weeds can interfere with machinery and further reduce crop quality through contamination. Despite the lack of a clear definition for every circumstance, plants that fall into the weed category have shared characteristics that earn them the "weedy" distinction.
## Weed Characteristics
Weds are highly competitive and successful organisms. Most weeds exhibit rapid seedling growth and an ability to reproduce when young, especially when they experience stress. Weeds mature quickly compared to most crop species, and many species thrive under a broad range of conditions. They can tolerate a wide range of adverse environmental conditions, such as drought stress and soil compaction. Weeds can scavenge and compete for resources, and they respond rapidly to favorable growing conditions. Furthermore, weeds have several characteristics that enhance reproductive capability:
- · They reproduce via seeds, vegetative propagation, or both.
- · They exploit different mechanisms for seed dispersal.
- · They display self-compatibility (Zimdahl, 1999) -a single propagule is enough to start a sexually reproducing colony of plants. Self-compatible flowering plants can usually produce seed without visits from specialized pollinating insects.
- · They produce a great number of seeds. Examples of species that produce a great number of seeds per plant include redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus , 117,000 seeds per plant), common purslane (Portulacola oleracea , 52,000), shepherd's purse (Capsela bursa-pastoris , 38,000), common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album , 28,000), and yellow foxtail (Setaria glauca , 12,000) (Anderson, 1977).
Weed seeds also can be dispersed across time through extended dormancy. A classic longevity study involved 20 species of weed seeds that were buried in soil for more than 80 years (Darlington and Steinbauer, 1961). After 20 years, 11 of the buried species were still viable; after 40 years, 8 were still viable (including purslane, redroot pigweed, shepherd's purse, annual ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia ), and plantain (Plantago major); and after 80 years 3 species were still viable: curly dock (Rumex crispus ), common evening primrose (Oenothera biennis ), and moth mullein (Verbascum blattaria ).
Together, these qualities make weeds tough adversaries, both for neighboring crops and the farmers who manage them.
## Characteristics of Weeds
## Preventing Weeds
Weed management within an organic farm relies on an integrated cropping-system approach. An organic farming system should be designed to create a balance between crop plants and weeds. Within such a system, farmers can take action to tip the balance in favor of crop plants whenever possible:
- · Cultural practices , including crop rotation, cover cropping, mulching, and cultivating, are important tools in a farming system that puts weeds at a disadvantage. These practices can also have secondary benefits for soil fertility, disease, and pest management.
- · Solarization and stale weedbed preparation can keep weeds from emerging when the planting season begins.
- · Proper sanitation and composting practices can stop the spread of weeds between fields and from outside the farm.
## Crop Rotation
Organic farmers often use mixed cropping systems and long rotations to enhance soil fertility and economic diversity. Crop rotation also can be a cornerstone in a weed management plan. Through long-term variations of crop species and planting times, rotations create a changing environment and prevent the dominance of a particular weed species. Researchers have compared emerged weed densities in test crops grown in rotation versus continually grown test crops. For most of the crops studied, weed densities were lower when a crop was grown in rotation (Liebman and Dyck, 1993).
Knowledge of potential weed problems allows a farmer to select the rotation best suited to a particular field. When making a crop production plan, a farmer should design rotations for each field with weed management and potential weed problems in mind. For example,
- · When a crop with a dense, closed canopy, such as potatoes, is grown prior to growing a crop that is less competitive with weeds, the dense crop reduces the development of weeds.
- · Where late-germinating weeds are a concern, an early crop can be followed with tillage and a vigorous, competitive summer annual crop to suppress these weeds.
- · If perennial weeds are a problem, a market crop can be rotated with a perennial crop that can be mowed repeatedly or grazed as a management strategy. (Bond and Grundy, 2001)
Further, rotations should be evaluated regularly to determine if problem weeds are surviving in the crop rotation scheme and to determine what adjustments need to be made for more effective management.
## Cover Crops
Cover crops offer many benefits to an organic farming system, including protection against soil erosion, improvement of soil structure, soil fertility enhancement, and weed suppression. Cover crops can be used in a variety of ways to suppress weeds. Cover crops can suppress weeds, reduce weed populations in the subsequent crop, and reduce weed seed contributions to the soil seedbank:
- · Annual or short-term perennial cover crops can be used in place of a fallow period to reduce soil erosion and maintain soil fertility while competing with weeds for resources, such as light, water, and nutrients.
## Cover Crop Residues as Mulch
Annual cover crops may be killed or left to die naturally and used as mulch. By altering light, soil moisture, and soil temperature, mulches limit the germination and growth of weed seedlings. Dead cover crop residues serve as excellent mulch for no-till and reduced-tillage systems when left in a field. Cover crop residues may also be moved from one field to another. There is, however, a risk of transporting weeds into a field with mulch, including cover crop residues that are removed from one field to another. (Mulches applied after planting will be discussed later in this chapter.)
## Consider the Market Crop
If cover crop residues will be used as mulch for no-till production, a farmer must consider the market crop that will follow the cover crop. For instance, if the market crop will be planted in early spring, it is best to choose a winter annual cover crop that will die back early, such as a mixture of oats and crimson clover. If the market crop will be planted in late spring or early summer, a mixture of longer -lived species, such as rye and hay vetch, is preferred.
## Effective Cover Crop Kill
Another key to the successful use of cover crop residues is effective cover crop kill. Many no-till systems now used in the midwestern United States rely on chemical herbicides to kill cover crops. Organic farmers, however, must kill crops mechanically, which can be a considerable challenge.
Mechanical methods of killing cover crops will be left on the soil surface include mowing, rolling, roll-chopping, and undercutting. The success of these methods depends, in part, on the species and growth stage of the cover crop. Optimal mechanical management promotes rapid desiccation and limits the regrowth of the cover crop species while leaving residues intact for mulch. Because mowing generates small pieces of residue that decompose quickly, this may not be the best method of mechanical kill. Rolling and undercutting cover crops can create a longer-lasting surface mulch that can provided extended weed suppression. Rolling also can be accomplished at higher speeds, with lower machinery maintenance costs and reduced fossil fuel consumption compared to mowing. Various methods have been tried for rolling and roll-chopping cover crops. Depending on conditions, an effective kill can result from breaking, cutting, crushing or crimping stems. (See the recommended reading list: Creamer and Dabney, 2002; Creamer et al., 1995.)
Creamer et al. (1995) designed a modified undercutter to sever the cover crop roots and flatten the intact above-ground biomass on the surface of raised beds. This implement was designed to kill a cover crop with minimal soil disturbance, while leaving the maximum amount of cover crop residue on the soil surface and avoiding shedding the residue. The standards holding the undercutting blades are placed on the outside of the bed to prevent soil and residue disturbance. A rolling basket follows the blades to flatten and distribute the undercut cover crop and aid residue flow through the implement. The undercut leaves a thicker, longer-lasting mulch on the soil surface than mowing and a noncompacted soil, which can facilitate transplanting of vegetable crops.
Cover Crops as Living Mulch
Certain cover crops also may be used as living mulches (this is often referred to as intercropping). Living mulches can be established before planting, or they can be seeded with or after the main crop has been planted. Seeding with or after the main crop is referred to as interseeding or underseeding . Living mulches may be annual or perennial cover crops, and they can be used with both annual and perennial cash crops.
Researchers have demonstrated that living mulches can effectively suppress weeds when grown with a cash crop. In 51 research trials in which main crops grown with a living mulch were compared to the main crop grown alone, weed biomass was lower in the living mulch system in 47 cases (Liebman and Dyck, 1993). In most instances, the researchers attributed weed suppression to competition from the intercrops, although it is possible that alllelopathy -the suppressive effect of chemicals emitted by one species on another -also played a role in some systems (Vandermeer, 1989).
## Considerations
The most significant challenge a farmer faces in using living mulch systems for crop production is competition between the living mulch and the market crop. Many examples of successful living mulch systems exist for vineyards and fruit orchards, but many attempts to use living mulches in annual cropping systems (Miura and Watanabe, 2002; Athe and Doll, 1996; Mohler, 1995) or early in the establishment of perennial crops (Paine et al., 1995) have resulted in reduced growth and yields for the market crops.
Cover crops that are suitable for use as living mulches in intercropping systems should do the following (Enache and Ilinicki, 1990):
- · Compete minimally with the market crop for resources, including light, water, and nutrients.
- · Have characteristics that control weeds.
- · Provide a regular and sufficient source of nitrogen.
- · Have low maintenance costs.
The spatial arrangement, seeding rate, and planting time of living mulches should also create favorable conditions for the market crop. For most crops, it is best to confine the living mulch to between-row spaces.
During the growing season, a farmer may need to suppress a living mulch to reduce competition with the market crop. This can be done in an organic system by mowing, partial rototilling, and complete tillage, if necessary. In addition to above-ground competition for light, root competition between the living mulch and crop may reduce yield. (See Liedengs et al. in the "Recommended Reading" list.)
| Market Crop | Cover Crop Species | Researcher |
|-----------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------|
| Broccoli | Vicia villosa (hairy vetch) | Foulds et al., 1991 |
| Broccoli | Trifolium incarnatum (red clover) | Foulds et al., 1991 |
| Broccoli | Portulacca oleacea (common purslane) | Ellis et al., 2000 |
| Cabbage, spring | Trifolium subterranean (subterranean clover) | Ilinicki and Enache, 1992 |
| Cabbage, spring | Trifolium subterranean (subterranean clover) | Ilinicki and Enache, 1992 |
| Cabbage, spring | Trifolium subterranean (subterranean clover) | Ilinicki and Enache, 1992 |
| Cabbage, spring | Trifolium ambiguum (kura clover) | Zenenchik et al., 2000 |
| Corn, sweet | Trifolium repens (white clover, partial rototilling may be necessary to reduce competition) | Mira and Watanabe, 2002; |
| Corn, sweet | | Grubinger and Miniotti, 1990 |
| Snappbeans | Trifolium subterranean (subterranean clover) | Ilinicki and Enache, 1992 |
| Soybeans | Trifolium subterranean | Ilinicki and Enache, 1992 |
| Squash, summer | Trifolium subterranean | Ilinicki and Enache, 1992 |
| Tomatoes | Trifolium subterranean | Ilinicki and Enache, 1992 |
## Effective species
Clovers, particularly white clover ( Trifolium repens ), kura clover ( Trifolium ambiguum ), and subterranean clover ( Trifolium subterranean ), are species with great potential for use as living mulches ( Table 1 ). These low-growing legumes are planted in late summer or fall and grow until winter dormancy. The clover crop flowers in late spring and then sets seed for the following fall. After flowering, vegetative growth dies, leaving a thick mulch. Annual cash crops can be planted into the
clover while it is still growing in the spring. As the clover dies in late spring and early summer, it creates a weed suppressive mulch and is no longer a potential source of competition for the market crop.
For further information on living mulch systems, see the "Recommended Reading List" at the end of this chapter. The National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (ATTRA) recommends the publication by Leary and De Frank (2000).
## Allelopathic Cover Crops
In addition to physically suppressing weeds, cover crops can also suppress weeds through chemical means, a process known as allelopathy . Allelopathy is defined as "any direct or indirect harm induced in one plant through toxic chemicals released into the environment by another" (Rice, 1974). Research is underway to determine how plants that produce allelochemicals can be exploited to help manage weeds in cropping systems. Approaches being explored include the use of allelopathic cover crops in rotation with market crops, breeding for allelopathic crop cultivars, and biosynthesis of useful natural herbicides from plants and microorganisms.
| Scientific Name | Common Name |
|--------------------------------|--------------------------------------|
| Avena sativa | Oats |
| Brassica ssp. | Mustard, radish |
| Fagopyrum esculentum | Buckwheat |
| Hordeum vulgare | Barley |
| Melliotus spp. | Sweet clover |
| Secale cereale | Cereal or winter rye |
| Sorghum bicolor | Sorghum |
| Sorghum bicolor x S. sudanense | Sorghum-sudangrass hybrids |
| Sorghum sudananse | Sudangrass |
| Trifolium spp. | Clover: red, white, and subterranean |
| Triticum aestivum | Wheat |
Effective species
Many cover crop species produce allelochemicals as they grow and during decomposition, meaning that both living cover crops and decaying residue (incorporated or on the surface) can help to suppress weeds. Commonly used cover crops known to produce allelochemicals and effectively suppress weeds are listed in Table 2. Because these crops also physically suppress weeds, it is difficult to determine if alleopathy is a significant factor in weed control by these species. Despite this unknown, it is generally advantageous to include allelopathic cover crops in crop rotations to promote weed suppression.
Many researchers have documented effective suppression, particularly of small-seeded, broadleaved weeds, by these species. Putman et al. (1983) demonstrated that rye residues reduced the emergence of annual ragged by 43 percent, green fotxla (Setaria viridis) by 80 percent, redroot pigweed by 95 percent, and common parslane by 100 percent. Through a similar study in North Carolina, Worsham and Blum (1992) found that three pigweed species ( A. retroflexus , A. spinosus , and A. hybridus ) were controlled by 80 to 100 percent in crops planted into residues of rye or subterranean clover based on weed control ratings.
## Considerations
Farmers should be aware of several warnings when using allelopathic cover crops.
- · Residues of killed tall fescue ( Festuca arunnacea ), creeping redfescue ( F. rubra , and perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne ), all of which exhibit allelopathy, can significantly reduce crop seedling establishment (Weston, 1990).
- · Small-seeded and slow germinating crops are more likely to be adversely effected by allelopathic cover crops than are large-seeded, rapidly germinating crops (Weston, 1996).
- · Inhibition of transplant growth by allelopathic cover crops, though not extensively documented, has been observed in woody seedlings grown in a living sorghum-sudamgrass cover crop (Geneve and Weston, 1988).
Farmers should select cover crops that can be easily managed and that do not negatively affect seeding establishment to reduce the risk of poor crop germination.
## Stale Seedbed Preparation
This weed management strategy consists of preparing a fine seedbed, allowing weeds to germinate (relying on rainfall or irrigation for necessary soil moisture), and directly removing weed seedlings via light cultivation or flame weeding. Seeds or transplants can then be planted into the moist weedfree soil. This technique helps to provide an opportunity for crop emergence and growth before the next flush of weeds. If time allows, this can be done twice before planting. (This strategy for suppressing weeds is discussed in more detail in the "Special Topic" section of this chapter.)
## Soil Solarization
Solarization consists of heating the soil to kill pest organisms, including fungi, bacteria, and weed seeds. It also reduces populations of various pathogens and nematodes. Soil is covered in summer with clear or black polyethylene plastic and moistened under the plastic, which is left in place for six to seven weeks or longer. Weed seeds and young seedlings are killed by the heat and moisture and through direct contact with the plastic, which causes scorching.
Research has demonstrated that solarization from July to October with clear or black plastic provides weed control comparable to methyl bromide fumigation in strawberries without reducing fruit yield (Rieger et al., 2001). Solarization can also be used to produce weed-free soil or potting mix for container production in warm climates (Stapledton et al., 2002), and it has been used in Mediterranean climates to reduce weed competition and increase yields of field-grown cauliflower and fennel (Campiglia et al., 2000).
Considerations
In general, solarization is more effective against annual weed species and less effective against perennial weeds. The degree of weed suppression achieved with solarization varies with weed species, depth of seed in the soil, and length of solarization. The drawbacks of solarization include the use of plastics in agriculture and their associated disposal problems (though sheets may be reused if they are not used as in-season mulch), and the fact that land is taken out of production during the summer.
## Guidelines
Solarization can be accomplished on raised beds using a traditional bed layer to lay the plastic, or it can be done on a flat field. Special glues are available to hold the plastic together on a flat field.
When solarizing on raised beds, plastic can be left in place and cashcrops planted through it when solarization is complete. To use solarization successfully, farmers should rely on these practices:
- · Soil must be finely tilled, and the plastic tarp must fit tightly over the soil.
- · Plastic should be from 0.03 to 0.08 inches (0.75 to 2 millimeters) thick, and it should have an ultraviolet inhibitor added to prevent degradation.
- · Solarization must be performed during the summer months, due to the temperatures required for effective soil treatment.
- · The recommended soil temperatures for solarization are 140°F at a depth of 2 inches and 102°F at a depth of 18 inches (Peet, 1996).
For more details on solarization, see Elmore et al. in the "Recommended Reading" list at the end of this chapter.
## Sanitation and Composting
Where do weeds come from? Many on-farm weed populations exist because of the natural movement of weed seeds and propagules from both neighboring and distant populations by wind, animals, people, and other carriers. Human activity is a major culprit in the introduction of weeds to a farm or to new areas on a farm. Paying close attention to sanitation and seed sources on the farm can help prevent the introduction and movement of weeds:
- · Clean farm equipment regularly. If machinery and tools are used in more than one location, they should be thoroughly cleaned before use in a different field. Cleaning is especially important when equipment is transferred between farms.
- · Limit the amount of off-farm traffic visiting production areas, either by vehicle or foot.
- · Apply mulch and compost that is free of weed seeds. Straw mulch, for instance, may contain seeds that will later be a nuisance. To avoid carrying weeds into a field with straw mulch, wet the straw and allow weeds to germinate. Once weed seeds have germinated, dry out the straw bale to kill seedlings by breaking it apart.
- · Compost animal manures properly. Animal manures often contain weed seeds, with the source of the manure affecting the number and species of viable weed seeds introduced. To kill weeds and other harmful organisms, compost manures properly before field application. To kill the majority of weed seeds in cattle manure, compost materials at a temperature of at least 180°F (82°C) for no less than three days (Wiese et al., 1998). This temperature is relatively easy to reach in most composting systems.
- · Inspect seeds and transplants before planting. Crop seeds, especially grains, may be contaminated with weed seeds. Transplants may have weed seeds in the potting medium if it was not sterilized before use. Buy seeds and transplants from reputable suppliers, and always examine them before planting.
## Prevent the Spread of Weeds
- 1. Clean farm equipment regularly.
- 2. Apply mulch, compost, and manure that is free of weed seeds.
- 3. Inspect crop seed and transplants prior to planting.
## Increasing Crop Competitiveness
Organic farmers can give their market crops a competitive advantage over weeds by choosing the right cultivar and planting it to ensure vigorous growth that outcompetes weeds for light, moisture, and soil nutrients. Mulching the crop can help to ensure vigorous growth and keep weeds from emerging.
## Crop Cultivar Selection
Crop cultivars vary in their abilities to compete with and adapt to weeds. Several characteristics can enhance a cultivar's ability to compete with weeds, including its physical structure. Tall grain crops, for example, are generally more competitive with weeds because they intercept light. A large leaf area and high biomass production can also contribute to a cultivar's competitive abilities.
## Planting Strategies: Date, Density, and Arrangement
For many row and horticultural crops, rapid growth and early canopy closure can result in the suppression of weeds. For this reason, using transplants when possible for horticultural crop production is advantageous. Use of transplants will increase production costs, so the economic benefit of using transplants must be weighed against cost. When it is economically viable, as is the case with many vegetable crops, use of transplants should be considered.
Research indicates that the planting date, density, and spatial arrangement of a crop can maximize the space it occupies early in the season and put competitive pressure on weeds (Mohler, 2001).
## Farmer Profile: Rex and Glenn Spray
Rex and Glenn Spray have not used herbicides on their farm in Ohio for 25 years. They try to complete two shallow diskings before planting corn almost a full month behind the traditional corn planting date for their climate zone.
In their experience, late tillage is especially effective at controlling early-germinating weeds. The corn germinates more quickly and grows faster than corn planted in mid-April. Rapid emergence of the cash crop results in a competitive advantage over weeds.
In addition, their weed management strategy includes rotary hoing at weed emergence and cultivations as needed during crop growth. Yields on the Spray farm are consistently equal to county averages.
Planting Date
The optimal planting date for a crop may vary from year to year depending on weather and soil conditions. Although these factors must be considered when a farmer determines a planting date, planting can be timed to limit competition from potentially troublesome weed populations. In some instances, it is wise to seed or transplant a cash crop early to get canopy closure as soon as possible.
Alternatively, some farmers believe that planting on the later side of the window of recommended planting dates makes sense from a weed management perspective. Later planting allows one or two precultations of weeds, and also can give the cash crop a jump start because of warmer soils.
## Crop Density
Many researchers have demonstrated that increasing crop density decreases weed competition, though this strategy poses several risks. First, lodging and disease may increase in certain crops as crop density increases (Mohler, 1996).
Second, increasing the crop density may affect the marketability of some crops. Farmers should examine the trade-off between yield gains due to reduced weed competition and any potentially negative effects on yield. This strategy is best suited to seed crops (such as corn and wheat) and not well-suited to most fruiting crops for which increased plant density reduces fruit size. Higher plant density for row crops also helps to buffer against losses caused by mechanical injury from cultivation.
## Arrangement
Theoretically, narrow row spacing decreases weed emergence and growth. Research, however, does not overwhelmingly support this conclusion because of inconsistent results in studies of row spacing and weed populations (Mohler, 2001). If narrow row spacing is possible with available planting and cultivation equipment and if it can be done without negatively affecting yield, it can be tried as a weed management tactic.
## Crop Health and Vigor
Healthy, vigorous crops are better competitors with weeds for resources, such as light, water, and nutrients. Some crops are inherently better competitors than others, but farmers who make sure that seedlings and transplants have adequate access to nutrients and water will help their crops overcome weed competition. Careful management of soil fertility is essential for successful weed management. Farmers can unknowingly promote weed populations by careless placement or overapplication of nutrients, especially nitrogen.
## Applying Mulch
Applying a mulch after planting can offer some benefits in many cropping systems. Mulches reduce weed competition by limiting light penetration and altering soil moisture and temperature cycles. Although black plastic is commonly used as a mulching material, its environmental impacts conflict with the goals of regenerative and sustainable production. Synthesized from petroleum, plastic represents a significant use of nonrenewable fossil fuels. In addition, the disposal of plastic mulch has contributed to current landfill problems throughout the United States. The discussion in this chapter will be limited to organic and reusable or biodegradable inorganic mulching materials.
## Organic Mulches
Organic mulches include many materials that can be produced on-farm such as hay, straw, and livestock or poultry bedding. Other materials, such as leaves, composted municipal wastes, bark, and wood chips, may be available from off-farm sources. Farmers must consider both the quantity and type of mulch to be applied, and the cost of the mulch and the equipment needed to manage it.
Cost
In situations that require hauling and applying organic mulches, the use of organic mulches can be cost-prohibitive for farmers. Farmers can reduce the costs of purchasing, hauling, and applying mulch by using these strategies:
- · Investigate locally available organic mulches. Municipalities will often deliver organic materials for free because it saves them landfill costs.
- · Investigate ways in which mulches can be produced on farm.
- · Have organic mulch materials analyzed for both nutrient concentration and potential contaminants such as heavy metals, especially those procured off-farm.
- · Consider growing vigorous summer cover crops, such as sorghum-sudangrass and pearl millet, that can be cut during the season to produce hay mulch for on-farm use.
- · Leave cover crop residues in place for no-tillage planting.
## Benefits and Drawbacks
Using organic materials as mulch can help to increase soil organic matter, promote soil biological activity, and enhance soil structure, water infiltration, and aggregate stability. Organic matter is biodegradable and does not contribute to landfill problems. Despite these advantages, however, several drawbacks must be considered:
- · Organic mulches high in carbon may temporarily reduce the availability of soil mineral nitrogen as they decompose.
- · Allelopathic interactions between mulch materials and the crop are possible.
- · Mulches of any type may delay soil warming early in the season. Delayed warming can slow or reduce germination of annually seeded crops or lead to delayed fruit set and harvest in perennial systems. Delaying mulch until two to four weeks after planting or delaying planting can reduce this effect, as can proper cultivar selection.
## Quantity
The amount of mulch required for effective weed suppression varies with the type of mulch used. In general, weed suppression improves with increasing mulch thickness and uniformity of distribution. Researchers have examined optimal quantities of various mulching materials. Ligneau and Watt (1995) demonstrated sufficient suppression of annual weed emergence with 3 cm (1.18 in.) of composted materials. Researchers have also evaluated the use of shredded and chopped newspaper as mulch in North Carolina and West Virginia (Monks et al., 1997). Newspaper mulch is generally less expensive than other types of organic mulches for small-scale producers. In West Virginia, a thickness of at least 7.6 cm (3 in.) of chopped newspaper mulch was required to provide 90 percent weed control. Another interesting research result was that chopped newspaper performed better than shredded newspaper for conserving moisture, controlling weeds, and maintaining yield.
Researchers are also investigating how much biomass is needed for effective weed management when cover crops are grown for mulch in no-till systems or to apply to other field. Mohler and Teasdale (1993) suggest that residue levels two to four times the recommended seeding depth for a crop provide sufficient weed control. Other factors, however, also influence the effectiveness of cover crop residues. Weed control is enhanced if residues are intact (rather than chopped or cut)
when applied to the field, as this delays breakdown of the mulch material and extends the period of weed suppression. As described earlier, cover crops exhibiting allelopathy may also exhibit greater weed suppression and require lower residue biomass.
Finding the optimal level of cover crop residue may involve on-farm trials of various crops to find the mulch system that is most reliable and effective. Researchers from Virginia Tech suggest that at least 3 tons of cover crop biomass are needed for successful no-till vegetable production (Schonbeck and Morse, 2004). For more information, see the Sustainable Agriculture Network entry in the "Recommended Reading List" at the end of this chapter.
## Inorganic Mulches
Several inorganic mulches that are more environmentally friendly than disposable plastics are available. Reusable materials such as black polypropylene mulch can be used for long-term weed management in nurseries and some perennial cropping systems (such as blueberries). Reusable cloth mulch has also been used in lettuce production to promote seed germination and prevent weeds. Research is underway to investigate alternatives to plastic mulch such as degradable plastic mulches and paper mulches.
## Degradable plastic mulches
are either photodegradable , breaking down after 30 to 60 days of exposure to sunlight, or biodegradable , broken down by soil microorganisms. Degradable materials do not need to be removed from the field following the growing season, and some may be incorporated into the soil to speed degradation.
## Paper mulches
will also degrade naturally and can be applied using traditional bed shapers. Paper mulches are typically coated with biodegradable materials to slow degradation and provide color. Because biodegradable plastics and coated papers are incorporated into the soil, farmers must discuss guidelines for use with their organic certifier to ensure that the product they wish to use meets National Organic Plan (NOP) standards.
## How they compare
Researchers at Cornell University compared the performance of three coated paper mulches, a biodegradable plastic mulch, and traditional black plastic. They reported that all of the mulch products remained intact throughout the watermelon production season. Paper coated with plantderived oils (soybean and linseed) was difficult to lay and, in this study, did not provide soil warming or moisture retention like other products tested. Watermelon yields were higher on black plastic and the biodegradable plastic than on coated paper mulch (Rangarajan and Ingall, 2002).
Further study of biodegradable plastics has demonstrated that yields are variable on these products compared to traditional black plastic, though many provide sufficient weed control (Rangarajan et al., 2003). Several companies are working to develop biodegradable plastics that are easy to apply and make holes in for planting and that will provide adequate soil coverage throughout the growing season. Information on alternative mulches derived from field trials conducted by Cornell University, is available online.
## Farmer Profile: Anne and Eric Nordell
Anne and Eric Nordell have a 6-acre market garden in Pennsylvania. They combine cover cropping, fallingow, cultivation, and hand weeding to maintain relatively weed-free fields that require a minimal amount of their time for hand weeding in even the most weed-prone crops. The Nordells' system is based on a one-year fallow. Because they have enough land available, they can intensively crop only half of their acreage each year. The other half can be "groomed" for weed-free farming. Their system of cover cropping and fallingow also builds the soil and cycles nutrients.
The Nordells report that developing this system has taken several years, but they have successfully reduced human hours devoted to weeding, which was their initial goal. Their system requires additional time for cover crop management, but they feel this is time well spent. In their words, "This integrated approach to weed management allows us to spread the weed control effort over the course of the growing season - to suit our schedule - rather than letting the weeds set the pace" (Nordell and Nordell, 1998).
## Special Topic: Cultivation Practices for Organic Crops
Contributed by: David W. Monks, Katie M. Jennings, Wayne E. Mitchell
A cropping system that works to prevent weed emergence provides a strong foundation for optimal weed management. Cultivation practices that limit competition from weeds are key parts of such a cropping system. This "Special Topic" insert discusses cultivation practices and other strategies that organic farmers can use to eliminate emerged weeds and prevent the spread of weed seeds and propagules.
## Cultivation: An Overview
Cultivation of the soil with a variety of different tools can control emerged weeds and disrupt weed reproduction cycles. Farmers use cultivation to supplement the use of herbicides and as a standalone treatment for controlling weeds. It is the basis for weed management programs for vegetables produced conventionally (without no-till practices or plasticulture). For example, in North Carolina, sweetpotatoes and pickling cucumbers are cultivated two to three times per growing season to control weeds.
Research indicates that repeated cultivation can reduce the number of weed seeds in the seed bank (Cardina and Hook, 1989; Chancellor, 1985; Gunsolus, 1990; Johnson and Mullinix, 1995). Under optimum rainfall conditions, 50 percent of the weed seeds in the plow layer germinate within six weeks of cultivation (Bond and Baker, 1990). The time needed to reduce the seed number in the seed bank, however, varies by weed species and tillage history.
## Considerations
Cultivation is influenced by soil type, rainfall, and crop canopy characteristics. Friable soils with few or no rocks can be easily cultivated. Rainfall, especially during seasons with above average rainfall, can delay or prevent timely cultivation, making emerged weeds more difficult to control. This can lead to reductions in crop yield and quality. Rainfall can also prevent cultivators from working properly, promote survival of weeds that are uprooted by cultivators, and stimulate rooting at the nodes of weeds such as large crabgrass. Finally, crop canopy characteristics should be considered prior to cultivation because cultivars can damage crops that are in a stage that is not suited for cultivation (for example, sweet potatoes at the vin ging stage or when sweet corn is more than 18 inches tall).
## Timing
The timing of cultivation should be based on the critical weed-free period of the cash crop and the weed species present in the field where the crop is growing. The critical weed-free period is the time during the season that weeds must be controlled to ensure optimum crop yield and quality. Critical weed-free periods vary by crop and weeds (Table 3). That is, some crops are more competitive with weeds than other crops, and some weeds are more competitive than other weeds (Table 4).
| Critical Weed- Free Period After Seeding or Planting | Crop Unifoliate stage to flower | Weed Species Common cocklebur |
|---------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| Carrot | 3 to 5 wk Purple nutsedge | William and Warren, 1975 |
| Cucumber | 2 to 5 wk Mixture of common lambsquarters, common ragweed and longspine sandbur | Friesen, 1978 |
| Muskmelon | 4 to 6 wk Mixture of two pigweed species | Nerson, 1989 |
| Muskmelon | 0 to 3 wk Smooth pigweed | Terry & Stall, 1997 |
| Okra | 3 to 7 wk Purple nutsedge | William & Warren, 1975 |
| Squash | 4 to 6 wk Mixture of quackgrass, horsenettle, common lambsquarters, and common ragweed | Mallet & Ashley, 1988 |
| Squash | 2 to 6 wk Mixture of sicklepod, redroot pigweed and yellow nutsedge | Seem et al., 2003 |
| Squash | 0 to 4 wk Mixture of purple nutsedge, yellow cleome, large crabgrass, threelobe morningglory, spreading dayflower, itchgrass, goosegrass, bermudagrass, and sour paspalum | Talataka et al., 1978 |
| Sweetpotato | 1 to 8 wk Mixture of green kyllinga, wild poinsettia, common purslane, garden spurge, cogongrass, arrowleaf sida, giant sensitive plant, purple nutsedge and goosegrass | Levett, 1992 |
| Tomato | 4 to 5 wk Mixture of common lambsquarters, common ragweed and longspine sandbur | Friesen, 1979 |
| Tomato | 3 to 5 wk Purple nutsedge | William & Warren, 1975 |
| | Critical Weed- Free Period After Seeding or Planting | Weed Species | Reference |
|------------|---------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|----------------------------|
| Watermelon | | Large crabgrass | Monks and Schultheis, 1998 |
Table 4. Competitive ratings for selected weeds (10 = most competitive; 1 = least competitive)
| Weed | Competitiveness Index |
|----------------------------------|-------------------------|
| Amaranth, Palmer | 8.7 |
| Apple of Peru | 6.4 |
| Cocklebur, common | 9.8 |
| Cutleaf groundcherry | 6.3 |
| Jimsonweed | 7 |
| Morningglory, ivyleaf/entireleaf | 6.5 |
| Morningglory, pitted | 6.5 |
| Morningglory, tall | 6.6 |
| Nightshade, Eastern black | 7.2 |
| Nutsedge, Yellow | 5.3 |
| Nutsedge, Purple | 5.1 |
| Pigweed, prostrate | 5.5 |
| Pigweed, redroot | 8 |
| Pigweed, smooth | 7.7 |
| Pigweed, tumble | 6.2 |
| Prickly sida | 4.2 |
| Purslane, common | 2.9 |
| Purslane, pink | 2.8 |
| Ragweed, common | 7.5 |
| Ragweed, giant | 9.1 |
| Sicklepod | 5.8 |
| Spurge, spotted | 3.5 |
| Weed | Competitiveness Index |
|---------------|-------------------------|
| Spurred anoda | 6.6 |
| Velvetleaf | 6.8 |
Source: Data gathered from a survey completed by A. Straw, J. Norsworthy, A. S. Culpepper, W.E. Mitchem, D.W. Monks, and K.M. Jennings, University of Tennessee, Clemson University, University of Georgia, and North Carolina State University, cooperating.
| Tool | Crop Size | Weed Size |
|------------------------|------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|
| Flex-time weeder | Not emerged | 1 inch or less |
| Rotary hoe | Not emerged | 0.5 inch or less |
| Flex-time weeder | Emerged | 1 inch or less |
| Rotary hoe | Emerged | 0.5 inch or less |
| Sweep cultivator | 2.5 inches and greater | Less than 4 inches |
| Rolling cultivator | 10 inches or less | Less than 2.5 inches |
| Torsion weeders | 10 inches or less | 1 inch or less |
| Basket weeder | 10 inches or less | 1 inch or less |
| Finger weeder | Emerged | Less than 1 inch |
| Flexible finger weeder | Emerged | Less than 1 inch |
| Mower | Emerged with tall weeds | Weeds taller than crop canopy |
| Flame cultivation | Various stages depending on crop (see Table 6) | Broadleaf weeds less than 2 inches |
Sources: Bowman, 1997; Hotte et al., 2000
## Cultivation Tools for Weed Control
Organic farmers have several options for controlling emerged weeds during the critical weed-free period. These options include hand removal (pulling, hoering, or cutting), mowing, mechanical cultivation, and flame cultivation. Table 5 lists the cultivation tools that are commonly used for weed control and indicates when they are most effective based on crop and weed size.
## Cultivation Before Planting
As previously discussed in this chapter, cultivating a stale seedbed before planting is one way to reduce weed populations. Cultivation may be used to encourage weed emergence and subsequently remove emerged weeds. The success of a stale seedbed approach depends on establishing an advantage in crop growth over weed growth. The time between field preparation and crop planting may be as short as three to four weeks and up to several months.
USDA-ARS researchers reported that in a stale seeded system, shallow cultivation prior to planting crops gave better control of certain weeds than a nonselective herbicide (Johnson and Mullinix, 1998). In their study, effective results were observed when the plot was prepared for planting approximately four weeks ahead of planting and then shallow-tilled at two weeks prior to planting and again just prior to planting.
## Mechanical Cultivation
While any form of shallow tillage may stimulate weed emergence before planting, soil cultivation by an implement that will destroy clods, provide better soil seed contact, and create soil conditions favorable to weed seed germination is desirable. Flex tine weeders, rotary hoes, or power tillers are effective on small weeds.
## Flex tine weeders
Flex tine weeders are effective on small weeds at the white-thread to cotyledon stage, whereas rotary hoes are effective at the white-thread to 2-inch stage for rotary hoe. The white-thread stage occurs just after weed seed germination when the radical or first root resembles a white thread. Weeds 4 inches or taller and grasses can tolerate cultivation with a flex tine weeder or a rotary hoe. (These tools may also be used after crop seeding if the crop is seeded deep enough to avoid seed disturbance or injury by the implement.) Tillage depth of flex tine weeders is easily adjusted by pressure on the tines or by using gauge wheels. The speed of the rotary hoe affects weed control results because increased operation speed reduces soil penetration.
A self-propelled or tractor-mounted rotary power tiller can also be used to kill weeds. Shallow tillage gave excellent weed control in a stale seeded system at the University of Georgia (Johnson and Mullinx 1995, 1998, 2000). The plant bed was prepared approximately four weeks ahead of planting, tilled two weeks prior to crop planting, and tilled again just prior to cucumber planting. Rotary tillers are very effective in controlling weeds, and depth of tillage can be adjusted easily.
## Flame Cultivation
Broadcast flame cultivation prior to seeding the crop can be used effectively on most organically produced crops. It is more effective on a smooth soil surface than a rough or cloudy surface (Smilie et al., 1965). And it is more effective on broadleaf weeds than grasses, but its effectiveness decreases as weeds mature. Grasses and perennial weeds are most tolerant to flaming. Flaming burns grasses and perennial weeds to the soil surface, but sometimes these weeds are capable of regrowth. Seeding or transplanting crops after flame cultivation must be done carefully to prevent soil disturbance that can lead to weed seed germination and establishment.
## Cultivation After Planting - In-row
## Finger Weeders
Finger weeders consist of steel cones fitted with rubber-coated fingers capable of controlling small weeds growing in the crop row. These fingers are ground-driven by hard spike tines located on the bottom of the steel cones. They give good control of small weeds less than 1 inch tall and can be used on established crops until they are approximately 8 to 10 inches tall. Finger weeders generally are very safe for crops and do not reduce crop stand if used properly. They must be used with a sweep cultivator to control weeds across the entire bed.
## Flexible spider weeder
Spider weeders consist of a circular disk fitted with flexible wire fingers. They are ground-driven and are very effective in controlling weeds. Because crop stands are often reduced by this weeder, the crop must be established at above-optimum seeding rates when farmers use this tool. If crop stands are not optimum, using this weeder may result in low productivity. Flexible spider weeders must be used with a sweep cultivator to control weeds across the entire bed.
## Cultivation After Planting - Between-row
## Torsion weeders
Torsion or spring hose weeders are made of flat metal strips that control weeds in the white-thread stage and emerged weeds. These weeders not only uproot or clip weeds (or both), but they also move soil over weeds in the crop row, resulting in weed death.
Rod torsion weeders are made of steel rods that are positioned on each side of the row. These rod weeders run shallow under the soil surface and vibrate so that small weeds are uprooted. Torsion weeders are used with rotating spiders that either push the soil away from the crop row or push soil onto the row around the crop. Cultivators fitted with spider weeders and with torsion weeders are aggressive and are suited for many types of soils.
## Sweep cultivation
Sweep cultivation is aggressive and very effective in controlling weeds less than 4 inches tall. The height difference between weeds and the crop allows soil to be moved around the crop to cover small weeds. This cultivar is not a precision cultivator, but a sliding fender or a rolling star-shaped fender will protect crops in the small seedling stage and prevent crop coverage while the soil is being moved by the cultivator. For perennial weeds and large weeds, sequential cultivations spaced approximately 7 to 10 days apart will often increase control. On many cultivars, sweeps can be adjusted to a sharper angle so they till deeply for large weeds, or they can be adjusted to a flat position so that they can till shallowly for small weeds. Sweeps come in different sizes and can be sharpened on the edges to increase control of large weeds.
## Rolling cultivators
Rolling cultivators are aggressive and effective in controlling most annual and perennial broadleaf weeds. Rolling cultivators are not very effective, however, in controlling weedy vines or perennial weeds because their long stems interfere with proper turning of the rolling cultivator units. These weed species must be controlled when they are in the seedling stage. Rolling cultivators effectively control weeds near the crop row, and sweep cultivators are often used with rolling cultivators to control weeds between rows.
## Basket weeders
Basket weeders are precision cultivators that can be used to cultivate multiple rows on beds. These weeders consist of two axles, each with rolling wire baskets. The front axle is fitted with a large sprocket, and the back axle is fitted with a small sprocket that causes the back axle to turn at a faster rate than the front axle. This weeder is very effective at controlling small weeds, but it does
not control perennial weeds, such as nutsedge, effectively. Basket weeders work best on soils that do not contain rocks or a high percentage of clay, and that are composed primarily of sand, muck, or high organic matter.
## Flame cultivation
Some vegetable crops are suited to flame cultivation after they are planted (Table 6). The objective of flame cultivation is to create a temperature high enough to dehydrate or rupture the plant cells so that weed death occurs. Flame cultivation effectively controls most broadleaf weeds, especially those that are less than 2 inches tall. There are three types of flame cultivation - parallel flaming, cross flaming, and middle flaming:
- · Parallel flaming involves directing burners to the rear so that the flame patterns run parallel with the crop row. Parallel flaming is used when crops lack tolerance to flaming, either because the crop species is susceptible to flaming or because a crop commonly tolerant to flaming is in a susceptible stage.
- · Cross flaming can be done by directing the burners so that the flame patterns are across the crop row from each other, but not directly across. Burners set directly across from each other can create turbulence and cause flames to damage crop leaves (Diver, 2002). Cross flaming can be accomplished when the crop is in a tolerant stage of growth - when the crop is taller than the weeds, has a woody stem, or both. To increase crop tolerance, a sprayer can be fitted on the flamer to spray water on the crop just above the burners.
- · Middle flaming uses burnners located beneath a hood over the row middle. The hood directs the flame to the row middles but protects the crop. Infrared weeders are similar in principle to flame weeders. With infrared weeders, however, the flame is directed to a ceramic element or steel plate that radiates heat at 1,800 to 2,000°F (Diver, 2002).
| | Time of Cultivation | Time of Cultivation | Time of Cultivation |
|---------------------|-----------------------|------------------------|-----------------------|
| Crops | Preemergence | Directed during Season | Spot Treatment |
| Broccoli | Y | N | Y |
| Cabbage | Y | N | Y |
| Cauliflower | Y | N | Y |
| Cucurbit crops | Y | Y | Y |
| Garlic | Y | Y | Y |
| Greens | Y | N | Y |
| Okra | Y | Y | Y |
| Onion | Y | Y | Y |
| Pepper | Y | Y | Y |
| Potato, Irish/sweet | Y | N | Y |
| Sweet corn | Y | Y | Y |
| Tomato/beans | Y | N | Y |
Tests have shown that the length of time the plant is exposed to the flame is the main controlling factor in plant damage, rather than the fuel pressure. Therefore, tractor speed is an important consideration in flaming. A good indicator of efficacy is to squeeze a flame-treated leaf between your fingers. If a thumbprint remains, the foliage has been adequately flamed (Diver, 2002). With heavy weed infestations, sequential flaming approximately three to five days apart is more effective and safer for the crop than heavy flaming at slow speed (Smilie et al., 1965).
## Hand removal
Hand removal (hoeing, pulling, cutting) effectively controls most small annual weeds. Removal of weeds by the time they are 3 to 4 inches tall will usually result in effective control. At low densities, escaped mature weeds that have produced seeds can be removed carefully from the field when the soil is damp due to rain or dew and then burned if local laws allow it. Care must be taken to prevent seed loss as weeds are being removed from the field.
## Mowing
Mowing may also be an option for weed control in low-growing crops such as sweetpotatoes. Approximately 50 percent of North Carolina sweetpotato growers mow weeds such as Palmer amaranth, common cocklebur, sicklepod, common ragweed, and others that extend above the crop canopy. Mowing gives effective control, but care must be taken to mow above the crop without damaging it. In general, it appears that the critical period for weed control is similar for cultivation and mowing. Multiple mowings are required. The first mowing should occur when weeds extend 6 to 10 inches above the crop canopy. After the initial mowing, most lateral branches of weed plants will grow to similar length, resulting in some weeds becoming more competitive with the crop if no further mowing occurs. Weeds should be mowed again as their new branches grow to 6 to 10 inches.
## Weeds that Resist Cultivation
Some weeds survive cultivation. Those weeds include nightshades, pigweed species, common and pink purslane and most perennial weeds (such as johnsongrass, purple and yellow nutsedge, bigroot morningglory, and passionflower). Cultivation can spread perennial weeds. For example, nutsedge populations sometimes increase after hand weeding breaks up the root system as the plant is pulled from the soil (Mitchem, personal communication). Table 7 lists some of these troublesome weeds and the characteristics that allow them to resist cultivation. Table 8 is an efficacy table that can be used to determine the effectiveness of each cultivation tool on weeds.
## Perennial Weeds
Perennial weeds pose a considerable challenge to organic farmers. Some perennial weeds, such as curly dock, perennial sowthistle (Conchus arvensis), and dandelion, rely primarily on seed production. But many others, including wild onion (Allium vireale), field bindweed (Convollus arvensis), hedge bindweed (Calystegia sepulum), alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides), purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus), and yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus), rely on vegetative reproduction. Their ability to reproduce vegetatively allows such weeds to persist despite many cultural and mechanical controls and some chemical controls. Their problematic vegetative propagules vary by species and can include stolons, rhizomes, bulbs, creeping roots, and tap roots.
| Reproductive Characteristics | Weeds Exhibiting this Characteristic | Strategies To Improve Control |
|-------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Roots at nodes | Crabgrass, large | Cultivate prior to rooting at nodes. |
| Produces rhizomes and/or stolons | Johnsongrass, Bermuda- grass, quackgrass, field bindweed | Cultivate and hand remove many times over the season. |
| Roots along stem | Nightshade, eastern black Pigweed species | Cultivate and kill when less than 2 inches tall. |
| Tubers for reproduction | Nutsedge, yellow or purple | Cultivate several times over the season. |
| Capable of surviving cultivation | Pigweed species | Cultivate and control when less than 2 inches tall. |
| Succulent, resistant to drying out | Purslane, common or pink | Cultivate, uproot when soil is dry to cause weed to dry out and die. |
| Establishes in wet areas of fields | Smartweed | Cultivate sequentially. |
| Capable of re- sprouting from roots | Perennial vines Nightshade, eastern black | Toil to move roots to soil surface and cultivate sequentially. |
| | Broadcast | In-Row Cultivation | In-Row Cultivation | Between-Row Cultivation | Between-Row Cultivation | Between-Row Cultivation |
|------------------------------|-------------|----------------------|----------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|
| | Rotary hoe | Finger | Hoe | Mow | Basket | Rolling Sweep |
| Weed | G | G | F-G | G | G | G |
| Amaranth, Palmer | G | G | F-G | G | G | G |
| Cocklebur, common | G | G | G | G | G | G |
| Crabrgrass, large | G | F-G | G | P | G | G |
| Foxtail, giant or yellow | G | F-G | G | P | G | G |
| Galinsoga, hairy | G | G | G | F-G | G | G |
| Goosegrass | G | F-G | G | P | G | G |
| Groundcherry | G | G | G | G | G | G |
| Jimsonweed | G | G | G | G | G | G |
| Johnsongrass, seedling | G | F-G | G | P | G | G |
| Lambsquarters, common | G | G | G | G | G | G |
| Nightshade, eastern black | G | G | G | G | G | G |
| Nutedge, purple or yellow | P | E | F | P | P | G |
| Pigweed, redroot or smooth | G | G | G | G | G | G |
| Purslane, common or pink | G | G | G | P | G | G |
| | Broadcast | Broadcast | In-Row Cultivation | In-Row Cultivation | Between-Row Cultivation | Between-Row Cultivation |
|--------------------------|-------------|-------------|----------------------|----------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|
| Wheel | Rotary hoe | Finger | Hoe | Mow | Basket | Rolling Sweep |
| Sicklepod | G | G | G | G | G | G |
| Smartweed, Pennsylvania | G | G | G | F | G | G |
| Spurge, spotted | G | G | G | F | G | G |
Key:
Poor (P) = less than 70% control.
Fair (F) = 70 to 79% control.
Good (G) = over 80% control.
## Additional Tools for Weed Management on Organic Farms
## Animal Labor
The integration of animals into an organic farming system offers benefits, such as enhanced nutrient cycling and conservation, effective use of crop residues, and an alternative source of income for the farm (Clark and Gage, 1996). Animals also can be used as effective tools for weed management. In particular, the use of "weeder" geese have seen a revitalized interest. Prior to the advent of chemical herbicides, geese were popular for weed control in cotton. Geese have also been used for weed control in strawberries, melons, beans, asparagus, potatoes, onion, garlic, tomatoes, turnips, and in vineyards, nurseries, and orchards. In North Carolina, geese have been used in br amble fruits, though year-old plants need to be protected from grazing.
## Geese Prefer Grass Weeds
Weeder geese will eat immature seedlings of johnsongrass, bermudagrass, crabgrass, and other grass weeds. They will avoid most broadleaved weeds and crops.
Weeder geese are selective grazers and prefer to eat grasses over broadleaved weeds. They will eat immature seedlings of johnsongrass, bermudagrass ( Cynodon dactylon ), crabgrass ( Digitaria spp.), and other common grass weeds, but tend to avoid broadleaves such as pigweeds and common lambsquarters. Fortunately, they also will avoid most (but not all) broadleaf crops.
To be effective, geese need to be in place when weed grasses emerge because they are most effective at grazing small grasses. Once weeds are removed, geese will forage on crops in the absence of other food sources. They should, therefore, be removed from fields or provided with food. Because geese are selective feeders, populations of weeds that do not eat may increase. Therefore, geese are best used in combination with other weed management strategies (Wurtz, 1995). Stocking rates vary by crop, field conditions, weed populations, and other factors. Historically, recommendations have ranged from 2 to 10 geese per acre. Higher stocking rates are necessary in crops with sod intercropping. For example, in orchards where the entire floor is solid, stocking rates can be 50 to 80 geese per acre.
White Chinese and African geese are the most effective weeders. In addition, young geese (goslings) make more effective weeders than mature geese because they are more active and consume seedlings at a higher rate. Goslings can be purchased by mail-order in the spring and then sold for meat in December, in time for winter holidays. Geese are generally fit to be in the field at about six weeks old. Because they require shade, water, and protection at night from predators, movable pens should be constructed to manage the flock. Geese also respond to electrical fencing. ATTRA has a free packet of information on using geese for weed management.
## Approved Herbicides
A limited number of natural substances can serve as herbicides on organic farms.
## Corn Gluten Meal
The most widely used of these products is corn gluten meal, a by-product of cornstarch production. Corn gluten meal may be applied as a pre-emergence herbicide. Time of application is extremely important, as the gluten must be present when weed seeds germinate to inhibit root formation.
## Weeds that Respond to Corn Gluten Meal
Common dandelion
Redroot pigweed
Smooth crabgrass
Common lambsquarters
Curly dock
Black nightshade
Creeping bentgrass
Purslane
Weeds affected by corn gluten meal include redrod pigweed, black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), common lambsquarters, curly dock, creeping bentgrass (Agrostis palustris ), purslane, common dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale ), and smooth crabgrass ( Digitaria ischaemum ). Of weeds that have been tested, barnyardgrass ( Echinochloa crus-galli ) and velvetleaf ( Abutton theophrasti ) are the least susceptible to corn gluten meal ( Bingaman and Christians , 1995). Broadleaf species are generally more susceptible than grasses to corn gluten meal. In field studies, weed cover has been reduced up to 84 percent when corn gluten meal was incorporated prior to planting (McDade and Christians , 2000).
Researchers do not recommend incorporating corn gluten meal prior to direct seedling crops, as crop seedling survival is reduced in the presence of this broad-spectrum herbicide. Transplants, however, are not adversely affected by this product (McDade, 1999). An additional benefit of corn gluten meal is its high nitrogen content. Currently, the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) lists commercially available corn gluten meal under the category corn gluten .
The suggested application rate is 20 pounds per 1,000 square feet, though farmers should consult product specifications to determine the application rate suited to their production program. Research on corn gluten in a broad range of production systems and in various regions has not yet been conducted. Farmers should try this product and other organic herbicides on a small scale before applying them in large-scale cropping systems.
## Contact Herbicides
Several OMRI-certified contact herbicides are also available. The active ingredients of these herbicides include citric acid, garlic, thyme and clove oils, and acetic acid (vinegar). The OMRI maintains the most up-to-date list of commercially available products accepted for use in certified organic production. These materials are listed in the category nonsynthetic herbicides.
The use of vinegar for weed control is growing in popularity, but the making of homemade vinegar solutions is not recommended. Effective weed control requires a highly concentrated acetic acid solution, which may be dangerous to handle. Acetic acid formulations are commercially available, and most are in compliance with the USDA National Organic Standards.
Exercise care when using acetic acid and other natural weed control products, as most are not selective and may damage crops as well as weeds. A recent study of vinegar and clove oil demonstrated that both products provide good control of small-seeded broadleaved weeds, less control of velvetleaf and common ragweed, and were not effective in controlling giant foxtail. When
applied at a rate of 60 gallons per acre, a vinegar application of 20 percent vinegar and 80 percent water was needed to achieve 80 percent control of broadleaved species susceptible to this product (Curran et al., 2005).
Another product often identified for use as a contact herbicide is soap. According to the National Organic Standards Board list of approved substances, soap-based herbicides may be used only for farmstead maintenance and on ornamental crops.
## What Researchers are Doing
Researchers around the globe are working to refine and expand the weed management tools that serve as alternatives to synthetic herbicides. These strategies include new mechanical technologies, the use of biocontrols (such as natural plant products and soil bacteria), plant breeding to enhance crop competitiveness with weeds, improved models to predict weed populations, and further development of production systems designed to limit weed competition.
## Natural Weed Controls
Researchers are investigating the various agents of weed control available in nature: phytochemicals produced by plants that suppress the growth of other plants (allelopathy), soil bacteria that inhibit seedling growth, and insects that prey upon weed seeds.
## Phytochemicals
As previously discussed, the phytochemicals in cover crops can be used to suppress weeds (allelopathy). Researchers continue to investigate ways to optimize this interaction. Research is also underway to identify, extract, and synthesize the plant chemicals responsible for suppressing weed growth to create natural herbicides that could be used in organic farming (Duke et al., 2002).
## Weed inhibition by bacteria
Deleterious rhizobacteria (DRB) and other soil microbes can suppress weed species. DRB are specific rhizobacteria (bacteria that naturally occur in association with crop and weed root systems) that reduce or prevent plant growth. Investigators are currently working to identify ORB that inhibit specific weed species, to study the effects of cropping systems on DRB populations (Li and Kremer, 2000), and to develop procedures by which DRB can be isolated and applied as a biological weed control agent (Hardin, 1998).
## Seed predation by insects
Carabid (ground) beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and field crickets (Orthoptera: Garyllidae), for example, have been identified as important seed consumers in temperate climates. These species are found naturally in agricultural production systems. Research is underway to determine the effects of various practical practices on the presence and effectiveness of such species in lowering weed populations (Menalied et al., 2000). Existing research suggests that ground beetles may be more abundant on organic farms than on farms that apply synthetic pesticides (Dritschilo and Wanner, 1980). Efforts have been made to identify additional insect species that may be effective in reducing weed populations and to develop appropriate methods of introducing seed predators to agricultural fields. For example, the North Carolina Department of Agriculture Biological Control Program has identified and released a weevil that consumes musk thistle seed.
## Breeding for Crop Competitiveness and Weed Suppression
Plant breeding is one way to improve weed management in organic systems. By using crops with increased competitive ability and enhanced weed suppressive qualities, farmers will have yet another advantage over weeds. Crop qualities that promote crop competitiveness include early,
rapid establishment in less favorable conditions, crop structures that limit weed access to light and nutrients (such as increased ground cover by vegetative portions) and increased plant hardiness (Lammerts van Bueren et al., 1998).
Breeding can also lead to crop varieties with improved seedling resilience and transplant vigor, particularly in systems that rely on cover crop residue. Efforts to improve cover crops for weed management are also a research priority. Desirable cover crop qualities include increased alleochemical production, early establishment, improved structure, complete natural dieback, selfseeding, and high biomass, all of which may be introduced through plant breeding (Foley, 1999).
## System-level Approaches to Weed Management
Perhaps the most promising and practical area of research in weed management is the study of agricultural systems. Farming systems can be designed to integrate the various cultural practices that farmers use to manage weeds, such as cover crops, crop rotations, increased crop competitiveness, and direct controls. This line of research is based on the recognition that organic agriculture is holistic (Barberi, 2002). It relies on many natural processes working in concert to supply nutrients, build soil organic matter, deter pests, and decrease disease incidence. The same is true of weed management: No single solution or isolated practice will reduce weed competition within an organic farming system.
Research groups at many land-grant universities are designing and conducting studies to assist growers in developing their own farm-specific production programs. For example, the Center for Environmental Farming Systems (CEFS) at North Carolina State University is currently conducting a long-term study and numerous short-term studies of cropping systems for horticultural and commodity crops.
This new focus on integrated cropping systems will require both field trials of these systems and accurate models for assessing weed management within a system. Such models must predict both the negative impact of weeds on crop production (as traditional models have done) and the impact of crops and cropping systems on weed populations (Basiatians et al., 2000). Modeling can be used to help farmers make decisions about their cropping systems, avoid potential weed problems, and design the most beneficial systems for their farms.
## Weeds as Indicators of Soil Condition
Recognizing that an agricultural production system will never be entirely weed-free, many farmers have sought to find some value and utility in the weeds on their farms. Can weeds serve as indicators of various soil conditions, such as nutrient deficiencies or compaction? Anecdotal evidence suggests that weeds can serve as indicators of some soil conditions, such as low pH (acid soils), high pH (alkaline soils), high nitrogen, low nitrogen, calcium deficiency, severe compaction, and poor drainage (Hill and Ramsay, 1977). Scientific research on this topic, however, is inconclusive. The information gleaned from weeds cannot substitute for analytical tools, such as soil nutrient testing. But it can be useful for preliminary soil assessments. For a complete list of potential indicator species and soil conditions, see Hill and Ramsey (1977) in the "Recommended Reading" list at the end of this chapter.
## Advantages of Organic Production
Despite the fact that many organic farmers and would-be organic farmers cite weeds as a major impediment to farming organically, going organic may naturally reduce weed competition. In a review of recent research on weed population dynamics in organic systems, Ngouajio and McGiffen (2002) conclude that though the number of weed species found in an organic system may be higher,
the total weed density and biomass are often smaller in organic systems than conventional systems.
Organic production systems have three key features that can positively affect weed management:
- · Greater soil microbe, insect, and plant species diversity. Increased plant species diversity discourages the outbreak of large populations of a single weed species through resource competition and limited niche availability.
- · Soil conditions favorable to beneficial microbes. Increased soil microbe and insect populations deplete the weed seed bank through weed seed predation.
- · Suitable habitat for beneficial insect populations. Phythopagous insects limit seedling growth by consuming newly emerged weeds.
These conditions take time to develop. The transition from conventional to organic may lead to short-term increases in weed competition when the equilibrium established by conventional production is disrupted. As the transition progresses, a new equilibrium is established in which weed competition is limited. Over the long term, a well-managed organic system may contain natural limits to weed populations, decreasing both the inputs required for weed management and crop losses due to competition.
## Contacts for Further Information
ATTRA - Appropriate Technology Transfer to Rural Areas P.O. Box 3657 Fayetteville, AR 72702
Telephone: 1-800-346-9140
Ecological Agriculture Projects McGill University (Macdonald Campus) Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada H9X 3V9 Telephone: 514-398-7771
OMRI - Organic Materials Review Institute
CEFS -Center for Environmental Farming Systems
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William, R.D. and G.F. Warren. 1975. Competition between purple nutsedge ( Cyperus rotundus ) and vegetables, Weed Sci. 23:317-323.
Worsham, A.D. and U. Blum. 1992. Allelopathic cover crops to reduce herbicide inputs in cropping systems. In: Proceedings of the First International Weed Control Congress, pp. 577-579. Richardson, R.G., Ed., Weed Science Society of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia.
Wurtz, T.L. 1995. Domestic geese: biological weed control in an agricultural setting. Ecological Applications. 5(3):570-578.
Vandermeer. J. 1989. The Ecology of Intercropping . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Zemenchik, R.A., K.AAlbrecht, C.M. Boerboom, and J.G. Lauer. 2000. Corn production with kura
clover as a living mulch. Agronomy Journal. 92(4): 698-705.
Zimdahl, R. 1999. Fundamentals of Weed Science , 2nd Ed. New York: Academic Press.
## Additional Reading
Holmes, G.J., D.W. Monks, J.R. Soulheits, and K.A. Sorensen. 1999. NC Crop Profile: Cucumber. AG-598-8:1-4.
Lal, R., E. Regnier, D.J. Eckert, W.M. Edwards, and R. Hammond. 1991. Expectations of cover crops for sustainable agriculture. In W.L. Hargrove (ed.) Cover Crops for Clean Water. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, IA. pp 1-11.
Liebman, M. and A.S. Davis. 2000. Integration of soil, crop and weed management in low-externalinput farming systems. Weed Research. 40: 27-47.
Miura, S. and Y Watanabe. 2002. Growth and yield of sweet corn with living mulches. Japanese Journal of Crop Science. 71(1):36-42.
Putnam, A.R. 1988. Allelochemicals from plants as herbicides. Weed Technology. 2:510-519.
Putnam, A.R., J. DeFrank, and J.P. Barnes. 1983. Exploitation of allelopathy for weed control in annual and perennial cropping systems. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 9(8):1001-1010.
Schultheis, J.R., K.A. Sorensen, D.W. Monks and G.J. Holmes. 1999. NC Crop Profile: sweetpotato. Ag-598-24:1-4.
Teasdale, J.R. and C.L. Mohler. 1993. Light transmittance, soil temperature, and soil moisture under residue of hairy vetch and rye. Agronomy Journal 85:673-680.
## Prepared By
$^{ }$
SANREM Coordinator, Department of Crop Science
Nancy G. Creamer
Director, Center for Environmental Farming Systems
Department of Horticultural Science
Special Topic Insert Prepared by
David W. Monks
Extension Specialist, Horticultural Science
K. M. Jennings
Research Assistant Professor, Horticultural Science
Wayne E. Mitchem
Extension Associate, Horticultural Science
Photographs Provided by
Ken L. Fager
Research Specialist, Horticultural Science
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
North Carolina State University
The Organic Production Publication Series was developed by the Center for Environmental Farming Systems
a cooperative effort between North Carolina State University,
North Carolina A & T State University, and the
North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services
The USDA Southern Region Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program and the USDA Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems Program provided funding in support of the Organic Production publication series.
Ken L. Fager
CEFS
NCSTATE FARMING SYSTEMS
North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services
North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services
## Authors
Nancy Creamer
Professor and Extension Specialist, Director CEFS Horticultural Science
Denise Finney
SANREM COORDINATOR Crop Science
Publication date: Jan. 1, 2008
Reviewed/Revised: Feb. 1, 2024
AG-659-07
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A.T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/leland-covid-19-sales-subject-sales-tax-analysis | NA | NA | [] | null | [] | MS | Home » Publications » Publication s » Leland COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
## Leland COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3480-220 | |
| View as PDF: P3480-220.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Washington County | |
| Print PDF | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | Select Your County Office |
| SELECT A COUNTY | SELECT A COUNTY |
| Your Extension Experts | Your Extension Experts |
| Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor | Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor |
| Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II | Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor | Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor |
| Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor | Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor |
| Related News | Related News |
| OCTOBER 3, 2024 Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition | OCTOBER 3, 2024 Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/charlotteco/2024/09/30/well-if-i-come-to-a-meeting-but-my-child-doesnt-are-they-counted-absent/ | Well, if I Come to a Meeting but My Child Doesn’t, Are They Counted Absent? | University of Florida | [
"Kristie Popa"
] | 2024-09-30 | [
"4-H & Youth",
"Clubs & Volunteers",
"Curriculum",
"4-H",
"4-H appropriate",
"4-h club",
"4-H leaders",
"4-H Project",
"Florida 4-H"
] | FL | ## Well , if I Come to a Meeting but My Child Doesn't, Are They Counted Absent?
Welcome back to "The Great 4-H FAQ Adventure!" Today, we're diving into a question that parents often ask: "Well, if I come to a meeting but my child doesn't, are they counted absent?" This question gets to the heart of participation in 4-H and how we track involvement. Let's clarify how attendance works and why it matters.
4-H is all about youth development, and active participation is key to getting the most out of the program. The primary focus is on the youth members, encouraging them to engage, learn, and grow through hands-on experiences, leadership opportunities, and community involvement.
Attendance at meetings is important because it helps ensure that members are consistently engaged in their projects and club activities. When it comes to attendance records, it's the youth member's participation that counts. If a parent attends a meeting but their child does not, the child would be considered absent. This is because the goal is to involve the youth directly in the program.
Why Attendance Matters:
- 1. Learning and Growth: Regular attendance allows members to stay up-to-date with their projects, learn new skills, and participate in educational activities. It helps them progress in their personal development and achieve their goals within 4-H.
- 2. Team Building: Being present at meetings fosters a sense of community and teamwork. Members build relationships, learn to work together, and support each other in their projects and activities.
- 3. Accountability: Consistent attendance teaches responsibility and commitment. It shows that members are dedicated to their projects and the 4-H program.
eligible for these opportunities.
While the focus is on youth participation, parental involvement is highly valued and appreciated in 4-H. Parents play a crucial role in supporting their children's projects, assisting with transportation, volunteering at events, and providing encouragement. However, when it comes to meeting attendance, it's the youth's presence that counts towards their participation record.
If your child cannot attend a meeting, encourage them to communicate with their club leader or fellow members to catch up on what they missed. Many clubs offer ways to make up missed meetings or stay engaged through additional activities or assignments.
In 4-H, it's the youth members who are at the center of everything we do. Their active participation in meetings and activities is crucial for their development and success in the program. While parental involvement is incredibly important, attendance records are based on the youth's presence. So, if your child misses a meeting, they would be counted absent, even if you attend in their place.
Stay tuned for our next blog post as we continue to explore the curious, the bizarre, and the downright hilarious questions we get at the 4-H office!
```
O
by Kristie Popa
Posted: September 30, 2024
```
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Budgeting Strategies For 4-H Projects: Setting The Foundation For Success
- · Mindfulness
- · Why Are We Taking An Ethics Course?
- · A New Twist On A Classic Game Offers A New Way To Teach & Learn At Home
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/gautier-retail-sales-profile | Gautier Retail Sales Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Gautier Retail Sales Profile Gautier Retail Sales Profile PUBLICATIONS Publication Number: P2944-100 View as PDF: P2944-100.pdf Department: MSU Extension-Jackson County Print PDF The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
Related News
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
FEBRUARY 1, 2024
Extension provides training for tourism professionals
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/nassauco/2023/10/30/medicare-open-enrollment-time-to-review-your-plan/ | Medicare Open Enrollment – Time to Review Your Plan | University of Florida | [
"Meg McAlpine"
] | 2023-10-30 | [
"Health & Nutrition",
"Work & Life",
"medicare"
] | FL | ## Medicare Open Enrollment - Time to Review Your Plan
Medicare plans change every year. They can change how much they cost, what they cover, and which doctors and pharmacies you can use. It's important to look at your Medicare health and drug coverage and decide if you want to make any changes. You can do this from October 15 to December 7 for the upcoming year, 2024.
There are two main ways to get Medicare coverage:
- 1. Original Medicare: This includes Part A (Hospital Insurance) and Part B (Medical Insurance). You can also choose to add a separate Medicare drug plan (Part D) to cover your prescription drugs.
- 2. Medicare Advantage: These are plans approved by Medicare but offered by private companies (sometimes called Part C). They combine Part A, Part B, and often Part D coverage into one plan.
During the Open Enrollment period, you can switch from Original Medicare to a Medicare Advantage Plan, change to a different Medicare Advantage Plan, go back to Original Medicare, or keep your current coverage.
The Medicare Advantage Plans and standalone drug plans available to you depend on your zip code. For Nassau County, which includes zip codes like 32034, 32097, 32011, 32046, and 32009, there will be 21 Medicare drug plans and 32 Medicare Advantage plans for 2024.
It's crucial to check your prescription drug costs for the next year, whether you have a standalone drug plan or an Advantage plan. The deductibles, copays, and premiums can change each year.
If you need help understanding your options for 2024, you can get unbiased assistance from Meg McAlpine, your UF/IFAS Nassau County FCS Extension Agent. You can reach her at (904) 530-6359.
by Meg McAlpine Posted: October 30, 2023
Category: Health & Nutrition, Work& Life Tags: Medicare
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · DON'T TOUCH YOUR FACE
- · Learning The Art Of Take-Out During COVID-19
- · Nassau County's First Year Of The 4-H Food Challenge Program
- · Nassau County Extension January Monthly Report 2021 |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/cow-calf-corner-the-newsletter-archives/2022/june-24-2022.html | Cow-Calf Corner | June 24, 2022 - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-06-29 | [] | OK | ## COW-CAFL CORNER | JUNE 24, 2022
an set up some plants in the sorghum family, including Johnsongrass, to become toxic. Even s., "My cattle are dropping like flies."
its are damaged through actions like cattle chewing or a swather and crimper, they quickly
pears bright cherry red. The clinical signs most often seen include excitement, muscle deprivation of oxygen.
new pasture and contact their veterinarian. The veterinarian will treat the sick animals with rrogression of the toxin.
ke sure that your veterinarian will have availability to respond and the necessary drugs on hand
§sting be done to determine the ultimate cause of death. A fact sheet that contains information
Oacid%20poisoning%20from%20grazing%20johnsongrass%20on%20a%20classic%20Cow- |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/fapc-food-and-agricultural-products-center/food-product-labeling-basics-fapc-140.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20161006100854-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Robert M. Kerr Food & Agricultural Products Center
## FOOD TECHNOLOGY FACT SHEET
## Adding Value to OKLAHOMA
405-744-6071 · www.fapc.biz · fapc@okstate.edu
## Food Product Labeling Basics
Darren D. Scott FAPC Food Scientist
Timothy J. Bowers, P.E. FAPC Food Engineer
Introduction Food packaging labels are meant to be more than just attractive artwork to catch the eye of the consumer. Properly formatted labels convey specific information in a manner that enables the consumer to make an informed purchase. Foods packaged with labels that do not meet regulatory requirements, also known as misbranded, may result in harsh penalties to the producer (see penalties sidebar). Accurate and legally complete labels make sense from the standpoints of both ethics and good business. Fortunately, constructing a label that meets regulations is simple and requires only a small amount of information and following a few rules. The purpose of this fact sheet is to provide the necessary information to enable readers to develop their own food packaging labels that meet all current legal requirements.
## Required Elements of a Food Label
The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FD&C) requires five elements to appear on a food label:
- 1. Name of the food
- 2. Net quantity of contents
- 3. Name and address of the manufacturer
- 4. Statement of ingredients
- 5. Nutrition information
This information in its entirety may be placed together on the principal display panel, or for the name of the food and net quantity may be placed on the principal display panel while the name and address of the manufacturer, statement of ingredients and nutrition information are placed on the information panel as described below.
## Principal Display Panel
The principal display panel, or PDP, is the portion of the package that is seen at the time of purchase by the consumer and contains information typically regarding the statement of identity and net quantity. Often food packages are designed with two or more panels that may serve as the PDP. These
additional panels are referred to as alternate principal display panels, and they must also contain the statement of identity and net quantity of contents.
## Name of the Food
The statement of identity is the name of the food and must appear prominently on the PDP, as well as any alternate PDP, in bold type and should run parallel to the bottom of the package. The common or usual name of the food is to be used. If one is not available, then a name that is descriptive and not misleading should be used. Examples of foods with standards of identity are jelly, mayonnaise and peanut butter. The standard of identity establishes and maintains the identity and quality of a food. It may specify lists of mandatory ingredients and authorize specific lists of optional ingredients. A complete list of foods that have standards of identity may be found in Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations parts 131 to 169. If the food has a standard of identity, then the name specified in the standard must be used on the PDP.
## Ingredient Listing
Ingredients must be listed by their common name in descending order by predominance of weight or volume. This includes items such as preservatives, colors and flavors.
It should be noted that those ingredients that are used for a specific functional purpose, such as preservatives, must have their function listed in parentheses immediately following the ingredient. For example:
Ingredients: water, tomatoes, onions, garlic, salt, sodium benzoate (preservative)
Ingredients that comprise less than 2 percent or less of a product formula need not be listed in descending order by predominance of weight or volume. However, they must be preceded by the phrase "contains less than 2% of the following..." In cases where an ingredient may or may not be present in a product formula at a concentration of less than 2 percent, the phrasing would read "may contain less than 2% of the following ..."
Ingredients, such as Worcestershire sauce, that are comprised of other ingredients would still be listed by predominance of weight; however, they would be followed by a parenthetical statement listing each component found in the Worcestershire sauce. For example:
The company makes a soup with ingredients in the following proportions: 15 pounds water, 8 pounds of beef, 5 pounds of potatoes, 4 pounds of carrots, 1.5 pounds of Worcestershire sauce, 1 pound of mushrooms and 0.5 pound of salt.
The ingredient listing would show:
## Net Quantity of Contents
The net quantity of contents is the amount of food contained within a package (excluding the weight of the package itself), and typically includes any water, syrup or liquid that has been added to the food. However, for foods where the liquid is typically discarded, such as olives or mushrooms, the drained weight should be displayed. The net contents should be displayed in both metrics (grams, milliliters, kilograms or liters) and the U.S. Customary System (ounces, pounds, fluid ounces). The metric measure may appear before or after the U.S. Customary statement, or below or above it. The measures must also match, i.e., volume measures are generally required for liquid foods (millilliters, liters and fluid ounces) and weight measures for solid, viscous or mixed solid/liquid foods (grams and ounces).
The net quantity of contents statement should appear in the lower 30 percent of the PDP, running as a distinct line parallel to the base of the package.
## Information Panel
The information panel contains information that is generally required to be placed together such as contact information for the manufacturer (see "contact information"), packer or distributor, the ingredient list and nutritional labeling. This information cannot be interrupted or visually split by non-essential information, such as artwork or a UPC symbol. The information panel is positioned directly to the right of the PDP, unless this panel is not usable. The information panel would then be the next label panel immediately to the right.
## PENALTIES
The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FD&C) gives the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the authority to recommend to the Department of Justice that misbranded product and accompanying labeling be seized, be the subject of an injunction or be the subject of a criminal prosecution. The FDA also has the authority to request a company recall product whose label violates the FD&C Act.
only once, they would need to know the amounts of water and salt that was used in the Worcestershire sauce so that those amounts could be added to the water and salt in the company's formula.
## Contact Information
The FDA requires that a food label "conspicuously" identify a product's manufacturer, distributor or packer and provide their address as well. The name, city, state and zip code of the food manufacturer, distributor or packer may be listed on either the PDP or the information panel. However, it must be accompanied by the statement of ingredients and the nutrition information, unless the product is explicitly exempted from these regulations.
## Nutritional labeling
The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) mandates all food intended for retail sale to carry nutritional labeling, with a few exceptions. Foods that contain insignificant amounts of all of the nutrients and food components required to be included in the declaration of nutrition facts are exceptions. Insignificant amounts are defined as those that would round to zero or less than 1 gram on the label. Examples of such foods include coffee beans, tea and some spices. Bulpacked foods not intended for retail sale are exempt. Raw produce also is generally exempt. In addition, small businesses may be exempt from placing a nutritional label on their products based on several federal regulations; current information is available on the FDA's Web site (http://www.cfa.fda.gov/ ~dms/sbel.html).
The nutrition labeling exemptions found in 21 CFR 101.9(j)(1) and 21 CFR 101.36(h)(1) apply to retailers with annual gross sales of not more than $50,000, or with annual gross sales of foods or dietary supplements to consumers of not more than $50,000. For these exemptions, a notice does not need to be filed with the FDA.
The nutrition labeling exemptions for low-volume products found in 21 CFR 101.9(j)(18) and 21 CFR 101.36(h)(2) apply if the person claiming the exemption employs fewer than an average of 100 full-time equivalent employees and fewer than 100,000 units of that product are sold in the United States in a 12-month period. For these exemptions, a notice must be filed annually with the FDA.
If any nutrient content claim (e.g., "sugar free"), health claim or other nutrition information is provided on the label or in labeling or advertising, the small business exemption is not applicable for that product.
A unique set of nutritional labeling regulations applies to foods specifically intended for infants, toddlers and medical patients.
A unique set of labeling regulations apply to foods intended for "special dietary use." These include foods for infants and toddlers, hypoallergic foods and foods intended to be useful in maintaining or reducing body weight. Infant formula labeling regulations may be found in 21 CFR 107.10, 21 CFR 107.20 and 21 CFR 107.30. Specific requirements for infant food labeling are found in 21 CFR 105.65. Details on
nutritional labeling requirements for children under 4 years of age are found in 21 CFR 101.9(j)(5). Information on reference amounts customarily consumed per eating occasion for infants and toddlers is found in 21 CFR 101.12(b). Labeling requirements for hypoallergenic foods is found in 21 CFR 105.62. Information on label statements required for foods intended to be useful in maintaining or reducing body weight are found in 21 CFR 105.66. "Medical Foods," which are foods formulated to be consumed or administered entirely under the supervision of a physician and which are intended for the specific dietary management of a disease or condition, are exempt from nutritional labeling, nutrient claim and health claim requirements.
## Additional Information that May Appear on the Food Label
## Nutrient Content Claims
Terms such as "low sodium" and "fat free" are referred to as nutrient claims, and there are strict guidelines regarding the concentration levels and formatting that must be followed in order to use these terms on a product's packaging.
The core terms are:
## Free
Refers to products contains either no amount or a trivial "physiologically inconsequential" amount of one or more of the following: fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, sugars and calories. An example would be, "calorie free," which means less than 5 calories per serving, while "sugar-free and fat-free" both mean less than 0.5 grams per serving. Other terms that may be used instead of "free" are "without," "no" and "zero."
## Low
Refers to foods that may be eaten frequently without exceeding dietary guidelines for one or more of the following nutrients: fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium and calories.
## Low-fat: 3 grams or less per serving
Low-saturated fat: 1 gram or less per serving
Low-sodium: 140 milligrams or less per serving
Very low sodium: 35 milligrams or less per serving
Low-cholesterol: 20 milligrams or less and 2 grams or less of saturated fat per serving
Low-calorie: 40 calories or less per serving
Other terms that may be used instead of "low" are "little," "few," "low source of" and "contains a small amount of."
## Lean and Extra Lean
Refer to the fat content of meat, poultry, seafood, and game meats.
Lean: less than 10 grams of fat, 4.5 grams or less saturated fat, and less than 95 milligrams cholesterol per serving and per 100 grams.
Extra lean: less than 5 grams of fat, less than 2 grams saturated and less than 95 milligrams cholesterol per serving and per 100 grams.
## High
Refers to foods that contain 20 percent or more of the Daily Value for a particular nutrient in a serving.
## Good source
This means that a serving of a food contains 10 to 19 percent of the Daily Value for a particular nutrient.
## Reduced
Refers to a nutritionally altered food that contains at least 25 percent less of a nutrient or calories than the regular, or reference, food. A reduced claim cannot be made on a product if its reference food already meets the requirements for a "low:" claim.
## Less
Refers to foods that contain 25 percent less of a nutrient or of calories than the reference food.
## Light
May mean two things:
- 1. A nutritionally altered product containing one-third fewer calories or half the fat of the unaltered reference food. If the food derives 50 percent or more of its calories from fat, the reduction must be 50 percent of the fat.
- 2. The sodium content of a low-calorie, low-fat food has been reduced by 50 percent. Also, "light in sodium" may be used on foods in which the sodium content has been reduced by at least 50 percent.
## More
Refers to a serving of food that contains a nutrient that is at least 10 percent of the Daily Value more than the reference food. The 10 percent of the Daily Value also applies to "fortified," "enriched," "added" and "extra and plus" claims, but in those cases the food must be altered.
Alternative spellings of these descriptive terms is allowed, for example "lo" and "hi," as long as they are not misleading.
## Healthy
Refers to foods that must be low in fat and saturated fat and contain limited amounts of cholesterol and sodium. Single item foods must provide at least 10 percent of one-or more vitamin A or C, calcium, protein or fiber. Certain raw, canned and frozen fruits and vegetables and certain cereal-one or grain products are exempt from the 10 percent rule if they do not contain ingredients that require the nutritional profile and in
the case of the enriched grain products, conform to standards of identity, which require certain ingredients. A meal-type product, such as multi-course frozen dinners, must provide 10 percent of two or three of these vitamins or minerals or of protein or fiber, in addition to meeting the other criteria. The sodium content cannot exceed 360 milligrams per serving for individual foods and 480 milligrams per serving for meal-type products.
## Health Claims
Health claims are intended to inform consumers about reducing the risk or delaying the premature onset of a chronic disease condition by consuming certain foods as part of a healthy diet. Currently, there are 13 allowed nutrient-disease relationship claims:
- 1. Calcium and osteoporosis
- 2. Fat and cancer
- 3. Saturated fat and cholesterol and coronary heart disease (CHD)
- 4. Fiber-containing grain products, fruits and vegetables and cancer
- 5. Fruits, vegetables and grain products that contain fiber and risk of CHD
- 6. Sodium and hypertension (high blood pressure)
- 7. Fruits and vegetables and cancer
- 8. Folic acid and neural tube defects
- 9. Dietary sugar alcohols and dental caries
- 10. Soluble fiber from certain foods, such as psyllium seed husk and heart disease
- 11. Soy protein and coronary heart disease
- 12. Dietary noncariogenic carbohydrate sweeteners and dental caries
- 13. Sterols/stanols and coronary heart disease
## Conclusion
Constructing a food label may seem intimidating at first. However, by becoming familiar with a few basic regulations and requirements, a visually appealing label can be developed that conveys the necessary product information in a uniform and easy to understand manner. Please feel free to contact the Food & Agricultural Products Center with questions about product labeling and for a review of your proposed product label by calling (405) 744-6071. You may also visit the FDA Web site (http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/label.html) for additional information.
## References
General Food Labeling Requirements. 2005. Guide to U.S. Labeling Law, Vol. 1. Thompson Publishing Group.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, FDA Backgrounder, The Food Label, BG99-5, May 1999. http:// er, The Food Label, BG99-5, May 1999. http://
$^{ }$See www.fsa.org/~dmds/newslab.html#updated
$^{ }$See www.fsa.org/~dmds/newslab.html#updated
$^{ }$See www.fsa.org/~dmds/newslab.html#updated
$^{ }$See www.fsa.org/~dmds/newslab.html#updated
$^{ }$See www.fsa.org/~dmds/newslab.html#updated
$^{ }$See www.fsa.org/~dmds/newslab.html#updated | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/cr/economic-viability-of-grain-sorghum-and-corn-as-a-function-of-irrigation-capacity-cr-2173.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20161128160229-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## CR-2173
1116
## Current Report
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets are also available on our website at: osufacts.okstate.edu
## Economic Viability of Grain Sorghum and Corn as a Function of Irrigation Capacity
Jason Warren Associate Professor
Rodney Jones Associate Professor, Oklahoma Farm Credit
Tracy Beedy Area Extension Agronomy Specialist
## Karthik Ramaswamy
Grain sorghum is often hailed as a crop with high water use efficiency and low input costs. For example, NRCS irrigation guide (NRCS, 2010) suggests that at Goodwell, Okla., optimum production of corn requires 20 inches of irrigation water, while grain sorghum only requires 15.5 inches. This suggests that as water availability in the Panhandle region declines, grain sorghum may become a more viable crop for irrigation. In addition, it is very well adapted to the southern plains and has a feed value that is comparable to corn (Chen et al. 1994). In fact, the energy content is approximately 90 to 95 percent of that for corn and the crude protein is 20 to 30 percent higher than corn. The 10-year average price for grain sorghum received by producers in the US.is $4.17 per bushel, compared to $4.39 per bushel for corn. Despite the higher water use efficiency of gain sorghum, its production in the southern high plains under irrigation is still dwarfed by irrigated corn production. Specifically, in the three Oklahoma Panhandle counties of Beaver, Texas and Cimarron, there has been an average of 107,935 acres of irrigated corn in the past 10 years, compared to only 37.561 acres of grain sorghum. This suggests a potential for the expansion of irrigated grain sorghum in the future as water availability declines.
This disparity between corn-and grain sorghum-irrigated acres along with declining irrigation capacity in the region prompted the effort to conduct an economic analysis to determine the short-term and long-term profitability of corn and grain sorghum at irrigation capacities ranging from 6.4 to 0.8 gallons per minute per acre. This analysis was conducted using simulated crop yields and irrigation estimates produced by the EPIC crop model. The model was calibrated using variety performance data collected from the OSU corn and sorghumvarietyperformancetrialsconductedintheOklahoma panhandle. It was also validated with data collected at the Oklahoma Panhandle Research and Extension Center.
Crop Yield as a Function of Irrigation Capacity
The yield and irrigation water applied presented in Tables 1 and 2 are the result of model simulations in which irrigation was applied at 1.4 inches per application event at a frequency constrainedby irrigationcapacityand/ora soil moisture depletion. Specifically, the data presented shows the outcome of irrigation triggered when the soil moisture is depleted to 50, 70 or 90 percent of the plant available water capacity.
As expected, this analysis shows that grain yields for both crops are maximized when soil moisture is maintained at 90 percent of plant available water-holding capacity with 6.4 gallons per minute per acre irrigation capacity (i.e. when moisture was not a constraining factor). In this scenario, the sorghum and corn crops received 15.6 and 22.5 inches of irrigation water, respectively. This is comparable to the NRCS estimates for average crop requirement. In every scenario presented, the irrigation use efficiency is higher for grain sorghum than corn, as is expected. These yields may be compared to average yields reported by NASS in Texas County between 2000 and 2008 (172 bushels per acre for irrigated corn and 82 bushels per acre for grain sorghum). Based on this comparison, average corn yields from NASS are on average 20 percent below expected yields with 6.4 gallons per minute per acre irrigation capacity. In contrast, average grain sorghum yields from NASS are on average 50 percent of the simulated yields at 6.4 gallons per minute per acre. The 10-year average corn and sorghum yields from performance trials conducted in Texas County of 200 bushels per acre and 141 bushels per acre, respectively, produced with an average of 21 and 8 inches of water (Table 3), respectively, suggests that the model may underestimate the efficiency of grain sorghum, while it provides outcomes that are consistent with trial data for corn. Furthermore, the variety performance data also demonstrate
| Irrigation | Irrigation | Yield (bu/acre) | Yield (bu/acre) | Irrigation Applied (inches/acre) | Irrigation Applied (inches/acre) | Irrigation Use Efficiency (bu/inch) | Irrigation Use Efficiency (bu/inch) |
|--------------|-----------------------|-------------------|-----------------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| Capacity | Soil Moisture Trigger | Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | 90% |
| GPM/acre | 50% | 70% | 90% | 50% | 70% | 90% | 90% |
| 6.4 | 129 | 149 | 163 | 9.2 | 12.6 | 15.6 | 14 |
| 5.6 | 129 | 145 | 156 | 9.1 | 11.8 | 14.1 | 14 |
| 4.8 | 129 | 140 | 148 | 9 | 10.7 | 12.6 | 14 |
| 4 | 126 | 134 | 141 | 8.8 | 9.8 | 11.3 | 14 |
| 3.2 | 122 | 129 | 134 | 8.3 | 9.4 | 10.4 | 15 |
| 2.4 | 109 | 112 | 117 | 7.1 | 7.6 | 8.3 | 15 |
| 1.6 | 90 | 91 | 92 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 4.1 | 28 |
| 0.8 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.8 | 37 |
| Irrigation | Irrigation | Yield (bu/acre) | Yield (bu/acre) | Yield (bu/acre) | Irrigation Applied (inches/acre) | Irrigation Applied (inches/acre) | Irrigation Use Efficiency (bu/inch) | Irrigation Use Efficiency (bu/inch) |
|--------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| Capacity | Soil Moisture Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | Soil Moisture Trigger | 70% | 90% |
| GPM/acre | 50% | 70% | 90% | 50% | 70% | 90% | 70% | 90% |
| 6.4 | 167 | 194 | 213 | 16.2 | 21.5 | 22.5 | 10 | 9 |
| 5.6 | 165 | 186 | 199 | 16.1 | 20.4 | 23.1 | 10 | 9 |
| 4.8 | 163 | 177 | 187 | 15.9 | 19 | 21.6 | 10 | 9 |
| 4 | 158 | 168 | 175 | 15.3 | 17.4 | 19.5 | 10 | 9 |
| 3.2 | 152 | 158 | 164 | 14.4 | 15.9 | 17.6 | 11 | 10 |
| 2.4 | 137 | 139 | 143 | 11.8 | 12.8 | 13.9 | 12 | 11 |
| 1.6 | 119 | 120 | 122 | 9.1 | 9.7 | 10.3 | 12 | 12 |
| 0.8 | 98 | 98 | 99 | 5.7 | 5.9 | 6.1 | 17 | 16 |
| Year | Corn† | Sorghum†† | Sorghum†† | | | | |
|---------|------------|-------------|-------------|---------|------------|---------|------------|
| Average | Irrigation | Average | Irrigation | Average | irrigation | Average | irrigation |
| bu/ac | inches | bu/ac | inches | | | | |
| 2005 | 196 | 17 | 149 | 10 | - | - | - |
| 2006 | 183 | 20 | 143 | 5 | - | - | - |
| 2007 | 178 | 20 | 92 | 4 | - | - | - |
| 2008 | 246 | 21 | 115 | 6 | - | - | - |
| 2009 | 226 | 21 | 148 | 9 | - | - | - |
| 2010 | 179 | 18 | 145 | 8 | - | - | - |
| 2011 | 85 | 21 | 166 | 10 | - | - | - |
| 2012 | 240 | 26 | 152 | 11 | - | - | - |
| 2013 | 236 | 26 | 145 | 10 | - | - | - |
| 2014 | 228 | 18 | 159 | 9 | - | - | - |
| Average | 200 | 21 | 141 | 8 | - | - | - |
## Economic analysis based on Model Simulated Yields
Tables 4 and 5 contain the production budgets and estimated net revenue for corn and sorghum, respectively, when irrigated to maintain soil moisture at 90 percent of plant available water. This soil moisture threshold was selected because the lower yields resulting from lower soil moisture thresholds did not increase short term profit. However, utilization of drier thresholds did show promise in maximizing the long-term net present value of irrigation water.
As expected, corn generates greater profit when irrigation capacity is equal to or greater than 5.0 gallons per minute per acre. Furthermore, it maximizes net revenue at all irrigation capacities because of the greater yield that can be achieved. However, this greater yield comes at a higher variable cost of production. This analysis suggests that although highyielding corn may be an economically superior option when
| Well Capacity | GPM/acre | 6.7 | 5.8 | 5 | 4.2 | 3.3 | 2.5 | 1.7 | 0.8 |
|------------------------|------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| Yield | bu/ac | 163 | 156 | 148 | 141 | 134 | 117 | 92 | 89 |
| Nitrogen | lbs/ac | 181.6 | 173.6 | 165.5 | 157.3 | 149.2 | 130.7 | 102.5 | 98.7 |
| Phosphorous | lbs/ac | 29.4 | 28.1 | 26.8 | 25.4 | 24.1 | 21.1 | 16.6 | 16 |
| Irrigation† | acre-inch | 15.6 | 14.1 | 12.6 | 11.3 | 10.4 | 8.3 | 4.1 | 2.8 |
| Net Revenue ($4.16/bu) | $ | 677.4 | 647.7 | 617.3 | 586.8 | 556.5 | 487.6 | 382.6 | 368.2 |
| Fertilizer-Nitrogen | $ | 99.9 | 95.5 | 91 | 86.5 | 82 | 71.9 | 56.4 | 54.3 |
| Fertilizer-Phosphorous | $ | 15.3 | 14.6 | 13.9 | 13.2 | 12.5 | 11 | 8.6 | 8.3 |
| Seed Cost | $ | 16.1 | 16.1 | 16.1 | 16.1 | 16.1 | 16.1 | 16.1 | 16.1 |
| Herbicide Cost | $ | 52.4 | 52.4 | 52.4 | 52.4 | 52.4 | 52.4 | 52.4 | 52.4 |
| Insecticide Cost | $ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Crop Consulting | $ | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 |
| Drying | $ | 21.2 | 20.2 | 19.3 | 18.3 | 17.4 | 15.2 | 12 | 11.5 |
| Miscellaneous | $ | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
| Custom Hire | $ | 132.5 | 129.4 | 126.2 | 122.9 | 119.7 | 112.5 | 101.3 | 99.8 |
| Non Machinery Labor | $ | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 |
| Interest | $ | 15.7 | 15.1 | 14.4 | 13.8 | 13.1 | 11.7 | 9.5 | 9.2 |
| Irrigation Cost | $ | 90.4 | 79.8 | 70.3 | 62.6 | 56.8 | 44.9 | 21.9 | 14.8 |
| Sub Total | $ | 477.7 | 457.3 | 437.9 | 420.1 | 404.4 | 369.9 | 312.5 | 300.7 |
| Crop Insurance | $ | 22.9 | 22 | 21 | 20.2 | 19.4 | 17.8 | 15 | 14.4 |
| Total Variable Cost | $ | 500.6 | 479.3 | 458.9 | 440.3 | 423.8 | 387.7 | 327.5 | 315.1 |
| Net Revenue-Var Cost | $ | 176.8 | 168.4 | 158.4 | 146.5 | 132.7 | 100 | 55.1 | 53.1 |
† Irrigation is the depth of water applied with a center pivot irrigation system assuming that only 85% of water is delivered to root zone. Irrigation depth also reflects depth of water to be applied under intensive irrigation scheduling management.
Table 4. Estimated net revenue over variable cost for grain sorghum irrigated by central pivot when irrigation occurs at the 90 percent soil moisture trigger by well capacity for a 120-acre pivot.
| Well Capacity | GPM/acre | 6.7 | 5 | 5 | 4.2 | 3.3 | 2.5 | 1.7 | 0.8 | |
|------------------------|------------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| Yield | bu/ac | 213 | 199 | 187 | 175 | 164 | 143 | 122 | 99 | |
| Nitrogen | lbs/ac | 196.8 | 183.0 | 171.9 | 160.9 | 151.0 | 130.9 | 112.1 | 90.9 | |
| Phosphorus | lbs/ac | 28.5 | 26.5 | 25.0 | 23.4 | 21.9 | 19.0 | 16.3 | 13.2 | |
| Irrigation | acre-inch | 22.5 | 23.1 | 21.6 | 19.5 | 17.6 | 13.9 | 10.3 | 6.1 | |
| Net Revenue ($4.48/bu) | $ | 956.1 | 890.9 | 213.7 | 783.4 | 736.4 | 639.0 | 547.6 | 443.9 | |
| Fertilizer-Nitrogen | $ | 108.2 | 100.7 | 94.6 | 88.5 | 83.0 | 72.0 | 61.7 | 50.0 | |
| Fertilizer-Phosphorous | $ | 14.8 | 13.8 | 13.0 | 12.1 | 11.4 | 9.9 | 8.5 | 6.9 | |
| Seed Cost | $ | 112.6 | 112.6 | 112.6 | 112.6 | 112.6 | 112.6 | 112.6 | 112.6 | |
| Herbicide Cost | $ | 61.0 | 61.0 | 61.0 | 61.0 | 61.0 | 61.0 | 61.0 | 61.0 | |
| Insecticide Cost | $ | 16.0 | 15.7 | 15.5 | 15.2 | 15.0 | 14.6 | 14.1 | 13.6 | |
| Crop Consulting | $ | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | |
| Drying | $ | 27.7 | 25.9 | 24.3 | 22.7 | 21.4 | 18.5 | 15.9 | 12.9 | |
| Miscellaneous | $ | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 |
| Custom Hire | $ | 161.5 | 155.1 | 149.9 | 144.7 | 140.4 | 130.0 | 121.5 | 121.5 | 111.4 |
| Non Machinery Labor | $ | 18.0 | 18.0 | 18.0 | 18.0 | 18.0 | 18.0 | 18.0 | 18.0 | |
| Interest | $ | 20.0 | 19.0 | 18.1 | 17.3 | 16.5 | 14.9 | 13.4 | 11.8 | |
| Irrigation Cost | $ | 130.0 | 130.5 | 120.4 | 107.4 | 96.1 | 75.3 | 55.5 | 32.7 | |
| Sub Total | $ | 686.5 | 668.8 | 643.9 | 616.0 | 591.6 | 543.8 | 498.8 | 447.4 | |
| Crop Insurance | $ | 33.0 | 32.1 | 30.9 | 29.6 | 28.4 | 26.1 | 23.9 | 21.5 | |
| Total Variable Cost | $ | 719.4 | 700.9 | 674.8 | 645.6 | 620.0 | 569.9 | 522.7 | 468.8 | |
| Net Revenue-Var Cost | $ | 236.6 | 190.0 | 162.5 | 138.4 | 116.4 | 69.1 | 24.9 | -25.0 | |
| | | | | | | | | | | |
ample water is available, the production of lower-cost crops with greater water use efficiency characteristics should be considered in situations with limited irrigation water.
## Limitations to irrigated Grain Sorghum Production
There are certainly practical limitations to the extensive production of irrigated grain sorghum in the Oklahoma panhandle. For example, grain sorghum does not currently contain the crop protection genetics contained in corn, making it more challenging to manage pests such as weeds and insects. As such, grain sorghum will need to be incorporated as a component of a crop rotation system to succeed. Work conducted at the Oklahoma Panhandle Research and Extension Center has shown that both corn and grain sorghum production can be improved when they are produced in rotation. The sugarcane aphid also presents a new uncertainty as to its long-term im -
pact on grain sorghum production costs. As such, producers should adjust the production budgets presented to include their costs associated with managing the new pest.
It is unlikely that grain sorghum will gain production acres in excess of the corn acres. However, this research adds to the body of evidence suggesting that both economic and agronomic benefits could be realized if at least a portion of the 107,935 acres of corn were planted to grain sorghum in situations where irrigation capacities are below 5 gallons per minute per acre.
## References
Chen, K.H., J.T. Huber. C.B. Theurer, R.S. Swingle, J. Simas, S.C. Chan, Z. Wu, and J.L. Sullivan. 1994. Effect of steam flaking of corn and sorghum grains on performance of lactating cows. J. Dairy Sci. 77(4):1038-1043.
NRCS. 2010. National Engineering Handbook - Part 652, National Irrigation Guide and Oklahoma Supplements. | |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/mineral-requirements-for-beef-cattle-in-alabama/ | Mineral Requirements for Beef Cattle in Alabama | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Kim Mullenix",
"L. Wayne Greene"
] | 2018-09-21 | [
"Beef",
"Cattle",
"Mineral Requirements",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | ## Mineral Requirements for Beef Cattle in Alabama
Minerals needed in amounts greater than 100 parts per million (ppm) are considered macrominerals. Those required in amounts less than 100 ppm are microminerals, or trace minerals. The daily requirements for macro- and microminerals are discussed below.
## Macrominerals
## Calcium (Ca)
- · Used in formation and development of bones and teeth
- Important for nervous system and muscle tissue function
- · Mobilized from bone and used by animal for various body functions
- Found in adequate levels in most Alaba am formages,
- especially if legumes are incorporated into the forage base
- Usually provided in free-choice supplements due to negative interactions during absorption and increasing requirements during lactation
## Phosphorus (P)
- Works with calcium in bone formation
- Major component of cells
- Concentration decreases and can be a limitation as forages become more mature
- Usually adequate when cattle graze P - fertilized grasses (with commercial fertilizer or broiler litter)
## Ca:P Ratio
Because calcium and phosphorus work closely together in the body, the correct ratio of calcium to phosphorous is important for growth and reproduction. A high calcium level lowers the Ca-P ratio, decreases P absorption, and results in reduced growth and bone mineralization. A minimum ratio of 1:1 is needed. When the ratio is less than 1:1, metabolic issues such as grass tetany and milk fever may occur in grazing cattle. Many byproducts feed can be high in either Ca or P and create mineral imbalances. Request a feed analysis when purchasing by-
product feeds so you can accurately adjust your mineral program, if needed.
## Magnesium (Mg)
- Needed for nervous system function and metabolism
- Deficiency may occur in cattle grazing young, lush forage growth during late winter and early spring shortly after calving
- Deficiency can cause grass tetan; refer to Extension publication ANR-0495, "Management Practices to Reduce Grass Tetany."
## Potassium (K)
- Regulates cell pressure and water retention; involved in cell function
- Usually adequate in fresh forages but may be low in weathered forages (i.e., hay stored outside) or stockpiled grasses
- Not usually provided in salt supplements
## Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl)
- Combine to form salt (NaCl)
- Used for nervous system and muscle function, water retention, and maintenance of body pH
- Consumption generally greater on young forages; decreases with increasing forage maturity
- Must be provided daily; cattle crave salt and consume it in excess when provided free-choice
- Forms the base ingredient for free-choice minerals
## Sulfur (S)
- An essential element in amino acids-the 'building blocks' of protein
- Deficiency not commonly observed in southeastern forage systems
- Excess can interfere with copper metabolism
- Maximum tolerable level is 0.4% before toxicity occurs
- Maximum tolerable level is 0.4% before toxicity occurs
- Concentration in forages may become elevated when
## Microminerals/Trace Minerals
## Cobalt (Co)
- A key component of vitamin B12, an important vitamin for metabolism
- More required in grain-than forage-based diets and should be included in a mineral mix
- Commonly found in commercial mixes at 10 ppm to ensure no deficiencies
## Copper (Cu)
- Most common micromineral deficiency in grazing cattle
- Dietary deficiencies due mostly to consumption of other minerals (e.g., sulfur, iron, zinc) that reduce copper availability
lodine(#)
- Neded for thyroid luncun and energy metabolism
- Rarely deficient in southeastern grazing systems
- A valued source is ethylenediaminidyldiodide (EDDJ) for prevention of foot rot in grazing livestock
## Iron (Fe)
- Required for hemoglobin formation, the carrying mechanism for oxygen in blood
- Deficiencies not commonly seen in grazing beef cattle
- Iron salts often added to free-choice mineral supplements as a coloring agent; not very absorbable but may further limit copper status in cattle
## Manganese (Mn)
- Plays a role in fetal development, udder development, and reproduction
- Supplementation may be required for corn-based diets; rarely deficient in grazed systems
## Selenium (Se)
- Important for immune system function and health
## Download this article as a PDF
- [] https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR-2210\_REV\_3.pdf) Mineral Requirements for Beef Cattle in Alabama, ANR-2210 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR-2210\_REV\_3.pdf)
Print "Table 2. Mineral Composition of Various Forages" table from our website.
Download a PDF of Mineral Requirements for Beef Cattle in Alabama.ANR-2210.(https://www.aces.edu/wp content/uploads/2018/09/ANR-2210.REV\_3.pdf) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/by-ingredients/live-well-recipe-parmesan-garlic-chicken/ | Live Well Recipe: Parmesan Garlic Chicken | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-26 | [
"Recipes",
"Nutrition",
"Healthy Eating"
] | AL | extension
## Live Well Recipe: Parmesan Garlic Chicken
Try our Parmesan Garlic Chicken. Serve with veggies or a salad on the side. Helpful hint: To make a cutlet, cut the chicken breast in half to make two thin pieces. Serves 4.
## Ingredients
1/2 cup Parmesan cheese
1/2 teaspoon garlic powder
1 envelope of Italian dressing mix
4 to 6 chicken breast cutlets
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/usda-nondiscrimination statement)
(https://www.aces.edu/?post\_type=sacs\_content\_piece&o=3223&preview=true) |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2022/02/18/new-project-tracks-horseshoe-crabs-in-the-indian-river-lagoon-largest-nesting-site-in-the-state/ | New project tracks horseshoe crabs in the Indian River Lagoon, largest nesting site in the state | University of Florida | [
"Tory Moore"
] | 2022-02-18 | [
"Coasts & Marine",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"Wildlife",
"Florida Department of Environmental Protection",
"Florida Horseshoe Crab Watch",
"Florida Sea Grant",
"Horseshoe crabs",
"UF/IFAS Extension Brevard County"
] | FL | ## New project tracks horseshoe crabs in the Indian River Lagoon, largest nesting site in the state
For the first time, horseshoe crabs in the Indian River Lagoon will be tracked with acoustic tags that monitor their movements and behavior. Monitoring animal movement with acoustic tags can provide data that helps manage the ecosystems those animals inhabit.
The Indian River Lagoon hosts the largest concentration of nesting horseshoe crabs in Florida. The large congregation of crabs made it an ideal location for a tagging project of this kind. The acoustic tags do not harm the animals, and similar to a GPS device, track their movements in the water and send the detailed data to scientists.
Since 2019, volunteers with the Horseshoe Crab Citizen Science Project have tagged horseshoe crabs in the lagoon with numbered tags that don't transmit movement data. In 2021, 41 volunteers counted 73,709 horseshoe crabs and tagged 1,567. Beachgoers can call in and report sightings of tagged crabs when spotted on the beach, but data is limited to which animals are spotted and reported and does not give information about how far the animals travel.
"Acoustic tagging helps monitor their movements in the water, so we don't have to rely on people," said Holly Abeels, UF/IFAS Extension and Florida Sea Grant agent who is part of the project. "Our citizen science project is wildly successful, but these acoustic tags will give us a whole new look into how these animals move. We will learn where they travel and when they are coming in and out of the bay. Right now, we don't really know once they leave the beach where they travel to."
Knowing animal movements will also help make conservation decisions that help the species and the lagoon.
For example, the data gained from tracking the horseshoe crabs can guide the placement of wave attenuation devices (WADs) in the lagoon. These hollow, pyramid-shaped concrete devices dampen strong waves before they hit the shoreline to minimize erosion, but could interrupt horseshoe crab traffic if not properly placed and minimize impact to the horseshoe crabs' natural movements and behaviors.
Additionally, better understanding the movements and behavior of the animals will provide further insight for the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, which monitors and manages horseshoe crab populations around the state.
"Horseshoe crabs are important members of the intercoastal ecosystem," said Berlynna Heres, Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission researcher working on the project. "They are integral to the environment and losing them would have cascading effects. If we lose horseshoe crabs, we lose a food source for many nesting shorebirds and other wildlife, so it's important for us to maintain our biodiversity and conserve the populations we have."
'We don't know a lot about horseshoe crab behavior beyond their breeding habits,' said Heres. 'This will help us learn more about their other activities when they are not on shore to breed. The more we learn about what they're doing when they're not spawning, the better equipped we are to make decisions and improvements that support their populations.'
Fifteen crabs will be randomly selected for tags. The monitor batteries have a lifespan of roughly 16 months and will provide data throughout that time. The tags will remain on the crabs after they are no longer active but pose no risk to the health of the animals.
This project is managed by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and funded by one of the department's Citizen Support Organizations: Friends of the Spoil Islands. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, UF/IFAS and Florida Sea Grant are partners of the project.
## 2
## by Tory Moore
Posted: February 18, 2022
Category: Coasts & Marine, UE/IFAES, UE/IFAES Extension, UE/IFAIS Extension, UF/IFAS Research, Wildlife
Horseshoe Crab Watch, Florida Sea Grant, Horseshoe Crabs, UE/IFAS Extension Brevard County
## More From Blogs.IFAS
Ask IFAS: Information repository relaunches with new answer-focused look
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UF/IFAS Spotlights: Eleanor Green, UF Large Animal Hospital icon |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/pesticide-safety-education/site-files/documents/report/2022/june22pr.pdf | CHEM | Oklahoma State University | [
"entokts"
] | Error: time data "D:20220601134209-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources * Oklahoma State University http://pestedokstate.edu
## June, 2022
| JUNE TEST HELP WORKSHOPS | JUNE TEST HELP WORKSHOPS |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| EPA RELEASES LIST OF DISINFECTANTS FOR EMERGING VIRAL PATHOGENS (EVPS) INCLUDING MONKEYPOX | EPA RELEASES LIST OF DISINFECTANTS FOR EMERGING VIRAL PATHOGENS (EVPS) INCLUDING MONKEYPOX |
| DOJ URAGES REJECTION OF ROUNDUP PETITION | DOJ URAGES REJECTION OF ROUNDUP PETITION |
| 3 INVASIVE PESTS: A GROWING CHALLENGE FOR PMPS | 3 INVASIVE PESTS: A GROWING CHALLENGE FOR PMPS |
| 5 EPA LOOKS FOR FARMER FEEDBACK | 5 EPA LOOKS FOR FARMER FEEDBACK |
| DDT STILL HARMING BIRDS OF PREY, 50 YEARS AFTER ITS BAN | DDT STILL HARMING BIRDS OF PREY, 50 YEARS AFTER ITS BAN |
| CEU MEETINGS | CEU MEETINGS |
| ONLINE CEU LINKS | ONLINE CEU LINKS |
| ODAFF TEST INFORMATION | ODAFF TEST INFORMATION |
JUNE TEST HELP WORKSHOPS
The Oklahoma State University Pesticide Safety Education Program (PSEP) has scheduled test help workshops for June 14 in Oklahoma City and June 21 in Tulsa.
The Oklahoma City workshop will be at the Oklahoma County Extension Center at 2500 N.E. 63 rd St. in Oklahoma City. The Tulsa Workshop will be at the Tulsa County Extension Office at 4116 E 15 th in Tulsa.
Registration cost is $50 for each location and will include a copy of Applying Pesticides Correctly. This is the study manual for the core and service technician exams.
To register for this class please go to the Pesticide Safety Education Program (PSEP) website at http://pestedokstate.edu/html/practical.htm and click on the register online link. Class information and an agenda is also at that website as well as future 2022 classes.
## EPA RELEASES LIST OF DISINFECTANTS FOR EMERGING VI RAL PATHOGENS (EVPS) INCLUDING MONKEYPOX
On Monday, May 23, EPA triggered its emerging viral pathogen (EVP) guidance in response to recent cases of monkeypox in the United States. EPA expects products on its List of Disinfectants for Emerging Viral Pathogens to kill monkeypox when used according to the label directions.
When rare or novel viruses cause outbreaks of disease, there may be few if any disinfectants that have been tested and registered for use against that specific pathogen. To prepare for situations like these, EPA created the EVP guidance, which allows disinfectant manufacturers to submit data to EPA demonstrating a product's efficacy against difficult-to-inactivate viruses.
Monkeypox belongs to a group of viruses that is more susceptible to disinfectants than other types of viruses. While there are no disinfectants registered for use against monkeypox, all products with EVP claims have been tested against viruses that are more difficult to kill than monkeypox.
The use of products with EVP claims supplements but does not replace other infection control practices. Individuals should follow Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), state, and local public health guidelines. Learn more about monkeypox from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention .
See the list of disinfectants for EVPs, including monkeypox
(EPA, May, 26,2022) https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/epa-releases-listdisinfectants-emerging-viral-pathogens-evpsincluding-monkeypox
## DOJ URges Rejection of ROUNDUP PETITION
The U.S. Department of Justice filed an opinion with the U.S. Supreme Court on Tuesday recommending the court deny a petition filed by Bayer AG asking the court to review a verdict in a Roundup cancer lawsuit.
In August 2021, Bayer AG asked the Supreme Court to review a landmark Roundup case, arguing in a petition that a federal appeals court committed errors in the case brought by non-Hodgkin's lymphoma victim Edwin Hardeman.
Bayer said in its petition, Monsanto Company v. Edwin Hardeman, that the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in San Francisco committed two errors worthy of review.
The company said state law failure-to-warn claims at the center of the case were preempted by federal law and the admission of expert testimony departed from federal standards, leading to what Bayer said was "unsupported testimony" on Roundup's safety profile.
"The court of appeals correctly held that FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act) does not preempt respondent's claims, and that decision does not conflict with any decision of this court or another court of appeals," the U.S. solicitor general said in a brief filed with the Supreme Court.
"The court's evidentiary ruling likewise does not conflict with the standards applied by other circuits in considering the admissibility of expert testimony. The petition for a writ of certiorari should be denied."
The DOJ said it finds no evidence in statute that federal law preempts state law when it comes to labeling requirements on pesticides.
"Although some aspects of EPA-approved labeling may preempt particular state-law requirements, EPA's approval of labeling that does not warn about particular chronic risks does not by itself preempt a state-law
requirement to provide such warnings," the DOJ brief said.
In a statement to DTN, Bayer AG said it continues to believe it has good legal arguments the Supreme Court should consider.
"Indeed, the expert U.S. agency, the Environmental Protection Agency, has consistently found that glyphosate-based herbicides can be used safely and are not carcinogenic," Bayer said.
"Therefore, a cancer warning would be false and misleading and would be preempted by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. The decision to accept or deny review rests with the Supreme Court, which will consider the views of the parties -- including an additional brief to be filed by the company -- as well as the brief from the solicitor general. Regardless of the final outcome at the Supreme Court, the company is fully prepared to move forward with its five-point plan, manage litigation risks and bring closure to the Roundup litigation."
In 2019, a jury awarded Hardeman $80 million in damages after the ruling his non-Hodgkin's lymphoma was caused by his use of Roundup. The damages later were reduced to $25 million. Bayer has faced thousands of similar lawsuits connected to the glyphosate-based product.
In May 2021, the Ninth Circuit upheld the Hardeman judgment. Bayer officials have maintained the Hardeman case could shape how future cases are litigated. Also, that month, a federal court in California rejected Bayer's $2 billion Roundup settlement, ruling it would not adequately address the concerns of families who may later be diagnosed with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
Bayer AG recently filed a second petition for writ of certiorari on a second Roundup trial.
For the second time in eight months, Bayer petitioned the U.S. Supreme Court to review a verdict in a
Roundup product liability case. The new petition, filed in March, however, is the first Roundup challenge filed by Bayer alleging a California jury's awarding of $87 million in damages to cancer victims violated the Constitution.
The new petition asks the court to review the verdict in Pilliod v. Monsanto Company. In August 2021, a California state appellate court upheld the verdict that awarded $87 million in damages to Alva and Alberta Pilliod of Livermore, California. The couple had used Roundup at home for about 30 years; later, the Pilliods developed similar types of cancers, according to court documents.
(Progressive Farmer, May 11, 2022) https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/crops/article/2022/05/10/us-solicitor-general-tells-scotus
## INVASIVE PESTS: A GROWING CHALLENGE FOR PMPS
Any animal transported from where it is endemic to a new area could become an invasive pest, provided the environment is suitable for its survival. The lack of its natural enemies allows the animal to proliferate and no group of animals is more adaptable to new locations than insects and other arthropods.
Most such exotic arthropods may thrive locally in their new habitats, but some, in particular various species of ants, become truly invasive causing harm to food crops, other animals and even people. Likely, the most invasive insect species in the U.S. has been the red imported fire ant. Originally imported in the South during the 1920s, fire ants have spread across the Southeast becoming a serious public health threat as well as a pest in agriculture. Other invasive ant species include the Argentine ant, the Pharaoh ant, various types of crazy ants, and the dark rover ant.
The Asian multi-colored lady beetle and brown marmorated stink bug have largely displaced native overwintering pests, such as cluster flies and box elder bugs, as the key pests plaguing buildings during the fall
and winter. These two insects continue to expand their range, moving into more states.
The brown widow spider made a big splash in many sites along the Gulf Coast and parts of California, but it has since become a localized pest where it occurs. In the past five years, the Joro spider from Southeast Asia has become a noticeable resident of yards across northern Georgia into neighboring states. A large orb weaver, the Joro may be out-competing native orb weavers such as the various Argiope garden spiders. Although not a threat to humans or pets, the large Joro spiders may concern many homeowners.
ARE YOU PREPARED? Pest professionals living where one or more invasive pests thrive must be prepared to offer services for controlling such pests in and around their customers' buildings. Each pest species is different but most all originate from outside the building where exterior and perimeter services are the key to stopping inside sightings of these pests. A number of invasive species, particularly crazy and Argentine ants, can be very difficult to control and require a comprehensive strategy. For pests like the brown morranted stink bug and lady beetles, the timing of treatments can be critical.
As with any pest situation, a survey of the conditions around a building that attract and support target pests should be completed. A plan to address conducive conditions should be presented to the customer with explanation of the benefits provided by eliminating or minimizing such conditions. For example, removing piles of items from the ground where ants will nest can reduce the numbers of ants found on the property. Replacing aphid-prone plants with those less prone to aphids in landscaping can be very helpful in limiting Argentine and crazy ants. Sealing off potential entry points and ensuring all vents have tight screens is especially important for long term relief from overwintering pests.
For ants, it is helpful to choose a water-based product that can be used to drench or treat ant colonies as they are uncovered as well as labeled for application to the foundation and into exterior cracks where ants may
enter. Treatments to the base of trees and shrubs may also be necessary if ants are foraging from or up into such plants. A product labeled to control ants directly on landscape plants can benefit some situations. It is also important to look for and treat discovered ant colonies all the way out to the perimeter of protected properties to limit the potential for target ant species moving up to and into the structure.
Follow label directions for applying perimeter treatments for ants. Avoid relying solely on a foundation application when dealing with ants. Also, look for active and suspected ant trails and apply spot or band treatments along edges and corners of buildings and other structural guidelines. Again, follow label directions are water-based products containing pyrethroids and other insecticides have restrictions on how and where applications can be made outside.
TIMING OF TREATMENT . For invasive and other overwintering pests, the ideal time to treat is just prior to the time these insects begin flying to buildings. The timing varies by area of the country and is tied to when temperatures begin to cool at night. Late August and September are good times in northern states while October and even November might be better further south. Check with local county extension entomologists for recommendations on timing.
Application of residual dust or aerosols into exterior cracks around windows, doors and soffits helps to kill insects that may evade surface treatments outside. For overwintering pests, perimeter treatments are focused above foundation level to sites around windows and doors, softs, fascia boards and around any vents in the foundation and/or attic. Typically, these applications will be spot treatments or band treatments limited to a certain width around entry points. Choosing a formulation that sits on top of a variety of surfaces is preferred as these are more easily picked up by insects as they crawl to enter cracks.
Invasive pests can be difficult to control, especially in chronic or severe infestations. Understanding where the target species prefers to live or harbor and its habits goes a long way to successful control. Remember, a
perimeter treatment is not simply application to a building foundation but entails the direct application to ant nests, insect harborsages and potential pest entry points. Choosing a control product labeled for a variety of application sites is helpful in being efficient when controlling any exterior pest situation, but be sure to use multiple formulation types and products when needed.
.................................
For invasive and other overwintering pests, the ideal time to treat is just prior to the time these insects begin flying to buildings. The timing varies by area of the country and is tied to when temperatures begin to cool at night.
(PCT Online May 2, 2022) https://www.pctonline.com/article/invasive-pestsgrowing-pmp-problem/
## EPA LOOKS FOR FARMER FEEDBACK
The future of pesticide labels is undergoing active construction at EPA, and farmers, pesticide applicators and other ag stakeholders may have an opportunity to influence that work.
In short, EPA is tackling a long overdue project to make pesticide labels that fully comply with the Endangered Species Act (ESA), in an effort to stem a raft of lawsuits that has bogged the agency down in federal courts, trying to defend its pesticide registrations. That means labels and registrations will include mitigations and restrictions designed to protect certain endangered species and critical habitats that the agency identifies as at risk from pesticide use.
Many ag stakeholders are nervous to see what these new, ESA-compliant pesticide labels might look like, especially after the debut of new Enlist herbicide labels in January took many off guard with dozens of banned counties. (See more on that here: https://www.dtnpf.com/...).
EPA recently rolled out a work plan, designed to explain just how the agency will go about making these new, ESA-compliant labels. You can read the whole thing here: https://www.epa.gov/...
But for a quicker read, here are the top three things to know -- how farmers get a say, what pesticides are the first to be affected and how you can stay tuned to the process.
## FARMERS AND OTHER AG STAKEHOLDERS GET A SAY
EPA is especially interested in farmer and other pesticide users' feedback on what "ESA-compliant" labels look like, said Jan Matuszko, EPA's acting director of the Environmental Fate and Effects Division (EFD).
"Your input is the key to our ability to identify practical yet effective mitigations that folks on the ground can actually implement," Matsuzko told listeners on a May 16 webinar, designed to explain the EPA's ESA work plan and its impact on growers.
Already, EPA has received lots of feedback that countylevel bans on entire pesticides, such as were issued with the Enlist herbicides, are deeply unpopular and viewed as impractical and overly harsh by the farming community. Most of the initially banned counties were eventually put back on the Enlist labels after new data was presented to the agency. But the experience has left some farmers feeling vulnerable to losing pesticide access.
To avoid future label requirements like that, EPA is exploring ways for farmers to "offset" any harm to endangered species by their pesticide use. That could mean building or maintaining additional habitat for listed species, Matuszko said.
That's a big change from how EPA pesticide use requirements have worked in the past, and the agency is still figuring out if it is legal and how it would be implemented, added Jake Li, deputy assistant administrator for EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs. But for now, the agency is interested in pilot projects
with ag chem companies and farmers to determine whether or not this is a feasible ESA mitigation option, he said.
"What we're hoping through a pilot project ... is to demonstrate how all of that plays out in real life and we are also hoping in [the] not-too-distant future to actually put some of this down on paper so that you all can see what that process looks like [and] what are the standards are," he explained.
Other pilot projects are getting underway, as well, Matuszko said. They will allow EPA to see how certain current farm practices, such as buffer strips or cover crops, help mitigate pesticide run-off and risks to nearby endangered species. (Some of these practices are already listed as runoff prevention requirements on the new Enlist herbicide labels. See page 4 of the label here: https://www.cdms.net/...).
The agency hopes to have a website listing those pilot projects and giving the ag community information on how to participate soon. "Stay tuned," Matuszko said.
## WHICH PESTICIDES WILL BE AFFECTED FIRST?
EPA is struggling with its workload, officials admitted.
"We have an enormous backlog of past, current and future regulatory decisions that require ESA compliance and not enough resources or processes to meet the requirements all at once," Li explained. "So that is why under the work plan we describe for the first time what we can do with our resources and just as importantly, what we're not going to get around to doing immediately."
First up?
"Our highest priority is to meet litigation-related commitments," Matuszko explained. That means the EPA will first work on meeting "court-committed" deadlines for ESA-compliant labels for 18 pesticides, listed on page 68 of its work plan.
They include common ag pesticides such as atrazine, glyphosate, and neonicotinoids. Expect to see labels with new ESA requirements for these pesticides first.
EPA's next highest priority for ESA-compliant labels are new active ingredients. As of January 2022, no active ingredient will be registered by the agency without going through a full ESA evaluation. For more details on what that process looks like, see this DTN story: https://www.dtnpf.com/....
Finally, as EPA cycles every pesticide through its routine, 15-year registration review, it will begin the task of evaluating each one for effects on endangered species, Matuszko said. That means, ultimately, all pesticides will go through this.
## HOW FARMERS CAN GET THER FEEDBACK TO EPA
EPA has been hosting webinars and listening sessions on its pesticide work for the Endangered Species Act. The webinars have fielded more than 200 listeners each so far, many of them from the ag community, who were free to comment and ask questions. See one from January here: https://www.epa.gov/..... and watch for the posting of the May 16 one.
Farmers can also get feedback to EPA on its pesticide work via their state regulators, found here in the Association of American Pesticide Control Officials: https://aapco.org/....
EPA also publishes its various pesticide registration decisions -- including ESA actions -- in the Federal Register and accepts public comment on them, said Elissa Reaves, director of EPA's Pesticide Re-Evaluation Division. Farmers can keep up to date with these publications by subscribing to the agency's Office of Pesticide Programs' news alerts here: https://www.epa.gov/....
Finally, the USDA's Office of Pest Management Policy accepts feedback here: https://www.usda.gov/\_\_\_, and the Farm, Ranch, and Rural Communities Federal
Advisory Committee holds regular meetings that welcome public participation on many issues, including EPA's pesticide work. See more here: https://www.epa.gov/....
(Progressive Farmer, May 18, 2022) https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/crops/article/2022/05/18/use-pesticides-epa-wants-input-label
## DDT STILL HARMING BIRDS OF PREY, 50 YEARS AFTER ITS BAN
Fifty years after the banning of DDT, the notorious insecticide is still harming iconic birds of prey along the California coastline. According to research published in Environmental Science and Technology , California condors and marine mammals along California's coast are contaminated with several dozen different halogenated organic compounds (hazardous, oftenchlorinated chemicals) related to DDT, chlordane, and other now-banned legacy chemicals. The findings highlight the incredible importance of addressing these original "forever chemicals," and making certain that we do not continue to repeat the mistakes of the past with new and different, yet equally dangerous, chemistries.
Between 1947 and 1971, the Montrose Chemical Corporation of California, the largest historical producer of DDT, released over 1,700 tons of DDT into the LA sewer system, which eventually made its way into the Pacific Ocean. During this time, several other companies discharged PCBs, leading to further chemical contamination of land and sediment. As recent as April 2021, scientists discovered 25,000 barrels likely containing DDT near Catalina Island along the southern California coast.
These releases have resulted in serious environmental and health problems throughout the coastal food chain. Yet, as the present study shows, scientists are only beginning to understand the far-reaching effects.
DDT and similar halogenated organic compounds present significant risks to bird populations. Throughout the 1960s, populations of birds of prey declined precipitously throughout the United States, similar to the serious pollinator decline that is currently being experienced with the continued use of neonicotinoid insecticides. DDT biomagnifies up the food chain; the chemical does not break down, and as each animal progressively up the food chain consumes contaminated prey, the amount of the chemical accumulates, increasing the toxicity to predators at the top. Birds that consume high amounts of fish and other marine organisms contaminated with DDT are more likely to experience eggshell thinning. Thin eggs crack and become nonviable in the nest, which resulted in a widespread failure to procreate among birds of prey during the middle of the 20 th century.
By 1987, only 27 California condors remained in existence. It has taken 40 years of captive breeding to grow the population to its current level of 537, yet as the present study highlights, the same threats still remain. "The abundance is so high in Southern California," said Eunha Hob, PhD, study coauthor and researcher at San Diego State's School of Public Health to the LA Times. "We can't just move on ... our ocean is so much more polluted with DDT."
Scientists assess the continuing threat of DDT (and DDTrelated compound) contamination by comparing blood plasma samples from California condors and coastal marine life located at different locations in California. Using two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry, levels of halogenated organic compounds were determined for both inland and coastal California condors, as well as marine mammals (various dolphin species, seals, and California sea lions) from both Baja California, Mexico, and southern California.
In summary, researchers identified 415 unique halogenated organic compounds in tested samples. Nine classes of compounds found, likely related to the past chemical dumping, were unknown to scientists. Coastal condors contained four times greater levels of halogenated compounds than inland condors, and
marine mammals along the southern California coast contained levels three times higher than those located in Baja California. For DDT alone, coastal California condors had concentrations in their blood seven times higher than their inland neighbors.
"Our ongoing work has demonstrated that the more years a female condor spends on the coast, and thus likely feeding on marine mammals, the lower the probability her egg will hatch," said Myra Finkelstein, PhD, an environmental toxicologist at UC Santa Cruz to LA Times .
According to previous reports , thinning eggshells have been seen in coastal California Condors since 2006. These coastal populations have been observed feeding on the carcasses of various marine life, including highly contaminated seals and sea lions. Condors along Big Sur are experiencing hatching success as low as 20-40%, while those farther inland near Tejon are seeing rates of 70-80%. Perhaps the silver lining of the present research is the relatively lower levels of contamination found in Baja California, indicating that location as a possible site for coastal reproduction.
(Beyond Pesticides May 31, 2022) https://beyondpesticides.org/dailynewsblog/2022/05/d dt-still-harming-birds-of-prey-50-years-after-its-ban/
Find us on Twitter at @OkstatePestEd
## CEU Meetings
Please note that many of these meetings are now being done virtual. Please contact the meeting host directly if you have any questions.
Date: June 9, 2022
Title: Oklahoma Pecan Growers Association Annual Conference Location Ardmore Convention Center Ardmore, OK Contact: Becky Carroll (405) 744-6139
CEU's:
2
Category(s):
2
CEU's:
1A
10
Date: September 28, 2022
Title: ENSYSTEX 2022 CEU Workshop
Location: Hilton Garden Inn-Oklahoma City OK
Contact: Don Stetler (281)217-2965
https://ceuworkshop.com/
CEU's:
4
7A
2
1
7B
8
## ODAFF Approved Online CEU
## Course Links
Online Pest Control Courses
https://www.onlinepestcontrolcourses.com/
```
PestED.com
https://www.pesteded.com/
```
Certified Training Institute
https://www.certifiedtraininginstitute.com/
WSU URBAN IPM and PESTICIDE SAFETY EDUCATION PROGRAM
https://pep.wsu.edu/rcrt/recertonline/
CEU University
http://www.ceuschool.org/
Technical Learning College
http://www.abctlc.com/
All Star Pro Training www.allstarcore.com
Wood Destroying Organism Inspection Course www.nachi.org/wdocourse.htm
CTN Educational Services Inc
http://ctnedu.com/oklahoma\_applicator\_enroll.html
Pest Network
http://www.pwestnetwork.com/
Veseris
http://www.pestweb.com/
AG CEU Online
https://agecuonline.com/courses/state/37
Target Specialty Products Online Training https://www.target-speciality.com/training/online training
For more information and an updated list of CEU meetings, click on this link:
http://www.kellysolutions.com/OK/applicators/course ses/searchCourseTitle.asp
## ODAFF Test Information
Testing will be done at testing centers in multiple locations around the state by PSI Services LLC.
For more information and instructions, please go to https://bit.ly/3sf4y0x .
Reservation must be made in advance at www.psieexams.com/ or call 855-579-4643
PSI locations.
Oklahoma City 3800 N Classen Blvd, Ste C-20, Oklahoma City, OK 73118
Tulsa 2816 East 51St Street, Suite 101, Tulsa, OK 74105
McAlester 21 East Carl Albert Parkway (US Hwy 270), McAlester, Oklahoma 74501
Woodward 1915 Oklahoma Ave, Suite 3, Woodward, OK 73801
Lawton Great Plains Technology Center, 4500 West Lee Blvd Building 300- RM 308, Lawton, OK 73505
Enid Autry Technology Center, 1201 W. Willow Rd, Enid, OK 73703
Ponca City Pioneer Technology Center, 2101 N Ash, Ponca City, OK 74601
Norman Moore Norman Technology Center, 4701 12th Ave NW, Norman, Oklahoma,73070
South Penn - Moore Norman Technology Center 13301 S. Pennsylvania, Oklahoma City, OK 73170
If you have questions on pesticide certification. Please email or call:
Kevin Shelton
405-744-L1060 kevin.shelton@okstate.edu or
Charles Luper
405-744-5808 charles.luper@okstate.edu |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/detachable-woolly-leaf-gall-wasp-3 | Detachable Woolly Leaf Gall Wasp | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Entomology",
"Pest",
"PDIC",
"Gall"
] | NC | ## Detachable Woolly Leaf Gall Wasp
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
The gall wasp, Andricus quercusanigera , causes a woolly gall on the midrib of the leaves of live oak. Oaks in general have a flourishing fauna of gall wasps associated with them. The abnormal growths developing in oak tissue are due to the powerful enzymes given off by the immature gallforming insect as it grows. The plant tissue is remarkably altered even to the point of replication of chromosomes without cell division. Many gall wasps develop for 2 or 3 years in woody galls on the twigs of oaks. Adults then emerge from the twig galls during the winter. They lay eggs in the buds and die. When new growth resumes on the oak, these eggs hatch. Salivary secretions of the gall wasp grub act as powerful plant growth regulators and force the tree to form a gall. Gail wasps typically have an outer wall, a spongy fiber layer and a hard, seedlike structure inside of which the gall wasp grub develops. Although gall wasps have chewing mouthparts, they do not seem to chew plant tissue. Evidently the gall secrets nutrients the grubs lap up. An amazing thing about the gall wasps is that they often have a showy leaf gall, but the next generation has an obscure stem gall or catkin gall. This is called alternation of generations. Apparently most if not all cynipid wasps display this phenomenon in which the galls of the children resemble the galls of the grandparents but not those of the parents. The stem gall of the detachable woolly leaf gall wasp is not known.
## Host Plant
Live oak is the only known host plant of the detachable woolly leaf gall wasp. Oaks in general have a flourishing fauna of gall wasps associated with them. For the most part, leaf galls on oak are harmless except for the anxiety they cause the homeowner.
## Residential Recommendation
Gall wasps are difficult to treat because the tissue around the grubs is so distorted that even systemic pesticides have a hard time getting in to kill the grub. Even when the trees are treated, the galls will not disappear, so it is hard to tell if a treatment worked or not. To try to break the cycle of stem galls and leaf galls in next year's growth, collect some of the galls and store them in plastic bags outside, in the shade. When the tiny, dark wasps emerge, it is time to spray. If no wasps have emerged after a few weeks, then collect another sample and store it in the shade outside and wait for the wasps. Some oak gall wasps emerge from stem galls in winter. Other gall wasps that form galls on leaves and succulent stems emerge in late spring or early summer. When the gall wasps emerge, spray the tree thoroughly. Sevin (carbaryl) pesticide is labeled for gall wasp control on shade trees and park trees.
## References
- · Galls on Oaks. Frank, S., J. R. Baker, and S. Bambara. 2018 (update). Entomology Insect Notes, NC State Extension Publication No. 5.
- · Galls on Oak. Hoover, G. A., Sr. 2013 (revised). Insect Advice from Extension. PennState College of Agr. Sciences.
- · Extension Plant Pathology Publications and Factsheets
- · Horticultural Science Publications
- · North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension Center.
This Factsheet has not been peer reviewed.
## Author
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology and Plant Pathology
Publication date: Jan. 12, 2015
Reviewed/Revised: Sept. 13, 2019
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A TState University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/agribusinessand-cooperative-management/site-files/docs/newsletters/impacting-your-sustainable-growth-rate.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [
"kenkel"
] | Error: time data "D:20210204141325-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Impacting Your Sustainable Growth Rate
## Phil Kenkel
## Bill Fitzwater Cooperative Chair
In my last newsletter I introduced the concept of a cooperative's sustainable growth rate. That is the rate that the cooperative can grow without increasing its debt ratio. The sustainable growth rate is a function of the cooperative's return on equity and its retention ratio. The retention ratio is in turn, the percent of profits that are not distributed to members as either cash patronage or equity retirement. In simple terms a cooperative's growth is limited by the amount of profits it is retaining.
The return on equity can in turn be broken down into three components: turns, earns and leverage. "Turns" refers to the cooperatives total asset turnover and is measured by the ratio of sales to total assets. Total asset turnover indicates how many dollars of sales the cooperative generated for each dollar it had invested in assets. It is a measure of how efficiently and how intensely the cooperative is using its assets. The cooperative can improve its "turns" by having the right assets and working them hard. Among other things, that means divesting of assets that are not creating sufficient sales. Creating more sales for every dollar of assets is the first step of increasing the sustainable growth rate. Most members would support a cooperative increasing its "turns". The exception would be members using a service with under-performing assets.
The second component of return on equity is "earns" or the profit margin. The "earns" component measures how much profit the cooperative makes for every dollar of sale. The profit margin is impacted both by the price charged and the costs of providing the good or service. Cooperative members support a cooperative improving "earns" by becoming more efficient but not when the profit margin was created through less favorable prices. "Good sold at market prices" is a key cooperative principle so every cooperative should strive for at least a competitive profit margin. The profit margin component raises the question as to whether members would pay just a little more in order to grow their cooperative.
The last component of return on equity is the leverage ratio. The concept of sustainable growth rate represents the growth we can obtain without changing leverage. Cooperative leaders may still want to consider whether their current level of leverage is the best level for their cooperative.
I'll discuss leverage and how it impacts sustainable growth in my next newsletter. | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2023/02/01/florida-leads-the-world-in-caladium-bulb-production-thanks-in-part-to-uf-ifas-scientists/ | Florida leads the world in caladium bulb production, thanks in part to UF/IFAS scientists | University of Florida | [
"Brad Buck"
] | 2023-02-01 | [
"Horticulture",
"'Lava Glow'",
"caladium bulbs",
"caladiums",
"cultivars",
"Gulf Coast Research and Education Center",
"ornamental plants",
"UF/IFAS Plant breeding",
"varieties",
"Zhanao Deng"
] | FL | ## Florida leads the world in calcium bulb production, thanks in part to UF/IFAS scientists
Terri Bates knows that if she wants to sell a good caladium, she can count on University of Florida scientists, including Zhanao Deng.
"We grow 12 UF/IFAS varieties developed by Dr. Deng, and they are a huge asset to our business as well as the landscape/retail garden center industry," said Bates, owner of Bates Sons & Daughters in Lake Placid, Florida.
The Sunshine State serves as the sole source of caladium bulbs for the world, and since 1976, UF/IFAS researchers have been breeding varieties of this ornamental.
Deng has developed 34 caladium varieties during his 20-year UF/IFAS career. Five of the most popular at nurseries are 'Royal Flush,' 'Tapestry,' 'Fiesta,' 'Sizzle' and 'Lava Glow.'
'Lava Glow is his most recent caladium. He describes it in a new UF/IFAS Extension document and in a new journal article.
The latest cultivar grows well in containers, and you can plant it in landscapes in sunshine or shade, said Deng, one of 31 UF/IFAS plant breeding faculty members across Florida.
"Lava Glow,' with bright red to reddish-purple leaves, can further enrich the plant palette for caladium growers, nurseries, landscapers and gardeners. It's an important addition to the red, fancy-leaved caladium variety group," said Deng, a professor of environmental horticulture at the Gulf Coast Research and Education Center.
Great caladiums don't grow on trees. Deng spends countless hours pairing the right parent plants to develop caladiums that nurseries and consumers will want.
"As a plant breeder, I am passionate about developing new cultivars that can satisfy needs of the environmental horticulture industry and consumers," Deng said. "Caladiums can rival many flowers with their colorful, attractive leaves. They are easy to grow, and their color shows well for many months. That's one reason so many people love caladiums, either in pots or the garden."
Caladiums grow particularly well in Highlands County -about 60 miles south of Lakeland, in the heart of Florida. Deng calls the Lake Placid-Sebring area a "sweet spot" for producing caladiums.That's because it has many months of frost-free weather, plenty of rain, fertile muck or organic soil.
The plant can suffer cold damage in the winter, but if the temperature stays above 60 degrees, caladiums can thrive.
## ###
## ABOUT UF/IFAS
The mission of the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) is to develop knowledge relevant to agricultural, human and natural resources and to make that knowledge available to sustain and enhance the quality of human life. With more than a dozen research facilities, 67 county Extension offices, and award-winning students and faculty in the UF College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, UF/IFAS brings science-based solutions to the state's agricultural and natural resources industries, and all Florida residents.
```
ifas.ufl.edu | @UF IFAS
o
by Brad Buck
Posted: February 1, 2023
```
La temporada de mango del 2024 está tomando forma: los expertos de UF/IFAS ofrecen sus observaciones
Plant this not that: a new guide to protect Florida
Ía huelle a café! Una investigación sobre la producción de café en Florida |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/shelby-city-retail-sales-profile | Shelby City Retail Sales Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home
» Publications
» Publications » Shelby City Retail Sales Profile
## Shelby City Retail Sales Profile
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P2944-248 | |
| View as PDF: P2944-248.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Bolivar County | |
| Print PDF | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | |
| Your Extension Experts | Your Extension Experts |
| Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor | |
| Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II | |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor | |
| Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor | |
| Related News | |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/pope-census-profile-2010-2020 | Pope Census Profile (2010-2020) | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Pope Census Profile (2010-2020)
## Pope Census Profile (2010-2020)
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3716-342 | |
| View as PDF: P3716-342.pdf | |
| Presentation File: | |
| pope_census_presentation.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension- Panola County. | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | Select Your County Office |
| SELECT A COUNTY | SELECT A COUNTY |
| Your Extension Experts | Your Extension Experts |
| Dr. James Newton Barnes | Dr. James Newton Barnes |
| Extension Professor | Extension Professor |
| Dr. Rachael Carter | Dr. Rachael Carter |
| Extension Specialist II | Extension Specialist II |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills | Dr. Devon Patricia Mills |
| Associate Extension Professor | Associate Extension Professor |
| Related News | Related News |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998 Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374 Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375 Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/farming/poultry-pest-management/ | Poultry Pest Management | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Joe Hess",
"Ken Macklin",
"Gene R. Strother"
] | 2019-04-05 | [
"Poultry",
"Pest Management",
"Farming"
] | AL | Mites and lice are the most common external parasites of poultry in Alabama. The major pests include the northern fowl mite, the chicken mite, the bed bug, and several species of biting lice. Mosquitoes and black flies have also caused problems in some areas of Alabama. Fowl ticks, sticklight fleas, scaly-leg mites, depulming mites, and chiggers rarely become serious pests in modern commercial poultry operations.
External parasites can slow the growth, lower the vitality, damage the plumage, and reduce the egg production of poultry. Heavy infestations have been known to reduce egg production by as much as 30 percent. In addition, heavy infestations can make birds susceptible to other parasites and diseases that can cause death.
## Pests of Poultry
## Cookie Notice
more nymphal stages before becoming adults. The entire life cycle requires a minimum of 30 to 40 days if the food and temperature are suitable. Spraying poultry houses with insecticides has almost eliminated this tick from commercial operations.
## Scaly-leg mite. Sometimes, small farm flocks may become
infested with this itch mite, which is almost microscopic in size, measuring from 1/OO to 1/SO of an inch across (Figure 3). They are pale gray with a nearly circular outline. These mites primarily infest the legs and feet, tunneling in the upper layers of skin where they lay their eggs. Their habits greatly irritate poultry.
Depulming mite. This mite is similar to the scaly-leg mite but is smaller. It burrows into the skin at the base of the feathers, and the irritation causes birds to pull out their feathers.
Fowl tick or bluebug. Fowl ticks are fairly large, about 1/4- to 1/2-inch long when mature, and are flattened, leathery, eightlegged, blood-sucking, external poultry parasites. Both males and females feed at night and become filled with blood in less copies of the cookie diet. Noticeletter in cracks and crevices, where the female deposits her eggs. The eggs hatch in about two weeks, and the six-legged larvae, or seed ticks, find a host and attach its insects. After about five days of feeding, they crop cjt, shed their skins, and eat, eating.
nympthps://www.awubuth.edu.au/administration/oacp/privacy.php)
Sticklight or southern chicken flea . Black rings around the legs of young birds or black spots on wattles or combs may be clusters of fleas with their heads embedded in the skin (Figure 4). These pests suck blood, causing great irritation and affecting growth and egg production. Young birds may die from heavy infestations.
Mating usually occurs on the bird. Female fleas lay eggs, which drop to the floor or into the litter. Eggs hatch in a few days, and slender white larvae feed on debris in cracks and litter on the floor. Carvae spin cocons and pupate. Adult fleas then emerge from the pupal cases. Generations are completed in one to two months.
Bed bug. Bed bugs are found in breeder flocks or other floorhoused birds. They hide, breed, and lay their eggs in nests, behind nest boxes, under loose boots, and in cracks around the walls, roots, and roofs of buildings. At night, young and old bed bugs crawl onto birds and suck blood. Because they are found hiding during the daytime in cracks, around walls, and in equipment, they can be best controlled by treating these areas. When disturbed, bed bugs give off a distinct odor similar to that of stink bugs.
Chigger. Chiggers are usually not pests of poultry unless birds are allowed to range in wooded or brushy areas that are infested (Figure 5). Infested birds have reddish patches of chiggers on the skin. Lesions may form if the infestation is severe.
Turkey gnat (black fly). This is a tiny, blocking gnut or fly that may feed in high numbers on poultry in certain areas of Alabama (Figure 6). They feed on the bird around the head, including the comb, and around the eyes and beak. They breed in running water and are usually a serious problem only for two to three weeks in the early spring. The most effective method of control is direct sprays to the bird using an insecticide that is also a repellent (permethrin).
Darkling beetle or lesser mealworm. The darkling beetle or lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer), has become a nuisance in ground house operations such as broiler houses (Figure 7). Large populations of beetles sometimes migrate into nearby residence areas, especially during litter clean-out time. Although beetles can fly up to one mile, most crawl at night from disposed litter to neighboring fields and homes. Beetles are frequently associated with poultry feed, preferring grain and cereal products that are damp, moldy, and slightly out of condition. Both adults and larvae consume poultry feed in amounts costly to the producer. Larvae are known as lesser mealworms. Increased importance has been placed on control of this beetle. Both adult beetles and larvae act as reservoirs for many poultry pathogens and parasites
wings, gasping, weight loss, pallor, and diarrhea are also symptoms. Birds severely affected may be found lying on their sides with one leg stretched forward and the other held behind. The disease affects both broiler and egg laying types of poultry. Losses can reach two percent of the flock per day, and mortality may exceed 30 percent of the flock within a few weeks.
Acute leukosis is highly contagious and has been shown to be airborne. Contamination may persist in the environment because the darkling beetle may serve as a reservoir for residual contamination. Beetles have been observed feeding on carcasses of poultry de lad of leukosis, and it appears that beetles may become contaminated in the process. Adult beetles are capable of retaining and transmitting the leukosis when eaten by chickens, in the opinion of some scientists. Other diseases that are spread by beetles include the causative agents of avian influenza, salmonella, fowl pox, coccidiosis, botulism, and new castle disease. They also act as vectors of cecal worms and avian tapeworms.
In the poultry house, a beetle can lay up to 800 eggs in litter during a 42-day period. Eggs develop into larvae in four to seven days. The life cycle requires about 42 to 97 days, depending on temperature. Adult beetles live from 3 months to a year. Adults are black or very dark reddish-brown, and about 1¼ inch long. Larvae are yellowish-brown (wireworm-like), up to 34inch long, and accumulate in dark corners of manures or litter, especially under sacks, in bins, or in places where feed is stored. Pupation occurs in the litter, soil, and side walls of poultry houses.
Adult chickens and chicks are more likely to eat the beetles and their larvae than poultros or turkeys. Consumption of beetles and larvae may have a negative effect on feed conversion and rate of gain. Darkling beetle control is difficult, but may be best achieved by spraying wooden portions of side walls at clean-out with an effective insecticide, such as permethrin.
Boric acid, labeled as SafeCide, is also effective for darkling beetle control in broiler and breeder hens. Boric acid is applied to the floor of broiler houses between grow-outs; long residual control (9 months to 1 year) is suggested. Cost of control has been a consideration in the past with boric acid.
## Controlling External Parasites
The successful control of external parasites on poultry involves several considerations, including the selection of the proper insecticide. Certain chemicals are labeled and recommended for specific external pests of poultry. For insecticides labeled and recommended for the control of pests, see the Georgia Pest Management Handbook at http://extension.uga.edu/programsservices/integrated-pestmanagementpublications/handbooks.html#commercial,(http://extension.uga.edu/programs-services/integrated-pestmanagementpublications/handbooks.html#commercial)
As stated earlier, the northern fowl mite is the most serious and the most difficult pest to control in modern commercial operations. Successful control of it and other external parasites of poultry involves several important factors, including the following
## Control of Flies in and Around Poultry Houses
One of the largest poultry pest management problems facing the poultry producer today is fly control. Large poultry operations have as a byproduct a large volume of waste that cannot be removed quickly and can provide concentrated breeding areas for flies. As urbanization and rural nonfarm residence increase, poultry producers are faced with increasing pressures to reduce fly populations to very low levels. Fly populations (manure breeding flies) may cause a public health nuisance, resulting in poor community relations and litigation. A dedicated effort is necessary to achieve an acceptable level of fly control.
There are several kinds of flies common in and around caged layer houses. Probably the most common flies are the house fly and the little house fly. About 95 percent of problems involve the house fly. Both of these files are capable of movement up to about 5 miles from the site of development, but normally move no more than a mile or two from the initial source.
House flies , Musca domestica L., about 14-inch long, breed in moist, decaying plant material, including refuse, spilled grains and spilled feed, and in all kinds of manure. Consequently, house flies are more likely to be a problem around poultry houses where sanitation is poor. These flies prefer sunlight and are very active, crawling over fifth, people, and food products.
The house fly is the most important species from the standpoint of spreading human and poultry diseases in addition to flyspacing eggs. House flies are the intermediate host for the common tapeworm in chickens. Flies carry millions of bacteria.
Little house flies , Fannia canicularis L., about 316-inch long, are somewhat smaller than house flies. This fly prefers a less moist medium than the house fly which in most breed to reproduce. Poultry manure is preferred over most other media. This fly prefers shade and cooler temperatures and is often seen circling aimlessly beneath hanging objects in the poultry house, egg room, and feed room. It is less likely to crawl on people and food. However, it does cause people living near poultry establishments to complain about fly problems. The little house fly may hover in large numbers in nearby garages, breezeways, and homes because it prefers shade.
## Fly Biology
All flies pass through four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Adult flies deposit small, white, oval eggs on the breeding media, and creamy white larvae (maggots) develop in this moist material. Mature maggots crawl out of this material and move to a drier place for pupation. The brown seedlike pupita finally hay take yield adult flies. Development from egg to adult fly may take place as quickly as seven to ten days under ideal conditions. Adult house flies live about 3 to 4 weeks, and females lay between cookiefly notice 200 eggs at 3- to 4day intervals.
## Cultural Control
Manure management is the most effective means for fly control. As many as 1,000 house flies can complete development in one pound of breeding material. Fresh poultry manure contains 75 to 80 percent moisture. Fely breeding in this material can be practically eliminated by reducing the moisture content to 30 percent or less or by adding moisture to liquefy it. Drying manure is often preferred because of the cost involved in going to a liquid system. If manure is liquefied there is no fly breeding.
## Dry Manure Management
Frequent removal of manure (at least 4- to 5-day intervals) prevents fly breeding because it breaks the fly breeding life cycle. It is important to scatter the manure lightly outdoors to kill the eggs and larvae by dry. Avoid pilding or clumping manure. Adequate agricultural land is needed to spread manure.
Manure drying time can be speeded up by providing 2- x 3-inch slats spaced at 3-inch intervals running lengthwise about 15 inches under each cage. This additional exposed surface causes droppings to dry more quickly and to accumulate in cones in narrow rows.
In-house storage of manure requires drying the manure to a 30 percent moisture level and maintaining this level where sufficient storage space is available. Dry manure can be held for several years. Any practice that limit moisture in the droppings or aids in rapid drying is important for fly control.
## Guidelines for Dry Manure Management
- Prevent leaks in water troughs or cups. Regulating water flow to an on/off cycle may help reduce the moisture in the manure. Use drip pans under water troughs, if necessary.
- Provide abundant cross-ventilation beneath the cages, especially during not weather. Thirty-six inch pit fans blowing across the manure is good. A curtain above the manure every 100 feet helps keep air velocity over the manure.
- Adequate house ventilation is important at all times.
- Direct surface water away from the building. Drain and fill all low areas around the houses. Clear out weedchoked water drainage ditches.
- Use recommended antibiotics if dysentery develops.
- Avoid laxative feed rations.
- Reduce excessively high house temperatures that encourage abnormal water intake.
- Practice good husbandry by restricting excess water consumption.
## Biological Control
Entomologists are quite interested in using biological control in poultry houses and around livestock to control house flies. A natural occurring enzyme of manure-breeding house flies is the parasitic wasp. In nature, the population of parasitic wasps is too low to have an effect on house fly population. Commercial laboratories are now breeding mass quantities of wasps for release in poultry houses to control house flies. Industry is encouraging poultry owners to use biological control, but commercial claims that parasitic wasps provide fly control have not been confirmed by scientific research or test results. Field testing has shown that house flies can easily overpower a massive parasitic wax release if odors are right for sustainable house fly breeding. A mass release of house fly
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oapcplyvagyopbplink only when cultural craratio practices
are used to provide a sustainable reduction of fly breeding. However, the use of sustainable cultural housefly control techniques alone produces the same result. Remember, house fly breeding cannot occur if manure is relatively dry or if manure is liquified.
## Resistance
House fly resistance is genetic in nature, developing more quickly under heavy doses of pesticide or very frequent application. Insects resistant to one insecticide can be crossresistant to other insecticides of the same class or even those that have a similar mode of action. The only proven solution
to resistance problems is to rotate the use of different classes of insecticides . This is especially important in Alabama because house flies have developed a fairly high level of resistance to all insecticides labeled for their control.
Revised by Joe Hess, Extension Specialist , Professor Emeritus, and Ken Macklin, Extension Specialist , Professor, both in Poultry Science, Auburn University. Written by Gene R. Strother , former Extension Entomologist.
Reviewed August 2022, Poultry Pest Management , ANR- 0483
■ (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/ANR-0483-Poultry-Pest-Management\_051719L-copy.pdf) Poultry Pest Management.ANR- 0483 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/ANR-0483-Poultry-Pest-Management\_051719Lcopy.pdf) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/farmers-market-tours-a-guide-for-nutrition-educators | Farmers' Market Tours: A Guide for Nutrition Educators | NC State Extension | [
"Annie Hardison-Moody",
"Dara Bloom",
"Lorelei Jones"
] | null | [
"Farmers Market",
"Nutrition",
"Local Food"
] | NC | ## Farmers' Market Tours: A Guide for Nutrition Educators
Department Agricultural & Human Sciences Publication Date
March 9, 2016
Authors
Annie Hardison-Moody Dara Bloom Lorelei Jones
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=farmersmarket-tours-a-guide-for-nutrition-educators#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, nationality, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/digital-diagnostics/plant-diseases/barley-yellow-dwarf.html | Barley Yellow Dwarf - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-04-08 | [] | OK | ## BARLEY YELLOW DWARF
## Causal Agent
Barley yellow dwarf virus
## Hosts
Wheat, barley, oats, etc. Barley yellow dwarf virus attacks oats and wheat is transmitted by many species of aphids. In Oklahoma, the two most common aphids associated with transmission are the bird-cherry oat aphid ( Rhopalosporium padi ) and the greenbug ( Schizaphis graminum ).
## Symptoms
In Oklahoma in mid-March through early-April, wheat, barley or oat plants infected with barley yellow dwarf virus generally have varying degrees of yellow, red, and/or purple associated with the foliage. Generally infected plants appear in circular patches corresponding to aphid infestations that occurred sometime through the fall. Usually the yellow, red and/or purple color is expressed more toward the base of the leaves. As the season progresses and temperatures rise, the red or purple colors are replaced with chlorosis (yellowing) and necrosis (tissue death). Barley yellow dwarf-infected plants, especially if infected in the fall, will be significantly shorter than non-infected plants.
## Control
Some wheat varieties such as 2137 and Custer have some tolerance to barley yellow dwarf, but no variety is highly resistant. Controlling the aphid vectors with chemicals will help to limit incidence and spread of barley yellow dwarf, but frequently aphids transmit the virus before reaching levels believed sufficiently high to merit application of an insecticide. Planting late also helps reduce incidence and severity of barley yellow dwarf because of the reduce time in the fall for aphid infestations and transmission of the virus. Please contact your local county extension office for current information.
Additional information can be found in the most current OSU report of barley yellow dwarf control on wheat.
For more information you may contact Dr. Robert Hunger, email address: rmh@okstate.edu(mailto:rmh@okstate.edu) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/euonymus-pest-management-calendar | Euonymus Pest Management Calendar | NC State Extension | [
"Steven Frank",
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Pest Management",
"Entomology",
"Agriculture"
] | NC | ## Euonymus Pest Management Calendar
Entomology Insect Notes
## Caution
This information was developed for North Carolina and may not apply to other areas.
Please click on the thumbnail to enlarge it.
Jump to the table legend.
View an accessible version of the table in HTML format.
## Legend
- * Degree of importance of pest: I = Important pest, high probability of occurrence, II = Treat as needed: III = Occasional pest, treat when detected.
- ** Number of applications needed for most effective control. It is usually best to wait 10 to 14 days between applications in cool weather and 7 to 10 days between applications in warm weather.
G = granular; D = Drench, S = spray application.
## Other Resources
- · Aphids on Ornamental Landscape Plants. Frank, S. 2019 (revised). Entomology Insect Notes, NC State Extension Publications.
- · Euonymus Scale. Frank, S. et al. 2019 (revised). Entomology Insect Notes, NC State Extension Publications.
- · Twospotted Spider Mites on Landscape Plants. Frank, S. 2019 (revised). Entomology Insect Notes, NC State Extension Publications.
- · Insect and Related Pests of Shrubs. Baker, J. R. ed. 1980. NC Agricultural Extension Service publication AG-189. 199 pp.
- · North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
Find your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
This Insect Note has not been peer reviewed.
## Euonymus Pest Management Calendar
## Euonymus Pests
| | Degree of Importance of Pest* | Number of applications^- | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May |
|----------------|---------------------------------|----------------------------|-------|---------------------------------------|---------------------------------------|--------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|
| aphids | III | 1 | 1 | Spray Application | Spray Application | Spra Spra Application | Spra Spra Spra Spra Spra Spra Spra Spra |
| euonymus scale | | I 2 or 3 | | Spray, Drench or Granular Application | Spray, Drench or Granular Application | Drench or Granular Application | Drench Drench Granular Application |
| spider mites | | II 2 | | | | | |
- * Degree of importance of pest: I=Important pest, high probability of occurrence, II=Treat as needed:
III=Occasional pest, treat when detected.
- ** Number of applications needed for most effective control. It is usually best to wait 10 to 14 days between applications in cool weather and 7 to 10 days between applications in warm weather.
G = granular; D = Drench, S = spray application.
## Authors
Steven Frank
Professor and Extension Specialist Entomology & Plant Pathology
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Jan. 22, 2019
Reviewed/Revised: Nov. 8, 2023
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/broiler-house-lamp-and-light-dimmer-basics | Broiler House Lamp and Light Dimmer Basics | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Tom Tabler, PhD, Extension Professor",
"Jessica Wells, PhD, Assistant Clinical/Extension Professor",
"Jonathan Moon, Poultry Operation Coordinator, Poultry Science"
] | null | [
"Poultry",
"Lighting",
"Agriculture"
] | MS | Home » Publications »
Broiler House Lamp and Light Dimmer Basics
## Broiler House Lamp and Light Dimmer Basics
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: Poultry
Publication Number: P3639
View as PDF: P3639.pdf
Issues with LED lamps and light dimmers in poultry houses continue to plague the poultry industry. It's time to get past the finger-pointing stage and solve the problem. And the problem can be solved. However, everyone from both the lamp and dimmer sides needs to work together to educate integrators, distributors, and growers on what combinations will and will not work in a poultry house situation. A variety of different light dimmers and a multitude of different LED lamps are used in poultry houses today.
Unfortunately, the fact is that many of these various combinations in use today were never meant to be combined in the first place. Some combinations of lights and dimmers work well together. However, many combinations are not working and are leading to premature lamp failures, flickering, ghosting, dead travel, etc., resulting in unhappy growers and integrators. The main point of emphasis that integrators, growers, and distributors must understand is that we can spend good money once, address the issue, and move on to something else, or continue to spend bad money over and over again and still not solve the problem.
## Some Facts
First of all, incandescent lamps are nothing like LED lamps. Leading-edge light dimmers are nothing like trailing-edge light dimmers. The two dimmer styles and the two lamp styles are so different that they are practically total opposites. Incandescent lamps and leading-edge light dimmers work well together. LED lamps and trailing-edge light dimmers work well together. However, leading-edge light dimmers and LED lamps are NOT compatible and do NOT work well together. It is that simple.
Fewer than 15 years ago, there were basically no LEDs in use in poultry houses, but today, we are using a wide variety of LED lamps. Many of these lamps have an excellent track record in agricultural settings. Unfortunately, however, many more have no place in a poultry house environment . While these may be less expensive than LED lamps rated for agricultural applications, they are LED lamps made for less demanding, residential applications and will simply not hold up in a harsh chicken house environment , regardless of the light dimmer being used.
Poultry growers continue to see too many lamp failures long before their time. There are now a handful of folks with a pretty good understanding of why this is happening, but most poultry growers, integrators, and distributors that market both the lamps and the light dimmers are still trying to grasp what the problem is. If we are ever going to turn the corner on this issue, there are some terms and definitions that all of us need to be aware of and understand.
Omni-directional lamp (omni) -A residential-grade lamp that gives off light in all directions-top, sides, and bottom of the lamp. A good lamp in a chicken house puts light directly on the floor where the chickens are located. Most of the light directed to the walls and ceiling is wasted in a chicken
house because the chickens are on the floor. The net effect is that only 50-60 percent of an omni's light output reaches the birds.
Directional lamp - Emits a wall of parallel rays in the direction that the light is facing. A light hanging from the ceiling puts almost all its light on the floor.
Beam spread - The amount of effective space a light covers from different distances.
Watt - The basic unit of electrical power; amount of energy an item needs to function; equal to current (amps) multiplied by voltage (volts). Wattage is not a measure of light output.
Lumen - The total amount of visible light output from a lamp (brightness).
Foot candle (fc) - Aa non-metric unit of light intensity defined as 1 lumen per square foot. (1 fc ~10.76 lux.)
Lux - Metric unit of light intensity defined as 1 lumen per square meter.
Dead travel - When changing the light dimmer setting produces no visible change in light level. This happens because, unlike incandescent lights, LEDs do not dim in a linear fashion.
Ghosting - When light is still visible from the LED lamps even when the dimmer is fully off. This can occur because LEDs operate on DC instead of AC power. The driver in the lamp is trying to find enough current, even though the dimmer switch may be off, to keep the lamp burning. It may also occur if the circuitry is too old or poorly maintained to properly regulate smooth current flow.
Drop out - When the LED lamp shuts off completely at a low dimmer level instead of continuing to dim down.
Pop on - When the LED lamp suddenly turns on completely instead of gradually coming on as the dimmer switch is raised from the fully off position.
Flicker - Results from a limited amount of current being applied by the driver that is not enough to keep a constant current flow to the individual LEDs in the lamp.
Leading-edge dimming - Uses a current that is turned off as the AC waveform begins, right after it crosses zero. It is commonly used with incandescent lamps and produces a rush of voltage every half cycle, resulting in a high inrush of current to the light source.
Trailing-edge dimming - Uses a current that is turned off as the AC waveform ends, just before it crosses zero. This type of dimming is designed for lamps with electronic drivers (CFLs and LEDs) and does not result in a rush of voltage (and, in turn, an inrush of current) to the light source.
Triode alternating-current (TRIAC) dimmer - Designed for resistive loads such as incandescent or halogen lights. Leading-edge dimmers typically use TRIAC switches to control power. Unfortunately, these dimmers are not compatible with LEDs because LEDs do not appear as a resistive load to the dimmer, and the LED drivers will not perform as expected with TRIAC dimmers. LEDs are a capacitive load, not a resistive load.
Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) dimmer - A semiconductor device widely used for switching purposes. MOSFET devices can control the voltage and current flow between the source and drain terminals. Trailing-edge dimmers often use MOSFET rather than TRIAC switches. Trailing-edge dimmers are much newer than leading-edge dimmers and were developed, in
part, to eliminate the high inrush current when dimming low-voltage lamps. MOSFET dimmers offer better performance with the capacitive nature of LED drivers.
Determining proper light level in a broiler house is difficult without a light meter (Figure 1). Many service technicians now carry light meters. LED light meters cost less than $150. Take light measurements at bird level at various locations (directly under a lamp, between lamps, at a wall, etc.) to determine light levels in the house (Figure 2). Different light dimmers often dim differently because of how the lighting curve in the dimmer responds. As a result, light levels may be different between houses even though the dimmers may all be set at the same dimming level, making a light meter a critical piece of equipment.
Issues often occur in certain low-end lighting situations found in today's broiler houses. In these situations, very low light output is required when the dimmer is set at a low level. However, the lamp's dimming performance depends on how well the dimming range of the dimmer matches the dimming range of the drivers in the LED lamp. Problems occur when the two do not closely match. Unfortunately, even though LED lamps must be compatible with phase dimmers, there is no industry standard that defines characteristics of light dimmers on the market today. Therefore, we are seeing compatibility issues between the variety of dimmers on the market and the multitude of LED lamps on the market. As a result, we may see one brand of dimmer work with one brand of LED lamp but not work with another.
As a general rule, only trailing-edge dimmers should be used with any dimmable LED lamp. Because leading-edge dimmers cut the front edge of each AC sine wave's half-cycle, a huge inrush of current flows through the lamp's circuitry, eventually damaging the electronic drivers and LED chips, leading to premature lamp failure. Trailing-edge dimmers, on the other hand, cut the back half of the AC sine wave, where the output voltage rises relatively slowly and avoids the huge current spikes that leading-edge dimmers send into capacitive-load LEDs, thereby reducing stress on the electronic drivers and LED chips and extending lamp life.
What does this all mean for the chicken grower, integrator, and lamp and dimmer distributor? Perhaps most important, if you are using LED lamps in the chicken house, you should be using a trailing-edge dimmer to dim those lamps. If you aren't, expect problems. If your dimmer has both leading-edge and trailing-edge capabilities, be extra cautious that someone (you, your service tech, the catch crew, etc.) does not switch to the leading-edge channel and then fail to switch it back. Preferably, use directional LED lamps with an agricultural rating that indicates they are designed for chicken house applications.
If you are using omni-directional LED lamps with a smaller heat sink and lesser craftsmanship in a chicken house, expect problems. We can't haphazardly throw together a hodgepodge of lamps and dimmers and expect not to have issues. Unknowingly however, that is exactly what we have done. And until we take the necessary actions to correct those missteps, lamp failures will continue . Using the right LED lamp in combination with the right light dimmer will solve many of the issues currently being experienced with premature lamp failures and erratic dimming behavior.
## The Bottom Line
Any combination of lamps and dimmers that delivers improper lighting and dimming does nothing but "cheat the chickens." Cheating the chickens comes with a price that always seems to be reflected on the settlement sheet.
Publication 3639 (POD-06-21)
By Tom Tabler, PhD, Extension Professor; Jessica Wells , PhD, Assistant Clinical/Extension Professor; and Jonathan Moon , Poultry Operation Coordinator, Poultry Science.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
Select Your County Office
## SELECT A COUNTY
Dr. Jessica Benoit Wells Assistant Teaching Professor
## Your Extension Experts
Dr. Kenneth S. Macklin Professor and Head
## Dr. Jessica Benoit Wells
Assistent Teaching Professor
Mr. Jonathan Wayne Moon Extension Instructor
## Related News
MARCH 21, 2025
Noxubee HPAI case differs from common variant
FEBRUARY 4, 2025
MSU experts tackle bird flu crisis driving record-high egg prices
JANUARY 30, 2025
Biosecurity can keep backyard flocks safe
JANUARY 22, 2025
Clients share needs with MSU agents, specialists
JANUARY 21, 2025
MSU invites growers to north, central PAC meetings
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3982
4-H Poultry Chain Project Guide
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4090
Hydration Gel Bead Supplementation for Broiler Chicks
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P1182
Hatching Quality Chicks
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2919
Composting Mortality in an Avian Influenza Outbreak
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2754
Water Quality Critical to Broiler Performance
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/crop-production/adapting-corn-production-to-climate-in-alabama/ | Adapting Corn Production to Climate in Alabama | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Prem Woli",
"Brenda V. Ortiz",
"Kathy Flanders",
"Austin Hagan",
"Bob Kemerait",
"David Wright"
] | 2018-08-23 | [
"Crop Production",
"Agriculture",
"Climate Change"
] | AL | ## Adapting Corn Production to Climate in Alabama
Learn the risks that multiple climate scenarios impose on corn yield, as well as associated pest and diseases. Discover management strategies that can be implemented to minimize those risks.
Corn is one of Alabama's most important row crops. Alabama farmers usually harvest more than half a million acres of corn each year. Corn is grown as a part of crop rotation systems that include cotton and peanuts. Although corn is planted throughout Alabama, the majority of production is located in the northern region.
(Lawrence, Madison, Limestone, Jackson, Lauderdale, and Colbert Counties) providing more than 50 percent of total corn acreage. Central and southern counties such as Talladega, Baldwin, Coffee, Escambia, and Houston provide 12 percent of corn acreage.
The climate variability in Alabama is mainly linked to ENSO, which is an oscillation that occurs every 3 to 7 years between warm and cold phases of sea surface temperature in the Equatorial Pacific. The El Niño phase of ENSO results in lower winter temperatures and higher winter-spring rainfall. The La Niña phase of ENSO causes warmer and drier conditions from fall to spring. Summers are drier and hotter than normal in El Niño years in northern and southern parts, but wetter and cooler in La Niha years in northern and central parts of the state.
Here is how you can use this climate information to enhance yields and secure higher levels of profitability.
Crop yield is affected by the variability in rainfall and temperature in Alabama through the influence in plant growth and development rates and pest and disease dynamics. Climate forecasting can be a valuable tool in increasing yields and securing a more profitable crop.
## Key Climate Impacts and ManagoukirShetogis
Print "Drier/Warmer Spring" (table from our (Mapisi:www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/hase).
Print "Wetter/Cooler Spring" table from our website.
Print "Drier/Warmer Summer" table from our website.
Print "Wetter/Cooler Summer" table from our website.
Print "Drier/Warmer Winter" table from our website.
## Seasonal Climate Variability Affecting Corn Production in Alabama
- The ocean-atmospheric phenomenon associated with unusually warm water forming occasionally across the eastern and central Pacific is referred to as the El Niño phase.
- The La Niña phase is characterized by cooler than average sea surface temperatures across the same region.
- The phenomenon associated with close-to-average sea surface temperature in this region is referred to as the Neutral phase.
- El Niño, La Niña, and Neural are the three phases of ENSO, the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. In Alabama, the ENSO phenomena affect rainfall and temperature during winter, spring and summer months.
- In an El Niño phase year, the southern part of Alabama is wetter and cooler than average condition during winter, whereas the northern part is drier and warmer. In a La Niña phase year, the conditions are just opposite.
- Summers are drier and hotter than normal in El Niño years in northern and southern parts, but wetter and cooler in La Niña years in northern and central parts.
- The effect of ENSO on corn yield is more pronounced closer to the Gulf Coast (south) than in the northern parts of the state.
- El Niño produces larger yields than does La Niña in the southern part of the state, whereas La Niña results in larger yields than El Niño in the central and northern parts.
- Throughout Alabama, the Neutral phase has we'e largest yie s
of all ENSO phases. Corn is most susceptible to water stress at tasseling which occurs during the summer. Low precipitation especially in July, the warmest month of the year, reduces corn yield substantially. La Niña phase years have larger yields than El Niño phase years. This is mainly due to summer rainfall which tends to be higher in La Niña phase year. For the same reason, El Niño phase years have power yields.
High maximum temperatures during tasseling and grain filling period also reduce corn yield substantially. Higher temperature shorten grain filling period. La Niña phase years have larger yields than neutral or El Niño phase years because La Niña phase years tend to be cooler during summer.
## Resources
## AgroClimate Tools:
http://www.agroclimate.org/tools.php
## Climate Risk Tool:
http://www.agroclimate.org/tools/climate-risk/
Climate Impacts:
University of Florida.
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/ENSO/composites/
In Alabama, ANR-2090 Adapting Corn Production to Climate
ENSO overview:
## Download this article as a PDF
- [ ] (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ANR-2090\_REV\_2.pdf) Adapting Corn Production to Climate in Alabama. ANR2090 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ANR-2090\_REV\_2.pdf) |
https://extension.okstate.edu/announcements/family-and-consumer-sciences-newsletters/august-29-2023.html | Evans takes on assistant state food safety specialist role - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2023-08-29 | [] | OK | ## Evans takes on assistant state food safety specialist role
Tuesday, August 29, 2023
Christi Evans is the new assistant state food safety specialist for Oklahoma State University Extension/index.html). A registered dietitian with bachelor's and master's degrees from OSU in nutritional sciences, she has previously served as a family and consumer sciences educator in Cleveland County/(county/cleveland/index.html) as well as a Community Nutrition Education Program area coordinator in the Oklahoma County unit.
"I'm here to assist county educators with any of their food safety needs," Evans said. "I think my experiences as a county educator will be helpful in this new role at the state level. I want to be a resource for our educators."
With her nine years of OSU Extension experience, Evans will provide information on food preservation methods such as canning, freezing and pickling. She will also guide consumers on other food safety issues such as cooking to proper internal temperatures, the safest way to thaw the Thanksgiving turkey or how to safely get the family's favorite casserole to
support county educators with training and workshops on food safety and food preservation. With Oklahoma's extreme weather, residents often deal with power outages during an ice storm or after a tornado. Evans is a resource for Oklahomans affected by the weather and can help them determine if refrigerated and frozen foods are safe to use. Evans' expertise is valuable from a food safety standpoint and
can also help stretch food dollars. She can advise on proper storage to extend the life of fresh, perishable foods. This can help reduce food waste and cushion the grocery bill. State residents can benefit from this valuable information with food costs continuing to soar. |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/animalsciencesdept/2022/12/06/basic-genomic-principles-for-beef-cattle/ | Basic Genomic Principles for Beef Cattle | University of Florida | [
"Jessica Czipulis"
] | 2022-12-06 | [
"Agriculture",
"Livestock",
"animal genetics",
"Animal Science",
"Beef Cattle",
"genetics",
"genomics",
"Genotype",
"inheritance"
] | FL | ## Basic Genomic Principles for Beef Cattle
By Raluca Mateescu, Professor
## A primer of genetics and inheritance.
Use of genomic technologies in the beef industry is rapidly increasing. To understand the value and use of DNA markers, it helps to begin with basics about the genome and about DNA. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) provides the code needed to perform processes within an organism's body both to keep it alive and to perform in an expected way. DNA is simply many bases (coded A, C, T, and G) bound together in long strings that are packaged into chromosomes within each cell. All of these chromosomes make up an organism's genome.
There are enough bases (letters) within the cattle genome to fill up approximately 2,000 New York City phone books. Given that, think of the genome as a giant stack of large phone books. Each book is like a chromosome and the entire stack of books is the genome. Inside each of the books, the names and numbers represent the DNA sequence.
Cattle have 29 pairs of autosomal (non-sex determining) chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes (either XX for females or XY for males). Cattle inherit one chromosome from each of their parents, so for every place in the genome, there are two different alleles (alternative forms of a gene). This is why genotypes (genetic make-up of an individual) are recorded in pairs (for example, AA, BB, or AB). Some regions of the genome are the same in all animals of a species such as in cattle. Regions of the genome that vary between animals are mutations, and these mutations can be used as DNA markers. If an animal has two copies of the same mutation (AA or BB), they are homozygous (think homozygous polled, or horned). If an animal has 2 different copies of the mutation, they are heterozygous (think heterozygous polled).
Even though an animal's genetics are determined at conception, many environmental factors can modify how genes are expressed. For example, an animal may have a very high genetic potential for weight gain, but if there is a drought or feed is limited, the animal will obviously be unable to fulfill that genetic potential.
## Genomic Tests
Most current genomic tests for cattle use SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) technology. These tests take advantage of mutations in a DNA sequence to identify the unique genetic makeup of the animal. Although other methods are available to perform most genetic tests, SNP testing provides low genotype error rates, easy automation and the ability to easily standardize SNP tests across labs. A SNP represents a single base pair mutation found at a specific location. Although SNP testing looks for specific changes in specific base pairs, the SNPs may not be tied to specific genes. Instead, SNP testing looks at areas that may be associated with, or located close to, a segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein. SNP tests are easy to do from a producer standpoint as they can use a blood, tissue or tail hair sample. SNP technology can be used for a variety of objectives, including: parentage determination; trait assessment; genetic abnormality testing; increasing accuracy of EPDs; and to sort cattle into management groups.
When you hear that an animal has been genotyped for 50K, that means the genomic snapshot includes DNA markers at 50,000 locations on an animal's chromosome. In other words, at 50,000 locations, the technology tracks whether an animal inherited the most favorable or unfavorable genetics from his parents. Genomic tests can be used to increase the accuracy of EPDs. This does not guarantee that the EPD gets "better" - it just means it's a more reliable selection tool. Typically, as an animal has more offspring the accuracy of the EPD increases. A generomically-enhanced EPD allows that increase in accuracy to be seen before any progeny are produced. When buying young bulls, this helps commercial producers have a better idea of how a bull will perform and what his offspring will look like. Genomically-enhancing the EPDs does not
offspring will look like. Genomically-enhancing the EPDs does not change how the EPD can be used, it just increases its accuracy. Keep in mind, that a genomic test increases accuracy. The accuracy will always increase, but the EPD estimate can go up or down. But, the increase in accuracy can allow us to use younger bulls with more confidence. GE-EPDs allow commercial producers more confidence that they are picking the right bull.
In the genomics era, the phenotype if still king.
The application of genomics to improve the accuracy of EPDs is a rapidly developing field. There are ongoing improvements in genotyping and sequencing technologies, statistical methods to increase the correlation between genomic predictions and true genetic merit, and the computing systems to handle the large datasets associated with animal breeding. One thing still remains true in the genomic age and that is the need to collect accurate phenotypic records. It is essential to ensure performance data, pedigree, and DNA information are recorded and reported accurately. Genomic predictions will only be as reliable as the data upon which they are based. Although it might seem like the
upon which they are based. Although it might seem like the genomics era could signal the end of performance recording, the opposite is true. Now more than ever, it is important that producers accurately report data, and ensure that animals which are genotyped are correctly identified so that their information can contribute towards improving the accuracy of the genomic predictions of the future.
Find more information about the UF/IFAS Department of Animal Sciences events on our website. Stay in touch with us on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Any questions or inquiries regarding this piece should be directed toward Dr. Raluca Mateescu at raluca@ufl.edu. Read more stories like this one here: http://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/animalsciencesdept/.
```
```
More From Blogs.IFAS |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/4-h-dairy-poster-contest | 4-H Dairy Poster Contest | Mississippi State University | [
"Dr. Dean Jousan",
"Dr. Jessica Halfen"
] | null | [
"4-H",
"Dairy"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » 4-H Dairy Poster Contest
## 4-H Dairy Poster Contest
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P799
Filed Under: 4-H, Dairy
View as PDF: P799.pdf
## June Dairy Month 2025
Are you a Mississippi 4-H member? If so, enter the June Dairy Month Poster Contest! Your poster will help teach others about the dairy industry and the importance of including milk and dairy products in a healthy, well-balanced diet.
You will have fun as you work with 4-H volunteer leaders, Extension agents, parents, dairy farmers, and dairy industry leaders to develop your poster to promote the dairy industry or dairy products. Dairy posters are first judged in your county 4-H Dairy Poster Contest. First-place county winners in each age division advance to statewide competition.
Past first-place winners cannot compete again in the same division in the statewide competition, but they can compete in a different age division as they become eligible.
The contest runs through June 30, 2025. Each county will be allowed to submit one winner from each age division from the local country contest. Extension agents must email their winning poster in each age division to Dr. Dean Jousan at deanjousan@msstate.edu by the close of business on June 30, 2025.
Using the theme Dairy Defenders , make a poster about the benefits of the dairy industry and dairy products. The poster must be 22 inches by 28 inches . It can be on poster board or created as an electronic submission. Get ideas from magazines, parents, friends, Extension agents, 4-H volunteer leaders, dairy farmers, or others. Information about dairy foods is available at thedairyalliance.com . Do not use brand names or copyrighted material (like cartoon characters) on your poster. The dairy poster content should be positive toward the dairy industry. Posters that slander the dairy industry are prohibited.
Ask your Extension agent to help you make sure your poster has correct information about milk and dairy products. The poster must focus on the benefits of consuming real dairy products, not alternative milk beverages from nuts (such as almond milk) or other sources. Your agent will establish a deadline for submitting dairy posters to the county Extension office and can help you think of public places to display your poster, such as farm supply stores, grocery stores, veterinary clinics, doctors' offices, libraries, schools, or Extension offices.
You can also use your poster in presentations about the dairy industry or milk products at 4-H meetings and other meetings in your community. Your Extension agent can help you think of presentation opportunities. Take pictures of your poster on display and of any presentations you deliver with the poster. Share these pictures with your Extension agent. The Mississippi State University Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences may also share some of your pictures with sponsors of the 4-H Dairy Poster Contest.
Write your name, address, 4-H age, and county in the upper right-hand corner on the back of your poster. If the poster is submitted electronically, be sure to include the name, address, 4-H age, and county name in the submission.
Awards (Courtesy of the Dairy Alliance)
| Level | Award |
|---------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| County | 1st place in each age division (8-10, 11-13, and 14-18) advances to the state contest |
| State | 1st place in each division: $100 and ribbon |
| | 2nd place in each division: $75 and ribbon |
| | 3rd place in each division: $50 and ribbon |
Factors
for scoring are as follows:
- Attracts attention-holds interest (20 points)
- Original or well-adapted* (10 points)
- Follows current year's theme (10 points)
- Conveys message-easily understood (25 points)
- Accurate information-factual (10 points)
- General appearance:
- Well-planned; good design (5 points)
- Easily read (5 points)
- Neat and well-constructed (5 points)
- Correct size (22 inches by 28 inches)(5 points)
- Name, address, age, and county written in the upper-right corner on the back of the poster or included in the electronic submission.(5 points)
Total possible score is 100.
*Brand names and copyrighted material cannot be used.
Recognition is given to the Dairy Alliance for sponsoring this contest.
## Publication 799 (POD-03-25)
Department: Ctr 4-H Youth Development
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
| Select Your County Office | Select Your County Office |
|-----------------------------|------------------------------------|
| SELECT A COUNTY | ~ |
| Authors | Dr. Dean Jousan |
| | Extension Professor |
| | Extension 4-H Livestock Specialist |
| | Your Extension Experts |
| | Dr. Jessica Halfen |
| | Asst Extension/Research Prof |
| | Related News |
FEBRUARY 25, 2025
4-H team goes undefeated, wins national horse bowl title
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3689
Keeping Your Livestock Show Animals Healthy: Proper Pharmaceutical Use
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3982
4-H Poultry Chain Project Guide
PUBLICATION NUMBER: M2322
2025 Mississippi 4-H Horse Show: Education Contest Rules and Regulations
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2751
2025 4-H Shooting Sports State Championship Rulebook
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4085
Tips for Creating a "Green" Holiday Season
Recent Issues
4H ANIMAL LINES NEWSLETTERS March 2025 - 4-H Animal Lines
4H ANIMAL LINES NEWSLETTERS October 2024 - 4-H Animal Lines
4H ANIMAL LINES NEWSLETTERS August 2024 - 4-H Animal Lines
4H ANIMAL LINES NEWSLETTERS June 2024 - 4-H Animal Lines
4H ANIMAL LINES NEWSLETTERS
March 2024 - 4-H Animal Lines
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/specialty-cover-crops-soils/organic-high-tunnel-cover-crop-soil-management/ | Organic High Tunnel Cover Crop Soil Management | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [] | 2018-08-01 | [] | AL | High tunnels extend the spring, fall and winter growing season in southern climates. During the summer, it can be difficult to grow anything more than the most drought-tolerant crops. Summer is the prime time to grow a cover crop in a high tunnel environment -between late spring and early fall crops.
Producers utilizing high tunnels deal with two main issues: managing soil-borne pests and nutrients over time. Both pathogen and fertility issues can develop quickly in the enclosed
facility. Once a soil-borne pathogen establishes in a high tunnel, it is difficult to control. Similarly, with the application of fertilizer in a high tunnel environment, rain and other cash crops do not take up additional nutrients. This causes elevated pH levels and salt content in the soil.
To that end, cover crops are a management tool option to address both issues.
Download a PDF with information about cover crops in high tunnels. (https://www.southernsare.org/SARE-in-YourState/North-Carolina/State-News/Cover-Crops-ResearchAcross-the-Southern-Region)
This product was developed with support from the Southern Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (Southern SARE) program, which is funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture-Nature Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDANIFA). Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed within do not necessarily reflect the view of the Southern SARE program or the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Cookie Notice |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/soil-treating-system | Soil Treating System | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | Home » Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive
## Soil Treating System
BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION PLANS ARCHIVE
Publication Number: 6198
View as PDF: 6198.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/verona-city-retail-sales-profile | Verona City Retail Sales Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home
» Publications
» Publications » Verona City Retail Sales Profile
## Verona City Retail Sales Profile
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P2944-287 | |
| View as PDF: P2944-287.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Lee County | |
| Print PDF | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | Select Your County Office |
| Your Extension Experts Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor | Your Extension Experts Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor |
| Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II | Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor | Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor |
| Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor | Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor |
| Related News | |
| OCTOBER 3, 2024 | |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998 Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374 Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375 Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/brazilian-egeria-egeria-densa | Brazilian Egeria | Egeria densa | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Wes Neal",
"Dennis Riecke",
"Gray Turnage"
] | null | [
"Water Weeds"
] | MS | Home
» Publications »
Publications » Brazilian Egeria | Egeria densa
## Brazilian Egeria | Egeria densa
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3735-05
View as PDF: P3735-05.pdf
## Submersed | Non-Native
Egeria growing tip displaying crowded leaf whorls.
Five-leaf whorl of egeria.
Brazilian egeria, or Brazilian elodea, is an invasive species to North America. Like native eloade, it is soft to the touch, with medium to dark green leaves that are flexible and narrow at the tips. The edges are finely serrated, but a magnifying glass may be necessary to see serrations. Leaves grow in whorls of three to six around the stem and are noticeably more crowded near the water surface.
This species is easily confused with two other species: Canadian elodea (Elodeca canadensis) and hydrilla (Hydrila verticillata ). Elodea has three leaves per whorl and is smooth when pulled through the hand (no midrib teeth), while hydrilla has four to eight leaves per whorl and one or more teeth along each midrib, making it feel rough when pulled through the hand. Hydrilla has tiny flowers, egeria has larger flowers, and elodea flowers are intermediate.
The plant roots in muddy bottom sediments and sends stems toward the surface. Stems can be very long in clear water. Growth is submersed, but plants can top out on the surface and form mats.
Plants reproduce sexually by flowering or vegetatively by fragmentation. A single fragment
Comparison of Hydrilla verticillata, Egeria densa , and Elodea canadensis .
15 or more per acre for severe infestations. Note that abundant grass carp can impact other fish and can survive 20 years.
Stock 8-to 10-inch triploid grass carp in ponds that have established largemouth bass populations.
Option 2: Chelated copper. Apply a liquid chelated copper (0.8-pound formulation) at a rate of 1.5 gallons per acre-foot. Determine pond volume prior to application. Copper can be toxic to fish when water alkalinity is low. Do not use copper in catfish or koi ponds when alkalinity is less than 50 ppm. Do not exceed annual herbicide rate limits as stated on the product label.
Option 3: Diquat (3.73-pound formulation). Diquat (0.5 gallon per acre-foot of water) should be applied as a submerged injection (subsurface application using a wand or hose). Determine pond volume prior to application. Do not exceed annual herbicide rate limits as stated on the product label.
Option 4: Endothall (4.23-pound formulation). Endothall should be applied as a submersed injection (3.2 gallons per acre-foot of water). Determine pond volume prior to application. Do not exceed annual herbicide rate limits as stated on the product label.
Option 5: Fluridone (4.0-pound formulation). Fluridone should be applied as a submersed injection (5.1 ounces per acre-foot of water); reapply at the same rate 30 days after initial treatment. Determine pond volume prior to application. Do not exceed annual herbicide rate limits as stated on the product label.
NOTE: Acre-foot = average depth of pond multiplied by pond acreage; average depth is calculated by taking the depth at 20 points across a water body and averaging the values.
Treat ponds when the plants are actively growing and the water temperature is at least 60°F. It would be best to treat one-third of the pond at a time for larger water bodies, with 2 weeks or more separating applications. After the entire pond has been treated, a repeat whole-pond application may be necessary to eliminate remaining plants.
Read and follow all chemical label instructions, especially the section on the use of personal protection equipment.
Funding provided by the Aquatic Nuisance Species Program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Grant Award F18AP00260 to the Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality. Additional funding and support provided by the MSU Extension Service.
The information given here is for educational purposes only. References to commercial products, trade names, or suppliers are made with the understanding that no endorsement is implied and that no discrimination against other products or suppliers is intended.
## Publication 3735-5 (POD-11-23)
By Wes Neal, PhD, Extension/Research Professor, Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture; Dennis Riecke, Fisheries Coordinator, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks; and Gray Turnage, PhD, Assistant Research/Extension Professor, GeoSystems Research Institute.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
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Authors
Dr. Wes Neal
Extension/Research Professor Fisheries Extension
Dr. Lee Gray Turnage, Jr.
Your Extension Experts
Dr. Wes Neal
Extension/Research Professor
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## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3735-02
Macroalgoa | Chara and Nitella spp.
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Water Shield | Brasenia schreberi |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/by-ingredients/live-well-recipe-half-veggie-burgers/ | Live Well Recipe: Half Veggie Burgers | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-26 | [
"Recipes",
"Nutrition",
"Healthy Eating"
] | AL | ## Live Well Recipe: Half Veggie Burgers
Love grilling? Try our Half Veggie Burger recipe! Combine lean ground turkey or beef with canned pinto beans for tasty backyard burgers that will save your budget. Serves 8.
## Ingredients
- - 2 cans pinto beans, 14 ounces each, drained and rinsed
- - 1 bell pepper, finely chopped
- - 1 pound lean ground turkey or beef
- 1 egg
- Salt and pepper to taste
- Cooking spray
- 2 tomatoes, sliced
- 8 leaves of lettuce
- 8 hamburger buns
Mash the beans with a potato masher or fork; for a smoother burger texture, put beans in a blender or food processor.
In a bowl, mix together beans, bell pepper, meat, egg, salt and pepper using your hands.
Form mixture into 8 patties.
Spray a skillet with cooking spray; heat to medium-high.
Cook the patties for 4 minutes on each side or until done. The internal temperature should reach 165 degrees and there should be no pink in the middle.
Serve on buns with sliced tomatoes and lettuce.
Download the recipe here: Printable Half Veggie Burgers
(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/FCS\_2196\_LiveWellAlabamaRecipeCards\_HalfVeggieBur)
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement.
(https://www.acs.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/usda-nondiscrimination statement/)
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/rcrec/2020/07/10/uf-ifas-rcrec-graduate-student-highlight-leandro-otavio-vieira-filho/ | UF/IFAS RCREC Graduate Student Highlight: Leandro Otavio Vieira Filho | University of Florida | [
"Andrea Dunlap"
] | 2020-07-10 | [
"Agriculture",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Leandro Otavio Vieira Filho",
"Maria Silveira"
] | FL | ## UF/IFAS RCREC Graduate Student Highlight: Leandro Otavio Vieira Filho
By: Bethany Wight, Biologist
UF/IFAS Range Cattle Research and Education Center
| | Leandro with poster at UF/IFAS RCREC Field Day. |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------|
| Growing up he enjoyed being outside in nature and riding his horses. One of his fondest memories was going to rodeo events with his brother which also led him to start competing in roping events at a young age. | |
| "Growing up I was lucky to have such a safe outdoor space to play. A lot of other parts of Brazil are dangerous but I was able to grow up playing outside and enjoying nature safely." | |
| Leandro attended the Federal Institute of Santa Catarina in Santa Rosa do Sul, Brazil and graduated with a Bachelor's in Agronomy in 2016. During his undergraduate studies, he completed an exchange program at Oregon State University from September | |
| 2013 - December 2014. He began by studying English and taking a couple classes and then spent the summer at the Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center. During his time at the research center, he was involved in a project that was focused on evaluating a seed coating technique that favored water retention and seed germination. He also worked on a project related to water stress and the use of this new seed coating technique on white cabbage and hybrid onion crop. | |
Shortly after graduating, Leandro started his Master's degree at the University of Sao Paulo under the guidance of Dr. Francisco A. Monteiro. His master's research examined the use of silicon on Tanzania guinea grass as a phytoremediator of copper under different management strategies. Results from his master project indicated that silicon improved guinea grass's ability to tolerate high soil copper levels, as most of the copper accumulated in the roots allowing the adequate growth of above-ground biomass. He completed his Master's degree in Soil and Pantry Nutrition in 2018.
After earning his master's degree, Leandro moved back to work on his family's ranch where he was involved in all aspects of the beef cattle operation, including checking cows, managing pastures, conducting vaccinations, building and fixing fences, shoowing horses, and feeding cattle.
The main reason I came back to work on my family ranch was because I had decided to apply for a PhD position and I needed time to prepare for the GRE and TOEFL exams and other related applications. It was hard to do, as I worked during the day and studied at night. I had to use my time very efficiently, there was no time to procrastinate".
wanted to expand his education by researching soil chemistry and fertility. After being admitted to the UF/Soil and Water Sciences Department graduate program, Leandro began his PhD in the summer of 2019.
Leandro's doctoral research focuses on agronomic and environmental aspects of soil P management in Florida grazing land ecosystems. His research project addresses concerns relative to the new proposed restrictions on land application of biosolids in Florida. Leandro's research
aims to demonstrate the multiple benefits of biosolids recycling programs, including less environmental risks than commercial fertilizer or other biosols disposal options such as land fill. He is in the first year of his PhD program and is currently working on the research questions and experimental approaches he will be using in his research project. One component of his project consisted of a fully-instrumented field study equipped with soil moisture probes and lysimeters to evaluate water quality. This project has been funded by the Florida Cattle Enhancement Board and is currently in its 4 th year. Leandro has been monitoring water quality parameters before the treatments are imposed so he can determine the impacts of his treatments compared to baseline values. He will continue to collect water samples (weekly, bi-weekly, or after major rainfall events) during the next 2 years.
Soil incubation study with soils first part is a soil incubation study to examine P dynamics in soils regimens and biosolids subjected to different biosolids application histories. Treatments include a control (no biosols), low biosols load, and high biosols load. In addition, they also evaluated the impacts of additional biosolid applications on soil P dynamics. In theory, added with biosolids can also promote soil P absorption, so this project will address important questions relative to the role of biosols and moisture regimen on soil P availability.
Another ongoing study consisted of a greenhouse trial that examines how water table levels affect Pe leaching. Soil samples were collected from the same commercial cow-calf ranch and treatments included a control, low and high biosols application levels. Water table levels were maintained at the top of the B horizon or the entire soil column was flooded. Columns were drained bi-weekly to determine how much Pe lached from the soil.
Lastly, Leandro's project is focused on developing a Leandro refilling columns of soil profiles state-level P budget. Using government data and a state-wide survey, Leandro and his team will be able to calculate the contribution of the beef cattle industry to the overall P budget in Florida. They expect this effort will generate science-based information that will help educate the public about the importance of the beef cattle industry in the state.
When Leandro is not conducting his research, he enjoys exercising and traveling. He is planning to complete his PhD program by the end of 2022 or beginning of 2023. After graduation, Landro will look for a postdoc or professor position here in the US or in Brazil.
Leandro participating in a rodeo in his hometown in southern Brazil. This sport is called "long rope" due to the size of the rope used.
This was written by Bethany Wight, a biological scientist at the UF/IFAS Range Cattle REC in Ona, FL. If you have questions please contact her at bwjght@uul.edu.
Category: Agriculture, U/EIAS Research, U/EIAS Teaching
Tags: Leandro Otavio Viera Filho, Maria Silveira
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Benefits Of Overseeding Aeschynome To Livestock Grazing Systems
- · The SLICK Gene In Holstein Cattle Improves Thermotolerance
- · UF/IFAS Range Cattle REC Exchange Visitor Highlight - Dr. Marta Kohmann
- · UF/IFAS RCREC Graduate Student Highlight: Dipti Rai |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/dairy-cattle/twelve-stall-trigon-milk-parlor | Twelve Stall Trigon Milk Parlor | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Jessica Halfen"
] | null | [
"Dairy",
"Agriculture",
"Publications"
] | MS | " Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Dairy-Cattle »
Twelve Stall Trigon Milk Parlor
## Twelve Stall Trigon Milk Parlor
DAIRY CATILE
Publication Number: 6348
View as PDF: 6348.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-22262.
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APRIL 4, 2024
Bird flu health risks to public remain low despite human case
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Northeast Miss. producers discuss educational needs
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## 4-H Dairy Poster Contest
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2024 Mississippi State Fair and 2025 Dixie National Junior Round-Up: Dairy Cattle Division
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Arthropod Management Guidelines for Dairy Cattle and Dairies
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next\_v
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https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/afs/estimating-water-requirements-for-mature-beef-cows-afs-3299.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20161017143853-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | An abundant, clean, fresh water supply is an essential element of a beef cattle production system.
mature weight in gestating cows and 900-pound lactating cows only (NRC, 2000). Recent data suggest mature weight in the modern beef cow ranges from 1,100 to 1,500 pounds (Kuehn et al., 2013). Consequently, this publication focuses on estimates of total water requirements for beef cows with varying mature weights at different stages of production and genetic potential for milk production.
## AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
During warm months, daily ambient temperature and humidity have a dramatic effect on heat stress and thus water intake in feedlot cattle (Arias and Mader, 2011). These authors reported that a temperature humidity index was the best single environmental indicator of daily water intake. The temperature humidity index is calculated using a combination of the daily average temperature and relative humidity. The Cattle Comfort Index is a similar tool provided through the Oklahoma Mesonet and used to monitor heat and cold stress in cattle (Richards et al., 2012). The Cattle Comfort Index is calculated using ambient temperature, humidity, wind speed, precipitation, and sunlight.
The current National Research Council concludes that average daily ambient temperatures below 40 degrees Fahrenheit do not significantly influence water intake. Daily temperature above 40 degrees Fahrenheit, however, increase water consumption linearly (NRC, 2000). For example, water intake was reported to increase by 1.44 pounds per day in lactating dairy cows for each degree Fahrenheit increase in temperature (Murphy et al., 1983), 0.61 pound per day in growing dairy bulls for each one degree Fahrenheit (Meyer et al., 2006), and 0.5 pound per day in feedlot cattle for each one degree Fahrenheit (Hicks et al., 1988).
Published research investigating the influence of ambient temperature, humidity, or the combination on average daily water consumption for beef cows is not readily available. Consequently, for this publication, the influence of ambient temperature on water intake was estimated using the approximate mean of the published estimates shown above (0.85 pound of increased water intake per one degree increase in temperature beyond 40 degrees Fahrenheit). Therefore, for every 10 degrees Fahrenheit increase in ambient temperature, an additional one gallon of water should be supplied per animal.
## MILK PRODUCTION
Milk composition in beef cows is about 4 percent fat and 8.3 percent other solids (protein, carbohydrates, and minerals; NRC, 2000). Consequently, average water
content of milk produced by beef cows is about 87.7 percent. Therefore, lactation has a direct impact on water requirements and water consumption. No publications defining the relationship of milk yield to water consumption in beef cows were found for this publication. Winchester and Morris (1956) concluded that lactating dairy cows consumed an additional 0.87 pound of water per pound of increased milk production. Similarly, Murphy et al. (1983) reported a linear relationship between milk yield and water intake in dairy cows with 0.9 pound of increased water intake for every 1 pound of additional milk produced. Therefore, water intake estimates shown in Table 2 were adjusted by 0.9 pound for each pound of milk produced.
## FEED DRY MATTER CONTENT
The dry matter content of feedstuffs is the proportion of the feed that is not water. Since the water content of forage and feed is extremely variable (Table 1), and because all feedstuffs contain water, feed and forage are important sources of water for beef cattle. Because of this, not all water needs to be provided as free water (drinking water). Compared to dormant pasture, grains, and hay, feeds such as silages and growing pasture are higher in moisture. Nutritional guidelines for beef (NRC, 2000) and dairy (NRC, 2001) cows suggest that consumption of free water declines as the moisture content of feeds in the diet increases.
## FORAGE AND FEED INTAKE
Water intake is highly related to rumen volume and feed dry matter intake (NRC, 2000 and 2001). Greater daily feed consumption is associated with greater rumen volume. Logically, greater mature weight is associated with greater rumen volume and dry matter feed intake (NRC, 2000). Therefore, for the purpose of these water requirement estimates, the influence of cow size and rumen volume on water intake is addressed through the influence of feed dry matter intake. For the estimates
| Table 1. Dry Matter Content of Common Feedstuffs | Table 1. Dry Matter Content of Common Feedstuffs |
|----------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------|
| Type of Feed | Dry Matter (%) |
| Sun cured hay; grass and legume | 87 - 91 |
| Grazed forage, vegetative | 20 - 35 |
| Grazed forage, boot stage | 30 - 40 |
| Grazed forage, seeded | 75 - 85 |
| Grazed forage, mature | 80 - 90 |
| Silage; grass, legume or grain | 25 - 40 |
| Haylage; grass and legume | 40 - 60 |
presented in Table 2, we assumed that non-lactating beef cows consume an average of 2.2 percent of their body weight and lactating cows consume an average of 2.7 percent of their body weight in dry matter when provided average- or moderate-quality forage.
Diets high in protein increase water intake (NRC, 2001). Therefore, early spring forage or high-quality legume silage, for example, is expected to increase water consumption beyond the values shown in Table 2. Conversely, diets at the other end of the quality spectrum also may increase water consumption. While a low-quality diet reduces total dry matter intake, low-quality roughage contains a high proportion of indigestible fiber. Therefore, more moisture is required for additional mucous production to lubricate the digestive tract and move a greater volume of fibrous manure through the large intestine. Diets with a high concentration of salt and other minerals also increase water consumption (NRC, 2001).
## ESTIMATES OF TOTAL DAILY WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR BEEF COWS
| | Average Daily Temperature | Average Daily Temperature | Average Daily Temperature |
|-------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------|
| | °C | 4 | 18 |
| | °F | 40 | 65 |
| Cow Body | Milk | Production | *Gallons of Water/ Day |
| Weight (lb) | (lb/day) | 8.2 | 10.8 |
| 1,100 | 0 | 10.5 | 13.1 |
| 1,100 | 10 | 10.5 | 13.1 |
| 1,100 | 25 | 12.8 | 15.4 |
| 1,300 | 0 | 9.2 | 11.8 |
| 1,300 | 15 | 12.2 | 14.8 |
| 1,300 | 30 | 14.5 | 17.1 |
| 1,500 | 0 | 10.2 | 12.7 |
| 1,500 | 20 | 14.0 | 16.5 |
| 1,500 | 35 | 16.3 | 18.8 |
- · For each 10 degrees increase in ambient temperature above 40 degrees Fahrenheit, cattle consume about 1 more gallon of water per day.
- · For each additional gallon of milk produced, cows need to drink an additional gallon of water.
- · Feeds that are high in moisture contribute to water intake. The dryer the feeds consumed, the more drinking water required.
milk indicates cows that are dry or not lactating. The two levels of milk yield provided for each weight class of cows can be used to indicate differences in genetic potential for milk yield during peak lactation (around 45 to 60 days after calving). The two levels of milk yield also could be used to estimate the difference in milk yield (and thus water intake) from early lactation to the later stages of lactation because milk yield declines as the lactation period progresses beyond peak (NRC, 2000).
These estimates for water consumption are intended to represent total daily water consumption. Free water intake could be substantially lower than the estimates presented in this publication when beef cows consume feeds containing considerable moisture.
## CONCLUSION
An abundant, clean, fresh water supply is an essential element of a beef cattle production system. Considerable work has been conducted to determine water consumption and factors influencing water consumption for dairy cows, growing cattle, and finishing cattle; however, relatively little research has been published to provide robust estimates for water consumption of beef cows. The estimates of total daily water requirements specific to beef cows in this publication were developed using equations developed by reviewing available published literature. Factors considered in these estimates include mature body weight, feed dry matter intake, milk yield, and average daily ambient temperature.
## REFERENCES
Arias, R.A., & Mader, T.L. (2011). Environmental factors affecting daily water intake on cattle finished in feedlots. J. Anim. Sci . 89 : 1: 245-251.
- Hicks, R. B., Owens, F. N., Gill, D. R., Martin, J. J., & Strasia, C. A. (1988). Water intake by feedlot steers. Misc. publication-Agricultural Experiment Station, Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma.
Johnson, I.R., France, J., Thornley, J.H.M., Bell, M.J., & Eckard, R.J (2012). A generic model of growth, energy metabolism, and body composition for cattle and sheep. J. Anim. Sci . 90 : 4741-4751.
Kuehn, L., Snelling, W., & Thallman, M. (2013). Preliminary estimates of breed differences from recent sampling in the Germplasm Evaluation Project. Proc. Beef Improvement Federation 45 th Annual Research Symposium and Annual Meeting, Oklahoma City, OK. June 12-15, 2013.
Lanham, J. K., Coppock, C. E., Milam, K. Z., Labore, J. M., Nave, D. H., Stermer, R. A., & Brasington, C. F. (1986). Effects of drinking water temperature on physiological responses of lactating Holstein cows in summer. J. Dairy Sci . 69(4): 1004-1012.
Meyer, U., Stahl, W., & Flachowsky, G. (2006). Investigations on the water intake of growing bulls. Livestock Science . 103(1): 186-191.
Murphy, M. R., Davis, C. L., & McCoy, G. C. (1983). Factors affecting water consumption by Holstein cows in early lactation. J. Dairy Sci . 66(1): 35-38.
NRC (2000). Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle (7 th Ed.). National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
NRC (2001) Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle (7 th Ed.). National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Richards, C., Lalman, D., Highfill, G., LeValley, B., & Sutherland, A. (2012). Using the Mesonet cattle comfort advisor. http://www.mesonet.org/images/ site/Using%20the%20Mesonet%20Cattle%20 Comfort%20Advisor(1).pdf. (Accessed 19 July 2016).
Winchester, C. F., & Morris, M. J. (1956). Water intake rates of cattle. J. Anim. Sci . 15(3): 722-740.
## THIS MATERIAL IS BASED UPON WORK SUPPORTED BY:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Project Nos. 2012-02355 and 2013-69002-23146 through the National Institute for Food and Agriculture's Agriculture and Food Research Initiative, Regional Approaches for Adaptation to and Mitigation of Climate Variability and Change. Great Plains Grazing is a group of research scientists, Extension specialists, and consumer experts from Kansas State University, Oklahoma State University, University of Oklahoma, State University Roberts Noble Foundation, and the USDA's Agricultural Research Service working together to improve and promote regional beef production while mitigating its environmental footprint.
This project was supported by Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grant no. 2014-67004-21624 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
## EXTENSION
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in any of its policies, practices or procedures.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of $1.00 per copy.
Publications from Kansas State University are available at: www.kse.ksu.edu Publications are reviewed or revised annually by appropriate faculty to reflect current research and practice. Date shown is that of publication or last revision. Contents of this publication may be freely reproduced for educational purposes. All other rights reserved. In each case, credit the authors, Estimating Water Requirements for Matee Beef Costs, Kansas State University, August 2016.
Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
K-State Research and Extension is an equal opportunity prover and employer. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of May & 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils, Extension Districts, and United States Departments of Agriculture Cooperating, John D. Floris, Director. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/fapc-food-and-agricultural-products-center/3-d-printed-parts-for-food-contact-fapc-244.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20220621134753-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## EXTENSION
Timothy J. Bowser Professor, Department of Biosystems Engineering
Hitesh Vora Associate Professor, Director, Smart Manufacturing Advanced Research & Technology (SMART) Lab, Mechanical Engineering Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering
## Introduction
The purpose of this fact sheet is to help the reader make informed choices for 3-D printed parts used in food processing.
Many 3-D printing technologies have been developed to make parts and equipment. This fact sheet focuses on FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) or FFF (Fused Filament Deposition) print technology because of its popularity, accessibility and variety of filaments available. Choices discussed include feedstock material selection (for FDM the feedstock material is in filament form), filament use, part design and post-processing of parts. Helpful tips for printing parts for food contact services are also provided.
## Filament Selection
Composition of filaments must be approved for food contact and meet the design conditions listed in the "part design" section below. Table 1 (adapted from Formlabs, 2020) shows a list of filaments meeting FDA requirements for food contact. An FDA status of "compliant" means that the material meets requirements for food contact, but has not been expressly approved.
## Guide to Filament Use
Excessive moisture in the filament is a major cause of print failure, and it is very difficult to identify. Filament spools should be stored in a moisture free environment. If possible, maintain the original packaging. While loading the filament spool on FDM/FFF printers, make sure it is loaded according to provided instructions. Load the filament spool only when the printer is ready to print. Immediately store the used filament spool in an airtight box, and include a desiccant pack for extra protection.
## Part Design
Three broad categories should be considered when designing 3-D printed parts that are involved in processing food: printability, cleanability and durability. The three categories are briefly discussed in this section.
## 3-D Printed Parts for Food Contact
June 2022
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets are also available on our website at extension.okstate.edu
## Printability
3-D printing processes build parts layer-by-layer and unique geometries can be printed with ease. There are some important design rules that must be considered before printing parts. The successful print will be a combination of a good surface finish and dimensional accuracy with the desired functional properties.
In 3-D printing, printability is most often linked with the geometric design. The majority of print failures are associated with design features. Examples of important design features for FDM/FFF include supports, overhangs, horizontal bridges, supported and unsupported vertical walls, holes, connecting and moving parts, minimum features and pin diameter tolerances. Key design considerations for 3-D printing are described by Brockotter (2021), available at: https://www.hubs. com/knowledge-base/key-design-considerations-3d-printing/.
Slicing is the next step after developing a printable geometric design. Slicing software helps to determine the best orientation for the part on the print bed. In addition, the build direction, hole orientation, support structure, shell and infill type and percentage are important aspects of preparing the print file. After these factors are considered, the print file is fed into the model and the user sets up the printing parameters. The most important printing parameters are bed temperature (to avoid warping), extruder temperature (optimized to print filament materials) and build layer thickness.
When considering the 3-D printingguidance given above, the user will achieve a successful print that ultimately provides the expected surface finish, dimensional accuracy and the desired functional properties.
| Filament | Brand | FDA Status | Smoothable | Dish- washer safe | Hot liquids |
|--------------|-----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|---------------------|---------------|
| ABS | Adwire PRO | Approved | Yes, acetone | Yes | Yes |
| ABS | Innofil3D | Approved except red, orange, and pink | Yes, acetone | Yes | Yes |
| Co-Polyester | Colorfab XT | Approved | No | Yes | Yes |
| HIPS | Easyfil | Compliant | Yes, d-limo- ne | Yes | No |
| HIPS | InnoFil3D | Approved | Yes, d-limo- ne | Yes | No |
| Nylon | Taulman Nylon 680 | Compliant | No | No | No |
| PEI | ULTEM® 1000 | Compliant | | Yes | Yes |
| PET | InnoPet EPR | Approved except red and orange | Yes, ethyl acetate | No | No |
| PET | Refil | Approved | Yes, ethyl acetate | No | No |
| PET | Taulman T-Glase | Approved | Yes, ethyl acetate | No | No |
| PET | Verbatim | Compliant | Yes, ethyl acetate | No | No |
| PET-G | HDGlass | Approved | Yes, ethyl acetate | No | No |
| PLA | Filaments.ca TruFeS | Approved | No | No | No |
| PLA | Innofil3D | Approved except red, orange, pink, apricot skin, grey, and magenta | No | No | No |
| PLA | Copper3D PLac- tive Antibacterial | Approved | No | No | No |
| PLA | Makeorgeeks | Approved | No | No | No |
| PLA | Purement Anti- bac terial | Approved | No | No | No |
| PLA-HT | Makergeeks Raptor | Approved | No | Yes | Yes |
| PLA-HT | Makergeeks Raptor | Approved | No | Yes | Yes |
| PP | Centaur | Compliant | No | Yes | Yes |
| PP | InnoFil3D | Approved | No | Yes | Yes |
| PP | Numus | Compliant | No | Yes | Yes |
| PP | Verbatim | Compliant | No | Yes | Yes |
## Cleanability
Cleanability may not be an issue if the part is designed for single-use. Single-use parts (like plastic tableware) are expected to be thrown away after one use. Single-use parts may be economical and efficient when a means of cleaning is not available, or cleaning is expensive. Multi-use parts used in food processing must be cleanable to a microbiological level. The following design principles will help maintain cleanliness of 3-D printed parts (AMI, 2008; Schmidt and Erickson, 2017):
- · Maintain smooth and crevice free surfaces (eliminate niches, cracks pits, seams, gaps, hollow areas, threads, etc., where soils may collect)
- · Design parts for simple assembly and disassembly to facilitate cleaning
- · Surface coatings (if present) must not pit, flake or chip
- · Round internal angles to at least ¼" radii
- · Maintain visibility of surfaces for accessibility and cleaning · Slope surfaces for self-drainage. Accumulated liquids may promote bacterial growth
Washing 3-D printed parts in high-temperature water could cause damage (based on the material properties of the part). When possible, use lukewarm water and mild detergents for cleaning. Parts may be sanitized, using a compatible chemical, such as alcohol.
## Durability
Durability of the 3-D printed parts depends on four major factors:(i) type of filament material,(ii) part geometry, (iii) print process, and (iv) use. Of these four, the user needs to pay extra attention to selecting the correct filament material to achieve the desired functional properties for the applications in mind. Trial and error are generally needed for filament selection.
## Post Processing of Parts
Post processing of parts refers to work done on the part after the printing is complete. Many parts will require one or more of the following operations:
- · Residue removal
- · Support removal
- · Polishing
- · Chemical smoothing. Chemical smoothing is possible by using solvents such as d-Limonene, acetone and ethyl acetate.
Some parts may be coated with a food-safe material to enable their use in food processing. Alist offood-safecoatings (with FDA approval for food contact) follows:
- 1.
- · ArtResin Epoxy Resin
- Permabond 2-part epoxies ET5143, ET5145, ET5147 (Permabond, 2020)
- · Masterbond EP42HT2FG
- · Max Clear Grade Epoxy Resin System
- ZDSticky Epoxy Resin
- Shellac: Zinser Bulls Eye Shellac
- 3.
- Howard Wax-It-All
- · Parowax
- Polyurethane
- AcriGlaze Safecoat
- Masterbond EP42HT2FG
- PTFE (Teflon®)
## Tips for Printing Parts for Food Contact
- 1. Avoid cross-contamination from residues of previously printed parts.
- 2. Consider leaching from print heads. Some brass print nozzles may contain lead.
- 3. When cleaning parts and assemblies in a dishwasher, determine if the material can handle the temperatures. Turning off the dishwasher's drying cycle may help.
- Use 3-D printed shapes to make a mold for other materials that maybe more suitable for food-contact.
- 5. Print at the lowest layer height to avoid narrow crevices between layers.
- 6. Check into printing of ceramicparts using technology such as Direct Ink Writing (DIW) that can be glazed and fired prior to use in a food contact operation.
## Conclusion
Printing 3-D parts for food contact applications can be an excellent means to manage spare parts, increase system uptime and reduce waste. It can also be a convenient and rapid means of prototyping custom parts and equipment. Making informed choices on part design and execution will help improve success rates. The costof3-DPrinting has continuously dropped, while the familiarity and ease of use has improved. Make it a goal to incorporate 3-DPrinting technology in your food processing operation. Contact fapc@okstate.edu for assistance or additional information.
With a 3D printer on-site, organizations are going to be more nimble, with less downtime and less waste. Matt Gannon, VP of Operations, Markforged .
## References
AMI, 2008. American Meat Institute Fact Sheet. Sanitary Equipment Design. Available at: https://www.meatinistitute.org/ index.php?ht=a/GetDocumentAction/i11006 . Accessed on: April 6, 2020.
Brockotter, R. 2021. Key design considerations for 3D printing. Available at: https://www.hubs.com/knowledge-base/ key-design-considerations-3d-printing/. Accessed on August 7, 2021.
Formlabs, 2020. Essential guide to foodsafe 3D printing: regulations, technologies, materials, and more.Available at: https://formlabs.com/blog/guide-to-food-safe-3d-printing/. Accessed on August 7, 2021.
Hubs B.V., 2020. Knowledge base. Available at: https:// www.3dhubs.com/knowledge-base/ . Accessed on September 11, 2020.
Permabond. 2020. Permabond® 2-Part Epoxies. Sales brochure 201\_Global\_ET\_ENG. Available at: https://www. permabond.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/2019\_Glob al\_ET\_ENG.pdf. Accessed on March 31, 2020.
Redwood, B, F. Schöffer, and B. Garret. 2017. The 3D Printing Handbook: Technology, Design and Applications. 3D Hubs B.V. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 304 pp. ISBN-10: 9082748509.
Schmidt, R.H. and D.J. Erickson. 2017. Sanitary design and construction of food equipment. University of Florida Extension. Document FSHN0409. Available at: http://edis.ifas. ufl.edu/pdffiles/fs/fs11900.pdf.Accessedon:April6,2020.
The information given is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Cooperative Extension Service is implied.
Oklahoma State University as an equal opportunity employer, complies with all applicable federal and state laws regarding non-discrimination and affirmative action. Oklahoma State University is committed to a policy of equal opportunity for all individuals and does not discriminate based on race, religion, age, sex, color, national origin, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity/ expression, disability, or veteran status with regard to employment, educational programs and activities, and/or admissions. For more information, visit https://eeookstate.edu.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President for Agricultural Programs and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 20 cents per copy. June 2022 KG. | |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birds-of-prey-of-alabama/ | Common Birds of Prey of Alabama | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Deforrest R. Allgood",
"Mark D. Smith"
] | 2018-08-30 | [
"Forestry",
"Wildlife",
"Birds of Prey"
] | AL | ## Common Birds of Prey of Alabama
A bird of prey is any bird that hunts other animals and they are often called raptors. Learn the different types of raptors found in Alabama, their identifying characteristics and typical habitats. Beautiful photographs accompany the descriptions of 15 birds of prey, including eagles, ospeys, hawks, kites, and four kinds of owls.
A bird of prey, as their name indicates, is any species of bird that hunts other animals such as small mammals, fish, and other birds for food. Birds of prey are commonly referred to as raptors and possess powerful, sharp talons and hooked bills for capturing and eating prey, which distinguish them from other types of birds. Raptors are generally larger than common songbirds, but there are a few exceptions. Many raptors also display a type of camouflage known as counter-shading that can best be described as being darkly colored when viewed from above (the backside of the bird) and lightly colored when viewed from below (the underside, or belly of the bird).
In general, raptors can be divided into two groups: those that are active during the day (e.g., hawks, falcons) and those that are active at night (owls). Two taxonomic families of raptors commonly occur in Alabama: Falconidae, which includes falcons and kestrels, and Accipitridae, which includes all hawks, kites, eagles, and osprey. These raptors hunt during the day (diurnal) and rely mainly on their sense of sight. They typically glide high above foraging grounds where they can spot prey or can be found perched high atop a tree or along telephone wires searching for prey below.
Only two taxonomic families of owls are common in Alabama: The Tytonidae (barn owl) and Strigidae (all other owls). These owls can easily be distinguished from other raptors by their front facing eyes and wide circular faces, which are used to help them locate prey. Hunting primarily at night (noturnal), owls use their excellent sense of hearing and sight to locate prey while perched or flying above foraging grounds.
## Cookie Notice
Although most of the species described below are present all year in Alabama, most raptors are migratory to a certain extent. For example, year-round residents within the state include Cooper's hawk, red-shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, American kestrel, and osprey. All of the owls in Alabama are resident birds and are found throughout the state year round. Raptors found in Alabama only during the summer include swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi kite, and broad-winged hawk. The sharp-shinned hawk, northern harrier, and most bald eagles are winter residents throughout the state.
As previously noted, all raptors hunt other animals for food, but food preference varies considerably among species. Most raptors in Alabama are generalists, meaning they will eat almost anything smaller than themselves if they can catch it. Common prey include small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Though they are generalists, bald eagles feed mainly on fish and larger prey, such as rabbits, skunks, and other mediumsized mammals. Similarly, the largest owl species in Alabama, the great horned owl, also feeds on medium-sized mammals. Other smaller owls feed mostly on small mammals, such as mice. The most specialized feeder found in the state is the osprey, which fed almost exclusively on fish. Though several raptor species hunt smaller birds, studies indicate they do not limit or regulate gamebird populations, such as quail or turkey.
Because of a perceived threat to gamebird populations, and at times, a real threat to poultry (especially small-scale free range chickens), raptors were persecuted for centuries. Practices such as state-implemented bounties and both public and private poisoning programs were carried out in the name of game and poultry protection. In reality, these practices resulted in decreased populations of raptors without significant increases in gamebird populations. Furthermore, the widespread use of persistent pesticides such as DDT decreased populations to the point that many raptors were so rare that federal protection became necessary. In 1972, an amendment to the Migratory Bird Treaty Act extended the same protection given to migratory waterfowl and songbirds to birds of prey (partymорs). Coupled with the banning of DDT and other harmful pesticides, this amendment resulted in population rebounds of most raptors. Exceptions include the swallow-tailed kite, northern harrier, and American kestrel, all of which have low population numbers and are listed as species of concern in Alabama.
## Tips for Identifying Raptors
Identification of raptors in the wild can be difficult at times, especially when they are in flight. A good pair of 8 to 10 binoculars is helpful for identifying raptors at a distance. Plumage (feathers) color and patterns often differ markedly between males and females of some raptors. Plumage also will
differ between immature and adult raptors. What may look like an adult female of one species may, on closer inspection, be an immature male of another species.
In addition to plumage, several other distinguishing features may be used to identify raptors, such as the relative size of the bird and the shape of the tail and wings. Flight characteristics, such as soaring, frequent swooping, and wing beat, is also used for identification. The habitat in which the bird is found along with the time of year can provide additional clues.
- · Bald Eagle (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying: birds/bald-eagle/)
- · Osprey (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying: birds/osprey/)
- · Swallow-Tailed Kite
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying-birds/swallowsallowed-kitter-)
- · Mississippi Kite (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying: birds/mississippi-kite/)
- · Red-Tailed Hawk (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying: birds/red-tailed-hawk/)
- · Red-Shouldered Hawk
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying-birds/redshouldered-hawk/)
- · Broad-Winged Hawk
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying-birds/broadwigned-hawk/)
- · Cooper's Hawk (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying: birds/coopers-hawks/)
- · Sharp-Shined Hawk
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying-birds/sharpshunned-hawk/)
- · Northern Harrier (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying: birds/northern-harrier/)
- · American Kestrel
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying-birds/americankestrel/)
- · Barn Owl (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying: birds/barn-owl-2/)
- · Barred Owls (http://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying: barred-owls/)
- · Great Horned Owl (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying-birds/greathorned-owl/)
- · Eastern Screech-Owl
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/enjoying-birds/easternscreech-owsl/)
Download a PDF of Common Birds of Prey of Alabama. ANR 1386. (https://www.acs.edu/wings/uploads/2018/09/ANRB1386.BirdsofPrey\_092120L\_A.pdf)
## Download this article as a PDF
(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANRP-1386.BirdsofPrey\_092120L\_A.pdf) Common Birds of Prey of Alabama. ANR -1386 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANRP-1386. BirdsOfPrey\_092120L\_A.pdf)
## Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/summer-patch-in-turf | Summer Patch in Turf | NC State Extension | [
"Lee Butler",
"Jim Kerns"
] | null | [
"Turfgrass",
"Plant Pathology",
"Summer Patch"
] | NC | ## Summer Patch in Turf
Turffiles
## Symptoms
The symptoms of summer patch appear in circular patches or rings, ranging from 6 inches to 3 feet in diameter. Turf within these patches is initially off-colored, prone to wilt, growing poorly, or sunken in the turf stand. Over a period of one to two weeks, the turf continues to decline, turning yellow or straw brown and eventually collapsing to the soil surface. The outer edges of the patch are usually orange or bronze when the disease is actively developing. Affected plants are easily pulled up from the turf, and visual examination reveals that the roots, crowns, and rhizomes are black and rotten. The patches recur in the same spot annually, and expand at a rate of 2 to 4 inches per year. Resistant grasses, such as fescuses or weedy species, are often present in areas damaged by summer patch.
In temperate climates, creeping bentgrass is resistant to summer patch and often remains completely healthy while surrounding annual bluegrass is attacked. Creeping bentgrass can become prone to the disease when grown in high-ph soils (> 7.0) and subjected to persistent heat stress. Several cases of summer patch have been documented on creeping bentgrass putting greens in the transition zone of the United States.
## Development Factors
The summer patch fungus begins to attack the roots, stolons, and rhizomes in the spring when soil temperatures reach 65°F. Summer patch symptoms are rarely seen during the early stages of disease development, instead, the symptoms appear in mid-summer after considerable damage has been done to the root system. Heat, drought stress, and nutrient deficiencies are the main factors that encourage the expression of summer patch symptoms. In North Carolina, the symptoms typically appear in early to mid-July.
Summer patch is most severe when soil pH is 6.5 or greater. In addition, any factor that restricts root growth will also enhance the disease. Excessive nitrogen in the spring, potassium deficiencies, poor soil drainage, over-irrigation, excessive thatch accumulation, and soil compaction have been shown to encourage summer patch development. Most of these factors reduce the growth and/or survival of turfgrass roots, thus causing the turf to be more susceptible to the disease.
## Cultural Control
Maintain soil pH between 6.0 and 6.5 to minimize summer patch development. Bluegrasses are less tolerant of low soil pH than other turfgrasses, so use caution when adjusting pH. Soil pH is best reduced slowly over time through use of an acidifying nitrogen source, such as ammonium sulfate or sulfur-coated urea. Avoid excessive nitrogen in the spring and fall, and mow at recommended heights to maximize root growth.
Frequent irrigation in the fall and spring will inhibit root development and increase the severity of summer patch. Deep and infrequent watering will encourage the development of a deep, dense root system that is able to better withstand fungal attack.
Reduce thatch buildup and relieve soil compaction through aggressive aeration, vertical mowing, and topdressing. Frequent aerification is especially important in high traffic areas where the disease is most severe. When summer patch symptoms appear, increase mowing heights and the frequency of irrigation and fertilizer applications to minimize stress and compensate for damage to the root system.
## Chemical Control
Fungicides are available for summer patch control, but they are most effective when applied on a preventative basis. For best results, fungicide applications should begin in spring when soil temperatures reach 65°F. Two to three applications on 28-day intervals provide excellent summer patch control in most situations. Fungicide applications should be made in a high volume of water (5 gallons per 1,000 square feet) or watered in with 1/8" to 1/4" inch of irrigation immediately after application.
| | Amount of Formulation$^{1}$ | Application Interval (Days)$^{3}$ | Efficacy Rating | Resistance Risk | FRAC Code$^{4}$ |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------|---------------------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|
| azoxystrobin (Heritage) | 0.2 to 0.4 | +++++ | Low | 11 | |
| WG | 1 to 2 | 14 to 28 | +++++ | Low | 11/3 |
| TL | 2 to 4 lbs | 14 to 28 | +++++ | Low | 11/P01 |
| azoxystrobin + acibenzolar-S- methyl (Heritage Action)* | 0.2 to 0.4 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 11/P01 |
| azoxystrobin + difenoconazole (Briskway)* | 0.5 to 1.2 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 11/3 |
| azoxystrobin + propiconazole (Headway) | 1.5 to 3 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 11/3 |
| ME G | 2 to 4 lbs | 14 to 28 | +++++ | Low | 11/3 |
| azoxystrobin + propiconazole (Compendium) | 1.3 to 2.6 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 11/3 |
| benzovindiflupyr + difenoconazole (Ascernity)* | 1.0 | 14 | +++ | Low | 7/3 |
| chlorothalonil + fluoxastrobin (Fame C)* | 3 to 5.9 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | M5/11 |
| chlorothalonil + iprodione + thiophanate-methyl + tebuconazole (Enclave)* | 3 to 4 | 14 to 21 | +++ | Low | M5/2/1/3 |
| chlorothalonil + propiconazole + fluidoxonil (Instrata)* | | 6 to 11 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | M5/3/12 |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|-------------|------------|-------|-------|-----------|
| cyazofamid + azoxystrobin (Union) | | 2.9 to 5.75 | 14 to 28 | ++++ | Low | 21/11 |
| fluindapyr + flutrofiol (Kalida) | | 0.25 to 0.4 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 7/3 |
| fluopyram + protichoconazole + propamocarb (Resilia)* | | 4 | 14 to 28 | ++++ | Low | 7/3/28 |
| fluxastrobin (Fame) | 0.18 to 0.36 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 11 | |
| fluoxastrobin + tebuconazole (Fame T)' | 0.45 to 0.9 | 21 to 28 | ++++ | Low | 11/3 | |
| flutriafol (Rayora)* | 0.7 to 1.4 | 21 to 28 | ++++ | Low | 3 | |
| fluxapyroxad (Xzemplar) | 0.26 | 14 to 28 | ++ | Low | 7 | |
| isofetamid + tebuconnaze (Tekken)* | 3 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 7/3 | |
| mefentrifluconazole (Maxtima)* | 0.8 | 21 to 28 | +++ | Low | 3 | |
| mefentrifluconazone + pyraclostrobin (Navicon)* | 0.7 to 0.85 | 14 to 28 | ++++ | Low | 3/11 | |
| metconazole (Turney) | 0.37 | 14 | +++ | Low | 3 | |
| myclobutanil (Eagle) | 1.2 to 2.4 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 3 | |
| penthiopyrad (Velista) | 0.3 to 0.5 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 7 | |
| propiconazole (Banner MAXX II) | 2 4 | 14 28 | +++ +++ | Low Low | 3 |
|------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------|------------------------------|------------|------------|--------|
| prothioconazole (Densicor)* | 0.196 | 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 3 |
| pydiflumetofen + azoxystrobin + propiconazole (Posterity XT)* | 1.5 to 3 | 14 to 28 | +++++ | Low | 7/11/3 |
| pyraclostrobin (Insignia) WG SC | 0.5 to 0.9 0.4 to 0.7 | 14 to 28 14 to 28 | +++ +++ | Low Low | 11 |
| pyraclostrobin + boscalid (Honor)* | 1.1 | 14 to 28 | +++++ | Low | 11/7 |
| pyraclostrobin + fluxapyroxad (Lexicon Intrinsic) | 0.47 | 21 to 28 | +++++ | Low | 11/7 |
| pyraclostrobin + triticonazole (Pillar G) | 3 lbs | 28 | ++ | Low | 11/3 |
| tebuconazole (Torque)* (Mirage)* | 0.6 to 1.1 1 to 2 | 21 14 to 28 | +++ | Low | 3 |
| thiophanate-methyl (3336) (3336 Plus) | 4 to 6 4 to 8 6 to 9 lbs | 14 to 21 14 to 28 14 to 21 | ++ | Low | 1 |
| triadiemon (Bayleton FLO) | 1 to 1.9 1 to 2.0 | refer to label | +++ | Low | 3 |
| trifloxystrobin (Compass) | 0.2 to 0.25 | 21 to 28 | ++ | Low | 11 |
| trifloxystrobin + triadimefon (Tartan)* | 2 1.2 to 1.5 | 21 to 28 21 to 28 | +++ | Low | 11/3 |
| triticonazole (Tritiony) | 1 to 2 0.5 to 1.1 | 14 to 28 14 to 28 | +++ Low | +++ Low | 3 |
|-------------------------------------------|---------------------|---------------------|-----------|-----------|------|
| triticonazole + chlorothalonil (Reserve)* | 3.2 to 5.4 | | +++ | Low | 3/M5 |
1 Other trade names with the same active ingredients are labeled for use on turfgrasses and can be used according to label directions.
- 2 Units are oz, fl oz, or lb depending on formulation. Apply fungicides in 2 to
5 gallons of water per 1,000 square feet according to label directions. Use lower rates for preventive and higher rates for curative applications.
- 3 Use shorter intervals when conditions are very favorable for disease.
- 4 Fungicide Resistance Action Committee code. Products with same code
have the same mode of action and are in the same chemical class.
- * Products marked with an asterisk are not labeled for home lawn use.
## Efficacy Rating
## Resistance Risk
Low = Rotate to different chemical class after 3-4 applications; tank mixing not necessary
Medium = Rotate to different chemical class after 1-2 applications; tankmixing with low or medium risk product recommended
High = Rotate to different chemical class after EVERY application; tank-mix with low or medium risk product for EVERY application ? = not rated due to insufficient data
## Species Data
## Authors
Lee Butler
Extension Coordinator Entomology & Plant Pathology
Jim Kerns
Associate Professor and Extension Specialist (Turfgrass Pathology) Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Nov. 10, 2017
Reviewed/Revised: Aug. 19, 2022
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A.T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local NC. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://extension.okstate.edu/articles/2022/gardening_websites.html | OSU Extension websites provide valuable toolkits for all things gardening - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-04-28 | [] | OK | New gardening information from Oklahoma State University Extension is easily accessible online. (Photo by Todd Johnson, OSU Agricultural Communications Services)
## OSU Extension websites provide valuable toolkits for all things gardening
Thursday, April 28, 2022
Media Contact: Trisha Gedon | Communications Specialist | 405-744-3625|
trisha.gedon@okstate.edu(mailto:trisha.gedon@okstate.edu)
## Share
For more than a century,
Oklahoma State University Extension(https://extension.okstate.edu/) has provided researchbased information on a wide variety of topics to Oklahoma residents and beyond. Today's technology allows quick access to this valuable information in a digital format.
With gardening season preparation underway, three new websites have been developed that pertain to home landscapes and gardening, home lawn care and pond management. In addition, the Oklahoma Proven and Oklahoma Gardening websites have been completely updated,
featuring beautiful color photos and the most up-to-date, research-based information.
## Home Landscape and
(https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/gardening/index.html)
## Gardening
This site features a frequently asked questions section covering fruit, houseplants, ornamentals and trees, turfgrass and vegetables. David Hillock ( https://experts.okstate.edu/david.hillock ), OSU Extension consumer horticulturist, provides answers to many questions. Hillock also writes a weekly gardening column that's featured on this site. GROW - A Gardening Column Series covers timely topics for each season of the year. There are weekly columns for 2020, 2021 and 2022. A new column is added each week.
## Home Lawn Care(https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/home-lawn-care/index.html)
A homeowner's lawn is one of the first things people see. The tips for lawn care offered on this site will help make any lawn the talk of the neighborhood - in a good way. This new website offers consumer information on topics including irrigation of lawn and gardens, lawns and turfgrass as well as lawn and garden insects, pests and diseases. There is also a link to OSU Extension fact sheets organized by topics.
## Pond Management(https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/pond-management/index.html)
Did you know that with more than 316,000 ponds, Oklahoma is first in the nation in ponds per square mile and second in the number of ponds? A pond can add visual interest and value to a piece of property; however, it can take a lot of informed care and management. Depending on the goals of the landowner, the pond can be used for fishing, aesthetics, livestock watering or perhaps all three. The pond management program at OSU can help landowners head off any problems and help protect pond investment. This website outlines the benefits of ponds and offers a variety of pond management topics, including aquatic plants, fish in ponds, a calendar for land and pond management practices and more.
## Oklahoma Proven(https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/oklahoma-proven/)
Oklahoma Proven is a plant evaluation and marketing program that started in 1999 and continues today. Each year an annual, perennial, tree and shrub are selected as Oklahoma Proven plants because they are proven to be tolerant of Oklahoma's challenging growing conditions. The site features colorful photos of each year's selections dating back to 1999, along with descriptions of the plants and care requirements. Site users can browse quickly through the plant profiles by category or selection year. There is also a link to the Oklahoma Proven fact sheet and the OSU Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture.
Oklahoma (https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/oklahomagardening/index.html)
Do you have a question about growing tomatoes? Do you need some gardening tips or want to learn more about Oklahoma public gardens and horticultural attractions? This newly updated site has it all. Meet show host Casey Hentges (https://experts.okstate.edu/casey.hentges) and the rest of the production team responsible for putting together each weekly show.
OSU Agriculture's(https://agdivision.okstate.edu/) Oklahoma Gardening program is the longest running gardening show on television and airs every Saturday morning at 11 a.m. and Sunday afternoons at 3 p.m. on local OETA-TV(https://www.oeta.tv/) (PBS) channels across the state.
There is so much information available online and these new and updated websites pull the best research-based information together in a quick and convenient format.
OSU Extension(https://extension.okstate.edu/) uses research-based information to help all Oklahomans solve local issues and concerns, promote leadership and manage resources wisely throughout the state's 77 counties. Most information is available at little to no cost.
## Share
Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html? tags=Department%20of%20Horticulture%20and%20Landscape%20Architecture)
Landscaping (https://news.okstate.edu/tags/browse.html?tags=Landscaping)
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https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/e/vitamin-and-mineral-nutrition-of-grazing-cattle-e-861.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20110802154807-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | | Objectives............................................................................................................................... 1 |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Typical Mineral Composition of Commo Oklahoma Forages............................................. 1 |
| Table 1.................................................................................................................................. 2 |
| Macro Mineral Considerations...................................................................................................... 3 |
| Calcium...................................................................................................................................... 3 |
| Phosphorus.................................................................................................................................. 5 |
| Figure 1...................................................................................................................................... 6 |
| Potassium ...................................................................................................................................... 6 |
| Figure 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 7 |
| Magnesium .................................................................................................................................. 7 |
| Figure 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 8 |
| Sulfer .................................................................................................................................................. 9 |
| Figure 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 10 |
| Trace Mineral Considerations......................................................................................................... 10 |
| Cobalt.............................................................................................................................................. 10 |
| Copper .............................................................................................................................................. 11 |
| Figure 5 ...................................................................................................................................... 12 |
| Iodine .............................................................................................................................................. 12 |
| Iron 13 .............................................................................................................................................. 14 |
| Figure 6 ...................................................................................................................................... 14 |
| Manganese ...................................................................................................................................... 14 |
| Figure 7 ...................................................................................................................................... 15 |
| Selenium ............................................................................................................................................ 15 |
| Zinc16 ............................................................................................................................................ 15 |
| Figure 8 ...................................................................................................................................... 16 |
| Vitamin A........................................................................................................................................ 18 |
| Vitamin B$_{12}$ ................................................................................................................................ 18 |
| Vitamin D...................................................................................................................................... 19 |
| Vitamin E...................................................................................................................................... 20 |
| Diagnosis of Mineral Deficiencies................................................................................................. 20 |
| Table 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 22 |
| Table 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 23 |
| Supplementing Minerals ................................................................................................................. 24 |
| Table 5 ...................................................................................................................................... 26 |
| Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 27 |
| References...................................................................................................................................... 28 |
| Notes ...................................................................................................................................... 30 |
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Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson Director of Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 99 cents per copy. CCH Revised.
## by David Lalman and Casey McMurphy
## Objectives
- · Discuss mineral composition of Oklahoma forages
- · Consider mineral needs of cattle
- · Discuss the effects of mineral deficiencies
- · Recommend mineral supplementation programs
Proper mineral and vitamin nutrition contributes to strong immune systems, reproductive performance, and calf weight gain. A properly balanced mineral program requires consideration of previous cow and calf mineral nutrition, hay or pasture forage intake and mineral concentration, and feed or mineral supplement intake and mineral concentration. Diets with mineral imbalances may cause poor animal performance, resulting in reduced profitability.
Mineral requirements are dependent on forage mineral content, animal age, and stage of production. However, simply knowing the animal's requirement is only one component in evaluating an animal's mineral status. Mineral needs also tend to be area specific and change with soil type, fertilization rates, rainfall, and other factors. An understanding of the need for minerals is necessary for making decisions about what and how much mineral to feed. Major attention here will be focused on those minerals most likely to pose a problem in Oklahoma.
## Typical Mineral Composition of Common Oklahoma Forages
As a general rule, Oklahoma forages do not have severe mineral deficiencies or high levels of mineral antagonists compared to forages in many other states. When excessive amounts of antagonistic minerals are consumed, the availability of other minerals is reduced or completely blocked. Specific antagonists are discussed more extensively in the next section. However, forage mineral concentration is extremely variable and sitespecific mineral problems in Oklahoma have been identified.
Table 1 shows average mineral concentration in four types of forages common to Oklahoma and compares these averages with requirements of growing cattle. The data shown in Table 1 was summarized from two large data sets over a period of several years. These data represent forage mineral concentration when samples were harvested during mid-summer. Remember that forage will contain much higher concentration of most minerals when it is immature and rapidly growing compared to more mature, weathered forage.
From these data, several general principles are evident relative to supplementing minerals to grazing beef cattle in Oklahoma.
1. Almost all forage requires salt supplementation as a source of sodium.
2. Summer native range and prairie hay require phosphorus supplementation.
- 3. Most grasses common to Oklahoma are marginal to deficient in copper and zinc.
- 4. It is apparent that good quality legume-based forages require very little if any mineral supplementation with the exception of zinc and salt, depending on the amount of this type of hay provided in the total diet. 5. In addition, fescue forage is usually marginal to deficient in selenium, while Bermudagrass forage is marginal.
Remember that these values represent averages and that variation from location to location can be quite extreme.
As discussed in the next section, each of these marginal to deficient minerals has been shown to impact immune function, reproduction, or both. Therefore, it is recommended that producers make certain that beef cows receive supplemental sources of these elements at least 60 days prior to calving through breeding and 30 to 60 days prior to weaning. Similarly, weaned calves and purchased stocker cattle should receive adequate copper, zinc, and selenium through a concentrate feed supplement or free-choice mineral.
## Macro Mineral Considerations
## Calcium
Calcium is an important mineral for beef cattle, both in terms of the relative requirement and the diversity of functions in the body. It is a major component of the skeleton, which also serves as a calcium storage site. In fact, about 99% of the total calcium in the body is found in the bones and teeth.
Calcium is involved in blood clotting, muscle contraction, transmissionof nerveimpulses,regulation of the heart, secretion of hormones, and enzyme activation and stabilization. Fortunately, calcium is available in adequate amounts in high quality forages, although calcium can be deficient in weather or mature forage. The most frequently observed cases of calcium deficiency occur in cattle fed high amounts of concentrate feed and in cattle grazing small grain forages. Availability of dietary calcium is also quite variable. Consequently, the National Research Council assumed dietary calcium availability was only 50% when calcium requirements were calculated. Signs of calcium deficiency include:
- · Rickets; weak, soft bones in young cattle; retards bone growth and performance of young growing cattle
- · Osteomalacia: weak brittle bones caused by demineralization of bones in adult animals
- · Urinary calculi: hard masses of mineral salts and tissue cells that form in the kidney or bladder and can cause water belly in growing steers and bulls
Problems may arise due to low calcium content of grains, small grain forage, and many byproduct feeds.
| | Forage Type | Forage Type | Forage Type | Dietary Requirement of | |
|----------------|----------------|---------------|---------------|--------------------------|--------------|
| Mineral | Alfalfa/Clover | Bermudagrass | Fescue | Native | Beef Cattle* |
| Phosphorus, % | 0.27 | 0.21 | 0.23 | 0.08 | 0.15 to 0.3 |
| Sodium, % | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.06 to 0.08 |
| Iron, ppm | 198 | 114 | 110 | 190 | 50.0 |
| Copper, ppm | 12.4 | 6.3 | 5.0 | 5.7 | 10.0 |
| Zinc, ppm | 23 | 22.4 | 17.8 | 22.5 | 30.0 |
| Selenium, ppm | 0.3 | 0.15 | 0.09 | 0.21 | 0.10 |
| Manganese, ppm | 47.6 | 83.9 | 122 | 51.6 | 20.0 |
a Adapted from NRC, 2000.
While forages tend to be adequate in calcium and deficient in phosphorus, the opposite is true of small grain forage and grains such as corn, milo, barley oats, and wheat. These grains will typically contain about 0.03% calcium and about 0.3% phosphorus. Similarly, corn gluten feed, wheat middlings, barley malt sprout pellet products, and many other concentrate feeds contain 0.5% to over 1% phosphorus. The phosphorus content is adequate for most cattle but the calcium content is extremely low compared to the animal's requirement. In this situation, the problem of low dietary calcium is compounded by the low ratio of calcium to phosphorus.
When dietary phosphorus exceeds dietary calcium, absorption of calcium from the digestive tract is further reduced. Therefore, when significant amounts of these concentrates are fed without supplemental calcium, the animal will metabolize bone calcium to meet the body's requirement. However, the calcium in the bone is stored in combination with phosphorus and both must be mobilized at the same time. Therefore, both calcium and phosphorus in the bone will be depleted.
Another nutritional disease that can develop in growing male cattle with adequate or high phosphorus and low calcium is water belly or urinary calculi. The most effective method to prevent urinary calculi development in growing male cattle is to maintain total dietary calcium to phosphorus ratio of between 1:5 and 3:1. Most nutritionists formulate equations and mineral supplements to achieve a ratio of around 2:1. Calcium is an inexpensive mineral to add and a general rule of 1% added limestone will balance the calcium requirement in most grain-based rations.
A second method to minimize the risk of this disease is to make certain the cattle have access to salt or the total diet contains 0.5% up to 4% salt. Salt increases water intake, which increases mineral solubility and dilutes the urine.
Cattle can tolerate calcium to phosphorus ratios of up to about 7:1. However, excessive calcium has been shown to reduce absorption of phosphorus and many of
the essential trace minerals. Therefore, producers should strive to maintain dietary Ca:P ratios of less than 3:1 and above 1.5:1.
The other calcium deficiency occasionally observed in Oklahoma occurs when pregnant and lactating cows graze lush cool-season forage, such as small grains, brome, and fescue. These cool-season forages are high in phosphorus and low in calcium during immature stages of growth. When cows in late pregnancy and early lactation graze this type of forage, grass tetany is frequently observed. Originally, the problem was thought to be solely the result of magnesium deficiency. However, more recent studies have shown that tetany may result from calcium deficiency as well as from magnesium deficiency. Symptoms of tetany from deficiencies of both minerals are indistinguishable without blood tests and the treatment consists of intravenous injections of calcium and magnesium gluconate, which supplies both minerals. Cows grazing lush small grains pastures should be fed mineral mixes containing both calcium and magnesium.
## Phosphorus
Phosphorus is often discussed in conjunction with calcium because these minerals interact in many bodily functions and because they are both stored in bone tissue. Phosphorus, along with calcium, is a major component in bone structure with over 80% of the phosphorus in the body residing in bone and teeth. However, phosphorus has many other important physiological roles including cell growth and differentiation; energy utilization and transfer; cell membrane structure, primarily as phospholipids; and acid-base and osmotic balances. Phosphorus is also required by ruminal microorganisms for growth and cellular metabolism. Signs of phosphorus deficiency include:
- · Osteomalacia: weak, brittle bones caused by demineralization of bones in adult animals
- · Infertility
- · Reduced feed intake, growth and feed efficiency
- · Reduced milk production
- · Pica (chewing and gnawing wood and other objects)
Source: Lalman, et al., 2002.
Phosphorus may be deficient in Oklahoma forages during several months of the year, with great apparent variation from area to area. Forage phosphorus concentration and digestibility declines with advanced maturity and weathering. Figure 1 shows the decline of phosphorus concentration in stockpiled Bermudagrass forage through the winter months. In this and subsequent figures, the box represents the range in phosphorus requirements for most classes of beef cattle, according to NRC. It is apparent that this forage resource contained adequate phosphorus during the early fall months, although phosphorus would need to be supplemented for all classes of cattle during late winter because forage phosphorous declined by 39%.
The wide range in phosphorus content of forages in the state highlights the need for forage testing. A forage test that includes calcium and phosphorus will cost around $30. Considering the potential cost of over feeding phosphorus when it is not needed or the potential lost performance when phosphorus is underfed, the advantages of sampling are obvious. It should be remembered that phosphorus deficient cattle may show varying degrees of unthriftiness long before classical signs such as bone and joint deformities appear. The rumen will likely be phosphorus deficient before the animal's body has mobilized bone reserves. Phosphorus deficient animals will appear malnourished.
## Potassium
Potassium (K) is the third most abundant mineral in the body. It is important in acid-base balance, regulation of osmotic pressure and water balance, muscle contractions, nerve impulses, and certain enzyme reactions. Signs of potassium deficiency include:
- · Reduced feed intake and weight gain
- Pica (chewing and gnawing wood and other objects)
- · Rough haircoat
- Muscular weakness
When forage is growing and immature, potassium concentration is high and generally exceeds the requirements of all classes of cattle. However, potassium is soluble in plant tissue and is rapidly depleted in
standing forage or hay that is rained on after cutting and before baling. Figure 2 shows a 76% decline in K concentration in standing forage from November to March. Nebraska research showed that winter supplements should contain about 2% potassium when fed at rates of 1.5 to 2.0 lb/d /day, or about 10 grams of supplemental potassium/hd /day.
Common sources of supplemental potassium include potassium chloride (KCL) and potassium carbonate (K$\_{CO}$). The carbonate form is more palatable than the chloride form.
Because soybean meal and cottonseed meal both contain more than 1.5% K and sunflower meal and peanut meal contain more than 1.2% K, the requirement for potassium is met when natural protein supplements are fed. AlfaIa hav, cubes, and dehydrated pellets are also excellent sources of potassium, containing between 1.5 to 3%. If grain-based urea supplements are fed that do not contain substantial amounts of the oilseed meals, potassium will need to be added. KCL is the most common source used in livestock rations.
## Magnesium
Magnesium is closely related to calcium and phosphorus in function and distribution in the body. This mineral is known to activate at least 300 different enzymes. Magnesium is essential in energy metabolism, transmission of the genetic code, membrane transport, and nerveimpulsetransmissions.Magnesiumisavailableinseveralcommonformswiththemostcommonbeingmagnesiumoxideandmagnesium sulfate(epsom salts). Signs of magnesium deficiency include:
- · Excitability
- · Anorexia
- · Hypermemia
- · Convulsions and muscular twitching
- · Frothing at the mouth
- · Profuse salivation
- · Calcification of soft tissue
Figure 3 indicates that the reduction in standing forage magnesium concentration can be substantial during the winter months. In fact, in this experiment, Bermudagrass forage magnesium concentration declined about 50% from November through March.
Grass tetany typically occurs in beef cows during early lactation and is more prevalent in older cows. Older cows are thought to be less able to mobilize magnesium reserves from bone compared to younger cows. Grass tetany most frequently occurs when cattle are grazing lush immature grasses or small grains pastures and tends to be more prevalent during periods of cloudy weather. Symptoms include uncorordination, salivation, excitability (cows may charge humans), and, in the final stages, tetany, convulsions, and death. Grass tetany is occasionally encountered on fescue pastures but the incidence is much lower than seen on small grains.
It is known that factors other than simply the magnesium content of the forage can increase the probability of grass tetany. Some of these factors are discussed in the phosphorus section above. High levels of potassium in forages can decrease absorption of magnesium, and many lush, immature forages are high in potassium. Consequently, the incidence of grass tetany on wheat pasture often occurs in central and western Oklahoma on soils that are quite high in potassium. High levels of nitrogen fertilization have also been shown to increase the incidence of tetany, possibly because an insoluble precipitate of magnesium ammonium-phosphate forms in the digestive tract and is excreted by the animal. Feeding supplements containing high concentrations of nonprotein nitrogen to cattle grazing lush forage would also increase the risk of grass tetany. Feeding oilseed meal-based protein supplements has not been shown to increase the incidence of tetany, although this could contribute to the bloating problem especially with stocker cattle.
Other factors such as the presence of certain organic acids in tetany-prone forages have been linked with tetany. It is likely that a combination of factors, all related to characteristics of lush forage, are involved.
When conditions for occurrences of tetany are suspected, cows should be provided a mineral supplement containing between 6 and 30% magnesium with daily mineral intake ranging from 2 to 4 oz per day. The higher inclusion rate and level of intake is appropriate for high-risk situations. In high-risk situations, cows should consume around 1 oz of magnesium oxide per day. This is difficult because magnesium oxide is very unpalatable to cattle. Most commercial products formulated for the purpose of minimizing the risk of grass tetany contain between 6 and 15% magnesium. It is best for the high-magnesium supplements to be provided at least one month ahead of the period of tetany danger so that proper intake can be established. Because tetanus can occur when calcium is low as discussed in the phosphorus section, calcium supplementation should also be included. Examples of high-magnesium mineral supplements are shown in Table 4 on page 11.
A key point should be made here. Magnesium supplementation does not cure or prevent bloat in cattle grazing wheat pasture. Tetany and bloat are two different problems with tetany affecting older cows and bloat being a major problem with younger stocker cattle. While calcium and magnesium may be very effective in preventing tetany, they are ineffective for preventing bloat.
## Sulfur
Sulfur is needed for synthesis of methionine and cystine, which are sulfur-containing amino acids, as well as the B vitamins, thiamin, and biotin. Sulfur is required by ruminal microorganisms for normal growth and metabolism. In fact, ruminal microorganisms are capable of synthesizing all organic sulfur containing compounds required by the animal from inorganic sulfur.
Although sulfur deficiency is very uncommon in Oklahoma, signs of sulfur deficiency include:
- · Anorexia, weakness, dullness, emaciation
- · Excessive saltivation
- · Death
Sulfur concentration was above that suggested by NRC as the dietary requirement and declined only slightly (16%) in standing Bermuda grass forage through the winter (Figure 4).
Marginal deficiencies would be expected to result in reduced feed or forage intake and digestibility due to reduced ruminalmicroorganismgrowthand metabolism. Sulfur supplementation might be considered when urea-based protein supplements containing little natural protein are fed. Otherwise, there is little likelihood that supplemental sulfur will be needed.
Cattle are very sensitive to excessive sulfur intake through water and feed. The maximum tolerable concentration of dietary sulfur has been estimated to be 0.4%. Sulphate sulfur in drinking water should not exceed 500 mg/L. Diels high in sulfur can cause
polioencephalomalicia (PEM). Signs of PEM include restlessness, diarrhea, muscular twitching, dyspnea (labored breathing), blindness, and in prolonged cases, inactivity followed by death. It is important for cattle producers to recognize that some common feed commodities, such as soybean meal, distillers grains, corn gluten feed, and barley malt sprout pellets, may contain between 0.4% and 1% sulfur. Therefore, if feeds high in sulfur make up a high percentage of the animal's daily dry matter intake, PEM is a real threat. Generally, if forage, water, and other feed sources are low in sulfur concentration, feeding up to 1% of body weight of high sulfur containing supplements will not cause a problem. Obviously, if there is a concern or a question about the sulfur concentration of any feed source, a representative sample should be submitted to a commercial feed testing laboratory for sulfur analysis.
Diets contain greater than 0.35% sulfur and water containing high sulfur concentration have been implicated in initiating copper deficiency in cattle. High levels of forage sulfur are likely when ammonium sulfate or other fertilizer sources high in sulfur are used.
## Trace Mineral Considerations
Trace minerals are those that are required only in extremely small amounts. Because such small daily quantities of trace minerals are needed, dietary requirements are generally expressed in parts per million (ppm), rather than percent. Trace mineral requirements are not well defined and deficiencies are frequently difficult to pinpoint due to the inconspicuousness and overlap of deficiency symptoms among minerals.
## Cobalt
Cobalt's primary role in ruminants is a building block for vitamin B$\_{12}$ . This essential vitamin can be manufactured in the rumen by the microorganisms when cobalt and other precursors are available. Vitamin B$\_{12}$ catalyzes enzymes that are essential energy metabolism and methionine (an amino acid) metabolism. Very little cobalt is stored in body tissues. Therefore, cobalt status
in cattle is assessed using blood serum concentrations of vitamin B$\_{12}$. Cattle with 200 nanograms/mL or higher serum B$\_{12}$ concentration are thought to have adequate ruminal B$\_{12}$ synthesis. Signs of cobalt deficiency include:
- · Reduced appetite
- · Reduced growth rate or failure to moderate weight loss in cows
- · Pale skin and mucous membranes
- · Reduced ability of neutrophils to kill yeast
- · Reduced disease resistance
Young rapidly growing cattle seem more susceptible to cobalt deficiency than mature cattle. Feed-grade sources of cobalt include sulfate, carbonate, and chloride forms as well as commercial products containing organic forms of cobalt.
## Copper
Copper is an important cofactor in many enzyme systems including those involved in hemoglobin formation, iron absorption and mobilization, connective tissue metabolism, and immune function. Copper status in cattle is quite susceptible to a number of antagonists, including molybdenum, sulfur, iron, and zinc. When total intake (dietary and water) of these potential antagonists is within the normal or adequate range, copper status is likely not affected. However, when daily intake of one or more of these antagonists is higher than what is needed to meet the animal's requirements, reduced copper status can occur. In these cases, copper supplementation must be increased accordingly to gradually restore the animal to normal copper status. Signs of copper deficiency include:
- · Anemia
- · Reduced growth rate
- · Depigmentation (dulling) of hair and rough hair coat
- · Diarrhea
- · Reduced fertility
- · Increased incidence of abomasul ulcers in newborn calves
- · Reduced immune function; increased bacterial infections
Copper concentration of stockpiled Bermudagrass forage was well below the NRC suggested requirement, and concentration declined by 20% between November and March (Figure 5).
Copper status is best assessed by collecting liver tissue via biopsy and analyzing the wet tissue for mineral concentration. Copper oxide is extremely low in terms of its availability to the animal, whereas the sulfate and various organic forms are much higher in availability. Copper oxide should not be used to supplement cattle when a copper deficiency has been determined to exist. Molybdenum and sulfur in the rumen combine to form thiomolybdates, which form a complex with copper that is essentially unavailable to theanimal. Most nutritionistis agree that the dietary copper to molybdenum ratio should be maintained between 4:1 and 10:1 in order
to minimize the risk of molybdenum induced copper deficiency. Therefore, when forage copper concentration is adequate (around 10 ppm) and forage molybdenum concentration is high, a supplemental source of copper will still be needed.
Copper and zinc are absorbed through similar pathways creating a competition for absorption sites. Therefore, mineral supplements should be formulated with a copper to zinc ratio of around 1:2 or 1:3.
Forage-based diets containing 250 to 1,200 ppm iron in the form of iron carbonate reduces copper status in cattle. For some reason iron-induced copper deficiency has yet to result in typical clinical signs associated with copper deficiency, particularly growth rate and reproduction effects. However, iron-induced copper deficiency has resulted in pancreatic damage and impaired neutrophil function, suggesting reduced function of the immune system.
## Iodine
lodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones throxynine (T$\_{o}$) and triiodothyronine (T$\_{b}$), which regulate the rate of energy metabolism in the body. Iodine requirements may be elevated in cattle consuming goitrogenic or goiter causing substances, which interfere with iodine metabolism. The cyanogenic goatrogens include the thiocyanate derived from cyanide in white clover and the glucosinolates found in some forages such as kale, turnip, and rape. These goitrogens impair iodine uptake by the thyroid, and their effect can be overcome by increasing dietary iodine. Signs of iodine deficiency include:
- · Swelling of the thyroid gland, particularly in the newborn
- Hairless, weak calves at birth
- Low reproductive rate in cows
- Retained placenta
- Decreased libido and semen quality in males
Clinical signs of iodine deficiency may not be apparent for up to one year after the iodine deficient diet is initiated. Iodine supplementation is inexpensive and easily provided through iodized salt. Iodine is usually provided in supplements in the form of calcium iodate or ethylenediamine dihydroiodide (EDDI), an organic form of iodine. High temperatures, high humidity, and rain volatilize and leach iodine in salt and mineral mixtures.
## Iron
Iron is an essential component in the structure of proteins involved in transportation and utilization of oxygen. Examples include hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes, and iron-sulfur proteins involved in the electron transport chain. Additionally, as with many other trace minerals, several enzymes either contain or are activated by iron. Signs of iron deficiency may include:
- Anemia
- Anorexia
- Reduced growth rate or increased rate of weight loss
- Listlessness
- Pale mucous membranes
- Atrophy of the papillae of the tongue
Iron deficiency in grazing cattle is unlikely because most forages contain more iron than is necessary to meet this requirement (Figure 6). Additionally, most feed grains and oilseed meals contain significant amounts of iron. Cattle can also ingest iron through the water source and soil ingestion. In fact, many soils in Oklahoma contain high concentrations of iron oxide, which gives it the red or reddish-brown appearance. This high soil concentration leads to high forage iron concentration. Heavy parasite infestations or other diseases causing chronic blood loss can lead to an iron deficiency.
Supplemental iron sources include ferrous (iron) sulfate, ferrous carbonate, and ferric (iron) oxide. Availability of ferrous sulfate is high, while ferric oxide is very low in availability. Many commercial mineral mixes include ferric oxide to give it the traditional red appearance.
Dietary iron concentrations as low as 250 to 500 ppm have caused copper deficiency in cattle. Many water sources and forages in Oklahoma are high in iron concentration. In these situations, copper supplementation may need to be provided to prevent copper deficiency. High iron intake has also been implicated in reducing manganese absorption in cattle.
## Manganese
Manganese is important in bone growth and formation in young animals and in maintaining optimum fertility in female cattle. The role of manganese in metabolism includes a component of the enzymes pyruvate carboxylase, arginase, superoxide dismutase, and several others. Signs of manganese deficiency include:
- · Skeletal abnormalities in young cattle resulting in stiffness, twisted legs, enlarged joints, and reduced bone strength
- · Low reproductive performance in mature cattle
- · Abortions
- · Stillbirths
- · Low birth weights
The necessity for manganese supplementation in grazing cattle remains unclear. Forage and feed manganese concentrations are generally well above the concentration suggested for the dietary requirement of cattle (20 to 40 ppm) as shown in Figure 7. In this study, Bermudagrass forage manganese concentration was more than twice the dietary requirement throughout the winter.
However, limited research suggests that the availability of forage manganese is quite low (less than 20%). Until more research is available, and considering the importance of manganese in cow fertility and in young calf development, it seems logical to focus supplementation and diet evaluation efforts prior to and immediately following calving.
Effective manganese sources include manganese sulfate, manganese oxide, and various organic forms of manganese. Relative availability of organic sources of manganese is approximately 120% of manganese sulfate with manganese oxide having lower availability than
manganese sulfate. High intake of phosphorous, calcium, and iron results in reduced manganese absorption.
## Selenium
Early attention was drawn to selenium because of severe selenium toxicity in grazing cattle in some parts of the U.S. More recently, forage selenium concentration has been shown to be marginal to deficient in several areas. Unlike many other trace minerals, the range between dietary toxicity and deficiency is quite narrow. In fact, the USDA regulates the inclusion rate of selenium in feeds and supplements with levels not to exceed 3 mg per day or about 0.14 mg /lb of total diet (0.3 ppm). This amount is equivalent to only 0.7 gm of total selenium per ton of feed.
Selenium is required in the body for synthesis of an enzyme that breaks down harmful oxidizing agents. Selenium and vitamin E are somewhat related because vitamin E acts to protect cells from the harmful effects of the oxidizing agents. Vitamin E also acts as an antioxidant. Therefore, a deficiency of either selenium or vitamin E will increase the requirement for the other. Early work suggested that selenium supplementation may moderate the negative effects of fescue toxicosis. Unfortunately, initial positive claims for beneficial effects of selenium against fescue toxicity have not been substantiated in studies at the University of Missouri. However, on average, fescue forage is marginal to low in selenium concentration, suggesting that a low level of supplementation may improve animal performance. Signs of selenium deficiency include:
- · White muscle disease: degeneration and necrosis of skeletal and cardiac muscle
- · Reproductive failure
- · Increased incidence of retained placenta in dairy cows
- · Increased calf mortality and reduced calf weaning weights
- · Immune suppression
Sodium selenite is the most common form of selenium supplementation, although several organic forms of selenium have recently been developed.
Producers should be cautioned against attempting to mix their own formulation with selenium. The toxic level for selenium is only 10 times the requirement and any math error or mixing mistake can lead to serious consequences.
## Zinc
Zinc is an essential component of a number of important metabolic enzymes and it serves to activate numerous other enzymes. Enzymes that require zinc are involved in protein, nucleic acid, and carbohydrate metabolism as well as enzymes associated with immune function. Signs of zinc deficiency include:
- · Reduced feed intake and growth rate
- · Listlessness
- · Excessive salivation
- · Reduced testicular growth
- · Swollen, cracked hooves
- · Skin lesions (parakeratosis)
- · Failed or slowed wound healing
- · Reduced fertility in cows and bulls
Most forages are marginal to low in zinc concentration compared to the suggested requirement (30 ppm). Figure 8 shows the zinc concentration in stockpiled Bermudagrass forage throughout the winter. Although zinc concentration was below the requirement, forage zinc concentration did not decline as the winter grazing season progressed.
Previously it was noted that mineral supplements should contain a copper to zinc ratio between 1:2 and 1:3 Zinc sulfate, zinc oxide, and organic forms of zinc are common supplementation sources. Absorption or availability is lower for theoxide compared to the sulfate and organic forms.
## Vitamins
Vitamins and vitamin precursors are organic components of forage and feeds, although they are distinct from carbohydrates, protein, fat, and water. Vitamins are essential for the development and maintenance of different tissues and they are involved in numerous metabolic activities. Vitamins also differ from other essential nutrients in that they do not enter into the structural portions of the body.
Vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble (A , D , E , and K ) or water-soluble B , thiamin, niacin, and choline) based upon their structure and function. Fatsoluble vitamins contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, whereas the water-soluble B -vitamins contain these elements and either nitrogen, sulfur, or cobalt. Fat-soluble vitamins may occur in plant tissues as a provitamin (a precursor to the vitamin). A good example is carotene in forages, which is readily converted to vitamin A by ruminant animals. No provitaminals are known to exist for the water-soluble vitamins. However, rumen microorganisms have the ability to synthesize water-soluble vitamins. As a result, the supplementation of water-soluble vitamins is generally not necessary in ruminants. Only the vitamins thought to be of
significant concern for grazing cattle in Oklahoma will be discussed.
## Thiamin
Thiamin functions in all cells as a coenzyme cocarboxylase. Thiamin is the enzyme responsible for all enzymatic carboxylations of keto-acids in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, which provides energy to the body. Thiamin also plays a key role in glucose metabolism.
Synthesis of thiamin by rumen microflora makes it difficult to establish a ruminant requirement. Generally, animals with a functional rumen can synthesize adequate amounts of thiamin.
In all species, a thiamin deficiency results in central nervous system disorders, because thiamin is an important component of the biochemical reactions that break down the glucose supplying energy to the brain. Other signs of thiamin deficiency include weakness, retracted head (head back and cannot look down), and cardiac arrhythmia. As with other water-soluble vitamins, deficiencies can result in slowed growth, anorexia, and diarrhea.
## Vitamin B$\_{12}$
B-vitamins are abundant in milk and other feeds. B-vitamins are synthesized by rumen micro-organisms, beginning soon after a young animal begins feeding. As a result, B-vitamin deficiency is limited to situations where an antagonist is present or the rumen lacks the precursors to make the vitamin.
Vitamin B$\_{12}$ is the generic descriptor for a group of compounds having vitamin B$\_{12}$ activity. One feature of vitamin B$\_{12}$ is that it contains 4.5% cobalt. The naturally occurring forms of vitamin B$\_{12}$ are adenosylcolbalamin and methyl calobalimate. These are found in both plant and animal tissues. The primary functions of vitamin B$\_{12}$ involve metabolism of nucleic acids, proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Vitamin B$\_{12}$ is of special interest in ruminant nutrition because of its role in propionate metabolism, as well as the practical incidence of vitamin B$\_{12}$ deficiency as a secondary result of cobalt deficiency. Primarily, cobalt content of the diet is the limiting factor for ruminal microorganism synthesis of vitamin B$\_{12}$ .
A vitamin B$\_{12}$ deficiency is difficult to distinguish from a cobalt deficiency. The signs of deficiency may not be specific and can include poor appetite, retarded growth, and poor condition. In severe deficiencies, muscular weakness and demyelination of peripheral nerves occurs. In young ruminant animals, vitamin B$\_{12}$ deficiency can occur when rumen microbial flora have not reached adequate populations or are depleted due to stress.
## Vitamin A
Vitamin A is considered by many to be the most important vitamin regarding the need for supplementation. Vitamin A is necessary for proper bone formation, growth, vision, skin and hoof tissue maintenance, and energy metabolism (glucoesynthesis). Deficiency symptoms include:
- · Night blindness
- · Reproductive failure
- · Skeletal deformation
- · Skin lesions
Plant materials contain the provitamin, carotene. Green leafy forage, green hay, silages, dehydrated alfalfa meal, yellow corn, whole milk, and fish oils are rich sources of carotene. In cattle, 1 mg of beta-carotene is converted to the equivalent of about 400 international units (IU) of vitamin A. Lush immature forage contains high concentrations of carotene, although carotene is destroyed rapidly as the plant matures and with exposure to sunlight, air, and high temperatures (Figure 9).
The liver does store vitamin A , and these stores can serve to prevent deficiency in times when carotene or vitamin A intake is low. It is generally thought that vitamin A stores can last only 2 to 4 months if a severe dietary deficiency exists. Situations where cattle are particularly susceptible to vitamin A deficiency includes times when cattle consume:
- · High-concentrate diets
- · Winter pasture, crop residues, or hay growing during drought conditions
- · Feeds receiving excess exposure to sunlight, air, and high temperature
- · Feeds that have been heavily processed or mixed
- with oxidizing materials, such as minerals
- Forages that have been stored for long periods of time
## Vitamin D
Vitamin D is essential for bone growth and maintenance because it is directly involved in calcium absorption as well as phosphorus absorption from the kidney and it is involved in osteoblast (bone cell) formationandcalcification.Italsoplaysanimportantrole in phosphorylation of carbohydrates, which is part of the energy metabolism process, and it has a regulatory role in immune cell function. There are two primary forms of vitamin D : 1. ergocalciferol (vitamin D$^{3}$) derived from the plant steroid, ergosterol, and 2. cholecalcerofil (vitamin D$^{3}$), which is found only in animal tissues or products
and derived from the precursor 7-dehydrocholesterol. One IU of vitamin D is equivalent to 0.025 microgram of vitamin D$\_{3}$ or vitamin D$\_{2}$ . Similarly, 1 mg of either source contains 40,000 IU activity.
Sun-cured hay, irradiated yeast, and certain fish liver oils contain high concentrations of vitamin D. However, because vitamin D is synthesized by beef cattle when exposed either to sunlight or fed sun-cured forages, they rarely require vitamin D supplementation. Examples of situations conducive to moderate vitamin D deficiency would include cattle housed indoors for long periods of time and fed a high-concentrate ration (little or no sun-cured forage), and cattle consuming extremely low quality forage during long periods with little or no sunlight.
Severe vitamin D deficiency results in a disease referred to as rickets, which is caused by the bones failure to assimilate and use calcium and phosphorus normally. Accompanying evidence frequently includes a decrease in calcium and inorganic phosphorus in the blood, swollen and stiff joints, anorexia, irritability, tetany, and convulsions. Osteomalacia is a related disease that affects older animals with vitamin D deficiency, resulting in weak, fragile bones.
## Vitamin E
Vitamin E occurs naturally in feedstuffs as α -tocopherol. Vitamin E is not stored in the body in large concentrations, although small quantities can be found in the liver and adipose tissue. This vitamin serves several functions including a role as an inter- and intra-cellular antioxidant and in the formation of structural components of biological membranes. Vitamin E is important in muscle growth and structure.
The vitamin E requirement for cattle has not been firmly established. For young growing cattle, the requirement is estimated to be between 7 and 27 IU/lb of feed dry matter. However, 50 to 100 IU/hd/day has been suggested for older growing and finishing cattle (NRC).
Vitamin E deficiencies can be initiated by the intake of unsaturated fats. Examples of common sources of unsaturated fats include whole cottonseed, soybeans, and whole sunflowers, among others.
Signs of deficiencies in young calves are characteristic of white-muscle disease including general muscular dystrophy, weak leg muscles, crossorover walking, impaired suckling ability caused by dystrophy of tongue muscles, heart failure, paralysis, and hepatic necrosis.
## Diagnosis of Mineral Deficiencies
Diagnosis of mineral deficiencies is difficult due to extreme variation in current and historical dietary mineral supply, the presence of potential antagonists, differences in the availability of minerals in various
supplement sources, and only a cloudy view of specific dietary mineral requirements, particularly for trace minerals. An effective diagnosis may include several of the following evaluations: clinical signs, soil analysis, forage analysis, water analysis, mineral concentrations in feed or supplement, mineral concentrations in tissue (primarily blood, blood components, and liver tissue), as well as the animal's response to treatment.
Average dietary availability of minerals was considered when these requirements were determined. Although availability of forage mineral varies with the specific mineral, soil mineral concentrations, and forage maturity and weathering, most data indicate that minerals of forage origin are between 50 and 90% available to the ruminant animal. The exception to these higher absorption values is manganese, which may be considerably lower.
Perhaps the most useful starting point in evaluating mineral status is obtaining a complete mineral profile of all forages, feeds, and supplements provided to the cattle. An estimate of average daily intake of each component will also be necessary. Once a mineral balance profile (daily supply minus daily requirement) has been constructed, marginal and severe deficiencies can be identified. If this exercise does not reveal the
Table 2. Criteria for classification of mineral status in cattle using liver mineral concentrations.
| | Deficient | Marginal | Adequate | High | Toxic |
|------------|---------------|-------------|------------|---------|---------|
| Cobalt | <0.005<fcel> | 0.020-0.085 | 0.085-8.70 | 5.0-300 | |
| Copper | < 33<fcel> | 125 - 600 | 600 - 1250 | > 1250 | |
| Iodine | <0.094<fcel> | 0.094-2.0 | >0.781 | | |
| Iron | <40<fcel> | 53-700 | | | |
| Magnesium | <40-200<fcel> | | | | |
| Manganese | < 5<fcel> | 10 - 15 | 15 - 25 | | |
| Phosphorus | 6-14 | 6-14 | | | |
| Potassium | < 0.5<fcel> | 1.25 - 2.50 | > 2.5 | | |
| Selenium | < 0.5<fcel> | 25 - 200 | 300 - 600 | > 1000 | |
| Zinc | <20<fcel> | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | Deficient | Marginal | Adequate | High | Toxic |
|---------------------------------|-------------|-------------|------------|--------|---------|
| Copper, plasma, microgram/mL | < 0.5<fcel> | 0.7 - 0.9 | 0.9 - 1.1 | > 1.2 | |
| Iodine, serum, microgram/100 mL | < 5<fcel> | 70 - 300 | | | |
| Iron, serum, microgram/100 mL | < 120<fcel> | 400 - 600 | | | |
| Manganese, whole blood, ng/mL | < 20<fcel> | 70 - 200 | | | |
| Manganese, serum, ng/mL | < 5<fcel> | > 1,200 | | | |
| Selenium, whole blood, ng/mL | < 60<fcel> | 210 - 1,200 | > 1,200 | | |
| Zinc, plasma, microgram/mL | <0.4<fcel> | 0.8 - 1.4 | 2 - 5 | 3 - 15 | |
potential cause of severe or even marginal deficiency signs, such as low pregnancy rates or high morbidity and mortality rates in weaned calves, tissue and water source evaluations may be necessary.
Liver concentrations of copper, manganese, selenium, and zinc provide the best indication of trace mineral status (Table 2). Unfortunately, obtaining liver samples is somewhat expensive, invasive, and time consuming compared to blood samples. Liver iodine and iron concentration are not indicative of nutritional status.
indicator of selenium status, while alkaline phosphatase, superoxide dismutase, and metallothionein are indicators of zinc status. Similarly, ceruloplasmin, superoxide dismutase, and metallothionein are used as indicators of copper status. Vitamin B$\_{12}$ and methylmalonic acid are used as indicators of cobalt status.
Water intake and water mineral concentration can also provide instructive information when assessing mineral status of cattle. Table 4 provides recommended maximum levels of minerals and mineral compounds in livestock drinking water.
## Supplementing Minerals
The most common method of providing supplemental minerals to cattle is through a protein/energy supplement or through a free-choice mineral supplement. Free-choice supplementation requires additional equipment for delivery to cattle. Mineral waste and spoilage from moisture can be minimized with a number of commercially available mineral feeders designed to minimize mineral exposure to wind and rain (Figure 10). Animal to animal variation in intakeisgreatestwithfree-choicemineralsupplements. Some cattle consume no supplement while others may consume as much as four or five times the intended daily amount. This variation is reduced considerably when minerals are incorporated into protein/energy supplements that are provided on a regular basis.
It is important to monitor and record average daily intake of free-choice supplements so that the supplement formula can be adjusted if necessary to increase or reduce intake. Cattle will consume salt in excess. This is why salt is used as the base ingredient in free-choice supplements. Phosphorus and magnesium sources are unpalatable and may reduce mineral supplement consumption. When providing a complete free-choice mineral supplement, all other sources of salt should be removed from the pasture.
We have tracked mineral supplement disappearance (which is an estimate of intake) for both springand fall-calving cow herds at the Range Cow Research Center, North Range Unit for five years. The free-choice mineral supplement shown in Table 5 was used. Average mineral disappearance by cow herd and season is shown in Figure 11. Lactating fall calving cows had higher mineral consumption during the winter months compared to dry spring calving cows during that same time period. Regardless of calving season, cows consumed more mineral during the fall and winter months with much lower mineral disappearance during the spring and summer (Figure 11).
| Ingredient | Free-choice mineral for beef cows' | Free-choice mineral for beef cows' | Magnesium-fortified mineral for beef cows' | Magnesium-fortified mineral for beef cows' | High-magnesium mineral for beef cows' |
|---------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|
| | | Pounds per ton (as fed basis) | Pounds per ton (as fed basis) | Pounds per ton (as fed basis) | Pounds per ton (as fed basis) |
| Dicalcium phosphate | 900 | 700 | | 250 | |
| Salt | 570.4 | 435.4 | 500 | | |
| Cottonseed meal | 150 | 200 | | 500 | |
| Limestone, 38% | 140 | 140 | | 250 | |
| Dried molasses | 75 | 100 | | | |
| Selenium | 600 | 40 | | 40 | |
| Magnesium oxide | 30 | 300 | | 500 | |
| Vitamin A-30,000 IU/ g | 30 | 30 | | | |
| Mineral oil | 20 | 20 | | | |
| Zinc sulfate | 16.6 | 16.6 | | | |
| Potassium chloride | 10 | - | | | |
| Manganous oxide | 8.0 | 8.0 | | | |
| Copper sulfate Vitamin E-50% 227,600 IU/ lb | 2.0 | 2.0 | | | |
| | | Nutrient composition (as fed basis) | Nutrient composition (as fed basis) | Nutrient composition (as fed basis) | Nutrient composition (as fed basis) |
| Calcium, % | 12 | 10 | | 7 | |
| Phosphorus, % | 8 | 6 | | 2.5 | |
| Magnesium, % | 1 | 8 | | 15 | |
| Sulfur, % | 1 | 8 | | - | |
| Copper, ppm | 0.5 | 0.5 | | - | |
| Iron, ppm$^{4}$ | 6250 | 5000 | | - | |
| Manganese, ppm | 2500 | 2500 | | - | |
| Selenium, ppm | 12 | 12 | | - | |
| Zinc, ppm | 3000 | 3000 | | - | |
A example of a free-choice mineral for beef cows grazing native range or bermudagrass pasture. Do not feed this mineral from 2 to 4 ounces per day. c
This mineral formula does not contain micro minerals and thus can be safely mixed at the home operation. Part or all of the cottonseed meal can be replaced with dried molasses.
d Do not add iron oxide or other ingredients high in iron since most Oklahoma forages contain excessive iron.
The mineral formulas provided in Table 5 are provided as examples of relatively simple free-choice mineral mixes designed for beef cows grazing native range during late summer and winter in Oklahoma. These formulas would also be appropriate for cows consuming other low quality forage, such as dormant Bermudagrass and fescue during late summer or mid-winter. An example of a magnesium-fortified mineral supplement and a high-magnesium supplement is also provided. Producers should not attempt to mix mineral supplements containing small amounts of trace minerals at home due to potential mixing errors and the potential to cause mineral toxicity due to inadequate mixing.
Lush growing forage and forage with a substantial legume component contains significantly higher concentrations of most minerals. For example, in the study of Lalman et al., mineral concentration of fertilized, stockpiled Bermudagrass forage contained relatively high concentrations of phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, iron, and manganese during the month of November, when the forage regrowth was lush (high quality). Therefore, mineral supplements should contain lower concentrations of these minerals during times when cattle have access to high quality forage. Mineral supplementation for cattle grazing wheat pasture and other cool-season annuals is discussed in Chapter 18. As a general rule, free-choice mineral supplements for high
quality, fresh forage should contain greater than 12% calcium and less than 6% phosphorus. Some producers have fed very simple free-choice mineral supplements to beef cows with excellent growth, animal health, and reproductive performance year after year. For example, one popular homemade mineral supplement includes 50% trace-mineralized salt and 50% dicalcium phosphate. A simple formula for supplying supplemental magnesium in high-risk situations is included in Table 5. Obviously, the major advantage of these simple formulas is that they are inexpensive and they can be mixed at home. If a simple program like this has been used with success (animal health, growth, and reproduction meets or exceeds the expectations of the producer), there may be no need to use a more complicated and expensive program. However, producers should keep in mind the potential for a production-limiting deficiency to develop. As discussed above, the greatest potential deficiencies in Oklahoma include vitamin A, phosphorus, copper, and zinc. Over a long period of time, these deficiencies may be revealed through reduced animal health and performance.
There are situations where salt is the most effective and economical supplementation program. This is particularly true when cattle consume high quality, lush forage, legume based forage, and/or substantial concentrate supplementation.Forexample,whenstocke r
cattle are shipped into Oklahoma for dry wintering, followed by summer grazing, little if anything is known about their previous dietary mineral status. Additionally, since many loads of cattle represent more than one previous owner and origin, previous dietary mineral status will be quite variable. Some, if not most of these cattle may be deficient in one or several vitamins and minerals when they arrive in the fall. However, if the cattle are wintered with a well-formulated supplement designed to improve vitamin and mineral status, it is unlikely that these cattle would respond to mineral supplementation during the 90 to 150 day spring and summer grazing season. Forages contain considerably higher concentrations of highly available provitaminins, vitamins, and minerals during lush growing periods compared to forage in more mature stages of growth or dormancy. If well-managed stockers on high-quality forage start the grazing season with adequate mineral status, supplements should not be necessary for 90 days or so. Many people feed minerals because they either do not know how animals have previously been managed or they have another objective, such as delivery of an ionophore.
## Conclusion
Forage mineral concentration varies considerably and is dependent on many factors including forage species, soil mineral concentrations, fertilization, climatic conditions, season of the year, and weathering. Even though forage mineral concentration data are not difficult or expensive to obtain, this information must frequently be combined with additional assessment criteria because forage mineral availability is also variable and unknown in many cases. Numerous mineral interactions exist to influence the availability of dietary minerals. In fact, some minerals, such as copper and manganese, may need to be provided beyond the suggested requirement when high concentrations of antagonists are present. Deficiency signs for various minerals have been provided. Many of these clinical signs are not evident until a severe deficiency exists because bone, blood, liver, and other organs provide a substantial pool from which cattle can draw during times of dietary inadequacy. The minerals that are most likely to be deficient for cattle grazing moderate to lowquality Oklahoma forage are phosphorous, potassium (for cattle grazing dormant standing forage), copper, and zinc. Supplementation of manganese and selenium may also be necessary in many cases and magnesium supplementation is frequently necessary during spring.
## References
Arthington, J.D. (2002) Essential Trace Minerals for Grazing Cattle in Florida. AN086. Animal Science Department, University of Florida.
Beck, P.A. (1993) Development of a Self-Limited MonesinContaining Energy Supplement for Growing Cattle on Wheat Pasture. Master's Theses. Department of Animal Science, Oklahoma State University.
Corah, L.R. and Ives (1991) The Effects of Essential Trace Minerals on Reproduction in Beef Cattle. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice. Vol. 7, No. 1.
Graber, R.W. et al. (1985) Mineral, Rumensin®, and Chlortretracycline Supplementation for Steers on Native Bluestem Pasture. Cattlemen's Day Report, Kansas State University.
Greene, L.W. et al. (1998) Role of Trache Minerals in Cow-Calf Cycle Examined. Feedstuff., Vol. 70, No. 34.
Grenee, L.W. (1999) Designing Mineral Supplementation of Forage Programs for Beef Cattle. Proceedings: American Society of Animal Science. Retrieved January 8, 2004 from http://www.asas.org/jas/symsopia/proceedings/0913 .pdf
Harper, H.J. and L.W. Reed (1964) Effect of Chemical Composition of Soil on Micronutrients and Other Elements in Oklahoma Forage Plants. Processed Series P-486, Oklahoma State University.
Horn, F.P. (1983) Chemical Composition of Wheat Pasture. Proceedings: National Wheat Pasture Symposium. MPI155-47.4. Oakham Agricultural Experiment Station, Oklahoma State University.
Karns, J.F. and D.C. Clanton (1976) Potassium in Range Supplements. Nebraska Beef Cattle Report, E.C. 76-218. University of Nebraska.
Kilgore, G.L., F.K. Braze, and M.R. Fausett (1980) Tall Fescue Production and Utilization. Cooperative Extension Bulletin C-622, Kansas State University.
Kindicar, R.L. (1999) Assessment of Trace Mineral Status of Runimants: A Review. Proceedings: American Society of Animal Science, Retrieved January 8, 2004 from http:// www.asas.org/jas/symsopia/proceedings/0930.pdf
Lalman, D.L. et al. (2002) Effects of Harvest Date and LateSummer Fertiliztion Rate on Stockpiled Bermudagrass Forage Mineral Concentrations. P-993: Article 14. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Oklahoma State University, Retrieved from http://www.ansi.okstate. edu/research/2002rnr/15/index.htm
Nelson, A.B. et al. (1955) Supplemental Phosphorus Requirement of Range Beef Cattle. Technical Bulletin T-54.
Nelson, A.B.etal.(1956) Feeding Trace Minerals to Beef Cattle in Oklahoma. Bulletin B-470, Oklahoma State University. National Research Council. (2000) Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle (7 th Edition). National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Puls, R. (1988) Mineral Levels in Animal Health. Sherpa International. Clearbrook, B.C., Canada.
Rasby, R. et al. (1988) Minerals and Vitamins for Beef Cows. EC97-227, University of Nebraska. Retrieved January 8, 2004 from http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/beef/ec277. htm
Spears, JW. (1994) Chapter 7. Minerals in Forages. Forage Quality, Evaluation and Utilization. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America, 281.
Waller, G.R.,R.D.Morrison, and A.B. Nelson (1972) Chemical Composition of Native Grases in Central Oklahoma From 1947 to 1962. OSU Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin B-697. | |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/lesion-nematode-in-corn | Lesion Nematode in Corn | NC State University | [
"Adrienne Gorny",
"Kelci Cox"
] | null | [
"Corn",
"Lesion Nematode",
"Field Crop",
"Corn Disease",
"Field Crop Disease"
] | NC | ## Lesion Nematode in Corn
Corn Disease Information
## Pathogen
Lesion nematodes belong to the genus Pratylenchus and are soilborne, plant-parasitic roundworms that may cause damage in corn. Individual lesion nematodes range between 0.3 to 0.9 millimeters (0.01 to 0.03 inches) long and thus cannot be seen with the naked eye. These nematodes are known for their broad host-range and are capable of parasitizing over 400 crop plant species worldwide. The most common species found in corn production in North Carolina include P. brachyurus , P. penetrans , P. scribnieri and P. zaele .
Lesion nematodes primarily feed on roots, rhizomes, tubers, and other underground plant structures. They feed by lysing, or breaking open, cells of the roots forming cavities and disrupting the function of the root. Necrotic lesions (spots of dead tissue, appearing dark in color) can be observed on the root because of the damage caused by feeding and movement. The feeding damage caused by nematodes can also become an infection point for other pathogenic soil microbes, such as fungi.
Attribution: A. Gorny, NC State University
## Signs and Symptoms
Detecting lesion nematodes in corn may be difficult because symptoms observed above ground often resemble nutrient deficiencies and/or drought stress. When nematode populations are low, symptoms may not be present above ground. When nematode populations are high, aboveground symptoms include stunted or uneven plant growth, leaf chlorosis or yellowing, and small ears/kernels.
Characteristic root symptoms of lesion nematodes include swollen roots, lack of root branching/fine roots, stunted roots, and reddish-brown/black lesions along the roots. These lesions may appear in small, discrete spots at early stages of infection. As nematode feeding continues, lesions can coalesce and become larger, extended areas of necrotic lesions.
## Diagnosis
If a corn crop is suspected to be suffering from lesion nematodes, plants should be dug up, taking care to preserve as much of the root system as possible. Roots can be washed gently in a bucket of water or under running water to remove soil. A visual inspection should include checking the plant roots for black necrotic lesions. However, this will not indicate the level of nematode pressure (nematode population counts) in the field. Diagnosis can be confirmed through assessment of soil and root samples for the presence of the nematode by a plant disease diagnostic laboratory or nematode assay laboratory. Soil samples for nematode assay services may be submitted to the North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, Agronomic Services (NCDA&CS), Nematode Assay Laboratory. 4300 Reedy Creek Road, Raleigh, NC 27607.
In order to determine nematode pressure, soil samples should be taken from several areas in the affected field. Using a soil probe, collect 20 to 30 soil cores across a 5 acre block, at a depth of 6 to 8 inches from each area using a grid-like or "zig-zag" pattern across the area. Combine soil cores in a clean plastic bucket and remove a smaller portion of soil from this larger sample to submit to the Nematode Assay Laboratory. Detailed sampling instructions can be found at the NCDA&CS Nematode Assay Laboratory sampling guidelines.
## Disease Cycle
Lesion nematodes are obligate biotrophs , meaning they require living plant roots to feed and reproduce. Lesion nematodes are migratory endoparisites, meaning they migrate through roots even at the adult stage and retain a worm-like appearance throughout their life cycle. They can move through the soil, but mainly move and feed within plant roots.
The life cycle of the lesion nematode consists of six life stages: egg, four juvenile states and the adult stage. The life cycle typically takes 4 to 8 weeks to complete, but this generation time may be influenced by soil moisture, soil temperature, and host crop suitability. Female nematodes lay eggs one at a time in plant roots or soil, which develop to first-stage juveniles, then to second-stage juveniles before hatching from the egg. The second-stage juvenile nematodes can penetrate plant roots to feed and continue developing through a third- and fourth-stage, and finally into adults. Adult lesion nematodes may exit and re-enter the roots. Under favorable environmental conditions (presence of a suitable host crop, sufficient soil moisture, and favorable temperatures) lesion nematode populations can increase to over 1,000 nematodes per gram of root. Lesion nematodes can overwinter in infected root tissue, weed hosts, or in the soil at any life stage.
## Management
Managing lesion nematodes can be difficult due to their broad host range (Table 1) and lack of corn varieties with genetic resistance to this pathogen. Routine soil sampling for nematode analysis is important to understand if a field has lesion nematode and monitor population counts. Knowledge of specific Prylatenchus species present in the field is helpful for determining if there is a non-host crop that can be integrated into the crop rotation. However, this information may be difficult to obtain, as it requires a detailed examination of the nematode specimen or a DNA-based test. Many species of lesion nematode can also infect, reproduce, and survive on common weeds. Therefore, good weed management will eliminate a potential food source for these nematodes.
| Pratylenchus species | Host Crops | Non-Host Crops |
|-------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|
| P. brachyurus | common bean, corn, cotton, cucurbit crops, okra, peach, peanut, soybeans, sweetpotato, tobacco, tomato, triticale cover crops | cabbage, lettuce and onion |
| P. penetrans | alfalfa, Bermuda grass, boxwood, corn, cotton, peach, red clover cover crops, rye, soybeans, sweetpotato, tobacco, tomato, white potato | erennial yegrass and Sudan grass |
| P. scribnieri | cole crops, common bean, corn, cotton, onion, peach, soybeans, tobacco, tomato, wheat | alfalfa |
| P. zaeae | pole beans, corn, oats, okra, peach, sorghum, soybeans, sugarcane, tall fescue, tobacco, wheat | peanut, tobacco and tomato |
Two effective management tactics for lesion nematodes are sanitation procedures and the application of chemical nematicides. Avoiding the introduction of lesion nematodes into the field through sanitation procedures is highly beneficial, as they can be extremely difficult to get rid of once populations are established in the field. Careful sanitatio n by cleaning of equipment moved between fields is an effective way of reducing the spread of lesion nematodes between fields and farms. Sanitize by washing with a solution of 10% household bleach, removing any stuck soil, then rinsing with clean water and drying before moving to unaffected fields or areas.
Another effective management tactic to reduce lesion nematode populations within the field is the use of nematicides when economically viable. Pre-plant soil fumigation, at-plant non-fumigant nematodes or seed treatments, can reduce lesion nematode population levels to below economic thresholds. Chemical nematicide treatments are summarized in Table 2 and additional information may be found in the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual .
Table 2. Chemical control options for suppression of lesion nematode in corn. Table may not represent complete list of all products registered for suppression of nematodes in corn in North Carolina, and inclusion of the products in the list does not endorse efficacy. Please refer to product label for application methods, regulations, and compliances.
| Active ingredient and formulation | Amount | Notes |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------|
| terbufos (Counter 20 G) | 5.0 lb/ac | Apply in furrow. Do not exceed 6.5 lb/ac of Counter 20 G |
| ethoprop (Mocap 15 G) | Consult label | Apply 3 days before planting or at-plant |
| abamectin (Avicta) | 0.15 mg per seed | Seed treatment |
| clothianidin 40.3% + Bacillus firmus I- 1582 8.1% (Poncho/Votivo) | 0.25 to 0.50 mg per seed | Seed treatment |
| Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain PTA- 4838 16.5% (Aveo EZ) | 0.1 fl oz per 80,000 seed | Seed treatment |
| Heat-killed Burkholderia spp. strain A396 94.46% (BioST) | 8 oz per 100 lb seed | Seed treatment |
## Additional Resources
The NCDA&CS Nematode Assay Lab provides soil detection and diagnostics.
The NCSU Plant Disease and Insect Clinic provides diagnostic and control recommendations.
The NC State Extension Plant Pathology portal provides information on crop disease management.
The Southeastern US Vegetable Crop Handbook provides information on vegetable disease management.
The North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual provides an up-to-date list of chemicals available for control of nematodes and other diseases and pests.
## Acknowledgements
This factsheet was prepared by the NCSU Plant Nematology Lab in 2021.
## Authors
Adrienne Gorny Assistant Professor (Nematology) Entomology & Plant Pathology
Kelci Cox
Undergraduate Research Intern Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Aug. 18, 2021
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‡k@okstate.edu(mailto:paul.beck@okstate.edu?
subject=Cattle%20on%20Wheat%20and%20Small%20Grains%20)
yn (mailto:rosslyn.biggs@okstate.edu%20? subject=Cattle%20on%20Wheat%20and%20Small%20Grains).
L4-8587(tel:4057448587)
biggs@okstate.edu(mailto:rosslyn.piggs@okstate.edu?
subject=Cattle%20on%20Wheat%20and%20Small%20Grains)
l (mailto:david.lalman@okstate.edu? an subject=Cattle%20on%20Wheat%20and%20Small%20Grains%20)
Iman@okstate.edu(mailto:david.lalman@okstate.edu?
subject=Cattle%20on%20Wheat%20and%20Small%20Grains) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/bobwhite-quail-management/ | Bobwhite Quail Management | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Mark Smith"
] | 2022-06-14 | [
"Wildlife",
"Forestry",
"Management"
] | AL | ## Bobwhite Quail Management
The bobwhite quail was once the most popular game bird in the south. Learn about its decline and the management practices that can increase qual populations.
Once known as the prince of game birds, the bobwhite quail was the most popular game bird in the south when most agricultural crops were grown in small patches. Qualit thrived throughout Alabama, primarily because of land-use patterns. Over time, quail numbers have steadily declined due to changes in agricultural practices that have diminished their habitat. Clean farming practices destroy brushy fencers and enlarge field sizes, and non-native invasive forage grasses have replaced native bunch grasses. In many forests, dense trees and a lack of periodic prescribed burns have also reduced the habitat available to qual. Management techniques can, however, be used to increase quail populations in areas where they once existed.
## Feeding and Nesting Patterns
In autumn, quail form loose groupings of 9 to 14 birds. These groupings, called coveys, protect the group by lessening the likelihood of predation on individual birds. Qualit typically spend early daylight hours feeding and mid-day nesting, preening, and dust bathing. In the late afternoon, coveys feed again before forming a covey circle on the ground to rost at dusk.
Qual remain in coveys, feeding and roosting as a unit throughout winter. Coveys may restrict their activities to as little as 10 to 40 acres in good winter habitat. In poorer habitats where ample cover is scarce, coveys are forced to range over larger areas.
As days become longer and temperatures warm during early spring, coveys begin to disband. In Alabama, coveys start breaking up by mid-April. The early stages of covey breakup coincide with when males, or cocks, start whithising their characteristic bobwhite notes. Initially, coveys may split into pairs of coveyflies (coyotes) and regroup to roost as a covey at night. Pair bonds are usually formed between covey members. Although pairs may begin building a nest and laying durin gpril, covey creausk is an sitn ic nci viele uri mid-way. (https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oa/privacy\_phpab
Nesting usually lasts from early May through September. Clutches of about 13 eggs are laid in nests on the ground. Hens incubate most nests, but coves will readily assume incubation duties when hens are unavailable. The success rate for bobwhite nesting is low. Typically, only one out of every four nests will hatch. Nests fall prey to many egg-eating predators and forest farm management activities. Quail overcome poor nest success by rene sting after a nest is destroyed. Occasionally, quail may raise two broods during periods of favorable nesting conditions,.
Eggs hatch after 23 days of incubation. The chicks weigh only 1/2 ounce at hatching. They can immediately move around on their own and feed themselves; however, they require close brooding by adults to keep warm. Chick growth is rapid. By 15 weeks of age, the young are nearly full grown and are identical in appearance to the adults.
## Habitat
Like all other wildlife, quail require food, shelter, and water to survive and reproduce. Qualil live in forest openings, open woods, fallow fields, and along the edges of cultivated fields that produce abundant food and provide adequate cover. Quail do not require a significant amount of water. Their water needs are satisfied by drinking dew and eating berries and insects, although they occasionally use water holes or other water sources. Qualit feed seasonally on fruits, leafy vegetation, and both seeds make up the bulk of their diet throughout most of the year. During fall and winter, quail eat energy-rich seeds produced by grasses, legumes, other herbaceous plants, trees, and shrubs. Quail prefer grass seeds during fall, but grass seeds spoil rapidly and are depleted quickly. Persistent, hardcoated legume seeds are a staple food in winter. Acorns are preferred over all others from fall through e my spring win available. OK
In early spring, diets shift from seeds to insects and leafy green vegetation. Insects remain an essential food to adults and young throughout summer and early fall. Chicks feed almost exclusively on insects during the first 2 to 3 weeks after hatching because they require a right-protein diet for 'apid growii and the development of flight feathers. During summer, adults eat fruits
Because quail scratch poorly and are hindered by highly dense vegetation, quail food must be exposed on relatively bare soil and in open-structured vegetation. Regardless of their abundance, seeds buried under deep piles of leaf litter are unavailable to quail. Food availability is also influenced by its distance from protective cover. Quail seldom move far from cover to feed. Small, relatively dense thickets provide refuge from predators. Brushy drains and fencerows can serve as resting areas and travel lanes between fields.
Qual usually build nests in low, clumped vegetation that gives good cover close to the ground. Dead leaves and stems are used to build nests and must be available near nest sites. Nests built during spring are often found in old fields and woodlands left unburned for 1 to 3 years. Vegetation around nests must be open to allow quail easy access to and from nests. Quail often select nest sites close to fields, fire lanes, roads, or other openings. Incubating hens also need nearby sources of energyrich food, such as clumps of blackberries and other fruits.
## Managing a Quail Habitat
Habitat conditions largely determine the number of quail on a given area. The amount, quality, and distribution of food and cover affect population levels. High densities, sometimes exceeding one bird per acre, occur where food and cover are plentiful and well distributed, so quali do not have to move much.
Successful habitat management requires that all of the birds' yearly needs are met in relatively small areas. It is best to provide habitat for each covey within 10 to 40 acres. This includes habitat in every season for both young and adult quail.
In most cases, areas where quali are absent or scarce have inadequate cover. If protective cover is available, populations usually respond favorably to management practices that provide plenty of fall and winter food. If increases in food supply fail to increase population levels, however, habitat must be modified.
## Management Techniques
Landowners interested in improving quail numbers and hunting opportunities on their land can use habitat management methods to utilize native vegetation and supplement native food.
Bobwhite quail are habitat specialists, relying on natural early succession plant communities to meet most of their daily, seasonal, and yearly needs. Early succession plant communities are characterized as annuals and forbes, such as ragged, foxtail, goldenrod, and partridge pea. These first appear or sprout up after the soil has been disturbed or the surface substrate (old dead plant material) has been removed, exposing the soil to sunlight. These diverse early succession plant communities provide multiple benefits for quail. including proper cover and food throughout the entire year.
Most properties have very few acres of properly maintained early succession habitat, so it is imperative that habitat management activities focus on this need. Some ways to accomplish this picture is not quite gone, disking, and planting Cookie Notice
Prescribed burning is often the most economical and effective method of creating and maintaining quail habitat in old fields and woodlands and over large acreages. Regular fire use during late winter (February) increases the amount and availability of quail foods.
Coverage and seed production of most grasses and legumes are stimulated by burning. Lush, rapid-growing vegetation that follows fire attracts and holds large numbers of insects that quail eat. Burning also reduces litter and discourages plant growth from becoming too dense. Quail find it easier to feed in burned areas, and food items are more plentiful.
However, some areas in the quails' 10-to 40-acre range must be protected from fire. Burn only a portion of the range each year, leaving other areas within the range for nesting, fruit production, and cover. In subsequent years, rotate the prescribed burning to other portions of the quails's range so that a diversity of areas exist. Leaving portions of well-drained, upland areas are unburned for 1 to 2 years creates ideal sites for late spring nests. Keeping fire away from small covers for several years allows fruit-producing shrubs to volunteer and mature.
The intensity and timing of prescribed burning is determined by many factors, including weather and soil fertility. If inexperienced at prescribed burning, seek help from the Alabama Forestry Commission or a forestry or wildlife consultant.
## Disking
Periodic light disking of old fields, field edges, and open woodlands can benefit quail habitat. Disking minimizes dense, mat-forming vegetation, which quail do not like, and promotes the growth of many seed-producing grasses and legumes. Disking is often the only effective method of breaking up dense stands of broomdge that have become too rotten for quail to use. Qualil also use disked areas for taking dust baths and picking up grit.
The plants that volunteer after disking depend largely on site conditions and residual seed stores. Generally, light disking during fall and early winter favors the growth of most legumes. Spring disking stimulates grasses during the first growing season following soil disturbance. Sometimes, however, disking stimulates undesirable plants, so always monitor the response to cisking; and use herbicides to remove unwanted plants when necessary.
## ❙✐♥❧❛GLYPH✐♦♥
Quali depend on the early succession habitat created by prescribed fire or disking, but in some cases, plantings may further enhance or supplement bobwhite quail cover needs. Many food plants adapted to most of Alabama can supplement native quail covers or cover. The primary value of many food plants lies in their
ability to concentrate or localize coves for hunting. Another benefit of planting is that the soil disturbance and fertilization create good bugging and cover areas for young broods. Other plants, such as Chickasaw plum, Egyptian wheat, and plums, provide cover as well.
Generally, well-managed plots of 1/3 to 13 acre are large enough to supplement native quail foods. One plot per 10 to 15 acres often supports high 10 d ensities of quail. Adequately drained field edges, forest openings, and utility rights-of-way are ideal for food plot establishment.
Where possible, relocate plots planted in annual crops to recently uncultivated sites each year. Rotating plots to nearby undisturbed areas allows volunteer vegetation to grow in idle plots, thereby increasing the amount and diversity of the food. For information about what to plant for quail food, see Extension publication ANR-0485, "Plantings for Wildlife," or ask your Extension agent for more details about suitable varieties, planting methods, and planting dates.
## Managing Woodlands
Although quail are commonly associated with interspersed mixtures of idle and cultivated fields, brushing drains, and woodlands, extensive forested areas can provide good habitat if managed properly. Most quail food plants require sunlight to penetrate the forest canopy and reach the forest floor; therefore, woodlands must be thinned heavily, so maximizing timber production and quail abundance is impossible.
A good rule of thumb, varying somewhat with site fertility, is that about 60 percent of the forest floor should receive sunlight during mid-day hours. Depending on tree composition, this is usually obtained by thinning woodlands to a basal area (measure of the cross-sectional area of a tree) of about 40 to 60 square feet per acre.
Slightly higher stocking rates are possible in stands dominated by longleaf and slashaine. Stands of shortleaf and lobly pine may need additional thinning. During thinning, remain small patches and isolated mature oaks on upland sites. Avoid logging during spring and summer as it will harm quail reproduction.
Burn woodlands regularly, but retain patches of unburned cover each year for nesting, cover, and fruit production. Burn these unburned areas in subsequent years, leaving the previously burned areas as cover. Infertile or excessively drained sites may require less frequent burning.
Mark Smith, Professor, Forestry, Wildlife and Environment, Auburn University Revised June 2022, Bobwhite Quail Management, ANR-0511
BobwhiteQuailManagement 06012L-G.pdf)
Quali management can be combined with farm management if landowners are willing to give up small portions of agricultural fields for qualit habitat and plantings. Leave field edges uncultivated and allow them to revert to native vegetation, and provide a transition zone from agricultural fields to woodlands. Usually,
To help supplement native foods, leave several perimeter rows of grain crops unharvested, and retain crop residue throughout winter. Portions of field edges or corners are good sites for
Management, ANR-0511 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/ANR-0511\_BobwhiteQualilManagement\_06012L-G.pdf) G.pdf)
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/nassauco/2021/10/17/invasion-of-the-landscape-snatchers-nandina-nandina-domestica/ | Invasion of the Landscape Snatchers: Nandina (Nandina domestica) | University of Florida | [
"Taylor Clem, PhD"
] | 2021-10-17 | [
"Clubs & Volunteers",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture",
"Invasive Species",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"control",
"Established",
"FFL",
"Florida Friendly",
"Florida-Friendly Landscapes",
"Gardens",
"Invasion of the Landscape Snatchers",
"Invasive",
"IPM",
"Nandina",
"plants"
] | FL | ## Invasion of the Landscape Snatchers: Nandina (Nandina domestica)
Nandina (Nandina domestica)
Nandina, or heavenly bamboo, started in the landscape and now appears throughout some of our natural areas. This evergreen shrub grows upright and produces bright red berry clusters, similar to Coral Ardisia. It reaches heights of six to eight feet with tri-pinnately compound leaves. The leaves start as a reddish color before turning green and then they turned again in the fall. This plant primarily travels via commercial trade, but also from wildlife. The berries attract birds, who unintentionally disperse the seeds throughout the area. If you have Nandina in your landscape, remove all components of the plants (leaves too) and put them in the garbage or trash. Do not compost or put it with your yard waste.
The Nandina has clusters of bright red fruit and the plant resembles bamboo, although it is not related. Introduced for ornamental purposes, Nandina quickly escaped landscapes and entered natural areas.
## Control
## Preventative
Limiting planting and removal of existing nandina stands prevents spread. Removal of Nandina will be most appropriate prior to fruiting of the plant - otherwise, Nandina can easily spread.
## Cultural/Physical
Communicating with neighbors, friends, and family from purchasing and trading Nandina will tremendously help reduce its pressure in the landscape. In addition, planting the sterile, non-invasive Firepower Nandina, Nandina domestica 'Firepower' is a great alternative. Other alternatives include Chinese Fringeplant (Loropetalum spp.), Chinese Mahonia (Mahonia fotunei), and Abelia (Abelia x grandiflora).
Mowing helps control infestations, but it may still spread from underground rhizomes. Therefore, manually removing plants and making sure to remove roots will reduce and eliminate the Nandina population in your landscape.
## Biological
There are no known biological controls.
## Chemical
There are limited control methods regarding chemical controls. Spot treatments of glyphosate or triclopyr serve as alternatives, but follow the label's directions for application methods.
## Conclusions
The showy, yet highly invasive plant spreads aggressively across the landscape. Therefore, if you or someone you know is having issues managing this invasive or any other invasive plants within your landscapes, reach out to your county extension office for more information. The invasion of the landscape snatchers has begun, but we can stop it!
## More Information:
## Blog Series
Like what you are reading? Therefore, check out all the published blogs in this series. https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/nassauco/tag/invasionof-the-landscape-snatchers/
Or quickly jump to the individual blogs in the series:
Invasion of the Landscape Snatchers
Lantana ( Lantana camara )
Tuberous Sword Fern ( Nephrolepis cordifolia )
Coral Ardisia ( Ardisia cremata )
Wild Taro ( Colocasia esculenta )
Mexican Petunia ( Ruellia simplex )
Mother of Millions ( Kalanchoe x houghtonii )
Mimosa Silk Tree ( Albizia julibrissin )
Nandina ( Nandina domestica )
## Other Media Pages
- Blog Page
- Nassau County Extension Page
- IFAS Assessment
- Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants
- Contact Information
o
by Taylor Clem, PhD
Posted: October 17, 2021
Category: Clubs & Volunteers, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Home
Landscapes, Horticulture, Invasive Species, Natural Resources,
UE/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension
Tags: Control, Established, EFL, Florida-Friendly, Florida-Friendy
Landscapes, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Gardens, Invasion Of The
Landscape Snatchers, Invasive, Invasive Species, IPM, Nandina,
Plants
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Queen's Wreath
- Crash Course In North Florida Gardening Spring 2020
- 2019 Fair Review
- January 4-H'er Of The Month: Natalie Stevenson |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/corinth-retail-analysis | NA | NA | [] | null | [] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Corinth Retail Analysis
## Corinth Retail Analysis
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: Economic Development
Publication Number: P2945-60
View as PDF: P2945-60.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Alcorn County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
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## Your Extension Experts
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FEBRUARY 1, 2024
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## NOVEMBER 10, 2023
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## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/community-nutrition-education-program/adult-programs.html | CNEP Adult Program - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2020-06-24 | [] | OK | ## CNEP ADULT PROGRAM
## Learn More
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FIND CNEP NUTRITION EDUCATION ASSISTANTS IN YOUR COUNTY OR NEIGHBORING COUNTY /COUNTY/INDEX.HTML)
## 2024 Outcomes
Information from 2,153 adult participants.
improved food resource management behaviors
75%
improved food safety behaviors
69%
improved their physical activity
## Testimonial 1
"A devastating storm impacted Tulsa with reported wind gusts of over 100 mph. The winds devastated the power grid and left nearly 200,000 homes and businesses without power, which was not restored for most people until a week later. Not only did many people have to dispose of the perishables in their homes, but stores also had these same issues. Stores that did have a backup power source quickly ran out of food that did not require a power source to be able to consume. Food on the Move, a nonprofit organization in Tulsa, partnered with dozens of groups for a community food and resource festival on June 27. Through a partnership between Food on the Move and the Cherokee Nation, 500 families could receive 10 pounds of meat and milk along with produce. CNEP team members were at the event and assisted with packing the 500 bags to ensure everyone would be able to take home some produce that night. As we were putting crooked neck squash in the bags, one of the Food on the Move agricultural guys looked at the Area Coordinator and said, "This is your squash," then looked on down the table and said, "Those are your onions, that's your tomatoes," and so on. The produce that was harvested and distributed to the
community was purchased with a CNEP Community Grant. It was an honor knowing that CNEP was able to be proactive and help feed a community during such a devastating time."
## - Tulsa County
## Testimonial 2
"Participant attended all core lessons for Fresh Start and received completion certificate. One participant share with the CNEP NEA that before our lessons began, she had goals. She was concerned that her eating habits and patterns could influence her children's food choices. She knew her food habits needed to improve but she really wasn't sure how to start. The participant stated that our recipes were one of her favorite new tools. The handouts and provided folder allowed her to keep track of her lessons and items easily. She shared that the recipes are easy, have few ingredients and are manageable using time available. She feels confident that tools learned from budgeting, planning and shopping for value will benefit her young family and decrease eating out. The participant concluded that she is more confident, and she is feeding her growing family much more healthy food and planning physical activities that will improve the health of all."
## -Pontotoc County |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/benton-county-veterans-admin-profile | Benton County Veterans Admin Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication s Benton County Veterans Admin Profile
## Benton County Veterans Admin Profile
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: Economic Development
Publication Number: P3377-6
View as PDF: P3377-6.pdf
Publication File:
- ·
benton county vet presentation.pdf
Department: MSU Extension- Benton County.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the weebteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
✓
## Your Extension Experts
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith
Associate Extension Professor
Related News
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade
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