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Diplomatic career
-----------------
[thumb\|Al\-Jubeir during the [Munich Security Conference](/wiki/Munich_Security_Conference "Munich Security Conference") 2018](/wiki/File:Adel_bin_Ahmed_Al-Jubeir_MSC_2018.jpg "Adel bin Ahmed Al-Jubeir MSC 2018.jpg")
On 29 January 2007 Al\-Jubeir was appointed as Saudi Ambassador to the United States of America with the rank of Minister.{{cite news \|date\=2007\-01\-27 \|publisher\=Saudi Press Agency \|url\=http://www.spa.gov.sa/English/details.php?id\=421615 \|title\=Wire report}} As ambassador, Al\-Jubeir focused on strengthening the bilateral relationship by building ties across government departments in both countries. Another key area of focus was the welfare of [Saudi citizens living in the United States](/wiki/Saudi_citizens_living_in_the_United_States "Saudi citizens living in the United States"). Other issues of focus included counter\-terrorism, regional peace and security, bilateral trade, cultural exchange and interfaith dialogue. Prior to becoming ambassador, he was instrumental in establishing and maintaining the U.S.\-Saudi Strategic Dialogue, which was initiated by [King Abdullah](/wiki/Abdullah_of_Saudi_Arabia "Abdullah of Saudi Arabia") and [President Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") as a means to institutionalize relations between the two nations and deepen coordination on strategic, political and economic issues.{{cite news \|last\=Wright \|first\=Robin \|date\=2005\-11\-13 \|title\=U.S., Saudi Arabia Inagurate \[sic] New 'Strategic Dialogue' \|newspaper\=Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2005/11/13/AR2005111300493\.html}}
As Ambassador Al\-Jubeir travelled frequently to the Kingdom for consultations with the King and other senior Saudi officials. He was regularly seen with King Abdullah in meetings with world leaders and accompanied King Abdullah on many state visits including [Oman](/wiki/Oman "Oman"), [China](/wiki/China "China"),{{cite news \|date\=2006\-01\-24 \|title\=King Abdullah begins Asian tour with visit to China\|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2006/news/page879\.aspx}} India,{{cite news \|date\=2006\-01\-27 \|title\=King Abdullah concludes India visit by signing the Delhi Declaration\|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2006/news/page871\.aspx}} Pakistan,{{cite news \|date\=2006\-01\-17 \|title\=King Abdullah to visit China, India, Malaysia, and Pakistan\|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2006/news/page898\.aspx}} Malaysia{{cite news \|date\=2006\-01\-31 \|title\=King Abdullah on state visit to Malaysia\|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2006/news/page860\.aspx}} in 2006, Germany,{{cite news \|date\=2007\-11\-07 \|title\=King Abdullah begins state visit to Germany\|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page101\.aspx}} Italy,{{cite news \|date\=2007\-11\-05 \|title\=King Abdullah begins state visit to Italy\|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page104\.aspx}} Turkey,{{cite news \|date\=2007\-11\-09 \|title\=King Abdullah pays state visit to Turkey\|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page97\.aspx}} and Egypt{{cite news \|date\=2007\-11\-12 \|title\=Cabinet praises King Abdullah's visits to Europe, Egypt and Turkey\|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page90\.aspx}} in 2007, the [G20 London Summit](/wiki/G20_London_Summit "G20 London Summit") and [Doha Arab Summit](/wiki/2009_Arab_League_summit "2009 Arab League summit") in 2009 and [G20 Toronto Summit in 2010](/wiki/G20_Toronto_Summit_in_2010 "G20 Toronto Summit in 2010").
Ambassador Al\-Jubeir was part of King Abdullah's delegation on his visit to the [Vatican](/wiki/Vatican_City "Vatican City") in November 2007, where King Abduallah met with [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI "Pope Benedict XVI"), the first meeting between a Saudi monarch and a Pope.{{cite news \|date\=2007\-11\-06 \|title\=King Abdullah holds historic meeting with Pope Benedict XVI \|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page102\.aspx}} In July 2008, King Abdullah convened an interfaith conference in Madrid, Spain, bringing together major figures from Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Shintoism and Confucianism to reinforce the common values shared by their respective faiths.{{cite news \|date\=2008\-07\-10 \|title\=Saudi Ambassador highlights the upcoming World Conference on Dialogue \|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\_news/news07100801\.aspx \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322232529/http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\_news/news07100801\.aspx \|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-22 }}
In November 2007, Al\-Jubeir joined Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud al\-Faisal for the meeting of the Arab League Foreign Ministers in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo "Cairo") in preparation for the [Annapolis Peace Conference](/wiki/Annapolis_Peace_Conference "Annapolis Peace Conference"). He was also a member of the Saudi delegation to the Annapolis Peace Conference in November 2007\.
During Ambassador Al\-Jubeir's tenure, Saudi Arabia and the U.S. signed a series of bilateral agreements in key areas including civil nuclear cooperation,{{cite news \|date\=2008\-05\-16 \|title\=U.S. \- Saudi Arabia Memorandum of Understanding on Nuclear Energy Cooperation \|publisher\=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace \|url\=https://www.carnegieendowment.org/2008/05/20/u.s.\-saudi\-arabia\-memorandum\-of\-understanding\-on\-nuclear\-energy\-cooperation/aeq}} enhanced security arrangements, reciprocal visa policies, health and medical services,{{cite news \|date\=2010\-06\-10 \|title\=Memorandum of understanding for cooperation between the ministry of health in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Department of Health and Human Services in the United States in the field of public health and medical sciences\|publisher\=Global Health \|url\=http://www.globalhealth.gov/news/agreements/ia05182010\.html}} science and technology cooperation,{{cite news \|date\=2008\-12\-02 \|title\=U.S. and Saudi Arabia sign science and technology MOU \|publisher\=U.S. –Saudi Arabian Business Council \|url\=http://www.us\-sabc.org/i4a/headlines/headlinedetails.cfm?id\=343\&archive\=1 \|access\-date\=2011\-08\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322105351/http://www.us\-sabc.org/i4a/headlines/headlinedetails.cfm?id\=343\&archive\=1 \|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-22 \|url\-status\=dead }} among others. The two countries also established two Joint Task Forces—one to combat terrorists, another to combat terror financing. Experts from both governments and militaries worked side\-by\-side, sharing real\-time information about terror networks.
In October 2010, Saudi intelligence provided key information to American officials that foiled an attempted terrorist plot involving parcel bombs heading to the United States that originated in [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen "Yemen").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/31/world/middleeast/31saudi.html\|title\=Saudi Help in Package Plot Is Part of Security Shift\|date\=31 October 2010\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=20 February 2016}} The bombs were found and defused before reaching their intended targets. According to news reports, a double\-agent in Yemen was the source of the tip\-off.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/01/cargo\-plane\-plot\-saudi\-agent\-gave\-alert\|title\=Cargo plane bomb plot: Saudi double agent 'gave crucial alert'\|author\=\[\[Julian Borger]]\|work\=The Guardian\|date\=November 2010\|access\-date\=20 February 2016}}
Al\-Jubeir enhanced the embassy's focus on its ties with the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") through extensive meetings and briefings with members of Congress and staff as well as facilitating visits to the Kingdom. In the spring of 2007, Speaker of the House [Nancy Pelosi](/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi "Nancy Pelosi") visited the Kingdom with a Congressional delegation, the first visit by a sitting Speaker of the House. In addition, the tempo of visits by senior U.S. officials increased substantially during his tenure as ambassador, including two visits by President Bush, multiple visits by Vice President [Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney "Dick Cheney") and visits by President Obama in 2009 and 2014\. Other visits included National Security Advisors [James L. Jones](/wiki/James_L._Jones "James L. Jones") and [Thomas Donilon](/wiki/Thomas_Donilon "Thomas Donilon"); Secretaries of State [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton") and [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry "John Kerry"); Secretaries of Treasury [Henry Paulson](/wiki/Henry_Paulson "Henry Paulson") and [Timothy Geithner](/wiki/Timothy_Geithner "Timothy Geithner"); Secretary of Energy [Steven Chu](/wiki/Steven_Chu "Steven Chu"); Secretaries of Defense [Robert Gates](/wiki/Robert_Gates "Robert Gates"), [Leon Panetta](/wiki/Leon_Panetta "Leon Panetta") and [Chuck Hagel](/wiki/Chuck_Hagel "Chuck Hagel"); CENTCOM Commanders Generals [David Petraeus](/wiki/David_Petraeus "David Petraeus"), [James Mattis](/wiki/James_Mattis "James Mattis") and [Lloyd J. Austin III](/wiki/Lloyd_J._Austin_III "Lloyd J. Austin III"); FBI Director [Robert Mueller](/wiki/Robert_Mueller "Robert Mueller"); Homeland Security Advisor [John O. Brennan](/wiki/John_O._Brennan "John O. Brennan") and Special Envoys [George J. Mitchell](/wiki/George_J._Mitchell "George J. Mitchell"), [Dennis Ross](/wiki/Dennis_Ross "Dennis Ross"), [Richard Holbrooke](/wiki/Richard_Holbrooke "Richard Holbrooke") and a large number of sub cabinet officials.
Visits to the United States by senior Saudi officials since 2007 have included two Heads of State visits by King Abdullah in November 2008 and July 2010\. In addition, there were a number of visits by Foreign Minister Prince [Saud Al\-Faisal](/wiki/Saud_Al-Faisal "Saud Al-Faisal"), then Minister of Defense now King [Salman bin Abdulaziz](/wiki/Salman_bin_Abdulaziz "Salman bin Abdulaziz"), Minister of Interior Prince [Muhammad bin Nayef](/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Nayef "Muhammad bin Nayef"), then Assistant to the Minister of Interior for Security Affairs now Second Deputy Prime Minister, Prince [Muqrin bin Abdulaziz](/wiki/Muqrin_bin_Abdulaziz "Muqrin bin Abdulaziz"), Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources [Ali Al\-Naimi](/wiki/Ali_Al-Naimi "Ali Al-Naimi"), Finance Minister [Ibrahim Abdulaziz Al\-Assaf](/wiki/Ibrahim_Abdulaziz_Al-Assaf "Ibrahim Abdulaziz Al-Assaf"), then Governor of the [Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency](/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_Monetary_Agency "Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency"), [Mohammed al\-Jasser](/wiki/Mohammed_al-Jasser "Mohammed al-Jasser"), then Minister of Commerce Abdullah Alireza, President of the [Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities](/wiki/Saudi_Commission_for_Tourism_and_Antiquities "Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities") Prince [Sultan bin Salman](/wiki/Sultan_bin_Salman "Sultan bin Salman") and Minister of Higher Education Dr. [Khalid Al\-Angary](/wiki/Khalid_Al-Angary "Khalid Al-Angary").
In addition to visits by government officials, there have been numerous trade delegations to and from both countries as well as academic exchanges, including visits by the head of the [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/Human_Rights_Committee "Human Rights Committee") and members of the [Majlis Al\-Shura](/wiki/Consultative_Assembly_of_Saudi_Arabia "Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia") (Consultative Council).
These visits reflect the breadth and depth of the relationship between the United States and Saudi Arabia.
Ambassador al\-Jubeir served as the Escorting Minister for Presidents [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") and [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") on their respective visits to the Kingdom.
On 3 June 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama traveled to Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on a two\-day official visit to Saudi Arabia. President Obama was received by King Abdullah, Second Deputy Prime Minister Prince Nayef bin Abdulaziz and Ambassador Al\-Jubeir at [King Khalid International Airport](/wiki/King_Khalid_International_Airport "King Khalid International Airport").
During his visit to Saudi Arabia, President Obama stated that he chose Saudi Arabia as the first stop on his Middle East tour because the Kingdom is a key ally and the cradle of Islam. The President and King Abdullah met and held extensive bilateral talks at the King's ranch in al\-Janadriyah on the outskirts of [Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh "Riyadh"). During their discussions, the two leaders focused on regional and international developments and Saudi\-U.S. bilateral relations. King Abdullah presented President Obama with the [Collar of Abdulaziz Al Saud](/wiki/Order_of_Abdulaziz_al_Saud "Order of Abdulaziz al Saud"), the Kingdom's highest award bestowed upon heads of state.{{cite news \|date\=2009\-06\-03 \|title\=King Abdullah, President Obama hold talks \|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\_news/news06030902\.aspx \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429051223/http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\_news/news06030902\.aspx \|archive\-date\=2011\-04\-29 }}
On 29 June 2010, Ambassador Al\-Jubeir attended a meeting between King Abdullah and U.S. President Barack Obama in Washington, D.C. The two held on talks on a wide range of issues of mutual interest and common concern.{{cite news \|date\=2010\-06\-30 \|title\=White House issues statement on King Abdullah, President Obama's talks \|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\_news/news06301002\.aspx \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322232900/http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\_news/news06301002\.aspx \|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-22 }}
On 8 January 2011, Ambassador Al\-Jubeir attended a meeting in New York between King Abdullah and U.S. Secretary of State [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton") and former U.S. President [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") as well as meetings between the King and French President [Nicolas Sarkozy](/wiki/Nicolas_Sarkozy "Nicolas Sarkozy") and United Nations Secretary\-General [Ban Ki\-moon](/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon "Ban Ki-moon").{{cite news \|date\=2011\-01\-08 \|title\=King Abdullah, Clinton meet in New York \|publisher\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \|url\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\_news/news01071102\.aspx \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911122024/http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\_news/news01071102\.aspx \|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-11 }}
In 2007, he headed the Kingdom's delegation to the Law of the Seas Conference at the United Nations. In 2009, he met with UN Secretary\-General [Ban Ki\-moon](/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon "Ban Ki-moon") to discuss the ongoing situation in [Darfur](/wiki/Darfur "Darfur") and in July 2011, he led the Saudi delegation to the U.N. High Level Meeting on Youth.
|
[
"Diplomatic career\n-----------------",
"[thumb\\|Al\\-Jubeir during the [Munich Security Conference](/wiki/Munich_Security_Conference \"Munich Security Conference\") 2018](/wiki/File:Adel_bin_Ahmed_Al-Jubeir_MSC_2018.jpg \"Adel bin Ahmed Al-Jubeir MSC 2018.jpg\")\nOn 29 January 2007 Al\\-Jubeir was appointed as Saudi Ambassador to the United States of America with the rank of Minister.{{cite news \\|date\\=2007\\-01\\-27 \\|publisher\\=Saudi Press Agency \\|url\\=http://www.spa.gov.sa/English/details.php?id\\=421615 \\|title\\=Wire report}} As ambassador, Al\\-Jubeir focused on strengthening the bilateral relationship by building ties across government departments in both countries. Another key area of focus was the welfare of [Saudi citizens living in the United States](/wiki/Saudi_citizens_living_in_the_United_States \"Saudi citizens living in the United States\"). Other issues of focus included counter\\-terrorism, regional peace and security, bilateral trade, cultural exchange and interfaith dialogue. Prior to becoming ambassador, he was instrumental in establishing and maintaining the U.S.\\-Saudi Strategic Dialogue, which was initiated by [King Abdullah](/wiki/Abdullah_of_Saudi_Arabia \"Abdullah of Saudi Arabia\") and [President Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") as a means to institutionalize relations between the two nations and deepen coordination on strategic, political and economic issues.{{cite news \\|last\\=Wright \\|first\\=Robin \\|date\\=2005\\-11\\-13 \\|title\\=U.S., Saudi Arabia Inagurate \\[sic] New 'Strategic Dialogue' \\|newspaper\\=Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2005/11/13/AR2005111300493\\.html}}",
"As Ambassador Al\\-Jubeir travelled frequently to the Kingdom for consultations with the King and other senior Saudi officials. He was regularly seen with King Abdullah in meetings with world leaders and accompanied King Abdullah on many state visits including [Oman](/wiki/Oman \"Oman\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"),{{cite news \\|date\\=2006\\-01\\-24 \\|title\\=King Abdullah begins Asian tour with visit to China\\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2006/news/page879\\.aspx}} India,{{cite news \\|date\\=2006\\-01\\-27 \\|title\\=King Abdullah concludes India visit by signing the Delhi Declaration\\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2006/news/page871\\.aspx}} Pakistan,{{cite news \\|date\\=2006\\-01\\-17 \\|title\\=King Abdullah to visit China, India, Malaysia, and Pakistan\\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2006/news/page898\\.aspx}} Malaysia{{cite news \\|date\\=2006\\-01\\-31 \\|title\\=King Abdullah on state visit to Malaysia\\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2006/news/page860\\.aspx}} in 2006, Germany,{{cite news \\|date\\=2007\\-11\\-07 \\|title\\=King Abdullah begins state visit to Germany\\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page101\\.aspx}} Italy,{{cite news \\|date\\=2007\\-11\\-05 \\|title\\=King Abdullah begins state visit to Italy\\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page104\\.aspx}} Turkey,{{cite news \\|date\\=2007\\-11\\-09 \\|title\\=King Abdullah pays state visit to Turkey\\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page97\\.aspx}} and Egypt{{cite news \\|date\\=2007\\-11\\-12 \\|title\\=Cabinet praises King Abdullah's visits to Europe, Egypt and Turkey\\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page90\\.aspx}} in 2007, the [G20 London Summit](/wiki/G20_London_Summit \"G20 London Summit\") and [Doha Arab Summit](/wiki/2009_Arab_League_summit \"2009 Arab League summit\") in 2009 and [G20 Toronto Summit in 2010](/wiki/G20_Toronto_Summit_in_2010 \"G20 Toronto Summit in 2010\").",
"Ambassador Al\\-Jubeir was part of King Abdullah's delegation on his visit to the [Vatican](/wiki/Vatican_City \"Vatican City\") in November 2007, where King Abduallah met with [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI \"Pope Benedict XVI\"), the first meeting between a Saudi monarch and a Pope.{{cite news \\|date\\=2007\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=King Abdullah holds historic meeting with Pope Benedict XVI \\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/archive/2007/news/page102\\.aspx}} In July 2008, King Abdullah convened an interfaith conference in Madrid, Spain, bringing together major figures from Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Shintoism and Confucianism to reinforce the common values shared by their respective faiths.{{cite news \\|date\\=2008\\-07\\-10 \\|title\\=Saudi Ambassador highlights the upcoming World Conference on Dialogue \\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\\_news/news07100801\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322232529/http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\\_news/news07100801\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-22 }}",
"In November 2007, Al\\-Jubeir joined Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud al\\-Faisal for the meeting of the Arab League Foreign Ministers in [Cairo](/wiki/Cairo \"Cairo\") in preparation for the [Annapolis Peace Conference](/wiki/Annapolis_Peace_Conference \"Annapolis Peace Conference\"). He was also a member of the Saudi delegation to the Annapolis Peace Conference in November 2007\\.",
"During Ambassador Al\\-Jubeir's tenure, Saudi Arabia and the U.S. signed a series of bilateral agreements in key areas including civil nuclear cooperation,{{cite news \\|date\\=2008\\-05\\-16 \\|title\\=U.S. \\- Saudi Arabia Memorandum of Understanding on Nuclear Energy Cooperation \\|publisher\\=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace \\|url\\=https://www.carnegieendowment.org/2008/05/20/u.s.\\-saudi\\-arabia\\-memorandum\\-of\\-understanding\\-on\\-nuclear\\-energy\\-cooperation/aeq}} enhanced security arrangements, reciprocal visa policies, health and medical services,{{cite news \\|date\\=2010\\-06\\-10 \\|title\\=Memorandum of understanding for cooperation between the ministry of health in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Department of Health and Human Services in the United States in the field of public health and medical sciences\\|publisher\\=Global Health \\|url\\=http://www.globalhealth.gov/news/agreements/ia05182010\\.html}} science and technology cooperation,{{cite news \\|date\\=2008\\-12\\-02 \\|title\\=U.S. and Saudi Arabia sign science and technology MOU \\|publisher\\=U.S. –Saudi Arabian Business Council \\|url\\=http://www.us\\-sabc.org/i4a/headlines/headlinedetails.cfm?id\\=343\\&archive\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-08\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322105351/http://www.us\\-sabc.org/i4a/headlines/headlinedetails.cfm?id\\=343\\&archive\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} among others. The two countries also established two Joint Task Forces—one to combat terrorists, another to combat terror financing. Experts from both governments and militaries worked side\\-by\\-side, sharing real\\-time information about terror networks.",
"In October 2010, Saudi intelligence provided key information to American officials that foiled an attempted terrorist plot involving parcel bombs heading to the United States that originated in [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen \"Yemen\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/31/world/middleeast/31saudi.html\\|title\\=Saudi Help in Package Plot Is Part of Security Shift\\|date\\=31 October 2010\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2016}} The bombs were found and defused before reaching their intended targets. According to news reports, a double\\-agent in Yemen was the source of the tip\\-off.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/01/cargo\\-plane\\-plot\\-saudi\\-agent\\-gave\\-alert\\|title\\=Cargo plane bomb plot: Saudi double agent 'gave crucial alert'\\|author\\=\\[\\[Julian Borger]]\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=November 2010\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2016}}",
"Al\\-Jubeir enhanced the embassy's focus on its ties with the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") through extensive meetings and briefings with members of Congress and staff as well as facilitating visits to the Kingdom. In the spring of 2007, Speaker of the House [Nancy Pelosi](/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi \"Nancy Pelosi\") visited the Kingdom with a Congressional delegation, the first visit by a sitting Speaker of the House. In addition, the tempo of visits by senior U.S. officials increased substantially during his tenure as ambassador, including two visits by President Bush, multiple visits by Vice President [Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney \"Dick Cheney\") and visits by President Obama in 2009 and 2014\\. Other visits included National Security Advisors [James L. Jones](/wiki/James_L._Jones \"James L. Jones\") and [Thomas Donilon](/wiki/Thomas_Donilon \"Thomas Donilon\"); Secretaries of State [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\") and [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry \"John Kerry\"); Secretaries of Treasury [Henry Paulson](/wiki/Henry_Paulson \"Henry Paulson\") and [Timothy Geithner](/wiki/Timothy_Geithner \"Timothy Geithner\"); Secretary of Energy [Steven Chu](/wiki/Steven_Chu \"Steven Chu\"); Secretaries of Defense [Robert Gates](/wiki/Robert_Gates \"Robert Gates\"), [Leon Panetta](/wiki/Leon_Panetta \"Leon Panetta\") and [Chuck Hagel](/wiki/Chuck_Hagel \"Chuck Hagel\"); CENTCOM Commanders Generals [David Petraeus](/wiki/David_Petraeus \"David Petraeus\"), [James Mattis](/wiki/James_Mattis \"James Mattis\") and [Lloyd J. Austin III](/wiki/Lloyd_J._Austin_III \"Lloyd J. Austin III\"); FBI Director [Robert Mueller](/wiki/Robert_Mueller \"Robert Mueller\"); Homeland Security Advisor [John O. Brennan](/wiki/John_O._Brennan \"John O. Brennan\") and Special Envoys [George J. Mitchell](/wiki/George_J._Mitchell \"George J. Mitchell\"), [Dennis Ross](/wiki/Dennis_Ross \"Dennis Ross\"), [Richard Holbrooke](/wiki/Richard_Holbrooke \"Richard Holbrooke\") and a large number of sub cabinet officials.",
"Visits to the United States by senior Saudi officials since 2007 have included two Heads of State visits by King Abdullah in November 2008 and July 2010\\. In addition, there were a number of visits by Foreign Minister Prince [Saud Al\\-Faisal](/wiki/Saud_Al-Faisal \"Saud Al-Faisal\"), then Minister of Defense now King [Salman bin Abdulaziz](/wiki/Salman_bin_Abdulaziz \"Salman bin Abdulaziz\"), Minister of Interior Prince [Muhammad bin Nayef](/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Nayef \"Muhammad bin Nayef\"), then Assistant to the Minister of Interior for Security Affairs now Second Deputy Prime Minister, Prince [Muqrin bin Abdulaziz](/wiki/Muqrin_bin_Abdulaziz \"Muqrin bin Abdulaziz\"), Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources [Ali Al\\-Naimi](/wiki/Ali_Al-Naimi \"Ali Al-Naimi\"), Finance Minister [Ibrahim Abdulaziz Al\\-Assaf](/wiki/Ibrahim_Abdulaziz_Al-Assaf \"Ibrahim Abdulaziz Al-Assaf\"), then Governor of the [Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency](/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_Monetary_Agency \"Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency\"), [Mohammed al\\-Jasser](/wiki/Mohammed_al-Jasser \"Mohammed al-Jasser\"), then Minister of Commerce Abdullah Alireza, President of the [Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities](/wiki/Saudi_Commission_for_Tourism_and_Antiquities \"Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities\") Prince [Sultan bin Salman](/wiki/Sultan_bin_Salman \"Sultan bin Salman\") and Minister of Higher Education Dr. [Khalid Al\\-Angary](/wiki/Khalid_Al-Angary \"Khalid Al-Angary\").",
"In addition to visits by government officials, there have been numerous trade delegations to and from both countries as well as academic exchanges, including visits by the head of the [Human Rights Committee](/wiki/Human_Rights_Committee \"Human Rights Committee\") and members of the [Majlis Al\\-Shura](/wiki/Consultative_Assembly_of_Saudi_Arabia \"Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia\") (Consultative Council).",
"These visits reflect the breadth and depth of the relationship between the United States and Saudi Arabia.",
"Ambassador al\\-Jubeir served as the Escorting Minister for Presidents [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") and [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") on their respective visits to the Kingdom.",
"On 3 June 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama traveled to Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on a two\\-day official visit to Saudi Arabia. President Obama was received by King Abdullah, Second Deputy Prime Minister Prince Nayef bin Abdulaziz and Ambassador Al\\-Jubeir at [King Khalid International Airport](/wiki/King_Khalid_International_Airport \"King Khalid International Airport\").",
"During his visit to Saudi Arabia, President Obama stated that he chose Saudi Arabia as the first stop on his Middle East tour because the Kingdom is a key ally and the cradle of Islam. The President and King Abdullah met and held extensive bilateral talks at the King's ranch in al\\-Janadriyah on the outskirts of [Riyadh](/wiki/Riyadh \"Riyadh\"). During their discussions, the two leaders focused on regional and international developments and Saudi\\-U.S. bilateral relations. King Abdullah presented President Obama with the [Collar of Abdulaziz Al Saud](/wiki/Order_of_Abdulaziz_al_Saud \"Order of Abdulaziz al Saud\"), the Kingdom's highest award bestowed upon heads of state.{{cite news \\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-03 \\|title\\=King Abdullah, President Obama hold talks \\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\\_news/news06030902\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429051223/http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\\_news/news06030902\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-04\\-29 }}",
"On 29 June 2010, Ambassador Al\\-Jubeir attended a meeting between King Abdullah and U.S. President Barack Obama in Washington, D.C. The two held on talks on a wide range of issues of mutual interest and common concern.{{cite news \\|date\\=2010\\-06\\-30 \\|title\\=White House issues statement on King Abdullah, President Obama's talks \\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\\_news/news06301002\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322232900/http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\\_news/news06301002\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-22 }}",
"On 8 January 2011, Ambassador Al\\-Jubeir attended a meeting in New York between King Abdullah and U.S. Secretary of State [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\") and former U.S. President [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") as well as meetings between the King and French President [Nicolas Sarkozy](/wiki/Nicolas_Sarkozy \"Nicolas Sarkozy\") and United Nations Secretary\\-General [Ban Ki\\-moon](/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon \"Ban Ki-moon\").{{cite news \\|date\\=2011\\-01\\-08 \\|title\\=King Abdullah, Clinton meet in New York \\|publisher\\=Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia \\|url\\=http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\\_news/news01071102\\.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911122024/http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest\\_news/news01071102\\.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-11 }}",
"In 2007, he headed the Kingdom's delegation to the Law of the Seas Conference at the United Nations. In 2009, he met with UN Secretary\\-General [Ban Ki\\-moon](/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon \"Ban Ki-moon\") to discuss the ongoing situation in [Darfur](/wiki/Darfur \"Darfur\") and in July 2011, he led the Saudi delegation to the U.N. High Level Meeting on Youth.",
""
] |
Main sights
-----------
[thumb\|Landscapes of Consuegra](/wiki/File:Landscapes_of_Consuegra_yeonu.jpg "Landscapes of Consuegra yeonu.jpg")
### Windmills
[right\|thumb\|Windmills of Consuegra, with the [Castle of La Muela](/wiki/Castle_of_La_Muela "Castle of La Muela") in the background](/wiki/File:Windmills_and_castle_of_Consuegra_%287079301421%29.jpg "Windmills and castle of Consuegra (7079301421).jpg")
Consuegra is famous for its windmills. These windmills became famous in the 17th century, when *[Don Quixote](/wiki/Don_Quixote "Don Quixote")* was first published and introduced the scene of Don Quixote fighting with the windmills.
The introduction of the windmills into the local region was made by a "Caballeros Sanjuanistas", who brought these machines that helped millers to grind wheat. The windmills were transmitted from fathers to sons for generations, and eventually stopped being used at the beginning of the 1980s.
The windmills usually consisted of two rooms or levels. Millers had to carry sacks of grains that could weigh 60 or 70 kilos to the top floor, they rotated the sails of the windmill as the top part of the windmill or dome was movable. Other important parts of the windmill are tunnel (also known as canal, through it the grain goes down), container (where the grain is stored), and pieces of woods for moving the sails
There were originally 13 windmills in Consuegra, but only 12 have been reconstructed. These windmills are all located on a small mountain range south of the town, known as *Cerro Calderico*, that also hosts [Castle of La Muela](/wiki/Castle_of_La_Muela "Castle of La Muela").
Each windmill has a name, to differentiate one from another.
Names in 1963 La zorra; La tuerta; Mochilas; Vista alegre; Panza; Bolero; Santo domingo; Chispas; Rastrero; Por si pega; Bateria; Espartero; Blanco.
Names today Sin nombre; Clavileño; Chispas; Espartero; Rucio; Cardeño; Caballero del verde gabán; Alcancia; Ruinas; Sancho; Mambrino; Bolero
### Castle of Consuegra
{{Main\|Castle of La Muela}}
[left\|thumb\|[Castle of La Muela](/wiki/Castle_of_La_Muela "Castle of La Muela")](/wiki/File:%28Castillo_de_la_Muela%29_Consuegra_%28cropped%29.jpg "(Castillo de la Muela) Consuegra (cropped).jpg")
The original fortress at the site was perhaps built by emperor [Trajan](/wiki/Trajan "Trajan"), but historical records only recall that a fortress here was initially built by [Almanzor](/wiki/Almanzor "Almanzor"). During the [Reconquest](/wiki/Reconquista "Reconquista"), in times of [Alfonso VIII](/wiki/Alfonso_VIII "Alfonso VIII") to the [Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller "Knights Hospitaller"). In 1813 it was destroyed during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War").
In 1962 the castle was ceded to the town hall and underwent a period of reconstruction. This received an impulse in 1985 with the creation of the School Workshop, whose activity continue today.
### Town hall and major square
The town hall is in Renaissance style and it is located at the major square, called "Plaza de España". It was built on 1670\. Joined to the townhall it is the "La torre del reloj". In this square is the building called "Los Corredores" (17th century), which is a typical structure of La Mancha and which was an old townhall.
|
[
"Main sights\n-----------",
"[thumb\\|Landscapes of Consuegra](/wiki/File:Landscapes_of_Consuegra_yeonu.jpg \"Landscapes of Consuegra yeonu.jpg\")",
"### Windmills",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Windmills of Consuegra, with the [Castle of La Muela](/wiki/Castle_of_La_Muela \"Castle of La Muela\") in the background](/wiki/File:Windmills_and_castle_of_Consuegra_%287079301421%29.jpg \"Windmills and castle of Consuegra (7079301421).jpg\")",
"Consuegra is famous for its windmills. These windmills became famous in the 17th century, when *[Don Quixote](/wiki/Don_Quixote \"Don Quixote\")* was first published and introduced the scene of Don Quixote fighting with the windmills.",
"The introduction of the windmills into the local region was made by a \"Caballeros Sanjuanistas\", who brought these machines that helped millers to grind wheat. The windmills were transmitted from fathers to sons for generations, and eventually stopped being used at the beginning of the 1980s.",
"The windmills usually consisted of two rooms or levels. Millers had to carry sacks of grains that could weigh 60 or 70 kilos to the top floor, they rotated the sails of the windmill as the top part of the windmill or dome was movable. Other important parts of the windmill are tunnel (also known as canal, through it the grain goes down), container (where the grain is stored), and pieces of woods for moving the sails",
"There were originally 13 windmills in Consuegra, but only 12 have been reconstructed. These windmills are all located on a small mountain range south of the town, known as *Cerro Calderico*, that also hosts [Castle of La Muela](/wiki/Castle_of_La_Muela \"Castle of La Muela\").",
"Each windmill has a name, to differentiate one from another.\n Names in 1963 La zorra; La tuerta; Mochilas; Vista alegre; Panza; Bolero; Santo domingo; Chispas; Rastrero; Por si pega; Bateria; Espartero; Blanco.\n Names today Sin nombre; Clavileño; Chispas; Espartero; Rucio; Cardeño; Caballero del verde gabán; Alcancia; Ruinas; Sancho; Mambrino; Bolero",
"### Castle of Consuegra",
"{{Main\\|Castle of La Muela}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|[Castle of La Muela](/wiki/Castle_of_La_Muela \"Castle of La Muela\")](/wiki/File:%28Castillo_de_la_Muela%29_Consuegra_%28cropped%29.jpg \"(Castillo de la Muela) Consuegra (cropped).jpg\")\nThe original fortress at the site was perhaps built by emperor [Trajan](/wiki/Trajan \"Trajan\"), but historical records only recall that a fortress here was initially built by [Almanzor](/wiki/Almanzor \"Almanzor\"). During the [Reconquest](/wiki/Reconquista \"Reconquista\"), in times of [Alfonso VIII](/wiki/Alfonso_VIII \"Alfonso VIII\") to the [Knights Hospitaller](/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller \"Knights Hospitaller\"). In 1813 it was destroyed during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\").",
"In 1962 the castle was ceded to the town hall and underwent a period of reconstruction. This received an impulse in 1985 with the creation of the School Workshop, whose activity continue today.",
"### Town hall and major square",
"The town hall is in Renaissance style and it is located at the major square, called \"Plaza de España\". It was built on 1670\\. Joined to the townhall it is the \"La torre del reloj\". In this square is the building called \"Los Corredores\" (17th century), which is a typical structure of La Mancha and which was an old townhall.",
""
] |
Methodology
-----------
### Literary
In the 1970s, Elisabeth Roudinesco's first works dealt with literary criticism, notably with [Raymond Roussel](/wiki/Raymond_Roussel "Raymond Roussel"), [Antonin Artaud](/wiki/Antonin_Artaud "Antonin Artaud"), [Bertolt Brecht](/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht "Bertolt Brecht") and [Louis\-Ferdinand Céline](/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line "Louis-Ferdinand Céline"). At that time, her work concerned linking a singular trajectory and an author's work, without resorting to psycho\-biography, in other words, the psychologization of literary work by the clinical study of its author. This approach allowed her to demonstrate that most of 20th century literature has been influenced by the history of [Freudianism](/wiki/Freudianism "Freudianism") and psychological medicine based on the theory of degeneration.Roudinesco, *L'inconscient et ses lettres*, Mame, 1979
### History of psychoanalysis in France
From 1979, Elisabeth Roudinesco writes a history of psychoanalysis in France. At that time, the main model was still the biography, because the archives and documents of the psychoanalytical movement were still in the hand of [Freud](/wiki/Freud "Freud")'s heirs.
Indeed, this model corresponded to the historiographical trend centered on the notion of the founding father figure; a trend which is at the core of any quest of origins. However, this model has gradually declined.
Considering how [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis "Psychoanalysis") was established as a movement and system of thought, Elisabeth Roudinesco asserted that [France](/wiki/France "France") was the only country where all the necessary conditions were gathered together, over a long period of time, to successfully establish Freudianism in scientific and cultural life. According to Elisabeth Roudinesco, this favorable situation dated back first to the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution") of 1789 which provided a scientific and legal legitimacy to reason, heed/gaze over madness, giving birth to the institution of the asylum. Then, the [Dreyfus affair](/wiki/Dreyfus_affair "Dreyfus affair"), which has precipitated the arrival of intellectuals' self\-awareness as a class. Designating themselves as an 'avant\-garde', they furnished fruitful and innovative ideas. Finally, the emergence of literary modernity with [Baudelaire](/wiki/Baudelaire "Baudelaire"), [Rimbaud](/wiki/Rimbaud "Rimbaud") and [Lautréamont](/wiki/Lautr%C3%A9amont "Lautréamont"), who enunciate, in a new style of writing, the project of changing man through "I is another".
#### Ellenberger
Scholarly historiography emerged with such work as [Henri Ellenberger](/wiki/Henri_Ellenberger "Henri Ellenberger")'s *The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry*, first published in 1970\. Though this book had been known in English\-speaking countries since that date, the book (published in French in 1974\) remained largely unnoticed in France. Elisabeth Roudinesco republished it with a lengthy new preface in 1994\.Partially based on Roudinesco, *Généalogies*, Paris, Fayard, 1994\.
In his work, Ellenberger developed a conceptuality of freudianism founded on archivistics and reference to the concepts of "mental tools", "long length" and "system of thought". This last category proposed presenting doctrines in their own terms and structures. The study of the system of thought of [dynamic psychiatry](/wiki/Dynamic_psychiatry "Dynamic psychiatry"), psychotherapies and psychological medicine no longer echoes back to a single founder, but to a plurality of singular itineraries, shattering the biographic model.
From Ellenberger's thesis, Elisabeth Roudinesco retained several guiding principles, while adding methodology derived from the works of the French epistemological school: [Georges Canguilhem](/wiki/Georges_Canguilhem "Georges Canguilhem") and [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault "Michel Foucault"). Thus, the study of system of thought becomes the form in which, at a given time, knowledge achieves independence, finding balance and entering into communication: a history of a man who thinks, systems which intertwine, but also a critical analysis of the concepts of consciousness and subject of knowledge.
### Lacan
In 1993, Elisabeth Roudinesco published a biography of French psychoanalyst [Jacques Lacan](/wiki/Jacques_Lacan "Jacques Lacan"). From 1938, [Lacan](/wiki/Jacques_Lacan "Jacques Lacan") felt preoccupied by the generalized decline of the patriarchy and tried, like Freud and the English school, to promote the father figure within Western society, under the form of a symbolic function. Roudinesco highlighted the fact that the genius of Lacan's work is the introduction of elements from German philosophy (e.g., [Nietzsche](/wiki/Nietzsche "Nietzsche"), [Hegel](/wiki/Hegel "Hegel"), [Heidegger](/wiki/Heidegger "Heidegger")) within the Freudian doctrine – creating a phenomenon Freud would have never conceived himself, since he built his theory on a biological model ([darwinism](/wiki/Darwinism "Darwinism")), by consciously refusing to consider and include any philosophical discourses, contemporary or ancient, in his thought process.
### Théroigne de Mericourt
From the study of the melancholic [Théroigne de Mericourt](/wiki/Th%C3%A9roigne_de_Mericourt "Théroigne de Mericourt") (1989\), early feminist and famous case of the annals of French alienism – she has been 'gazed' by [Jean\-Étienne Esquirol](/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Dominique_Esquirol "Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol") in La Salpêtrière – Roudinesco think the French Revolution is a paradigm in the French situation of Freudianism. For Roudinesco, it was necessary to include the analysis of patients into the analysis of doctrines as a major constituting element of the discourses of [psychopathology](/wiki/Psychopathology "Psychopathology").
### Freudianism and politic
Roudinesco posits several invariant conditions required to introduce Freudian ideas and establish a psychoanalytical movement in a given space. First, some psychiatric knowledge must have been previously established, encompassing but not limited to; a conceptual understanding of mental illness and related biological and experiential contributing factors rather than explaining it as divine and/or demonic possession or other traditional explanations. Secondly, the existence of a rule of law capable of guaranteeing the free practice of transmission {incomplete sentence}.
Her claim is that; whenever one or both of these elements are lacking, it helps explain why the establishment of Freudianism has not been possible (ex., the area of the world influenced by [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") and/or regions where the governmental organizational structure is primarily tribal). She also asserts that psychoanalytical movements disappear under totalitarian regimes, aka nazism and communism. She noted that military dictatorships in South America (notably [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina")) didn't attempt to utilize government authority to halt the expansion of psychoanalysis. Roudinesco assesses that [caudillo](/wiki/Caudillo "Caudillo") regimes didn't try to eradicate psychoanalysis as a "Jewish science" as did [Nazism](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism") in the years 1933–1944 nor as a "bourgeois science" as did [communism](/wiki/Communism "Communism") over the period 1945–1989\.Partially based on [« Parcours de recherche: Élisabeth Roudinesco »](https://www.cairn.info/revue-raisons-politiques-2007-1-page-143.htm), [Entretien avec Frédéric Gros et Franck Chaumon](https://www.cairn.info/revue-raisons-politiques-2007-1-page-147.htm). *Raisons politiques*, 2007/1 nº 25 {{in lang\|fr}}.
|
[
"Methodology\n-----------",
"### Literary",
"In the 1970s, Elisabeth Roudinesco's first works dealt with literary criticism, notably with [Raymond Roussel](/wiki/Raymond_Roussel \"Raymond Roussel\"), [Antonin Artaud](/wiki/Antonin_Artaud \"Antonin Artaud\"), [Bertolt Brecht](/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht \"Bertolt Brecht\") and [Louis\\-Ferdinand Céline](/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line \"Louis-Ferdinand Céline\"). At that time, her work concerned linking a singular trajectory and an author's work, without resorting to psycho\\-biography, in other words, the psychologization of literary work by the clinical study of its author. This approach allowed her to demonstrate that most of 20th century literature has been influenced by the history of [Freudianism](/wiki/Freudianism \"Freudianism\") and psychological medicine based on the theory of degeneration.Roudinesco, *L'inconscient et ses lettres*, Mame, 1979",
"### History of psychoanalysis in France",
"From 1979, Elisabeth Roudinesco writes a history of psychoanalysis in France. At that time, the main model was still the biography, because the archives and documents of the psychoanalytical movement were still in the hand of [Freud](/wiki/Freud \"Freud\")'s heirs.",
"Indeed, this model corresponded to the historiographical trend centered on the notion of the founding father figure; a trend which is at the core of any quest of origins. However, this model has gradually declined.",
"Considering how [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis \"Psychoanalysis\") was established as a movement and system of thought, Elisabeth Roudinesco asserted that [France](/wiki/France \"France\") was the only country where all the necessary conditions were gathered together, over a long period of time, to successfully establish Freudianism in scientific and cultural life. According to Elisabeth Roudinesco, this favorable situation dated back first to the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\") of 1789 which provided a scientific and legal legitimacy to reason, heed/gaze over madness, giving birth to the institution of the asylum. Then, the [Dreyfus affair](/wiki/Dreyfus_affair \"Dreyfus affair\"), which has precipitated the arrival of intellectuals' self\\-awareness as a class. Designating themselves as an 'avant\\-garde', they furnished fruitful and innovative ideas. Finally, the emergence of literary modernity with [Baudelaire](/wiki/Baudelaire \"Baudelaire\"), [Rimbaud](/wiki/Rimbaud \"Rimbaud\") and [Lautréamont](/wiki/Lautr%C3%A9amont \"Lautréamont\"), who enunciate, in a new style of writing, the project of changing man through \"I is another\".",
"#### Ellenberger",
"Scholarly historiography emerged with such work as [Henri Ellenberger](/wiki/Henri_Ellenberger \"Henri Ellenberger\")'s *The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry*, first published in 1970\\. Though this book had been known in English\\-speaking countries since that date, the book (published in French in 1974\\) remained largely unnoticed in France. Elisabeth Roudinesco republished it with a lengthy new preface in 1994\\.Partially based on Roudinesco, *Généalogies*, Paris, Fayard, 1994\\.",
"In his work, Ellenberger developed a conceptuality of freudianism founded on archivistics and reference to the concepts of \"mental tools\", \"long length\" and \"system of thought\". This last category proposed presenting doctrines in their own terms and structures. The study of the system of thought of [dynamic psychiatry](/wiki/Dynamic_psychiatry \"Dynamic psychiatry\"), psychotherapies and psychological medicine no longer echoes back to a single founder, but to a plurality of singular itineraries, shattering the biographic model.",
"From Ellenberger's thesis, Elisabeth Roudinesco retained several guiding principles, while adding methodology derived from the works of the French epistemological school: [Georges Canguilhem](/wiki/Georges_Canguilhem \"Georges Canguilhem\") and [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault \"Michel Foucault\"). Thus, the study of system of thought becomes the form in which, at a given time, knowledge achieves independence, finding balance and entering into communication: a history of a man who thinks, systems which intertwine, but also a critical analysis of the concepts of consciousness and subject of knowledge.",
"### Lacan",
"In 1993, Elisabeth Roudinesco published a biography of French psychoanalyst [Jacques Lacan](/wiki/Jacques_Lacan \"Jacques Lacan\"). From 1938, [Lacan](/wiki/Jacques_Lacan \"Jacques Lacan\") felt preoccupied by the generalized decline of the patriarchy and tried, like Freud and the English school, to promote the father figure within Western society, under the form of a symbolic function. Roudinesco highlighted the fact that the genius of Lacan's work is the introduction of elements from German philosophy (e.g., [Nietzsche](/wiki/Nietzsche \"Nietzsche\"), [Hegel](/wiki/Hegel \"Hegel\"), [Heidegger](/wiki/Heidegger \"Heidegger\")) within the Freudian doctrine – creating a phenomenon Freud would have never conceived himself, since he built his theory on a biological model ([darwinism](/wiki/Darwinism \"Darwinism\")), by consciously refusing to consider and include any philosophical discourses, contemporary or ancient, in his thought process.",
"### Théroigne de Mericourt",
"From the study of the melancholic [Théroigne de Mericourt](/wiki/Th%C3%A9roigne_de_Mericourt \"Théroigne de Mericourt\") (1989\\), early feminist and famous case of the annals of French alienism – she has been 'gazed' by [Jean\\-Étienne Esquirol](/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Dominique_Esquirol \"Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol\") in La Salpêtrière – Roudinesco think the French Revolution is a paradigm in the French situation of Freudianism. For Roudinesco, it was necessary to include the analysis of patients into the analysis of doctrines as a major constituting element of the discourses of [psychopathology](/wiki/Psychopathology \"Psychopathology\").",
"### Freudianism and politic",
"Roudinesco posits several invariant conditions required to introduce Freudian ideas and establish a psychoanalytical movement in a given space. First, some psychiatric knowledge must have been previously established, encompassing but not limited to; a conceptual understanding of mental illness and related biological and experiential contributing factors rather than explaining it as divine and/or demonic possession or other traditional explanations. Secondly, the existence of a rule of law capable of guaranteeing the free practice of transmission {incomplete sentence}.",
"Her claim is that; whenever one or both of these elements are lacking, it helps explain why the establishment of Freudianism has not been possible (ex., the area of the world influenced by [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") and/or regions where the governmental organizational structure is primarily tribal). She also asserts that psychoanalytical movements disappear under totalitarian regimes, aka nazism and communism. She noted that military dictatorships in South America (notably [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\")) didn't attempt to utilize government authority to halt the expansion of psychoanalysis. Roudinesco assesses that [caudillo](/wiki/Caudillo \"Caudillo\") regimes didn't try to eradicate psychoanalysis as a \"Jewish science\" as did [Nazism](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\") in the years 1933–1944 nor as a \"bourgeois science\" as did [communism](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\") over the period 1945–1989\\.Partially based on [« Parcours de recherche: Élisabeth Roudinesco »](https://www.cairn.info/revue-raisons-politiques-2007-1-page-143.htm), [Entretien avec Frédéric Gros et Franck Chaumon](https://www.cairn.info/revue-raisons-politiques-2007-1-page-147.htm). *Raisons politiques*, 2007/1 nº 25 {{in lang\\|fr}}.",
""
] |
### History of psychoanalysis in France
From 1979, Elisabeth Roudinesco writes a history of psychoanalysis in France. At that time, the main model was still the biography, because the archives and documents of the psychoanalytical movement were still in the hand of [Freud](/wiki/Freud "Freud")'s heirs.
Indeed, this model corresponded to the historiographical trend centered on the notion of the founding father figure; a trend which is at the core of any quest of origins. However, this model has gradually declined.
Considering how [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis "Psychoanalysis") was established as a movement and system of thought, Elisabeth Roudinesco asserted that [France](/wiki/France "France") was the only country where all the necessary conditions were gathered together, over a long period of time, to successfully establish Freudianism in scientific and cultural life. According to Elisabeth Roudinesco, this favorable situation dated back first to the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution") of 1789 which provided a scientific and legal legitimacy to reason, heed/gaze over madness, giving birth to the institution of the asylum. Then, the [Dreyfus affair](/wiki/Dreyfus_affair "Dreyfus affair"), which has precipitated the arrival of intellectuals' self\-awareness as a class. Designating themselves as an 'avant\-garde', they furnished fruitful and innovative ideas. Finally, the emergence of literary modernity with [Baudelaire](/wiki/Baudelaire "Baudelaire"), [Rimbaud](/wiki/Rimbaud "Rimbaud") and [Lautréamont](/wiki/Lautr%C3%A9amont "Lautréamont"), who enunciate, in a new style of writing, the project of changing man through "I is another".
#### Ellenberger
Scholarly historiography emerged with such work as [Henri Ellenberger](/wiki/Henri_Ellenberger "Henri Ellenberger")'s *The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry*, first published in 1970\. Though this book had been known in English\-speaking countries since that date, the book (published in French in 1974\) remained largely unnoticed in France. Elisabeth Roudinesco republished it with a lengthy new preface in 1994\.Partially based on Roudinesco, *Généalogies*, Paris, Fayard, 1994\.
In his work, Ellenberger developed a conceptuality of freudianism founded on archivistics and reference to the concepts of "mental tools", "long length" and "system of thought". This last category proposed presenting doctrines in their own terms and structures. The study of the system of thought of [dynamic psychiatry](/wiki/Dynamic_psychiatry "Dynamic psychiatry"), psychotherapies and psychological medicine no longer echoes back to a single founder, but to a plurality of singular itineraries, shattering the biographic model.
From Ellenberger's thesis, Elisabeth Roudinesco retained several guiding principles, while adding methodology derived from the works of the French epistemological school: [Georges Canguilhem](/wiki/Georges_Canguilhem "Georges Canguilhem") and [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault "Michel Foucault"). Thus, the study of system of thought becomes the form in which, at a given time, knowledge achieves independence, finding balance and entering into communication: a history of a man who thinks, systems which intertwine, but also a critical analysis of the concepts of consciousness and subject of knowledge.
|
[
"### History of psychoanalysis in France",
"From 1979, Elisabeth Roudinesco writes a history of psychoanalysis in France. At that time, the main model was still the biography, because the archives and documents of the psychoanalytical movement were still in the hand of [Freud](/wiki/Freud \"Freud\")'s heirs.",
"Indeed, this model corresponded to the historiographical trend centered on the notion of the founding father figure; a trend which is at the core of any quest of origins. However, this model has gradually declined.",
"Considering how [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis \"Psychoanalysis\") was established as a movement and system of thought, Elisabeth Roudinesco asserted that [France](/wiki/France \"France\") was the only country where all the necessary conditions were gathered together, over a long period of time, to successfully establish Freudianism in scientific and cultural life. According to Elisabeth Roudinesco, this favorable situation dated back first to the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\") of 1789 which provided a scientific and legal legitimacy to reason, heed/gaze over madness, giving birth to the institution of the asylum. Then, the [Dreyfus affair](/wiki/Dreyfus_affair \"Dreyfus affair\"), which has precipitated the arrival of intellectuals' self\\-awareness as a class. Designating themselves as an 'avant\\-garde', they furnished fruitful and innovative ideas. Finally, the emergence of literary modernity with [Baudelaire](/wiki/Baudelaire \"Baudelaire\"), [Rimbaud](/wiki/Rimbaud \"Rimbaud\") and [Lautréamont](/wiki/Lautr%C3%A9amont \"Lautréamont\"), who enunciate, in a new style of writing, the project of changing man through \"I is another\".",
"#### Ellenberger",
"Scholarly historiography emerged with such work as [Henri Ellenberger](/wiki/Henri_Ellenberger \"Henri Ellenberger\")'s *The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry*, first published in 1970\\. Though this book had been known in English\\-speaking countries since that date, the book (published in French in 1974\\) remained largely unnoticed in France. Elisabeth Roudinesco republished it with a lengthy new preface in 1994\\.Partially based on Roudinesco, *Généalogies*, Paris, Fayard, 1994\\.",
"In his work, Ellenberger developed a conceptuality of freudianism founded on archivistics and reference to the concepts of \"mental tools\", \"long length\" and \"system of thought\". This last category proposed presenting doctrines in their own terms and structures. The study of the system of thought of [dynamic psychiatry](/wiki/Dynamic_psychiatry \"Dynamic psychiatry\"), psychotherapies and psychological medicine no longer echoes back to a single founder, but to a plurality of singular itineraries, shattering the biographic model.",
"From Ellenberger's thesis, Elisabeth Roudinesco retained several guiding principles, while adding methodology derived from the works of the French epistemological school: [Georges Canguilhem](/wiki/Georges_Canguilhem \"Georges Canguilhem\") and [Michel Foucault](/wiki/Michel_Foucault \"Michel Foucault\"). Thus, the study of system of thought becomes the form in which, at a given time, knowledge achieves independence, finding balance and entering into communication: a history of a man who thinks, systems which intertwine, but also a critical analysis of the concepts of consciousness and subject of knowledge.",
""
] |
History
-------
Jubilee Park was created for the benefit of the people of Woodhall Spa by Lady Weigall, who built nearby Petwood, now the famous hotel, as her country house. The park was opened in 1935 by Princess Marie Louise and named to mark the Jubilee of King George V. In its earliest days it was known as ‘The Royal Jubilee Park’.
In 1947 the whole park was gifted to the Urban District Council (UDC) and between 1947 and 1974 the UDC put considerable investment into the park and swimming pool and marketed it countywide. Jubilee Park was as synonymous with Woodhall Spa as the Kinema in the Woods and golf (now the home of the English Golf Union).
Following local government re\-organisation in 1974, the UDC eventually agreed to transfer the park to East Lindsey District Council (ELDC), who were keen to add it to their new property portfolio. Jubilee Park now comprises an open\-air swimming pool (Lido), communal gardens, caravan site, tennis club and cricket club. The tennis club and cricket club have operated independently for many years under a leased agreement with ELDC. Some investment took place but over the next 30 years it became increasingly apparent that the park and its facilities would have trouble competing for funds with other, newer, leisure venues in the district.
In 2005 when the future of the pool, the café and consequently the park, were in serious doubt, it was not surprising that the community would unite to put pressure on ELDC to invest and save it. The same passions were aroused when it was proposed to close the park's caravan site, with people across the county signing petitions in the belief that not just the caravans, but the park itself was under threat. Woodhall Spa without Jubilee Park would not be Woodhall Spa, and Jubilee Park without the pool would not be Jubilee Park. Woodhall Spa is the acknowledged ‘Jewel in the Crown’ of East Lindsey. Jubilee Park is the ‘Jewel in the Crown’ of Woodhall Spa.
Transfer of ownership of Jubilee Park to Woodhall Spa Parish Council took Place in April 2011\. This transfer was accompanied by significant investment in ‘failing’ parts of the infrastructure – not least the swimming pool basin and the infrastructure of the caravan park. This injection of capital has secured the operational ability of the Park along with ensuring that key areas remain compliant with necessary legislative requirements.
With this operational ability secured, we now needed to secure the park's financial future under local ownership. The first four years were broadly successful although involving a steep learning curve. It quickly became apparent, however, that the Parish Council wasn't set up in a way that could sustain Jubilee Park in the long term and a group of volunteers stepped up to look at possible ways forward.
On 2 May 2014, The Parish Council handed over the operation and management of the swimming pool, caravan site and communal gardens to Jubilee Park Woodhall Spa Ltd (JPWS) on a 99\-year lease. JPWS took over from this point with the pool opening for the season the next day. The cricket and tennis clubs in the Park maintained separate leases.
JPWS is a not\-for\-profit organisation set up as a company limited by guarantee (company number – 8912577\). It is also a registered Charity (charity number 1159068\).
As set in out in its Articles of Association, the objects of the charity are:
**1\. To manage, promote and sustain Jubilee Park as a swimming, leisure, sports and recreation facility available for the benefit of the whole community, principally but not exclusively in the local government area of Woodhall Spa.**
**2\. To promote health and fitness in the community in particular but not exclusively through the provision of swimming, sports and health related training and coaching**
**3\. To promote, organise and facilitate co\-operation and partnership between third sector statutory and other relevant bodies in the achievement of the above purposes.**
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Jubilee Park was created for the benefit of the people of Woodhall Spa by Lady Weigall, who built nearby Petwood, now the famous hotel, as her country house. The park was opened in 1935 by Princess Marie Louise and named to mark the Jubilee of King George V. In its earliest days it was known as ‘The Royal Jubilee Park’.",
"In 1947 the whole park was gifted to the Urban District Council (UDC) and between 1947 and 1974 the UDC put considerable investment into the park and swimming pool and marketed it countywide. Jubilee Park was as synonymous with Woodhall Spa as the Kinema in the Woods and golf (now the home of the English Golf Union).",
"Following local government re\\-organisation in 1974, the UDC eventually agreed to transfer the park to East Lindsey District Council (ELDC), who were keen to add it to their new property portfolio. Jubilee Park now comprises an open\\-air swimming pool (Lido), communal gardens, caravan site, tennis club and cricket club. The tennis club and cricket club have operated independently for many years under a leased agreement with ELDC. Some investment took place but over the next 30 years it became increasingly apparent that the park and its facilities would have trouble competing for funds with other, newer, leisure venues in the district.",
"In 2005 when the future of the pool, the café and consequently the park, were in serious doubt, it was not surprising that the community would unite to put pressure on ELDC to invest and save it. The same passions were aroused when it was proposed to close the park's caravan site, with people across the county signing petitions in the belief that not just the caravans, but the park itself was under threat. Woodhall Spa without Jubilee Park would not be Woodhall Spa, and Jubilee Park without the pool would not be Jubilee Park. Woodhall Spa is the acknowledged ‘Jewel in the Crown’ of East Lindsey. Jubilee Park is the ‘Jewel in the Crown’ of Woodhall Spa.",
"Transfer of ownership of Jubilee Park to Woodhall Spa Parish Council took Place in April 2011\\. This transfer was accompanied by significant investment in ‘failing’ parts of the infrastructure – not least the swimming pool basin and the infrastructure of the caravan park. This injection of capital has secured the operational ability of the Park along with ensuring that key areas remain compliant with necessary legislative requirements.",
"With this operational ability secured, we now needed to secure the park's financial future under local ownership. The first four years were broadly successful although involving a steep learning curve. It quickly became apparent, however, that the Parish Council wasn't set up in a way that could sustain Jubilee Park in the long term and a group of volunteers stepped up to look at possible ways forward.",
"On 2 May 2014, The Parish Council handed over the operation and management of the swimming pool, caravan site and communal gardens to Jubilee Park Woodhall Spa Ltd (JPWS) on a 99\\-year lease. JPWS took over from this point with the pool opening for the season the next day. The cricket and tennis clubs in the Park maintained separate leases.",
"JPWS is a not\\-for\\-profit organisation set up as a company limited by guarantee (company number – 8912577\\). It is also a registered Charity (charity number 1159068\\).",
"As set in out in its Articles of Association, the objects of the charity are:",
"**1\\. To manage, promote and sustain Jubilee Park as a swimming, leisure, sports and recreation facility available for the benefit of the whole community, principally but not exclusively in the local government area of Woodhall Spa.**",
"**2\\. To promote health and fitness in the community in particular but not exclusively through the provision of swimming, sports and health related training and coaching**",
"**3\\. To promote, organise and facilitate co\\-operation and partnership between third sector statutory and other relevant bodies in the achievement of the above purposes.**",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1999–2011: Early history
**Songkhla Football Club** was established in 1999, and it then first played in the [Thailand Provincial League](/wiki/Thailand_Provincial_League "Thailand Provincial League"), a former league, parallel to the [Thai Premier League](/wiki/Thai_Premier_League "Thai Premier League"). In the founding year of the league, 1999, reached the eighth place in the league table.
| 1999–2007 | **[Provincial League](/wiki/Provincial_League "Provincial League")** | (Tier 3\) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2008 | [Thailand Division 2 League](/wiki/Thailand_Division_2_League "Thailand Division 2 League") | (Tier 3\) |
| 2009–2012 | [Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/Thai_Division_1_League "Thai Division 1 League") | (Tier 2\) |
In the years after it was found mostly back in the bottom of the table regions. In 2007, the club was runner\-up of the [Provincial League](/wiki/Provincial_League "Provincial League") and played the following year in the [Thailand Division 2 League](/wiki/Thailand_Division_2_League "Thailand Division 2 League"). Surprisingly, it was the end of the season, again winning a second place and went on to the newly formed [Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/Thai_Division_1_League "Thai Division 1 League").
In [2009 Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/2009_Thai_Division_1_League "2009 Thai Division 1 League"), they finished a creditable 7th. They fared even better in [2010 Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/2010_Thai_Division_1_League "2010 Thai Division 1 League") and just missed out on automatic promotion by 2 points. Their 4th\-placed finished earned them a place in the [Thai Premier League](/wiki/Thai_Premier_League "Thai Premier League") play\-offs. Unfortunately the Bulls couldn't maintain their end off season form and finished bottom of their play\-off group.
In this [2011 Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/2011_Thai_Division_1_League "2011 Thai Division 1 League"), the team have an average attendance of around 18\.000, with a peak of 23\.000 people at [Tinsulanonda Stadium](/wiki/Tinsulanonda_Stadium "Tinsulanonda Stadium") during last matches. Highest attendance Songkhla 1–1 [Buriram](/wiki/Buriram_F.C. "Buriram F.C.") (36,715\) (7 August 2011\) . Their star and top striker with 17 scores is the Brazilian [Chayene Santos](/wiki/Chayene_Santos "Chayene Santos").
### Merging: Songkhla United and Songkhla
The club was dissolved and merged with [Songkhla United](/wiki/Songkhla_United_F.C. "Songkhla United F.C.") in 2012\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.sanook.com/sport/45635/\|title\=นิพนธ์แจงเหตุยุบสงขลารับแบกค่าใช้จ่าย 2 ทีมไม่ไหว}}
### 2018–present: A breath of hope
| 2018–2019 | **[Amateur League](/wiki/Thailand_Amateur_League "Thailand Amateur League")** | (Tier 4\) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2020– | **[Thai League 3](/wiki/Thai_League_3 "Thai League 3")** | (Tier 3\) |
Songkhla football club was come back {{cite news\|url\=https://news.gimyong.com/article/8401\|title\=สงขลาเอฟซี ภาคใหม่ที่ไม่ใช่วัวชนแดนใต้คงไม่ล้อเล่นกับความรู้สึกแฟนบอล}} and played in 2018 Thailand Amateur League Southern Region.
The Samila Mermaid won promotion from the fifth tier of the [Thai football league system](/wiki/Thai_football_league_system "Thai football league system") [Thailand Amateur League](/wiki/2019_Thailand_Amateur_League "2019 Thailand Amateur League") Southern region in 2019 – beating Jantrangcee Saba Yoi City in the lower southern subregion final and beating Patong City in the southern region final. They qualified for the 2019 Thailand Amateur League championship stage as southern winner.
In 2022, Songkhla competed in the [Thai League 3](/wiki/Thai_League_3 "Thai League 3") for the 2022–23 season. It is their 3rd season in the professional league. The club started the season with a 2–0 home win over [Wiang Sa Surat Thani City](/wiki/Wiang_Sa_Surat_Thani_City_F.C. "Wiang Sa Surat Thani City F.C."){{cite web \|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/17gYv9LqnaqvJqeyPj9AL0mM8BcebkUMM/view \|title\=Full Time Summary Thai League 3 Southern region matchday 1 – Songkhla v Wiang Sa Surat Thani City \|work\=thaileague.co.th \|publisher\=Thaileague \|format\=PDF \|date\=11 September 2022}} and they ended the season with a 0–0 away draw with [Wiang Sa Surat Thani City](/wiki/Wiang_Sa_Surat_Thani_City_F.C. "Wiang Sa Surat Thani City F.C.").{{cite web \|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1bPY9pJN4lcziVj3OjjpsZ0WARNw2M\-nu/view \|title\=Full Time Summary Thai League 3 Southern region matchday 22 – Wiang Sa Surat Thani City v Songkhla \|work\=thaileague.co.th \|publisher\=Thaileague \|format\=PDF \|date\=19 March 2023}} The club has finished 1st place in the league of the Southern region and advanced to the national championship stage. In addition, in the [2022–23 Thai FA Cup](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Thai_FA_Cup "2022–23 Thai FA Cup") Songkhla was defeated 2–3 by [Suphanburi](/wiki/Suphanburi_F.C. "Suphanburi F.C.") in the second round, causing them to be eliminated{{cite web \|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HAZ\_C4Sjw4DtjXYx\_hQComVf7ECUcS8E/view \|title\=Full Time Summary Thai FA Cup second round – Songkhla v Suphanburi \|work\=thaileague.co.th \|publisher\=Thaileague \|format\=PDF \|date\=2 November 2022}} and in the [2022–23 Thai League Cup](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Thai_League_Cup "2022–23 Thai League Cup") Songkhla was defeated 1–2 by [Lopburi City](/wiki/Lopburi_City_F.C. "Lopburi City F.C.") in the qualification play\-off round, causing them to be eliminated too.{{cite web \|url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1bA49kYBt\_CXbpN0uBkK2OXNOOsoLdU9Q/view \|title\=Full Time Summary Thai League Cup qualification play\-off round – Lopburi City v Songkhla \|work\=thaileague.co.th \|publisher\=Thaileague \|format\=PDF \|date\=19 October 2022}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1999–2011: Early history",
"**Songkhla Football Club** was established in 1999, and it then first played in the [Thailand Provincial League](/wiki/Thailand_Provincial_League \"Thailand Provincial League\"), a former league, parallel to the [Thai Premier League](/wiki/Thai_Premier_League \"Thai Premier League\"). In the founding year of the league, 1999, reached the eighth place in the league table.",
"",
"| 1999–2007 | **[Provincial League](/wiki/Provincial_League \"Provincial League\")** | (Tier 3\\) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 2008 | [Thailand Division 2 League](/wiki/Thailand_Division_2_League \"Thailand Division 2 League\") | (Tier 3\\) |\n| 2009–2012 | [Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/Thai_Division_1_League \"Thai Division 1 League\") | (Tier 2\\) |",
"In the years after it was found mostly back in the bottom of the table regions. In 2007, the club was runner\\-up of the [Provincial League](/wiki/Provincial_League \"Provincial League\") and played the following year in the [Thailand Division 2 League](/wiki/Thailand_Division_2_League \"Thailand Division 2 League\"). Surprisingly, it was the end of the season, again winning a second place and went on to the newly formed [Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/Thai_Division_1_League \"Thai Division 1 League\").",
"In [2009 Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/2009_Thai_Division_1_League \"2009 Thai Division 1 League\"), they finished a creditable 7th. They fared even better in [2010 Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/2010_Thai_Division_1_League \"2010 Thai Division 1 League\") and just missed out on automatic promotion by 2 points. Their 4th\\-placed finished earned them a place in the [Thai Premier League](/wiki/Thai_Premier_League \"Thai Premier League\") play\\-offs. Unfortunately the Bulls couldn't maintain their end off season form and finished bottom of their play\\-off group.",
"In this [2011 Thai Division 1 League](/wiki/2011_Thai_Division_1_League \"2011 Thai Division 1 League\"), the team have an average attendance of around 18\\.000, with a peak of 23\\.000 people at [Tinsulanonda Stadium](/wiki/Tinsulanonda_Stadium \"Tinsulanonda Stadium\") during last matches. Highest attendance Songkhla 1–1 [Buriram](/wiki/Buriram_F.C. \"Buriram F.C.\") (36,715\\) (7 August 2011\\) . Their star and top striker with 17 scores is the Brazilian [Chayene Santos](/wiki/Chayene_Santos \"Chayene Santos\").",
"### Merging: Songkhla United and Songkhla",
"The club was dissolved and merged with [Songkhla United](/wiki/Songkhla_United_F.C. \"Songkhla United F.C.\") in 2012\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.sanook.com/sport/45635/\\|title\\=นิพนธ์แจงเหตุยุบสงขลารับแบกค่าใช้จ่าย 2 ทีมไม่ไหว}}",
"### 2018–present: A breath of hope",
"",
"| 2018–2019 | **[Amateur League](/wiki/Thailand_Amateur_League \"Thailand Amateur League\")** | (Tier 4\\) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 2020– | **[Thai League 3](/wiki/Thai_League_3 \"Thai League 3\")** | (Tier 3\\) |",
"Songkhla football club was come back {{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.gimyong.com/article/8401\\|title\\=สงขลาเอฟซี ภาคใหม่ที่ไม่ใช่วัวชนแดนใต้คงไม่ล้อเล่นกับความรู้สึกแฟนบอล}} and played in 2018 Thailand Amateur League Southern Region.",
"The Samila Mermaid won promotion from the fifth tier of the [Thai football league system](/wiki/Thai_football_league_system \"Thai football league system\") [Thailand Amateur League](/wiki/2019_Thailand_Amateur_League \"2019 Thailand Amateur League\") Southern region in 2019 – beating Jantrangcee Saba Yoi City in the lower southern subregion final and beating Patong City in the southern region final. They qualified for the 2019 Thailand Amateur League championship stage as southern winner.",
"In 2022, Songkhla competed in the [Thai League 3](/wiki/Thai_League_3 \"Thai League 3\") for the 2022–23 season. It is their 3rd season in the professional league. The club started the season with a 2–0 home win over [Wiang Sa Surat Thani City](/wiki/Wiang_Sa_Surat_Thani_City_F.C. \"Wiang Sa Surat Thani City F.C.\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/17gYv9LqnaqvJqeyPj9AL0mM8BcebkUMM/view \\|title\\=Full Time Summary Thai League 3 Southern region matchday 1 – Songkhla v Wiang Sa Surat Thani City \\|work\\=thaileague.co.th \\|publisher\\=Thaileague \\|format\\=PDF \\|date\\=11 September 2022}} and they ended the season with a 0–0 away draw with [Wiang Sa Surat Thani City](/wiki/Wiang_Sa_Surat_Thani_City_F.C. \"Wiang Sa Surat Thani City F.C.\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1bPY9pJN4lcziVj3OjjpsZ0WARNw2M\\-nu/view \\|title\\=Full Time Summary Thai League 3 Southern region matchday 22 – Wiang Sa Surat Thani City v Songkhla \\|work\\=thaileague.co.th \\|publisher\\=Thaileague \\|format\\=PDF \\|date\\=19 March 2023}} The club has finished 1st place in the league of the Southern region and advanced to the national championship stage. In addition, in the [2022–23 Thai FA Cup](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Thai_FA_Cup \"2022–23 Thai FA Cup\") Songkhla was defeated 2–3 by [Suphanburi](/wiki/Suphanburi_F.C. \"Suphanburi F.C.\") in the second round, causing them to be eliminated{{cite web \\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HAZ\\_C4Sjw4DtjXYx\\_hQComVf7ECUcS8E/view \\|title\\=Full Time Summary Thai FA Cup second round – Songkhla v Suphanburi \\|work\\=thaileague.co.th \\|publisher\\=Thaileague \\|format\\=PDF \\|date\\=2 November 2022}} and in the [2022–23 Thai League Cup](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Thai_League_Cup \"2022–23 Thai League Cup\") Songkhla was defeated 1–2 by [Lopburi City](/wiki/Lopburi_City_F.C. \"Lopburi City F.C.\") in the qualification play\\-off round, causing them to be eliminated too.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1bA49kYBt\\_CXbpN0uBkK2OXNOOsoLdU9Q/view \\|title\\=Full Time Summary Thai League Cup qualification play\\-off round – Lopburi City v Songkhla \\|work\\=thaileague.co.th \\|publisher\\=Thaileague \\|format\\=PDF \\|date\\=19 October 2022}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Anciently called *Mimiland*,[Risdon, Tristram](/wiki/Tristram_Risdon "Tristram Risdon") (d.1640\), Survey of Devon, 1811 edition, London, 1811, with 1810 Additions, p.190 it was successively the seat of the families of *de Mimiland*, Hillersdon,[Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L.](/wiki/John_Lambrick_Vivian "John Lambrick Vivian"), (Ed.) The Visitations of the County of Devon: Comprising the [Heralds' Visitations](/wiki/Heraldic_visitation "Heraldic visitation") of 1531, 1564 \& 1620, Exeter, 1895, pp.469–70, pedigree of *Hillersdon of Membland* Champernowne, Stert, Bulteel, PerringRisdon, p.387 and Baring.
### Hillersdon
[thumb\|200px\|Arms of Hillersdon: *Argent, on a chevron sable three bull's heads cabossed of the field*](/wiki/File:HillersdonArms.png "HillersdonArms.png")
The Hillersdon family originated at the estate of [Hillersdon](/wiki/Manor_of_Hillersdon "Manor of Hillersdon") in the parish of [Cullompton](/wiki/Cullompton "Cullompton"), [Devon](/wiki/Devon "Devon"),Crossette before the 14th century. By the 16th century they had become seated at Membland.Vivian, p.469, pedigree of Hillersdon of Membland Richard Hillersdon (c.1639 – 1703\), of Membland, was an MP for [Plympton Erle](/wiki/Plympton_Erle_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Plympton Erle (UK Parliament constituency)") in 1679\. He had one son and two daughters, but the son died in or before 1693, after which he appears to have conveyed Membland to his son\-in\-law Arthur Champernowne (1671/2\-pre 1717\)[Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L.](/wiki/John_Lambrick_Vivian "John Lambrick Vivian"), (Ed.) The Visitations of the County of Devon: Comprising the [Heralds' Visitations](/wiki/Heraldic_visitation "Heraldic visitation") of 1531, 1564 \& 1620, Exeter, 1895, p.165, pedigree of Champernowne [lord](/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor "Lord of the manor") of the [manor of Modbury](/wiki/Manor_of_Modbury "Manor of Modbury") in Devon, who died childless. His other daughter married Courtenay Croker (died 1740\), of [Lyneham, Yealmpton](/wiki/Lyneham%2C_Yealmpton "Lyneham, Yealmpton"), MP for Plympton as a Whig from 1695 to 1702\.Crossette, J. S., biography of *Hillersdon, Richard (c.1639\-1703\), of Membland, Holbeton, Devon*, published in [History of Parliament](/wiki/History_of_Parliament "History of Parliament"), House of Commons 1660–1690, ed. B.D. Henning, 1983 [http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1660\-1690/member/hilersdon\-richard\-1639\-1703](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1660-1690/member/hilersdon-richard-1639-1703)
On 30 August 1693 Richard Hillersdon of Membland signed a deed of release to Arthur Champernowne of Modbury, relating to the "Mannor of Lambside, messuage and barton of Membland, Pool Mills, Holbeton".[Plymouth and West Devon Record Office, reference:74/670/3](http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/rd/59718dab-654a-49c4-8d24-c3659295eae1)
### Champernowne
[thumb\|200px\|Arms of Champernowne: *Gules, a saltire vair between twelve billets or*](/wiki/File:Champernowne_CoatOfArms.png "Champernowne CoatOfArms.png")
Letters survive from Arthur Champernowne (1671 – before 1717\) of Membland to Courtenay Croker of Lyneham, Yealmpton.[Plymouth and West Devon Record Office, Reference: 2460](http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/rd/17d2b84a-2ddb-4fea-bea8-2ae9511140a9) Champernowne died childless at some time before 1717,Vivian, p.165 the last of the Champernownes of Modbury.
### Stert
After 1723 the mansion house was occupied by [Arthur Stert](/wiki/Arthur_Stert "Arthur Stert") (died 1755\), MP for [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Plymouth (UK Parliament constituency)") 1727–54,Matthews, Shirley, biography of *Stert, Arthur (d.1755\), of Membland, nr. Modbury, Devon*, published in [History of Parliament](/wiki/History_of_Parliament "History of Parliament"), House of Commons 1715–1754, ed. R. Sedgwick, 1970 who rebuilt it with detached wings.Britton, John, *The Beauties of England and Wales; or, Delineations Topographical, Historical and Descriptive of Each County*, Vol 4, London,1803, p.136 [https://books.google.com/books?id\=A3FbAAAAQAAJ\&dq\=peter\+perring\+membland\&pg\=PA136](https://books.google.com/books?id=A3FbAAAAQAAJ&dq=peter+perring+membland&pg=PA136) He married but was predeceased by his only son, leaving two daughters. His family had lived in the area around Plymouth since the early sixteenth century. In 1723 he purchased Membland from the Champernowne family. He received a grant of arms in 1745 as follows: *Argent, a saltire gules between four crosses formee sable*, with crest: *A cross formee sable between a pair of wings elevated argent*.Encyclopaedia Heraldica, Or Complete Dictionary of Heraldry, Volume 2
By William Berry [https://books.google.com/books?id\=bfNfAAAAcAAJ\&dq\=Arthur\+Stert\+membland\&pg\=PT827](https://books.google.com/books?id=bfNfAAAAcAAJ&dq=Arthur+Stert+membland&pg=PT827) One of his parliamentary colleagues wrote of him:
"They say he is an able man, but he has not the gift of utterance; he did not answer the questions put to him with readiness or clearness, but yet, I think, did give answers which might satisfy those who were not resolved not to be satisfied".
### Bulteel
[thumb\|200px\|Arms of Bulteel: *Argent biletée gules, a bend of the last*](/wiki/File:BulteelArms.png "BulteelArms.png")
Membland was purchased for his residence in 1757 by John Bulteel (1733–1801\), a younger son of [James Bulteel](/wiki/James_Bulteel_%28died_1757%29 "James Bulteel (died 1757)") (1676–1757\) of Tavistock and of [Flete](/wiki/Flete_House "Flete House") (adjacent to Membland), MP for Tavistock 1703–8 and 1711–15,{{cite web \| url\=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1690\-1715/member/bulteel\-james\-1676\-1757 \| title\=BULTEEL, James (C.1676\-1757\), of Tavistock, Devon \| History of Parliament Online }} by his wife Mary Crocker, daughter and heiress of Courtenay Crocker (died 1740\), of [Lyneham, Yealmpton](/wiki/Lyneham%2C_Yealmpton "Lyneham, Yealmpton"). John Bulteel married Diana Bellenden, a daughter of the Scottish [Lord of Parliament](/wiki/Lord_of_Parliament "Lord of Parliament") [John Bellenden, 2nd Lord Bellenden](/wiki/John_Bellenden%2C_2nd_Lord_Bellenden "John Bellenden, 2nd Lord Bellenden") (died 1707\). A mural monument to John Bulteel survives in Holbeton Church showing two oval escutcheons[See image](http://www.ipernity.com/doc/stiffleaf/38994666/in/keyword/1410741/self) the one at [dexter](/wiki/Dexter_and_sinister "Dexter and sinister") showing the arms of Bulteel: *Argent semée of billets gules, a bend of the last*In 1660 the [Garter King of Arms](/wiki/Garter_King_of_Arms "Garter King of Arms") confirmed to [John Bulteel (died 1669\)](/wiki/John_Bulteel_%28died_1669%29 "John Bulteel (died 1669)") of [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster "Westminster") (a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") for [Lostwithiel](/wiki/Lostwithiel_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Lostwithiel (UK Parliament constituency)") in Cornwall, from 1661 to 1669\. and between c.1658 and 1667 he Secretary to [Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon](/wiki/Edward_Hyde%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clarendon "Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon"), [Lord Chancellor](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor "Lord Chancellor") to King Charles II) the right to bear arms as follows: *Argent semy of billets and a bend gules*, with crest: *Out of a crowne gules two wings argent billetté of the first*.(Balliol College Archives \& Manuscripts, Conroy Collection: Catalogue 1 – 17, 9C.3\) with [inescutcheon of pretence](/wiki/Inescutcheon "Inescutcheon") of Croker of Lyneham (*Argent, a chevron engrailed gules between three crows proper*), the one at [sinister](/wiki/Dexter_and_sinister "Dexter and sinister") showing Bulteel quartering Croker, impaling: *Gules, a stag's head and neck couped between three cross crosslets fitchy within a double tressure flory counter\-flory or* (Bellenden).{{cite web \| url\=http://www.heraldry\-scotland.co.uk/peerage.html \| title\=Scottish Peerage Armorial Playing Cards }} Above both shields is the crest of Bulteel: *Out of a crown gules two wings argent bilettée of the first*.
Having inherited his paternal estate of [Flete](/wiki/Flete_House "Flete House") from his young nephew Courtenay Croker Bulteel of Flete and [Lyneham, Yealmpton](/wiki/Lyneham%2C_Yealmpton "Lyneham, Yealmpton"), Bulteel had no further use for Membland,[Prince, John](/wiki/John_Prince_%28biographer%29 "John Prince (biographer)"), (1643–1723\) The Worthies of Devon, 1810 edition, London, p.273 and sold it to Peter Perring.
### Perring
[thumb\|200px\|Arms of Perring: *Argent, on a chevron engrailed between three fir cones pendant vert as many leopard'sfaces of the first*Debrett's Baronetage of England, revised, corrected and continued by George William Collen, London, 1840, p.434, Perring Baronets](/wiki/File:PerringArms.png "PerringArms.png")
Peter Perring (1743–1796\) of the [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London "City of London") was the uncle of John Bulteel's daughter\-in\-law Elizabeth Perring (1766–1835\) (daughter and sole heiress of Thomas Perring, a merchant in the City of London), who had married his son John Bulteel (died 1837\) of Flete and Lyneham.
Peter Perring had made a fortune in the [East Indies](/wiki/East_Indies "East Indies").[Gray, Todd](/wiki/Todd_Gray_%28Devon_Historian%29 "Todd Gray (Devon Historian)") \& Rowe, Margery (Eds.), Travels in Georgian Devon: The Illustrated Journals of The Reverend [John Swete](/wiki/John_Swete "John Swete"), 1789–1800, 4 vols., Tiverton, 1999, vol 4, p.13 He was the fourth son of Philip Perring (died 1716\) of Modbury in Devon, and was the brother of Thomas Perring (1732–1791\) above, and of Philip Perring (died 1797\), MP, father of [Sir John Perring, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_John_Perring%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir John Perring, 1st Baronet") (1765–1831\). Peter went to India as a servant of [Sir Thomas Rumbold, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Rumbold%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Thomas Rumbold, 1st Baronet") ([Governor of Madras](/wiki/Governor_of_Madras "Governor of Madras") from 1777 to 1780\) and eventually became secretary to the government at [Madras](/wiki/Madras "Madras") and a member of the Council of Madras, in which office he amassed a fortune of £40,000\. In 1781 he was dismissed from the service of the [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company") possibly for profiteering.Scarratt, Anne, *The Woollen Industry of Modbury*, The Modbury Group, 2005–13 [http://www.modbury\-heritage.co.uk/panels/woollen\_industry.htm](http://www.modbury-heritage.co.uk/panels/woollen_industry.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002543/http://www.modbury\-heritage.co.uk/panels/woollen\_industry.htm \|date\=2017\-02\-02 }}, details regarding the Perring family and their cloth business in Modbury On his return to England, he married Lucinda Manning, the beautiful daughter of Rev. Henry Manning, Rector of Stoke\-in\-Teignhead, Devon, on whom he [settled](/wiki/Marriage_settlement "Marriage settlement") £10,000 and, "in consequence of her extreme good behaviour", intended settling his whole fortune upon her.Collinge, J.M., biography of "Perring, John (1765–1831\), of Membland, Devon and New Broad Street, London", published [History of Parliament](/wiki/History_of_Parliament "History of Parliament"), House of Commons 1790–1820, ed. R. Thorne, 1986 [http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1790\-1820/member/perring\-john\-1765\-1831](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1790-1820/member/perring-john-1765-1831) However he died suddenly on 8 December 1796, before he could sign his will. Peter Perring died childless and his heir to Membland became his nephew [Sir John Perring, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_John_Perring%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir John Perring, 1st Baronet") (1765–1831\) (son of his brother Philip), senior partner of Perrings Bank and [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London "Lord Mayor of London") in 1803\. His bank failed in the [Panic of 1825](/wiki/Panic_of_1825 "Panic of 1825") after which he sold his estates.
A mural monument to Peter Perring survives in Holbeton Church inscribed "In memory of Peter Perring Esqr. of Membland, late one of the Council of [Fort St George](/wiki/Fort_St_George%2C_Madras "Fort St George, Madras") in the East Indies, who died the 8th day of December 1796 aged 53".[Image see](http://www.ipernity.com/doc/stiffleaf/38994628/in/keyword/1410741/self) Above is a large stone urn and below are shown the arms of Perring.
### Robertson
Robert Robertson, ninth proprietor of Auchleeks, born 7 February 1777, purchased the estate of Membland in 1827\. In 1836 he was high sheriff of Devon. A justice of the peace and deputy lieutenant. He married in 1816, Bridget, daughter of George Atkinson, Esq., of Temple Sowerby, Westmoreland; issue, five sons and six daughters. He died 23 March 1859 in the [Royal Crescent](/wiki/Royal_Crescent "Royal Crescent"), [Bath, Somerset](/wiki/Bath%2C_Somerset "Bath, Somerset").{{cite book \|last1\=Small \|first1\=A G \|title\=Genealogy of the Robertson, Small and related families: Hamilton, Livingston, McNaughton, McDonald, McDougall, Beveridge, Lourie, Stewart \|date\=1907 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/genealogyrobert00smalgoog/page/n46 36] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/genealogyrobert00smalgoog\|accessdate\=1 February 2019}} In about 1860 Membland was purchased by [John Delaware Lewis](/wiki/John_Delaware_Lewis "John Delaware Lewis"), the [member of parliament](/wiki/Member_of_parliament "Member of parliament") for [Devonport, Plymouth](/wiki/Devonport%2C_Plymouth "Devonport, Plymouth").{{cite news \|title\=Local and District News \|publisher\=Western Morning News \|date\=19 January 1861}}{{cite book \|last1\=Bateman \|first1\=John \|title\=The great landowners of Great Britain and Ireland; a list of all owners of three thousand acres and upwards ... also, one thousand three hundred owners of two thousand acres and upwards in England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, their acreage and income from land culled from The modern Domesday book \|date\=1883 \|publisher\=Harrison \|location\=London \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/greatlandownerso00bateuoft/page/269 269] \|url\=https://archive.org/details/greatlandownerso00bateuoft \|accessdate\=9 February 2019}}
### Baring
[thumb\|upright\=0\.7\|[Canting arms](/wiki/Canting_arms "Canting arms") of Baring: *Azure, a fesse or in chief a bear's head (couped) proper muzzled and ringed of the second*](/wiki/File:BaringArms.PNG "BaringArms.PNG") Membland, in about 1877, and the manor of Revelstoke were purchased by [Edward Baring](/wiki/Edward_Baring%2C_1st_Baron_Revelstoke "Edward Baring, 1st Baron Revelstoke") (1828–1897\), who in 1885 was elevated to the peerage as "[Baron Revelstoke](/wiki/Baron_Revelstoke "Baron Revelstoke") of Membland". He was senior partner of [Barings Bank](/wiki/Barings_Bank "Barings Bank"), which had originated in nearby [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter "Exeter"), Devon. In 1861 he had married Louisa Emily Charlotte Bulteel (died 1892\), a daughter of [John Crocker Bulteel](/wiki/John_Crocker_Bulteel "John Crocker Bulteel") (1793–1843\) of [Fleet](/wiki/Flete_House "Flete House"), [Holbeton](/wiki/Holbeton "Holbeton"), the adjoining estate, MP for [South Devon](/wiki/South_Devon_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "South Devon (UK Parliament constituency)") 1832–4 and [Sheriff of Devon](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Devon "Sheriff of Devon") in 1841\. In 1889 he built the surviving *Bull and Bear* gatelodge at Membland, with datestone and his monogram.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/101168408\-bull\-and\-bear\-lodge\-holbeton\#.WYtK4FGQwqc\| title \= Bull and Bear Lodge, Holbeton, Devon}} This was a humorous dual reference to the couple's surnames and the stockmarket beasts the [bull](/wiki/Bull_%28stock_market_speculator%29 "Bull (stock market speculator)") and [bear](/wiki/Bear "Bear"), appropriate to two families of bankers.
### Gray
In 1900 [William Cresswell Gray](/wiki/William_Gray_%26_Company "William Gray & Company"), shipbuilder from Hartlepool, purchased Membland from [John Headon Stanbury](/wiki/John_Headon_Stanbury "John Headon Stanbury"), who was a hotelier from Exeter. Stanbury had bought the estate in the previous year and planned to develop the area that bordered the [River Yealm](/wiki/River_Yealm "River Yealm"). When Gray became the owner, the Membland estate included the Hall and 2720 acres of land. In 1904 Gray purchased another estate, this time in Yorkshire called Thorp Perrow of about 5000 acres, and this became his preferred residence.{{cite news \|title\=The domain called Thorp Perrow \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25723725/cresswell\_gray\_buys\_thorp\_perrow/ \|accessdate\=26 November 2018 \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=18 July 1904}} Membland was reportedly let in 1907 to [Sir George White, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_George_White%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir George White, 1st Baronet") for the season. In 1912 Gray put the estate up for sale but failed to find a buyer. He continued to market the property, even making efforts during the early part of WWI by offering to extend the completion until the end of the war.{{cite news \|title\=Auction \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25387627/ \|accessdate\=26 November 2018 \|publisher\=The Observer \|date\=13 June 1915}} As the war continued Gray offered the Hall, with a sum of £2000 for use as a convalescent home for wounded soldiers, but the authorities considered the running costs would be prohibitive. However, the Hall was taken up as a training facility for officer cadets until about 1919\. By the time of Grays death in 1925 Membland Hall had still not been sold, although he had been successful in reducing the size of the estate to 500 acres in 1919 and eventually to 227 in 1924\.{{cite news \|title\=Membland Estate sale \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25726488/membland\_for\_sale\_1919\_with\_500\_acres/ \|accessdate\=26 November 2018 \|work\=The Times \|date\=15 May 1919}} The House was purchased after Gray's death by Stanley Thomas Pitts with 19 acres of ground; he demolished the building and sold off the salvaged materials.{{cite news \|title\=Building materials \- Membland Hall demolition \|publisher\=Western Morning News \|date\=16 November 1927}}{{cite news \|title\=Stately Homes of England \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/sidpickle/46034822702/in/dateposted\-public/ \|accessdate\=28 November 2018 \|publisher\=Sheffield Daily Telegraph \|date\=27 October 1928}}
Pitts, a corn merchant from Yelverton,{{cite web \|title\=G S Pitts \- some family background information \|url\=https://www.yelvertonvillagehall.co.uk/pitts.html \|website\=Yelverton Village Hall Web Site \|accessdate\=27 November 2018}} had bought Membland Hall with 19 acres of land for a nominal fee of £2,200\. As the new owner he was placed under an obligation to maintain water supplies from springs to surrounding properties that had previously enjoyed them. For this he received about £50 per year in fees. He had hoped to extend his water supply network to Newton Ferrers, or sell the rights to the District Council, but the impending Plympton St Mary Rural District Council, Local Water Act jeopardised his plans. Under this proposal the council were to install new water mains and these would be in direct competition to Pitts. He took his case to the Court of Referees in the House of Commons in May 1928, but failed to have his objections considered.{{cite web \|title\=Plympton St Mary Rural District Council, Local Water Act, with petition by Stanley Thomas Pitts \|url\=http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/41a282a2\-c4a6\-42a7\-bf69\-a9a01eee22ae \|website\=The National Archives \|accessdate\=27 November 2018}}{{cite news \|title\=Plympton Water Bill\|url\= https://www.flickr.com/photos/sidpickle/45348864024/in/dateposted\-public/\|publisher\=Western Morning News \- Wednesday 09 May 1928 \|date\=9 May 1928}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Anciently called *Mimiland*,[Risdon, Tristram](/wiki/Tristram_Risdon \"Tristram Risdon\") (d.1640\\), Survey of Devon, 1811 edition, London, 1811, with 1810 Additions, p.190 it was successively the seat of the families of *de Mimiland*, Hillersdon,[Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L.](/wiki/John_Lambrick_Vivian \"John Lambrick Vivian\"), (Ed.) The Visitations of the County of Devon: Comprising the [Heralds' Visitations](/wiki/Heraldic_visitation \"Heraldic visitation\") of 1531, 1564 \\& 1620, Exeter, 1895, pp.469–70, pedigree of *Hillersdon of Membland* Champernowne, Stert, Bulteel, PerringRisdon, p.387 and Baring.",
"### Hillersdon",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Arms of Hillersdon: *Argent, on a chevron sable three bull's heads cabossed of the field*](/wiki/File:HillersdonArms.png \"HillersdonArms.png\")\nThe Hillersdon family originated at the estate of [Hillersdon](/wiki/Manor_of_Hillersdon \"Manor of Hillersdon\") in the parish of [Cullompton](/wiki/Cullompton \"Cullompton\"), [Devon](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\"),Crossette before the 14th century. By the 16th century they had become seated at Membland.Vivian, p.469, pedigree of Hillersdon of Membland Richard Hillersdon (c.1639 – 1703\\), of Membland, was an MP for [Plympton Erle](/wiki/Plympton_Erle_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Plympton Erle (UK Parliament constituency)\") in 1679\\. He had one son and two daughters, but the son died in or before 1693, after which he appears to have conveyed Membland to his son\\-in\\-law Arthur Champernowne (1671/2\\-pre 1717\\)[Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L.](/wiki/John_Lambrick_Vivian \"John Lambrick Vivian\"), (Ed.) The Visitations of the County of Devon: Comprising the [Heralds' Visitations](/wiki/Heraldic_visitation \"Heraldic visitation\") of 1531, 1564 \\& 1620, Exeter, 1895, p.165, pedigree of Champernowne [lord](/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor \"Lord of the manor\") of the [manor of Modbury](/wiki/Manor_of_Modbury \"Manor of Modbury\") in Devon, who died childless. His other daughter married Courtenay Croker (died 1740\\), of [Lyneham, Yealmpton](/wiki/Lyneham%2C_Yealmpton \"Lyneham, Yealmpton\"), MP for Plympton as a Whig from 1695 to 1702\\.Crossette, J. S., biography of *Hillersdon, Richard (c.1639\\-1703\\), of Membland, Holbeton, Devon*, published in [History of Parliament](/wiki/History_of_Parliament \"History of Parliament\"), House of Commons 1660–1690, ed. B.D. Henning, 1983 [http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1660\\-1690/member/hilersdon\\-richard\\-1639\\-1703](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1660-1690/member/hilersdon-richard-1639-1703)",
"On 30 August 1693 Richard Hillersdon of Membland signed a deed of release to Arthur Champernowne of Modbury, relating to the \"Mannor of Lambside, messuage and barton of Membland, Pool Mills, Holbeton\".[Plymouth and West Devon Record Office, reference:74/670/3](http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/rd/59718dab-654a-49c4-8d24-c3659295eae1)",
"### Champernowne",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Arms of Champernowne: *Gules, a saltire vair between twelve billets or*](/wiki/File:Champernowne_CoatOfArms.png \"Champernowne CoatOfArms.png\")\nLetters survive from Arthur Champernowne (1671 – before 1717\\) of Membland to Courtenay Croker of Lyneham, Yealmpton.[Plymouth and West Devon Record Office, Reference: 2460](http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/rd/17d2b84a-2ddb-4fea-bea8-2ae9511140a9) Champernowne died childless at some time before 1717,Vivian, p.165 the last of the Champernownes of Modbury.",
"### Stert",
"After 1723 the mansion house was occupied by [Arthur Stert](/wiki/Arthur_Stert \"Arthur Stert\") (died 1755\\), MP for [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Plymouth (UK Parliament constituency)\") 1727–54,Matthews, Shirley, biography of *Stert, Arthur (d.1755\\), of Membland, nr. Modbury, Devon*, published in [History of Parliament](/wiki/History_of_Parliament \"History of Parliament\"), House of Commons 1715–1754, ed. R. Sedgwick, 1970 who rebuilt it with detached wings.Britton, John, *The Beauties of England and Wales; or, Delineations Topographical, Historical and Descriptive of Each County*, Vol 4, London,1803, p.136 [https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A3FbAAAAQAAJ\\&dq\\=peter\\+perring\\+membland\\&pg\\=PA136](https://books.google.com/books?id=A3FbAAAAQAAJ&dq=peter+perring+membland&pg=PA136) He married but was predeceased by his only son, leaving two daughters. His family had lived in the area around Plymouth since the early sixteenth century. In 1723 he purchased Membland from the Champernowne family. He received a grant of arms in 1745 as follows: *Argent, a saltire gules between four crosses formee sable*, with crest: *A cross formee sable between a pair of wings elevated argent*.Encyclopaedia Heraldica, Or Complete Dictionary of Heraldry, Volume 2\nBy William Berry [https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bfNfAAAAcAAJ\\&dq\\=Arthur\\+Stert\\+membland\\&pg\\=PT827](https://books.google.com/books?id=bfNfAAAAcAAJ&dq=Arthur+Stert+membland&pg=PT827) One of his parliamentary colleagues wrote of him:\n\"They say he is an able man, but he has not the gift of utterance; he did not answer the questions put to him with readiness or clearness, but yet, I think, did give answers which might satisfy those who were not resolved not to be satisfied\".",
"### Bulteel",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Arms of Bulteel: *Argent biletée gules, a bend of the last*](/wiki/File:BulteelArms.png \"BulteelArms.png\")\nMembland was purchased for his residence in 1757 by John Bulteel (1733–1801\\), a younger son of [James Bulteel](/wiki/James_Bulteel_%28died_1757%29 \"James Bulteel (died 1757)\") (1676–1757\\) of Tavistock and of [Flete](/wiki/Flete_House \"Flete House\") (adjacent to Membland), MP for Tavistock 1703–8 and 1711–15,{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1690\\-1715/member/bulteel\\-james\\-1676\\-1757 \\| title\\=BULTEEL, James (C.1676\\-1757\\), of Tavistock, Devon \\| History of Parliament Online }} by his wife Mary Crocker, daughter and heiress of Courtenay Crocker (died 1740\\), of [Lyneham, Yealmpton](/wiki/Lyneham%2C_Yealmpton \"Lyneham, Yealmpton\"). John Bulteel married Diana Bellenden, a daughter of the Scottish [Lord of Parliament](/wiki/Lord_of_Parliament \"Lord of Parliament\") [John Bellenden, 2nd Lord Bellenden](/wiki/John_Bellenden%2C_2nd_Lord_Bellenden \"John Bellenden, 2nd Lord Bellenden\") (died 1707\\). A mural monument to John Bulteel survives in Holbeton Church showing two oval escutcheons[See image](http://www.ipernity.com/doc/stiffleaf/38994666/in/keyword/1410741/self) the one at [dexter](/wiki/Dexter_and_sinister \"Dexter and sinister\") showing the arms of Bulteel: *Argent semée of billets gules, a bend of the last*In 1660 the [Garter King of Arms](/wiki/Garter_King_of_Arms \"Garter King of Arms\") confirmed to [John Bulteel (died 1669\\)](/wiki/John_Bulteel_%28died_1669%29 \"John Bulteel (died 1669)\") of [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster \"Westminster\") (a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") for [Lostwithiel](/wiki/Lostwithiel_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Lostwithiel (UK Parliament constituency)\") in Cornwall, from 1661 to 1669\\. and between c.1658 and 1667 he Secretary to [Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon](/wiki/Edward_Hyde%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clarendon \"Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon\"), [Lord Chancellor](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor \"Lord Chancellor\") to King Charles II) the right to bear arms as follows: *Argent semy of billets and a bend gules*, with crest: *Out of a crowne gules two wings argent billetté of the first*.(Balliol College Archives \\& Manuscripts, Conroy Collection: Catalogue 1 – 17, 9C.3\\) with [inescutcheon of pretence](/wiki/Inescutcheon \"Inescutcheon\") of Croker of Lyneham (*Argent, a chevron engrailed gules between three crows proper*), the one at [sinister](/wiki/Dexter_and_sinister \"Dexter and sinister\") showing Bulteel quartering Croker, impaling: *Gules, a stag's head and neck couped between three cross crosslets fitchy within a double tressure flory counter\\-flory or* (Bellenden).{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.heraldry\\-scotland.co.uk/peerage.html \\| title\\=Scottish Peerage Armorial Playing Cards }} Above both shields is the crest of Bulteel: *Out of a crown gules two wings argent bilettée of the first*.",
"Having inherited his paternal estate of [Flete](/wiki/Flete_House \"Flete House\") from his young nephew Courtenay Croker Bulteel of Flete and [Lyneham, Yealmpton](/wiki/Lyneham%2C_Yealmpton \"Lyneham, Yealmpton\"), Bulteel had no further use for Membland,[Prince, John](/wiki/John_Prince_%28biographer%29 \"John Prince (biographer)\"), (1643–1723\\) The Worthies of Devon, 1810 edition, London, p.273 and sold it to Peter Perring.",
"### Perring",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Arms of Perring: *Argent, on a chevron engrailed between three fir cones pendant vert as many leopard'sfaces of the first*Debrett's Baronetage of England, revised, corrected and continued by George William Collen, London, 1840, p.434, Perring Baronets](/wiki/File:PerringArms.png \"PerringArms.png\") \nPeter Perring (1743–1796\\) of the [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London \"City of London\") was the uncle of John Bulteel's daughter\\-in\\-law Elizabeth Perring (1766–1835\\) (daughter and sole heiress of Thomas Perring, a merchant in the City of London), who had married his son John Bulteel (died 1837\\) of Flete and Lyneham.",
"Peter Perring had made a fortune in the [East Indies](/wiki/East_Indies \"East Indies\").[Gray, Todd](/wiki/Todd_Gray_%28Devon_Historian%29 \"Todd Gray (Devon Historian)\") \\& Rowe, Margery (Eds.), Travels in Georgian Devon: The Illustrated Journals of The Reverend [John Swete](/wiki/John_Swete \"John Swete\"), 1789–1800, 4 vols., Tiverton, 1999, vol 4, p.13 He was the fourth son of Philip Perring (died 1716\\) of Modbury in Devon, and was the brother of Thomas Perring (1732–1791\\) above, and of Philip Perring (died 1797\\), MP, father of [Sir John Perring, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_John_Perring%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir John Perring, 1st Baronet\") (1765–1831\\). Peter went to India as a servant of [Sir Thomas Rumbold, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Rumbold%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Thomas Rumbold, 1st Baronet\") ([Governor of Madras](/wiki/Governor_of_Madras \"Governor of Madras\") from 1777 to 1780\\) and eventually became secretary to the government at [Madras](/wiki/Madras \"Madras\") and a member of the Council of Madras, in which office he amassed a fortune of £40,000\\. In 1781 he was dismissed from the service of the [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\") possibly for profiteering.Scarratt, Anne, *The Woollen Industry of Modbury*, The Modbury Group, 2005–13 [http://www.modbury\\-heritage.co.uk/panels/woollen\\_industry.htm](http://www.modbury-heritage.co.uk/panels/woollen_industry.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002543/http://www.modbury\\-heritage.co.uk/panels/woollen\\_industry.htm \\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-02 }}, details regarding the Perring family and their cloth business in Modbury On his return to England, he married Lucinda Manning, the beautiful daughter of Rev. Henry Manning, Rector of Stoke\\-in\\-Teignhead, Devon, on whom he [settled](/wiki/Marriage_settlement \"Marriage settlement\") £10,000 and, \"in consequence of her extreme good behaviour\", intended settling his whole fortune upon her.Collinge, J.M., biography of \"Perring, John (1765–1831\\), of Membland, Devon and New Broad Street, London\", published [History of Parliament](/wiki/History_of_Parliament \"History of Parliament\"), House of Commons 1790–1820, ed. R. Thorne, 1986 [http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1790\\-1820/member/perring\\-john\\-1765\\-1831](http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1790-1820/member/perring-john-1765-1831) However he died suddenly on 8 December 1796, before he could sign his will. Peter Perring died childless and his heir to Membland became his nephew [Sir John Perring, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_John_Perring%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir John Perring, 1st Baronet\") (1765–1831\\) (son of his brother Philip), senior partner of Perrings Bank and [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London \"Lord Mayor of London\") in 1803\\. His bank failed in the [Panic of 1825](/wiki/Panic_of_1825 \"Panic of 1825\") after which he sold his estates.",
"A mural monument to Peter Perring survives in Holbeton Church inscribed \"In memory of Peter Perring Esqr. of Membland, late one of the Council of [Fort St George](/wiki/Fort_St_George%2C_Madras \"Fort St George, Madras\") in the East Indies, who died the 8th day of December 1796 aged 53\".[Image see](http://www.ipernity.com/doc/stiffleaf/38994628/in/keyword/1410741/self) Above is a large stone urn and below are shown the arms of Perring.",
"### Robertson",
"Robert Robertson, ninth proprietor of Auchleeks, born 7 February 1777, purchased the estate of Membland in 1827\\. In 1836 he was high sheriff of Devon. A justice of the peace and deputy lieutenant. He married in 1816, Bridget, daughter of George Atkinson, Esq., of Temple Sowerby, Westmoreland; issue, five sons and six daughters. He died 23 March 1859 in the [Royal Crescent](/wiki/Royal_Crescent \"Royal Crescent\"), [Bath, Somerset](/wiki/Bath%2C_Somerset \"Bath, Somerset\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Small \\|first1\\=A G \\|title\\=Genealogy of the Robertson, Small and related families: Hamilton, Livingston, McNaughton, McDonald, McDougall, Beveridge, Lourie, Stewart \\|date\\=1907 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/genealogyrobert00smalgoog/page/n46 36] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/genealogyrobert00smalgoog\\|accessdate\\=1 February 2019}} In about 1860 Membland was purchased by [John Delaware Lewis](/wiki/John_Delaware_Lewis \"John Delaware Lewis\"), the [member of parliament](/wiki/Member_of_parliament \"Member of parliament\") for [Devonport, Plymouth](/wiki/Devonport%2C_Plymouth \"Devonport, Plymouth\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Local and District News \\|publisher\\=Western Morning News \\|date\\=19 January 1861}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bateman \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=The great landowners of Great Britain and Ireland; a list of all owners of three thousand acres and upwards ... also, one thousand three hundred owners of two thousand acres and upwards in England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, their acreage and income from land culled from The modern Domesday book \\|date\\=1883 \\|publisher\\=Harrison \\|location\\=London \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/greatlandownerso00bateuoft/page/269 269] \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/greatlandownerso00bateuoft \\|accessdate\\=9 February 2019}}",
"### Baring",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.7\\|[Canting arms](/wiki/Canting_arms \"Canting arms\") of Baring: *Azure, a fesse or in chief a bear's head (couped) proper muzzled and ringed of the second*](/wiki/File:BaringArms.PNG \"BaringArms.PNG\") Membland, in about 1877, and the manor of Revelstoke were purchased by [Edward Baring](/wiki/Edward_Baring%2C_1st_Baron_Revelstoke \"Edward Baring, 1st Baron Revelstoke\") (1828–1897\\), who in 1885 was elevated to the peerage as \"[Baron Revelstoke](/wiki/Baron_Revelstoke \"Baron Revelstoke\") of Membland\". He was senior partner of [Barings Bank](/wiki/Barings_Bank \"Barings Bank\"), which had originated in nearby [Exeter](/wiki/Exeter \"Exeter\"), Devon. In 1861 he had married Louisa Emily Charlotte Bulteel (died 1892\\), a daughter of [John Crocker Bulteel](/wiki/John_Crocker_Bulteel \"John Crocker Bulteel\") (1793–1843\\) of [Fleet](/wiki/Flete_House \"Flete House\"), [Holbeton](/wiki/Holbeton \"Holbeton\"), the adjoining estate, MP for [South Devon](/wiki/South_Devon_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"South Devon (UK Parliament constituency)\") 1832–4 and [Sheriff of Devon](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Devon \"Sheriff of Devon\") in 1841\\. In 1889 he built the surviving *Bull and Bear* gatelodge at Membland, with datestone and his monogram.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/101168408\\-bull\\-and\\-bear\\-lodge\\-holbeton\\#.WYtK4FGQwqc\\| title \\= Bull and Bear Lodge, Holbeton, Devon}} This was a humorous dual reference to the couple's surnames and the stockmarket beasts the [bull](/wiki/Bull_%28stock_market_speculator%29 \"Bull (stock market speculator)\") and [bear](/wiki/Bear \"Bear\"), appropriate to two families of bankers.",
"### Gray",
"In 1900 [William Cresswell Gray](/wiki/William_Gray_%26_Company \"William Gray & Company\"), shipbuilder from Hartlepool, purchased Membland from [John Headon Stanbury](/wiki/John_Headon_Stanbury \"John Headon Stanbury\"), who was a hotelier from Exeter. Stanbury had bought the estate in the previous year and planned to develop the area that bordered the [River Yealm](/wiki/River_Yealm \"River Yealm\"). When Gray became the owner, the Membland estate included the Hall and 2720 acres of land. In 1904 Gray purchased another estate, this time in Yorkshire called Thorp Perrow of about 5000 acres, and this became his preferred residence.{{cite news \\|title\\=The domain called Thorp Perrow \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25723725/cresswell\\_gray\\_buys\\_thorp\\_perrow/ \\|accessdate\\=26 November 2018 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=18 July 1904}} Membland was reportedly let in 1907 to [Sir George White, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_George_White%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir George White, 1st Baronet\") for the season. In 1912 Gray put the estate up for sale but failed to find a buyer. He continued to market the property, even making efforts during the early part of WWI by offering to extend the completion until the end of the war.{{cite news \\|title\\=Auction \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25387627/ \\|accessdate\\=26 November 2018 \\|publisher\\=The Observer \\|date\\=13 June 1915}} As the war continued Gray offered the Hall, with a sum of £2000 for use as a convalescent home for wounded soldiers, but the authorities considered the running costs would be prohibitive. However, the Hall was taken up as a training facility for officer cadets until about 1919\\. By the time of Grays death in 1925 Membland Hall had still not been sold, although he had been successful in reducing the size of the estate to 500 acres in 1919 and eventually to 227 in 1924\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Membland Estate sale \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25726488/membland\\_for\\_sale\\_1919\\_with\\_500\\_acres/ \\|accessdate\\=26 November 2018 \\|work\\=The Times \\|date\\=15 May 1919}} The House was purchased after Gray's death by Stanley Thomas Pitts with 19 acres of ground; he demolished the building and sold off the salvaged materials.{{cite news \\|title\\=Building materials \\- Membland Hall demolition \\|publisher\\=Western Morning News \\|date\\=16 November 1927}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Stately Homes of England \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/sidpickle/46034822702/in/dateposted\\-public/ \\|accessdate\\=28 November 2018 \\|publisher\\=Sheffield Daily Telegraph \\|date\\=27 October 1928}}",
"Pitts, a corn merchant from Yelverton,{{cite web \\|title\\=G S Pitts \\- some family background information \\|url\\=https://www.yelvertonvillagehall.co.uk/pitts.html \\|website\\=Yelverton Village Hall Web Site \\|accessdate\\=27 November 2018}} had bought Membland Hall with 19 acres of land for a nominal fee of £2,200\\. As the new owner he was placed under an obligation to maintain water supplies from springs to surrounding properties that had previously enjoyed them. For this he received about £50 per year in fees. He had hoped to extend his water supply network to Newton Ferrers, or sell the rights to the District Council, but the impending Plympton St Mary Rural District Council, Local Water Act jeopardised his plans. Under this proposal the council were to install new water mains and these would be in direct competition to Pitts. He took his case to the Court of Referees in the House of Commons in May 1928, but failed to have his objections considered.{{cite web \\|title\\=Plympton St Mary Rural District Council, Local Water Act, with petition by Stanley Thomas Pitts \\|url\\=http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/41a282a2\\-c4a6\\-42a7\\-bf69\\-a9a01eee22ae \\|website\\=The National Archives \\|accessdate\\=27 November 2018}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Plympton Water Bill\\|url\\= https://www.flickr.com/photos/sidpickle/45348864024/in/dateposted\\-public/\\|publisher\\=Western Morning News \\- Wednesday 09 May 1928 \\|date\\=9 May 1928}}",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|right\|Screenshot of *Super Chick Sisters*, one of PETA's games relating to KFC\|300px](/wiki/File:SuperChickSisters.png "SuperChickSisters.png")
Some of PETA's earliest forays into gaming include Flash\-based games such as *Make Fred Spew* (2001\)[Original *Make Fred Spew* game page](https://web.archive.org/web/20010604011654/http://www.milksucks.com/spew.html). [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive"). Archived 4 June 2001\. Retrieved 15 May 2014\. and *Save the Chicks* (2003\),[Original *Save the Chicks* game page](https://web.archive.org/web/20030207101553/http://www.kfccruelty.com/game.html). [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive"). Archived 7 February 2003\. Retrieved 15 May 2014\. which were included as part of PETA's anti\-dairy and [Kentucky Fried Cruelty](/wiki/Kentucky_Fried_Cruelty "Kentucky Fried Cruelty") campaigns. These games received some coverage in academic and news sources,[Frasca, Gonzalo](/wiki/Gonzalo_Frasca "Gonzalo Frasca"). *[KFC Cruelty Game](http://www.bogost.com/watercoolergames/archives/kfc_cruelty_gam.shtml)*. [www.bogost.com](/wiki/Ian_Bogost "Ian Bogost"). 18 February 2004Jackson, Rachael. "[PETA dials back diatribe, edges into the mainstream](https://www.orlandosentinel.com/2008/05/11/peta-dials-back-diatribe-edges-into-the-mainstream/)." *[Orlando Sentinel](/wiki/Orlando_Sentinel "Orlando Sentinel")*. 11 May 2008\.[Smith, Wesley J.](/wiki/Wesley_J._Smith "Wesley J. Smith") *A Rat Is a Pig Is a Dog Is a Boy: The Human Cost of the Animal Rights Movement*. (2010\) Encounter Books, {{ISBN\|978\-1\-59403\-346\-9}} and PETA's head of online marketing, Joel Bartlett, identified their 2004 *Revenge of the PETA Tomatoes* and the *[Frogger](/wiki/Frogger "Frogger")* parody, *Lobster Liberation*, as some of the organization's earliest released games."[An Interview with PETA: Game Developer](http://www.gameranx.com/features/id/18176/article/an-interview-with-peta-game-developer/)." *Gameranx*. 21 October 2013\.[Original 2004 lineup of 4 games](https://web.archive.org/web/20040910135548/http://www.petakids.com/games.html). [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive"). Archived 10 September 2004\. Retrieved 13 May 2014\. However it was not until 2007 that PETA began to attract wider attention within the gaming community with its release of *Super Chick Sisters*, a parody of *[New Super Mario Bros.](/wiki/New_Super_Mario_Bros. "New Super Mario Bros.")* and *[Super Mario Galaxy](/wiki/Super_Mario_Galaxy "Super Mario Galaxy")*. Controlling two female chicks named Nugget and Chickette, the player sets out to rescue vegetarian actress [Pamela Anderson](/wiki/Pamela_Anderson "Pamela Anderson"), who has publicly revealed animal cruelty endemic to [KFC](/wiki/KFC "KFC")'s food production, from KFC's mascot [Colonel Sanders](/wiki/Colonel_Sanders "Colonel Sanders").{{cite video game\|title\=Super Chick Sisters\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2007\|quote\='''Description:''' Colonel Sanders and his minions have kidnapped Pamela Anderson for revealing to the world that KFC's secret recipe is cruelty to chickens! Help the Super Chick Sisters save Pam before it's too late!}} In 2009, the game was met with a sequel, *New Super Chick Sisters*, a homage to *[New Super Mario Bros. Wii](/wiki/New_Super_Mario_Bros._Wii "New Super Mario Bros. Wii")*. In this game, [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s "McDonald's") mascot [Ronald McDonald](/wiki/Ronald_McDonald "Ronald McDonald") kidnaps Anderson with the intent of using her as a [Happy Meal](/wiki/Happy_Meal "Happy Meal") ingredient, and the Chick Sisters must rescue her again.{{cite video game\|title\=New Super Chick Sisters\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2009\|quote\='''Description:''' Princess Pamela Anderson has been captured by evil Ronald McDonald, who plans on making her a part of his unhappy meals along with the chickens who are tortured for McDonald's restaurants. Help free Princess Pam and rescue the chickens from McDonald's cruelty!}}
In 2008, PETA released an adaptation of the cooking [simulator](/wiki/Simulation_video_game "Simulation video game") *[Cooking Mama 2: World Kitchen](/wiki/Cooking_Mama:World_Kitchen "World Kitchen")* called *Cooking Mama: Mama Kills Animals*. In it, PETA encouraged users to write to *Cooking Mama* developer [Majesco Entertainment](/wiki/Majesco_Entertainment "Majesco Entertainment") to create a version of the game with only vegetarian recipes.{{cite video game\|title\=Cooking Mama: Mama Kills Animals\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2008\|quote\='''Message:''' Urge Majesco to make a vegetarian recipe version of Cooking Mama!}} *Mama Kills Animals* consists of [minigames](/wiki/Minigame "Minigame") related to the preparation of animal carcasses, in this case, a stuffed turkey.{{cite video game\|title\=Cooking Mama: Mama Kills Animals\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2008\|quote\='''Objective:''' Remove the Internal Organs: Using your mouse, stick your hand inside the turkey, remove the organs, and place them in the mixing bowl.}} After successfully completing the main levels, Mama goes vegan and hugs a live turkey, while the player makes a tofurkey. The game contains facts about turkeys and includes vegan Thanksgiving recipes.
[thumb\|left\|In *[Super Mario 3D Land](/wiki/Super_Mario_3D_Land "Super Mario 3D Land")*, [Mario](/wiki/Mario "Mario") can wear an item called the "Tanooki Suit" – a costume resembling a [tanuki](/wiki/Japanese_raccoon_dog "Japanese raccoon dog") (raccoon dog) similar to those shown here. PETA created *Mario Kills Tanooki*.](/wiki/File:Tanuki01_960.jpg "Tanuki01 960.jpg")
[Edmund McMillen](/wiki/Edmund_McMillen "Edmund McMillen"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/10/26/if\-you\-think\-super\-meat\-boy\-is\-hard\-try\-developing\-it/\|publisher\=\[\[Joystiq]]\|title\=If you think Super Meat Boy is hard, try developing it\|date\=October 26, 2010\|last\=Ransom\-Wiley\|first\=James\|access\-date\=May 30, 2014\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140114055727/http://www.joystiq.com/2010/10/26/if\-you\-think\-super\-meat\-boy\-is\-hard\-try\-developing\-it/\|archive\-date\=January 14, 2014\|url\-status\=dead}} from Team Meat, the developer of the [indie game](/wiki/Indie_game "Indie game") *[Super Meat Boy](/wiki/Super_Meat_Boy "Super Meat Boy")*, created various accounts on PETA's official forums to try to get his game parodied by PETA. PETA developed *Super Tofu Boy* and released it in December 2010\. It stars Tofu Boy, an anthropomorphic cube of [tofu](/wiki/Tofu "Tofu") whose goal is to rescue Bandage Girl, the girlfriend of the original game's protagonist Meat Boy, from Meat Boy.{{cite video game\|title\=Super Tofu Boy\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2010\|quote\='''Tofu Boy:''' I must save Bandage Girl from Meat Boy's bloody, jealous rage!}} It plays as a standard [platformer](/wiki/Platform_game "Platform game") and is peppered with inter\-level pro\-vegetarian messages and facts about meat consumption and the livestock industry.{{cite video game\|title\=Super Tofu Boy\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2010\|quote\='''Tip:''' Tofu doesn't scream when you cut it!}}{{cite video game\|title\=Super Tofu Boy\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2010\|quote\='''Tip:''' Red meat can lead to impotence, obesity, and loss of girlfriend.}} Team Meat responded by adding Tofu Boy as a playable character. Tofu Boy is unlocked by typing the word “petaphile” in the character selection screen. As a playable character, he is very slow and has a poor jump height, but players are always given an A\+ level completion grade regardless of how long they take to finish a level as him. He would eventually return in the sequel, *[Super Meat Boy Forever](/wiki/Super_Meat_Boy_Forever "Super Meat Boy Forever").*
After releasing *Mario Kills Tanooki*, a parody of *[Super Mario 3D Land](/wiki/Super_Mario_3D_Land "Super Mario 3D Land")*, PETA released a statement that "Tanooki May Be Just As 'Suit' in Mario Games. But in Real Life, Tanooki Are Raccoon Dogs Who is Skinned Alive for Their Fur." The organization also stated that "by wearing Tanooki, [Mario](/wiki/Mario "Mario") is sending the message that it's OK to wear fur."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2396529,00\.asp\|work\=\[\[PC Magazine]]\|date\=November 17, 2011\|last\=Horn\|first\=Leslie\|title\=PETA Claims Mario Dig Was 'Tongue\-in\-Cheek'\|access\-date\=May 7, 2014}} It is an [action game](/wiki/Action_game "Action game") in which the player controls a skinned but living raccoon dog that chases Mario to retrieve its fur.{{cite video game\|title\=Mario Kills Tanooki\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2011\|quote\='''Objective:''' Save your skin! Press the space bar to jump.}}
PETA took on the *[Pokémon](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_%28video_game_series%29 "Pokémon (video game series)")* series with *Pokémon Black and Blue*, a parody of [*Pokémon Black and White 2*](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Black_2_and_White_2 "Pokémon Black 2 and White 2") that focuses on animal fighting and experimentation. In [role\-playing](/wiki/Role-playing_video_game "Role-playing video game")\-style battles, the player controls a [Pikachu](/wiki/Pikachu "Pikachu") who escapes Ash Ketchum’s abusive circus. Pikachu first fights a drunk Cheren,{{cite video game\|title\=Pokémon Black and Blue\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2012\|quote\='''Objective:''' You have escaped from your trainer—get ready to fight!}} who brutally abuses his Tepig in a dog fighting\-esque manner, and then moves on to other Trainers and characters in order to rescue their [Pokémon](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon "Pokémon") from their ownership (a Snivy being experimented on by Professor Juniper, an Oshawott skinned alive by Ghetsis, and finally Ash himself).{{cite video game\|title\=Pokémon Black and Blue\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2012\|quote\='''Objective:''' Defeat all the trainers to free all Pokémon!}}{{cite video game\|title\=Pokémon Black and Blue\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2012\|quote\='''Pikachu:''' Pokémon are not yours to abuse, Cheren. We exist for our own reasons.}} Pikachu recruits these Pokémon to its cause,{{cite video game\|title\=Pokémon Black and Blue\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2012\|quote\='''Tepig:''' Let's get going, Pikachu. I haven't had a good walk in a long time!}} as well as the sympathetic [Nurse Joy](/wiki/Gameplay_of_Pok%C3%A9mon%23Game_structure "Gameplay of Pokémon#Game structure").{{cite video game\|title\=Pokémon Black and Blue\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2012\|quote\='''Nurse Joy:''' I heard what you said to Cheren. I want to help you. As a nurse, I've seen how mistreated and exploited Pokémon are. Like all thinking and feeling beings, Pokémon must surely suffer terribly when they are cut up in experiments or forced to fight.}} A sequel, *Pokémon Red, White, and Blue*, A parody of [Pokémon X and Y](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_X_and_Y "Pokémon X and Y"), followed in 2013\. Also a role\-playing game, it stars Pikachu and [Miltank](/wiki/Miltank "Miltank"),{{cite video game\|title\=Pokémon Red, White, and Blue\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2012\|quote\='''Pikachu:''' I can't believe you think it's OK to feed Miltank to people. Prepare for trouble!}} who battle McDonald's characters like the [Hamburglar](/wiki/McDonaldland%23Characters "McDonaldland#Characters") in a crusade against the rare but ongoing practice of meat production in the [Unova](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Black_and_White%23Setting "Pokémon Black and White#Setting") region.{{cite video game\|title\=Pokémon Red, White, and Blue\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2012\|quote\='''Mysterious Stranger:''' The people of Unova eat Pokémon, do they not?}}{{cite video game\|title\=Pokémon Red, White, and Blue\|developer\=PETA\|publisher\=PETA\|date\=2012\|quote\='''Pikachu:''' Only occasionally, and we're fighting to change that. Everyone knows it's gross.}} Pikachu must rescue a Jigglypuff from being treated like furniture, a Miltank from the dairy industry and the slaughterhouse, and Grimace from being tortured. At the beginning of the game, Pikachu is nearly eaten by an obese gamer but lives.
Also in 2013, PETA released *Cage Fight: Knock Out Animal Abuse*, a [beat 'em up](/wiki/Beat_%27em_up "Beat 'em up") game in the style of *[River City Ransom](/wiki/River_City_Ransom "River City Ransom")*. The player controls vegetarian [mixed martial arts](/wiki/Mixed_martial_arts "Mixed martial arts") fighters [Jake Shields](/wiki/Jake_Shields "Jake Shields"), [Aaron Simpson](/wiki/Aaron_Simpson_%28fighter%29 "Aaron Simpson (fighter)"), and [Georgi Karakhanyan](/wiki/Georgi_Karakhanyan "Georgi Karakhanyan") and attacks [animal testing](/wiki/Animal_testing "Animal testing") practitioners to rescue confined animals. There is a warning before the game begins that it is illegal to punch scientists in real life.
PETA has parodied Fast Food Nation in a game called “You Want Lies With That?”. The player controls an evil chef who must create hamburgers while avoiding the pigs and cows who are chasing him. Successful completion of each level reveals the links between meat consumption and heart attacks or *E. coli*.
There is also a hunting game where the player shoots tofu deer; “Stick a Chick”, where the player must prevent salmonella\-infected chicken from entering the shopping cart; an animal testing awareness game that also spreads awareness about breast cancer; a gory maze game about seal clubbing; several games about animal skins used in fashion; and a quiz game that compares the American Kennel Club to the KKK.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Screenshot of *Super Chick Sisters*, one of PETA's games relating to KFC\\|300px](/wiki/File:SuperChickSisters.png \"SuperChickSisters.png\")\nSome of PETA's earliest forays into gaming include Flash\\-based games such as *Make Fred Spew* (2001\\)[Original *Make Fred Spew* game page](https://web.archive.org/web/20010604011654/http://www.milksucks.com/spew.html). [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive \"Internet Archive\"). Archived 4 June 2001\\. Retrieved 15 May 2014\\. and *Save the Chicks* (2003\\),[Original *Save the Chicks* game page](https://web.archive.org/web/20030207101553/http://www.kfccruelty.com/game.html). [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive \"Internet Archive\"). Archived 7 February 2003\\. Retrieved 15 May 2014\\. which were included as part of PETA's anti\\-dairy and [Kentucky Fried Cruelty](/wiki/Kentucky_Fried_Cruelty \"Kentucky Fried Cruelty\") campaigns. These games received some coverage in academic and news sources,[Frasca, Gonzalo](/wiki/Gonzalo_Frasca \"Gonzalo Frasca\"). *[KFC Cruelty Game](http://www.bogost.com/watercoolergames/archives/kfc_cruelty_gam.shtml)*. [www.bogost.com](/wiki/Ian_Bogost \"Ian Bogost\"). 18 February 2004Jackson, Rachael. \"[PETA dials back diatribe, edges into the mainstream](https://www.orlandosentinel.com/2008/05/11/peta-dials-back-diatribe-edges-into-the-mainstream/).\" *[Orlando Sentinel](/wiki/Orlando_Sentinel \"Orlando Sentinel\")*. 11 May 2008\\.[Smith, Wesley J.](/wiki/Wesley_J._Smith \"Wesley J. Smith\") *A Rat Is a Pig Is a Dog Is a Boy: The Human Cost of the Animal Rights Movement*. (2010\\) Encounter Books, {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-59403\\-346\\-9}} and PETA's head of online marketing, Joel Bartlett, identified their 2004 *Revenge of the PETA Tomatoes* and the *[Frogger](/wiki/Frogger \"Frogger\")* parody, *Lobster Liberation*, as some of the organization's earliest released games.\"[An Interview with PETA: Game Developer](http://www.gameranx.com/features/id/18176/article/an-interview-with-peta-game-developer/).\" *Gameranx*. 21 October 2013\\.[Original 2004 lineup of 4 games](https://web.archive.org/web/20040910135548/http://www.petakids.com/games.html). [Internet Archive](/wiki/Internet_Archive \"Internet Archive\"). Archived 10 September 2004\\. Retrieved 13 May 2014\\. However it was not until 2007 that PETA began to attract wider attention within the gaming community with its release of *Super Chick Sisters*, a parody of *[New Super Mario Bros.](/wiki/New_Super_Mario_Bros. \"New Super Mario Bros.\")* and *[Super Mario Galaxy](/wiki/Super_Mario_Galaxy \"Super Mario Galaxy\")*. Controlling two female chicks named Nugget and Chickette, the player sets out to rescue vegetarian actress [Pamela Anderson](/wiki/Pamela_Anderson \"Pamela Anderson\"), who has publicly revealed animal cruelty endemic to [KFC](/wiki/KFC \"KFC\")'s food production, from KFC's mascot [Colonel Sanders](/wiki/Colonel_Sanders \"Colonel Sanders\").{{cite video game\\|title\\=Super Chick Sisters\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2007\\|quote\\='''Description:''' Colonel Sanders and his minions have kidnapped Pamela Anderson for revealing to the world that KFC's secret recipe is cruelty to chickens! Help the Super Chick Sisters save Pam before it's too late!}} In 2009, the game was met with a sequel, *New Super Chick Sisters*, a homage to *[New Super Mario Bros. Wii](/wiki/New_Super_Mario_Bros._Wii \"New Super Mario Bros. Wii\")*. In this game, [McDonald's](/wiki/McDonald%27s \"McDonald's\") mascot [Ronald McDonald](/wiki/Ronald_McDonald \"Ronald McDonald\") kidnaps Anderson with the intent of using her as a [Happy Meal](/wiki/Happy_Meal \"Happy Meal\") ingredient, and the Chick Sisters must rescue her again.{{cite video game\\|title\\=New Super Chick Sisters\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2009\\|quote\\='''Description:''' Princess Pamela Anderson has been captured by evil Ronald McDonald, who plans on making her a part of his unhappy meals along with the chickens who are tortured for McDonald's restaurants. Help free Princess Pam and rescue the chickens from McDonald's cruelty!}}",
"In 2008, PETA released an adaptation of the cooking [simulator](/wiki/Simulation_video_game \"Simulation video game\") *[Cooking Mama 2: World Kitchen](/wiki/Cooking_Mama:World_Kitchen \"World Kitchen\")* called *Cooking Mama: Mama Kills Animals*. In it, PETA encouraged users to write to *Cooking Mama* developer [Majesco Entertainment](/wiki/Majesco_Entertainment \"Majesco Entertainment\") to create a version of the game with only vegetarian recipes.{{cite video game\\|title\\=Cooking Mama: Mama Kills Animals\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2008\\|quote\\='''Message:''' Urge Majesco to make a vegetarian recipe version of Cooking Mama!}} *Mama Kills Animals* consists of [minigames](/wiki/Minigame \"Minigame\") related to the preparation of animal carcasses, in this case, a stuffed turkey.{{cite video game\\|title\\=Cooking Mama: Mama Kills Animals\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2008\\|quote\\='''Objective:''' Remove the Internal Organs: Using your mouse, stick your hand inside the turkey, remove the organs, and place them in the mixing bowl.}} After successfully completing the main levels, Mama goes vegan and hugs a live turkey, while the player makes a tofurkey. The game contains facts about turkeys and includes vegan Thanksgiving recipes.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|In *[Super Mario 3D Land](/wiki/Super_Mario_3D_Land \"Super Mario 3D Land\")*, [Mario](/wiki/Mario \"Mario\") can wear an item called the \"Tanooki Suit\" – a costume resembling a [tanuki](/wiki/Japanese_raccoon_dog \"Japanese raccoon dog\") (raccoon dog) similar to those shown here. PETA created *Mario Kills Tanooki*.](/wiki/File:Tanuki01_960.jpg \"Tanuki01 960.jpg\")\n[Edmund McMillen](/wiki/Edmund_McMillen \"Edmund McMillen\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.joystiq.com/2010/10/26/if\\-you\\-think\\-super\\-meat\\-boy\\-is\\-hard\\-try\\-developing\\-it/\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Joystiq]]\\|title\\=If you think Super Meat Boy is hard, try developing it\\|date\\=October 26, 2010\\|last\\=Ransom\\-Wiley\\|first\\=James\\|access\\-date\\=May 30, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140114055727/http://www.joystiq.com/2010/10/26/if\\-you\\-think\\-super\\-meat\\-boy\\-is\\-hard\\-try\\-developing\\-it/\\|archive\\-date\\=January 14, 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} from Team Meat, the developer of the [indie game](/wiki/Indie_game \"Indie game\") *[Super Meat Boy](/wiki/Super_Meat_Boy \"Super Meat Boy\")*, created various accounts on PETA's official forums to try to get his game parodied by PETA. PETA developed *Super Tofu Boy* and released it in December 2010\\. It stars Tofu Boy, an anthropomorphic cube of [tofu](/wiki/Tofu \"Tofu\") whose goal is to rescue Bandage Girl, the girlfriend of the original game's protagonist Meat Boy, from Meat Boy.{{cite video game\\|title\\=Super Tofu Boy\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2010\\|quote\\='''Tofu Boy:''' I must save Bandage Girl from Meat Boy's bloody, jealous rage!}} It plays as a standard [platformer](/wiki/Platform_game \"Platform game\") and is peppered with inter\\-level pro\\-vegetarian messages and facts about meat consumption and the livestock industry.{{cite video game\\|title\\=Super Tofu Boy\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2010\\|quote\\='''Tip:''' Tofu doesn't scream when you cut it!}}{{cite video game\\|title\\=Super Tofu Boy\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2010\\|quote\\='''Tip:''' Red meat can lead to impotence, obesity, and loss of girlfriend.}} Team Meat responded by adding Tofu Boy as a playable character. Tofu Boy is unlocked by typing the word “petaphile” in the character selection screen. As a playable character, he is very slow and has a poor jump height, but players are always given an A\\+ level completion grade regardless of how long they take to finish a level as him. He would eventually return in the sequel, *[Super Meat Boy Forever](/wiki/Super_Meat_Boy_Forever \"Super Meat Boy Forever\").*",
"After releasing *Mario Kills Tanooki*, a parody of *[Super Mario 3D Land](/wiki/Super_Mario_3D_Land \"Super Mario 3D Land\")*, PETA released a statement that \"Tanooki May Be Just As 'Suit' in Mario Games. But in Real Life, Tanooki Are Raccoon Dogs Who is Skinned Alive for Their Fur.\" The organization also stated that \"by wearing Tanooki, [Mario](/wiki/Mario \"Mario\") is sending the message that it's OK to wear fur.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2396529,00\\.asp\\|work\\=\\[\\[PC Magazine]]\\|date\\=November 17, 2011\\|last\\=Horn\\|first\\=Leslie\\|title\\=PETA Claims Mario Dig Was 'Tongue\\-in\\-Cheek'\\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2014}} It is an [action game](/wiki/Action_game \"Action game\") in which the player controls a skinned but living raccoon dog that chases Mario to retrieve its fur.{{cite video game\\|title\\=Mario Kills Tanooki\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2011\\|quote\\='''Objective:''' Save your skin! Press the space bar to jump.}}",
"PETA took on the *[Pokémon](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_%28video_game_series%29 \"Pokémon (video game series)\")* series with *Pokémon Black and Blue*, a parody of [*Pokémon Black and White 2*](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Black_2_and_White_2 \"Pokémon Black 2 and White 2\") that focuses on animal fighting and experimentation. In [role\\-playing](/wiki/Role-playing_video_game \"Role-playing video game\")\\-style battles, the player controls a [Pikachu](/wiki/Pikachu \"Pikachu\") who escapes Ash Ketchum’s abusive circus. Pikachu first fights a drunk Cheren,{{cite video game\\|title\\=Pokémon Black and Blue\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2012\\|quote\\='''Objective:''' You have escaped from your trainer—get ready to fight!}} who brutally abuses his Tepig in a dog fighting\\-esque manner, and then moves on to other Trainers and characters in order to rescue their [Pokémon](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon \"Pokémon\") from their ownership (a Snivy being experimented on by Professor Juniper, an Oshawott skinned alive by Ghetsis, and finally Ash himself).{{cite video game\\|title\\=Pokémon Black and Blue\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2012\\|quote\\='''Objective:''' Defeat all the trainers to free all Pokémon!}}{{cite video game\\|title\\=Pokémon Black and Blue\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2012\\|quote\\='''Pikachu:''' Pokémon are not yours to abuse, Cheren. We exist for our own reasons.}} Pikachu recruits these Pokémon to its cause,{{cite video game\\|title\\=Pokémon Black and Blue\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2012\\|quote\\='''Tepig:''' Let's get going, Pikachu. I haven't had a good walk in a long time!}} as well as the sympathetic [Nurse Joy](/wiki/Gameplay_of_Pok%C3%A9mon%23Game_structure \"Gameplay of Pokémon#Game structure\").{{cite video game\\|title\\=Pokémon Black and Blue\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2012\\|quote\\='''Nurse Joy:''' I heard what you said to Cheren. I want to help you. As a nurse, I've seen how mistreated and exploited Pokémon are. Like all thinking and feeling beings, Pokémon must surely suffer terribly when they are cut up in experiments or forced to fight.}} A sequel, *Pokémon Red, White, and Blue*, A parody of [Pokémon X and Y](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_X_and_Y \"Pokémon X and Y\"), followed in 2013\\. Also a role\\-playing game, it stars Pikachu and [Miltank](/wiki/Miltank \"Miltank\"),{{cite video game\\|title\\=Pokémon Red, White, and Blue\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2012\\|quote\\='''Pikachu:''' I can't believe you think it's OK to feed Miltank to people. Prepare for trouble!}} who battle McDonald's characters like the [Hamburglar](/wiki/McDonaldland%23Characters \"McDonaldland#Characters\") in a crusade against the rare but ongoing practice of meat production in the [Unova](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Black_and_White%23Setting \"Pokémon Black and White#Setting\") region.{{cite video game\\|title\\=Pokémon Red, White, and Blue\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2012\\|quote\\='''Mysterious Stranger:''' The people of Unova eat Pokémon, do they not?}}{{cite video game\\|title\\=Pokémon Red, White, and Blue\\|developer\\=PETA\\|publisher\\=PETA\\|date\\=2012\\|quote\\='''Pikachu:''' Only occasionally, and we're fighting to change that. Everyone knows it's gross.}} Pikachu must rescue a Jigglypuff from being treated like furniture, a Miltank from the dairy industry and the slaughterhouse, and Grimace from being tortured. At the beginning of the game, Pikachu is nearly eaten by an obese gamer but lives.",
"Also in 2013, PETA released *Cage Fight: Knock Out Animal Abuse*, a [beat 'em up](/wiki/Beat_%27em_up \"Beat 'em up\") game in the style of *[River City Ransom](/wiki/River_City_Ransom \"River City Ransom\")*. The player controls vegetarian [mixed martial arts](/wiki/Mixed_martial_arts \"Mixed martial arts\") fighters [Jake Shields](/wiki/Jake_Shields \"Jake Shields\"), [Aaron Simpson](/wiki/Aaron_Simpson_%28fighter%29 \"Aaron Simpson (fighter)\"), and [Georgi Karakhanyan](/wiki/Georgi_Karakhanyan \"Georgi Karakhanyan\") and attacks [animal testing](/wiki/Animal_testing \"Animal testing\") practitioners to rescue confined animals. There is a warning before the game begins that it is illegal to punch scientists in real life.",
"PETA has parodied Fast Food Nation in a game called “You Want Lies With That?”. The player controls an evil chef who must create hamburgers while avoiding the pigs and cows who are chasing him. Successful completion of each level reveals the links between meat consumption and heart attacks or *E. coli*.",
"There is also a hunting game where the player shoots tofu deer; “Stick a Chick”, where the player must prevent salmonella\\-infected chicken from entering the shopping cart; an animal testing awareness game that also spreads awareness about breast cancer; a gory maze game about seal clubbing; several games about animal skins used in fashion; and a quiz game that compares the American Kennel Club to the KKK.",
""
] |
Career
------
### 2014\-2016: Career beginnings
CADE began writing and recording his own music while living in his parents' home in Tampa, Florida, and attending [H.B. Plant High School](/wiki/Henry_B._Plant_High_School "Henry B. Plant High School"). At the age of 16, CADE, who was the president of his Junior Class, left [Plant High School](/wiki/Henry_B._Plant_High_School "Henry B. Plant High School") and switched to [virtual school](/wiki/Virtual_school "Virtual school") to focus more time on his music career. During this time, he wrote and recorded a demo that would later become '[Stay With You](/wiki/Stay_with_You_%28Cheat_Codes_and_Cade_song%29 "Stay with You (Cheat Codes and Cade song)")'. In 2016, CADE moved to Los Angeles, California, where he would live with two of his friends who had just started the DJ\-trio, [Cheat Codes](/wiki/Cheat_Codes_%28DJs%29 "Cheat Codes (DJs)").
### 2016\-2018: Care EP, Pretty Girl \& Stay With You
CADE launched his solo endeavors with his EP, '*Care',* which was released in July 2016 via [Spinnin' Records](/wiki/Spinnin%27_Records "Spinnin' Records").{{Cite web \|title\=Cade \|url\=https://partyflock.nl/en/artist/95832:Cade \|access\-date\=16 February 2018 \|website\=Partyflock}} His debut single, 'Care' premiered exclusively on [*Billboard*](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)"), where CADE says that he feels his sound "mixes the emotion of R\&B music with the dynamic elements of electronic dance music.."{{Cite web \|title\=Cade Is Elegantly Wounded On 'Care:' Exclusive Premiere \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/dance/7423318/cade\-care\-exclusive\-premiere\-dance \|access\-date\=16 February 2018 \|website\=Billboard}} "Care" was produced by [Cheat Codes](/wiki/Cheat_Codes_%28band%29 "Cheat Codes (band)")' Trevor Dahl, who befriended Larson on a tour in 2015\.{{Cite web \|date\=July 15, 2016 \|title\=Cade Delivers Music Video For Recent Single, "Care." \|url\=http://www.youredm.com/2016/07/15/cade\-debuts\-music\-video\-recent\-single\-care/ \|access\-date\=16 February 2018 \|website\=Your EDM}} "Care" quickly turned the heads and garnered support from the likes of [The Chainsmokers](/wiki/The_Chainsmokers "The Chainsmokers"), [Louis The Child](/wiki/Louis_the_Child_%28DJs%29 "Louis the Child (DJs)"), [Chloe Grace Moretz](/wiki/Chlo%C3%AB_Grace_Moretz "Chloë Grace Moretz"), [Pia Mia](/wiki/Pia_Mia "Pia Mia"), and more.
Following the EP, CADE collaborated with electronic artist, Mokita on their song 'Monopoly', which was released by [Armada](/wiki/Armada_Music "Armada Music"). They shot a music video for the song in [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam").{{Citation \|title\=Mokita X CADE \- Monopoly (Official Music Video) \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=VJaOfl4ObVc \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-10}}
On February 17, 2017, CADE released 'Sorry For Myself' with [Spinnin' Records](/wiki/Spinnin%27_Records "Spinnin' Records"). Cade wrote the single alongside [Michael Pollack (musician)](/wiki/Michael_Pollack_%28musician%29 "Michael Pollack (musician)"), [Lauv](/wiki/Lauv "Lauv"), [Trevor Dahl](/wiki/Trevor_Dahl "Trevor Dahl"), and [Phil Good](/wiki/Phil_Good "Phil Good"), and the song was produced by Dutch\-DJ, [R3hab](/wiki/R3hab "R3hab"). The music video has over a million views on YouTube.{{Citation \|title\=CADE \- Sorry For Myself (Official Music Video) \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=M0H0c6fNbCE \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-10}}
In March 2017, CADE collaborated on production with pop trio, [Cheat Codes](/wiki/Cheat_Codes_%28DJs%29 "Cheat Codes (DJs)"), to remix [Maggie Lindemann](/wiki/Maggie_Lindemann "Maggie Lindemann")’s "[Pretty Girl](/wiki/Pretty_Girl_%28Maggie_Lindemann_song%29 "Pretty Girl (Maggie Lindemann song)")", which resulted in over 800 million streams on [Spotify](/wiki/Spotify "Spotify"). The song achieved Platinum [RIAA certification](/wiki/RIAA_certification "RIAA certification") in the US and 2× Platinum [BPI certification](/wiki/British_Phonographic_Industry "British Phonographic Industry") in the UK.
CADE was given an opportunity to open for some well\-known artists on tour, including [Ke$ha](/wiki/Kesha "Kesha"), [Jeremih](/wiki/Jeremih "Jeremih"), and [Juicy J](/wiki/Juicy_J "Juicy J").
Later in the year, CADE was playing some of his old demos for his roommate, [Trevor Dahl](/wiki/Trevor_Dahl "Trevor Dahl"). Trevor heard the demo of '[Stay With You](/wiki/Stay_with_You_%28Cheat_Codes_and_Cade_song%29 "Stay with You (Cheat Codes and Cade song)")' and asked CADE if he would be interested in making the song a collaboration with [Cheat Codes](/wiki/Cheat_Codes_%28DJs%29 "Cheat Codes (DJs)"). Their collaboration, "[Stay with You](/wiki/Stay_with_You_%28Cheat_Codes_and_CADE_song%29 "Stay with You (Cheat Codes and CADE song)")", peaked at \#35 on the US [Hot Dance/Electronic Songs](/wiki/Hot_Dance/Electronic_Songs "Hot Dance/Electronic Songs") Chart.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/artist/cade/chart\-history/dan/ \|title\=Cade Stay With You Chart History \|website\=Billboard \|access\-date\=16 February 2018}}
### 2018\-19: Signing to Ultra Records \& WOLF BLUE.
On June 23, 2018, CADE signed his first exclusive record deal with [Ultra Records](/wiki/Ultra_Records "Ultra Records") / [Sony](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music").{{Cite web \|title\=CADE Signs to ULTRA MUSIC \|url\=https://www.ultramusic.com/\#artists \|access\-date\=28 August 2018 \|website\=ULTRAMUSIC}} Cade's first release with the label was 'Strip Club' featuring [Lil Aaron](/wiki/Lil_Aaron "Lil Aaron").
CADE was at Ultra Records' studio in Los Angeles working in a session with producer, [Gazzo](/wiki/Gazzo_%28producer%29 "Gazzo (producer)"), when he started writing a topline vocal for a beat that Gazzo had shown to [Desiigner](/wiki/Desiigner "Desiigner"). The Panda\-rapper met them at the studio where they would finish the collaboration to be called "Home to You" featuring Desiigner.
CADE released two additional solo singles, "Yours" and "Better Off Alone". Simultaneously, CADE was performing overseas at festivals including We The Fest in Jakarta, Indonesia, and [Ultra Europe](/wiki/Ultra_Europe "Ultra Europe") alongside Cheat Codes.
On November 15, 2019, CADE released his first EP with Ultra Records, titled *WOLF BLUE*.{{Citation \|title\=WOLF BLUE. \- EP by CADE \|date\=2019\-11\-15 \|url\=https://music.apple.com/us/album/wolf\-blue\-ep/1482447601 \|language\=en\-US \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-10}} The project was inspired by a trip CADE took to the forest, and focused on his "spirit\-animal", the wolf. The EP included his previous singles, as well as two additional songs, "Too Much" and "Crazy".
### 2020\-2021: Down, Kill Me Softly, \& Who Set Us On Fire
On August 14, 2020, Indonesian\-DJ Dipha Barus and CADE released a collaboration titled 'Down'. The song went on to win an [AMI](/wiki/Anugerah_Musik_Indonesia "Anugerah Musik Indonesia") award in Indonesia for Best Male / Solo Artist / Group Dance Collaboration.{{Cite web \|last\=Indonesia \|first\=C. N. N. \|title\=Daftar Lengkap Pemenang AMI Awards 2021 \- Halaman 2 \|url\=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20211115200834\-227\-721583/daftar\-lengkap\-pemenang\-ami\-awards\-2021 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-11 \|website\=hiburan \|language\=id\-ID}} While the two artists were located on opposite sides of the world during a global pandemic, the duo managed to shoot a green\-screen music video for the record that where the artists appear to be performing in outer space.{{Citation \|title\=Dipha Barus \& CADE \- DOWN (Official Video) \[Ultra Music] \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=zICTFYIy90k \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-10}}
CADE then went on to release two additional solo\-singles, trap\-infused 'Kill Me Softly' and rock\-inspired 'Who Set Us On Fire' with Ultra Records.
### 2021\-present: Watching You Cry
In December 2021, CADE started releasing the first three singles off of his forthcoming EP, Watching You Cry (which will be released via Ultra Records on September 16, 2022\). The singles included '20 Missed Calls (featuring Nate Traveller)', 'Problem$', and '1942'.
CADE’s next project, 'Watching You Cry' will be a 7\-song album "inspired by heartache, passion, love, self\-discovery and personal growth".
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### 2014\\-2016: Career beginnings",
"CADE began writing and recording his own music while living in his parents' home in Tampa, Florida, and attending [H.B. Plant High School](/wiki/Henry_B._Plant_High_School \"Henry B. Plant High School\"). At the age of 16, CADE, who was the president of his Junior Class, left [Plant High School](/wiki/Henry_B._Plant_High_School \"Henry B. Plant High School\") and switched to [virtual school](/wiki/Virtual_school \"Virtual school\") to focus more time on his music career. During this time, he wrote and recorded a demo that would later become '[Stay With You](/wiki/Stay_with_You_%28Cheat_Codes_and_Cade_song%29 \"Stay with You (Cheat Codes and Cade song)\")'. In 2016, CADE moved to Los Angeles, California, where he would live with two of his friends who had just started the DJ\\-trio, [Cheat Codes](/wiki/Cheat_Codes_%28DJs%29 \"Cheat Codes (DJs)\").",
"### 2016\\-2018: Care EP, Pretty Girl \\& Stay With You",
"CADE launched his solo endeavors with his EP, '*Care',* which was released in July 2016 via [Spinnin' Records](/wiki/Spinnin%27_Records \"Spinnin' Records\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Cade \\|url\\=https://partyflock.nl/en/artist/95832:Cade \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2018 \\|website\\=Partyflock}} His debut single, 'Care' premiered exclusively on [*Billboard*](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\"), where CADE says that he feels his sound \"mixes the emotion of R\\&B music with the dynamic elements of electronic dance music..\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Cade Is Elegantly Wounded On 'Care:' Exclusive Premiere \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/dance/7423318/cade\\-care\\-exclusive\\-premiere\\-dance \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2018 \\|website\\=Billboard}} \"Care\" was produced by [Cheat Codes](/wiki/Cheat_Codes_%28band%29 \"Cheat Codes (band)\")' Trevor Dahl, who befriended Larson on a tour in 2015\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=July 15, 2016 \\|title\\=Cade Delivers Music Video For Recent Single, \"Care.\" \\|url\\=http://www.youredm.com/2016/07/15/cade\\-debuts\\-music\\-video\\-recent\\-single\\-care/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2018 \\|website\\=Your EDM}} \"Care\" quickly turned the heads and garnered support from the likes of [The Chainsmokers](/wiki/The_Chainsmokers \"The Chainsmokers\"), [Louis The Child](/wiki/Louis_the_Child_%28DJs%29 \"Louis the Child (DJs)\"), [Chloe Grace Moretz](/wiki/Chlo%C3%AB_Grace_Moretz \"Chloë Grace Moretz\"), [Pia Mia](/wiki/Pia_Mia \"Pia Mia\"), and more.",
"Following the EP, CADE collaborated with electronic artist, Mokita on their song 'Monopoly', which was released by [Armada](/wiki/Armada_Music \"Armada Music\"). They shot a music video for the song in [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam \"Amsterdam\").{{Citation \\|title\\=Mokita X CADE \\- Monopoly (Official Music Video) \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=VJaOfl4ObVc \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-10}}",
"On February 17, 2017, CADE released 'Sorry For Myself' with [Spinnin' Records](/wiki/Spinnin%27_Records \"Spinnin' Records\"). Cade wrote the single alongside [Michael Pollack (musician)](/wiki/Michael_Pollack_%28musician%29 \"Michael Pollack (musician)\"), [Lauv](/wiki/Lauv \"Lauv\"), [Trevor Dahl](/wiki/Trevor_Dahl \"Trevor Dahl\"), and [Phil Good](/wiki/Phil_Good \"Phil Good\"), and the song was produced by Dutch\\-DJ, [R3hab](/wiki/R3hab \"R3hab\"). The music video has over a million views on YouTube.{{Citation \\|title\\=CADE \\- Sorry For Myself (Official Music Video) \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=M0H0c6fNbCE \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-10}}",
"In March 2017, CADE collaborated on production with pop trio, [Cheat Codes](/wiki/Cheat_Codes_%28DJs%29 \"Cheat Codes (DJs)\"), to remix [Maggie Lindemann](/wiki/Maggie_Lindemann \"Maggie Lindemann\")’s \"[Pretty Girl](/wiki/Pretty_Girl_%28Maggie_Lindemann_song%29 \"Pretty Girl (Maggie Lindemann song)\")\", which resulted in over 800 million streams on [Spotify](/wiki/Spotify \"Spotify\"). The song achieved Platinum [RIAA certification](/wiki/RIAA_certification \"RIAA certification\") in the US and 2× Platinum [BPI certification](/wiki/British_Phonographic_Industry \"British Phonographic Industry\") in the UK.",
"CADE was given an opportunity to open for some well\\-known artists on tour, including [Ke$ha](/wiki/Kesha \"Kesha\"), [Jeremih](/wiki/Jeremih \"Jeremih\"), and [Juicy J](/wiki/Juicy_J \"Juicy J\").",
"Later in the year, CADE was playing some of his old demos for his roommate, [Trevor Dahl](/wiki/Trevor_Dahl \"Trevor Dahl\"). Trevor heard the demo of '[Stay With You](/wiki/Stay_with_You_%28Cheat_Codes_and_Cade_song%29 \"Stay with You (Cheat Codes and Cade song)\")' and asked CADE if he would be interested in making the song a collaboration with [Cheat Codes](/wiki/Cheat_Codes_%28DJs%29 \"Cheat Codes (DJs)\"). Their collaboration, \"[Stay with You](/wiki/Stay_with_You_%28Cheat_Codes_and_CADE_song%29 \"Stay with You (Cheat Codes and CADE song)\")\", peaked at \\#35 on the US [Hot Dance/Electronic Songs](/wiki/Hot_Dance/Electronic_Songs \"Hot Dance/Electronic Songs\") Chart.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/artist/cade/chart\\-history/dan/ \\|title\\=Cade Stay With You Chart History \\|website\\=Billboard \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2018}}",
"### 2018\\-19: Signing to Ultra Records \\& WOLF BLUE.",
"On June 23, 2018, CADE signed his first exclusive record deal with [Ultra Records](/wiki/Ultra_Records \"Ultra Records\") / [Sony](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=CADE Signs to ULTRA MUSIC \\|url\\=https://www.ultramusic.com/\\#artists \\|access\\-date\\=28 August 2018 \\|website\\=ULTRAMUSIC}} Cade's first release with the label was 'Strip Club' featuring [Lil Aaron](/wiki/Lil_Aaron \"Lil Aaron\").",
"CADE was at Ultra Records' studio in Los Angeles working in a session with producer, [Gazzo](/wiki/Gazzo_%28producer%29 \"Gazzo (producer)\"), when he started writing a topline vocal for a beat that Gazzo had shown to [Desiigner](/wiki/Desiigner \"Desiigner\"). The Panda\\-rapper met them at the studio where they would finish the collaboration to be called \"Home to You\" featuring Desiigner.",
"CADE released two additional solo singles, \"Yours\" and \"Better Off Alone\". Simultaneously, CADE was performing overseas at festivals including We The Fest in Jakarta, Indonesia, and [Ultra Europe](/wiki/Ultra_Europe \"Ultra Europe\") alongside Cheat Codes.",
"On November 15, 2019, CADE released his first EP with Ultra Records, titled *WOLF BLUE*.{{Citation \\|title\\=WOLF BLUE. \\- EP by CADE \\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-15 \\|url\\=https://music.apple.com/us/album/wolf\\-blue\\-ep/1482447601 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-10}} The project was inspired by a trip CADE took to the forest, and focused on his \"spirit\\-animal\", the wolf. The EP included his previous singles, as well as two additional songs, \"Too Much\" and \"Crazy\".",
"### 2020\\-2021: Down, Kill Me Softly, \\& Who Set Us On Fire",
"On August 14, 2020, Indonesian\\-DJ Dipha Barus and CADE released a collaboration titled 'Down'. The song went on to win an [AMI](/wiki/Anugerah_Musik_Indonesia \"Anugerah Musik Indonesia\") award in Indonesia for Best Male / Solo Artist / Group Dance Collaboration.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Indonesia \\|first\\=C. N. N. \\|title\\=Daftar Lengkap Pemenang AMI Awards 2021 \\- Halaman 2 \\|url\\=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20211115200834\\-227\\-721583/daftar\\-lengkap\\-pemenang\\-ami\\-awards\\-2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-11 \\|website\\=hiburan \\|language\\=id\\-ID}} While the two artists were located on opposite sides of the world during a global pandemic, the duo managed to shoot a green\\-screen music video for the record that where the artists appear to be performing in outer space.{{Citation \\|title\\=Dipha Barus \\& CADE \\- DOWN (Official Video) \\[Ultra Music] \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=zICTFYIy90k \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-10}}",
"CADE then went on to release two additional solo\\-singles, trap\\-infused 'Kill Me Softly' and rock\\-inspired 'Who Set Us On Fire' with Ultra Records.",
"### 2021\\-present: Watching You Cry",
"In December 2021, CADE started releasing the first three singles off of his forthcoming EP, Watching You Cry (which will be released via Ultra Records on September 16, 2022\\). The singles included '20 Missed Calls (featuring Nate Traveller)', 'Problem$', and '1942'.",
"CADE’s next project, 'Watching You Cry' will be a 7\\-song album \"inspired by heartache, passion, love, self\\-discovery and personal growth\".",
""
] |
Reconstruction
--------------
{{Main\|Reconstruction era}}
{{See also\|History of the United States (1865–1918\)}}
[thumb\|[Freedmen](/wiki/Freedman "Freedman") voting in New Orleans, 1867](/wiki/File:FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg "FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg")
Reconstruction lasted from Lincoln's [Emancipation Proclamation](/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation "Emancipation Proclamation") of January 1, 1863 to the [Compromise of 1877](/wiki/Compromise_of_1877 "Compromise of 1877").Foner, Eric, *A Short History of Reconstruction* (1990\) [online](https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofre00eric)Mark Wahlgren Summers, *The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction* (2014\).
The major issues faced by President [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln") were the status of the ex\-slaves (called "Freedmen"), the loyalty and civil rights of ex\-rebels, the status of the 11 ex\-Confederate states, the powers of the federal government needed to prevent a future civil war, and the question of whether Congress or the President would make the major decisions.
The severe threats of starvation and displacement of the unemployed Freedmen were met by the first major federal relief agency, the [Freedmen's Bureau](/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau "Freedmen's Bureau"), operated by the Army.Cimbala, Paul A., *The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War* (2005\) includes a brief history and primary documents.
Three "[Reconstruction Amendments](/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments "Reconstruction Amendments")" were passed to expand civil rights for Black Americans: the [Thirteenth Amendment](/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") outlawed slavery; the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") guaranteed equal rights for all and citizenship for Black people; the [Fifteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution") prevented race from being used to disfranchise men.
Of more immediate usefulness than the constitutional amendments, were laws passed by Congress to allow the federal government, through the new Justice Department and through the federal courts to enforce the new civil rights Even if the state governments ignored the problem. These included the [Enforcement Acts](/wiki/Enforcement_Acts "Enforcement Acts") of 1870–71 and the [Civil Rights Act of 1875](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875 "Civil Rights Act of 1875").Kaczorowski, Robert J., "To Begin the Nation Anew: Congress, Citizenship, and Civil Rights after the Civil War." *American Historical Review* 92\.1 (1987\): 45–68\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1862782)Cresswell, Stephen, "Enforcing the Enforcement Acts: The Department of Justice in Northern Mississippi, 1870–1890". *Journal of Southern History* 53\#3 (1987\): 421–440\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2209362)
Ex\-Confederates remained in control of most Southern states for more than two years, but that changed when the [Radical Republicans](/wiki/Radical_Republicans "Radical Republicans") gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. President [Andrew Johnson](/wiki/Andrew_Johnson "Andrew Johnson"), who sought easy terms for reunions with ex\-rebels, was virtually powerless; he escaped by one vote removal through impeachment. Congress enfranchised Black men and temporarily suspended many ex\-Confederate leaders of the right to hold office. New Republican governments came to power based on a coalition of Freedmen together with [Carpetbaggers](/wiki/Carpetbagger "Carpetbagger") (new arrivals from the North), and [Scalawags](/wiki/Scalawag "Scalawag") (native white Southerners). They were backed by the US Army. Opponents said they were corrupt and violated the rights of whites. State by state they lost power to a conservative\-Democratic coalition, which gained control by violence and fraud of the entire South by 1877\. In response to Radical Reconstruction, the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") (KKK) emerged in 1867 as a white\-supremacist organization opposed to Black civil rights and Republican rule. President Ulysses Grant's vigorous enforcement of the [Ku Klux Klan Act](/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act "Third Enforcement Act") of 1870 shut down the Klan, and it disbanded. But from 1868 elections in many southern states were increasingly surrounded by violence to suppress Black voting. Rifle clubs had thousands of members. In 1874, [paramilitary](/wiki/Paramilitary "Paramilitary") groups, such as the [White League](/wiki/White_League "White League") and [Red Shirts](/wiki/Red_Shirts_%28United_States%29 "Red Shirts (United States)") emerged that worked openly to use intimidation and violence to suppress Black voting and disrupt the Republican Party to regain white political power in states across the South. Rable described them as the "military arm of the Democratic Party."Rable, George C., *But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction* (2007\).
Reconstruction ended after the disputed [1876 election](/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election "1876 United States presidential election") between Republican candidate [Rutherford B. Hayes](/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes "Rutherford B. Hayes") and Democratic candidate [Samuel J. Tilden](/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden "Samuel J. Tilden"). With a compromise Hayes won the White House, the federal government withdrew its troops from the South, abandoning the freedmen to white conservative Democrats, who regained power in state governments.Ayers, Edward L., *The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction* (1992\), pp. 3–54\.
|
[
"Reconstruction\n--------------",
"{{Main\\|Reconstruction era}}\n{{See also\\|History of the United States (1865–1918\\)}}",
"[thumb\\|[Freedmen](/wiki/Freedman \"Freedman\") voting in New Orleans, 1867](/wiki/File:FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg \"FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg\")\nReconstruction lasted from Lincoln's [Emancipation Proclamation](/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation \"Emancipation Proclamation\") of January 1, 1863 to the [Compromise of 1877](/wiki/Compromise_of_1877 \"Compromise of 1877\").Foner, Eric, *A Short History of Reconstruction* (1990\\) [online](https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofre00eric)Mark Wahlgren Summers, *The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction* (2014\\).",
"The major issues faced by President [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\") were the status of the ex\\-slaves (called \"Freedmen\"), the loyalty and civil rights of ex\\-rebels, the status of the 11 ex\\-Confederate states, the powers of the federal government needed to prevent a future civil war, and the question of whether Congress or the President would make the major decisions.",
"The severe threats of starvation and displacement of the unemployed Freedmen were met by the first major federal relief agency, the [Freedmen's Bureau](/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau \"Freedmen's Bureau\"), operated by the Army.Cimbala, Paul A., *The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South after the Civil War* (2005\\) includes a brief history and primary documents.",
"Three \"[Reconstruction Amendments](/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments \"Reconstruction Amendments\")\" were passed to expand civil rights for Black Americans: the [Thirteenth Amendment](/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") outlawed slavery; the [Fourteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") guaranteed equal rights for all and citizenship for Black people; the [Fifteenth Amendment](/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\") prevented race from being used to disfranchise men.",
"Of more immediate usefulness than the constitutional amendments, were laws passed by Congress to allow the federal government, through the new Justice Department and through the federal courts to enforce the new civil rights Even if the state governments ignored the problem. These included the [Enforcement Acts](/wiki/Enforcement_Acts \"Enforcement Acts\") of 1870–71 and the [Civil Rights Act of 1875](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875 \"Civil Rights Act of 1875\").Kaczorowski, Robert J., \"To Begin the Nation Anew: Congress, Citizenship, and Civil Rights after the Civil War.\" *American Historical Review* 92\\.1 (1987\\): 45–68\\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1862782)Cresswell, Stephen, \"Enforcing the Enforcement Acts: The Department of Justice in Northern Mississippi, 1870–1890\". *Journal of Southern History* 53\\#3 (1987\\): 421–440\\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2209362)",
"Ex\\-Confederates remained in control of most Southern states for more than two years, but that changed when the [Radical Republicans](/wiki/Radical_Republicans \"Radical Republicans\") gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. President [Andrew Johnson](/wiki/Andrew_Johnson \"Andrew Johnson\"), who sought easy terms for reunions with ex\\-rebels, was virtually powerless; he escaped by one vote removal through impeachment. Congress enfranchised Black men and temporarily suspended many ex\\-Confederate leaders of the right to hold office. New Republican governments came to power based on a coalition of Freedmen together with [Carpetbaggers](/wiki/Carpetbagger \"Carpetbagger\") (new arrivals from the North), and [Scalawags](/wiki/Scalawag \"Scalawag\") (native white Southerners). They were backed by the US Army. Opponents said they were corrupt and violated the rights of whites. State by state they lost power to a conservative\\-Democratic coalition, which gained control by violence and fraud of the entire South by 1877\\. In response to Radical Reconstruction, the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") (KKK) emerged in 1867 as a white\\-supremacist organization opposed to Black civil rights and Republican rule. President Ulysses Grant's vigorous enforcement of the [Ku Klux Klan Act](/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act \"Third Enforcement Act\") of 1870 shut down the Klan, and it disbanded. But from 1868 elections in many southern states were increasingly surrounded by violence to suppress Black voting. Rifle clubs had thousands of members. In 1874, [paramilitary](/wiki/Paramilitary \"Paramilitary\") groups, such as the [White League](/wiki/White_League \"White League\") and [Red Shirts](/wiki/Red_Shirts_%28United_States%29 \"Red Shirts (United States)\") emerged that worked openly to use intimidation and violence to suppress Black voting and disrupt the Republican Party to regain white political power in states across the South. Rable described them as the \"military arm of the Democratic Party.\"Rable, George C., *But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction* (2007\\).",
"Reconstruction ended after the disputed [1876 election](/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election \"1876 United States presidential election\") between Republican candidate [Rutherford B. Hayes](/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes \"Rutherford B. Hayes\") and Democratic candidate [Samuel J. Tilden](/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden \"Samuel J. Tilden\"). With a compromise Hayes won the White House, the federal government withdrew its troops from the South, abandoning the freedmen to white conservative Democrats, who regained power in state governments.Ayers, Edward L., *The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction* (1992\\), pp. 3–54\\.",
""
] |
Religion
--------
Black churches played a powerful role in the civil rights movement. They were the core community group around which Black Republicans organize their partisanship.Hahn (2003\), *A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, from Slavery to the Great Migration*, pp. 230–34\.Giggie, John M. (2007\), *After redemption: Jim Crow and the transformation of African American religion in the Delta, 1875–1915*. \[ DOI:10\.1093/acprof:oso/9780195304039\.001\.0001 online] The great majority of the Black Baptist and Methodist churches rapidly became independent of the primarily white national or regional denominations after 1865\. Black Baptist congregations set up their own associations and conventions.Bailey, Kenneth (1977\), "The Post–Civil War Racial Separations in Southern Protestantism," *Church History*, 46\#4, pp. 453–73\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3164440) Their ministers became leading political spokesman for their congregations.Lincoln, C. Eric, and Lawrence H. Mamiya (1990\), *The Black Church in the African American Experience* (Duke University Press). Black women found their own space and church\-sponsored organizations, ranging from choirs to missionary projects, to church schools and Sunday schools.[Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks](/wiki/Evelyn_Brooks_Higginbotham "Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham"), *Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920* (1993\).
In San Francisco there were three Black churches in the early 1860s. They all sought to represent the interests of the Black community, provided spiritual leadership and rituals, organized help for the needy, and fought against attempts to deny Black people their civil rights.Montesano, Philipp M. (1973\), "San Francisco Black Churches in the Early 1860s" *California Historical Quarterly*, 52\#2 pp. 145–152\. The San Francisco Black churches had decisive support from the local Republican Party. In the 1850s, the Democrats controlled the state and enacted anti\-Black legislation. Even though Black slavery had never existed in California, the laws were harsh. The Republican Party came to power in the early 1860s, and rejected exclusion and legislative racism. Republican leaders joined Black activists to win the legal rights, especially in terms of the right to vote, the right to attend public schools, equal treatment in public transportation, and equal access to the court system.Chandler, Robert J. (1982\), "Friends in Time of Need: Republicans and Black Civil Rights in California during the Civil War Era" *Arizona \& the West*, 24\#4, pp. 319–340\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40169219)
Black Americans, once freed from slavery, were very active in forming their own churches, most of them Baptist or Methodist, and giving their ministers both moral and political leadership roles. In a process of self\-segregation, practically all Black people left white churches so that few racially integrated congregations remained (apart from some Catholic churches in Louisiana). Four main organizations competed with each other across the South to form new Methodist churches composed of freedmen. They were the [African Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church "African Methodist Episcopal Church"), founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; the [African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church "African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church"), founded in New York City; the [Colored Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Christian_Methodist_Episcopal_Church "Christian Methodist Episcopal Church") (which was sponsored by the white [Methodist Episcopal Church, South](/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church%2C_South "Methodist Episcopal Church, South")), and the well\-funded [Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church "Methodist Episcopal Church") (Northern white Methodists).{{cite book\|first\=Daniel W. \|last\=Stowell\|title\=Rebuilding Zion : The Religious Reconstruction of the South, 1863\-1877\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=jQphbo640wAC\&pg\=PA84\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Oxford UP\|pages\=83–84\|isbn\=9780198026211}}Walker, Clarence Earl (1982\), *A Rock in a Weary Land: The African Methodist Episcopal Church During the Civil War and Reconstruction*. By 1871, the Northern Methodists had 88,000 Black members in the South, and had opened numerous schools for them.Sweet, William W. (1914\), "The Methodist Episcopal Church and Reconstruction," *Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society*, 7\#3 pp. 147–165\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40194198) at p.
The Black people during [Reconstruction Era](/wiki/Reconstruction_era "Reconstruction era") were politically the core element of the [Republican Party](/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "History of the Republican Party (United States)"), and the ministers played a powerful political role. Their ministers could be more outspoken since they did not primarily depend on white support, in contrast to teachers, politicians, businessmen, and tenant farmers.{{cite book\|first\=Donald Lee\|last\= Grant\|title\=The Way It Was in the South: The Black Experience in Georgia\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=zpmjRm4cdswC\&pg\=PA264\|year\=1993\|publisher\=U. of Georgia Press\|page\=264\|isbn\=9780820323299}} Acting on the principle expounded by [Charles H. Pearce](/wiki/Charles_H._Pearce "Charles H. Pearce"), an AME minister in Florida: "A man in this State cannot do his whole duty as a minister except he looks out for the political interests of his people," over 100 Black ministers were elected to state legislatures during Reconstruction. Several served in Congress and one, [Hiram Revels](/wiki/Hiram_Rhodes_Revels "Hiram Rhodes Revels"), in the U.S. Senate.Foner, Eric (1988\), *Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863–1877*, p. 93\.
### Methodists
[thumb\|180px\|Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, AME leader in Georgia.](/wiki/File:Henry_McNeil_Turner.jpg "Henry McNeil Turner.jpg")
The most well organized and active of the Black churches was the African Methodist Episcopal church (AME). In Georgia, AME Bishop [Henry McNeal Turner](/wiki/Henry_McNeal_Turner "Henry McNeal Turner") (1834–1915\) became a leading spokesman for justice and equality. He served as a pastor, writer, newspaper editor, debater, politician, the chaplain of the Army, and a key leader of emerging Black Methodist organization in Georgia and the Southeast. In 1863, during the Civil War, Turner was appointed as the first Black chaplain in the [United States Colored Troops](/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops "United States Colored Troops"). Afterward, he was appointed to the [Freedmen's Bureau](/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau "Freedmen's Bureau") in Georgia. He settled in [Macon, Georgia](/wiki/Macon%2C_Georgia "Macon, Georgia"), and was elected to the state legislature in 1868 during Reconstruction. He planted many AME churches in Georgia. In 1880, he was elected as the first southern bishop of the AME Church after a fierce battle within the denomination. He fought Jim Crow laws.Angell, Stephen Ward (1992\), *Henry McNeal Turner and African\-American Religion in the South*.
Turner was the leader of Black nationalism and promoted emigration of Black people to Africa. He believed in separation of the races. He started a back\-to\-Africa movement in support of the Black American colony in Liberia.Redkey, Edwin S., "Bishop Turner's African Dream." *Journal of American History* 54\#2 (1967\): 271–290\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1894806) Turner built Black pride by proclaiming "God is a Negro."Johnson, Andre E. (2015\), "God is a Negro: The (Rhetorical) Black Theology of Bishop Henry McNeal Turner." *Black Theology* 13\.1 (2015\): 29–40\.Johnson, Andre E. (2012\), *The Forgotten Prophet: Bishop Henry McNeal Turner and the African American Prophetic Tradition*.
There was a second all\-Black Methodist Church, the smaller [African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church "African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church") (AMEZ). AMEZ remained smaller than AME because some of its ministers lacked the authority to perform marriages, and many of its ministers avoided political roles. Its finances were weak, and in general its leadership was not as strong as AME. However it was the leader among all Protestant denominations in ordaining women and giving them powerful roles.Brown, Jr., Canter, and Larry Eugene Rivers (2004\), *For a Great and Grand Purpose: The Beginnings of the AMEZ Church in Florida, 1864–1905*. One influential leader was bishop [James Walker Hood](/wiki/James_Walker_Hood "James Walker Hood") (1831–1918\) of North Carolina. He not only created and fostered his network of AMEZ churches in North Carolina, but he also was the grand master for the entire South of the [Prince Hall Masonic Lodge](/wiki/Prince_Hall_Freemasonry "Prince Hall Freemasonry"), a secular organization that strengthen the political and economic forces inside the Black community.Hackett, David G. (2000\), "The Prince Hall Masons and the African American Church: The Labors of Grand Master and Bishop James Walker Hood, 1831–1918\." *Church History*, 69\#4: 770–802\. [online](https://web.archive.org/web/20060905135531/http://faculty.ncf.edu/hite/Secure_Documents/American/Prince%20Hall%20Masons.pdf)
In addition to all\-Black churches, many Black Methodists were associated with the Northern Methodist Church. Others were associated with the [Colored Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Christian_Methodist_Episcopal_Church "Christian Methodist Episcopal Church") CME; CME was an organ of the white Southern Methodist Church.Sommerville, Raymond R., *An Ex\-colored Church: Social Activism in the CME Church, 1870–1970* (Mercer University Press, 2004\). In general, the most politically active Black ministers affiliated with AME.Foner (1988\), *Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863–1877*, pp. 282–83\.
### Baptists
Black Baptists broke from the white churches and formed independent operations across the South,Brooks, Walter H. (1922\), "The Evolution of the Negro Baptist Church", *Journal of Negro History* 7\#1: 11–22\. [free in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713578) rapidly forming state and regional associations.{{cite book\|first\=Thomas S. \|last\=Kidd\|author2\=Barry Hankins\|title\=Baptists in America: A History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Jz21BwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA149\|year\=2015\|pages\=149–66\|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-997753\-6}} Unlike the Methodists, who had a hierarchical structure led by bishops, the Baptist churches were largely independent of each other, although they pooled resources for missionary activities, especially missions in Africa.Martin, Sandy Dwayne (1989\), *Black Baptists and African Missions: The Origins of a Movement, 1880–1915* . The Baptist women worked hard to carve out a partially independent sphere inside the denomination.Hamilton, Shirley (2009\), "African American Women Roles In The Baptist Church: Equality Within the National Baptist Convention, USA." (MA Thesis, Wake Forest University). [online](https://wakespace.lib.wfu.edu/bitstream/handle/10339/14761/Hamilton_MALS_Thesis.pdf?seq)
### Urban churches
The great majority of Black people lived in rural areas where services were held in small makeshift buildings. In the cities Black churches were more visible. Besides their regular religious services, the urban churches had numerous other activities, such as scheduled prayer meetings, missionary societies, women's clubs, youth groups, public lectures, and musical concerts. Regularly scheduled revivals operated over a period of weeks reaching large, appreciative and noisy crowds.Rabinowitz, Howard N. (1978\), *Race Relations in the Urban South: 1865–1890*, pp. 208\-213\.
Charitable activities abounded concerning the care of the sick and needy. The larger churches had a systematic education program, besides the Sunday schools, and Bible study groups. They held literacy classes to enable older members to read the Bible. Private Black colleges, such as Fisk in Nashville, often began in the basement of the churches. Church supported the struggling small business community.
Most important was the political role. Churches hosted protest meetings, rallies, and Republican party conventions. Prominent laymen and ministers negotiated political deals, and often ran for office until disfranchisement took effect in the 1890s. In the 1880s, the prohibition of liquor was a major political concern that allowed for collaboration with like\-minded white Protestants. In every case, the pastor was the dominant decision\-maker. His salary ranged from $400 a year to upwards of $1500, plus housing – at a time when 50 cents a day was good pay for unskilled physical labor.
Increasingly the Methodists reached out to college or seminary graduates for their ministers, but most Baptists felt that education was a negative factor that undercut the intense religiosity and oratorical skills they demanded of their ministers.
After 1910, as Black people migrated to major cities in both the North and the South, there emerged the pattern of a few very large churches with thousands of members and a paid staff, headed by an influential preacher. At the same time there were many "storefront" churches with a few dozen members.{{cite book\|first \= Gunnar\|last \= Myrdal\|title \= An American Dilemma\|url \= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\.226478\|date \= 1944\|pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\.226478/page/n917 858]–78\|publisher \= Harber \& Brothers}}
### Religious interpretation of history
Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and Black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:
> God had chastised them and given them a special mission – to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor.
In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:
> God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self\-help and [Racial uplift](/wiki/Racial_uplift "Racial uplift"), and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, Black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.Fallin Jr., Wilson (2007\), *Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama*, pp. 52–53\.
|
[
"Religion\n--------",
"Black churches played a powerful role in the civil rights movement. They were the core community group around which Black Republicans organize their partisanship.Hahn (2003\\), *A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South, from Slavery to the Great Migration*, pp. 230–34\\.Giggie, John M. (2007\\), *After redemption: Jim Crow and the transformation of African American religion in the Delta, 1875–1915*. \\[ DOI:10\\.1093/acprof:oso/9780195304039\\.001\\.0001 online] The great majority of the Black Baptist and Methodist churches rapidly became independent of the primarily white national or regional denominations after 1865\\. Black Baptist congregations set up their own associations and conventions.Bailey, Kenneth (1977\\), \"The Post–Civil War Racial Separations in Southern Protestantism,\" *Church History*, 46\\#4, pp. 453–73\\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3164440) Their ministers became leading political spokesman for their congregations.Lincoln, C. Eric, and Lawrence H. Mamiya (1990\\), *The Black Church in the African American Experience* (Duke University Press). Black women found their own space and church\\-sponsored organizations, ranging from choirs to missionary projects, to church schools and Sunday schools.[Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks](/wiki/Evelyn_Brooks_Higginbotham \"Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham\"), *Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920* (1993\\).",
"In San Francisco there were three Black churches in the early 1860s. They all sought to represent the interests of the Black community, provided spiritual leadership and rituals, organized help for the needy, and fought against attempts to deny Black people their civil rights.Montesano, Philipp M. (1973\\), \"San Francisco Black Churches in the Early 1860s\" *California Historical Quarterly*, 52\\#2 pp. 145–152\\. The San Francisco Black churches had decisive support from the local Republican Party. In the 1850s, the Democrats controlled the state and enacted anti\\-Black legislation. Even though Black slavery had never existed in California, the laws were harsh. The Republican Party came to power in the early 1860s, and rejected exclusion and legislative racism. Republican leaders joined Black activists to win the legal rights, especially in terms of the right to vote, the right to attend public schools, equal treatment in public transportation, and equal access to the court system.Chandler, Robert J. (1982\\), \"Friends in Time of Need: Republicans and Black Civil Rights in California during the Civil War Era\" *Arizona \\& the West*, 24\\#4, pp. 319–340\\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40169219)",
"Black Americans, once freed from slavery, were very active in forming their own churches, most of them Baptist or Methodist, and giving their ministers both moral and political leadership roles. In a process of self\\-segregation, practically all Black people left white churches so that few racially integrated congregations remained (apart from some Catholic churches in Louisiana). Four main organizations competed with each other across the South to form new Methodist churches composed of freedmen. They were the [African Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"African Methodist Episcopal Church\"), founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; the [African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church \"African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church\"), founded in New York City; the [Colored Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Christian_Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"Christian Methodist Episcopal Church\") (which was sponsored by the white [Methodist Episcopal Church, South](/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church%2C_South \"Methodist Episcopal Church, South\")), and the well\\-funded [Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"Methodist Episcopal Church\") (Northern white Methodists).{{cite book\\|first\\=Daniel W. \\|last\\=Stowell\\|title\\=Rebuilding Zion : The Religious Reconstruction of the South, 1863\\-1877\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=jQphbo640wAC\\&pg\\=PA84\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Oxford UP\\|pages\\=83–84\\|isbn\\=9780198026211}}Walker, Clarence Earl (1982\\), *A Rock in a Weary Land: The African Methodist Episcopal Church During the Civil War and Reconstruction*. By 1871, the Northern Methodists had 88,000 Black members in the South, and had opened numerous schools for them.Sweet, William W. (1914\\), \"The Methodist Episcopal Church and Reconstruction,\" *Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society*, 7\\#3 pp. 147–165\\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40194198) at p.",
"The Black people during [Reconstruction Era](/wiki/Reconstruction_era \"Reconstruction era\") were politically the core element of the [Republican Party](/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"History of the Republican Party (United States)\"), and the ministers played a powerful political role. Their ministers could be more outspoken since they did not primarily depend on white support, in contrast to teachers, politicians, businessmen, and tenant farmers.{{cite book\\|first\\=Donald Lee\\|last\\= Grant\\|title\\=The Way It Was in the South: The Black Experience in Georgia\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zpmjRm4cdswC\\&pg\\=PA264\\|year\\=1993\\|publisher\\=U. of Georgia Press\\|page\\=264\\|isbn\\=9780820323299}} Acting on the principle expounded by [Charles H. Pearce](/wiki/Charles_H._Pearce \"Charles H. Pearce\"), an AME minister in Florida: \"A man in this State cannot do his whole duty as a minister except he looks out for the political interests of his people,\" over 100 Black ministers were elected to state legislatures during Reconstruction. Several served in Congress and one, [Hiram Revels](/wiki/Hiram_Rhodes_Revels \"Hiram Rhodes Revels\"), in the U.S. Senate.Foner, Eric (1988\\), *Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863–1877*, p. 93\\.",
"### Methodists",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, AME leader in Georgia.](/wiki/File:Henry_McNeil_Turner.jpg \"Henry McNeil Turner.jpg\")",
"The most well organized and active of the Black churches was the African Methodist Episcopal church (AME). In Georgia, AME Bishop [Henry McNeal Turner](/wiki/Henry_McNeal_Turner \"Henry McNeal Turner\") (1834–1915\\) became a leading spokesman for justice and equality. He served as a pastor, writer, newspaper editor, debater, politician, the chaplain of the Army, and a key leader of emerging Black Methodist organization in Georgia and the Southeast. In 1863, during the Civil War, Turner was appointed as the first Black chaplain in the [United States Colored Troops](/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops \"United States Colored Troops\"). Afterward, he was appointed to the [Freedmen's Bureau](/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau \"Freedmen's Bureau\") in Georgia. He settled in [Macon, Georgia](/wiki/Macon%2C_Georgia \"Macon, Georgia\"), and was elected to the state legislature in 1868 during Reconstruction. He planted many AME churches in Georgia. In 1880, he was elected as the first southern bishop of the AME Church after a fierce battle within the denomination. He fought Jim Crow laws.Angell, Stephen Ward (1992\\), *Henry McNeal Turner and African\\-American Religion in the South*.",
"Turner was the leader of Black nationalism and promoted emigration of Black people to Africa. He believed in separation of the races. He started a back\\-to\\-Africa movement in support of the Black American colony in Liberia.Redkey, Edwin S., \"Bishop Turner's African Dream.\" *Journal of American History* 54\\#2 (1967\\): 271–290\\. [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1894806) Turner built Black pride by proclaiming \"God is a Negro.\"Johnson, Andre E. (2015\\), \"God is a Negro: The (Rhetorical) Black Theology of Bishop Henry McNeal Turner.\" *Black Theology* 13\\.1 (2015\\): 29–40\\.Johnson, Andre E. (2012\\), *The Forgotten Prophet: Bishop Henry McNeal Turner and the African American Prophetic Tradition*.",
"There was a second all\\-Black Methodist Church, the smaller [African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church \"African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church\") (AMEZ). AMEZ remained smaller than AME because some of its ministers lacked the authority to perform marriages, and many of its ministers avoided political roles. Its finances were weak, and in general its leadership was not as strong as AME. However it was the leader among all Protestant denominations in ordaining women and giving them powerful roles.Brown, Jr., Canter, and Larry Eugene Rivers (2004\\), *For a Great and Grand Purpose: The Beginnings of the AMEZ Church in Florida, 1864–1905*. One influential leader was bishop [James Walker Hood](/wiki/James_Walker_Hood \"James Walker Hood\") (1831–1918\\) of North Carolina. He not only created and fostered his network of AMEZ churches in North Carolina, but he also was the grand master for the entire South of the [Prince Hall Masonic Lodge](/wiki/Prince_Hall_Freemasonry \"Prince Hall Freemasonry\"), a secular organization that strengthen the political and economic forces inside the Black community.Hackett, David G. (2000\\), \"The Prince Hall Masons and the African American Church: The Labors of Grand Master and Bishop James Walker Hood, 1831–1918\\.\" *Church History*, 69\\#4: 770–802\\. [online](https://web.archive.org/web/20060905135531/http://faculty.ncf.edu/hite/Secure_Documents/American/Prince%20Hall%20Masons.pdf)",
"In addition to all\\-Black churches, many Black Methodists were associated with the Northern Methodist Church. Others were associated with the [Colored Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/Christian_Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"Christian Methodist Episcopal Church\") CME; CME was an organ of the white Southern Methodist Church.Sommerville, Raymond R., *An Ex\\-colored Church: Social Activism in the CME Church, 1870–1970* (Mercer University Press, 2004\\). In general, the most politically active Black ministers affiliated with AME.Foner (1988\\), *Reconstruction: America's unfinished revolution, 1863–1877*, pp. 282–83\\.",
"### Baptists",
"Black Baptists broke from the white churches and formed independent operations across the South,Brooks, Walter H. (1922\\), \"The Evolution of the Negro Baptist Church\", *Journal of Negro History* 7\\#1: 11–22\\. [free in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713578) rapidly forming state and regional associations.{{cite book\\|first\\=Thomas S. \\|last\\=Kidd\\|author2\\=Barry Hankins\\|title\\=Baptists in America: A History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Jz21BwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA149\\|year\\=2015\\|pages\\=149–66\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-997753\\-6}} Unlike the Methodists, who had a hierarchical structure led by bishops, the Baptist churches were largely independent of each other, although they pooled resources for missionary activities, especially missions in Africa.Martin, Sandy Dwayne (1989\\), *Black Baptists and African Missions: The Origins of a Movement, 1880–1915* . The Baptist women worked hard to carve out a partially independent sphere inside the denomination.Hamilton, Shirley (2009\\), \"African American Women Roles In The Baptist Church: Equality Within the National Baptist Convention, USA.\" (MA Thesis, Wake Forest University). [online](https://wakespace.lib.wfu.edu/bitstream/handle/10339/14761/Hamilton_MALS_Thesis.pdf?seq)",
"### Urban churches",
"The great majority of Black people lived in rural areas where services were held in small makeshift buildings. In the cities Black churches were more visible. Besides their regular religious services, the urban churches had numerous other activities, such as scheduled prayer meetings, missionary societies, women's clubs, youth groups, public lectures, and musical concerts. Regularly scheduled revivals operated over a period of weeks reaching large, appreciative and noisy crowds.Rabinowitz, Howard N. (1978\\), *Race Relations in the Urban South: 1865–1890*, pp. 208\\-213\\.",
"Charitable activities abounded concerning the care of the sick and needy. The larger churches had a systematic education program, besides the Sunday schools, and Bible study groups. They held literacy classes to enable older members to read the Bible. Private Black colleges, such as Fisk in Nashville, often began in the basement of the churches. Church supported the struggling small business community.",
"Most important was the political role. Churches hosted protest meetings, rallies, and Republican party conventions. Prominent laymen and ministers negotiated political deals, and often ran for office until disfranchisement took effect in the 1890s. In the 1880s, the prohibition of liquor was a major political concern that allowed for collaboration with like\\-minded white Protestants. In every case, the pastor was the dominant decision\\-maker. His salary ranged from $400 a year to upwards of $1500, plus housing – at a time when 50 cents a day was good pay for unskilled physical labor.",
"Increasingly the Methodists reached out to college or seminary graduates for their ministers, but most Baptists felt that education was a negative factor that undercut the intense religiosity and oratorical skills they demanded of their ministers.",
"After 1910, as Black people migrated to major cities in both the North and the South, there emerged the pattern of a few very large churches with thousands of members and a paid staff, headed by an influential preacher. At the same time there were many \"storefront\" churches with a few dozen members.{{cite book\\|first \\= Gunnar\\|last \\= Myrdal\\|title \\= An American Dilemma\\|url \\= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\\.226478\\|date \\= 1944\\|pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\\.226478/page/n917 858]–78\\|publisher \\= Harber \\& Brothers}}",
"### Religious interpretation of history",
"Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and Black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:",
"> God had chastised them and given them a special mission – to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor.",
"In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:",
"> God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self\\-help and [Racial uplift](/wiki/Racial_uplift \"Racial uplift\"), and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, Black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.Fallin Jr., Wilson (2007\\), *Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama*, pp. 52–53\\.",
"",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1992, Tuncer Deniz, who was unemployed, decided to create a magazine called *Inside Mac Games* — he came up with the name after seeing a copy of *[Inside Sports](/wiki/Inside_Sports "Inside Sports")* at a newsstand — that would be dedicated to reviews of new and upcoming Macintosh computer games. Deniz interested a friend, Jon Blum, in the project, but neither of them had the capital or the expertise to publish a print magazine. Instead, they envisioned an electronic magazine.{{cite book \| last \=Moss\| first \=Richard \| author\-link \= \| title \=The Secret History of Mac Gaming \| date \=22 March 2018 \| publisher \=Unbound Publishing \| isbn \=9781783524877}}
Using a [shareware](/wiki/Shareware "Shareware") lay\-out program, Deniz and Blum created the first issue, which contained reviews of four [flight simulators](/wiki/Flight_simulators "Flight simulators") — [Parsoft Interactive](/wiki/Parsoft_Interactive "Parsoft Interactive")'s *[Hellcats Over the Pacific](/wiki/Hellcats_Over_the_Pacific "Hellcats Over the Pacific")* and *Missions at Leyte Gulf*, [Spectrum HoloByte](/wiki/Spectrum_HoloByte "Spectrum HoloByte")'s *[Falcon MC](/wiki/Falcon_%28video_game%29 "Falcon (video game)")*, and *[Microsoft Flight Simulator 4\.0](/wiki/Microsoft_Flight_Simulator_4.0 "Microsoft Flight Simulator 4.0")* — as well as hints, [Easter eggs](/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29 "Easter egg (media)") and reviews about older games such as *[Maelstrom](/wiki/Maelstrom_%281992_video_game%29 "Maelstrom (1992 video game)")* and *Tom Landry Strategy Football*, and most importantly, a playable preview of *F/A\-18 Hornet* that [Graphic Simulations](/wiki/Graphic_Simulations "Graphic Simulations") planned to release in a few months.
Deniz and Blum decided to offer two annual subscription plans: either $18 for a downloadable version of the magazine; or for $24, the subscriber would receive a monthly floppy disk in the mail that would not only contain the magazine, but also software [patches](/wiki/Patch_%28computing%29 "Patch (computing)") and updates for popular games, as well as a [shareware](/wiki/Shareware "Shareware") Game of the Month.
In February 1993, they uploaded a promotional file to [AOL](/wiki/AOL "AOL") that contained portions of Issue 1\. Enough people downloaded the file and subsequently paid for a subscription that Deniz and Blum were able to produce Issue 2 the next month. Several months later, sales increased substantially when [Graphic Simulations](/wiki/Graphic_Simulations "Graphic Simulations") released *F/A\-18 Hornet* and included a promotional flyer for *IMG* in the box.
In 1995, *IMG* switched from floppy disks to [CD\-ROMs](/wiki/CD-ROMs "CD-ROMs"), allowing for much more high quality content and games, and increased the annual subscription rate to $59\. In August of that year, Paul Murphy reviewed one of their CD\-ROMs for *[Dragon](/wiki/Dragon_%28magazine%29 "Dragon (magazine)")* and called it "a great deal", although he noted that the magazine itself was "somewhat unexciting \[...] *IMG* articles are competent and serviceable, with no distinctive voices, styles or viewpoints." It was the commercial software demos and shareware included on the CD\-ROMs that Murphy called "the real charm and value of the *IMG* CD." Murphy concluded that in the absence of any other magazines dedicated to Mac games, "Mac game fans need *Inside Mac Games* to separate the wheat from the chaff. The demos and shareware \[are] a barrel of fun and solid value."{{cite magazine\|last\=Murphy\|first\=Paul\| date\=August 1995 \|title\=Eye of the Monitor\|magazine\=\[\[Dragon (magazine)\|Dragon]]\|publisher\=\[\[TSR (company)\|TSR, Inc.]]\|issue\=220\|pages\=68}}
In 1996, Deniz left *IMG* to work for [Bungie](/wiki/Bungie "Bungie"), but returned in 1999\. The following year, the CD\-ROM distribution of the magazine was dropped in favour of downloads from the *IMG* website. By 2005, Deniz had opened an on\-line software store through the *IMG* website, using a subscription model of $29 per month for a monthly free game and discounts on other products.
From 2005 to 2006, *IMG* produced a weekly [podcast](/wiki/Podcast "Podcast"), hosted by game designers Justin Ficarrotta and Will Miller, and critic Blake Buck.{{cite web\|title\=Inside Mac Games Feature: IMG Podcast Episode 33\|url\=http://insidemacgames.com/features/view.php?ID\=474\|website\=insidemacgames.com\|access\-date\=15 December 2016}} that featured Mac game news, reviews and general discussion. After 33 episodes, the original hosts left to start a new podcast, {{cite web\|title\=BDPE Episode 1 – Best Damn Podcast Ever\|url\=http://bestdamnpodcastever.com/bdpe\-episode\-1/\|website\=bestdamnpodcastever.com\|access\-date\=15 December 2016}} and the *IMG* podcast was relaunched later the same year with a new host, running for a further 38 episodes.{{cite web\|title\=Inside Mac Games Feature: IMG Podcast: Feral Interactive's Edwin Smith Interviewed\|url\=http://insidemacgames.com/features/view.php?ID\=563\|website\=insidemacgames.com\|access\-date\=15 December 2016}}
By 2010, interest in Mac\-exclusive games had cooled, and by 2018, the *IMG* website was reduced to the user forums, with a link to Tuncer Deniz's on\-line software store.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1992, Tuncer Deniz, who was unemployed, decided to create a magazine called *Inside Mac Games* — he came up with the name after seeing a copy of *[Inside Sports](/wiki/Inside_Sports \"Inside Sports\")* at a newsstand — that would be dedicated to reviews of new and upcoming Macintosh computer games. Deniz interested a friend, Jon Blum, in the project, but neither of them had the capital or the expertise to publish a print magazine. Instead, they envisioned an electronic magazine.{{cite book \\| last \\=Moss\\| first \\=Richard \\| author\\-link \\= \\| title \\=The Secret History of Mac Gaming \\| date \\=22 March 2018 \\| publisher \\=Unbound Publishing \\| isbn \\=9781783524877}}",
"Using a [shareware](/wiki/Shareware \"Shareware\") lay\\-out program, Deniz and Blum created the first issue, which contained reviews of four [flight simulators](/wiki/Flight_simulators \"Flight simulators\") — [Parsoft Interactive](/wiki/Parsoft_Interactive \"Parsoft Interactive\")'s *[Hellcats Over the Pacific](/wiki/Hellcats_Over_the_Pacific \"Hellcats Over the Pacific\")* and *Missions at Leyte Gulf*, [Spectrum HoloByte](/wiki/Spectrum_HoloByte \"Spectrum HoloByte\")'s *[Falcon MC](/wiki/Falcon_%28video_game%29 \"Falcon (video game)\")*, and *[Microsoft Flight Simulator 4\\.0](/wiki/Microsoft_Flight_Simulator_4.0 \"Microsoft Flight Simulator 4.0\")* — as well as hints, [Easter eggs](/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29 \"Easter egg (media)\") and reviews about older games such as *[Maelstrom](/wiki/Maelstrom_%281992_video_game%29 \"Maelstrom (1992 video game)\")* and *Tom Landry Strategy Football*, and most importantly, a playable preview of *F/A\\-18 Hornet* that [Graphic Simulations](/wiki/Graphic_Simulations \"Graphic Simulations\") planned to release in a few months.",
"Deniz and Blum decided to offer two annual subscription plans: either $18 for a downloadable version of the magazine; or for $24, the subscriber would receive a monthly floppy disk in the mail that would not only contain the magazine, but also software [patches](/wiki/Patch_%28computing%29 \"Patch (computing)\") and updates for popular games, as well as a [shareware](/wiki/Shareware \"Shareware\") Game of the Month.",
"In February 1993, they uploaded a promotional file to [AOL](/wiki/AOL \"AOL\") that contained portions of Issue 1\\. Enough people downloaded the file and subsequently paid for a subscription that Deniz and Blum were able to produce Issue 2 the next month. Several months later, sales increased substantially when [Graphic Simulations](/wiki/Graphic_Simulations \"Graphic Simulations\") released *F/A\\-18 Hornet* and included a promotional flyer for *IMG* in the box.",
"In 1995, *IMG* switched from floppy disks to [CD\\-ROMs](/wiki/CD-ROMs \"CD-ROMs\"), allowing for much more high quality content and games, and increased the annual subscription rate to $59\\. In August of that year, Paul Murphy reviewed one of their CD\\-ROMs for *[Dragon](/wiki/Dragon_%28magazine%29 \"Dragon (magazine)\")* and called it \"a great deal\", although he noted that the magazine itself was \"somewhat unexciting \\[...] *IMG* articles are competent and serviceable, with no distinctive voices, styles or viewpoints.\" It was the commercial software demos and shareware included on the CD\\-ROMs that Murphy called \"the real charm and value of the *IMG* CD.\" Murphy concluded that in the absence of any other magazines dedicated to Mac games, \"Mac game fans need *Inside Mac Games* to separate the wheat from the chaff. The demos and shareware \\[are] a barrel of fun and solid value.\"{{cite magazine\\|last\\=Murphy\\|first\\=Paul\\| date\\=August 1995 \\|title\\=Eye of the Monitor\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Dragon (magazine)\\|Dragon]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TSR (company)\\|TSR, Inc.]]\\|issue\\=220\\|pages\\=68}}",
"In 1996, Deniz left *IMG* to work for [Bungie](/wiki/Bungie \"Bungie\"), but returned in 1999\\. The following year, the CD\\-ROM distribution of the magazine was dropped in favour of downloads from the *IMG* website. By 2005, Deniz had opened an on\\-line software store through the *IMG* website, using a subscription model of $29 per month for a monthly free game and discounts on other products.",
"From 2005 to 2006, *IMG* produced a weekly [podcast](/wiki/Podcast \"Podcast\"), hosted by game designers Justin Ficarrotta and Will Miller, and critic Blake Buck.{{cite web\\|title\\=Inside Mac Games Feature: IMG Podcast Episode 33\\|url\\=http://insidemacgames.com/features/view.php?ID\\=474\\|website\\=insidemacgames.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2016}} that featured Mac game news, reviews and general discussion. After 33 episodes, the original hosts left to start a new podcast, {{cite web\\|title\\=BDPE Episode 1 – Best Damn Podcast Ever\\|url\\=http://bestdamnpodcastever.com/bdpe\\-episode\\-1/\\|website\\=bestdamnpodcastever.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2016}} and the *IMG* podcast was relaunched later the same year with a new host, running for a further 38 episodes.{{cite web\\|title\\=Inside Mac Games Feature: IMG Podcast: Feral Interactive's Edwin Smith Interviewed\\|url\\=http://insidemacgames.com/features/view.php?ID\\=563\\|website\\=insidemacgames.com\\|access\\-date\\=15 December 2016}}",
"By 2010, interest in Mac\\-exclusive games had cooled, and by 2018, the *IMG* website was reduced to the user forums, with a link to Tuncer Deniz's on\\-line software store.",
""
] |
Cuban Partagás
--------------
### History
[thumb\|right\|Partagás Serie D No.4](/wiki/File:Partag%C3%A1s_Serie_D_No._4.jpg "Partagás Serie D No. 4.jpg")
The [Catalan](/wiki/Catalan_people "Catalan people") Don Jaime Partagás y Ravell ([Arenys de Mar](/wiki/Arenys_de_Mar "Arenys de Mar"), 1816 \- Vuelta abajo, Cuba, 1868\) was the son of Jaume Partagás (tailor) and Teresa Ravell.CigarsConnect.com, *[Saga: Jaime Partagás, The Unscrupulous Spanish](https://www.cigars-connect.com/saga-jaime-partagas-the-unscrupulous-spanish/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414162211/https://www.cigars\-connect.com/saga\-jaime\-partagas\-the\-unscrupulous\-spanish/ \|date\=2017\-04\-14 }}*, 9 August 2016, retrieved 13 April 2017 He migrated to Cuba in 1831 and worked for Lloret de Mar businessman, Joan Conill in Havana. Establishing his own factory, La Flor de Tabacas de Partagás in 1845, at 1 Cristina St.{{Cite web\|first\=Amir\|last\=Saarony\|title\=Partagas El Libro\|location\=Toronto, Canada\|publisher\=Old Cuban Cigar Stuff\|year\=2012}}{{ISBN missing }}{{pages needed\|date\=October 2016}} in Havana (later relocated to Calle Industria), Don Jaime owned many plantations in the [Vuelta Abajo](/wiki/Vuelta_Abajo "Vuelta Abajo") tobacco\-growing region of Cuba. Don Jaime's ability to choose from among the finest tobaccos on the island, and an instinct for blending and fermenting tobaccos made the brand incredibly successful. Don Jaime is also legendarily credited with hiring one of the first *lectors* to entertain the cigar rollers as they worked.
Don Jaime was murdered on one of his plantations in 1868 and his son José Partagás took over the business. Later the factory and brand were sold to banker José A. Bances. In 1899, Bances invited Ramón Cifuentes Llano (1854\-1938\), a tabaquero from Ribadesella Spain – to join him as partner. Bances sold his remaining shares to Cifuentes the following year. Cifuentes took over management of Partagás with José Fernández López and was joined in 1916 by the Galician vegas owner and leaf wholesaler, Francisco Pego Pita, who in turn sold the company to Cifuentes, Fernández y Cía in 1900\. In 1916, Don José Fernández left the firm and Ramón Cifuentes Llano joined with [Francisco Pego Pita](/wiki/Francisco_Pego_Pita "Francisco Pego Pita") to form Cifuentes, Pego y Cía. In 1927, it acquired the rights to the [Ramón Allones](/wiki/Ramon_Allones_%28cigar_brand%29 "Ramon Allones (cigar brand)") brand; at some unknown point the factory began to produce a brand in its own name, [Cifuentes](/wiki/Cifuentes_%28cigar_brand%29 "Cifuentes (cigar brand)").
Ramón Cifuentes Llano died in 1938 and Pego in 1940, leaving his three sons in charge of Partagas. Ramón Cifuentes Toriello and his two brothers continued to build the increasingly prestigious factory and brand, and renamed the company Cifuentes y Cía. In 1954, the Cifuentes family acquired the [Bolívar](/wiki/Bolivar_%28cigar_brand%29 "Bolivar (cigar brand)") and [La Gloria Cubana](/wiki/La_Gloria_Cubana_%28cigar_brand%29 "La Gloria Cubana (cigar brand)") brands from [José F. Rocha](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_F._Rocha "José F. Rocha") and moved their production to the Cifuentes factory. By 1958 Partagás was second only to the [H. Upmann company](/wiki/H._Upmann_%28cigar_brand%29 "H. Upmann (cigar brand)") in exporting Cuban cigars, accounting for over a quarter of all exported tobacco goods.
On September 15, 1960, [Fidel Castro](/wiki/Fidel_Castro "Fidel Castro")'s revolutionary Cuban government seized 16 cigar factories, including the Partagas factory and related assets.Savona, David, *The Exodus*, Cigar Aficionado, November–December 2002 At 6:30{{nbs}}p.m. soldiers entered the Partagas *fabrica* and encountered Ramón Cifuentes Toriello. "They came inside and said, 'We're here to intervene the company,' Cifuentes recalled in 1991\. "And they didn't allow me to take anything from there." The Partagás brand was later selected for continued production under Cuban state government control, first by Cubatobaco and later Habanos S.A.
Before and after the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution "Cuban Revolution"), the Cuban\-produced Partagás has continued to be one of Cuba's best\-selling cigar brands. By the middle 1990s it was second in sales only to [Montecristo](/wiki/Montecristo_%28cigar_brand%29 "Montecristo (cigar brand)"), with annual sales of approximately 10 million cigars.James Suckling, "The Partagás Family: Cigar Smokers from Around the World Gathered in Havana and Orlando This Summer to Celebrate the 150th Anniversary of Partagas Cigars," *Cigar Aficionado,* vol. 4, no. 2 (Winter 1995/96\), pp. 134–143\.
The old Partagás Factory in Havana, since renamed "Francisco Pérez Germán", was responsible for the production of much of the brand until it was relocated 3 km from Havana Vieja. A new factory now produces most vitolas. Both locations are popular tourist destinations for cigar smokers vacationing in Cuba. The move to the new factory took place on January 2, 2012\.
In 2002, [Altadis](/wiki/Altadis "Altadis") bought a controlling share in the Cuban government\-owned cigar distributor, Habanos SA, and instituted a number of changes in cigar production. Among them was gradually turning the various brands of Cuban cigars to either all\-handmade or all\-machine\-made lines, reducing the number of redundant sizes within a brand, and eliminating many low\-selling cigars. Many of Partagás lesser\-known handmade and all machine\-made cigars were cut from production. Today, all Cuban Partagás cigar vitolas are hand\-made.
Since the introduction of the *Edición Limitada* annual releases, Partagás has produced a special size almost every year: the Pirámide in 2000, the Serie D No. 3 in 2001, the Serie D No. 2 in 2003, the Serie D No. 1 in 2004, a reissue of the Serie D No. 3 in 2006, and the Serie D No. 5 in 2008\. In 2005, Partagás introduced a pyramid, the Serie P No. 2\.
Partagás also offers two machine\-made [cigarillos](/wiki/Cigarillo "Cigarillo"), (the Mini and the club), as well as a branded [cigarettes](/wiki/Cigarette "Cigarette").
### *Vitolas* in the Partagás Line
[thumb\|300px\|right\|Partagás Serie D No. 1, Edición Limitada 2004\.](/wiki/Image:PSD1.jpg "PSD1.jpg")
[thumb\|300px\|right\|Partagás Culebras with box.](/wiki/Image:Partag%C3%A1s_Culebras_edit.jpg "Partagás Culebras edit.jpg")
The following list of vitolas de salida (commercial vitolas) within the Partagás marque lists their size and ring gauge in Imperial (and Metric), their vitolas de galera (factory vitolas), and their English translation.
*Hand\-Made Vitolas*
* 898 Cabinet Selección Varnished \- 6{{fraction\|3\|4}}" × 43 (171 × 17\.07 mm), Dalia, a lonsdale
* Aristocrat \- 5{{fraction\|1\|8}}" × 40 (130 × 15\.88 mm), Petit Cetro, a petit corona
* Corona Junior \- 4{{fraction\|5\|8}}" × 40 (117 × 15\.88 mm), Coronita, a petit corona
* Corona Senior \- 5{{fraction\|1\|4}}" × 42 (133 × 16\.67 mm), Eminente, a corona
* Culebras \- 5{{fraction\|3\|4}}" × 39 (146 × 15\.48 mm), Culebras, a culebra
* Habanero \- 4{{fraction\|7\|8}}" × 39 (124 × 15\.48 mm), Belvedere, a short panetela
* Lusitania \- 7{{fraction\|5\|8}}" × 49 (194 × 19\.45 mm), Prominente, a double corona
* Mille Fleurs \- 5{{fraction\|1\|8}}" × 42 (130 × 16\.67 mm), Petit Corona, a petit corona
* No. 1 \- 6{{fraction\|3\|4}}" × 43 (171 × 17\.07 mm), Dalia, a lonsdale
* Partagás de Luxe \- 5{{fraction\|1\|2}}" × 40 (140 × 15\.88 mm), Crema, a corona
* Petit Corona Especial \- 5{{fraction\|1\|4}}" × 42 (133 × 16\.67 mm), Eminente, a corona
* Presidente \- 6{{fraction\|1\|4}}" × 47 (159 × 18\.65 mm), Taco, a perfecto
* Princess \- 5" × 35 (127 × 13\.89 mm), Conchita, a short panetela
* Serie du Connaisseur No. 1 \- 7{{fraction\|1\|2}}" × 38 (191 × 15\.08 mm), Delicado, a long panetela
* Serie du Connaisseur No. 2 \- 6{{fraction\|1\|2}}" × 38 (165 × 15\.08 mm), Parejo, a panetela
* Serie du Connaisseur No. 3 \- 5{{fraction\|5\|8}}" × 35 (143 × 13\.89 mm), Carlota, a panetela
* Serie D No. 4 \- 4{{fraction\|7\|8}}" × 50 (124 × 19\.84 mm), Robusto, a robusto
* Serie D No. 5 \- 4{{fraction\|1\|3}}" × 50 (110 × 19\.84 mm), Serie D No. 5, a petit robusto
* Serie D No. 6 \- 3{{fraction\|1\|2}}" × 50 (90 × 19\.84 mm), Serie D No. 6, a petit robusto
* Serie E No. 2 \- 5\.5" x 54 (140 x 21\.43 mm), Duke, a robusto extra
* Serie P No. 2 \- 6{{fraction\|1\|8}}" × 52 (156 × 20\.64 mm), Pirámide, a pyramid
* Short \- 4{{fraction\|3\|8}}" × 42 (111 × 16\.67 mm), Minuto, a petit corona
* Super Partagás \- 5{{fraction\|1\|2}}" × 40 (140 × 15\.88 mm), Crema, a corona
*Edición Limitada Releases*
* Pirámide (2000\) \- 6{{fraction\|1\|8}}" × 52 (156 × 20\.64 mm), Pirámide, a pyramid
* Serie D No. 3 (2001/re\-release in 2006\), \- 5{{fraction\|5\|8}}" × 46 (143 × 18\.26 mm), Corona Gorda, a grand corona
* Serie D No. 2 (2003\) \- 6{{fraction\|1\|8}}" × 50 (156 × 19\.84 mm), Doble, a robusto extra
* Serie D No. 1 (2004\) \- 6{{fraction\|3\|4}}" × 50 (171 × 19\.84 mm), Partagás No. 16, a double robusto
* Serie D No. 5 (2008\) \- 4{{fraction\|1\|3}}" × 50 (110 × 19\.84 mm), Serie D No. 5, a petit robusto
* Serie D Especial (2010\) \- 5\.6" x 50 (141 x 50\), Gordito, a robusto extra
* Serie C No. 3 (2012\) \- 5\.5" x 48 (140 x 48\), Hermoso No. 3, a grand corona
|
[
"Cuban Partagás\n--------------",
"### History",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Partagás Serie D No.4](/wiki/File:Partag%C3%A1s_Serie_D_No._4.jpg \"Partagás Serie D No. 4.jpg\")\nThe [Catalan](/wiki/Catalan_people \"Catalan people\") Don Jaime Partagás y Ravell ([Arenys de Mar](/wiki/Arenys_de_Mar \"Arenys de Mar\"), 1816 \\- Vuelta abajo, Cuba, 1868\\) was the son of Jaume Partagás (tailor) and Teresa Ravell.CigarsConnect.com, *[Saga: Jaime Partagás, The Unscrupulous Spanish](https://www.cigars-connect.com/saga-jaime-partagas-the-unscrupulous-spanish/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414162211/https://www.cigars\\-connect.com/saga\\-jaime\\-partagas\\-the\\-unscrupulous\\-spanish/ \\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-14 }}*, 9 August 2016, retrieved 13 April 2017 He migrated to Cuba in 1831 and worked for Lloret de Mar businessman, Joan Conill in Havana. Establishing his own factory, La Flor de Tabacas de Partagás in 1845, at 1 Cristina St.{{Cite web\\|first\\=Amir\\|last\\=Saarony\\|title\\=Partagas El Libro\\|location\\=Toronto, Canada\\|publisher\\=Old Cuban Cigar Stuff\\|year\\=2012}}{{ISBN missing }}{{pages needed\\|date\\=October 2016}} in Havana (later relocated to Calle Industria), Don Jaime owned many plantations in the [Vuelta Abajo](/wiki/Vuelta_Abajo \"Vuelta Abajo\") tobacco\\-growing region of Cuba. Don Jaime's ability to choose from among the finest tobaccos on the island, and an instinct for blending and fermenting tobaccos made the brand incredibly successful. Don Jaime is also legendarily credited with hiring one of the first *lectors* to entertain the cigar rollers as they worked.",
"Don Jaime was murdered on one of his plantations in 1868 and his son José Partagás took over the business. Later the factory and brand were sold to banker José A. Bances. In 1899, Bances invited Ramón Cifuentes Llano (1854\\-1938\\), a tabaquero from Ribadesella Spain – to join him as partner. Bances sold his remaining shares to Cifuentes the following year. Cifuentes took over management of Partagás with José Fernández López and was joined in 1916 by the Galician vegas owner and leaf wholesaler, Francisco Pego Pita, who in turn sold the company to Cifuentes, Fernández y Cía in 1900\\. In 1916, Don José Fernández left the firm and Ramón Cifuentes Llano joined with [Francisco Pego Pita](/wiki/Francisco_Pego_Pita \"Francisco Pego Pita\") to form Cifuentes, Pego y Cía. In 1927, it acquired the rights to the [Ramón Allones](/wiki/Ramon_Allones_%28cigar_brand%29 \"Ramon Allones (cigar brand)\") brand; at some unknown point the factory began to produce a brand in its own name, [Cifuentes](/wiki/Cifuentes_%28cigar_brand%29 \"Cifuentes (cigar brand)\").",
"Ramón Cifuentes Llano died in 1938 and Pego in 1940, leaving his three sons in charge of Partagas. Ramón Cifuentes Toriello and his two brothers continued to build the increasingly prestigious factory and brand, and renamed the company Cifuentes y Cía. In 1954, the Cifuentes family acquired the [Bolívar](/wiki/Bolivar_%28cigar_brand%29 \"Bolivar (cigar brand)\") and [La Gloria Cubana](/wiki/La_Gloria_Cubana_%28cigar_brand%29 \"La Gloria Cubana (cigar brand)\") brands from [José F. Rocha](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_F._Rocha \"José F. Rocha\") and moved their production to the Cifuentes factory. By 1958 Partagás was second only to the [H. Upmann company](/wiki/H._Upmann_%28cigar_brand%29 \"H. Upmann (cigar brand)\") in exporting Cuban cigars, accounting for over a quarter of all exported tobacco goods.",
"On September 15, 1960, [Fidel Castro](/wiki/Fidel_Castro \"Fidel Castro\")'s revolutionary Cuban government seized 16 cigar factories, including the Partagas factory and related assets.Savona, David, *The Exodus*, Cigar Aficionado, November–December 2002 At 6:30{{nbs}}p.m. soldiers entered the Partagas *fabrica* and encountered Ramón Cifuentes Toriello. \"They came inside and said, 'We're here to intervene the company,' Cifuentes recalled in 1991\\. \"And they didn't allow me to take anything from there.\" The Partagás brand was later selected for continued production under Cuban state government control, first by Cubatobaco and later Habanos S.A.",
"Before and after the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution \"Cuban Revolution\"), the Cuban\\-produced Partagás has continued to be one of Cuba's best\\-selling cigar brands. By the middle 1990s it was second in sales only to [Montecristo](/wiki/Montecristo_%28cigar_brand%29 \"Montecristo (cigar brand)\"), with annual sales of approximately 10 million cigars.James Suckling, \"The Partagás Family: Cigar Smokers from Around the World Gathered in Havana and Orlando This Summer to Celebrate the 150th Anniversary of Partagas Cigars,\" *Cigar Aficionado,* vol. 4, no. 2 (Winter 1995/96\\), pp. 134–143\\.",
"The old Partagás Factory in Havana, since renamed \"Francisco Pérez Germán\", was responsible for the production of much of the brand until it was relocated 3 km from Havana Vieja. A new factory now produces most vitolas. Both locations are popular tourist destinations for cigar smokers vacationing in Cuba. The move to the new factory took place on January 2, 2012\\.",
"In 2002, [Altadis](/wiki/Altadis \"Altadis\") bought a controlling share in the Cuban government\\-owned cigar distributor, Habanos SA, and instituted a number of changes in cigar production. Among them was gradually turning the various brands of Cuban cigars to either all\\-handmade or all\\-machine\\-made lines, reducing the number of redundant sizes within a brand, and eliminating many low\\-selling cigars. Many of Partagás lesser\\-known handmade and all machine\\-made cigars were cut from production. Today, all Cuban Partagás cigar vitolas are hand\\-made.",
"Since the introduction of the *Edición Limitada* annual releases, Partagás has produced a special size almost every year: the Pirámide in 2000, the Serie D No. 3 in 2001, the Serie D No. 2 in 2003, the Serie D No. 1 in 2004, a reissue of the Serie D No. 3 in 2006, and the Serie D No. 5 in 2008\\. In 2005, Partagás introduced a pyramid, the Serie P No. 2\\.",
"Partagás also offers two machine\\-made [cigarillos](/wiki/Cigarillo \"Cigarillo\"), (the Mini and the club), as well as a branded [cigarettes](/wiki/Cigarette \"Cigarette\").",
"### *Vitolas* in the Partagás Line",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|Partagás Serie D No. 1, Edición Limitada 2004\\.](/wiki/Image:PSD1.jpg \"PSD1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|Partagás Culebras with box.](/wiki/Image:Partag%C3%A1s_Culebras_edit.jpg \"Partagás Culebras edit.jpg\")\nThe following list of vitolas de salida (commercial vitolas) within the Partagás marque lists their size and ring gauge in Imperial (and Metric), their vitolas de galera (factory vitolas), and their English translation.",
"*Hand\\-Made Vitolas*\n* 898 Cabinet Selección Varnished \\- 6{{fraction\\|3\\|4}}\" × 43 (171 × 17\\.07 mm), Dalia, a lonsdale\n* Aristocrat \\- 5{{fraction\\|1\\|8}}\" × 40 (130 × 15\\.88 mm), Petit Cetro, a petit corona\n* Corona Junior \\- 4{{fraction\\|5\\|8}}\" × 40 (117 × 15\\.88 mm), Coronita, a petit corona\n* Corona Senior \\- 5{{fraction\\|1\\|4}}\" × 42 (133 × 16\\.67 mm), Eminente, a corona\n* Culebras \\- 5{{fraction\\|3\\|4}}\" × 39 (146 × 15\\.48 mm), Culebras, a culebra\n* Habanero \\- 4{{fraction\\|7\\|8}}\" × 39 (124 × 15\\.48 mm), Belvedere, a short panetela\n* Lusitania \\- 7{{fraction\\|5\\|8}}\" × 49 (194 × 19\\.45 mm), Prominente, a double corona\n* Mille Fleurs \\- 5{{fraction\\|1\\|8}}\" × 42 (130 × 16\\.67 mm), Petit Corona, a petit corona\n* No. 1 \\- 6{{fraction\\|3\\|4}}\" × 43 (171 × 17\\.07 mm), Dalia, a lonsdale\n* Partagás de Luxe \\- 5{{fraction\\|1\\|2}}\" × 40 (140 × 15\\.88 mm), Crema, a corona\n* Petit Corona Especial \\- 5{{fraction\\|1\\|4}}\" × 42 (133 × 16\\.67 mm), Eminente, a corona\n* Presidente \\- 6{{fraction\\|1\\|4}}\" × 47 (159 × 18\\.65 mm), Taco, a perfecto\n* Princess \\- 5\" × 35 (127 × 13\\.89 mm), Conchita, a short panetela\n* Serie du Connaisseur No. 1 \\- 7{{fraction\\|1\\|2}}\" × 38 (191 × 15\\.08 mm), Delicado, a long panetela\n* Serie du Connaisseur No. 2 \\- 6{{fraction\\|1\\|2}}\" × 38 (165 × 15\\.08 mm), Parejo, a panetela\n* Serie du Connaisseur No. 3 \\- 5{{fraction\\|5\\|8}}\" × 35 (143 × 13\\.89 mm), Carlota, a panetela\n* Serie D No. 4 \\- 4{{fraction\\|7\\|8}}\" × 50 (124 × 19\\.84 mm), Robusto, a robusto\n* Serie D No. 5 \\- 4{{fraction\\|1\\|3}}\" × 50 (110 × 19\\.84 mm), Serie D No. 5, a petit robusto\n* Serie D No. 6 \\- 3{{fraction\\|1\\|2}}\" × 50 (90 × 19\\.84 mm), Serie D No. 6, a petit robusto\n* Serie E No. 2 \\- 5\\.5\" x 54 (140 x 21\\.43 mm), Duke, a robusto extra\n* Serie P No. 2 \\- 6{{fraction\\|1\\|8}}\" × 52 (156 × 20\\.64 mm), Pirámide, a pyramid\n* Short \\- 4{{fraction\\|3\\|8}}\" × 42 (111 × 16\\.67 mm), Minuto, a petit corona\n* Super Partagás \\- 5{{fraction\\|1\\|2}}\" × 40 (140 × 15\\.88 mm), Crema, a corona\n*Edición Limitada Releases*\n* Pirámide (2000\\) \\- 6{{fraction\\|1\\|8}}\" × 52 (156 × 20\\.64 mm), Pirámide, a pyramid\n* Serie D No. 3 (2001/re\\-release in 2006\\), \\- 5{{fraction\\|5\\|8}}\" × 46 (143 × 18\\.26 mm), Corona Gorda, a grand corona\n* Serie D No. 2 (2003\\) \\- 6{{fraction\\|1\\|8}}\" × 50 (156 × 19\\.84 mm), Doble, a robusto extra\n* Serie D No. 1 (2004\\) \\- 6{{fraction\\|3\\|4}}\" × 50 (171 × 19\\.84 mm), Partagás No. 16, a double robusto\n* Serie D No. 5 (2008\\) \\- 4{{fraction\\|1\\|3}}\" × 50 (110 × 19\\.84 mm), Serie D No. 5, a petit robusto\n* Serie D Especial (2010\\) \\- 5\\.6\" x 50 (141 x 50\\), Gordito, a robusto extra\n* Serie C No. 3 (2012\\) \\- 5\\.5\" x 48 (140 x 48\\), Hermoso No. 3, a grand corona",
""
] |
### History
[thumb\|right\|Partagás Serie D No.4](/wiki/File:Partag%C3%A1s_Serie_D_No._4.jpg "Partagás Serie D No. 4.jpg")
The [Catalan](/wiki/Catalan_people "Catalan people") Don Jaime Partagás y Ravell ([Arenys de Mar](/wiki/Arenys_de_Mar "Arenys de Mar"), 1816 \- Vuelta abajo, Cuba, 1868\) was the son of Jaume Partagás (tailor) and Teresa Ravell.CigarsConnect.com, *[Saga: Jaime Partagás, The Unscrupulous Spanish](https://www.cigars-connect.com/saga-jaime-partagas-the-unscrupulous-spanish/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414162211/https://www.cigars\-connect.com/saga\-jaime\-partagas\-the\-unscrupulous\-spanish/ \|date\=2017\-04\-14 }}*, 9 August 2016, retrieved 13 April 2017 He migrated to Cuba in 1831 and worked for Lloret de Mar businessman, Joan Conill in Havana. Establishing his own factory, La Flor de Tabacas de Partagás in 1845, at 1 Cristina St.{{Cite web\|first\=Amir\|last\=Saarony\|title\=Partagas El Libro\|location\=Toronto, Canada\|publisher\=Old Cuban Cigar Stuff\|year\=2012}}{{ISBN missing }}{{pages needed\|date\=October 2016}} in Havana (later relocated to Calle Industria), Don Jaime owned many plantations in the [Vuelta Abajo](/wiki/Vuelta_Abajo "Vuelta Abajo") tobacco\-growing region of Cuba. Don Jaime's ability to choose from among the finest tobaccos on the island, and an instinct for blending and fermenting tobaccos made the brand incredibly successful. Don Jaime is also legendarily credited with hiring one of the first *lectors* to entertain the cigar rollers as they worked.
Don Jaime was murdered on one of his plantations in 1868 and his son José Partagás took over the business. Later the factory and brand were sold to banker José A. Bances. In 1899, Bances invited Ramón Cifuentes Llano (1854\-1938\), a tabaquero from Ribadesella Spain – to join him as partner. Bances sold his remaining shares to Cifuentes the following year. Cifuentes took over management of Partagás with José Fernández López and was joined in 1916 by the Galician vegas owner and leaf wholesaler, Francisco Pego Pita, who in turn sold the company to Cifuentes, Fernández y Cía in 1900\. In 1916, Don José Fernández left the firm and Ramón Cifuentes Llano joined with [Francisco Pego Pita](/wiki/Francisco_Pego_Pita "Francisco Pego Pita") to form Cifuentes, Pego y Cía. In 1927, it acquired the rights to the [Ramón Allones](/wiki/Ramon_Allones_%28cigar_brand%29 "Ramon Allones (cigar brand)") brand; at some unknown point the factory began to produce a brand in its own name, [Cifuentes](/wiki/Cifuentes_%28cigar_brand%29 "Cifuentes (cigar brand)").
Ramón Cifuentes Llano died in 1938 and Pego in 1940, leaving his three sons in charge of Partagas. Ramón Cifuentes Toriello and his two brothers continued to build the increasingly prestigious factory and brand, and renamed the company Cifuentes y Cía. In 1954, the Cifuentes family acquired the [Bolívar](/wiki/Bolivar_%28cigar_brand%29 "Bolivar (cigar brand)") and [La Gloria Cubana](/wiki/La_Gloria_Cubana_%28cigar_brand%29 "La Gloria Cubana (cigar brand)") brands from [José F. Rocha](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_F._Rocha "José F. Rocha") and moved their production to the Cifuentes factory. By 1958 Partagás was second only to the [H. Upmann company](/wiki/H._Upmann_%28cigar_brand%29 "H. Upmann (cigar brand)") in exporting Cuban cigars, accounting for over a quarter of all exported tobacco goods.
On September 15, 1960, [Fidel Castro](/wiki/Fidel_Castro "Fidel Castro")'s revolutionary Cuban government seized 16 cigar factories, including the Partagas factory and related assets.Savona, David, *The Exodus*, Cigar Aficionado, November–December 2002 At 6:30{{nbs}}p.m. soldiers entered the Partagas *fabrica* and encountered Ramón Cifuentes Toriello. "They came inside and said, 'We're here to intervene the company,' Cifuentes recalled in 1991\. "And they didn't allow me to take anything from there." The Partagás brand was later selected for continued production under Cuban state government control, first by Cubatobaco and later Habanos S.A.
Before and after the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution "Cuban Revolution"), the Cuban\-produced Partagás has continued to be one of Cuba's best\-selling cigar brands. By the middle 1990s it was second in sales only to [Montecristo](/wiki/Montecristo_%28cigar_brand%29 "Montecristo (cigar brand)"), with annual sales of approximately 10 million cigars.James Suckling, "The Partagás Family: Cigar Smokers from Around the World Gathered in Havana and Orlando This Summer to Celebrate the 150th Anniversary of Partagas Cigars," *Cigar Aficionado,* vol. 4, no. 2 (Winter 1995/96\), pp. 134–143\.
The old Partagás Factory in Havana, since renamed "Francisco Pérez Germán", was responsible for the production of much of the brand until it was relocated 3 km from Havana Vieja. A new factory now produces most vitolas. Both locations are popular tourist destinations for cigar smokers vacationing in Cuba. The move to the new factory took place on January 2, 2012\.
In 2002, [Altadis](/wiki/Altadis "Altadis") bought a controlling share in the Cuban government\-owned cigar distributor, Habanos SA, and instituted a number of changes in cigar production. Among them was gradually turning the various brands of Cuban cigars to either all\-handmade or all\-machine\-made lines, reducing the number of redundant sizes within a brand, and eliminating many low\-selling cigars. Many of Partagás lesser\-known handmade and all machine\-made cigars were cut from production. Today, all Cuban Partagás cigar vitolas are hand\-made.
Since the introduction of the *Edición Limitada* annual releases, Partagás has produced a special size almost every year: the Pirámide in 2000, the Serie D No. 3 in 2001, the Serie D No. 2 in 2003, the Serie D No. 1 in 2004, a reissue of the Serie D No. 3 in 2006, and the Serie D No. 5 in 2008\. In 2005, Partagás introduced a pyramid, the Serie P No. 2\.
Partagás also offers two machine\-made [cigarillos](/wiki/Cigarillo "Cigarillo"), (the Mini and the club), as well as a branded [cigarettes](/wiki/Cigarette "Cigarette").
|
[
"### History",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Partagás Serie D No.4](/wiki/File:Partag%C3%A1s_Serie_D_No._4.jpg \"Partagás Serie D No. 4.jpg\")\nThe [Catalan](/wiki/Catalan_people \"Catalan people\") Don Jaime Partagás y Ravell ([Arenys de Mar](/wiki/Arenys_de_Mar \"Arenys de Mar\"), 1816 \\- Vuelta abajo, Cuba, 1868\\) was the son of Jaume Partagás (tailor) and Teresa Ravell.CigarsConnect.com, *[Saga: Jaime Partagás, The Unscrupulous Spanish](https://www.cigars-connect.com/saga-jaime-partagas-the-unscrupulous-spanish/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414162211/https://www.cigars\\-connect.com/saga\\-jaime\\-partagas\\-the\\-unscrupulous\\-spanish/ \\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-14 }}*, 9 August 2016, retrieved 13 April 2017 He migrated to Cuba in 1831 and worked for Lloret de Mar businessman, Joan Conill in Havana. Establishing his own factory, La Flor de Tabacas de Partagás in 1845, at 1 Cristina St.{{Cite web\\|first\\=Amir\\|last\\=Saarony\\|title\\=Partagas El Libro\\|location\\=Toronto, Canada\\|publisher\\=Old Cuban Cigar Stuff\\|year\\=2012}}{{ISBN missing }}{{pages needed\\|date\\=October 2016}} in Havana (later relocated to Calle Industria), Don Jaime owned many plantations in the [Vuelta Abajo](/wiki/Vuelta_Abajo \"Vuelta Abajo\") tobacco\\-growing region of Cuba. Don Jaime's ability to choose from among the finest tobaccos on the island, and an instinct for blending and fermenting tobaccos made the brand incredibly successful. Don Jaime is also legendarily credited with hiring one of the first *lectors* to entertain the cigar rollers as they worked.",
"Don Jaime was murdered on one of his plantations in 1868 and his son José Partagás took over the business. Later the factory and brand were sold to banker José A. Bances. In 1899, Bances invited Ramón Cifuentes Llano (1854\\-1938\\), a tabaquero from Ribadesella Spain – to join him as partner. Bances sold his remaining shares to Cifuentes the following year. Cifuentes took over management of Partagás with José Fernández López and was joined in 1916 by the Galician vegas owner and leaf wholesaler, Francisco Pego Pita, who in turn sold the company to Cifuentes, Fernández y Cía in 1900\\. In 1916, Don José Fernández left the firm and Ramón Cifuentes Llano joined with [Francisco Pego Pita](/wiki/Francisco_Pego_Pita \"Francisco Pego Pita\") to form Cifuentes, Pego y Cía. In 1927, it acquired the rights to the [Ramón Allones](/wiki/Ramon_Allones_%28cigar_brand%29 \"Ramon Allones (cigar brand)\") brand; at some unknown point the factory began to produce a brand in its own name, [Cifuentes](/wiki/Cifuentes_%28cigar_brand%29 \"Cifuentes (cigar brand)\").",
"Ramón Cifuentes Llano died in 1938 and Pego in 1940, leaving his three sons in charge of Partagas. Ramón Cifuentes Toriello and his two brothers continued to build the increasingly prestigious factory and brand, and renamed the company Cifuentes y Cía. In 1954, the Cifuentes family acquired the [Bolívar](/wiki/Bolivar_%28cigar_brand%29 \"Bolivar (cigar brand)\") and [La Gloria Cubana](/wiki/La_Gloria_Cubana_%28cigar_brand%29 \"La Gloria Cubana (cigar brand)\") brands from [José F. Rocha](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_F._Rocha \"José F. Rocha\") and moved their production to the Cifuentes factory. By 1958 Partagás was second only to the [H. Upmann company](/wiki/H._Upmann_%28cigar_brand%29 \"H. Upmann (cigar brand)\") in exporting Cuban cigars, accounting for over a quarter of all exported tobacco goods.",
"On September 15, 1960, [Fidel Castro](/wiki/Fidel_Castro \"Fidel Castro\")'s revolutionary Cuban government seized 16 cigar factories, including the Partagas factory and related assets.Savona, David, *The Exodus*, Cigar Aficionado, November–December 2002 At 6:30{{nbs}}p.m. soldiers entered the Partagas *fabrica* and encountered Ramón Cifuentes Toriello. \"They came inside and said, 'We're here to intervene the company,' Cifuentes recalled in 1991\\. \"And they didn't allow me to take anything from there.\" The Partagás brand was later selected for continued production under Cuban state government control, first by Cubatobaco and later Habanos S.A.",
"Before and after the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution \"Cuban Revolution\"), the Cuban\\-produced Partagás has continued to be one of Cuba's best\\-selling cigar brands. By the middle 1990s it was second in sales only to [Montecristo](/wiki/Montecristo_%28cigar_brand%29 \"Montecristo (cigar brand)\"), with annual sales of approximately 10 million cigars.James Suckling, \"The Partagás Family: Cigar Smokers from Around the World Gathered in Havana and Orlando This Summer to Celebrate the 150th Anniversary of Partagas Cigars,\" *Cigar Aficionado,* vol. 4, no. 2 (Winter 1995/96\\), pp. 134–143\\.",
"The old Partagás Factory in Havana, since renamed \"Francisco Pérez Germán\", was responsible for the production of much of the brand until it was relocated 3 km from Havana Vieja. A new factory now produces most vitolas. Both locations are popular tourist destinations for cigar smokers vacationing in Cuba. The move to the new factory took place on January 2, 2012\\.",
"In 2002, [Altadis](/wiki/Altadis \"Altadis\") bought a controlling share in the Cuban government\\-owned cigar distributor, Habanos SA, and instituted a number of changes in cigar production. Among them was gradually turning the various brands of Cuban cigars to either all\\-handmade or all\\-machine\\-made lines, reducing the number of redundant sizes within a brand, and eliminating many low\\-selling cigars. Many of Partagás lesser\\-known handmade and all machine\\-made cigars were cut from production. Today, all Cuban Partagás cigar vitolas are hand\\-made.",
"Since the introduction of the *Edición Limitada* annual releases, Partagás has produced a special size almost every year: the Pirámide in 2000, the Serie D No. 3 in 2001, the Serie D No. 2 in 2003, the Serie D No. 1 in 2004, a reissue of the Serie D No. 3 in 2006, and the Serie D No. 5 in 2008\\. In 2005, Partagás introduced a pyramid, the Serie P No. 2\\.",
"Partagás also offers two machine\\-made [cigarillos](/wiki/Cigarillo \"Cigarillo\"), (the Mini and the club), as well as a branded [cigarettes](/wiki/Cigarette \"Cigarette\").",
""
] |
Main characters
---------------
### Bai Amaya
[thumb\|[Marian Rivera](/wiki/Marian_Rivera "Marian Rivera") plays Bai Amaya](/wiki/File:Marian_Rivera_and_Dingdong_Dantes_LA_Press_Conference%2C_December_2008.jpg "Marian Rivera and Dingdong Dantes LA Press Conference, December 2008.jpg")
Portrayed by [Marian Rivera](/wiki/Marian_Rivera "Marian Rivera") (Edelweiss Tuzon as Young Amaya)
Amaya is the main protagonist of the series. She is the daughter of Datu Bugna and Dal'lang. She is the female warrior in Rajah Mangubat's prophecy with a twin snake who is destined to put an end to his reign of terror. However, in a twist of fate, she and Raja Mangubat's son, Bagani met and falls in love.
From being a *Bai* (princess), she was turned into an *uripon* (slave) by Dian Lamitan when her father was killed by Rajah Mangubat due to Lamitan's treachery. She eventually rose among the ranks to become a *punong alabay* (babaylan's head apprentice) until she was forced to flee after accidentally killing Rajah Mangubat from a self\-defense. While in exile, Amaya becomes the *[baybayin](/wiki/Baybayin "Baybayin")* teacher of the tribe Lumad where she meets Dayaw. She then becomes a full\-pledged warrior and reunites with Bagani to claim the leadership from Dian Lamitan and at the same time, avenge her father's death. She and Bagani had a child named Bugna.
### Bagani
Portrayed by [Sid Lucero](/wiki/Sid_Lucero "Sid Lucero") ([Byron Ortile](/wiki/Byron_Ortile "Byron Ortile") as Young Bagani; Carlo Lacana as Teen Bagani)
Bagani is the son and successor of Rajah Mangubat. He marries Marikit in order to save Amaya from the hands of Dian Lamitan and Marikit herself. He is later stripped off of his title and becomes an outcast for deceiving his father about his *batuk* (tattoo of accomplishment). In exile, he became a notorious Datu of the *Mangatangs* (raiders/pirates).
After Dian Lamitan's death, Bagani is proclaimed as the new Rajah. He offers Amaya to marry him but was turned down the offer due to Amaya choosing to continue to rule her own tribe even though they really love each other. At the end, he transferred his leadership to his brother Banuk to be with Amaya and their child, Bugna.
### Lumad
Portrayed by [Mikael Daez](/wiki/Mikael_Daez "Mikael Daez")
Lumad was the *uripon* of Atubang. He was Amaya's friend and closest ally, and also was the son of a Datu until their *puod* was raided by Rajah Mangubat. He had a wife named Bai Libulan, who was carrying their unborn son, but was killed in the raid.
He was killed by Bagani in a fight while aiding Amaya to flee.
### Dian Lamitan
Portrayed by [Gina Alajar](/wiki/Gina_Alajar "Gina Alajar")
Dian Lamitan is the main antagonist of the series. She is the wife of Datu Bugna. She hated Amaya for being Bugna's daughter from an *uripon* named Dal'lang. Rajah Mangubat later found out that she was the reason why Datu Bugna died, why Marikit succumbed to mental illness, and why Amaya got flayed of her status as a *binukot* \- and so he stripped Lamitan of her status as a Dian. She was sentenced to be an *uripon* for the rest of her lifetime but regains her status when her ally Angaway becomes the new Rajah of the *puod*.
She declares herself the new Hara of the puod when Angaway dies. At the end, she is captured by her own daughter Marikit and Abrahm and surrenders her to Bagani and Amaya to face her own execution. She dies after being devoured by a giant sea creature *Bakunawa* summoned by Amaya. In the afterlife, she is haunted for eternity by the spirits of Bugna, Binayaan, Awi, and Lingayan.
### Bai Marikit
Portrayed by [Rochelle Pangilinan](/wiki/Rochelle_Pangilinan "Rochelle Pangilinan") (Kate Velarde as Young Marikit)
Bai Marikit is eldest daughter of Datu Bugna and Dian Lamitan. She tries to steal Bagani away from Amaya at all cost and eventually becomes his wife. Soon after Bagani was disowned by Mangubat, her own mother, Dian Lamitan, had her unborn child aborted and their marriage annulled to retain prestige in the *puod*. Furthermore, Dian Lamitan, to gain higher status in the *puod*, forced her to marry Rajah Mangubat. Marikit loses her mind after this believing that her unborn child is still in her womb. She comes back to normal when Amaya treated her.
Marikit later marries Abhram to gain a higher status in order to take revenge against her mother, Dian Lamitan
### Bai Binayaan/Yang Tersayang
Portrayed by [Glaiza de Castro](/wiki/Glaiza_de_Castro "Glaiza de Castro") ([Francheska Salcedo](/wiki/Francheska_Salcedo "Francheska Salcedo") as Young Binayaan)
Bai Binayaan is the second daughter of Datu Bugna and Dian Lamitan. Her name, Binayaan comes from the word biya which means left alone/forsaken. Unloved by her parents, she poses as Amaya when Dal'lang found her after Rajah Mangubat invaded their *banwa*. Feeling guilty in using her sister's name, she changes her name from Binayaan to Yang Tersayang (which means beloved one) to avoid being identified as Datu Bugna's daughter.
She marries Datu Saghid but later betrays her own husband. When Angaway becomes the new Rajah, Dian Lamitan tries to use Binayaan to seduced Rajah Angaway to be her concubine, but she is saved by Bagani by marrying her. She later carries Bagani's child but was poisoned to death after she refuses to let her unborn child out of her womb.
Her death is finally vengeful of her sisters Markit and Amaya to downfall Lamitan.
### Rajah Mangubat
Portrayed by [Gardo Versoza](/wiki/Gardo_Versoza "Gardo Versoza") ([Julian Trono](/wiki/Julian_Trono "Julian Trono") as Young Rajah Mangubat)
Rajah Mangubat is known as a great and undefeated warrior\-king but with a reputation of being a ruthless leader. He is the father of Bagani and is married to Hara Lingayan, he then later takes Marikit as his fourth concubine. During his reign, he meets a *babaylan* (village priestess) who prophesies that a day will come when he will be defeated and be killed by a female warrior with a twin snake.
In the end, he was accidentally killed by Amaya trying to protect herself from his attack.
### Dayaw
Portrayed by [Aljur Abrenica](/wiki/Aljur_Abrenica "Aljur Abrenica")
Dayaw is *Manobo* warrior, who becomes Amaya's new ally and protector when she was put to exile. He is the son of Posaka, the chief of the *Manobo* tribe. He kills himself to stop Dian Lamitan from using him to capture Amaya in order to kill her.
### Dal'lang
Portrayed by [Lani Mercado](/wiki/Lani_Mercado "Lani Mercado")
Dal'lang is the lover of Datu Bugna and that makes Dian Lamitan despise her so much. They bore a daughter with a twin snake that was later called Amaya. She is a loving and caring mother of Amaya. She takes and treats Bai Binayaan as her own daughter until she finally meets her real daughter, Amaya. She also takes care of Alunsina.
### Hara Lingayan
Portrayed by [Ayen Munji\-Laurel](/wiki/Ayen_Munji-Laurel "Ayen Munji-Laurel")
Hara Lingayan is the wife of Rajah Mangubat and the mother of Bagani and Banuk. The people love and respect her because of her righteousness and intelligence. She is the mortal enemy of Dian Lamitan and used to be an ally of Amaya. She hated Amaya for killing her husband. After Rajah Mangubat's death, she is forced to accept the marriage proposal of the new Rajah, Angaway, in order to protect her children.
She was secretly murdered on Dian Lamitan's orders. Her death was finally avenged when Amaya success downfall Lamitan.
### Angaway
Portrayed by [Ryan Eigenmann](/wiki/Ryan_Eigenmann "Ryan Eigenmann") ([Francis Magundayao](/wiki/Francis_Magundayao "Francis Magundayao") as Teen Angaway)
Angaway is the grandson of Uray Hilway and a relative of Rajah Mangubat who has lustful intentions towards Amaya. He orchestrated the revolt that usurped Rajah Mangubat's power to become the next Rajah. He is later killed by Uray Hilway.
|
[
"Main characters\n---------------",
"### Bai Amaya",
"[thumb\\|[Marian Rivera](/wiki/Marian_Rivera \"Marian Rivera\") plays Bai Amaya](/wiki/File:Marian_Rivera_and_Dingdong_Dantes_LA_Press_Conference%2C_December_2008.jpg \"Marian Rivera and Dingdong Dantes LA Press Conference, December 2008.jpg\")\nPortrayed by [Marian Rivera](/wiki/Marian_Rivera \"Marian Rivera\") (Edelweiss Tuzon as Young Amaya)\nAmaya is the main protagonist of the series. She is the daughter of Datu Bugna and Dal'lang. She is the female warrior in Rajah Mangubat's prophecy with a twin snake who is destined to put an end to his reign of terror. However, in a twist of fate, she and Raja Mangubat's son, Bagani met and falls in love.",
"From being a *Bai* (princess), she was turned into an *uripon* (slave) by Dian Lamitan when her father was killed by Rajah Mangubat due to Lamitan's treachery. She eventually rose among the ranks to become a *punong alabay* (babaylan's head apprentice) until she was forced to flee after accidentally killing Rajah Mangubat from a self\\-defense. While in exile, Amaya becomes the *[baybayin](/wiki/Baybayin \"Baybayin\")* teacher of the tribe Lumad where she meets Dayaw. She then becomes a full\\-pledged warrior and reunites with Bagani to claim the leadership from Dian Lamitan and at the same time, avenge her father's death. She and Bagani had a child named Bugna.",
"### Bagani",
"Portrayed by [Sid Lucero](/wiki/Sid_Lucero \"Sid Lucero\") ([Byron Ortile](/wiki/Byron_Ortile \"Byron Ortile\") as Young Bagani; Carlo Lacana as Teen Bagani)\nBagani is the son and successor of Rajah Mangubat. He marries Marikit in order to save Amaya from the hands of Dian Lamitan and Marikit herself. He is later stripped off of his title and becomes an outcast for deceiving his father about his *batuk* (tattoo of accomplishment). In exile, he became a notorious Datu of the *Mangatangs* (raiders/pirates).\nAfter Dian Lamitan's death, Bagani is proclaimed as the new Rajah. He offers Amaya to marry him but was turned down the offer due to Amaya choosing to continue to rule her own tribe even though they really love each other. At the end, he transferred his leadership to his brother Banuk to be with Amaya and their child, Bugna.",
"### Lumad",
"Portrayed by [Mikael Daez](/wiki/Mikael_Daez \"Mikael Daez\")\nLumad was the *uripon* of Atubang. He was Amaya's friend and closest ally, and also was the son of a Datu until their *puod* was raided by Rajah Mangubat. He had a wife named Bai Libulan, who was carrying their unborn son, but was killed in the raid.\nHe was killed by Bagani in a fight while aiding Amaya to flee.",
"### Dian Lamitan",
"Portrayed by [Gina Alajar](/wiki/Gina_Alajar \"Gina Alajar\")\nDian Lamitan is the main antagonist of the series. She is the wife of Datu Bugna. She hated Amaya for being Bugna's daughter from an *uripon* named Dal'lang. Rajah Mangubat later found out that she was the reason why Datu Bugna died, why Marikit succumbed to mental illness, and why Amaya got flayed of her status as a *binukot* \\- and so he stripped Lamitan of her status as a Dian. She was sentenced to be an *uripon* for the rest of her lifetime but regains her status when her ally Angaway becomes the new Rajah of the *puod*.\nShe declares herself the new Hara of the puod when Angaway dies. At the end, she is captured by her own daughter Marikit and Abrahm and surrenders her to Bagani and Amaya to face her own execution. She dies after being devoured by a giant sea creature *Bakunawa* summoned by Amaya. In the afterlife, she is haunted for eternity by the spirits of Bugna, Binayaan, Awi, and Lingayan.",
"### Bai Marikit",
"Portrayed by [Rochelle Pangilinan](/wiki/Rochelle_Pangilinan \"Rochelle Pangilinan\") (Kate Velarde as Young Marikit)\nBai Marikit is eldest daughter of Datu Bugna and Dian Lamitan. She tries to steal Bagani away from Amaya at all cost and eventually becomes his wife. Soon after Bagani was disowned by Mangubat, her own mother, Dian Lamitan, had her unborn child aborted and their marriage annulled to retain prestige in the *puod*. Furthermore, Dian Lamitan, to gain higher status in the *puod*, forced her to marry Rajah Mangubat. Marikit loses her mind after this believing that her unborn child is still in her womb. She comes back to normal when Amaya treated her.\nMarikit later marries Abhram to gain a higher status in order to take revenge against her mother, Dian Lamitan",
"### Bai Binayaan/Yang Tersayang",
"Portrayed by [Glaiza de Castro](/wiki/Glaiza_de_Castro \"Glaiza de Castro\") ([Francheska Salcedo](/wiki/Francheska_Salcedo \"Francheska Salcedo\") as Young Binayaan)\nBai Binayaan is the second daughter of Datu Bugna and Dian Lamitan. Her name, Binayaan comes from the word biya which means left alone/forsaken. Unloved by her parents, she poses as Amaya when Dal'lang found her after Rajah Mangubat invaded their *banwa*. Feeling guilty in using her sister's name, she changes her name from Binayaan to Yang Tersayang (which means beloved one) to avoid being identified as Datu Bugna's daughter.\nShe marries Datu Saghid but later betrays her own husband. When Angaway becomes the new Rajah, Dian Lamitan tries to use Binayaan to seduced Rajah Angaway to be her concubine, but she is saved by Bagani by marrying her. She later carries Bagani's child but was poisoned to death after she refuses to let her unborn child out of her womb.",
"Her death is finally vengeful of her sisters Markit and Amaya to downfall Lamitan.",
"### Rajah Mangubat",
"Portrayed by [Gardo Versoza](/wiki/Gardo_Versoza \"Gardo Versoza\") ([Julian Trono](/wiki/Julian_Trono \"Julian Trono\") as Young Rajah Mangubat)\nRajah Mangubat is known as a great and undefeated warrior\\-king but with a reputation of being a ruthless leader. He is the father of Bagani and is married to Hara Lingayan, he then later takes Marikit as his fourth concubine. During his reign, he meets a *babaylan* (village priestess) who prophesies that a day will come when he will be defeated and be killed by a female warrior with a twin snake.\nIn the end, he was accidentally killed by Amaya trying to protect herself from his attack.",
"### Dayaw",
"Portrayed by [Aljur Abrenica](/wiki/Aljur_Abrenica \"Aljur Abrenica\")\nDayaw is *Manobo* warrior, who becomes Amaya's new ally and protector when she was put to exile. He is the son of Posaka, the chief of the *Manobo* tribe. He kills himself to stop Dian Lamitan from using him to capture Amaya in order to kill her.\n### Dal'lang",
"Portrayed by [Lani Mercado](/wiki/Lani_Mercado \"Lani Mercado\")\nDal'lang is the lover of Datu Bugna and that makes Dian Lamitan despise her so much. They bore a daughter with a twin snake that was later called Amaya. She is a loving and caring mother of Amaya. She takes and treats Bai Binayaan as her own daughter until she finally meets her real daughter, Amaya. She also takes care of Alunsina.\n### Hara Lingayan",
"Portrayed by [Ayen Munji\\-Laurel](/wiki/Ayen_Munji-Laurel \"Ayen Munji-Laurel\")\nHara Lingayan is the wife of Rajah Mangubat and the mother of Bagani and Banuk. The people love and respect her because of her righteousness and intelligence. She is the mortal enemy of Dian Lamitan and used to be an ally of Amaya. She hated Amaya for killing her husband. After Rajah Mangubat's death, she is forced to accept the marriage proposal of the new Rajah, Angaway, in order to protect her children.\nShe was secretly murdered on Dian Lamitan's orders. Her death was finally avenged when Amaya success downfall Lamitan.",
"### Angaway",
"Portrayed by [Ryan Eigenmann](/wiki/Ryan_Eigenmann \"Ryan Eigenmann\") ([Francis Magundayao](/wiki/Francis_Magundayao \"Francis Magundayao\") as Teen Angaway)\nAngaway is the grandson of Uray Hilway and a relative of Rajah Mangubat who has lustful intentions towards Amaya. He orchestrated the revolt that usurped Rajah Mangubat's power to become the next Rajah. He is later killed by Uray Hilway."
] |
History
-------
{{Main\|History of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary}}
{{quote box \|width\=15em \|align\=right \|bgcolor\=\#B0C4DE
\|title\=Historical Departmental
Governance
\|fontsize\=90% \|quote\={{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_the\_United\_States\_Department\_of\_the\_Treasury.png}} \[\[United States Department of the Treasury\|USDT]] 1939–1941
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_the\_United\_States\_Navy\_(official).svg}} \[\[United States Department of the Navy\|DoN]] 1941–1945
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_the\_United\_States\_Department\_of\_the\_Treasury.png}} \[\[United States Department of the Treasury\|USDT]] 1945–1967
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_the\_United\_States\_Department\_of\_Transportation.svg}} \[\[United States Department of Transportation\|USDOT]] 1967–2003
{{flagicon image\|Flag\_of\_the\_United\_States\_Department\_of\_Homeland\_Security.svg}} \[\[United States Department of Homeland Security\|DHS]] 2003–present
}}
The advent of the single\-operator motorboat, followed by the introduction of the outboard engine in the early 20th century, led to a surge in recreational boating on U.S. federal waters. By the time 1939 rolled around, over 300,000 personal watercraft were in use.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.history.auxpa.org/ \|title \= Welcome to the Public Affairs Web Site}} In the preceding year, the Coast Guard had been alerted with 14,000 assistance requests and had addressed 8,600 situations where boaters were "in peril."
[thumb\|[Commandant](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard "Commandant of the Coast Guard") [Russell Waesche](/wiki/Russell_R._Waesche "Russell R. Waesche") is credited as the founder.](/wiki/File:Russell_R_Waesche.jpg "Russell R Waesche.jpg")
[thumb\|Auxiliarists in 1967 rescuing a boater off an outboard that had foundered during a storm in [Long Island Sound, New York](/wiki/Long_Island_Sound "Long Island Sound").](/wiki/File:USCGAUXR2E2.jpg "USCGAUXR2E2.jpg")
### Prior to World War II
The U.S. Congress enacted the Coast Guard Reserve Act in 1938, establishing a volunteer reserve unit for the United States Coast Guard. Their primary duties included promoting maritime safety, enhancing boating proficiency among Americans, assisting in legal awareness and adherence, and supporting the active\-duty members of the Coast Guard. Boat owners were grouped into flotillas distributed across Coast Guard districts throughout the U.S. These flotillas undertook safety and security patrols and played a role in enforcing the Federal Boating and Espionage Acts of 1940\.[Auxiliary support of the Federal Boating and Espionage Acts](http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit=A-DEPT&category=history-1) [Commandant](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard "Commandant of the Coast Guard") [Russell Waesche](/wiki/Russell_R._Waesche "Russell R. Waesche") and Commodore [Malcolm Stuart Boylan](/wiki/Malcolm_Stuart_Boylan "Malcolm Stuart Boylan") are credited as the founders.[About the founder Commandant Russell Waesche](http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit=A-DEPT&category=cg-auxiliary)
In 1941, just two years after its creation, Congress passed legislation to reorganize the Coast Guard Reserve. From that point onward, the Coast Guard would maintain two reserve entities. The original volunteer group was rebranded as the Coast Guard Auxiliary. Concurrently, a new Coast Guard Reserve was established, endowed with military and law enforcement duties.[About the founding of the Coast Guard Reserve in 1941](http://www.reserve.uscg.mil/about/history/1940s/)
### During World War II
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the Coast Guard recognized a distinct class of reservist known as the "Temporary Reservist." Many of these individuals came from the ranks of the Auxiliary. These Temporary Reservists were uniformed and armed but served without pay, akin to a home guard. Additionally, Coast Guard Headquarters set forth directives permitting certain Auxiliarists and their vessels to bear arms. In 1941 the Coast Guard, Coast Guard Reserve, and Coast Guard Auxiliary were transferred from the [United States Treasury Department](/wiki/United_States_Treasury_Department "United States Treasury Department") to the [United States Department of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy "United States Department of the Navy"){{cite web \|title\=FDR puts Coast Guard under Navy control, Nov. 1, 1941 \|website\=\[\[Politico]] \|date\=November 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404004658/https://www.politico.com/story/2012/11/this\-day\-in\-politics\-083116 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-04 \|url\-status\=live \|url\=https://www.politico.com/story/2012/11/this\-day\-in\-politics\-083116}} and in 1942 the Coast Guard Auxiliary was authorized to wear [military uniforms](/wiki/Military_uniform "Military uniform").[Auxiliarists allowed to wear uniforms starting in 1942](https://www.uscga-district-7.org/PDF/BUTTONS%20OF%20THE%20UNITED%20STATES%20COAST%20GUARD%20AUXILIARY.pdf)
During World War II, Auxiliarists played a pivotal role in assisting the Coast Guard with the recruitment and training of active\-duty members. In 1942, due to the escalating threat posed by German [U\-boats](/wiki/U-boat "U-boat"), the U.S. Navy sought the acquisition of "as many civilian craft as feasible that were capable of undertaking voyages at sea under fair weather conditions for a duration of at least 48 hours." A significant portion of vessels, both owned and navigated by Auxiliarists and crewed by Coast Guard reservists, constituted the primary American coastal defense against submarines during the initial stages of World War II, forming what was known as the "Corsair Fleet."
However, as newly built war vessels began assuming these roles, the Coast Guard phased out the use of these civilian crafts in anti\-submarine warfare. Despite the fact that these 2,000 civilian vessels, equipped with deck\-stowed depth charges, never succeeded in sinking a submarine, they did manage to rescue several hundred survivors from torpedo\-stricken merchant ships. From 1942 onward and for the remainder of the war, both Auxiliarists and Coast Guard reservists were integral to local Port Security Forces, ensuring the protection of the maritime shipping sector.
### Post World War II activities
In 1950, Bert Pouncey was elected as the National Commodore, leading to the establishment of the National Board for the Coast Guard Auxiliary. By 1955, Auxiliarists began to engage in initiatives aimed at supporting the recruitment of prospective candidates for the [United States Coast Guard Academy](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Academy "United States Coast Guard Academy").
The North American Boating Campaign was originally known as "Safe Boating Week," observed by the Coast Guard Auxiliary as a courtesy examination weekend in [Amesbury, Massachusetts](/wiki/Amesbury%2C_Massachusetts "Amesbury, Massachusetts") in June 1952\. This tradition continued until 1957 when an official [National Safe Boating Week](/wiki/United_States_Federal_Observances "United States Federal Observances") observation took place sponsored by the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary in various parts of the country."About the Auxiliary". U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary. <http://www.cgaux.org/>. Retrieved 29 July 2009\. As a result, the [U.S. Coast Guard](/wiki/U.S._Coast_Guard "U.S. Coast Guard") prepared a Resolution, and on 4 June 1958, [President Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower "Dwight Eisenhower") signed PL 85\-445, to establish National Safe Boating Week as the first week starting on the first Sunday in June.{{Cite web \| title\=Bringing It Home \- Safely \| publisher\=Atlantic Maritime Academy \| url\=http://www.atlanticmaritimeacademy.com/bringingithomesafely09\.html \| access\-date\=2009\-07\-29}}{{USPL\|85\|445}} Retrieved July 29, 2009\.
In the early part of 1973, due to budgetary constraints, seven Coast Guard stations on the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes "Great Lakes") were shut down. Responding to the appeals of the impacted communities, Congress mandated the reopening of these stations, placing them under the operation of the Auxiliary. Local division captains stepped up to manage these stations, ensuring that Auxiliary vessels were constantly on standby to aid vessels in distress. Subsequently, the Auxiliary assumed control of an additional seven stations located on the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers.
In 1976, the Coast Guard initiated a comprehensive assessment of the Auxiliary through a private research entity, the University Sciences Forum of Washington. After conducting interviews with pivotal figures from both the Coast Guard and the Auxiliary and scrutinizing questionnaires completed by approximately two thousand Auxiliarists, the researchers deduced that the Auxiliary was thriving. Their conclusion was succinct: "In summary," they stated, "we view the Auxiliary as the most cost\-effective asset readily accessible to the COGARD. Its performance is exemplary, and its members stand out as some of the most dedicated and professional volunteers in the country."
### Enhanced role for the auxiliarist
In 1996, a legislative act by Congress broadened the Auxiliary's scope, permitting its members to aid in any mission sanctioned by the Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard. However, present policies prohibit Auxiliary members from holding deputized law enforcement powers or participating in military combat tasks. By 2004, the Coast Guard Auxiliary consisted of 35,000 members, together contributing a total of 2 million hours of service each year.{{cite book\|last1\=Bonner\|first1\=Kit\|title\=Always Ready: The U.S. Coast Guard\|date\=2004\|publisher\=Zenith\|page\=25}}[The U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary History Highlights](http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit=081&category=auxiliary-history) A complete timeline of historical events for the Coast Guard Auxiliary
### Under the Department of Homeland Security
In 2003 the Coast Guard, Coast Guard Reserve and Coast Guard Auxiliary were realigned to be under the [United States Department of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security "United States Department of Homeland Security").[USCG as part of DHS](https://cgaviationhistory.org/2003-coast-guard-transferred-to-the-department-of-homeland-security/) As of 2004, the Coast Guard Auxiliary had 35,000 members who collectively provided 2 million man hours of service annually.
On 19 June 2009, the [Commandant of the Coast Guard](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard "Commandant of the Coast Guard") awarded the [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation "Coast Guard Unit Commendation") to Auxiliary members for "performance ... nothing short of stellar" from the period of 24 June 1999, to 23 June 2009\.U.S. Coast Guard's ALCOAST 365/09, COMDTNOTE 16790, 19 June 2009 On the 75th anniversary of the USCG Auxiliary, 23 June 2014, the Commandant awarded another [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation "Coast Guard Unit Commendation") ribbon to all Auxiliarists.{{cite news\|last1\=Zukunft\|first1\=Paul F.\|title\=COAST GUARD UNIT COMMENDATION\|url\=http://www.uscg.mil/auxiliary/\|access\-date\=2014\-08\-06\|work\=USCG Office of Auxiliary and Boating Safety (CG\-BSX) Auxiliary Division (CG\-BSX1\)\-\-Items of Interest\|agency\=Department of Homeland Security\|publisher\=USCG—Department of Homeland Security\|date\=2014\-06\-24}}
On 24 June 2014, the [Commandant of the Coast Guard](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard "Commandant of the Coast Guard") ADML [Paul F. Zukunft](/wiki/Paul_F._Zukunft "Paul F. Zukunft") awarded the [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation "Coast Guard Unit Commendation") to the Coast Guard Auxiliary for "exceptionally meritorious service from June 24, 2009 to June 23, 2014, while providing unprecedented levels of dedicated public service and operational support to the U. S. Coast Guard's missions".
On 16 May 2019, the [Commandant of the Coast Guard](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard "Commandant of the Coast Guard") ADML[Karl Schultz](/wiki/Karl_L._Schultz "Karl L. Schultz") awarded a third [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation "Coast Guard Unit Commendation") for "exceptionally meritorious service from June 24, 2014 to June 23, 2019 while providing extraordinary levels of public service and support to the United States Coast Guard".[Coast Guard Unit Commendation 2019](https://5nr.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/CGUC-SIGNED-AUX-80TH-ESIGN-002.pdf)
On 25 May 2024, the [Commandant of the Coast Guard](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard "Commandant of the Coast Guard") ADML [Lisa Fagan](/wiki/Linda_L._Fagan "Linda L. Fagan") awarded the [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation "Coast Guard Unit Commendation") to Coast Guard Auxiliary for "exceptionally meritorious service from June 24, 2019, to June 23, 2024, while providing extraordinary levels of public service and support to the United States Coast Guard".
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{Main\\|History of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary}}\n{{quote box \\|width\\=15em \\|align\\=right \\|bgcolor\\=\\#B0C4DE\n\\|title\\=Historical Departmental \nGovernance\n\\|fontsize\\=90% \\|quote\\={{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_the\\_United\\_States\\_Department\\_of\\_the\\_Treasury.png}} \\[\\[United States Department of the Treasury\\|USDT]] 1939–1941 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_the\\_United\\_States\\_Navy\\_(official).svg}} \\[\\[United States Department of the Navy\\|DoN]] 1941–1945 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_the\\_United\\_States\\_Department\\_of\\_the\\_Treasury.png}} \\[\\[United States Department of the Treasury\\|USDT]] 1945–1967 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_the\\_United\\_States\\_Department\\_of\\_Transportation.svg}} \\[\\[United States Department of Transportation\\|USDOT]] 1967–2003 \n{{flagicon image\\|Flag\\_of\\_the\\_United\\_States\\_Department\\_of\\_Homeland\\_Security.svg}} \\[\\[United States Department of Homeland Security\\|DHS]] 2003–present\n}}",
"The advent of the single\\-operator motorboat, followed by the introduction of the outboard engine in the early 20th century, led to a surge in recreational boating on U.S. federal waters. By the time 1939 rolled around, over 300,000 personal watercraft were in use.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.history.auxpa.org/ \\|title \\= Welcome to the Public Affairs Web Site}} In the preceding year, the Coast Guard had been alerted with 14,000 assistance requests and had addressed 8,600 situations where boaters were \"in peril.\"",
"[thumb\\|[Commandant](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard \"Commandant of the Coast Guard\") [Russell Waesche](/wiki/Russell_R._Waesche \"Russell R. Waesche\") is credited as the founder.](/wiki/File:Russell_R_Waesche.jpg \"Russell R Waesche.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Auxiliarists in 1967 rescuing a boater off an outboard that had foundered during a storm in [Long Island Sound, New York](/wiki/Long_Island_Sound \"Long Island Sound\").](/wiki/File:USCGAUXR2E2.jpg \"USCGAUXR2E2.jpg\")",
"### Prior to World War II",
"The U.S. Congress enacted the Coast Guard Reserve Act in 1938, establishing a volunteer reserve unit for the United States Coast Guard. Their primary duties included promoting maritime safety, enhancing boating proficiency among Americans, assisting in legal awareness and adherence, and supporting the active\\-duty members of the Coast Guard. Boat owners were grouped into flotillas distributed across Coast Guard districts throughout the U.S. These flotillas undertook safety and security patrols and played a role in enforcing the Federal Boating and Espionage Acts of 1940\\.[Auxiliary support of the Federal Boating and Espionage Acts](http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit=A-DEPT&category=history-1) [Commandant](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard \"Commandant of the Coast Guard\") [Russell Waesche](/wiki/Russell_R._Waesche \"Russell R. Waesche\") and Commodore [Malcolm Stuart Boylan](/wiki/Malcolm_Stuart_Boylan \"Malcolm Stuart Boylan\") are credited as the founders.[About the founder Commandant Russell Waesche](http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit=A-DEPT&category=cg-auxiliary)",
"In 1941, just two years after its creation, Congress passed legislation to reorganize the Coast Guard Reserve. From that point onward, the Coast Guard would maintain two reserve entities. The original volunteer group was rebranded as the Coast Guard Auxiliary. Concurrently, a new Coast Guard Reserve was established, endowed with military and law enforcement duties.[About the founding of the Coast Guard Reserve in 1941](http://www.reserve.uscg.mil/about/history/1940s/)",
"### During World War II",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the Coast Guard recognized a distinct class of reservist known as the \"Temporary Reservist.\" Many of these individuals came from the ranks of the Auxiliary. These Temporary Reservists were uniformed and armed but served without pay, akin to a home guard. Additionally, Coast Guard Headquarters set forth directives permitting certain Auxiliarists and their vessels to bear arms. In 1941 the Coast Guard, Coast Guard Reserve, and Coast Guard Auxiliary were transferred from the [United States Treasury Department](/wiki/United_States_Treasury_Department \"United States Treasury Department\") to the [United States Department of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy \"United States Department of the Navy\"){{cite web \\|title\\=FDR puts Coast Guard under Navy control, Nov. 1, 1941 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Politico]] \\|date\\=November 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404004658/https://www.politico.com/story/2012/11/this\\-day\\-in\\-politics\\-083116 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-04 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|url\\=https://www.politico.com/story/2012/11/this\\-day\\-in\\-politics\\-083116}} and in 1942 the Coast Guard Auxiliary was authorized to wear [military uniforms](/wiki/Military_uniform \"Military uniform\").[Auxiliarists allowed to wear uniforms starting in 1942](https://www.uscga-district-7.org/PDF/BUTTONS%20OF%20THE%20UNITED%20STATES%20COAST%20GUARD%20AUXILIARY.pdf)",
"During World War II, Auxiliarists played a pivotal role in assisting the Coast Guard with the recruitment and training of active\\-duty members. In 1942, due to the escalating threat posed by German [U\\-boats](/wiki/U-boat \"U-boat\"), the U.S. Navy sought the acquisition of \"as many civilian craft as feasible that were capable of undertaking voyages at sea under fair weather conditions for a duration of at least 48 hours.\" A significant portion of vessels, both owned and navigated by Auxiliarists and crewed by Coast Guard reservists, constituted the primary American coastal defense against submarines during the initial stages of World War II, forming what was known as the \"Corsair Fleet.\"",
"However, as newly built war vessels began assuming these roles, the Coast Guard phased out the use of these civilian crafts in anti\\-submarine warfare. Despite the fact that these 2,000 civilian vessels, equipped with deck\\-stowed depth charges, never succeeded in sinking a submarine, they did manage to rescue several hundred survivors from torpedo\\-stricken merchant ships. From 1942 onward and for the remainder of the war, both Auxiliarists and Coast Guard reservists were integral to local Port Security Forces, ensuring the protection of the maritime shipping sector.",
"### Post World War II activities",
"In 1950, Bert Pouncey was elected as the National Commodore, leading to the establishment of the National Board for the Coast Guard Auxiliary. By 1955, Auxiliarists began to engage in initiatives aimed at supporting the recruitment of prospective candidates for the [United States Coast Guard Academy](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Academy \"United States Coast Guard Academy\").",
"The North American Boating Campaign was originally known as \"Safe Boating Week,\" observed by the Coast Guard Auxiliary as a courtesy examination weekend in [Amesbury, Massachusetts](/wiki/Amesbury%2C_Massachusetts \"Amesbury, Massachusetts\") in June 1952\\. This tradition continued until 1957 when an official [National Safe Boating Week](/wiki/United_States_Federal_Observances \"United States Federal Observances\") observation took place sponsored by the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary in various parts of the country.\"About the Auxiliary\". U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary. <http://www.cgaux.org/>. Retrieved 29 July 2009\\. As a result, the [U.S. Coast Guard](/wiki/U.S._Coast_Guard \"U.S. Coast Guard\") prepared a Resolution, and on 4 June 1958, [President Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower \"Dwight Eisenhower\") signed PL 85\\-445, to establish National Safe Boating Week as the first week starting on the first Sunday in June.{{Cite web \\| title\\=Bringing It Home \\- Safely \\| publisher\\=Atlantic Maritime Academy \\| url\\=http://www.atlanticmaritimeacademy.com/bringingithomesafely09\\.html \\| access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-29}}{{USPL\\|85\\|445}} Retrieved July 29, 2009\\.",
"In the early part of 1973, due to budgetary constraints, seven Coast Guard stations on the [Great Lakes](/wiki/Great_Lakes \"Great Lakes\") were shut down. Responding to the appeals of the impacted communities, Congress mandated the reopening of these stations, placing them under the operation of the Auxiliary. Local division captains stepped up to manage these stations, ensuring that Auxiliary vessels were constantly on standby to aid vessels in distress. Subsequently, the Auxiliary assumed control of an additional seven stations located on the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers.",
"In 1976, the Coast Guard initiated a comprehensive assessment of the Auxiliary through a private research entity, the University Sciences Forum of Washington. After conducting interviews with pivotal figures from both the Coast Guard and the Auxiliary and scrutinizing questionnaires completed by approximately two thousand Auxiliarists, the researchers deduced that the Auxiliary was thriving. Their conclusion was succinct: \"In summary,\" they stated, \"we view the Auxiliary as the most cost\\-effective asset readily accessible to the COGARD. Its performance is exemplary, and its members stand out as some of the most dedicated and professional volunteers in the country.\"",
"### Enhanced role for the auxiliarist",
"In 1996, a legislative act by Congress broadened the Auxiliary's scope, permitting its members to aid in any mission sanctioned by the Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard. However, present policies prohibit Auxiliary members from holding deputized law enforcement powers or participating in military combat tasks. By 2004, the Coast Guard Auxiliary consisted of 35,000 members, together contributing a total of 2 million hours of service each year.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Bonner\\|first1\\=Kit\\|title\\=Always Ready: The U.S. Coast Guard\\|date\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Zenith\\|page\\=25}}[The U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary History Highlights](http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit=081&category=auxiliary-history) A complete timeline of historical events for the Coast Guard Auxiliary",
"### Under the Department of Homeland Security",
"In 2003 the Coast Guard, Coast Guard Reserve and Coast Guard Auxiliary were realigned to be under the [United States Department of Homeland Security](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security \"United States Department of Homeland Security\").[USCG as part of DHS](https://cgaviationhistory.org/2003-coast-guard-transferred-to-the-department-of-homeland-security/) As of 2004, the Coast Guard Auxiliary had 35,000 members who collectively provided 2 million man hours of service annually.",
"On 19 June 2009, the [Commandant of the Coast Guard](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard \"Commandant of the Coast Guard\") awarded the [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation \"Coast Guard Unit Commendation\") to Auxiliary members for \"performance ... nothing short of stellar\" from the period of 24 June 1999, to 23 June 2009\\.U.S. Coast Guard's ALCOAST 365/09, COMDTNOTE 16790, 19 June 2009 On the 75th anniversary of the USCG Auxiliary, 23 June 2014, the Commandant awarded another [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation \"Coast Guard Unit Commendation\") ribbon to all Auxiliarists.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Zukunft\\|first1\\=Paul F.\\|title\\=COAST GUARD UNIT COMMENDATION\\|url\\=http://www.uscg.mil/auxiliary/\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-08\\-06\\|work\\=USCG Office of Auxiliary and Boating Safety (CG\\-BSX) Auxiliary Division (CG\\-BSX1\\)\\-\\-Items of Interest\\|agency\\=Department of Homeland Security\\|publisher\\=USCG—Department of Homeland Security\\|date\\=2014\\-06\\-24}}",
"On 24 June 2014, the [Commandant of the Coast Guard](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard \"Commandant of the Coast Guard\") ADML [Paul F. Zukunft](/wiki/Paul_F._Zukunft \"Paul F. Zukunft\") awarded the [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation \"Coast Guard Unit Commendation\") to the Coast Guard Auxiliary for \"exceptionally meritorious service from June 24, 2009 to June 23, 2014, while providing unprecedented levels of dedicated public service and operational support to the U. S. Coast Guard's missions\".",
"On 16 May 2019, the [Commandant of the Coast Guard](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard \"Commandant of the Coast Guard\") ADML[Karl Schultz](/wiki/Karl_L._Schultz \"Karl L. Schultz\") awarded a third [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation \"Coast Guard Unit Commendation\") for \"exceptionally meritorious service from June 24, 2014 to June 23, 2019 while providing extraordinary levels of public service and support to the United States Coast Guard\".[Coast Guard Unit Commendation 2019](https://5nr.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/CGUC-SIGNED-AUX-80TH-ESIGN-002.pdf)",
"On 25 May 2024, the [Commandant of the Coast Guard](/wiki/Commandant_of_the_Coast_Guard \"Commandant of the Coast Guard\") ADML [Lisa Fagan](/wiki/Linda_L._Fagan \"Linda L. Fagan\") awarded the [Coast Guard Unit Commendation](/wiki/Coast_Guard_Unit_Commendation \"Coast Guard Unit Commendation\") to Coast Guard Auxiliary for \"exceptionally meritorious service from June 24, 2019, to June 23, 2024, while providing extraordinary levels of public service and support to the United States Coast Guard\".",
""
] |
Programs and missions
---------------------
[thumb\|U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary Patrol Boat Ensign](/wiki/File:U.S._Coast_Guard_Auxiliary_Patrol_Ensign.png "U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary Patrol Ensign.png")
The Auxiliary primarily acts as a force enhancer for the Coast Guard. Auxiliarists are dedicated to fostering safety, security, and aid for the citizens of the United States, whether it's in harbors, seaports, along the coasts, on the country's canals, rivers, or even in the skies. The task of promoting and enhancing recreational boater safety has been fully entrusted to the Auxiliary by the USCG. Furthermore, the Auxiliary actively aids both active\-duty members and reservists in executing a range of missions, including search and rescue, marine safety, management of waterways, environmental preservation, and various duties related to homeland security.[Mission of the USCG Auxiliary](http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit=170-02-01&category=about-the-cg-auxiliary)[Additional info about the Auxiliary Missions](http://join.cgaux.org/whyjoin.php)
### Missions
[thumb\|The United States Coast Guard Auxiliary Flotilla 9\-3 in Naples, Florida.](/wiki/File:United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary_Flotilla_9-3.jpg "United States Coast Guard Auxiliary Flotilla 9-3.jpg")
* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * {{Columns\-list\|colwidth\=20em\|
\* Maritime Domain Awareness Air Patrols
\* Academy Introduction Mission (AIM)
\* Active Duty Administrative Support
\* Administration of Bridges
\* Aids to Navigation
\* America's Waterway Watch Program
\* Contingency Preparedness
\* Inspections of commercial vessels
\* Licensing for Merchant Mariners
\* Logistic Air Transport
\* Management of Waterways
\* Air Reconnaissance Ice Patrols
\* Marine Environmental Safety and Protection
\* Operational Support
\* Waterway Security \& Safety
\* Public Education
\* Recreational Boating Safety
\* Search and Rescue
\* Support for USCG Civil Engineering Units
\* Support for Public Affairs
\* Auxiliary Chaplain Support
\* Support for Recruiting\[http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit\=070\-07\-05\&category\=1321473949 About Coast Guard Auxiliary Missions]
}}
### Recreational Boating Safety
The Auxiliary's most prominent role is promoting recreational boating safety ("RBS" in Auxiliary parlance). The Auxiliary has several distinct programs that support this mission, most visibly:
* Providing free Vessel Safety Checks (formerly "Courtesy Marine Examinations") to recreational boaters;
* Delivering a Public Education (or "PE") program, which consists of a range of courses on boating\-related topics such as seamanship, knots, laws and regulations related to boating, weather, and navigation; and
* Acting as a liaison to local businesses/organizations (such as [marinas](/wiki/Marina "Marina"), [boating clubs](/wiki/Boat_club "Boat club"), civic clubs, etc.) through RBS Partnership Program Visitors (formerly "Marine Dealer Visitors).
### Surface and Air Operations
The Coast Guard Auxiliary participates in both surface and aerial activities, termed "AUXAIR," to bolster the Coast Guard's efforts in areas like search \& rescue, marine safety/security, environmental protection/response, and to some degree, tasks related to law enforcement and national defense. Auxiliarists who possess boats and aircraft have the option to provide them for Coast Guard use, designating them as Auxiliary "facilities." Auxiliarists qualified as boat crewmen, [coxswains](/wiki/Coxswains "Coxswains"), [pilots](/wiki/Pilots "Pilots"), [air crew](/wiki/Air_crew "Air crew"), and air observers can take part in these activities. Beyond their primary roles, Auxiliary aircraft can also serve as official modes of transportation for active\-duty members when commercial travel options are either impractical or not suitable.
### Auxiliary University Programs
[thumb\|The badge of the [U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary University Programs](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary_University_Programs "United States Coast Guard Auxiliary University Programs") unit at the [College of William and Mary](/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary "College of William and Mary").](/wiki/File:USCGAUXCWM.png "USCGAUXCWM.png")
{{Main\|United States Coast Guard Auxiliary University Programs}}
The [Auxiliary University Programs (AUP)](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary_University_Programs "United States Coast Guard Auxiliary University Programs") is a Coast Guard Auxiliary\-managed initiative established in 2007\. Presently, AUP comprises almost 200 members distributed across 11 units, representing over 30 academic institutions throughout the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States").[About AUP](http://www.cgauxedu.us/about/) AUP, or Auxiliary University Programs, is designed to groom undergraduate and graduate students for prospective roles in public service, both within the Coast Guard Auxiliary and beyond. Drawing inspiration from [ROTC](/wiki/ROTC "ROTC") (Reserve Officers' Training Corps) programs, AUP offers students insights into Coast Guard career paths without mandating a service obligation. Broadly, the program imparts knowledge on seamanship and leadership while promoting the ethos of public service.[Benefits of AUP](http://www.canton.edu/news/index.php/tag/auxiliary-university-program/) AUP has a positive track record of getting a large number of its graduates into [Coast Guard Officer Candidate School](/wiki/Officer_candidate_school "Officer candidate school") and also offers an Internship Program.[AUP into CG OCS](http://www.cgauxedu.us/about/)
### Augmentation
{{See also\|United States Coast Guard Pipe Band\|United States Coast Guard Ceremonial Honor Guard}}
In addition to employing vessels and aircraft owned and operated by Auxiliarists, the Coast Guard leverages individual Auxiliarists to directly support active\-duty operations. It's common to find Auxiliarists taking on a variety of roles such as manning radio stations, aiding in boat upkeep, handling administrative tasks, cooking, acting as morale officers, and fulfilling other supportive roles at various Coast Guard units, especially at small boat stations. On rarer occasions, Auxiliarists might be stationed aboard cutters, serving as cooks, interpreters for foreign languages, or other similar auxiliary capacities.{{cite book\|title\=Coast Guard Auxiliary Interpreter Corps\|date\=2011\|publisher\=U.S. Coast Guard\|pages\=1–4\|url\=http://icdept.cgaux.org/pdf\_files/NACON2011Brochure.pdf}} The Auxiliary also trains and provides members on an as\-needed basis in areas such as emergency management.
The Coast Guard, equipped with only a singular regular military band and color guard, occasionally calls upon Auxiliarists to step into these roles for significant occasions like ship christenings and change\-of\-command ceremonies. Moreover, the [United States Coast Guard Pipe Band](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Pipe_Band "United States Coast Guard Pipe Band") comprises members from both the Coast Guard Reserve and the Coast Guard Auxiliary.
Auxiliarists with expertise in health care, legal assistance, financial counseling, or clergy roles can leverage their professional qualifications and experience to support active duty/reserve Coast Guard personnel and their families, whether on a continuous or as\-needed basis. For instance, health care professional Auxiliarists might offer their services at [Public Health Service](/wiki/Public_Health_Service "Public Health Service") clinics catering to the Coast Guard community. Likewise, Auxiliarists with legal expertise often assist Coast Guard members in navigating insurance claims, addressing landlord\-tenant disagreements, and managing other civil issues.
Auxiliarists are sometimes also dispatched to support the missions/activities of other federal, state, and local agencies, and civic organizations such as the [Civil Air Patrol](/wiki/Civil_Air_Patrol "Civil Air Patrol"). For example, Auxiliarists have voluntarily deployed in support of disaster relief operations (notably [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina "Hurricane Katrina")) and to provide support to Immigration and Customs Enforcement at the U.S.\-Mexico border.
|
[
"Programs and missions\n---------------------",
"[thumb\\|U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary Patrol Boat Ensign](/wiki/File:U.S._Coast_Guard_Auxiliary_Patrol_Ensign.png \"U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary Patrol Ensign.png\")\nThe Auxiliary primarily acts as a force enhancer for the Coast Guard. Auxiliarists are dedicated to fostering safety, security, and aid for the citizens of the United States, whether it's in harbors, seaports, along the coasts, on the country's canals, rivers, or even in the skies. The task of promoting and enhancing recreational boater safety has been fully entrusted to the Auxiliary by the USCG. Furthermore, the Auxiliary actively aids both active\\-duty members and reservists in executing a range of missions, including search and rescue, marine safety, management of waterways, environmental preservation, and various duties related to homeland security.[Mission of the USCG Auxiliary](http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit=170-02-01&category=about-the-cg-auxiliary)[Additional info about the Auxiliary Missions](http://join.cgaux.org/whyjoin.php)",
"### Missions",
"[thumb\\|The United States Coast Guard Auxiliary Flotilla 9\\-3 in Naples, Florida.](/wiki/File:United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary_Flotilla_9-3.jpg \"United States Coast Guard Auxiliary Flotilla 9-3.jpg\")\n* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * {{Columns\\-list\\|colwidth\\=20em\\|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Maritime Domain Awareness Air Patrols\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Academy Introduction Mission (AIM)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Active Duty Administrative Support\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Administration of Bridges\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Aids to Navigation\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* America's Waterway Watch Program\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Contingency Preparedness\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Inspections of commercial vessels\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Licensing for Merchant Mariners\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Logistic Air Transport\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Management of Waterways\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Air Reconnaissance Ice Patrols\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Marine Environmental Safety and Protection\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Operational Support\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Waterway Security \\& Safety\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Public Education\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Recreational Boating Safety\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Search and Rescue\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Support for USCG Civil Engineering Units\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Support for Public Affairs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Auxiliary Chaplain Support\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* Support for Recruiting\\[http://wow.uscgaux.info/content.php?unit\\=070\\-07\\-05\\&category\\=1321473949 About Coast Guard Auxiliary Missions]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}",
"### Recreational Boating Safety",
"The Auxiliary's most prominent role is promoting recreational boating safety (\"RBS\" in Auxiliary parlance). The Auxiliary has several distinct programs that support this mission, most visibly:\n* Providing free Vessel Safety Checks (formerly \"Courtesy Marine Examinations\") to recreational boaters;\n* Delivering a Public Education (or \"PE\") program, which consists of a range of courses on boating\\-related topics such as seamanship, knots, laws and regulations related to boating, weather, and navigation; and\n* Acting as a liaison to local businesses/organizations (such as [marinas](/wiki/Marina \"Marina\"), [boating clubs](/wiki/Boat_club \"Boat club\"), civic clubs, etc.) through RBS Partnership Program Visitors (formerly \"Marine Dealer Visitors).",
"### Surface and Air Operations",
"The Coast Guard Auxiliary participates in both surface and aerial activities, termed \"AUXAIR,\" to bolster the Coast Guard's efforts in areas like search \\& rescue, marine safety/security, environmental protection/response, and to some degree, tasks related to law enforcement and national defense. Auxiliarists who possess boats and aircraft have the option to provide them for Coast Guard use, designating them as Auxiliary \"facilities.\" Auxiliarists qualified as boat crewmen, [coxswains](/wiki/Coxswains \"Coxswains\"), [pilots](/wiki/Pilots \"Pilots\"), [air crew](/wiki/Air_crew \"Air crew\"), and air observers can take part in these activities. Beyond their primary roles, Auxiliary aircraft can also serve as official modes of transportation for active\\-duty members when commercial travel options are either impractical or not suitable.",
"### Auxiliary University Programs",
"[thumb\\|The badge of the [U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary University Programs](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary_University_Programs \"United States Coast Guard Auxiliary University Programs\") unit at the [College of William and Mary](/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary \"College of William and Mary\").](/wiki/File:USCGAUXCWM.png \"USCGAUXCWM.png\")\n{{Main\\|United States Coast Guard Auxiliary University Programs}}",
"The [Auxiliary University Programs (AUP)](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Auxiliary_University_Programs \"United States Coast Guard Auxiliary University Programs\") is a Coast Guard Auxiliary\\-managed initiative established in 2007\\. Presently, AUP comprises almost 200 members distributed across 11 units, representing over 30 academic institutions throughout the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").[About AUP](http://www.cgauxedu.us/about/) AUP, or Auxiliary University Programs, is designed to groom undergraduate and graduate students for prospective roles in public service, both within the Coast Guard Auxiliary and beyond. Drawing inspiration from [ROTC](/wiki/ROTC \"ROTC\") (Reserve Officers' Training Corps) programs, AUP offers students insights into Coast Guard career paths without mandating a service obligation. Broadly, the program imparts knowledge on seamanship and leadership while promoting the ethos of public service.[Benefits of AUP](http://www.canton.edu/news/index.php/tag/auxiliary-university-program/) AUP has a positive track record of getting a large number of its graduates into [Coast Guard Officer Candidate School](/wiki/Officer_candidate_school \"Officer candidate school\") and also offers an Internship Program.[AUP into CG OCS](http://www.cgauxedu.us/about/)",
"### Augmentation",
"{{See also\\|United States Coast Guard Pipe Band\\|United States Coast Guard Ceremonial Honor Guard}}\nIn addition to employing vessels and aircraft owned and operated by Auxiliarists, the Coast Guard leverages individual Auxiliarists to directly support active\\-duty operations. It's common to find Auxiliarists taking on a variety of roles such as manning radio stations, aiding in boat upkeep, handling administrative tasks, cooking, acting as morale officers, and fulfilling other supportive roles at various Coast Guard units, especially at small boat stations. On rarer occasions, Auxiliarists might be stationed aboard cutters, serving as cooks, interpreters for foreign languages, or other similar auxiliary capacities.{{cite book\\|title\\=Coast Guard Auxiliary Interpreter Corps\\|date\\=2011\\|publisher\\=U.S. Coast Guard\\|pages\\=1–4\\|url\\=http://icdept.cgaux.org/pdf\\_files/NACON2011Brochure.pdf}} The Auxiliary also trains and provides members on an as\\-needed basis in areas such as emergency management.",
"The Coast Guard, equipped with only a singular regular military band and color guard, occasionally calls upon Auxiliarists to step into these roles for significant occasions like ship christenings and change\\-of\\-command ceremonies. Moreover, the [United States Coast Guard Pipe Band](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Pipe_Band \"United States Coast Guard Pipe Band\") comprises members from both the Coast Guard Reserve and the Coast Guard Auxiliary.",
"Auxiliarists with expertise in health care, legal assistance, financial counseling, or clergy roles can leverage their professional qualifications and experience to support active duty/reserve Coast Guard personnel and their families, whether on a continuous or as\\-needed basis. For instance, health care professional Auxiliarists might offer their services at [Public Health Service](/wiki/Public_Health_Service \"Public Health Service\") clinics catering to the Coast Guard community. Likewise, Auxiliarists with legal expertise often assist Coast Guard members in navigating insurance claims, addressing landlord\\-tenant disagreements, and managing other civil issues.",
"Auxiliarists are sometimes also dispatched to support the missions/activities of other federal, state, and local agencies, and civic organizations such as the [Civil Air Patrol](/wiki/Civil_Air_Patrol \"Civil Air Patrol\"). For example, Auxiliarists have voluntarily deployed in support of disaster relief operations (notably [Hurricane Katrina](/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina \"Hurricane Katrina\")) and to provide support to Immigration and Customs Enforcement at the U.S.\\-Mexico border.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Mining days
Gold was first discovered in Colorado near present\-day Denver, setting off the [Pike's Peak gold rush of 1858](/wiki/Pike%27s_Peak_Gold_Rush "Pike's Peak Gold Rush"). The Smuggler gold vein above Telluride, and placer gold in the [San Miguel River](/wiki/San_Miguel_River_%28Colorado%29 "San Miguel River (Colorado)"), were discovered in 1875\.Voynick, S.M., 1992, Colorado Gold, Missoula: Mountain Press Publishing Company, {{ISBN\|0878424555}}{{rp\|51,54}} John Fallon made the first claim in Marshal Basin above Telluride in 1875 and early settlement of Telluride followed. The town was founded in 1878\. Telluride was originally named "Columbia", but due to confusion with [Columbia](/wiki/Columbia%2C_California "Columbia, California"), [California](/wiki/California "California"), the name was changed by the [post office](/wiki/Post_office "Post office").{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2024}} The town was named after valuable [ore](/wiki/Ore "Ore") compounds of the [chemical element](/wiki/Chemical_element "Chemical element") [tellurium](/wiki/Tellurium "Tellurium"), a [metalloid](/wiki/Metalloid "Metalloid") element which forms natural [tellurides](/wiki/Telluride_%28chemistry%29 "Telluride (chemistry)"), the most notable of which are telluride ores of gold and silver. Although [gold telluride](/wiki/Gold_chalcogenides "Gold chalcogenides") minerals were never actually found in the mountains near Telluride, the area's [mines](/wiki/Mining "Mining") were rich in [zinc](/wiki/Zinc "Zinc"), [lead](/wiki/Lead "Lead"), [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper"), silver, and ores which contained gold in other forms.
Telluride began slowly because of its isolated location. In 1881, a [toll road](/wiki/Toll_road "Toll road") was opened by [Otto Mears](/wiki/Otto_Mears "Otto Mears"), which allowed wagons to go where only pack [mules](/wiki/Mule "Mule") could go before. This increased the number of people in Telluride, but it was still expensive to get gold\-rich ore out of the valley.
In June 1889, [Butch Cassidy](/wiki/Butch_Cassidy "Butch Cassidy"), before becoming associated with his gang, the "[Wild Bunch](/wiki/Butch_Cassidy%27s_Wild_Bunch "Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch")", robbed the San Miguel Valley Bank in Telluride. This was his first major recorded crime. He exited the bank with [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")24,580 and later became famous as a bank robber.{{cite news\|url\=https://news.yahoo.com/old\-text\-wrinkles\-did\-butch\-cassidy\-survive\-083206159\.html\|access\-date\=August 15, 2011\|title\=Old text, new wrinkles: Did Butch Cassidy survive?\|agency\=Associated Press\|first\=Mead\|last\=Gruver\|date\=August 15, 2011}}
In 1891, the [Rio Grande Southern Railroad](/wiki/Rio_Grande_Southern_Railroad "Rio Grande Southern Railroad"), also begun by Mears, arrived in Telluride, eventually building a two\-stall engine house, water facilities, a section house and a bunkhouse, sidings, and a depot. It continued further up the valley to end its Telluride branch at Pandora, serving the mines and the town until 1952\. The cheaper and consistent transportation for passengers and freight allowed miners and goods to flow into the San Miguel town and ore to flow out to the mills and foundries elsewhere. This brought a brief but unprecedented boom to Telluride before the [Panic of 1893](/wiki/Panic_of_1893 "Panic of 1893").{{cite web\|last\=Clark\|first\=Jerry\|title\=Telluride, Colorado – Mile Post 45\.1 – Elev. 8,756ft\|url\=http://www.narrowgauge.org/ngc/html/excursion1/excursion1\-telluride.html\|work\=The Narrow Gauge Circle\|publisher\=Mark L. Evans\|access\-date\=May 19, 2013}}
Around the turn of the 20th century, there were serious [labor disputes](/wiki/Trade_union "Trade union") in the mines near Telluride. The [Colorado National Guard](/wiki/Colorado_National_Guard "Colorado National Guard") was called out and there were deaths on both sides. [Unions](/wiki/Trade_union "Trade union") were formed as miners joined the [Western Federation of Miners](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners "Western Federation of Miners") in 1896\. 1899 brought big changes as union [strike action](/wiki/Strike_action "Strike action") led most mines to grant miners $3 a day for an 8\-hour day's work plus a boarding pay of $1 a day. At this time, workers were putting in 10\- to 12\-hour days and the mines ran 24 hours a day. [Work conditions](/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health "Occupational safety and health") were treacherous, with mines above {{cvt\|12000\|ft\|\-2}}, a lack of safety measures, and bitter weather in winter months. Even the [boarding houses](/wiki/Boarding_house "Boarding house") were precariously placed on the mountainsides.
Telluride's labor unrest occurred against the backdrop of a statewide struggle between miners and mine owners. [Bulkeley Wells](/wiki/Bulkeley_Wells "Bulkeley Wells") was one mine operator considerably hostile to the union. The Telluride Miners' Union was led by [Vincent St. John](/wiki/Vincent_Saint_John "Vincent Saint John"). The disappearance of mine guard [William J. Barney](/wiki/William_J._Barney "William J. Barney"), which Wells declared a "murder", created much intrigue and national interest. The accusations, animosity, [gunplay](/wiki/Gun "Gun"), and expulsions that followed were part of an ongoing struggle throughout Colorado's mining communities which came to be called the [Colorado Labor Wars](/wiki/Colorado_Labor_Wars "Colorado Labor Wars").
In 1891, Telluride's [L. L. Nunn](/wiki/L._L._Nunn "L. L. Nunn") joined forces with [George Westinghouse](/wiki/George_Westinghouse "George Westinghouse") to build the [Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant](/wiki/Ames_Hydroelectric_Generating_Plant "Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant"), an [alternating current](/wiki/Alternating_current "Alternating current") [power station](/wiki/Power_station "Power station"), near Telluride. The plant supplied power to the [Gold King Mine](/wiki/2015_Gold_King_Mine_waste_water_spill "2015 Gold King Mine waste water spill") {{convert\|3\.5\|mi}} away. This was the first successful demonstration of long\-distance transmission of industrial\-grade alternating current power and used two {{cvt\|100\|hp}} Westinghouse alternators, one working as a generator producing 3,000 volts, 133 Hertz, single\-phase AC, and the other used as an AC motor.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=31O4upzTHQwC\&q\=In\+1891\+Telluride\+westinghouse\+induction\+motor\&pg\=PA39\|title\=The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology\|first\=D. M.\|last\=Mattox\|date\=January 15, 2013\|publisher\=Elsevier Science\|isbn\=9780080947051\|access\-date\=March 26, 2018\|via\=Google Books}} This hydroelectric AC power plant predated the Westinghouse plant at [Niagara Falls](/wiki/Niagara_Falls "Niagara Falls") by four years. Nunn and his brother Paul built power plants in Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Montana, Mexico, and the Ontario Power plant at Niagara Falls on the Canadian side. Nunn developed a keen interest in education as part of his electrical power companies, and in conjunction with Cornell University built the [Telluride House](/wiki/Telluride_House "Telluride House") at Cornell in 1909 to educate promising students in [electrical engineering](/wiki/Electrical_engineering "Electrical engineering"). Later, Nunn along with [Charles Walcott](/wiki/Charles_Doolittle_Walcott "Charles Doolittle Walcott"), started the non\-profit [Telluride Association](/wiki/Telluride_Association "Telluride Association"). Nunn founded [Deep Springs College](/wiki/Deep_Springs_College "Deep Springs College") in 1917\.{{Cite web \|title\=Our History \|url\=https://www.deepsprings.edu/history/ \|access\-date\=November 14, 2023 \|website\=Deep Springs College \|language\=en\-US}} Each year, the Telluride Tech Festival honors Nunn, inventor [Nikola Tesla](/wiki/Nikola_Tesla "Nikola Tesla"), and Westinghouse, along with current\-day technology and science leaders.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2021}}
Telluride's most famous historic mines are the Tomboy, Pandora, Smuggler\-Union, Nellie, and Sheridan mines. Beginning in 1939, the hard\-rock mining operations in the Red Mountain and Telluride mining districts began a lengthy [consolidation](/wiki/Consolidation_%28business%29 "Consolidation (business)") under the [Idarado Mining Company](/wiki/Idarado_Mine "Idarado Mine") (Idarado), now a division of [Newmont Mining](/wiki/Newmont "Newmont"). The consolidation ended in 1953 with Idarado's acquisition of the Telluride Mines. Idarado kept the underground workings and mill operations open at Telluride's Pandora hard\-rock mine until 1978\. When the mine officially closed, the [snow](/wiki/Snow "Snow") which tormented Telluride's miners became the town's new source of income, in the form of [skiing](/wiki/Skiing "Skiing") and tourism. The documentary video "the YX factor" chronicles the transition from mining to skiing and the influx of "[hippies](/wiki/Hippie "Hippie")" in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the words of local residents and commentators such as [Peter Yarrow](/wiki/Peter_Yarrow "Peter Yarrow") and [Tom Hayden](/wiki/Tom_Hayden "Tom Hayden").{{Cite book \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.7560/755239 \|title\=Tell Me a Story, Sing Me a Song \|date\=1983 \|publisher\=University of Texas Press \|doi\=10\.7560/755239 \|isbn\=978\-0\-292\-74801\-9}}
[thumb\|upright\|Aerial view of newly cut Boomerang Road (May 1972\).](/wiki/File:AERIAL_VIEW_OF_TELLURIDE_SHOWING_NEWLY-CUT_SKI_TRAILS_%28IN_RIGHT_FOREGROUND_-_NARA_-_543746.jpg "AERIAL VIEW OF TELLURIDE SHOWING NEWLY-CUT SKI TRAILS (IN RIGHT FOREGROUND - NARA - 543746.jpg")
### Skiing era
Mining was Telluride's only industry until 1972 when the first [ski lift](/wiki/Chairlift "Chairlift") was installed by [Telluride Ski Resort](/wiki/Telluride_Ski_Resort "Telluride Ski Resort") founder [Joseph T. Zoline](/wiki/Joseph_T._Zoline "Joseph T. Zoline") and his Telluride Ski Corporation (Telco). Zoline bought the land for the future resort in 1969 and began to craft the slopes. Along with his mountain manager, Telluride native Bill "Sr." Mahoney, they slowly and thoughtfully put together a plan for the sustained development of Telluride and the region. As mining phased out and a new service industry phased in, the local population changed sharply. Mining families fled Telluride to settle in places like [Moab, Utah](/wiki/Moab%2C_Utah "Moab, Utah"), where uranium mining offered hope of continued employment. Mining families were replaced by what locals referred to as "[hippies](/wiki/Hippie "Hippie")", young people with a 1960s worldview that often clashed with the values of Telluride's old\-timers. These newcomers were characterized as idle "trust funders" drawn to the town for a casual lifestyle and outdoor excitements such as [hang gliding](/wiki/Hang_gliding "Hang gliding"), [mountain climbing](/wiki/Mountaineering "Mountaineering"), and [kayaking](/wiki/Kayaking "Kayaking").
The new population opposed town growth and economic expansion, including growth due to tourism and skiing. At one point, a serious effort was made to ban cars from the city limits and force visitors to use horse\-drawn carts. The 1970s had fluctuating snowfalls and economic recession, but the town's music and [film festivals](/wiki/Telluride_Film_Festival "Telluride Film Festival") flourished. They exposed hundreds of thousands to the grandeur of the valley for the first time and created iconic associations with elite entertainers. Meanwhile, ski area founder Joe Zoline worked to develop one of the best mountains in North America for expert skiers,{{citation needed\|date\=July 2020}} and created the infrastructure for tourism that respected Telluride's need to stay small.{{citation needed\|date\=July 2020}}
As the final ore carts were rolling out of the Pandora mine, tourists began to discover Telluride's views, skiing, and autumn color changes. After the brutal snow drought of 1976 nearly wiped out the embryonic ski and lodging industry, the town started to rebound economically. In 1978, Ron Allred and his partner Jim Wells bought a stake in the ski area to form the Telluride Company. They expanded the infrastructure by adding a gondola connecting Telluride with the Mountain Village.
During the 1980s, Telluride developed a reputation as "Colorado's best\-kept secret", which paradoxically made it one of the better\-known resort communities. Wealthy skiers flocked to the mountain all winter, and sightseers kept hotel rooms full all summer. Telluride also became notorious in the drug counterculture as a drop point for Mexican smugglers and a favorite place for wealthy importers to enjoy downtime. The town was even featured in the hit song by [Glenn Frey](/wiki/Glenn_Frey "Glenn Frey") from *[Miami Vice](/wiki/Miami_Vice "Miami Vice")*, "Smugglers Blues". Telluride was living up to its Wild West history. This type of attention helped differentiate it from [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen%2C_Colorado "Aspen, Colorado"). The festivals and Telluride's bad\-boy image attracted celebrities like [Tom Cruise](/wiki/Tom_Cruise "Tom Cruise"), [Oprah Winfrey](/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey "Oprah Winfrey"), and [Oliver Stone](/wiki/Oliver_Stone "Oliver Stone"). By the mid\-1990s, Telluride had shed both its mining personality and drug image to establish itself as a premier resort town balancing modern culture with fascinating western history. In 2003, Prospect Bowl, an extension to the ski area opened, providing the resort with many new trails and runs. In 2007–08, the ski area opened some of the most extreme, inbound, hike\-to terrain in the country. Most lifts in the area are high\-speed quad chairs capable of holding four passengers. The highest lift on the mountain reaches {{convert\|12570\|ft}}.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Mining days",
"Gold was first discovered in Colorado near present\\-day Denver, setting off the [Pike's Peak gold rush of 1858](/wiki/Pike%27s_Peak_Gold_Rush \"Pike's Peak Gold Rush\"). The Smuggler gold vein above Telluride, and placer gold in the [San Miguel River](/wiki/San_Miguel_River_%28Colorado%29 \"San Miguel River (Colorado)\"), were discovered in 1875\\.Voynick, S.M., 1992, Colorado Gold, Missoula: Mountain Press Publishing Company, {{ISBN\\|0878424555}}{{rp\\|51,54}} John Fallon made the first claim in Marshal Basin above Telluride in 1875 and early settlement of Telluride followed. The town was founded in 1878\\. Telluride was originally named \"Columbia\", but due to confusion with [Columbia](/wiki/Columbia%2C_California \"Columbia, California\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), the name was changed by the [post office](/wiki/Post_office \"Post office\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2024}} The town was named after valuable [ore](/wiki/Ore \"Ore\") compounds of the [chemical element](/wiki/Chemical_element \"Chemical element\") [tellurium](/wiki/Tellurium \"Tellurium\"), a [metalloid](/wiki/Metalloid \"Metalloid\") element which forms natural [tellurides](/wiki/Telluride_%28chemistry%29 \"Telluride (chemistry)\"), the most notable of which are telluride ores of gold and silver. Although [gold telluride](/wiki/Gold_chalcogenides \"Gold chalcogenides\") minerals were never actually found in the mountains near Telluride, the area's [mines](/wiki/Mining \"Mining\") were rich in [zinc](/wiki/Zinc \"Zinc\"), [lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\"), [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\"), silver, and ores which contained gold in other forms.",
"Telluride began slowly because of its isolated location. In 1881, a [toll road](/wiki/Toll_road \"Toll road\") was opened by [Otto Mears](/wiki/Otto_Mears \"Otto Mears\"), which allowed wagons to go where only pack [mules](/wiki/Mule \"Mule\") could go before. This increased the number of people in Telluride, but it was still expensive to get gold\\-rich ore out of the valley.",
"In June 1889, [Butch Cassidy](/wiki/Butch_Cassidy \"Butch Cassidy\"), before becoming associated with his gang, the \"[Wild Bunch](/wiki/Butch_Cassidy%27s_Wild_Bunch \"Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch\")\", robbed the San Miguel Valley Bank in Telluride. This was his first major recorded crime. He exited the bank with [$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")24,580 and later became famous as a bank robber.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.yahoo.com/old\\-text\\-wrinkles\\-did\\-butch\\-cassidy\\-survive\\-083206159\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2011\\|title\\=Old text, new wrinkles: Did Butch Cassidy survive?\\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|first\\=Mead\\|last\\=Gruver\\|date\\=August 15, 2011}}",
"In 1891, the [Rio Grande Southern Railroad](/wiki/Rio_Grande_Southern_Railroad \"Rio Grande Southern Railroad\"), also begun by Mears, arrived in Telluride, eventually building a two\\-stall engine house, water facilities, a section house and a bunkhouse, sidings, and a depot. It continued further up the valley to end its Telluride branch at Pandora, serving the mines and the town until 1952\\. The cheaper and consistent transportation for passengers and freight allowed miners and goods to flow into the San Miguel town and ore to flow out to the mills and foundries elsewhere. This brought a brief but unprecedented boom to Telluride before the [Panic of 1893](/wiki/Panic_of_1893 \"Panic of 1893\").{{cite web\\|last\\=Clark\\|first\\=Jerry\\|title\\=Telluride, Colorado – Mile Post 45\\.1 – Elev. 8,756ft\\|url\\=http://www.narrowgauge.org/ngc/html/excursion1/excursion1\\-telluride.html\\|work\\=The Narrow Gauge Circle\\|publisher\\=Mark L. Evans\\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2013}}",
"Around the turn of the 20th century, there were serious [labor disputes](/wiki/Trade_union \"Trade union\") in the mines near Telluride. The [Colorado National Guard](/wiki/Colorado_National_Guard \"Colorado National Guard\") was called out and there were deaths on both sides. [Unions](/wiki/Trade_union \"Trade union\") were formed as miners joined the [Western Federation of Miners](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners \"Western Federation of Miners\") in 1896\\. 1899 brought big changes as union [strike action](/wiki/Strike_action \"Strike action\") led most mines to grant miners $3 a day for an 8\\-hour day's work plus a boarding pay of $1 a day. At this time, workers were putting in 10\\- to 12\\-hour days and the mines ran 24 hours a day. [Work conditions](/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health \"Occupational safety and health\") were treacherous, with mines above {{cvt\\|12000\\|ft\\|\\-2}}, a lack of safety measures, and bitter weather in winter months. Even the [boarding houses](/wiki/Boarding_house \"Boarding house\") were precariously placed on the mountainsides.",
"Telluride's labor unrest occurred against the backdrop of a statewide struggle between miners and mine owners. [Bulkeley Wells](/wiki/Bulkeley_Wells \"Bulkeley Wells\") was one mine operator considerably hostile to the union. The Telluride Miners' Union was led by [Vincent St. John](/wiki/Vincent_Saint_John \"Vincent Saint John\"). The disappearance of mine guard [William J. Barney](/wiki/William_J._Barney \"William J. Barney\"), which Wells declared a \"murder\", created much intrigue and national interest. The accusations, animosity, [gunplay](/wiki/Gun \"Gun\"), and expulsions that followed were part of an ongoing struggle throughout Colorado's mining communities which came to be called the [Colorado Labor Wars](/wiki/Colorado_Labor_Wars \"Colorado Labor Wars\").",
"In 1891, Telluride's [L. L. Nunn](/wiki/L._L._Nunn \"L. L. Nunn\") joined forces with [George Westinghouse](/wiki/George_Westinghouse \"George Westinghouse\") to build the [Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant](/wiki/Ames_Hydroelectric_Generating_Plant \"Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant\"), an [alternating current](/wiki/Alternating_current \"Alternating current\") [power station](/wiki/Power_station \"Power station\"), near Telluride. The plant supplied power to the [Gold King Mine](/wiki/2015_Gold_King_Mine_waste_water_spill \"2015 Gold King Mine waste water spill\") {{convert\\|3\\.5\\|mi}} away. This was the first successful demonstration of long\\-distance transmission of industrial\\-grade alternating current power and used two {{cvt\\|100\\|hp}} Westinghouse alternators, one working as a generator producing 3,000 volts, 133 Hertz, single\\-phase AC, and the other used as an AC motor.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=31O4upzTHQwC\\&q\\=In\\+1891\\+Telluride\\+westinghouse\\+induction\\+motor\\&pg\\=PA39\\|title\\=The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology\\|first\\=D. M.\\|last\\=Mattox\\|date\\=January 15, 2013\\|publisher\\=Elsevier Science\\|isbn\\=9780080947051\\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2018\\|via\\=Google Books}} This hydroelectric AC power plant predated the Westinghouse plant at [Niagara Falls](/wiki/Niagara_Falls \"Niagara Falls\") by four years. Nunn and his brother Paul built power plants in Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Montana, Mexico, and the Ontario Power plant at Niagara Falls on the Canadian side. Nunn developed a keen interest in education as part of his electrical power companies, and in conjunction with Cornell University built the [Telluride House](/wiki/Telluride_House \"Telluride House\") at Cornell in 1909 to educate promising students in [electrical engineering](/wiki/Electrical_engineering \"Electrical engineering\"). Later, Nunn along with [Charles Walcott](/wiki/Charles_Doolittle_Walcott \"Charles Doolittle Walcott\"), started the non\\-profit [Telluride Association](/wiki/Telluride_Association \"Telluride Association\"). Nunn founded [Deep Springs College](/wiki/Deep_Springs_College \"Deep Springs College\") in 1917\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Our History \\|url\\=https://www.deepsprings.edu/history/ \\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2023 \\|website\\=Deep Springs College \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Each year, the Telluride Tech Festival honors Nunn, inventor [Nikola Tesla](/wiki/Nikola_Tesla \"Nikola Tesla\"), and Westinghouse, along with current\\-day technology and science leaders.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2021}}",
"Telluride's most famous historic mines are the Tomboy, Pandora, Smuggler\\-Union, Nellie, and Sheridan mines. Beginning in 1939, the hard\\-rock mining operations in the Red Mountain and Telluride mining districts began a lengthy [consolidation](/wiki/Consolidation_%28business%29 \"Consolidation (business)\") under the [Idarado Mining Company](/wiki/Idarado_Mine \"Idarado Mine\") (Idarado), now a division of [Newmont Mining](/wiki/Newmont \"Newmont\"). The consolidation ended in 1953 with Idarado's acquisition of the Telluride Mines. Idarado kept the underground workings and mill operations open at Telluride's Pandora hard\\-rock mine until 1978\\. When the mine officially closed, the [snow](/wiki/Snow \"Snow\") which tormented Telluride's miners became the town's new source of income, in the form of [skiing](/wiki/Skiing \"Skiing\") and tourism. The documentary video \"the YX factor\" chronicles the transition from mining to skiing and the influx of \"[hippies](/wiki/Hippie \"Hippie\")\" in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the words of local residents and commentators such as [Peter Yarrow](/wiki/Peter_Yarrow \"Peter Yarrow\") and [Tom Hayden](/wiki/Tom_Hayden \"Tom Hayden\").{{Cite book \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.7560/755239 \\|title\\=Tell Me a Story, Sing Me a Song \\|date\\=1983 \\|publisher\\=University of Texas Press \\|doi\\=10\\.7560/755239 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-292\\-74801\\-9}}",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Aerial view of newly cut Boomerang Road (May 1972\\).](/wiki/File:AERIAL_VIEW_OF_TELLURIDE_SHOWING_NEWLY-CUT_SKI_TRAILS_%28IN_RIGHT_FOREGROUND_-_NARA_-_543746.jpg \"AERIAL VIEW OF TELLURIDE SHOWING NEWLY-CUT SKI TRAILS (IN RIGHT FOREGROUND - NARA - 543746.jpg\")",
"### Skiing era",
"Mining was Telluride's only industry until 1972 when the first [ski lift](/wiki/Chairlift \"Chairlift\") was installed by [Telluride Ski Resort](/wiki/Telluride_Ski_Resort \"Telluride Ski Resort\") founder [Joseph T. Zoline](/wiki/Joseph_T._Zoline \"Joseph T. Zoline\") and his Telluride Ski Corporation (Telco). Zoline bought the land for the future resort in 1969 and began to craft the slopes. Along with his mountain manager, Telluride native Bill \"Sr.\" Mahoney, they slowly and thoughtfully put together a plan for the sustained development of Telluride and the region. As mining phased out and a new service industry phased in, the local population changed sharply. Mining families fled Telluride to settle in places like [Moab, Utah](/wiki/Moab%2C_Utah \"Moab, Utah\"), where uranium mining offered hope of continued employment. Mining families were replaced by what locals referred to as \"[hippies](/wiki/Hippie \"Hippie\")\", young people with a 1960s worldview that often clashed with the values of Telluride's old\\-timers. These newcomers were characterized as idle \"trust funders\" drawn to the town for a casual lifestyle and outdoor excitements such as [hang gliding](/wiki/Hang_gliding \"Hang gliding\"), [mountain climbing](/wiki/Mountaineering \"Mountaineering\"), and [kayaking](/wiki/Kayaking \"Kayaking\").",
"The new population opposed town growth and economic expansion, including growth due to tourism and skiing. At one point, a serious effort was made to ban cars from the city limits and force visitors to use horse\\-drawn carts. The 1970s had fluctuating snowfalls and economic recession, but the town's music and [film festivals](/wiki/Telluride_Film_Festival \"Telluride Film Festival\") flourished. They exposed hundreds of thousands to the grandeur of the valley for the first time and created iconic associations with elite entertainers. Meanwhile, ski area founder Joe Zoline worked to develop one of the best mountains in North America for expert skiers,{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2020}} and created the infrastructure for tourism that respected Telluride's need to stay small.{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2020}}",
"As the final ore carts were rolling out of the Pandora mine, tourists began to discover Telluride's views, skiing, and autumn color changes. After the brutal snow drought of 1976 nearly wiped out the embryonic ski and lodging industry, the town started to rebound economically. In 1978, Ron Allred and his partner Jim Wells bought a stake in the ski area to form the Telluride Company. They expanded the infrastructure by adding a gondola connecting Telluride with the Mountain Village.",
"During the 1980s, Telluride developed a reputation as \"Colorado's best\\-kept secret\", which paradoxically made it one of the better\\-known resort communities. Wealthy skiers flocked to the mountain all winter, and sightseers kept hotel rooms full all summer. Telluride also became notorious in the drug counterculture as a drop point for Mexican smugglers and a favorite place for wealthy importers to enjoy downtime. The town was even featured in the hit song by [Glenn Frey](/wiki/Glenn_Frey \"Glenn Frey\") from *[Miami Vice](/wiki/Miami_Vice \"Miami Vice\")*, \"Smugglers Blues\". Telluride was living up to its Wild West history. This type of attention helped differentiate it from [Aspen](/wiki/Aspen%2C_Colorado \"Aspen, Colorado\"). The festivals and Telluride's bad\\-boy image attracted celebrities like [Tom Cruise](/wiki/Tom_Cruise \"Tom Cruise\"), [Oprah Winfrey](/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey \"Oprah Winfrey\"), and [Oliver Stone](/wiki/Oliver_Stone \"Oliver Stone\"). By the mid\\-1990s, Telluride had shed both its mining personality and drug image to establish itself as a premier resort town balancing modern culture with fascinating western history. In 2003, Prospect Bowl, an extension to the ski area opened, providing the resort with many new trails and runs. In 2007–08, the ski area opened some of the most extreme, inbound, hike\\-to terrain in the country. Most lifts in the area are high\\-speed quad chairs capable of holding four passengers. The highest lift on the mountain reaches {{convert\\|12570\\|ft}}.",
""
] |
Contributions to information ethics
-----------------------------------
Weckert has contributed many ideas to Information Ethics, specifically relative to the relationship between the philosophical and applied sides of Information and Computer Ethics.
### Trust in an online environment
Weckert has done extensive research on the idea of [trust](/wiki/Trust_%28social_sciences%29 "Trust (social sciences)") within an online environment. He sums up his theories in his 2005 article, "Trust in Cyberspace".{{cite web\|url\=https://ctools.umich.edu/access/content/group/aaaaaee7\-1694\-481e\-95b6\-090bdec54ec2/Required%20Readings/3%20Virtual%20Environments/Weckert%20Trust%20in%20Cyberspace%202005\.pdf\|title\=Trust in Cyberspace}}
In the article, Weckert focuses on a few key issues regarding the concept of trust and if and when it may be possible in cyberspace. Trust has both cognitive and non\-cognitive aspects: one may feel a certain way about another's trustworthiness without believing it in their mind. Trust opens one up to a degree of risk and is thus indispensable to friendship. Weckert opposes trust with monitoring by arguing that in order for trust to exist there must be limits on monitoring. He argues that a lack of community values or online social norms makes the internet less trustworthy but this obstacle may dissipate over time. He also addresses the hurdles that online anonymity and disembodiment put in front of online trust.
In terms of the effect trust has on the average person (or digital representation of a person) in an online environment, Weckert's ideas apply similarly. He assesses some factors relevant to video gaming, where trust is often an issue, specifically when playing against human opponents. In his 2005 article, he specifies some methods for obtaining online trust, and his second method focuses on how to do so in the context of e\-commerce. Near the end he mentions that developing trust in areas such as chat groups is not as much of a problem because not as much is at stake. This is also true in some cases with respect to online gaming. While gaming certainly does not place as much at stake as a financial transaction, players sometimes have a very strong connection to the game or some part of the game such as their avatar, and for this reason trust is an important factor for them within the game.
### Trust in relation to cheating
Weckert's work with online trust also has significant implications on [cheating](/wiki/Cheating "Cheating"). Due to the increased sense of community and closeness associated with the establishment of trust in an online environment, occurrences of cheating are likely to decline. In Mia Consalvo's 2007 article on gaining advantages in video games, she states that one sense of cheating can be defined as "violating the spirit of the game."{{cite web\|url\=https://ctools.umich.edu/access/content/group/aaaaaee7\-1694\-481e\-95b6\-090bdec54ec2/Required%20Readings/3%20Virtual%20Environments/Consalvo%20Gaining%20Advantage%202007\.pdf\|last\=Consalvo\|first\=Mia\|title\=Gaining Advantage in Videogames\|year\=2007}} The "spirit of the game" is less likely to be violated if each player in the virtual world has some type of trust that the others will respect the game in at least a similar sense to their own. By definition, the spirit of the game would not be violated by the players (or at least minimally violated), therefore by definition this would mean that cheating would at least decline.
### Other contributions
In addition to his work related to trust, Weckert has contributed to many other areas within Information and Computer Ethics. Recently, he has begun research on the application of the precautionary principle to nanotechnology. This research involves a careful analysis of the real and potential risks of developments in nanotechnology, as well as an examination of just what the precautionary principle is.
|
[
"Contributions to information ethics\n-----------------------------------",
"Weckert has contributed many ideas to Information Ethics, specifically relative to the relationship between the philosophical and applied sides of Information and Computer Ethics.",
"### Trust in an online environment",
"Weckert has done extensive research on the idea of [trust](/wiki/Trust_%28social_sciences%29 \"Trust (social sciences)\") within an online environment. He sums up his theories in his 2005 article, \"Trust in Cyberspace\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ctools.umich.edu/access/content/group/aaaaaee7\\-1694\\-481e\\-95b6\\-090bdec54ec2/Required%20Readings/3%20Virtual%20Environments/Weckert%20Trust%20in%20Cyberspace%202005\\.pdf\\|title\\=Trust in Cyberspace}}",
"In the article, Weckert focuses on a few key issues regarding the concept of trust and if and when it may be possible in cyberspace. Trust has both cognitive and non\\-cognitive aspects: one may feel a certain way about another's trustworthiness without believing it in their mind. Trust opens one up to a degree of risk and is thus indispensable to friendship. Weckert opposes trust with monitoring by arguing that in order for trust to exist there must be limits on monitoring. He argues that a lack of community values or online social norms makes the internet less trustworthy but this obstacle may dissipate over time. He also addresses the hurdles that online anonymity and disembodiment put in front of online trust.",
"In terms of the effect trust has on the average person (or digital representation of a person) in an online environment, Weckert's ideas apply similarly. He assesses some factors relevant to video gaming, where trust is often an issue, specifically when playing against human opponents. In his 2005 article, he specifies some methods for obtaining online trust, and his second method focuses on how to do so in the context of e\\-commerce. Near the end he mentions that developing trust in areas such as chat groups is not as much of a problem because not as much is at stake. This is also true in some cases with respect to online gaming. While gaming certainly does not place as much at stake as a financial transaction, players sometimes have a very strong connection to the game or some part of the game such as their avatar, and for this reason trust is an important factor for them within the game.",
"### Trust in relation to cheating",
"Weckert's work with online trust also has significant implications on [cheating](/wiki/Cheating \"Cheating\"). Due to the increased sense of community and closeness associated with the establishment of trust in an online environment, occurrences of cheating are likely to decline. In Mia Consalvo's 2007 article on gaining advantages in video games, she states that one sense of cheating can be defined as \"violating the spirit of the game.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ctools.umich.edu/access/content/group/aaaaaee7\\-1694\\-481e\\-95b6\\-090bdec54ec2/Required%20Readings/3%20Virtual%20Environments/Consalvo%20Gaining%20Advantage%202007\\.pdf\\|last\\=Consalvo\\|first\\=Mia\\|title\\=Gaining Advantage in Videogames\\|year\\=2007}} The \"spirit of the game\" is less likely to be violated if each player in the virtual world has some type of trust that the others will respect the game in at least a similar sense to their own. By definition, the spirit of the game would not be violated by the players (or at least minimally violated), therefore by definition this would mean that cheating would at least decline.",
"### Other contributions",
"In addition to his work related to trust, Weckert has contributed to many other areas within Information and Computer Ethics. Recently, he has begun research on the application of the precautionary principle to nanotechnology. This research involves a careful analysis of the real and potential risks of developments in nanotechnology, as well as an examination of just what the precautionary principle is.",
""
] |
Special cases
-------------
### Complex numbers
If F\={\\mathbb C} is the field of complex numbers, then the nth roots of unity can be visualized as points on the [unit circle](/wiki/Unit_circle "Unit circle") of the [complex plane](/wiki/Complex_plane "Complex plane"). In this case, one usually takes
\\alpha\=e^{\\frac{\-2\\pi i}{n}},
which yields the usual formula for the [complex discrete Fourier transform](/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform "Discrete Fourier transform"):
f\_k \= \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} v\_j e^{\\frac{\-2\\pi i}{n}jk}.
Over the complex numbers, it is often customary to normalize the formulas for the DFT and inverse DFT by using the scalar factor \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{n}} in both formulas, rather than 1 in the formula for the DFT and \\frac{1}{n} in the formula for the inverse DFT. With this normalization, the DFT matrix is then unitary.
Note that \\sqrt{n} does not make sense in an arbitrary field.
### Finite fields
If F\=\\mathrm{GF}(q) is a [finite field](/wiki/Finite_field "Finite field"), where {{mvar\|q}} is a [prime](/wiki/Prime_number "Prime number") power, then the existence of a primitive {{mvar\|n}}th root automatically implies that {{mvar\|n}} [divides](/wiki/Divides "Divides") q\-1, because the [multiplicative order](/wiki/Multiplicative_order "Multiplicative order") of each element must divide the size of the [multiplicative group](/wiki/Multiplicative_group "Multiplicative group") of {{mvar\|F}}, which is q\-1. This in particular ensures that n\=\\underbrace{1\+1\+\\cdots\+1}\_{n\\ \\rm times} is invertible, so that the notation \\frac{1}{n} in ({{EquationNote\|3}}) makes sense.
An application of the discrete Fourier transform over \\mathrm{GF}(q) is the reduction of [Reed–Solomon codes](/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_code "Reed–Solomon code") to [BCH codes](/wiki/BCH_code "BCH code") in [coding theory](/wiki/Coding_theory "Coding theory"). Such transform can be carried out efficiently with proper fast algorithms, for example, [cyclotomic fast Fourier transform](/wiki/Cyclotomic_fast_Fourier_transform "Cyclotomic fast Fourier transform").
#### Polynomial formulation without nth root
Suppose F\=\\mathrm{GF}(p). If p\\nmid n, it may be the case that n \\nmid p\-1. This means we cannot find an n^{th} root of unity in F. We may view the Fourier transform as an isomorphism \\mathrm{F}\[C\_n]\=\\mathrm{F}\[x]/(x^n\-1\) \\cong \\bigoplus\_i \\mathrm{F}\[x]/(P\_i(x)) for some polynomials P\_i(x), in accordance with [Maschke's theorem](/wiki/Maschke%27s_theorem "Maschke's theorem"). The map is given by the [Chinese remainder theorem](/wiki/Chinese_remainder_theorem "Chinese remainder theorem"), and the inverse is given by applying [Bézout's identity](/wiki/B%C3%A9zout%27s_identity "Bézout's identity") for polynomials.{{cite web \| url\=https://github.com/jacksonwalters/dft\-finite\-groups \| title\=Jacksonwalters/DFT\-finite\-groups \| website\=\[\[GitHub]] }}
x^n\-1\=\\prod\_{d\|n} \\Phi\_d(x), a product of cyclotomic polynomials. Factoring \\Phi\_d(x) in F\[x] is equivalent to factoring the prime ideal (p) in \\mathrm{Z}\[\\zeta] \= \\mathrm{Z}\[x]/(\\Phi\_d(x)). We obtain g polynomials P\_1 \\ldots P\_g of degree f where fg \= \\varphi(d) and f is the order of p \\text{ mod } d.
As above, we may extend the base field to \\mathrm{GF}(q) in order to find a primitive root, i.e. a splitting field for x^n\-1. Now x^n\-1 \= \\prod\_k (x\-\\alpha^{k}), so an element \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} v\_j x^j \\in F\[x]/(x^n\-1\) maps to \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} v\_j x^j \\mod (x\-\\alpha^k) \\equiv \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} v\_j (\\alpha^k)^j for each k.
#### When p divides n
When p\|n, we may still define an F\_p\-linear isomorphism as above. Note that (x^n\-1\)\=(x^m\-1\)^{p^s} where n\=m p^s and p \\nmid m. We apply the above factorization to x^m\-1, and now obtain the decomposition F\[x]/(x^n\-1\) \\cong \\bigoplus\_i F\[x]/(P\_i(x)^{p^s}). The modules occurring are now indecomposable rather than irreducible.
#### Order of the DFT matrix
Suppose p \\nmid n so we have an n^{th} root of unity \\alpha. Let A be the above DFT matrix, a Vandermonde matrix with entries A\_{ij}\=\\alpha^{ij} for 0 \\le i,j \< n. Recall that \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} \\alpha^{(k\-l)j} \= n\\delta\_{k,l} since if k\=l, then every entry is 1\. If k \\ne l, then we have a geometric series with common ratio \\alpha^{k\-l}, so we obtain \\frac{1\-\\alpha^{n(k\-l)}}{1\-\\alpha^{k\-l}}. Since \\alpha^n\=1 the numerator is zero, but k\-l \\ne 0 so the denominator is nonzero.
First computing the square, (A^2\)\_{ik} \= \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} \\alpha^{j(i\+k)} \= n\\delta\_{i,\-k}. Computing A^4\=(A^2\)^2 similarly and simplifying the deltas, we obtain (A^4\)\_{ik}\=n^2\\delta\_{i,k}. Thus, A^4\=n^2 I\_n and the order is 4\\cdot \\text{ord}(n^2\).
#### Normalizing the DFT matrix
In order to align with the complex case and ensure the matrix is order 4 exactly, we can normalize the above DFT matrix A with \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{n}}. Note that though \\sqrt{n} may not exist in the splitting field F\_q of x^n\-1, we may form a quadratic extension F\_{q^2} \\cong F\_q\[x]/(x^2\-n) in which the square root exists. We may then set U\=\\frac{1}{\\sqrt{n}}A, and U^4\=I\_n.
#### Unitarity
Suppose p \\nmid n. One can ask whether the DFT matrix is [unitary over a finite field](/wiki/Unitary_group%23finite_fields "Unitary group#finite fields"). If the matrix entries are over F\_q, then one must ensure q is a perfect square or extend to F\_{q^2} in order to define the order two automorphism x \\mapsto x^q. Consider the above DFT matrix A\_{ij}\=\\alpha^{ij}. Note that A is symmetric. Conjugating and transposing, we obtain A\_{ij}^{\*}\=\\alpha^{qji}.
(AA^\*)\_{ik} \= \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1}\\alpha^{j(i\+qk)} \= n\\delta\_{i,\-qk}
by a similar geometric series argument as above. We may remove the n by normalizing so that U \= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{n}}A and (UU^\*)\_{ik} \= \\delta\_{i,\-qk}. Thus U is unitary iff q \\equiv \-1 \\,(\\text{mod} \\, n). Recall that since we have an n^{th} root of unity, n\|q^2\-1. This means that q^2 \- 1 \\equiv (q\+1\)(q\-1\) \\equiv 0 \\,(\\text{mod} \\, n). Note if q was not a perfect square to begin with, then n\|q\-1 and so q \\equiv 1 \\, (\\text{mod} \\, n).
For example, when p\=3, n\=5 we need to extend to q^2\=3^4 to get a 5th root of unity. q\=9 \\equiv \-1 \\, (\\text{mod} \\, 5\).
For a nonexample, when p\=3, n\=8 we extend to F\_{3^2} to get an 8th root of unity. q^2\=9, so q \\equiv 3 \\,(\\text{mod} \\, 8\), and in this case q\+1 \\not\\equiv 0 and q\-1 \\not\\equiv 0. UU^\* is a square root of the identity, so U is not unitary.
#### Eigenvalues of the DFT matrix
When p \\nmid n, we have an n^{th} root of unity \\alpha in the splitting field F\_q \\cong F\_p\[x]/(x^n\-1\). Note that the characteristic polynomial of the above DFT matrix may not split over F\_q.
The DFT matrix is order 4\. We may need to go to a further extension F\_{q'}, the splitting extension of the characteristic polynomial of the DFT matrix, which at least contains fourth roots of unity. If a is a generator of the multiplicative group of F\_{q'}, then the eigenvalues are \\{\\pm 1,\\pm a^{(q'\-1\)/4}\\}, in exact analogy with the complex case. They occur with some nonnegative multiplicity.
### Number\-theoretic transform
The **number\-theoretic transform (NTT)**{{Cite journal\|last1\=Agarwal\|first1\=R.\|last2\=Burrus\|first2\=C.\|date\=April 1974\|title\=Fast Convolution using fermat number transforms with applications to digital filtering\|url\=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1162555\|journal\=IEEE Transactions on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing\|language\=en\|volume\=22\|issue\=2\|pages\=87–97\|doi\=10\.1109/TASSP.1974\.1162555\|issn\=0096\-3518}} is obtained by specializing the discrete Fourier transform to F\={\\mathbb Z}/p, the [integers modulo a prime {{mvar\|p}}](/wiki/Modular_arithmetic "Modular arithmetic"). This is a [finite field](/wiki/Finite_field "Finite field"), and primitive {{mvar\|n}}th roots of unity exist whenever {{mvar\|n}} divides p\-1, so we have p\=\\xi n\+1 for a positive integer {{mvar\|ξ}}. Specifically, let \\omega be a primitive (p\-1\)th root of unity, then an {{mvar\|n}}th root of unity \\alpha can be found by letting \\alpha\=\\omega^{\\xi}.
e.g. for p\=5, \\alpha \= 2
\\begin{align}2^{1}\&\=2 \\pmod 5\\\\2^{2}\&\=4 \\pmod 5\\\\2^{3}\&\=3 \\pmod 5\\\\2^{4}\&\=1 \\pmod 5\\end{align}
when N\=4
\\begin{bmatrix}
F(0\) \\\\
F(1\) \\\\
F(2\) \\\\
F(3\) \\end{bmatrix}
\=
```
\begin{bmatrix}
```
1 \& 1 \& 1 \& 1 \\\\
1 \& 2 \& 4 \& 3 \\\\
1 \& 4 \& 1 \& 4 \\\\
1 \& 3 \& 4 \& 2 \\end{bmatrix}
\\begin{bmatrix}
f(0\) \\\\
f(1\) \\\\
f(2\) \\\\
f(3\) \\end{bmatrix}
The number theoretic transform may be meaningful in the [ring](/wiki/Ring_%28mathematics%29 "Ring (mathematics)") \\mathbb{Z}/m, even when the modulus {{mvar\|m}} is not prime, provided a principal root of order {{mvar\|n}} exists. Special cases of the number theoretic transform such as the Fermat Number Transform ({{math\|1\=''m'' \= 2''k''\+1}}), used by the [Schönhage–Strassen algorithm](/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nhage%E2%80%93Strassen_algorithm "Schönhage–Strassen algorithm"), or Mersenne Number Transform{{Cite journal\|last\=Rader\|first\=C.M.\|date\=December 1972\|title\=Discrete Convolutions via Mersenne Transforms\|url\=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1672090\|journal\=IEEE Transactions on Computers\|volume\=C\-21\|issue\=12\|pages\=1269–1273\|doi\=10\.1109/T\-C.1972\.223497\|s2cid\=1939809 \|issn\=0018\-9340}} ({{math\|1\=''m'' \= 2''k'' − 1}}) use a composite modulus.
### Discrete weighted transform
The **discrete weighted transform (DWT)** is a variation on the discrete Fourier transform over arbitrary rings involving [weighting](/wiki/Weight_function "Weight function") the input before transforming it by multiplying elementwise by a weight vector, then weighting the result by another vector.{{Citation \| last1 \= Crandall \| first1 \= Richard \| last2 \= Fagin \| first2 \= Barry \| title \= Discrete weighted transforms and large\-integer arithmetic \| journal \= Mathematics of Computation \| volume \= 62 \| issue \= 205 \| year \= 1994 \| pages \= 305–324 \| url \= http://www.faginfamily.net/barry/Papers/Discrete%20Weighted%20Transforms.pdf \| doi\=10\.2307/2153411\| jstor \= 2153411 \| doi\-access \= free }} The [Irrational base discrete weighted transform](/wiki/Irrational_base_discrete_weighted_transform "Irrational base discrete weighted transform") is a special case of this.
|
[
"Special cases\n-------------",
"### Complex numbers",
"If F\\={\\\\mathbb C} is the field of complex numbers, then the nth roots of unity can be visualized as points on the [unit circle](/wiki/Unit_circle \"Unit circle\") of the [complex plane](/wiki/Complex_plane \"Complex plane\"). In this case, one usually takes",
"\\\\alpha\\=e^{\\\\frac{\\-2\\\\pi i}{n}},\nwhich yields the usual formula for the [complex discrete Fourier transform](/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform \"Discrete Fourier transform\"):",
"f\\_k \\= \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} v\\_j e^{\\\\frac{\\-2\\\\pi i}{n}jk}.\nOver the complex numbers, it is often customary to normalize the formulas for the DFT and inverse DFT by using the scalar factor \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{n}} in both formulas, rather than 1 in the formula for the DFT and \\\\frac{1}{n} in the formula for the inverse DFT. With this normalization, the DFT matrix is then unitary. \nNote that \\\\sqrt{n} does not make sense in an arbitrary field.",
"### Finite fields",
"If F\\=\\\\mathrm{GF}(q) is a [finite field](/wiki/Finite_field \"Finite field\"), where {{mvar\\|q}} is a [prime](/wiki/Prime_number \"Prime number\") power, then the existence of a primitive {{mvar\\|n}}th root automatically implies that {{mvar\\|n}} [divides](/wiki/Divides \"Divides\") q\\-1, because the [multiplicative order](/wiki/Multiplicative_order \"Multiplicative order\") of each element must divide the size of the [multiplicative group](/wiki/Multiplicative_group \"Multiplicative group\") of {{mvar\\|F}}, which is q\\-1. This in particular ensures that n\\=\\\\underbrace{1\\+1\\+\\\\cdots\\+1}\\_{n\\\\ \\\\rm times} is invertible, so that the notation \\\\frac{1}{n} in ({{EquationNote\\|3}}) makes sense.",
"An application of the discrete Fourier transform over \\\\mathrm{GF}(q) is the reduction of [Reed–Solomon codes](/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_code \"Reed–Solomon code\") to [BCH codes](/wiki/BCH_code \"BCH code\") in [coding theory](/wiki/Coding_theory \"Coding theory\"). Such transform can be carried out efficiently with proper fast algorithms, for example, [cyclotomic fast Fourier transform](/wiki/Cyclotomic_fast_Fourier_transform \"Cyclotomic fast Fourier transform\").",
"#### Polynomial formulation without nth root",
"Suppose F\\=\\\\mathrm{GF}(p). If p\\\\nmid n, it may be the case that n \\\\nmid p\\-1. This means we cannot find an n^{th} root of unity in F. We may view the Fourier transform as an isomorphism \\\\mathrm{F}\\[C\\_n]\\=\\\\mathrm{F}\\[x]/(x^n\\-1\\) \\\\cong \\\\bigoplus\\_i \\\\mathrm{F}\\[x]/(P\\_i(x)) for some polynomials P\\_i(x), in accordance with [Maschke's theorem](/wiki/Maschke%27s_theorem \"Maschke's theorem\"). The map is given by the [Chinese remainder theorem](/wiki/Chinese_remainder_theorem \"Chinese remainder theorem\"), and the inverse is given by applying [Bézout's identity](/wiki/B%C3%A9zout%27s_identity \"Bézout's identity\") for polynomials.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://github.com/jacksonwalters/dft\\-finite\\-groups \\| title\\=Jacksonwalters/DFT\\-finite\\-groups \\| website\\=\\[\\[GitHub]] }}",
"x^n\\-1\\=\\\\prod\\_{d\\|n} \\\\Phi\\_d(x), a product of cyclotomic polynomials. Factoring \\\\Phi\\_d(x) in F\\[x] is equivalent to factoring the prime ideal (p) in \\\\mathrm{Z}\\[\\\\zeta] \\= \\\\mathrm{Z}\\[x]/(\\\\Phi\\_d(x)). We obtain g polynomials P\\_1 \\\\ldots P\\_g of degree f where fg \\= \\\\varphi(d) and f is the order of p \\\\text{ mod } d.",
"As above, we may extend the base field to \\\\mathrm{GF}(q) in order to find a primitive root, i.e. a splitting field for x^n\\-1. Now x^n\\-1 \\= \\\\prod\\_k (x\\-\\\\alpha^{k}), so an element \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} v\\_j x^j \\\\in F\\[x]/(x^n\\-1\\) maps to \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} v\\_j x^j \\\\mod (x\\-\\\\alpha^k) \\\\equiv \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} v\\_j (\\\\alpha^k)^j for each k.",
"#### When p divides n",
"When p\\|n, we may still define an F\\_p\\-linear isomorphism as above. Note that (x^n\\-1\\)\\=(x^m\\-1\\)^{p^s} where n\\=m p^s and p \\\\nmid m. We apply the above factorization to x^m\\-1, and now obtain the decomposition F\\[x]/(x^n\\-1\\) \\\\cong \\\\bigoplus\\_i F\\[x]/(P\\_i(x)^{p^s}). The modules occurring are now indecomposable rather than irreducible.",
"#### Order of the DFT matrix",
"Suppose p \\\\nmid n so we have an n^{th} root of unity \\\\alpha. Let A be the above DFT matrix, a Vandermonde matrix with entries A\\_{ij}\\=\\\\alpha^{ij} for 0 \\\\le i,j \\< n. Recall that \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} \\\\alpha^{(k\\-l)j} \\= n\\\\delta\\_{k,l} since if k\\=l, then every entry is 1\\. If k \\\\ne l, then we have a geometric series with common ratio \\\\alpha^{k\\-l}, so we obtain \\\\frac{1\\-\\\\alpha^{n(k\\-l)}}{1\\-\\\\alpha^{k\\-l}}. Since \\\\alpha^n\\=1 the numerator is zero, but k\\-l \\\\ne 0 so the denominator is nonzero.",
"First computing the square, (A^2\\)\\_{ik} \\= \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} \\\\alpha^{j(i\\+k)} \\= n\\\\delta\\_{i,\\-k}. Computing A^4\\=(A^2\\)^2 similarly and simplifying the deltas, we obtain (A^4\\)\\_{ik}\\=n^2\\\\delta\\_{i,k}. Thus, A^4\\=n^2 I\\_n and the order is 4\\\\cdot \\\\text{ord}(n^2\\).",
"#### Normalizing the DFT matrix",
"In order to align with the complex case and ensure the matrix is order 4 exactly, we can normalize the above DFT matrix A with \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{n}}. Note that though \\\\sqrt{n} may not exist in the splitting field F\\_q of x^n\\-1, we may form a quadratic extension F\\_{q^2} \\\\cong F\\_q\\[x]/(x^2\\-n) in which the square root exists. We may then set U\\=\\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{n}}A, and U^4\\=I\\_n.",
"#### Unitarity",
"Suppose p \\\\nmid n. One can ask whether the DFT matrix is [unitary over a finite field](/wiki/Unitary_group%23finite_fields \"Unitary group#finite fields\"). If the matrix entries are over F\\_q, then one must ensure q is a perfect square or extend to F\\_{q^2} in order to define the order two automorphism x \\\\mapsto x^q. Consider the above DFT matrix A\\_{ij}\\=\\\\alpha^{ij}. Note that A is symmetric. Conjugating and transposing, we obtain A\\_{ij}^{\\*}\\=\\\\alpha^{qji}.",
"(AA^\\*)\\_{ik} \\= \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1}\\\\alpha^{j(i\\+qk)} \\= n\\\\delta\\_{i,\\-qk}",
"by a similar geometric series argument as above. We may remove the n by normalizing so that U \\= \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{n}}A and (UU^\\*)\\_{ik} \\= \\\\delta\\_{i,\\-qk}. Thus U is unitary iff q \\\\equiv \\-1 \\\\,(\\\\text{mod} \\\\, n). Recall that since we have an n^{th} root of unity, n\\|q^2\\-1. This means that q^2 \\- 1 \\\\equiv (q\\+1\\)(q\\-1\\) \\\\equiv 0 \\\\,(\\\\text{mod} \\\\, n). Note if q was not a perfect square to begin with, then n\\|q\\-1 and so q \\\\equiv 1 \\\\, (\\\\text{mod} \\\\, n).",
"For example, when p\\=3, n\\=5 we need to extend to q^2\\=3^4 to get a 5th root of unity. q\\=9 \\\\equiv \\-1 \\\\, (\\\\text{mod} \\\\, 5\\).",
"For a nonexample, when p\\=3, n\\=8 we extend to F\\_{3^2} to get an 8th root of unity. q^2\\=9, so q \\\\equiv 3 \\\\,(\\\\text{mod} \\\\, 8\\), and in this case q\\+1 \\\\not\\\\equiv 0 and q\\-1 \\\\not\\\\equiv 0. UU^\\* is a square root of the identity, so U is not unitary.",
"#### Eigenvalues of the DFT matrix",
"When p \\\\nmid n, we have an n^{th} root of unity \\\\alpha in the splitting field F\\_q \\\\cong F\\_p\\[x]/(x^n\\-1\\). Note that the characteristic polynomial of the above DFT matrix may not split over F\\_q. \nThe DFT matrix is order 4\\. We may need to go to a further extension F\\_{q'}, the splitting extension of the characteristic polynomial of the DFT matrix, which at least contains fourth roots of unity. If a is a generator of the multiplicative group of F\\_{q'}, then the eigenvalues are \\\\{\\\\pm 1,\\\\pm a^{(q'\\-1\\)/4}\\\\}, in exact analogy with the complex case. They occur with some nonnegative multiplicity.",
"### Number\\-theoretic transform",
"The **number\\-theoretic transform (NTT)**{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Agarwal\\|first1\\=R.\\|last2\\=Burrus\\|first2\\=C.\\|date\\=April 1974\\|title\\=Fast Convolution using fermat number transforms with applications to digital filtering\\|url\\=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1162555\\|journal\\=IEEE Transactions on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=87–97\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/TASSP.1974\\.1162555\\|issn\\=0096\\-3518}} is obtained by specializing the discrete Fourier transform to F\\={\\\\mathbb Z}/p, the [integers modulo a prime {{mvar\\|p}}](/wiki/Modular_arithmetic \"Modular arithmetic\"). This is a [finite field](/wiki/Finite_field \"Finite field\"), and primitive {{mvar\\|n}}th roots of unity exist whenever {{mvar\\|n}} divides p\\-1, so we have p\\=\\\\xi n\\+1 for a positive integer {{mvar\\|ξ}}. Specifically, let \\\\omega be a primitive (p\\-1\\)th root of unity, then an {{mvar\\|n}}th root of unity \\\\alpha can be found by letting \\\\alpha\\=\\\\omega^{\\\\xi}.",
"e.g. for p\\=5, \\\\alpha \\= 2",
"\\\\begin{align}2^{1}\\&\\=2 \\\\pmod 5\\\\\\\\2^{2}\\&\\=4 \\\\pmod 5\\\\\\\\2^{3}\\&\\=3 \\\\pmod 5\\\\\\\\2^{4}\\&\\=1 \\\\pmod 5\\\\end{align}\nwhen N\\=4",
"\\\\begin{bmatrix}\nF(0\\) \\\\\\\\\nF(1\\) \\\\\\\\\nF(2\\) \\\\\\\\\nF(3\\) \\\\end{bmatrix}\n\\=",
"```\n\\begin{bmatrix}",
"```\n1 \\& 1 \\& 1 \\& 1 \\\\\\\\\n1 \\& 2 \\& 4 \\& 3 \\\\\\\\\n1 \\& 4 \\& 1 \\& 4 \\\\\\\\\n1 \\& 3 \\& 4 \\& 2 \\\\end{bmatrix}\n\\\\begin{bmatrix}\nf(0\\) \\\\\\\\\nf(1\\) \\\\\\\\\nf(2\\) \\\\\\\\\nf(3\\) \\\\end{bmatrix}",
"",
"The number theoretic transform may be meaningful in the [ring](/wiki/Ring_%28mathematics%29 \"Ring (mathematics)\") \\\\mathbb{Z}/m, even when the modulus {{mvar\\|m}} is not prime, provided a principal root of order {{mvar\\|n}} exists. Special cases of the number theoretic transform such as the Fermat Number Transform ({{math\\|1\\=''m'' \\= 2''k''\\+1}}), used by the [Schönhage–Strassen algorithm](/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nhage%E2%80%93Strassen_algorithm \"Schönhage–Strassen algorithm\"), or Mersenne Number Transform{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Rader\\|first\\=C.M.\\|date\\=December 1972\\|title\\=Discrete Convolutions via Mersenne Transforms\\|url\\=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1672090\\|journal\\=IEEE Transactions on Computers\\|volume\\=C\\-21\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=1269–1273\\|doi\\=10\\.1109/T\\-C.1972\\.223497\\|s2cid\\=1939809 \\|issn\\=0018\\-9340}} ({{math\\|1\\=''m'' \\= 2''k'' − 1}}) use a composite modulus.",
"### Discrete weighted transform",
"The **discrete weighted transform (DWT)** is a variation on the discrete Fourier transform over arbitrary rings involving [weighting](/wiki/Weight_function \"Weight function\") the input before transforming it by multiplying elementwise by a weight vector, then weighting the result by another vector.{{Citation \\| last1 \\= Crandall \\| first1 \\= Richard \\| last2 \\= Fagin \\| first2 \\= Barry \\| title \\= Discrete weighted transforms and large\\-integer arithmetic \\| journal \\= Mathematics of Computation \\| volume \\= 62 \\| issue \\= 205 \\| year \\= 1994 \\| pages \\= 305–324 \\| url \\= http://www.faginfamily.net/barry/Papers/Discrete%20Weighted%20Transforms.pdf \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/2153411\\| jstor \\= 2153411 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} The [Irrational base discrete weighted transform](/wiki/Irrational_base_discrete_weighted_transform \"Irrational base discrete weighted transform\") is a special case of this.",
""
] |
### Finite fields
If F\=\\mathrm{GF}(q) is a [finite field](/wiki/Finite_field "Finite field"), where {{mvar\|q}} is a [prime](/wiki/Prime_number "Prime number") power, then the existence of a primitive {{mvar\|n}}th root automatically implies that {{mvar\|n}} [divides](/wiki/Divides "Divides") q\-1, because the [multiplicative order](/wiki/Multiplicative_order "Multiplicative order") of each element must divide the size of the [multiplicative group](/wiki/Multiplicative_group "Multiplicative group") of {{mvar\|F}}, which is q\-1. This in particular ensures that n\=\\underbrace{1\+1\+\\cdots\+1}\_{n\\ \\rm times} is invertible, so that the notation \\frac{1}{n} in ({{EquationNote\|3}}) makes sense.
An application of the discrete Fourier transform over \\mathrm{GF}(q) is the reduction of [Reed–Solomon codes](/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_code "Reed–Solomon code") to [BCH codes](/wiki/BCH_code "BCH code") in [coding theory](/wiki/Coding_theory "Coding theory"). Such transform can be carried out efficiently with proper fast algorithms, for example, [cyclotomic fast Fourier transform](/wiki/Cyclotomic_fast_Fourier_transform "Cyclotomic fast Fourier transform").
#### Polynomial formulation without nth root
Suppose F\=\\mathrm{GF}(p). If p\\nmid n, it may be the case that n \\nmid p\-1. This means we cannot find an n^{th} root of unity in F. We may view the Fourier transform as an isomorphism \\mathrm{F}\[C\_n]\=\\mathrm{F}\[x]/(x^n\-1\) \\cong \\bigoplus\_i \\mathrm{F}\[x]/(P\_i(x)) for some polynomials P\_i(x), in accordance with [Maschke's theorem](/wiki/Maschke%27s_theorem "Maschke's theorem"). The map is given by the [Chinese remainder theorem](/wiki/Chinese_remainder_theorem "Chinese remainder theorem"), and the inverse is given by applying [Bézout's identity](/wiki/B%C3%A9zout%27s_identity "Bézout's identity") for polynomials.{{cite web \| url\=https://github.com/jacksonwalters/dft\-finite\-groups \| title\=Jacksonwalters/DFT\-finite\-groups \| website\=\[\[GitHub]] }}
x^n\-1\=\\prod\_{d\|n} \\Phi\_d(x), a product of cyclotomic polynomials. Factoring \\Phi\_d(x) in F\[x] is equivalent to factoring the prime ideal (p) in \\mathrm{Z}\[\\zeta] \= \\mathrm{Z}\[x]/(\\Phi\_d(x)). We obtain g polynomials P\_1 \\ldots P\_g of degree f where fg \= \\varphi(d) and f is the order of p \\text{ mod } d.
As above, we may extend the base field to \\mathrm{GF}(q) in order to find a primitive root, i.e. a splitting field for x^n\-1. Now x^n\-1 \= \\prod\_k (x\-\\alpha^{k}), so an element \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} v\_j x^j \\in F\[x]/(x^n\-1\) maps to \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} v\_j x^j \\mod (x\-\\alpha^k) \\equiv \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} v\_j (\\alpha^k)^j for each k.
#### When p divides n
When p\|n, we may still define an F\_p\-linear isomorphism as above. Note that (x^n\-1\)\=(x^m\-1\)^{p^s} where n\=m p^s and p \\nmid m. We apply the above factorization to x^m\-1, and now obtain the decomposition F\[x]/(x^n\-1\) \\cong \\bigoplus\_i F\[x]/(P\_i(x)^{p^s}). The modules occurring are now indecomposable rather than irreducible.
#### Order of the DFT matrix
Suppose p \\nmid n so we have an n^{th} root of unity \\alpha. Let A be the above DFT matrix, a Vandermonde matrix with entries A\_{ij}\=\\alpha^{ij} for 0 \\le i,j \< n. Recall that \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} \\alpha^{(k\-l)j} \= n\\delta\_{k,l} since if k\=l, then every entry is 1\. If k \\ne l, then we have a geometric series with common ratio \\alpha^{k\-l}, so we obtain \\frac{1\-\\alpha^{n(k\-l)}}{1\-\\alpha^{k\-l}}. Since \\alpha^n\=1 the numerator is zero, but k\-l \\ne 0 so the denominator is nonzero.
First computing the square, (A^2\)\_{ik} \= \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1} \\alpha^{j(i\+k)} \= n\\delta\_{i,\-k}. Computing A^4\=(A^2\)^2 similarly and simplifying the deltas, we obtain (A^4\)\_{ik}\=n^2\\delta\_{i,k}. Thus, A^4\=n^2 I\_n and the order is 4\\cdot \\text{ord}(n^2\).
#### Normalizing the DFT matrix
In order to align with the complex case and ensure the matrix is order 4 exactly, we can normalize the above DFT matrix A with \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{n}}. Note that though \\sqrt{n} may not exist in the splitting field F\_q of x^n\-1, we may form a quadratic extension F\_{q^2} \\cong F\_q\[x]/(x^2\-n) in which the square root exists. We may then set U\=\\frac{1}{\\sqrt{n}}A, and U^4\=I\_n.
#### Unitarity
Suppose p \\nmid n. One can ask whether the DFT matrix is [unitary over a finite field](/wiki/Unitary_group%23finite_fields "Unitary group#finite fields"). If the matrix entries are over F\_q, then one must ensure q is a perfect square or extend to F\_{q^2} in order to define the order two automorphism x \\mapsto x^q. Consider the above DFT matrix A\_{ij}\=\\alpha^{ij}. Note that A is symmetric. Conjugating and transposing, we obtain A\_{ij}^{\*}\=\\alpha^{qji}.
(AA^\*)\_{ik} \= \\sum\_{j\=0}^{n\-1}\\alpha^{j(i\+qk)} \= n\\delta\_{i,\-qk}
by a similar geometric series argument as above. We may remove the n by normalizing so that U \= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{n}}A and (UU^\*)\_{ik} \= \\delta\_{i,\-qk}. Thus U is unitary iff q \\equiv \-1 \\,(\\text{mod} \\, n). Recall that since we have an n^{th} root of unity, n\|q^2\-1. This means that q^2 \- 1 \\equiv (q\+1\)(q\-1\) \\equiv 0 \\,(\\text{mod} \\, n). Note if q was not a perfect square to begin with, then n\|q\-1 and so q \\equiv 1 \\, (\\text{mod} \\, n).
For example, when p\=3, n\=5 we need to extend to q^2\=3^4 to get a 5th root of unity. q\=9 \\equiv \-1 \\, (\\text{mod} \\, 5\).
For a nonexample, when p\=3, n\=8 we extend to F\_{3^2} to get an 8th root of unity. q^2\=9, so q \\equiv 3 \\,(\\text{mod} \\, 8\), and in this case q\+1 \\not\\equiv 0 and q\-1 \\not\\equiv 0. UU^\* is a square root of the identity, so U is not unitary.
#### Eigenvalues of the DFT matrix
When p \\nmid n, we have an n^{th} root of unity \\alpha in the splitting field F\_q \\cong F\_p\[x]/(x^n\-1\). Note that the characteristic polynomial of the above DFT matrix may not split over F\_q.
The DFT matrix is order 4\. We may need to go to a further extension F\_{q'}, the splitting extension of the characteristic polynomial of the DFT matrix, which at least contains fourth roots of unity. If a is a generator of the multiplicative group of F\_{q'}, then the eigenvalues are \\{\\pm 1,\\pm a^{(q'\-1\)/4}\\}, in exact analogy with the complex case. They occur with some nonnegative multiplicity.
|
[
"### Finite fields",
"If F\\=\\\\mathrm{GF}(q) is a [finite field](/wiki/Finite_field \"Finite field\"), where {{mvar\\|q}} is a [prime](/wiki/Prime_number \"Prime number\") power, then the existence of a primitive {{mvar\\|n}}th root automatically implies that {{mvar\\|n}} [divides](/wiki/Divides \"Divides\") q\\-1, because the [multiplicative order](/wiki/Multiplicative_order \"Multiplicative order\") of each element must divide the size of the [multiplicative group](/wiki/Multiplicative_group \"Multiplicative group\") of {{mvar\\|F}}, which is q\\-1. This in particular ensures that n\\=\\\\underbrace{1\\+1\\+\\\\cdots\\+1}\\_{n\\\\ \\\\rm times} is invertible, so that the notation \\\\frac{1}{n} in ({{EquationNote\\|3}}) makes sense.",
"An application of the discrete Fourier transform over \\\\mathrm{GF}(q) is the reduction of [Reed–Solomon codes](/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_code \"Reed–Solomon code\") to [BCH codes](/wiki/BCH_code \"BCH code\") in [coding theory](/wiki/Coding_theory \"Coding theory\"). Such transform can be carried out efficiently with proper fast algorithms, for example, [cyclotomic fast Fourier transform](/wiki/Cyclotomic_fast_Fourier_transform \"Cyclotomic fast Fourier transform\").",
"#### Polynomial formulation without nth root",
"Suppose F\\=\\\\mathrm{GF}(p). If p\\\\nmid n, it may be the case that n \\\\nmid p\\-1. This means we cannot find an n^{th} root of unity in F. We may view the Fourier transform as an isomorphism \\\\mathrm{F}\\[C\\_n]\\=\\\\mathrm{F}\\[x]/(x^n\\-1\\) \\\\cong \\\\bigoplus\\_i \\\\mathrm{F}\\[x]/(P\\_i(x)) for some polynomials P\\_i(x), in accordance with [Maschke's theorem](/wiki/Maschke%27s_theorem \"Maschke's theorem\"). The map is given by the [Chinese remainder theorem](/wiki/Chinese_remainder_theorem \"Chinese remainder theorem\"), and the inverse is given by applying [Bézout's identity](/wiki/B%C3%A9zout%27s_identity \"Bézout's identity\") for polynomials.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://github.com/jacksonwalters/dft\\-finite\\-groups \\| title\\=Jacksonwalters/DFT\\-finite\\-groups \\| website\\=\\[\\[GitHub]] }}",
"x^n\\-1\\=\\\\prod\\_{d\\|n} \\\\Phi\\_d(x), a product of cyclotomic polynomials. Factoring \\\\Phi\\_d(x) in F\\[x] is equivalent to factoring the prime ideal (p) in \\\\mathrm{Z}\\[\\\\zeta] \\= \\\\mathrm{Z}\\[x]/(\\\\Phi\\_d(x)). We obtain g polynomials P\\_1 \\\\ldots P\\_g of degree f where fg \\= \\\\varphi(d) and f is the order of p \\\\text{ mod } d.",
"As above, we may extend the base field to \\\\mathrm{GF}(q) in order to find a primitive root, i.e. a splitting field for x^n\\-1. Now x^n\\-1 \\= \\\\prod\\_k (x\\-\\\\alpha^{k}), so an element \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} v\\_j x^j \\\\in F\\[x]/(x^n\\-1\\) maps to \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} v\\_j x^j \\\\mod (x\\-\\\\alpha^k) \\\\equiv \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} v\\_j (\\\\alpha^k)^j for each k.",
"#### When p divides n",
"When p\\|n, we may still define an F\\_p\\-linear isomorphism as above. Note that (x^n\\-1\\)\\=(x^m\\-1\\)^{p^s} where n\\=m p^s and p \\\\nmid m. We apply the above factorization to x^m\\-1, and now obtain the decomposition F\\[x]/(x^n\\-1\\) \\\\cong \\\\bigoplus\\_i F\\[x]/(P\\_i(x)^{p^s}). The modules occurring are now indecomposable rather than irreducible.",
"#### Order of the DFT matrix",
"Suppose p \\\\nmid n so we have an n^{th} root of unity \\\\alpha. Let A be the above DFT matrix, a Vandermonde matrix with entries A\\_{ij}\\=\\\\alpha^{ij} for 0 \\\\le i,j \\< n. Recall that \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} \\\\alpha^{(k\\-l)j} \\= n\\\\delta\\_{k,l} since if k\\=l, then every entry is 1\\. If k \\\\ne l, then we have a geometric series with common ratio \\\\alpha^{k\\-l}, so we obtain \\\\frac{1\\-\\\\alpha^{n(k\\-l)}}{1\\-\\\\alpha^{k\\-l}}. Since \\\\alpha^n\\=1 the numerator is zero, but k\\-l \\\\ne 0 so the denominator is nonzero.",
"First computing the square, (A^2\\)\\_{ik} \\= \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1} \\\\alpha^{j(i\\+k)} \\= n\\\\delta\\_{i,\\-k}. Computing A^4\\=(A^2\\)^2 similarly and simplifying the deltas, we obtain (A^4\\)\\_{ik}\\=n^2\\\\delta\\_{i,k}. Thus, A^4\\=n^2 I\\_n and the order is 4\\\\cdot \\\\text{ord}(n^2\\).",
"#### Normalizing the DFT matrix",
"In order to align with the complex case and ensure the matrix is order 4 exactly, we can normalize the above DFT matrix A with \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{n}}. Note that though \\\\sqrt{n} may not exist in the splitting field F\\_q of x^n\\-1, we may form a quadratic extension F\\_{q^2} \\\\cong F\\_q\\[x]/(x^2\\-n) in which the square root exists. We may then set U\\=\\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{n}}A, and U^4\\=I\\_n.",
"#### Unitarity",
"Suppose p \\\\nmid n. One can ask whether the DFT matrix is [unitary over a finite field](/wiki/Unitary_group%23finite_fields \"Unitary group#finite fields\"). If the matrix entries are over F\\_q, then one must ensure q is a perfect square or extend to F\\_{q^2} in order to define the order two automorphism x \\\\mapsto x^q. Consider the above DFT matrix A\\_{ij}\\=\\\\alpha^{ij}. Note that A is symmetric. Conjugating and transposing, we obtain A\\_{ij}^{\\*}\\=\\\\alpha^{qji}.",
"(AA^\\*)\\_{ik} \\= \\\\sum\\_{j\\=0}^{n\\-1}\\\\alpha^{j(i\\+qk)} \\= n\\\\delta\\_{i,\\-qk}",
"by a similar geometric series argument as above. We may remove the n by normalizing so that U \\= \\\\frac{1}{\\\\sqrt{n}}A and (UU^\\*)\\_{ik} \\= \\\\delta\\_{i,\\-qk}. Thus U is unitary iff q \\\\equiv \\-1 \\\\,(\\\\text{mod} \\\\, n). Recall that since we have an n^{th} root of unity, n\\|q^2\\-1. This means that q^2 \\- 1 \\\\equiv (q\\+1\\)(q\\-1\\) \\\\equiv 0 \\\\,(\\\\text{mod} \\\\, n). Note if q was not a perfect square to begin with, then n\\|q\\-1 and so q \\\\equiv 1 \\\\, (\\\\text{mod} \\\\, n).",
"For example, when p\\=3, n\\=5 we need to extend to q^2\\=3^4 to get a 5th root of unity. q\\=9 \\\\equiv \\-1 \\\\, (\\\\text{mod} \\\\, 5\\).",
"For a nonexample, when p\\=3, n\\=8 we extend to F\\_{3^2} to get an 8th root of unity. q^2\\=9, so q \\\\equiv 3 \\\\,(\\\\text{mod} \\\\, 8\\), and in this case q\\+1 \\\\not\\\\equiv 0 and q\\-1 \\\\not\\\\equiv 0. UU^\\* is a square root of the identity, so U is not unitary.",
"#### Eigenvalues of the DFT matrix",
"When p \\\\nmid n, we have an n^{th} root of unity \\\\alpha in the splitting field F\\_q \\\\cong F\\_p\\[x]/(x^n\\-1\\). Note that the characteristic polynomial of the above DFT matrix may not split over F\\_q. \nThe DFT matrix is order 4\\. We may need to go to a further extension F\\_{q'}, the splitting extension of the characteristic polynomial of the DFT matrix, which at least contains fourth roots of unity. If a is a generator of the multiplicative group of F\\_{q'}, then the eigenvalues are \\\\{\\\\pm 1,\\\\pm a^{(q'\\-1\\)/4}\\\\}, in exact analogy with the complex case. They occur with some nonnegative multiplicity.",
""
] |
History
-------
SGM Technology for Lighting was founded in 1975 in [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), by Gabriele Giorgi and Maurizio Guidi — the company name a truncation of ‘Societa Gabriele Maurizio’. In the early days they were known for producing a diverse catalogue of products for the emerging disco industry — ranging from illuminated dancefloor modules, ‘bubblesmoke’ machines and controllers — from their base in Pesaro.
In April 2009 ownership was passed by president Gabriele Giorgi and his daughter Alessandra to long\-standing Italian pro audio company, [RCF Group](/wiki/RCF_audio "RCF audio").
Peter Johansen was brought in to head up R\&D in late 2010 — marking his return to the industry following a ten\-year absence, after earlier setting up [Martin Professional](/wiki/Martin_Professional "Martin Professional") which he subsequently floated on the [Copenhagen Stock Exchange](/wiki/Copenhagen_Stock_Exchange "Copenhagen Stock Exchange").
He recruited many of his former [R\&D](/wiki/R%26D "R&D") team and quickly relocated the operation to [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") — to work on innovations for the entertainment and architectural segments.
In February 2012 Peter Johansen formed a consortium to acquire the company {{cite web\|url\=http://jyllands\-posten.dk/aarhus/erhverv/ECE4981090/tilbage\-til\-fremtiden/\|title\=Tilbage til fremtiden\|date\=15 January 2013 \|publisher\=Jyllands\-posten.dk\|accessdate\=10 December 2014}}{{cite web\|title\=Peter Johansen Acquires SGM\|url\=http://mondodr.com/Latest/1235723/peter\_johansen\_acquires\_sgm.html\|publisher\=Mondodr.com\|accessdate\=4 June 2014}} from the RCF Group, renaming it SGM A/S. Peter Johansen was joined by the LED specialists from his Danish [R\&D](/wiki/R%26D "R&D") team led by engineer Finn Kallestrup and former members of his [Martin Professional](/wiki/Martin_Professional "Martin Professional") sales force as well as some of the company's Italian personnel.
With [R\&D](/wiki/R%26D "R&D"), administration and after\-sales based in [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"), manufacturing initially took place at bases in [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), and [China](/wiki/China "China") before being consolidated into a single, purpose\-built factory in [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark").{{cite web\|title\=Vil skabe 400 nye jobs\|url\=http://www.tv2oj.dk/artikel/182989:Aarhus\-\-Vil\-skabe\-400\-nye\-jobs\|publisher\=Tv2oj.dk\|accessdate\=4 June 2014}}{{cite web\|title\=Trekantssamarbejde giver job og kvalificerede medarbejdere\|url\=http://www.aarhus.dk/da/omkommunen/nyheder/2014/Maj/Trekantssamarbejde\-giver\-job\-og\-kvalificerede\-medarbejdere.aspx\|accessdate\=4 June 2014}}{{cite web\|publisher\=Lighting and Sound International\|title\=SGM moves production to Denmark\|url\=http://www.lsionline.co.uk/news/story/SGM\-moves\-production\-to\-Denmark/MU538J\|accessdate\=4 June 2014}}
To broaden its marketing reach, SGM has set up subsidiaries in key territories around the world, including SGM Lighting Inc based in Orlando, FL and serving the North American market, SGM Deutschland and SGM UK.
In November 2015, SGM A/S was restructured{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mondodr.com/sgm\-restructured\-and\-stronger\-than\-ever/\|title\=SGM: Restructured and Stronger Than Ever\|date\=12 November 2015 \|publisher\=Mondodr.com\|accessdate\=12 November 2015}} as SGM Light A/S with new ownership and new capital from an Italian company, while maintaining the management, the entire team behind the company, the product portfolio, and the distribution network.
In October 2019, Peter Johansen stepped down from his role as SGM Light's CEO.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|title\=Peter Johansen steps down from his role as SGM Light's CEO\|url\=https://sgmlight.com/media/news/peter\-johansen\-steps\-down\-from\-his\-role\-as\-sgm\-light%E2%80%99s\-ceo\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=1 February 2021\|website\=sgmlight.com}} Three Executive Directors (Torben Balmer, Mikkel Falk, and Ulrik Jakobsen) managed the company until 2021, when Ulrik Jakobsen became SGM's CEO.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"SGM Technology for Lighting was founded in 1975 in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), by Gabriele Giorgi and Maurizio Guidi — the company name a truncation of ‘Societa Gabriele Maurizio’. In the early days they were known for producing a diverse catalogue of products for the emerging disco industry — ranging from illuminated dancefloor modules, ‘bubblesmoke’ machines and controllers — from their base in Pesaro.",
"In April 2009 ownership was passed by president Gabriele Giorgi and his daughter Alessandra to long\\-standing Italian pro audio company, [RCF Group](/wiki/RCF_audio \"RCF audio\").",
"Peter Johansen was brought in to head up R\\&D in late 2010 — marking his return to the industry following a ten\\-year absence, after earlier setting up [Martin Professional](/wiki/Martin_Professional \"Martin Professional\") which he subsequently floated on the [Copenhagen Stock Exchange](/wiki/Copenhagen_Stock_Exchange \"Copenhagen Stock Exchange\").",
"He recruited many of his former [R\\&D](/wiki/R%26D \"R&D\") team and quickly relocated the operation to [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") — to work on innovations for the entertainment and architectural segments.",
"In February 2012 Peter Johansen formed a consortium to acquire the company {{cite web\\|url\\=http://jyllands\\-posten.dk/aarhus/erhverv/ECE4981090/tilbage\\-til\\-fremtiden/\\|title\\=Tilbage til fremtiden\\|date\\=15 January 2013 \\|publisher\\=Jyllands\\-posten.dk\\|accessdate\\=10 December 2014}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Peter Johansen Acquires SGM\\|url\\=http://mondodr.com/Latest/1235723/peter\\_johansen\\_acquires\\_sgm.html\\|publisher\\=Mondodr.com\\|accessdate\\=4 June 2014}} from the RCF Group, renaming it SGM A/S. Peter Johansen was joined by the LED specialists from his Danish [R\\&D](/wiki/R%26D \"R&D\") team led by engineer Finn Kallestrup and former members of his [Martin Professional](/wiki/Martin_Professional \"Martin Professional\") sales force as well as some of the company's Italian personnel.",
"With [R\\&D](/wiki/R%26D \"R&D\"), administration and after\\-sales based in [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\"), manufacturing initially took place at bases in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\"), and [China](/wiki/China \"China\") before being consolidated into a single, purpose\\-built factory in [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Vil skabe 400 nye jobs\\|url\\=http://www.tv2oj.dk/artikel/182989:Aarhus\\-\\-Vil\\-skabe\\-400\\-nye\\-jobs\\|publisher\\=Tv2oj.dk\\|accessdate\\=4 June 2014}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Trekantssamarbejde giver job og kvalificerede medarbejdere\\|url\\=http://www.aarhus.dk/da/omkommunen/nyheder/2014/Maj/Trekantssamarbejde\\-giver\\-job\\-og\\-kvalificerede\\-medarbejdere.aspx\\|accessdate\\=4 June 2014}}{{cite web\\|publisher\\=Lighting and Sound International\\|title\\=SGM moves production to Denmark\\|url\\=http://www.lsionline.co.uk/news/story/SGM\\-moves\\-production\\-to\\-Denmark/MU538J\\|accessdate\\=4 June 2014}}\nTo broaden its marketing reach, SGM has set up subsidiaries in key territories around the world, including SGM Lighting Inc based in Orlando, FL and serving the North American market, SGM Deutschland and SGM UK.",
"In November 2015, SGM A/S was restructured{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mondodr.com/sgm\\-restructured\\-and\\-stronger\\-than\\-ever/\\|title\\=SGM: Restructured and Stronger Than Ever\\|date\\=12 November 2015 \\|publisher\\=Mondodr.com\\|accessdate\\=12 November 2015}} as SGM Light A/S with new ownership and new capital from an Italian company, while maintaining the management, the entire team behind the company, the product portfolio, and the distribution network.",
"In October 2019, Peter Johansen stepped down from his role as SGM Light's CEO.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|title\\=Peter Johansen steps down from his role as SGM Light's CEO\\|url\\=https://sgmlight.com/media/news/peter\\-johansen\\-steps\\-down\\-from\\-his\\-role\\-as\\-sgm\\-light%E2%80%99s\\-ceo\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2021\\|website\\=sgmlight.com}} Three Executive Directors (Torben Balmer, Mikkel Falk, and Ulrik Jakobsen) managed the company until 2021, when Ulrik Jakobsen became SGM's CEO.",
""
] |
History
-------
Zamrock's roots can be traced back to the 1950s, with northern singers from the [Copperbelt Province](/wiki/Copperbelt_Province "Copperbelt Province") such as [Stephen Tsotsi Kasumali](/wiki/Stephen_Tsotsi_Kasumali "Stephen Tsotsi Kasumali"), [William Mapulanga](/wiki/William_Mapulanga "William Mapulanga"), and [John Lushi](/wiki/John_Lushi "John Lushi").{{Cite web \|date\=11 December 2015 \|title\=Salt and thunder: The mind\-altering rock of 1970s Zambia \|url\=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/salt\-and\-thunder\-mind\-altering\-rock\-1970s\-zambia \|access\-date\=2021\-05\-28 \|work\=Music in Africa}} Zamrock as a musical movement came of age in the turbulent first decade after Zambia's independence from British colonialism, rising and falling in tandem with the country's economic success.{{Cite web\|url\= https://www.nowagainrecords.com/announcing\-welcome\-to\-zamrock/ \|title\=Out Now: Welcome To Zamrock! Vols. 1 \& 2 \|work\=Now\-Again Records \|date\=30 May 2017 \|access\-date\=2021\-05\-28}} Zambia's boom from its copper mines led to a bust when copper prices fell and the country was devastated by the [AIDS epidemic](/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa "HIV/AIDS in Africa") of the 1980s.
After the country announced its independence in 1964, then\-president [Kenneth Kaunda](/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda "Kenneth Kaunda") introduced the slogan, "One Zambia, one nation" to promote unity.{{Cite web \|title\=One Zambia, one nation \|url\=https://africasacountry.com/2021/07/one\-zambia\-one\-nation \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-07 \|website\=africasacountry.com \|date\=5 July 2021 \|language\=en\-US}} In order to celebrate the culture of the newly independent nation, Kaunda decreed that 95% of music played on radio stations had to be Zambian in origin. Since Western rock was popular in Africa, many Zamrock artists were inspired by bands that were popular in the West and adopted similar styles to those playing on British and American radios.
The rush to urbanization in mine\-adjacent regions meant a variety of new artistic styles. The country's newfound wealth brought with it urban sensibilities and a surge in interest in electric guitar use. Zamrock player [Paul Ngozi](/wiki/Paul_Ngozi "Paul Ngozi") of the Ngozi Family is credited with creating the [kalindula](/wiki/Kalindula "Kalindula") sound, a rhythmic pop music sound with fuzzy electric guitar leads centred around the bass guitar of the same name.
While the price of copper fell and Zambia's economy crashed, Zambia found itself surrounded by political turmoil in neighbouring states. This conflict led to a rise in anti\-establishment messages in Zamrock music.{{Cite web\|last\=Zambia\|first\=Muze Trust\-\|title\=zamrock\|url\=https://muzeestelleprogramme.wordpress.com/tag/zamrock/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-06\|website\=muzeestelleprogramme\|date\=10 August 2014 \|language\=en}} When the country offered to shelter refugees, Zambia's power stations were bombed. Once\-prosperous cities were at the mercy of blackouts and curfews. Musicians were reduced to playing unstable sets during daylight hours while their ticket prices became unaffordable for most.{{Cite web \|url\=http://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2014/01/zamrock\-introduction\-feature \|title\=Zamrock: An Introduction \|website\=daily.redbullmusicacademy.com \|access\-date\=25 May 2017}}
The AIDS epidemic played a huge part in bringing Zamrock to an end. The disease began to spread in the 1980s and has continued to devastate the nation since. It is estimated that between 1\.2 million and 1\.3 million have died from AIDS in Zambia as of 2019\.{{Cite web\|title\=Zambia\|url\=https://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/zambia\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-06\|website\=www.unaids.org\|language\=en}} Every member of [WITCH](/wiki/Witch_%28Zamrock_band%29 "Witch (Zamrock band)") except Emanuel "Jagari" Chanda had died of AIDS by 2001\.
A resurgence of interest across the globe in recent years, including reissues in North America and the production of a documentary, has allowed some Zamrock performers, including Jagari, to tour, perform, and record new material.
Furthermore, the rise of musical piracy had a significant impact on Zamrock artists. Bootleggers would copy and sell Zambian artists' music, forcing them to leave the industry and find work in other fields after losing their primary source of income.
Despite these challenges, Zamrock has yet to completely disappear from the world of music. A resurgence of interest across the globe in recent years, including reissues in North America and the production of a documentary, has allowed some Zamrock performers to tour, perform, and record new material.
Jagari from WITCH is one of these artists who has managed to make a comeback.{{Cite web \|last\=Balmont \|first\=James \|date\=2021\-07\-05 \|title\=Witch: the glory and tragedy of Zambia's psych\-rock trailblazers \|url\=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/jul/05/witch\-the\-glory\-and\-tragedy\-of\-zambias\-psych\-rock\-trailblazers \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|website\=the Guardian \|language\=en}} In the last 5 years since his return in 2017, he has performed in several European countries such as Moscow and Paris, something he never got the chance to do in his band's prime. He has also toured around the United States, and been awarded for his achievements by the Zambian National Arts Council.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Zamrock's roots can be traced back to the 1950s, with northern singers from the [Copperbelt Province](/wiki/Copperbelt_Province \"Copperbelt Province\") such as [Stephen Tsotsi Kasumali](/wiki/Stephen_Tsotsi_Kasumali \"Stephen Tsotsi Kasumali\"), [William Mapulanga](/wiki/William_Mapulanga \"William Mapulanga\"), and [John Lushi](/wiki/John_Lushi \"John Lushi\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=11 December 2015 \\|title\\=Salt and thunder: The mind\\-altering rock of 1970s Zambia \\|url\\=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/salt\\-and\\-thunder\\-mind\\-altering\\-rock\\-1970s\\-zambia \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-28 \\|work\\=Music in Africa}} Zamrock as a musical movement came of age in the turbulent first decade after Zambia's independence from British colonialism, rising and falling in tandem with the country's economic success.{{Cite web\\|url\\= https://www.nowagainrecords.com/announcing\\-welcome\\-to\\-zamrock/ \\|title\\=Out Now: Welcome To Zamrock! Vols. 1 \\& 2 \\|work\\=Now\\-Again Records \\|date\\=30 May 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-28}} Zambia's boom from its copper mines led to a bust when copper prices fell and the country was devastated by the [AIDS epidemic](/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa \"HIV/AIDS in Africa\") of the 1980s.",
"After the country announced its independence in 1964, then\\-president [Kenneth Kaunda](/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda \"Kenneth Kaunda\") introduced the slogan, \"One Zambia, one nation\" to promote unity.{{Cite web \\|title\\=One Zambia, one nation \\|url\\=https://africasacountry.com/2021/07/one\\-zambia\\-one\\-nation \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-07 \\|website\\=africasacountry.com \\|date\\=5 July 2021 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In order to celebrate the culture of the newly independent nation, Kaunda decreed that 95% of music played on radio stations had to be Zambian in origin. Since Western rock was popular in Africa, many Zamrock artists were inspired by bands that were popular in the West and adopted similar styles to those playing on British and American radios.",
"The rush to urbanization in mine\\-adjacent regions meant a variety of new artistic styles. The country's newfound wealth brought with it urban sensibilities and a surge in interest in electric guitar use. Zamrock player [Paul Ngozi](/wiki/Paul_Ngozi \"Paul Ngozi\") of the Ngozi Family is credited with creating the [kalindula](/wiki/Kalindula \"Kalindula\") sound, a rhythmic pop music sound with fuzzy electric guitar leads centred around the bass guitar of the same name.",
"While the price of copper fell and Zambia's economy crashed, Zambia found itself surrounded by political turmoil in neighbouring states. This conflict led to a rise in anti\\-establishment messages in Zamrock music.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Zambia\\|first\\=Muze Trust\\-\\|title\\=zamrock\\|url\\=https://muzeestelleprogramme.wordpress.com/tag/zamrock/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-06\\|website\\=muzeestelleprogramme\\|date\\=10 August 2014 \\|language\\=en}} When the country offered to shelter refugees, Zambia's power stations were bombed. Once\\-prosperous cities were at the mercy of blackouts and curfews. Musicians were reduced to playing unstable sets during daylight hours while their ticket prices became unaffordable for most.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2014/01/zamrock\\-introduction\\-feature \\|title\\=Zamrock: An Introduction \\|website\\=daily.redbullmusicacademy.com \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2017}}",
"The AIDS epidemic played a huge part in bringing Zamrock to an end. The disease began to spread in the 1980s and has continued to devastate the nation since. It is estimated that between 1\\.2 million and 1\\.3 million have died from AIDS in Zambia as of 2019\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Zambia\\|url\\=https://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/zambia\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-06\\|website\\=www.unaids.org\\|language\\=en}} Every member of [WITCH](/wiki/Witch_%28Zamrock_band%29 \"Witch (Zamrock band)\") except Emanuel \"Jagari\" Chanda had died of AIDS by 2001\\.",
"A resurgence of interest across the globe in recent years, including reissues in North America and the production of a documentary, has allowed some Zamrock performers, including Jagari, to tour, perform, and record new material.",
"Furthermore, the rise of musical piracy had a significant impact on Zamrock artists. Bootleggers would copy and sell Zambian artists' music, forcing them to leave the industry and find work in other fields after losing their primary source of income.",
"Despite these challenges, Zamrock has yet to completely disappear from the world of music. A resurgence of interest across the globe in recent years, including reissues in North America and the production of a documentary, has allowed some Zamrock performers to tour, perform, and record new material.",
"Jagari from WITCH is one of these artists who has managed to make a comeback.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Balmont \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-05 \\|title\\=Witch: the glory and tragedy of Zambia's psych\\-rock trailblazers \\|url\\=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/jul/05/witch\\-the\\-glory\\-and\\-tragedy\\-of\\-zambias\\-psych\\-rock\\-trailblazers \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|website\\=the Guardian \\|language\\=en}} In the last 5 years since his return in 2017, he has performed in several European countries such as Moscow and Paris, something he never got the chance to do in his band's prime. He has also toured around the United States, and been awarded for his achievements by the Zambian National Arts Council.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=August 2024}}
He was born in Wuxi, Jiangsu province on August 4, 1875 (the fourth day of July in the first year of The Reign of Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty).
In 1884, he went to school.
In 1890, he entered Shanghai Tongshun Bank.
In 1893, he went with his father to Guangdong when the Lijin Bureau sanshui need to help account.
In 1897, he returned to Wuxi and worked as the manager of Wuxi Branch of Guangsheng Bank.
In October of the lunar calendar in 1899, he was invited to be the general accountant of The Bureau of Supplementary Taxation in Guangdong Province.
In 1901, he co\-founded Baoxing Flour mill in Wuxi with his elder brother Rong Zongjing and others. A year later, he became manager of Maoxin flour Mill.
In 1905, he and his elder brother Zong Jing and other 7 people set up Zhenxin cotton mill in Wuxi and successively served as the manager and general manager.
In 1912, he set up Fuxin flour mill in Shanghai with his elder brother Zong Jing and others and served as impartial director.
In 1913, he was elected as a representative of the National Conference of Industry and Commerce, and put forward three bills including expanding the textile industry. In the western suburbs of Wuxi, he bought land to build plum garden, built the original road and rebuilt the Miao Minaret in nanzen Temple.
From April 1915, he and his elder brother Zong Jing successively established Shenxin Textile Factory No.1 to No.9 in Shanghai, Wuxi and Hankou, and served as the manager of Wuxi Shenxin No.3 factory.
By 1931, he and his elder brother Zong Jing owned 12 flour mills and 9 cotton mills. Together with zong Jing, his elder brother Zong Jing was known as "King of flour" and "King of cotton yarn", and they became one of the industrialists with the largest capital in China. During this period, he was elected as a member of the second Parliament of Jiangsu Province and a member of the Beiyang Government.
Since 1938, he has been in charge of Rong's enterprise, and has built 6 new factories in Chongqing, Chengdu, Baoji, Guangzhou and other places to support the Anti\-Japanese War.
In November 1945, Tianyuan Industrial Company was established in Wuxi, and Tianyuan flax textile Factory, Open source Machine Factory and Jiangnan University were founded.
In September 1949, he was elected a member of the first National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. He was elected as a member of the Preparatory Committee of All\-China Federation of Industry and Commerce and a member of the Consultative Committee of the People's Congresses of all walks of life in South Jiangsu.
He died of illness in Wuxi, Jiangsu province on July 29, 1952\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=August 2024}}\nHe was born in Wuxi, Jiangsu province on August 4, 1875 (the fourth day of July in the first year of The Reign of Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty).",
"In 1884, he went to school.",
"In 1890, he entered Shanghai Tongshun Bank.",
"In 1893, he went with his father to Guangdong when the Lijin Bureau sanshui need to help account.",
"In 1897, he returned to Wuxi and worked as the manager of Wuxi Branch of Guangsheng Bank.",
"In October of the lunar calendar in 1899, he was invited to be the general accountant of The Bureau of Supplementary Taxation in Guangdong Province.",
"In 1901, he co\\-founded Baoxing Flour mill in Wuxi with his elder brother Rong Zongjing and others. A year later, he became manager of Maoxin flour Mill.",
"In 1905, he and his elder brother Zong Jing and other 7 people set up Zhenxin cotton mill in Wuxi and successively served as the manager and general manager.",
"In 1912, he set up Fuxin flour mill in Shanghai with his elder brother Zong Jing and others and served as impartial director.",
"In 1913, he was elected as a representative of the National Conference of Industry and Commerce, and put forward three bills including expanding the textile industry. In the western suburbs of Wuxi, he bought land to build plum garden, built the original road and rebuilt the Miao Minaret in nanzen Temple.",
"From April 1915, he and his elder brother Zong Jing successively established Shenxin Textile Factory No.1 to No.9 in Shanghai, Wuxi and Hankou, and served as the manager of Wuxi Shenxin No.3 factory.",
"By 1931, he and his elder brother Zong Jing owned 12 flour mills and 9 cotton mills. Together with zong Jing, his elder brother Zong Jing was known as \"King of flour\" and \"King of cotton yarn\", and they became one of the industrialists with the largest capital in China. During this period, he was elected as a member of the second Parliament of Jiangsu Province and a member of the Beiyang Government.",
"Since 1938, he has been in charge of Rong's enterprise, and has built 6 new factories in Chongqing, Chengdu, Baoji, Guangzhou and other places to support the Anti\\-Japanese War.",
"In November 1945, Tianyuan Industrial Company was established in Wuxi, and Tianyuan flax textile Factory, Open source Machine Factory and Jiangnan University were founded.",
"In September 1949, he was elected a member of the first National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. He was elected as a member of the Preparatory Committee of All\\-China Federation of Industry and Commerce and a member of the Consultative Committee of the People's Congresses of all walks of life in South Jiangsu.",
"He died of illness in Wuxi, Jiangsu province on July 29, 1952\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Zhang was born in Liushujian (柳树涧; literally 'willow spring', modern [Dingbian](/wiki/Dingbian_County "Dingbian County"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi "Shaanxi") province), in 1606 into a poor family. He was described as tall in stature, had a yellow complexion and a "tiger chin" ({{lang\|zh\|虎頷}}, meaning an impressive beard), and hence was given the nickname "Yellow Tiger".{{cite ECCP \|title\=Chang Hsien\-chung}}[Ming shi](http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7309) Original text: 献忠黄面长身虎颔，人号黄虎。 He served in the [Ming army](/wiki/Ming_dynasty "Ming dynasty"), and while in the army he was sentenced to death for violations of military rules, but was reprieved after an intervention by a senior officer who was impressed by his appearance.
### As rebel leader
Towards the end the [Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty "Ming dynasty"), drought, famines and epidemics broke out in various parts of China. In the late 1620s, peasants revolted in Shaanxi, resisting attempts by the Ming government to collect grains and taxes. They coalesced into rebel armies called "roving bandits" (*liúkòu* 流寇) because of their highly mobile nature, and spread into other parts of China.{{cite book \|title\=Rivers in Time: A Cultural History of China \|author\= Cho\-Yun Hsu \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=a2\_GQpLPPl8C\&pg\=PT654 \|publisher\= Columbia University Press \|page\=383 \|year\=2006 \|isbn\=978\-0\-231\-15921\-0 \|author\-link\= Cho\-Yun Hsu }} Zhang deserted from the army, joined the rebel forces in [Mizhi County](/wiki/Mizhi_County "Mizhi County") in 1630, and established himself as a rebel leader, styling himself Bada Wang (八大王, Eighth Great King). His mobile forces would conduct raids along the western edge of Shaanxi, plundering swiftly and hiding out in the hills. Later he moved into other provinces, moving from place to place raiding towns and cities. He was defeated at various times by the Ming forces; Zhang would also surrender when it was expedient for him to do so, for example in 1631 and 1638, but would then later regroup and resume the rebellion.{{cite book \|title\= Chongqing \& The Three Gorges \|author\= Kim Hunter Gordon, Jesse Watson \|year\=2011 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vSNOR3qt6DwC\&pg\=PA60 \|pages\=60–61 \|publisher\= Kim Hunter Gordon \|isbn\=978\-7\-5022\-5215\-1 }}{{cite book \|author\=Roger Des Forges \|title\=Cultural Centrality and Political Change in Chinese History: Northeast Henan in the Fall of the Ming \|publisher\= Stanford University Press \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YE6Va\-Fe1coC\&pg\=PA59 \|page\=59 \|year\= 2003 \|isbn\=0804740445 }}
In 1635 he joined a larger confederation of bandits that included another rebel leader, [Li Zicheng](/wiki/Li_Zicheng "Li Zicheng") (Li would later capture [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing") and end Ming rule there). They devastated [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan") and pushed into [Anhui](/wiki/Anhui "Anhui"). After they had burnt the Ming [ancestral temple](/wiki/Ancestral_shrine "Ancestral shrine") at Zhongdu ([Fengyang](/wiki/Fengyang_County "Fengyang County")) in Anhui and ravaged the area, the rebel armies broke up and Zhang headed to [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei "Hubei").{{cite book \|title\= Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 Bc – 1912 Ad \|author\= Marvin C. Whiting \|publisher\= Writers Club Press \|year\=2002 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ktkelPfNQOIC\&pg\=PA458 \|pages\=457–462 \|isbn\=0\-595\-22134\-3 }} In 1637, joined by other rebels and with an army now reaching a size of 300,000 men, he again pushed into Anhui, then to [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu "Jiangsu"), and almost down to [Nanjing](/wiki/Nanjing "Nanjing"), auxiliary capital of Ming. But he was immediately defeated there and he retreated back to Hubei. In 1638, he surrendered to Ming supreme commander{{clarify\|date\=May 2020}} Xiong Wencan ({{lang\|zh\|熊文燦}}) and was allowed to serve as a regional Ming commander.{{cite book \|title\=The Cambridge History of China \|volume\= 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 \|editor\=\[\[Frederick W. Mote]], \[\[Denis Twitchett]] \|author\=William Atwell \|year\=1988 \|pages\=630–631 \|isbn\=978\-0521243322 }} However, he reneged on the agreement in 1639 and rebelled, and later defeated the Ming forces led by the Ming general [Zuo Liangyu](/wiki/Zuo_Liangyu "Zuo Liangyu") ({{lang\|zh\|左良玉}}). In 1640, he suffered defeats at the hand of Zuo and had to flee with his few remaining followers into the mountains of Eastern Sichuan.{{cite book \|title\=War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900–1795 \|author\=Peter Lorge \|page\=145 \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2005 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=t203wZyNqIwC\&pg\=PA145\|isbn\=0\-415\-31690\-1 }} In 1641 he emerged from Sichuan and attacked [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang "Xiangyang"), capturing and executing the imperial Prince of Xiang there.
In 1643, he took [Macheng](/wiki/Macheng "Macheng") in Hubei, and his army swelled to some 57,000 after incorporating the city's rebels.{{cite book\|last\=Rowe\|first\=William T.\|author\-link \= William T. Rowe\|title\=Crimson Rain: Seven Centuries of Violence in a Chinese County\|year\=2006\|publisher\=Stanford University Press\|isbn\=978\-0804754965\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=OeHiHpz9SsEC\&pg\=PA140 \|pages\=139–140}} He then captured the provincial capital of [Wuchang](/wiki/Wuchang_District "Wuchang District"), killed the imperial prince there, and proclaimed himself "Xi Wang" (King of the West). Wuchang however was soon recaptured by Ming forces, and for a while Zhang stayed at [Changsha](/wiki/Changsha "Changsha") where he controlled much of [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan "Hunan") and part of [Jiangxi](/wiki/Jiangxi "Jiangxi").
### Conquest of Sichuan
In 1644, Zhang decided to abandon Hunan and led 100,000 of his troops towards Sichuan. His army converged on [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing "Chongqing") from two directions and surrounded the city. After several days of fighting, his army managed to blast a hole through the city wall and captured the city on 25 July 1644\.{{cite journal \|author\=James B. Parsons \|date\=May 1957 \|title\=The Culmination of a Chinese Peasant Rebellion: Chang Hsien\-chung in Szechwan, 1644–46 \|journal\=The Journal of Asian Studies \|publisher\=Association for Asian Studies \|volume\=16 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=387–400 \|doi\=10\.2307/2941233 \|jstor\=2941233\|s2cid\=162377335 }} He was said to have cut off the hands of the city's defenders and massacred a large number of people.
The conquest of some other parts of Sichuan was made easier after he promised not to harm the local population if they seized their officials, took possession of the storehouse and surrendered without resistance. He took [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu "Chengdu") on 9 September 1644, and met no real opposition in the rest of Sichuan afterwards. He then set up court in Chengdu, which he renamed Xijing (西京, Western Capital), and declared himself king of the [Xi dynasty](/wiki/Xi_dynasty "Xi dynasty") (大西王朝, Great Western dynasty). In the 10th lunar month of 1644 he declared himself as emperor with the reign title Dashun.{{cite book \|last1\=Cheng Gu \|title\=The Hidden Land: The Garrison System And the Ming Dynasty \|date\=2019 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1000711004 \|edition\=illustrated \|chapter\=Chapter 6}}
### Rule in Sichuan
[thumb\|upright\=1\.4\|The situation of November 1644; the kingdom of Zhang Xianzhong (Xi) was near its greatest extent](/wiki/File:Southern_Ming.png "Southern Ming.png")
In Sichuan, Zhang attempted to set up a civil administration and initially gained considerable support. According to an account by [Gabriel de Magalhães](/wiki/Gabriel_de_Magalh%C3%A3es "Gabriel de Magalhães"), a Portuguese [Jesuit](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus "Society of Jesus") who was working in Sichuan with another Jesuit [Lodovico Buglio](/wiki/Lodovico_Buglio "Lodovico Buglio") (but both pressed to serve as astronomers to Zhang),{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LEG1rG0dsU0C\&pg\=PA110\|title\=Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724 \|author\= Liam Matthew Brokey \|publisher\= Harvard University Press \|page\=110 \|year\=2007 \|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-03036\-7 }} "he began his rule with such liberality, justice and magnificence by which he captivated all hearts that many mandarins, famous both in civic as in military affairs whom fear was keeping concealed, left their hideouts and flew to his side."
However, resistance to his rule did not cease, and Chongqing was retaken by Ming loyalists in the spring of 1645\. Zhang then embarked on a campaign of terror, which was well under way by the middle of 1645, to stamp out the remaining resistance in Sichuan. In November 1645, according to de Magalhães, Zhang, after hearing that "a huge and powerful army was coming against him", announced that "the people of his kingdom had a secret pact with the enemy and planned an uprising; because of this he was determined to kill any suspected resistors". The Jesuits, who now "understood the evil of this man", reported that while they managed to save a few of their Jesuit brothers who were taken, the rest were killed.{{cite web \|url\=http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/biography/view.aspx?biographyID\=1506 \|title\=Biography of Fernandes Cai, António (1620–1670\) \|publisher\=The Ricci Roundtable \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908235052/http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/biography/view.aspx?biographyID\=1506 \|archive\-date\=8 September 2006 }} Zhang's policy of terror increased in intensity, especially in 1646 after he had decided to abandon Sichuan. By then, Zhang's government had virtually disintegrated, all but three of his principal officials had either committed suicide or were executed.
### Death
The Manchu [Hong Taiji](/wiki/Hong_Taiji "Hong Taiji") founded the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty") in 1636 and the Qing army advanced through the [Great Wall](/wiki/Great_Wall "Great Wall") after the fall of the Ming dynasty to rebels of Li Zicheng in 1644\. In 1646 the Qing sent out a force under the leadership of [Haoge](/wiki/Hooge_%28prince%29 "Hooge (prince)") intending to attack Zhang's domain in Sichuan. In October 1646, Zhang decided to abandon Sichuan, and headed towards his homeland in Shaanxi. However, the Qing army was also approaching from Shaanxi, and in January 1647, Zhang and the Qing forces met in [Xichong](/wiki/Xichong_County "Xichong County") where Zhang had set up camp, and he was killed in the confrontation.{{cite book \|author\=Yingcong Dai \|title\=The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=University of Washington Press \|pages\=16–22 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DYHfVVAAf\_kC\&pg\=PA16 \|isbn\=978\-0\-295\-98952\-5 }} According to one account, he was betrayed by one of his officers, a native of Sichuan named Liu Chin\-chung (Liu Jinzhong) who resented his policy of terror in Sichuan. Zhang was alerted to their presence and decided to confront them with only 8 to 10 men.{{cite book \|last1\=Swope \|first1\=Kenneth \|title\=On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming\-Qing Transition \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=U of Nebraska Press \|isbn\=978\-0803249950 \|pages\=133–134 \|edition\=illustrated \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_pZcDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA133}} Liu pointed Zhang out to the Qing when Zhang rushed out from his tent on learning of the betrayal, and he was then shot and killed by a skilled Manchu archer.[Parsons 1957](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2941233?seq=13), p. 399\. The [Draft History of Qing](/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing "Draft History of Qing") has an entirely different account of his death and says he was killed by [Oboi](/wiki/Oboi "Oboi") during a battle.[Draft History of Qing](/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing "Draft History of Qing"), Volume 4, "Annals of Shunzhi 1": "On the *jisi* day of the eleventh month of the third year of Shunzhi \[2 January 1647], [Hooge](/wiki/Hooge_%28prince%29 "Hooge (prince)")'s army reached the southern regions \[of China]. At that time, Zhang Xianzhong \[held] a line of fortifications in [Xichong](/wiki/Xichong_County "Xichong County"). Oboi and others advanced together to attack and they routed \[the rebels], beheading \[Zhang] Xianzhong on the battlefield. They then divided their forces to attack the remaining bandits, overrunning more than 130 \[enemy] camps/battalions. Sichuan was thus pacified." (清史稿·本紀四·世祖本紀一) "順治三年十一月己巳，豪格師至南部，時張獻忠列寨西充，鰲拜等兼程進擊，大破之，斬獻忠於陣，復分兵擊餘賊，破一百三十餘營，四川平。
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Zhang was born in Liushujian (柳树涧; literally 'willow spring', modern [Dingbian](/wiki/Dingbian_County \"Dingbian County\"), [Shaanxi](/wiki/Shaanxi \"Shaanxi\") province), in 1606 into a poor family. He was described as tall in stature, had a yellow complexion and a \"tiger chin\" ({{lang\\|zh\\|虎頷}}, meaning an impressive beard), and hence was given the nickname \"Yellow Tiger\".{{cite ECCP \\|title\\=Chang Hsien\\-chung}}[Ming shi](http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7309) Original text: 献忠黄面长身虎颔，人号黄虎。 He served in the [Ming army](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\"), and while in the army he was sentenced to death for violations of military rules, but was reprieved after an intervention by a senior officer who was impressed by his appearance.",
"### As rebel leader",
"Towards the end the [Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\"), drought, famines and epidemics broke out in various parts of China. In the late 1620s, peasants revolted in Shaanxi, resisting attempts by the Ming government to collect grains and taxes. They coalesced into rebel armies called \"roving bandits\" (*liúkòu* 流寇) because of their highly mobile nature, and spread into other parts of China.{{cite book \\|title\\=Rivers in Time: A Cultural History of China \\|author\\= Cho\\-Yun Hsu \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=a2\\_GQpLPPl8C\\&pg\\=PT654 \\|publisher\\= Columbia University Press \\|page\\=383 \\|year\\=2006 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-231\\-15921\\-0 \\|author\\-link\\= Cho\\-Yun Hsu }} Zhang deserted from the army, joined the rebel forces in [Mizhi County](/wiki/Mizhi_County \"Mizhi County\") in 1630, and established himself as a rebel leader, styling himself Bada Wang (八大王, Eighth Great King). His mobile forces would conduct raids along the western edge of Shaanxi, plundering swiftly and hiding out in the hills. Later he moved into other provinces, moving from place to place raiding towns and cities. He was defeated at various times by the Ming forces; Zhang would also surrender when it was expedient for him to do so, for example in 1631 and 1638, but would then later regroup and resume the rebellion.{{cite book \\|title\\= Chongqing \\& The Three Gorges \\|author\\= Kim Hunter Gordon, Jesse Watson \\|year\\=2011 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vSNOR3qt6DwC\\&pg\\=PA60 \\|pages\\=60–61 \\|publisher\\= Kim Hunter Gordon \\|isbn\\=978\\-7\\-5022\\-5215\\-1 }}{{cite book \\|author\\=Roger Des Forges \\|title\\=Cultural Centrality and Political Change in Chinese History: Northeast Henan in the Fall of the Ming \\|publisher\\= Stanford University Press \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YE6Va\\-Fe1coC\\&pg\\=PA59 \\|page\\=59 \\|year\\= 2003 \\|isbn\\=0804740445 }}",
"In 1635 he joined a larger confederation of bandits that included another rebel leader, [Li Zicheng](/wiki/Li_Zicheng \"Li Zicheng\") (Li would later capture [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\") and end Ming rule there). They devastated [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\") and pushed into [Anhui](/wiki/Anhui \"Anhui\"). After they had burnt the Ming [ancestral temple](/wiki/Ancestral_shrine \"Ancestral shrine\") at Zhongdu ([Fengyang](/wiki/Fengyang_County \"Fengyang County\")) in Anhui and ravaged the area, the rebel armies broke up and Zhang headed to [Hubei](/wiki/Hubei \"Hubei\").{{cite book \\|title\\= Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 Bc – 1912 Ad \\|author\\= Marvin C. Whiting \\|publisher\\= Writers Club Press \\|year\\=2002 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ktkelPfNQOIC\\&pg\\=PA458 \\|pages\\=457–462 \\|isbn\\=0\\-595\\-22134\\-3 }} In 1637, joined by other rebels and with an army now reaching a size of 300,000 men, he again pushed into Anhui, then to [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu \"Jiangsu\"), and almost down to [Nanjing](/wiki/Nanjing \"Nanjing\"), auxiliary capital of Ming. But he was immediately defeated there and he retreated back to Hubei. In 1638, he surrendered to Ming supreme commander{{clarify\\|date\\=May 2020}} Xiong Wencan ({{lang\\|zh\\|熊文燦}}) and was allowed to serve as a regional Ming commander.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Cambridge History of China \\|volume\\= 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 \\|editor\\=\\[\\[Frederick W. Mote]], \\[\\[Denis Twitchett]] \\|author\\=William Atwell \\|year\\=1988 \\|pages\\=630–631 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0521243322 }} However, he reneged on the agreement in 1639 and rebelled, and later defeated the Ming forces led by the Ming general [Zuo Liangyu](/wiki/Zuo_Liangyu \"Zuo Liangyu\") ({{lang\\|zh\\|左良玉}}). In 1640, he suffered defeats at the hand of Zuo and had to flee with his few remaining followers into the mountains of Eastern Sichuan.{{cite book \\|title\\=War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900–1795 \\|author\\=Peter Lorge \\|page\\=145 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2005 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=t203wZyNqIwC\\&pg\\=PA145\\|isbn\\=0\\-415\\-31690\\-1 }} In 1641 he emerged from Sichuan and attacked [Xiangyang](/wiki/Xiangyang \"Xiangyang\"), capturing and executing the imperial Prince of Xiang there.",
"In 1643, he took [Macheng](/wiki/Macheng \"Macheng\") in Hubei, and his army swelled to some 57,000 after incorporating the city's rebels.{{cite book\\|last\\=Rowe\\|first\\=William T.\\|author\\-link \\= William T. Rowe\\|title\\=Crimson Rain: Seven Centuries of Violence in a Chinese County\\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0804754965\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OeHiHpz9SsEC\\&pg\\=PA140 \\|pages\\=139–140}} He then captured the provincial capital of [Wuchang](/wiki/Wuchang_District \"Wuchang District\"), killed the imperial prince there, and proclaimed himself \"Xi Wang\" (King of the West). Wuchang however was soon recaptured by Ming forces, and for a while Zhang stayed at [Changsha](/wiki/Changsha \"Changsha\") where he controlled much of [Hunan](/wiki/Hunan \"Hunan\") and part of [Jiangxi](/wiki/Jiangxi \"Jiangxi\").",
"### Conquest of Sichuan",
"In 1644, Zhang decided to abandon Hunan and led 100,000 of his troops towards Sichuan. His army converged on [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing \"Chongqing\") from two directions and surrounded the city. After several days of fighting, his army managed to blast a hole through the city wall and captured the city on 25 July 1644\\.{{cite journal \\|author\\=James B. Parsons \\|date\\=May 1957 \\|title\\=The Culmination of a Chinese Peasant Rebellion: Chang Hsien\\-chung in Szechwan, 1644–46 \\|journal\\=The Journal of Asian Studies \\|publisher\\=Association for Asian Studies \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=387–400 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2941233 \\|jstor\\=2941233\\|s2cid\\=162377335 }} He was said to have cut off the hands of the city's defenders and massacred a large number of people.",
"The conquest of some other parts of Sichuan was made easier after he promised not to harm the local population if they seized their officials, took possession of the storehouse and surrendered without resistance. He took [Chengdu](/wiki/Chengdu \"Chengdu\") on 9 September 1644, and met no real opposition in the rest of Sichuan afterwards. He then set up court in Chengdu, which he renamed Xijing (西京, Western Capital), and declared himself king of the [Xi dynasty](/wiki/Xi_dynasty \"Xi dynasty\") (大西王朝, Great Western dynasty). In the 10th lunar month of 1644 he declared himself as emperor with the reign title Dashun.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cheng Gu \\|title\\=The Hidden Land: The Garrison System And the Ming Dynasty \\|date\\=2019 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1000711004 \\|edition\\=illustrated \\|chapter\\=Chapter 6}}",
"### Rule in Sichuan",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\|The situation of November 1644; the kingdom of Zhang Xianzhong (Xi) was near its greatest extent](/wiki/File:Southern_Ming.png \"Southern Ming.png\")\nIn Sichuan, Zhang attempted to set up a civil administration and initially gained considerable support. According to an account by [Gabriel de Magalhães](/wiki/Gabriel_de_Magalh%C3%A3es \"Gabriel de Magalhães\"), a Portuguese [Jesuit](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus \"Society of Jesus\") who was working in Sichuan with another Jesuit [Lodovico Buglio](/wiki/Lodovico_Buglio \"Lodovico Buglio\") (but both pressed to serve as astronomers to Zhang),{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LEG1rG0dsU0C\\&pg\\=PA110\\|title\\=Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724 \\|author\\= Liam Matthew Brokey \\|publisher\\= Harvard University Press \\|page\\=110 \\|year\\=2007 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-03036\\-7 }} \"he began his rule with such liberality, justice and magnificence by which he captivated all hearts that many mandarins, famous both in civic as in military affairs whom fear was keeping concealed, left their hideouts and flew to his side.\"",
"However, resistance to his rule did not cease, and Chongqing was retaken by Ming loyalists in the spring of 1645\\. Zhang then embarked on a campaign of terror, which was well under way by the middle of 1645, to stamp out the remaining resistance in Sichuan. In November 1645, according to de Magalhães, Zhang, after hearing that \"a huge and powerful army was coming against him\", announced that \"the people of his kingdom had a secret pact with the enemy and planned an uprising; because of this he was determined to kill any suspected resistors\". The Jesuits, who now \"understood the evil of this man\", reported that while they managed to save a few of their Jesuit brothers who were taken, the rest were killed.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/biography/view.aspx?biographyID\\=1506 \\|title\\=Biography of Fernandes Cai, António (1620–1670\\) \\|publisher\\=The Ricci Roundtable \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908235052/http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/biography/view.aspx?biographyID\\=1506 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 September 2006 }} Zhang's policy of terror increased in intensity, especially in 1646 after he had decided to abandon Sichuan. By then, Zhang's government had virtually disintegrated, all but three of his principal officials had either committed suicide or were executed.",
"### Death",
"The Manchu [Hong Taiji](/wiki/Hong_Taiji \"Hong Taiji\") founded the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") in 1636 and the Qing army advanced through the [Great Wall](/wiki/Great_Wall \"Great Wall\") after the fall of the Ming dynasty to rebels of Li Zicheng in 1644\\. In 1646 the Qing sent out a force under the leadership of [Haoge](/wiki/Hooge_%28prince%29 \"Hooge (prince)\") intending to attack Zhang's domain in Sichuan. In October 1646, Zhang decided to abandon Sichuan, and headed towards his homeland in Shaanxi. However, the Qing army was also approaching from Shaanxi, and in January 1647, Zhang and the Qing forces met in [Xichong](/wiki/Xichong_County \"Xichong County\") where Zhang had set up camp, and he was killed in the confrontation.{{cite book \\|author\\=Yingcong Dai \\|title\\=The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=University of Washington Press \\|pages\\=16–22 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DYHfVVAAf\\_kC\\&pg\\=PA16 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-295\\-98952\\-5 }} According to one account, he was betrayed by one of his officers, a native of Sichuan named Liu Chin\\-chung (Liu Jinzhong) who resented his policy of terror in Sichuan. Zhang was alerted to their presence and decided to confront them with only 8 to 10 men.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Swope \\|first1\\=Kenneth \\|title\\=On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming\\-Qing Transition \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=U of Nebraska Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0803249950 \\|pages\\=133–134 \\|edition\\=illustrated \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_pZcDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA133}} Liu pointed Zhang out to the Qing when Zhang rushed out from his tent on learning of the betrayal, and he was then shot and killed by a skilled Manchu archer.[Parsons 1957](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2941233?seq=13), p. 399\\. The [Draft History of Qing](/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing \"Draft History of Qing\") has an entirely different account of his death and says he was killed by [Oboi](/wiki/Oboi \"Oboi\") during a battle.[Draft History of Qing](/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing \"Draft History of Qing\"), Volume 4, \"Annals of Shunzhi 1\": \"On the *jisi* day of the eleventh month of the third year of Shunzhi \\[2 January 1647], [Hooge](/wiki/Hooge_%28prince%29 \"Hooge (prince)\")'s army reached the southern regions \\[of China]. At that time, Zhang Xianzhong \\[held] a line of fortifications in [Xichong](/wiki/Xichong_County \"Xichong County\"). Oboi and others advanced together to attack and they routed \\[the rebels], beheading \\[Zhang] Xianzhong on the battlefield. They then divided their forces to attack the remaining bandits, overrunning more than 130 \\[enemy] camps/battalions. Sichuan was thus pacified.\" (清史稿·本紀四·世祖本紀一) \"順治三年十一月己巳，豪格師至南部，時張獻忠列寨西充，鰲拜等兼程進擊，大破之，斬獻忠於陣，復分兵擊餘賊，破一百三十餘營，四川平。",
""
] |
History
-------
{{see also\|Timeline of Zaragoza}}
The [Sedetani](/wiki/Sedetani "Sedetani"), a tribe of [ancient Iberians](/wiki/Ancient_Iberians "Ancient Iberians"), populated a village called {{ill\|Salduie\|es}} ({{Lang\|la\|Salduba}} in Roman sources).
### Roman Caesaraugusta
{{Main\|Caesaraugusta}}
[thumb\|upright\=0\.8\|Roman Caesaraugusta 1\.\- Decumano; 2\.\- Cardo ; 3\.\- Forum ; 4\.\- Port; 5\.\- Thermal baths; 6\.\- Theatre; 7\.\- Walls](/wiki/File:Mapa_Caesaraugusta.svg "Mapa Caesaraugusta.svg")
[Augustus](/wiki/Augustus "Augustus") founded the city as *[Caesaraugusta](/wiki/Caesaraugusta "Caesaraugusta")* between 25 BC and 11 BC{{cite web \|url\=http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/246344 \|title\=Places: 246344 (Col. Caesaraugusta) \|author1\=Sivan, H. \|author2\=S. Keay \|author3\=R. Mathisen \|author4\=DARMC, R. \|author5\=Talbert, S. \|author6\=Gillies, J. \|author7\=Åhlfeldt \|author8\=J. Becker \|author9\=T. Elliott \|access\-date\=23 December 2014 \|publisher\=Pleiades \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224023056/http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/246344 \|archive\-date\=24 December 2014 }} as a [colony](/wiki/Colonia_%28Roman%29 "Colonia (Roman)") to settle army veterans from the [Cantabrian wars](/wiki/Cantabrian_wars "Cantabrian wars"). As a Roman city, it had all the typical public buildings: [forum](/wiki/Forum_%28Roman%29 "Forum (Roman)"), [baths](/wiki/Thermae "Thermae"), [theatre](/wiki/Roman_theatre_%28structure%29 "Roman theatre (structure)"), and was an important economic centre. Many Roman ruins can still be seen in Zaragoza today.
It is thought it might have been the [Apostle James](/wiki/James_the_Great "James the Great") who had built a chapel on the site of the [Cathedral\-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar](/wiki/Cathedral-Basilica_of_Our_Lady_of_the_Pillar "Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar").
On the spot where [Saint Engratia](/wiki/Engratia "Engratia") and her companions were said to have been martyred on [Valerian's](/wiki/Valerian_%28emperor%29 "Valerian (emperor)")It is nowadays thought likely that she died during the earlier persecution. It was previously assumed that she had been killed during the [Diocletian persecution](/wiki/Diocletian_persecution "Diocletian persecution") in around 303 under the prefect [Dacian](/wiki/Dacian_%28prefect%29 "Dacian (prefect)"). orders was the [Church of Santa Engracia de Zaragoza](/wiki/Church_of_Santa_Engracia_de_Zaragoza "Church of Santa Engracia de Zaragoza"). Only the crypt and the doorway survived the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War"). Around the early 20th century it was rebuilt, and is now a functioning parish church.
### Middle Ages
[thumb\|upright\=0\.8\|Map of Zaragoza (*Saraqusta*) during the Muslim rule, superimposed on the current city (light grey)](/wiki/File:Mapa_Saraqusta.svg "Mapa Saraqusta.svg")
Despite the general decline of the last centuries of the Roman empire, Zaragoza suffered little. Capture by the [Goths](/wiki/Goths "Goths") in the fifth century CE was without significant bloodshed or destruction.
In the eighth century, following the [Umayyad conquest of the Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania "Umayyad conquest of Hispania"), Zaragoza became the capital of the [Upper March](/wiki/Upper_March "Upper March") of [al\-Andalus](/wiki/Al-Andalus "Al-Andalus").{{Sfn\|Corral Lafuente\|2008\|p\=199}}
In 1018, amid the collapse of the [Caliphate of Córdoba](/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba "Caliphate of Córdoba"), Zaragoza became an independent [Taifa of Zaragoza](/wiki/Taifa_of_Zaragoza "Taifa of Zaragoza"), initially controlled by the [Tujibid](/wiki/Banu_Tujib "Banu Tujib") family, then ruled by the [Banu Hud](/wiki/Banu_Hud "Banu Hud") from 1039\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://ifc.dpz.es/webs/atlash/indice\_epocas/islamica/27\.htm\|work\=Atlas de historia de Aragón\|publisher\=Institución Fernando el Católico\|title\=Los reinos de Taifas en la Marca Superior (Zaragoza\-Albarracín)}} The taifa greatly prospered in a cultural and political sense in the late 11th century, and being later governed by [Ahmad al\-Muqtadir](/wiki/Ahmad_al-Muqtadir "Ahmad al-Muqtadir"), [Yusuf al\-Mu'taman ibn Hud](/wiki/Yusuf_al-Mu%27taman_ibn_Hud "Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud") and [Al\-Musta'in II](/wiki/Al-Musta%27in_II "Al-Musta'in II").{{Cite journal\|last\=Espada Torres\|first\=Diana María\|year\=2019\|title\=Historia, memoria y ciudad. La recuperación de la imagen de Alfonso I, El Batallador.\|journal\=La Tadeo Dearte\|volume\=5\|issue\=5\|page\=80\|doi\=10\.21789/24223158\.1530\|url\=https://revistas.utadeo.edu.co/index.php/ltd/article/view/1530/1503\|publisher\=\[\[Universidad de Bogotá Jorge Tadeo Lozano]]\|location\=Bogotá\|doi\-access\=free}} It fell to the [Almoravids](/wiki/Almoravid "Almoravid") in 1110\.
On 18 December 1118, [Alfonso I of Aragon](/wiki/Alfonso_I_of_Aragon "Alfonso I of Aragon") conquered the city from the Almoravids,{{cite book\|editor1\-last\=Rogers\|editor1\-first\=Clifford J.\|editor1\-link\=Clifford J. Rogers\|title\=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology\|volume\=1\|date\=2010\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|location\=Oxford\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-533403\-6\|page\=466\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mzwpq6bLHhMC\&q\=zaragoza\+1118\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319110931/https://books.google.nl/books?id\=mzwpq6bLHhMC\&dq\=zaragoza\+1118\&hl\=nl\|archive\-date\=2017\-03\-19}} and made it the capital of the [Kingdom of Aragon](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon "Kingdom of Aragon").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aragon\-region\-Spain\#ref169835\|title\=Aragon {{!}} region, Spain\|work\=Encyclopedia Britannica\|access\-date\=2017\-08\-25\|language\=en\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825200013/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aragon\-region\-Spain\#ref169835\|archive\-date\=2017\-08\-25}} The aforementioned monarch created a jurisdictional dominion in the city, which was gifted to [Gaston of Béarn](/wiki/Gaston_IV%2C_Viscount_of_B%C3%A9arn "Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn").{{Sfn\|Falcón\|2014\|p\=209}} The city remained a [lordship](/wiki/Lordship "Lordship") up until the early 13th century.{{Cite book \|chapter\=Las primeras ordenanzas otorgadas a la Ciudad de Zaragoza\|first\=Isabel\|last\=Falcón\|title\=Honos alit artes. Studi per il settantesimo compleanno di Mario Ascheri. Il cammino delle idee dal medioevo all'età moderna\|editor\-first\=Paola\|editor\-last\=Maffei\|editor\-first2\=Gian Maria\|editor\-last2\=Varanini\|location\=Florence\|publisher\=\[\[Firenze University Press]]\|year\=2014\|isbn\=978\-88\-6655\-632\-9\|url\=http://www.rm.unina.it/rmebook/dwnld/Ascheri\_3\.pdf\|page\=209}}
There was a [Jewish](/wiki/Jews "Jews") community in medieval Zaragoza, a notable center where [*yeshivas*](/wiki/Yeshiva "Yeshiva") also incorporated the study of philosophy alongside [Talmud studies](/wiki/Torah_study "Torah study").{{Cite book \|last\=Marciano \|first\=Yoel \|title\=Sages of Spain in the Eye of the Storm: Jewish Scholars of Late Medieval Spain \|publisher\=Bialik \|year\=2019 \|isbn\=978\-965\-536\-266\-4 \|location\=Jerusalem \|pages\=231 \|language\=he}}
### Early Modern history
An outbreak of [bubonic plague](/wiki/Bubonic_plague "Bubonic plague") decimated the city in 1564\.{{Cite book\|title\=Zaragoza 1564\. El año de la peste\|first\=Fco. José\|last\=Alfaro Pérez\|location\=Zaragoza\|publisher\=Institución Fernando el Católico\|year\=2019\|isbn\=978\-84\-9911\-570\-2\|url\=https://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/38/01/\_ebook.pdf\|page\=19}} It reportedly killed about 10,000 people out of an estimated population of 25–30,000\.{{Sfn\|Alfaro Pérez\|2019\|p\=61}}
[thumb\|upright\=2\.3\|center\|*View of Zaragoza* (1647\) by [Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo](/wiki/Juan_Bautista_Mart%C3%ADnez_del_Mazo "Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo")](/wiki/File:Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg "Vista de Zaragoza en 1647.jpg")
In the context of the [1701–1714 War of Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_Spanish_Succession "War of Spanish Succession"), the city rose in arms in favour of the [Archduke Charles](/wiki/Charles_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor"), who was proclaimed "King of Aragon" in the city on 29 June 1706, following the uprising of other parts of the Kingdom of Aragon in December 1705\.{{Sfn\|Monreal Casamayor\|2017\|p\=24, 28}} Charles entered the city in July 1706, directing the attack on those places of Aragon that had sided with the [Bourbon](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon "House of Bourbon") faction such as [Borja](/wiki/Borja%2C_Spain "Borja, Spain") or the [Cinco Villas](/wiki/Cinco_Villas%2C_Aragon "Cinco Villas, Aragon").{{Cite book\|title\=La Guerra de Sucesión en Ibdes y su comarca. Una villa privilegiada en la aplicación de los decretos de Nueva Planta\|url\=https://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/31/07/6sucesionibdes.pdf\|publisher\=Institución Fernando el Católico\|location\=Zaragoza\|pages\=175–176}} Following the [April 1707 battle at Almansa](/wiki/Battle_of_Almansa "Battle of Almansa"), the tide turned with the *Austracist* forces fleeing in disarray, and the Bourbon forces commanded by the [Duke of Orléans](/wiki/Philippe_II%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans "Philippe II, Duke of Orléans") entering the city on 26 May 1707\.{{Sfn\|Bonell Colmenero\|2010\|p\=22}} As he seized control of the kingdom, he began to enact the series of institutional reforms known as the [Nueva Planta](/wiki/Nueva_Planta_decrees "Nueva Planta decrees"), abolishing the Aragonese institutions in favour of the Castilian ones.{{Sfn\|Bonell Colmenero\|2010\|p\=22}} The war turned around again in 1710 after the [Battle of Almenar](/wiki/Battle_of_Almenar "Battle of Almenar"), and, following another [Bourbon defeat near Zaragoza on 20 August 1710](/wiki/Battle_of_Saragossa "Battle of Saragossa"), Archduke Charles returned to the city on the next day. This was for only a brief period, though, as following the entry of Philip V in Madrid and the ensuing [Battle of Villaviciosa](/wiki/Battle_of_Villaviciosa "Battle of Villaviciosa") in December 1710, the Habsburg armies fled from Zaragoza in haste in December 1710 and [Philip V](/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain "Philip V of Spain") proceeded to consolidate his rule over the kingdom of Aragon, resuming administrative reforms after a period of institutional void.{{Sfn\|Armillas\|Pérez\|2004\|p\=268}}
An important [food riot](/wiki/Food_riot "Food riot") caused by the high price of bread and other [necessity goods](/wiki/Necessity_good "Necessity good"){{Sfn\|Monterde Albiac\|1999\|pp\=221–222}} took place in the city in April 1766, the so\-called {{Lang\|es\|motín de los broqueleros}}, named after the repressive agents, volunteer farmers and craftsmen who wielded swords and [bucklers](/wiki/Buckler "Buckler") ({{Lang\|es\|broqueles}}).{{Sfn\|Monterde Albiac\|1999\|p\=222}} The repression left about 300 wounded, 200 detainees and 8 deaths and it was followed by 17 public executions, and an indeterminate number of killings at the dungeons of the [Aljafería](/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADa "Aljafería").{{Sfn\|Armillas Vicente\|1989\|pp\=242–243}}
### Late Modern history
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Assault of the French Army at Santa Engracia Monastery on 8 February 1809 during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War"). Oil on canvas, 1827\.](/wiki/File:Santa_Engracia_-_Lejeune.jpg "Santa Engracia - Lejeune.jpg")
Zaragoza suffered two famous sieges during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War") against the Napoleonic army: a [first](/wiki/First_Siege_of_Zaragoza "First Siege of Zaragoza") from June to August 1808; and a [second](/wiki/Second_Siege_of_Zaragoza "Second Siege of Zaragoza") from December 1808 to February 1809, surrendering only after some 50,000 defenders had died.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.historynet.com/napoleons\-total\-war.htm \|title\=Napoleon's Total War \|publisher\=Historynet.com \|date\=7 March 2007 \|access\-date\=2017\-03\-16 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319023110/http://www.historynet.com/napoleons\-total\-war.htm \|archive\-date\=19 March 2017 }}
Railway transport came to Zaragoza on 16 September 1861 with the inauguration of the [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona")–Zaragoza line with the arrival of a train from the former city to the [Estación del Norte](/wiki/Estaci%C3%B3n_del_Norte_%28Zaragoza%29 "Estación del Norte (Zaragoza)"). The [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid")–Zaragoza line was opened a year and a half later, on 16 May 1863\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.elperiodicodearagon.com/noticias/aragon/tren\-cumple\-150\-anos\-zaragoza\_696612\.html\|website\=\[\[El Periódico de Aragón]]\|title\=El tren cumple 150 años en Zaragoza\|date\=28 August 2011\|first\=A\|last\=Muñoz Padrós}}
The [July 1936 coup d'état](/wiki/Spanish_coup_of_July_1936 "Spanish coup of July 1936") (with Gen. [Miguel Cabanellas](/wiki/Miguel_Cabanellas "Miguel Cabanellas"), Col. {{ill\|José Monasterio Ituarte\|es\|lt\=Monasterio}}, {{ill\|Gustavo Urrutia González\|es\|lt\=Urrutia}}, {{ill\|Álvaro Sueiro y Vilariño\|es\|lt\=Sueiro}}, Major Cebollero and Gen.{{ill\|Gregorio Benito Terraza\|es\|lt\=Gregorio de Benito}} at the centre of the [Mola](/wiki/General_Mola "General Mola")\-led conspiration in Zaragoza) triumphed in the city.{{Sfn\|Casanova\|1989\|p\=299}} After the military uprising in Africa on 17 July, the military command easily attained its objectives in Zaragoza in the early morning of 19 July,{{Sfn\|Casanova\|1989\|pp\=299–300}} despite the city's status as stronghold of organised labour (mostly [CNT](/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3n_Nacional_del_Trabajo "Confederación Nacional del Trabajo") anarcho\-syndicalists but also [UGT](/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_General_de_Trabajadores "Unión General de Trabajadores") trade unionists), as the civil governor critically refused to give weapons to the people in time.{{Sfn\|Alcalde Fernández\|2010\|pp\=40–41}} Many refugees, including members of the provincial committees of parties and unions, fled to [Caspe](/wiki/Caspe "Caspe"), the capital of the territory of Aragon, which was still controlled by the Republic.{{Sfn\|Barcelo Gresa\|2016\|p\=114}}
{{See also\|Regional Defence Council of Aragon}}
[thumb\|right\|[Falange](/wiki/Falange_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_las_JONS "Falange Española de las JONS") members in front of the Basilica of El Pilar (12 October 1936\)](/wiki/File:Falange_Members_in_Saragossa_1936_%28Retouched%29.jpg "Falange Members in Saragossa 1936 (Retouched).jpg")
The rearguard violence committed by the putschists, with at least 12 murders on 19 July, would only go *in crescendo* along the beginning of the conflict.{{Sfn\|Alcalde Fernández\|2010\|pp\=41}} Thus one of the two big cities under Rebel control since the early stages of the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War") along [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville"), Zaragoza profited from an increasing industrial production vis\-à\-vis the [war economy](/wiki/War_economy "War economy"),{{Sfn\|Martínez de Baños Carrillo\|2010\|p\=13}} playing a key role for the [Francoist faction](/wiki/Francoist_faction "Francoist faction") as ammunition manufacturer.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.heraldo.es/noticias/aragon/zaragoza/2010/07/18/la\-primera\-gran\-fabrica\-guerra\-franco\-95225\-2261126\.html \|website\=\[\[Heraldo de Aragón]] \|title\=La primera gran fábrica de guerra de Franco \|first\=Mariano \|last\=García \|date\=18 July 2010}}
The [General Military Academy](/wiki/General_Military_Academy "General Military Academy"), a higher training center of the [Spanish Army](/wiki/Spanish_Army "Spanish Army"), was re\-established on 27 September 1940 by [José Enrique Varela](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Enrique_Varela "José Enrique Varela"), the [Francoist](/wiki/Francoist "Francoist") Minister of the Army.
The [1953 Accords](/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid "Pact of Madrid") ensued with the installment of a joint [US–Spain air base in Zaragoza](/wiki/Zaragoza_Air_Base "Zaragoza Air Base").{{Sfn\|Biescas\|1989\|p\=231}}
Following the declaration of Zaragoza as {{Lang\|es\|Polo de Desarrollo Industrial}} ("Pole for Industrial Development") by the regime in 1964, the city doubled in population in a short time.{{Cite book \|chapter\-url\=http://habitat.aq.upm.es/eacc/azaragoza.html \|chapter\=Procesos de urbanización de la huerta zaragozana. Incoherencias instrumentales \|first\=Ana \|last\=Zazo \|publisher\=\[\[Universidad Politécnica de Madrid]] \|year\=2010 \|title\=El espacio agrícola entre el campo y la ciudad \|editor\-first\=Mariano \|editor\-last\=Vázquez \|editor\-first2\=Carlos \|editor\-last2\=Verdaguer}} The increase in population ran parallel to the [rural flight](/wiki/Rural_flight "Rural flight") and depopulation in the rest of Aragon.{{Sfn\|Biescas\|1989\|p\=231}}
In 1979, a fire at the [Hotel Corona de Aragón fire](/wiki/Hotel_Corona_de_Arag%C3%B3n_fire "Hotel Corona de Aragón fire") killed at least 80 people, including members of the family of Francisco Franco.{{cite news \|title\=El incendio del Corona de Aragón, fue provocado, según "El Alcázar" \|url\=http://elpais.com/diario/1979/11/20/espana/311900416\_850215\.html \|access\-date\=25 July 2016 \|work\=El País \|publisher\=PRISA \|date\=20 November 1979 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315133530/http://elpais.com/diario/1979/11/20/espana/311900416\_850215\.html \|archive\-date\=15 March 2016 \|language\=es \|quote\=.}} The armed [Basque](/wiki/Basque_conflict "Basque conflict") nationalist and separatist organization [ETA](/wiki/ETA_%28separatist_group%29 "ETA (separatist group)") carried out the [Zaragoza barracks bombing](/wiki/Zaragoza_barracks_bombing "Zaragoza barracks bombing") in 1987 which killed eleven people, including a number of children, leading to 250,000 people taking part in demonstrations in the city.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/12/world/11\-killed\-by\-bomb\-in\-northern\-spain.html \|title\=11 Killed by Bomb in Northern Spain \|agency\=Reuters \|date\=1987\-12\-12 \|work\=The New York Times \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-01 \|language\=en\-US \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201193254/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/12/world/11\-killed\-by\-bomb\-in\-northern\-spain.html \|archive\-date\=2018\-02\-01}}
Since 1982, the city has been home to a large factory built by [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors "General Motors") for the production of [Opel](/wiki/Opel "Opel") cars, some of which are exported to the United Kingdom and sold under the [Vauxhall](/wiki/Vauxhall_Motors "Vauxhall Motors") brand. The city took advantage of the entry of Spain into the European Communities (later European Union).{{sfn\|Fernández Maldonado\|Romein\|2012\|p\=58}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{see also\\|Timeline of Zaragoza}}",
"The [Sedetani](/wiki/Sedetani \"Sedetani\"), a tribe of [ancient Iberians](/wiki/Ancient_Iberians \"Ancient Iberians\"), populated a village called {{ill\\|Salduie\\|es}} ({{Lang\\|la\\|Salduba}} in Roman sources).",
"### Roman Caesaraugusta",
"{{Main\\|Caesaraugusta}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|Roman Caesaraugusta 1\\.\\- Decumano; 2\\.\\- Cardo ; 3\\.\\- Forum ; 4\\.\\- Port; 5\\.\\- Thermal baths; 6\\.\\- Theatre; 7\\.\\- Walls](/wiki/File:Mapa_Caesaraugusta.svg \"Mapa Caesaraugusta.svg\")",
"[Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\") founded the city as *[Caesaraugusta](/wiki/Caesaraugusta \"Caesaraugusta\")* between 25 BC and 11 BC{{cite web \\|url\\=http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/246344 \\|title\\=Places: 246344 (Col. Caesaraugusta) \\|author1\\=Sivan, H. \\|author2\\=S. Keay \\|author3\\=R. Mathisen \\|author4\\=DARMC, R. \\|author5\\=Talbert, S. \\|author6\\=Gillies, J. \\|author7\\=Åhlfeldt \\|author8\\=J. Becker \\|author9\\=T. Elliott \\|access\\-date\\=23 December 2014 \\|publisher\\=Pleiades \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224023056/http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/246344 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2014 }} as a [colony](/wiki/Colonia_%28Roman%29 \"Colonia (Roman)\") to settle army veterans from the [Cantabrian wars](/wiki/Cantabrian_wars \"Cantabrian wars\"). As a Roman city, it had all the typical public buildings: [forum](/wiki/Forum_%28Roman%29 \"Forum (Roman)\"), [baths](/wiki/Thermae \"Thermae\"), [theatre](/wiki/Roman_theatre_%28structure%29 \"Roman theatre (structure)\"), and was an important economic centre. Many Roman ruins can still be seen in Zaragoza today.",
"It is thought it might have been the [Apostle James](/wiki/James_the_Great \"James the Great\") who had built a chapel on the site of the [Cathedral\\-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar](/wiki/Cathedral-Basilica_of_Our_Lady_of_the_Pillar \"Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar\").",
"On the spot where [Saint Engratia](/wiki/Engratia \"Engratia\") and her companions were said to have been martyred on [Valerian's](/wiki/Valerian_%28emperor%29 \"Valerian (emperor)\")It is nowadays thought likely that she died during the earlier persecution. It was previously assumed that she had been killed during the [Diocletian persecution](/wiki/Diocletian_persecution \"Diocletian persecution\") in around 303 under the prefect [Dacian](/wiki/Dacian_%28prefect%29 \"Dacian (prefect)\"). orders was the [Church of Santa Engracia de Zaragoza](/wiki/Church_of_Santa_Engracia_de_Zaragoza \"Church of Santa Engracia de Zaragoza\"). Only the crypt and the doorway survived the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\"). Around the early 20th century it was rebuilt, and is now a functioning parish church.",
"### Middle Ages",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|Map of Zaragoza (*Saraqusta*) during the Muslim rule, superimposed on the current city (light grey)](/wiki/File:Mapa_Saraqusta.svg \"Mapa Saraqusta.svg\")",
"Despite the general decline of the last centuries of the Roman empire, Zaragoza suffered little. Capture by the [Goths](/wiki/Goths \"Goths\") in the fifth century CE was without significant bloodshed or destruction.",
"In the eighth century, following the [Umayyad conquest of the Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania \"Umayyad conquest of Hispania\"), Zaragoza became the capital of the [Upper March](/wiki/Upper_March \"Upper March\") of [al\\-Andalus](/wiki/Al-Andalus \"Al-Andalus\").{{Sfn\\|Corral Lafuente\\|2008\\|p\\=199}}",
"In 1018, amid the collapse of the [Caliphate of Córdoba](/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba \"Caliphate of Córdoba\"), Zaragoza became an independent [Taifa of Zaragoza](/wiki/Taifa_of_Zaragoza \"Taifa of Zaragoza\"), initially controlled by the [Tujibid](/wiki/Banu_Tujib \"Banu Tujib\") family, then ruled by the [Banu Hud](/wiki/Banu_Hud \"Banu Hud\") from 1039\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ifc.dpz.es/webs/atlash/indice\\_epocas/islamica/27\\.htm\\|work\\=Atlas de historia de Aragón\\|publisher\\=Institución Fernando el Católico\\|title\\=Los reinos de Taifas en la Marca Superior (Zaragoza\\-Albarracín)}} The taifa greatly prospered in a cultural and political sense in the late 11th century, and being later governed by [Ahmad al\\-Muqtadir](/wiki/Ahmad_al-Muqtadir \"Ahmad al-Muqtadir\"), [Yusuf al\\-Mu'taman ibn Hud](/wiki/Yusuf_al-Mu%27taman_ibn_Hud \"Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud\") and [Al\\-Musta'in II](/wiki/Al-Musta%27in_II \"Al-Musta'in II\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Espada Torres\\|first\\=Diana María\\|year\\=2019\\|title\\=Historia, memoria y ciudad. La recuperación de la imagen de Alfonso I, El Batallador.\\|journal\\=La Tadeo Dearte\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=5\\|page\\=80\\|doi\\=10\\.21789/24223158\\.1530\\|url\\=https://revistas.utadeo.edu.co/index.php/ltd/article/view/1530/1503\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Universidad de Bogotá Jorge Tadeo Lozano]]\\|location\\=Bogotá\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} It fell to the [Almoravids](/wiki/Almoravid \"Almoravid\") in 1110\\.",
"On 18 December 1118, [Alfonso I of Aragon](/wiki/Alfonso_I_of_Aragon \"Alfonso I of Aragon\") conquered the city from the Almoravids,{{cite book\\|editor1\\-last\\=Rogers\\|editor1\\-first\\=Clifford J.\\|editor1\\-link\\=Clifford J. Rogers\\|title\\=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology\\|volume\\=1\\|date\\=2010\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|location\\=Oxford\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-533403\\-6\\|page\\=466\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mzwpq6bLHhMC\\&q\\=zaragoza\\+1118\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319110931/https://books.google.nl/books?id\\=mzwpq6bLHhMC\\&dq\\=zaragoza\\+1118\\&hl\\=nl\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-19}} and made it the capital of the [Kingdom of Aragon](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon \"Kingdom of Aragon\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aragon\\-region\\-Spain\\#ref169835\\|title\\=Aragon {{!}} region, Spain\\|work\\=Encyclopedia Britannica\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-25\\|language\\=en\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825200013/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aragon\\-region\\-Spain\\#ref169835\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-25}} The aforementioned monarch created a jurisdictional dominion in the city, which was gifted to [Gaston of Béarn](/wiki/Gaston_IV%2C_Viscount_of_B%C3%A9arn \"Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn\").{{Sfn\\|Falcón\\|2014\\|p\\=209}} The city remained a [lordship](/wiki/Lordship \"Lordship\") up until the early 13th century.{{Cite book \\|chapter\\=Las primeras ordenanzas otorgadas a la Ciudad de Zaragoza\\|first\\=Isabel\\|last\\=Falcón\\|title\\=Honos alit artes. Studi per il settantesimo compleanno di Mario Ascheri. Il cammino delle idee dal medioevo all'età moderna\\|editor\\-first\\=Paola\\|editor\\-last\\=Maffei\\|editor\\-first2\\=Gian Maria\\|editor\\-last2\\=Varanini\\|location\\=Florence\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Firenze University Press]]\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=978\\-88\\-6655\\-632\\-9\\|url\\=http://www.rm.unina.it/rmebook/dwnld/Ascheri\\_3\\.pdf\\|page\\=209}}",
"There was a [Jewish](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") community in medieval Zaragoza, a notable center where [*yeshivas*](/wiki/Yeshiva \"Yeshiva\") also incorporated the study of philosophy alongside [Talmud studies](/wiki/Torah_study \"Torah study\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Marciano \\|first\\=Yoel \\|title\\=Sages of Spain in the Eye of the Storm: Jewish Scholars of Late Medieval Spain \\|publisher\\=Bialik \\|year\\=2019 \\|isbn\\=978\\-965\\-536\\-266\\-4 \\|location\\=Jerusalem \\|pages\\=231 \\|language\\=he}}",
"### Early Modern history",
"An outbreak of [bubonic plague](/wiki/Bubonic_plague \"Bubonic plague\") decimated the city in 1564\\.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Zaragoza 1564\\. El año de la peste\\|first\\=Fco. José\\|last\\=Alfaro Pérez\\|location\\=Zaragoza\\|publisher\\=Institución Fernando el Católico\\|year\\=2019\\|isbn\\=978\\-84\\-9911\\-570\\-2\\|url\\=https://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/38/01/\\_ebook.pdf\\|page\\=19}} It reportedly killed about 10,000 people out of an estimated population of 25–30,000\\.{{Sfn\\|Alfaro Pérez\\|2019\\|p\\=61}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=2\\.3\\|center\\|*View of Zaragoza* (1647\\) by [Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo](/wiki/Juan_Bautista_Mart%C3%ADnez_del_Mazo \"Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo\")](/wiki/File:Vista_de_Zaragoza_en_1647.jpg \"Vista de Zaragoza en 1647.jpg\")\nIn the context of the [1701–1714 War of Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_Spanish_Succession \"War of Spanish Succession\"), the city rose in arms in favour of the [Archduke Charles](/wiki/Charles_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor\"), who was proclaimed \"King of Aragon\" in the city on 29 June 1706, following the uprising of other parts of the Kingdom of Aragon in December 1705\\.{{Sfn\\|Monreal Casamayor\\|2017\\|p\\=24, 28}} Charles entered the city in July 1706, directing the attack on those places of Aragon that had sided with the [Bourbon](/wiki/House_of_Bourbon \"House of Bourbon\") faction such as [Borja](/wiki/Borja%2C_Spain \"Borja, Spain\") or the [Cinco Villas](/wiki/Cinco_Villas%2C_Aragon \"Cinco Villas, Aragon\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=La Guerra de Sucesión en Ibdes y su comarca. Una villa privilegiada en la aplicación de los decretos de Nueva Planta\\|url\\=https://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/31/07/6sucesionibdes.pdf\\|publisher\\=Institución Fernando el Católico\\|location\\=Zaragoza\\|pages\\=175–176}} Following the [April 1707 battle at Almansa](/wiki/Battle_of_Almansa \"Battle of Almansa\"), the tide turned with the *Austracist* forces fleeing in disarray, and the Bourbon forces commanded by the [Duke of Orléans](/wiki/Philippe_II%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans \"Philippe II, Duke of Orléans\") entering the city on 26 May 1707\\.{{Sfn\\|Bonell Colmenero\\|2010\\|p\\=22}} As he seized control of the kingdom, he began to enact the series of institutional reforms known as the [Nueva Planta](/wiki/Nueva_Planta_decrees \"Nueva Planta decrees\"), abolishing the Aragonese institutions in favour of the Castilian ones.{{Sfn\\|Bonell Colmenero\\|2010\\|p\\=22}} The war turned around again in 1710 after the [Battle of Almenar](/wiki/Battle_of_Almenar \"Battle of Almenar\"), and, following another [Bourbon defeat near Zaragoza on 20 August 1710](/wiki/Battle_of_Saragossa \"Battle of Saragossa\"), Archduke Charles returned to the city on the next day. This was for only a brief period, though, as following the entry of Philip V in Madrid and the ensuing [Battle of Villaviciosa](/wiki/Battle_of_Villaviciosa \"Battle of Villaviciosa\") in December 1710, the Habsburg armies fled from Zaragoza in haste in December 1710 and [Philip V](/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain \"Philip V of Spain\") proceeded to consolidate his rule over the kingdom of Aragon, resuming administrative reforms after a period of institutional void.{{Sfn\\|Armillas\\|Pérez\\|2004\\|p\\=268}}",
"An important [food riot](/wiki/Food_riot \"Food riot\") caused by the high price of bread and other [necessity goods](/wiki/Necessity_good \"Necessity good\"){{Sfn\\|Monterde Albiac\\|1999\\|pp\\=221–222}} took place in the city in April 1766, the so\\-called {{Lang\\|es\\|motín de los broqueleros}}, named after the repressive agents, volunteer farmers and craftsmen who wielded swords and [bucklers](/wiki/Buckler \"Buckler\") ({{Lang\\|es\\|broqueles}}).{{Sfn\\|Monterde Albiac\\|1999\\|p\\=222}} The repression left about 300 wounded, 200 detainees and 8 deaths and it was followed by 17 public executions, and an indeterminate number of killings at the dungeons of the [Aljafería](/wiki/Aljafer%C3%ADa \"Aljafería\").{{Sfn\\|Armillas Vicente\\|1989\\|pp\\=242–243}}",
"### Late Modern history",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Assault of the French Army at Santa Engracia Monastery on 8 February 1809 during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\"). Oil on canvas, 1827\\.](/wiki/File:Santa_Engracia_-_Lejeune.jpg \"Santa Engracia - Lejeune.jpg\")\nZaragoza suffered two famous sieges during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\") against the Napoleonic army: a [first](/wiki/First_Siege_of_Zaragoza \"First Siege of Zaragoza\") from June to August 1808; and a [second](/wiki/Second_Siege_of_Zaragoza \"Second Siege of Zaragoza\") from December 1808 to February 1809, surrendering only after some 50,000 defenders had died.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.historynet.com/napoleons\\-total\\-war.htm \\|title\\=Napoleon's Total War \\|publisher\\=Historynet.com \\|date\\=7 March 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-16 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319023110/http://www.historynet.com/napoleons\\-total\\-war.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2017 }}",
"Railway transport came to Zaragoza on 16 September 1861 with the inauguration of the [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\")–Zaragoza line with the arrival of a train from the former city to the [Estación del Norte](/wiki/Estaci%C3%B3n_del_Norte_%28Zaragoza%29 \"Estación del Norte (Zaragoza)\"). The [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\")–Zaragoza line was opened a year and a half later, on 16 May 1863\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.elperiodicodearagon.com/noticias/aragon/tren\\-cumple\\-150\\-anos\\-zaragoza\\_696612\\.html\\|website\\=\\[\\[El Periódico de Aragón]]\\|title\\=El tren cumple 150 años en Zaragoza\\|date\\=28 August 2011\\|first\\=A\\|last\\=Muñoz Padrós}}",
"The [July 1936 coup d'état](/wiki/Spanish_coup_of_July_1936 \"Spanish coup of July 1936\") (with Gen. [Miguel Cabanellas](/wiki/Miguel_Cabanellas \"Miguel Cabanellas\"), Col. {{ill\\|José Monasterio Ituarte\\|es\\|lt\\=Monasterio}}, {{ill\\|Gustavo Urrutia González\\|es\\|lt\\=Urrutia}}, {{ill\\|Álvaro Sueiro y Vilariño\\|es\\|lt\\=Sueiro}}, Major Cebollero and Gen.{{ill\\|Gregorio Benito Terraza\\|es\\|lt\\=Gregorio de Benito}} at the centre of the [Mola](/wiki/General_Mola \"General Mola\")\\-led conspiration in Zaragoza) triumphed in the city.{{Sfn\\|Casanova\\|1989\\|p\\=299}} After the military uprising in Africa on 17 July, the military command easily attained its objectives in Zaragoza in the early morning of 19 July,{{Sfn\\|Casanova\\|1989\\|pp\\=299–300}} despite the city's status as stronghold of organised labour (mostly [CNT](/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3n_Nacional_del_Trabajo \"Confederación Nacional del Trabajo\") anarcho\\-syndicalists but also [UGT](/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_General_de_Trabajadores \"Unión General de Trabajadores\") trade unionists), as the civil governor critically refused to give weapons to the people in time.{{Sfn\\|Alcalde Fernández\\|2010\\|pp\\=40–41}} Many refugees, including members of the provincial committees of parties and unions, fled to [Caspe](/wiki/Caspe \"Caspe\"), the capital of the territory of Aragon, which was still controlled by the Republic.{{Sfn\\|Barcelo Gresa\\|2016\\|p\\=114}}\n{{See also\\|Regional Defence Council of Aragon}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Falange](/wiki/Falange_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_las_JONS \"Falange Española de las JONS\") members in front of the Basilica of El Pilar (12 October 1936\\)](/wiki/File:Falange_Members_in_Saragossa_1936_%28Retouched%29.jpg \"Falange Members in Saragossa 1936 (Retouched).jpg\")",
"The rearguard violence committed by the putschists, with at least 12 murders on 19 July, would only go *in crescendo* along the beginning of the conflict.{{Sfn\\|Alcalde Fernández\\|2010\\|pp\\=41}} Thus one of the two big cities under Rebel control since the early stages of the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") along [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\"), Zaragoza profited from an increasing industrial production vis\\-à\\-vis the [war economy](/wiki/War_economy \"War economy\"),{{Sfn\\|Martínez de Baños Carrillo\\|2010\\|p\\=13}} playing a key role for the [Francoist faction](/wiki/Francoist_faction \"Francoist faction\") as ammunition manufacturer.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.heraldo.es/noticias/aragon/zaragoza/2010/07/18/la\\-primera\\-gran\\-fabrica\\-guerra\\-franco\\-95225\\-2261126\\.html \\|website\\=\\[\\[Heraldo de Aragón]] \\|title\\=La primera gran fábrica de guerra de Franco \\|first\\=Mariano \\|last\\=García \\|date\\=18 July 2010}}",
"The [General Military Academy](/wiki/General_Military_Academy \"General Military Academy\"), a higher training center of the [Spanish Army](/wiki/Spanish_Army \"Spanish Army\"), was re\\-established on 27 September 1940 by [José Enrique Varela](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Enrique_Varela \"José Enrique Varela\"), the [Francoist](/wiki/Francoist \"Francoist\") Minister of the Army.",
"The [1953 Accords](/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid \"Pact of Madrid\") ensued with the installment of a joint [US–Spain air base in Zaragoza](/wiki/Zaragoza_Air_Base \"Zaragoza Air Base\").{{Sfn\\|Biescas\\|1989\\|p\\=231}}",
"Following the declaration of Zaragoza as {{Lang\\|es\\|Polo de Desarrollo Industrial}} (\"Pole for Industrial Development\") by the regime in 1964, the city doubled in population in a short time.{{Cite book \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://habitat.aq.upm.es/eacc/azaragoza.html \\|chapter\\=Procesos de urbanización de la huerta zaragozana. Incoherencias instrumentales \\|first\\=Ana \\|last\\=Zazo \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Universidad Politécnica de Madrid]] \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=El espacio agrícola entre el campo y la ciudad \\|editor\\-first\\=Mariano \\|editor\\-last\\=Vázquez \\|editor\\-first2\\=Carlos \\|editor\\-last2\\=Verdaguer}} The increase in population ran parallel to the [rural flight](/wiki/Rural_flight \"Rural flight\") and depopulation in the rest of Aragon.{{Sfn\\|Biescas\\|1989\\|p\\=231}}",
"In 1979, a fire at the [Hotel Corona de Aragón fire](/wiki/Hotel_Corona_de_Arag%C3%B3n_fire \"Hotel Corona de Aragón fire\") killed at least 80 people, including members of the family of Francisco Franco.{{cite news \\|title\\=El incendio del Corona de Aragón, fue provocado, según \"El Alcázar\" \\|url\\=http://elpais.com/diario/1979/11/20/espana/311900416\\_850215\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=25 July 2016 \\|work\\=El País \\|publisher\\=PRISA \\|date\\=20 November 1979 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315133530/http://elpais.com/diario/1979/11/20/espana/311900416\\_850215\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2016 \\|language\\=es \\|quote\\=.}} The armed [Basque](/wiki/Basque_conflict \"Basque conflict\") nationalist and separatist organization [ETA](/wiki/ETA_%28separatist_group%29 \"ETA (separatist group)\") carried out the [Zaragoza barracks bombing](/wiki/Zaragoza_barracks_bombing \"Zaragoza barracks bombing\") in 1987 which killed eleven people, including a number of children, leading to 250,000 people taking part in demonstrations in the city.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/12/world/11\\-killed\\-by\\-bomb\\-in\\-northern\\-spain.html \\|title\\=11 Killed by Bomb in Northern Spain \\|agency\\=Reuters \\|date\\=1987\\-12\\-12 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-01 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201193254/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/12/world/11\\-killed\\-by\\-bomb\\-in\\-northern\\-spain.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-01}}",
"Since 1982, the city has been home to a large factory built by [General Motors](/wiki/General_Motors \"General Motors\") for the production of [Opel](/wiki/Opel \"Opel\") cars, some of which are exported to the United Kingdom and sold under the [Vauxhall](/wiki/Vauxhall_Motors \"Vauxhall Motors\") brand. The city took advantage of the entry of Spain into the European Communities (later European Union).{{sfn\\|Fernández Maldonado\\|Romein\\|2012\\|p\\=58}}",
""
] |
Transport
---------
[thumb\|Zaragoza's [Third Millennium Bridge](/wiki/Third_Millennium_Bridge "Third Millennium Bridge") spans the [Ebro](/wiki/Ebro "Ebro") and is the world's largest concrete [tied\-arch bridge](/wiki/Tied-arch_bridge "Tied-arch bridge"), with six traffic lanes, two bike lanes, and two glass\-enclosed walkways for pedestrians.{{cite web\|title\=Puente del Tercer Milenio – Third Millennium Bridge\|url\=http://www.spain.info/en\_GB/conoce/monumentos/zaragoza/puente\_del\_tercer\_milenio.html\|work\=Discover Monuments, Zaragoza\|publisher\=Sociedad Estatal para la Gestión de la Innovación y las Tecnologías Turísticas, S.A. (SEGITTUR)\|access\-date\=27 December 2012\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620170925/http://www.spain.info/en\_GB/conoce/monumentos/zaragoza/puente\_del\_tercer\_milenio.html\|archive\-date\=20 June 2013}}](/wiki/File:Puente_del_Tercer_Milenio_%28Zaragoza%29.jpg "Puente del Tercer Milenio (Zaragoza).jpg")
### Roads
[thumb\|[Zaragoza tram](/wiki/Zaragoza_tram "Zaragoza tram") in Paseo de la Independencia](/wiki/File:Paseo_de_la_Independencia%2C_Zaragoza.gif "Paseo de la Independencia, Zaragoza.gif")
The city is connected by [motorway](/wiki/Motorway "Motorway") with the main cities in central and northern Spain, including [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid"), [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona"), [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia "Valencia"), and [Bilbao](/wiki/Bilbao "Bilbao"), all of which are located about 300 kilometres (200 miles) from Zaragoza.
### Buses
The city has a network of buses which is controlled by the Urban Buses of Zaragoza (AUZSA). The network consists of 31 regular lines (two of them circle lines), two scheduled routes, six shuttle buses (one free), and seven night buses operating on Fridays, Saturdays and other festivities.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.urbanosdezaragoza.es \|title\=Avanza Zaragoza \|website\=www.urbanosdezaragoza.es\|access\-date\=13 March 2018\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604082053/http://www.urbanosdezaragoza.es/\|archive\-date\=4 June 2017}} Zaragoza also has an interurban bus network operated by Transport Consortium Zaragoza Area (CTAZ) that operates 17 regular lines.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.consorciozaragoza.es\|title\=portada \- consorciozaragoza.es\|website\=www.consorciozaragoza.es\|access\-date\=13 March 2018\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313153256/http://www.consorciozaragoza.es/\|archive\-date\=13 March 2018}}
### Bicycle
Zaragoza's bicycle lanes facilitate non\-motorised travel and help cyclists to avoid running into pedestrians and motor vehicles. The city council also has a public bicycle\-hire scheme, the {{Lang\|es\|bizi zaragoza}}, which has an annual charge.
### Tram
The first line of the [Zaragoza tram](/wiki/Zaragoza_tram "Zaragoza tram") (Valdespartera\-Parque Goya) is fully operational.
### Railway
Zaragoza is a part of the [Spanish high\-speed railway](/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_Spain "High-speed rail in Spain") operated by [Renfe](/wiki/Renfe "Renfe"), [AVE](/wiki/AVE "AVE"), which connects [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid"), [Lleida](/wiki/Lleida "Lleida"), [Tarragona](/wiki/Tarragona "Tarragona"), [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona") and [Figueres](/wiki/Figueres "Figueres") via [high\-speed rail](/wiki/Madrid-Barcelona_high-speed_rail_line "Madrid-Barcelona high-speed rail line"). Madrid can be reached in 75 minutes, and Barcelona in approximately 90 minutes. The central station is [Zaragoza–Delicias railway station](/wiki/Zaragoza%E2%80%93Delicias_railway_station "Zaragoza–Delicias railway station"), which serves both railway lines and coaches. In addition to long\-distance railway lines and the high\-speed trains, Zaragoza has a network of [commuter trains](/wiki/Commuter_rail "Commuter rail") operated by Renfe called *[Cercanías Zaragoza](/wiki/Cercan%C3%ADas_Zaragoza "Cercanías Zaragoza")*.
### Airport
[thumb\|Zaragoza Airport](/wiki/File:Zaragoza_Airport.jpg "Zaragoza Airport.jpg")
[Zaragoza Airport](/wiki/Zaragoza_Airport "Zaragoza Airport") is located in the Garrapinillos neighbourhood, 10 kilometres from the city centre.
It is a major commercial airport, its freight traffic surpassing that of [Barcelona El Prat](/wiki/Barcelona%E2%80%93El_Prat_Airport "Barcelona–El Prat Airport") in 2012,{{cite news \|author1\=J. L. Gaona \|title\=El aeropuerto de Zaragoza supera al de Barcelona en tráfico de mercancías \|url\=http://www.heraldo.es/noticias/aragon/zaragoza\_provincia/zaragoza/2012/09/13/el\_aeropuerto\_zaragoza\_supera\_barcelona\_trafico\_mercancias\_203921\_301\.html \|access\-date\=30 June 2014 \|work\=Heraldo \|agency\=Tráfico aéreo \|publisher\=Heraldo de Aragon Editora Digital \|date\=13 September 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103140947/http://www.heraldo.es/noticias/aragon/zaragoza\_provincia/zaragoza/2012/09/13/el\_aeropuerto\_zaragoza\_supera\_barcelona\_trafico\_mercancias\_203921\_301\.html \|archive\-date\=3 November 2012 \|location\=Zaragoza}} and serves as the home of the [Spanish Air Force](/wiki/Spanish_Air_Force "Spanish Air Force")'s 15th Group. It was also used by [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA") as a contingency [landing site](/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_landing_sites "List of Space Shuttle landing sites") for the [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle "Space Shuttle") in the case of a [Transoceanic Abort Landing](/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes%23Transoceanic_Abort_Landing_%28TAL%29 "Space Shuttle abort modes#Transoceanic Abort Landing (TAL)") (TAL).
### Public transportation statistics
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Zaragoza, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 48 minutes. 9% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 11 minutes, while 12% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is {{Convert\|4\.2\|km\|abbr\=on}}, while 5% travel over {{Convert\|12\|km\|abbr\=on}} in a single direction.{{cite web \|title\=Zaragoza Public Transportation Statistics \|publisher\=Global Public Transit Index by Moovit \|url\=https://moovitapp.com/insights/en/Moovit\_Insights\_Public\_Transit\_Index\_Spain\_Zaragoza\-3201 \|access\-date\=19 June 2017 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824175025/https://moovitapp.com/insights/en/Moovit\_Insights\_Public\_Transit\_Index\_Spain\_Zaragoza\-3201\|archive\-date\=24 August 2017}} [50px](/wiki/File:CC-BY_icon.svg "CC-BY icon.svg") Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4\.0 International License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4\.0/ \|date\=2017\-10\-16 }}.
|
[
"Transport\n---------",
"[thumb\\|Zaragoza's [Third Millennium Bridge](/wiki/Third_Millennium_Bridge \"Third Millennium Bridge\") spans the [Ebro](/wiki/Ebro \"Ebro\") and is the world's largest concrete [tied\\-arch bridge](/wiki/Tied-arch_bridge \"Tied-arch bridge\"), with six traffic lanes, two bike lanes, and two glass\\-enclosed walkways for pedestrians.{{cite web\\|title\\=Puente del Tercer Milenio – Third Millennium Bridge\\|url\\=http://www.spain.info/en\\_GB/conoce/monumentos/zaragoza/puente\\_del\\_tercer\\_milenio.html\\|work\\=Discover Monuments, Zaragoza\\|publisher\\=Sociedad Estatal para la Gestión de la Innovación y las Tecnologías Turísticas, S.A. (SEGITTUR)\\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620170925/http://www.spain.info/en\\_GB/conoce/monumentos/zaragoza/puente\\_del\\_tercer\\_milenio.html\\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2013}}](/wiki/File:Puente_del_Tercer_Milenio_%28Zaragoza%29.jpg \"Puente del Tercer Milenio (Zaragoza).jpg\")",
"### Roads",
"[thumb\\|[Zaragoza tram](/wiki/Zaragoza_tram \"Zaragoza tram\") in Paseo de la Independencia](/wiki/File:Paseo_de_la_Independencia%2C_Zaragoza.gif \"Paseo de la Independencia, Zaragoza.gif\")\nThe city is connected by [motorway](/wiki/Motorway \"Motorway\") with the main cities in central and northern Spain, including [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\"), [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia \"Valencia\"), and [Bilbao](/wiki/Bilbao \"Bilbao\"), all of which are located about 300 kilometres (200 miles) from Zaragoza.",
"### Buses",
"The city has a network of buses which is controlled by the Urban Buses of Zaragoza (AUZSA). The network consists of 31 regular lines (two of them circle lines), two scheduled routes, six shuttle buses (one free), and seven night buses operating on Fridays, Saturdays and other festivities.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.urbanosdezaragoza.es \\|title\\=Avanza Zaragoza \\|website\\=www.urbanosdezaragoza.es\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604082053/http://www.urbanosdezaragoza.es/\\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2017}} Zaragoza also has an interurban bus network operated by Transport Consortium Zaragoza Area (CTAZ) that operates 17 regular lines.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.consorciozaragoza.es\\|title\\=portada \\- consorciozaragoza.es\\|website\\=www.consorciozaragoza.es\\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313153256/http://www.consorciozaragoza.es/\\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2018}}",
"### Bicycle",
"Zaragoza's bicycle lanes facilitate non\\-motorised travel and help cyclists to avoid running into pedestrians and motor vehicles. The city council also has a public bicycle\\-hire scheme, the {{Lang\\|es\\|bizi zaragoza}}, which has an annual charge.",
"### Tram",
"The first line of the [Zaragoza tram](/wiki/Zaragoza_tram \"Zaragoza tram\") (Valdespartera\\-Parque Goya) is fully operational.",
"### Railway",
"Zaragoza is a part of the [Spanish high\\-speed railway](/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_Spain \"High-speed rail in Spain\") operated by [Renfe](/wiki/Renfe \"Renfe\"), [AVE](/wiki/AVE \"AVE\"), which connects [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), [Lleida](/wiki/Lleida \"Lleida\"), [Tarragona](/wiki/Tarragona \"Tarragona\"), [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\") and [Figueres](/wiki/Figueres \"Figueres\") via [high\\-speed rail](/wiki/Madrid-Barcelona_high-speed_rail_line \"Madrid-Barcelona high-speed rail line\"). Madrid can be reached in 75 minutes, and Barcelona in approximately 90 minutes. The central station is [Zaragoza–Delicias railway station](/wiki/Zaragoza%E2%80%93Delicias_railway_station \"Zaragoza–Delicias railway station\"), which serves both railway lines and coaches. In addition to long\\-distance railway lines and the high\\-speed trains, Zaragoza has a network of [commuter trains](/wiki/Commuter_rail \"Commuter rail\") operated by Renfe called *[Cercanías Zaragoza](/wiki/Cercan%C3%ADas_Zaragoza \"Cercanías Zaragoza\")*.",
"### Airport",
"[thumb\\|Zaragoza Airport](/wiki/File:Zaragoza_Airport.jpg \"Zaragoza Airport.jpg\")\n[Zaragoza Airport](/wiki/Zaragoza_Airport \"Zaragoza Airport\") is located in the Garrapinillos neighbourhood, 10 kilometres from the city centre.",
"It is a major commercial airport, its freight traffic surpassing that of [Barcelona El Prat](/wiki/Barcelona%E2%80%93El_Prat_Airport \"Barcelona–El Prat Airport\") in 2012,{{cite news \\|author1\\=J. L. Gaona \\|title\\=El aeropuerto de Zaragoza supera al de Barcelona en tráfico de mercancías \\|url\\=http://www.heraldo.es/noticias/aragon/zaragoza\\_provincia/zaragoza/2012/09/13/el\\_aeropuerto\\_zaragoza\\_supera\\_barcelona\\_trafico\\_mercancias\\_203921\\_301\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=30 June 2014 \\|work\\=Heraldo \\|agency\\=Tráfico aéreo \\|publisher\\=Heraldo de Aragon Editora Digital \\|date\\=13 September 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103140947/http://www.heraldo.es/noticias/aragon/zaragoza\\_provincia/zaragoza/2012/09/13/el\\_aeropuerto\\_zaragoza\\_supera\\_barcelona\\_trafico\\_mercancias\\_203921\\_301\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=3 November 2012 \\|location\\=Zaragoza}} and serves as the home of the [Spanish Air Force](/wiki/Spanish_Air_Force \"Spanish Air Force\")'s 15th Group. It was also used by [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\") as a contingency [landing site](/wiki/List_of_Space_Shuttle_landing_sites \"List of Space Shuttle landing sites\") for the [Space Shuttle](/wiki/Space_Shuttle \"Space Shuttle\") in the case of a [Transoceanic Abort Landing](/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes%23Transoceanic_Abort_Landing_%28TAL%29 \"Space Shuttle abort modes#Transoceanic Abort Landing (TAL)\") (TAL).",
"### Public transportation statistics",
"The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Zaragoza, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 48 minutes. 9% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 11 minutes, while 12% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is {{Convert\\|4\\.2\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}}, while 5% travel over {{Convert\\|12\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}} in a single direction.{{cite web \\|title\\=Zaragoza Public Transportation Statistics \\|publisher\\=Global Public Transit Index by Moovit \\|url\\=https://moovitapp.com/insights/en/Moovit\\_Insights\\_Public\\_Transit\\_Index\\_Spain\\_Zaragoza\\-3201 \\|access\\-date\\=19 June 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824175025/https://moovitapp.com/insights/en/Moovit\\_Insights\\_Public\\_Transit\\_Index\\_Spain\\_Zaragoza\\-3201\\|archive\\-date\\=24 August 2017}} [50px](/wiki/File:CC-BY_icon.svg \"CC-BY icon.svg\") Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4\\.0 International License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4\\.0/ \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-16 }}.",
""
] |
Sports
------
### Football
[thumb\|A 2013 La Liga fixture in [La Romareda](/wiki/La_Romareda "La Romareda") vs Real Madrid](/wiki/File:Corner_Real_Zaragoza_Real_Madrid.JPG "Corner Real Zaragoza Real Madrid.JPG")
Zaragoza's main football team, [Real Zaragoza](/wiki/Real_Zaragoza "Real Zaragoza"), plays in the [Segunda División](/wiki/Segunda_Divisi%C3%B3n "Segunda División"). Founded on 18 March 1932, its home games are played at [La Romareda](/wiki/La_Romareda "La Romareda"), which seats 34,596 spectators. The club has spent the majority of its history in [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga "La Liga"). One of the most remarkable events in the team's recent history is the winning of the former [UEFA Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Cup_Winners%27_Cup "UEFA Cup Winners' Cup") in 1995\. The team has also won the Spanish National Cup, [Copa del Rey](/wiki/Copa_del_Rey "Copa del Rey"), six times: 1965, 1966, 1986, 1994, 2001 and 2004 and an [Inter\-Cities Fairs Cup (1964\)](/wiki/1963%E2%80%9364_Inter-Cities_Fairs_Cup "1963–64 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup"). A government survey in 2007 found that 2\.7% of the Spanish population support the club, making them the seventh\-most supported in the country.
Zaragoza's second football team is [CD Ebro](/wiki/CD_Ebro "CD Ebro"). Founded in 1942, it plays in [Segunda División B](/wiki/Segunda_Divisi%C3%B3n_B "Segunda División B") – Group 2, holding home games at [Campo Municipal de Fútbol La Almozara](/wiki/Campo_Municipal_de_F%C3%BAtbol_La_Almozara "Campo Municipal de Fútbol La Almozara"), which has a capacity of 1,000 seats.
[Zaragoza CFF](/wiki/Zaragoza_CFF "Zaragoza CFF") is a Spanish women's football team from Zaragoza playing in [Segunda Federación Femenina](/wiki/Segunda_Federaci%C3%B3n_%28women%29 "Segunda Federación (women)"), that once played in the top división.
Zaragoza was one of the Spanish cities which hosted the [FIFA World Cup 1982](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup_1982 "FIFA World Cup 1982"). Three matches were played at [La Romareda](/wiki/La_Romareda "La Romareda").
### Basketball
[thumb\|right\|Stadium Casablanca celebrating a win in 2015](/wiki/File:Stadium_Casablanca_Mann_Filter_2014-15_Celebracion.JPG "Stadium Casablanca Mann Filter 2014-15 Celebracion.JPG")
The main basketball team, [Basket Zaragoza](/wiki/Basket_Zaragoza "Basket Zaragoza"), known as *Casademont Zaragoza* for sponsorship reasons, plays in the [Liga ACB](/wiki/Liga_ACB "Liga ACB"). They play their home games at the [Pabellón Principe Felipe](/wiki/Pabell%C3%B3n_Principe_Felipe "Pabellón Principe Felipe") with a capacity of 10,744\.
[Stadium Casablanca](/wiki/Stadium_Casablanca "Stadium Casablanca"), a.k.a. *Mann Filter* for sponsorship reasons, is the Spanish women's basketball club from Zaragoza that plays in the [Primera Division](/wiki/LFB "LFB").
### Futsal
The main [futsal](/wiki/Futsal "Futsal") team, is [Dlink Zaragoza](/wiki/AD_Sala_10 "AD Sala 10"), plays in the [LNFS Primera División](/wiki/LNFS_Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n "LNFS Primera División"). They play at the [Pabellón Siglo XXI](/wiki/Pabell%C3%B3n_Siglo_XXI "Pabellón Siglo XXI") with a capacity of 2,600\.
### Other sports
[thumb\|[Nani Roma](/wiki/Nani_Roma "Nani Roma") *Baja España* 2009](/wiki/File:Nani_Baja_Spain.jpg "Nani Baja Spain.jpg")
Zaragoza's handball team, [BM Aragón](/wiki/BM_Arag%C3%B3n "BM Aragón"), plays in the [Liga ASOBAL](/wiki/Liga_ASOBAL "Liga ASOBAL").
The [Spanish Baja](/wiki/Spanish_Baja "Spanish Baja") or [Baja Aragon](/wiki/Baja_Aragon "Baja Aragon") is a Rally raid event held in the region of Aragon in northern Spain. This event was launched in 1983, and chose the desert of Monegros because of the scenery and availability of service infrastructure in Zaragoza.
Zaragoza was strongly associated with [Jaca](/wiki/Jaca "Jaca") in its failed bid for the [2014 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics "2014 Winter Olympics").
There are three Rugby Union teams playing in the regional league:
1. [Ibero Club de Rugby Zaragoza](/wiki/Ibero_Club_de_Rugby_Zaragoza "Ibero Club de Rugby Zaragoza")
2. [Fénix Club de Rugby](/wiki/F%C3%A9nix_Club_de_Rugby "Fénix Club de Rugby")
3. [Club Deportivo Universitario de Rugby](/wiki/Club_Deportivo_Universitario_de_Rugby "Club Deportivo Universitario de Rugby")
A permanent feature built for Expo 2008 is the pump\-powered artificial whitewater course {{Lang\|es\|El Canal de Aguas Bravas}}.
|
[
"Sports\n------",
"### Football",
"[thumb\\|A 2013 La Liga fixture in [La Romareda](/wiki/La_Romareda \"La Romareda\") vs Real Madrid](/wiki/File:Corner_Real_Zaragoza_Real_Madrid.JPG \"Corner Real Zaragoza Real Madrid.JPG\") \nZaragoza's main football team, [Real Zaragoza](/wiki/Real_Zaragoza \"Real Zaragoza\"), plays in the [Segunda División](/wiki/Segunda_Divisi%C3%B3n \"Segunda División\"). Founded on 18 March 1932, its home games are played at [La Romareda](/wiki/La_Romareda \"La Romareda\"), which seats 34,596 spectators. The club has spent the majority of its history in [La Liga](/wiki/La_Liga \"La Liga\"). One of the most remarkable events in the team's recent history is the winning of the former [UEFA Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/UEFA_Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"UEFA Cup Winners' Cup\") in 1995\\. The team has also won the Spanish National Cup, [Copa del Rey](/wiki/Copa_del_Rey \"Copa del Rey\"), six times: 1965, 1966, 1986, 1994, 2001 and 2004 and an [Inter\\-Cities Fairs Cup (1964\\)](/wiki/1963%E2%80%9364_Inter-Cities_Fairs_Cup \"1963–64 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup\"). A government survey in 2007 found that 2\\.7% of the Spanish population support the club, making them the seventh\\-most supported in the country.",
"Zaragoza's second football team is [CD Ebro](/wiki/CD_Ebro \"CD Ebro\"). Founded in 1942, it plays in [Segunda División B](/wiki/Segunda_Divisi%C3%B3n_B \"Segunda División B\") – Group 2, holding home games at [Campo Municipal de Fútbol La Almozara](/wiki/Campo_Municipal_de_F%C3%BAtbol_La_Almozara \"Campo Municipal de Fútbol La Almozara\"), which has a capacity of 1,000 seats.",
"[Zaragoza CFF](/wiki/Zaragoza_CFF \"Zaragoza CFF\") is a Spanish women's football team from Zaragoza playing in [Segunda Federación Femenina](/wiki/Segunda_Federaci%C3%B3n_%28women%29 \"Segunda Federación (women)\"), that once played in the top división.",
"Zaragoza was one of the Spanish cities which hosted the [FIFA World Cup 1982](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup_1982 \"FIFA World Cup 1982\"). Three matches were played at [La Romareda](/wiki/La_Romareda \"La Romareda\").",
"### Basketball",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Stadium Casablanca celebrating a win in 2015](/wiki/File:Stadium_Casablanca_Mann_Filter_2014-15_Celebracion.JPG \"Stadium Casablanca Mann Filter 2014-15 Celebracion.JPG\")\nThe main basketball team, [Basket Zaragoza](/wiki/Basket_Zaragoza \"Basket Zaragoza\"), known as *Casademont Zaragoza* for sponsorship reasons, plays in the [Liga ACB](/wiki/Liga_ACB \"Liga ACB\"). They play their home games at the [Pabellón Principe Felipe](/wiki/Pabell%C3%B3n_Principe_Felipe \"Pabellón Principe Felipe\") with a capacity of 10,744\\.",
"[Stadium Casablanca](/wiki/Stadium_Casablanca \"Stadium Casablanca\"), a.k.a. *Mann Filter* for sponsorship reasons, is the Spanish women's basketball club from Zaragoza that plays in the [Primera Division](/wiki/LFB \"LFB\").",
"### Futsal",
"The main [futsal](/wiki/Futsal \"Futsal\") team, is [Dlink Zaragoza](/wiki/AD_Sala_10 \"AD Sala 10\"), plays in the [LNFS Primera División](/wiki/LNFS_Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n \"LNFS Primera División\"). They play at the [Pabellón Siglo XXI](/wiki/Pabell%C3%B3n_Siglo_XXI \"Pabellón Siglo XXI\") with a capacity of 2,600\\.",
"### Other sports",
"[thumb\\|[Nani Roma](/wiki/Nani_Roma \"Nani Roma\") *Baja España* 2009](/wiki/File:Nani_Baja_Spain.jpg \"Nani Baja Spain.jpg\")\nZaragoza's handball team, [BM Aragón](/wiki/BM_Arag%C3%B3n \"BM Aragón\"), plays in the [Liga ASOBAL](/wiki/Liga_ASOBAL \"Liga ASOBAL\").",
"The [Spanish Baja](/wiki/Spanish_Baja \"Spanish Baja\") or [Baja Aragon](/wiki/Baja_Aragon \"Baja Aragon\") is a Rally raid event held in the region of Aragon in northern Spain. This event was launched in 1983, and chose the desert of Monegros because of the scenery and availability of service infrastructure in Zaragoza.",
"Zaragoza was strongly associated with [Jaca](/wiki/Jaca \"Jaca\") in its failed bid for the [2014 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics \"2014 Winter Olympics\").",
"There are three Rugby Union teams playing in the regional league:\n1. [Ibero Club de Rugby Zaragoza](/wiki/Ibero_Club_de_Rugby_Zaragoza \"Ibero Club de Rugby Zaragoza\")\n2. [Fénix Club de Rugby](/wiki/F%C3%A9nix_Club_de_Rugby \"Fénix Club de Rugby\")\n3. [Club Deportivo Universitario de Rugby](/wiki/Club_Deportivo_Universitario_de_Rugby \"Club Deportivo Universitario de Rugby\")",
"A permanent feature built for Expo 2008 is the pump\\-powered artificial whitewater course {{Lang\\|es\\|El Canal de Aguas Bravas}}.",
""
] |
History
-------
### First era: Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo
[200px\|thumb\|Saint [Carlo Borromeo](/wiki/Charles_Borromeo "Charles Borromeo"), by [Giovanni Ambrogio Figino](/wiki/Giovanni_Ambrogio_Figino "Giovanni Ambrogio Figino"). Oil on canvas, 41 × 48 cm. [Biblioteca Ambrosiana](/wiki/Biblioteca_Ambrosiana "Biblioteca Ambrosiana"). The University of San Carlos was established under his protection on 31 January 1676\.](/wiki/File:Carlo_Borromeo.jpg "Carlo Borromeo.jpg")
The university tradition in Guatemala and Central America goes back to the 17th century, when the University of San Carlos was founded on 31 January 1676 by Royal Decree of [Carlos II](/wiki/Carlos_II_of_Spain "Carlos II of Spain") in the colonial capital of [Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala](/wiki/Antigua%2C_Guatemala "Antigua, Guatemala"). The Royal University of San Carlos became the third Royal College founded in Spanish America and it was consecrated by [Pope Innocent XI](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI "Pope Innocent XI") on June 18, 1687\.
[thumb\|200px\|Section of the memorial to the first University in the city of [Antigua Guatemala](/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala "Antigua Guatemala")](/wiki/File:1a._Universidad.JPG "1a. Universidad.JPG")
Colonization by the Spaniards implied a new formation of society, with its brand new civil and ecclesiastical institutions. As time went by, residents demanded a place in the royal institutions for their descendants, in return for the heroics of their ancestors during the battles of conquest. However, there were no schools to teach youth to become public servants.{{cite book\|last\=Pavón Romero\|first\=Armando\|title\=Universitarios en la Nueva España\|publisher\=CESU\-UNAM \|location\=México\|year\=2003\|language\=es}}
It was not until the second half of the 16th century that the first initiatives to found schools that covered more than religious indoctrination and reading and writing took place. The first bishop of Guatemala, [Francisco Marroquín](/wiki/Francisco_Marroqu%C3%ADn "Francisco Marroquín"), requested the approval of the Spanish crown to set up a grammar class, in which Latin was to be taught, as it was the intellectual language of the time. This single fact has been the basis to perpetuate the myth that links bishop Marroquin to the early stages of the University of San Carlos.{{refn\|group\=lower\-alpha\|Among those historians that have perpetuated the myth is Juan Rodríguez Cabal, who presented a letter that Marroquín sent to Spain in 1548 requesting the establishment of a university. Rodríguez Cabal's investigations were published for the first time in the 1950s, and as part of the third centennial of the foundation of the University of San Carlos in 1976, the University of San Carlos press made several more copies.}}
Towards the end of his life, in 1562, Marroquin left in his will some funds to set up a school, the Santo Tomás de Aquino, where Grammar, Arts, Philosophy and Theology would be taught. The beneficiaries of this pious enterprise would be the children of poor Spaniards, given that they could not travel to cities (like Mexico) where the Royal Universities were. This will has been also interpreted by scholars as the origin of the University of San Carlos. However, the late priest had a clear idea of the difference between a school (i.e., a home for students, with or without classes) and a university (or General Study) where the students earned degrees. About this, historian John Tate Lanning tells that "his will is so well known that there are some scholars that have not even seen it and have already read a lot of things that are not there at all. Nowhere in his will Marroquín talks about any university, much less talk about his intentions to establish one..."{{sfn\|Tate Lanning\|1977\|p\=8}} On the other hand, what is documented is that major Pedro Crespo Suárez left in his will twenty thousand pesos to set up the classes for the university that is "in the works with the authorities".{{harvnb\|Hernández de León\|1930\|p\=}}
In 1598, the third bishop of Guatemala Gómez Fernández de Córdoba y Santillán, O.S.H., following ecclesiastical directions from the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent "Council of Trent") and on the basis of the royal decrees issued after that council, authorized the foundation of the "Nuestra Señora de la Asunción" School and Seminary, which was the first higher educational institution in the [Kingdom of Guatemala](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Guatemala "Kingdom of Guatemala").{{sfn\|Pérez Puente\|2012\|pp\=188\-194}} The [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits "Jesuits"), who already had their Colegio de San Borja and wanted to run the seminary themselves, opposed its foundation, as they did not like other [regular orders](/wiki/Regular_clergy "Regular clergy") – [Mercedarians](/wiki/Mercedarians "Mercedarians"), [Franciscans](/wiki/Franciscans "Franciscans") and [Dominicans](/wiki/Dominican_Order "Dominican Order") or the leader of the [secular clergy](/wiki/Secular_clergy "Secular clergy") took an initiative in religious and educational matters.
The president of the Real Audiencia authorized that classes should start while they were awaiting the authorization to build the new school for the students; at the time they only had one classroom in the Dominican convent where, in theory, they gave the Arts, Theology and Religion classes.{{sfn\|Pérez Puente\|2012\|p\=195}} After several decades, discussions and petitions, king [Carlos II](/wiki/Carlos_II_of_Spain "Carlos II of Spain") on 31 January 1676, granted a license to the city of [Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala](/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala "Antigua Guatemala") to found a university. This would be third royal university in the Spanish Empire in America, and the second in New Spain, after the one in Mexico.To review the process that led to the foundation of the University of San Carlos,
it is recommended to read procedure 373 of the Guatemalan Real Audiencia en the General Archive of Indias. After the disputatious process of organization, and five years after the royal decree, the university started officially its lectures of five of the nine classes, on 7 January 1681, with little more of sixty registered students and with its first president, Dr. José de Baños y Soto Mayor, who was in charge of the cathedral, Preacher of the King of Spain and Doctor from the University of Osuna.About the first setup of the university, the historical records are not too precise and even contradictory. See in the Central American General Archive, A1\. Leg. 1885, Exp. 12245\. The university started under the protection of [San Carlos Borromeo](/wiki/Charles_Borromeo "Charles Borromeo"), with its first directive written by Francisco Saraza y Arce, who copied from those of the University of México which, in turn, were adapted from the [Universidad de Salamanca](/wiki/Universidad_de_Salamanca "Universidad de Salamanca") in Spain.
#### First graduates and science teaching
[thumb\|200px\|[Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea](/wiki/Antonio_Liendo_y_Goicoechea "Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea"), a Franciscan friar, reformed education at the university. He was a professor of most of the eventual leaders of the Central American independence.](/wiki/File:Antonio_Liendo_y_Goicochea.jpg "Antonio Liendo y Goicochea.jpg")
In 1660 the printer [:es:José de Pineda Ibarra](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Pineda_Ibarra "José de Pineda Ibarra") arrived at [Santiago de los Caballeros](/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala "Antigua Guatemala"). Among all his works he introduced university graduation cards, where it was written what the final exam was going to be about, date and time for the exam, and the names of the university authorities and student sponsors.{{sfn\|Luján Muñoz\|1980\|p\=12}}
On 11 July 1717, thirty years after its papal sanction, the first medicine student graduated; his name was Vicente Ferrer González. The next physician to graduate was Pedro Palacios y Cóbar, who presented his final exam seventeen years later; and forty\-seven years after that, the eminent Dr. [José Felipe Flores](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Felipe_Flores "José Felipe Flores") graduated.
The Franciscan friar Juan Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea reformed university education towards the end of the 18th century by introducing science; Chemistry, Physics, Anatomy and Mathematics; and technology studies.{{sfn\|Luján Muñoz\|1980\|p\=12}}
### Second era: Science Academy
[thumb\|200px\|Doctor [Mariano Gálvez](/wiki/Mariano_G%C3%A1lvez "Mariano Gálvez") during his gubernatorial term as Head of State of Guatemala.
He founded the agnostic Science Academy in substitution of the religious University of San Carlos.
He is buried in the museum of the university – formerly College of Law.{{cite journal\|author\=Viaje a Guatemala\|year\=n.d.\|url\=http://www.viajeaguatemala.com/museo\-nacional\-de\-historia\-donde\-guatemala\-cuenta\-su\-pasado\|journal\=Viaje a Guatemala\|title\=Museo Nacional de Historia: donde Guatemala cuenta su pasado\|access\-date\=30 June 2014\|language\=es}}](/wiki/File:Retratogalvez_2014-06-22_11-25.jpg "Retratogalvez 2014-06-22 11-25.jpg")
After Independence, the University of San Carlos lost its Royal status and became simply the "Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo" but it was in a precarious position: after the move from [Santiago de los Caballeros](/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala "Antigua Guatemala") it had to use a borrowed building to teach, and in 1821 its new one was not finished yet; besides, the political climate of the region was very unstable at the time. In 1825, Dr. [Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_de_Aycinena_y_Pi%C3%B1ol "Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol") was elected as president of the university, and kept the religious curriculum that the institution had had for decades. However, in 1829, the conservative regime of his brother [Mariano de Aycinena y Piñol](/wiki/Mariano_de_Aycinena_y_Pi%C3%B1ol "Mariano de Aycinena y Piñol") was defeated by the liberal general [Francisco Morazán](/wiki/Francisco_Moraz%C3%A1n "Francisco Morazán"), and the conservatives – mainly the Aycinena family – and the [regular clergy](/wiki/Regular_clergy "Regular clergy") were expelled from Central America and the university was suspended. In 1834, when doctor [Mariano Gálvez](/wiki/Mariano_G%C3%A1lvez "Mariano Gálvez") was head of State of Guatemala, he found the Science Academy in the State, which took the position that the Pontifical University had previously occupied; the new university eliminated religious education altogether and implemented classes of [Algebra](/wiki/Algebra "Algebra"), [Geometry](/wiki/Geometry "Geometry"), [Trigonometry](/wiki/Trigonometry "Trigonometry") and [Physics](/wiki/Physics "Physics"); besides, the institution began to offer studies in engineering. The Academy of Science was open until 1840, because in that year the conservatives regained power in Guatemala under the strong leadership of General [Rafael Carrera](/wiki/Rafael_Carrera "Rafael Carrera") who reopened the old "Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo";{{cite book\|last\=Rodríguez Cabal\|first\=Juan\|title\= Universidad de Guatemala: su origen, fundación, organización\|publisher\=Universitaria\|location\=Guatemala\|year\=1976\|language\=es}} Dr. Aycinena was once again named as president of the university.
### Third era: Pontifical University
{{Main\|Concordat of 1854}}
[thumb\|200px\|Article \#2 of the [Concordat of 1854](/wiki/Concordat_of_1854 "Concordat of 1854") by which the Government of Guatemala entrusted the country's education to the Catholic Church](/wiki/File:Concordato2.jpg "Concordato2.jpg")
The power that the Catholic Church and the Aycinena family – to whom most of Carrera's advisors and secretaries belonged – had during the conservative regime in Guatemala was ratified the [Concordat of 1854](/wiki/Concordat_of_1854 "Concordat of 1854"), in which Guatemala entrusted the education of its people to the regular clergy of the Catholic Church, committed itself to respect all church property \-including haciendas, monasteries and sugar mills, authorized mandatory tithing and let the bishops censor all the country's publications; in return, Guatemala obtained indulgences for Army members, was allowed to keep all those properties that had been taken from the orders in 1829 – provided they were now in private hands, received a tax of the church income and had the right to prosecute any priest or bishop under Guatemalan law, if necessary.{{sfn\|Aycinena\|1854\|p\=1\-16}} The [concordat](/wiki/Concordat "Concordat") was designed by [Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_de_Aycinena_y_Pi%C3%B1ol "Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol"), who was a cabinet member of the government – besides being the university president; then, it was first ratified by Secretary of the Interior, Justice and Ecclesiastical affairs [Pedro de Aycinena](/wiki/Pedro_de_Aycinena "Pedro de Aycinena") and finally, approved by president [Rafael Carrera](/wiki/Rafael_Carrera "Rafael Carrera"), who in 1854 was appointed as Guatemala's president for life.
### Fourth era: The university during the Liberal regimes
After the Liberal Revolution in 1871, the conservatives defeat resulted in a complete change of direction in the education in Guatemala: once again the [regular clergy](/wiki/Regular_clergy "Regular clergy") was expelled from the country, and all of their properties we confiscated. The education changed from completely religious to agnostic and kept like that until 1954\.
The new Liberal regime founded the Polytechnic School \-Military Academy\- in 1873 to prepare military engineers, topographers and telegraphers, besides military officers. In July 1875, [Justo Rufino Barrios](/wiki/Justo_Rufino_Barrios "Justo Rufino Barrios") closed the Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo and in its place founded the Central College of Law and the Central College of Medicine and Pharmacy which formed the National University of Guatemala. The government decreed that the teaching of Medicine had to be practical – as much as possible – and philosophical, with all the modern scientific theories.{{sfn\|Chapa Bezanilla\|2004\|p\=58}} In 1877, the government found the Western College of Law in [Quetzaltenango](/wiki/Quetzaltenango "Quetzaltenango"){{sfn\|Arévalo Martínez\|1945\|p\=12}} and in 1879 founded the National Library.{{cite web\|url\=http://mcd.gob.gt/biblioteca\-nacional/\|title\=Biblioteca Nacional\|location\=Guatemala\|author\=Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes\|date\=4 March 2014 \|access\-date\=26 July 2014\|language\=es}}
{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mcd.gob.gt/2009/03/18/biblioteca\-nacional\-de\-guatemala\-luis\-cardoza\-y\-aragon/\|author\=Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes\|location\=Guatemala\|title\=Biblioteca Nacional de Guatemala "Luis Cardoza y Aragón"\|year\=2009\|access\-date\=27 July 2014\|language\=es\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517034635/http://www.mcd.gob.gt/2009/03/18/biblioteca\-nacional\-de\-guatemala\-luis\-cardoza\-y\-aragon/\|archive\-date\=17 May 2009}} Finally, in 1879 president Barrios founded the Colleges of Engineering, Philosophy and Literature.{{refn\|group\=lower\-alpha\|The college of Literature curriculum included Psychology and Logic, ethics and Philosophy history, Latin language and literature, Spanish grammar and literature and Latin American, British and German literature.{{sfn\|Chapa Bezanilla\|2004\|p\=58}}}}
President general [Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián](/wiki/Manuel_Lisandro_Barillas_Berci%C3%A1n "Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián") (1885–1892\) founded the Western College of Medicine in [Quetzaltenango](/wiki/Quetzaltenango "Quetzaltenango") and granted scholarship to the best students to continue their education abroad, both from Guatemala and Quetzaltenango.{{cite journal\|author\=Museo Militar\|url\=http://museo.mil.gt/v1/index.php/manuel\-lisandro\-barillas \|journal\=Museo Militar de Guatemala\|title\=Manuel Lisandro Barillas\|year\=n.d.\|access\-date\=7 August 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211055122/http://museo.mil.gt/v1/index.php/manuel\-lisandro\-barillas\|archive\-date\=11 December 2014\|language\=es}}{{sfn\|Torres\|2007\|p\=12}}
On 21 March 1893, during the government of general [José María Reina Barrios](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Reina_Barrios "José María Reina Barrios"), decree \#193 of the [National Assembly](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala "Congress of Guatemala") established that all the board of directors members, deans and faculty of the National University colleges would be appointed by the [President of Guatemala](/wiki/President_of_Guatemala "President of Guatemala"); thus the colleges lost the autonomy to select their own authorities.{{sfn\|Arévalo Martínez\|1945\|p\=76}}
In 1897, after the failure of the [Exposición Centroamericana](/wiki/Exposici%C3%B3n_Centroamericana "Exposición Centroamericana") and the deep economic crisis that ensued, Reina Barrios implemented austerity measures that included closing the schools and university colleges.{{sfn\|Torres Espinoza\|2007\|p\=14}} At the end of that year, Salvador Mendieta came back to Guatemala to attend the university, but due to the political stability of the times after the revolts against Reina Barrios both in the Eastern and Western regions of the country once it was known that Reina Barrios had extended his presidential term, and the closing of the university, decided to move to [México](/wiki/M%C3%A9xico "México") in early 1898\.{{sfn\|Silva H.\|n.d.\|p\=5}} However, after the assassination of president Reina Barrios on 8 February, the Guatemalan government reopened the educational institutions, claiming that they were the basis for all the Liberal institutions; Mendieta, then, registered to begin that semester in the College of Law of the National University.{{sfn\|Silva H.\|n.d.\|p\=5}}
#### Estrada Cabrera presidency
{{Main\|Manuel Estrada Cabrera}}
{{quote box\|align\=left\|width\=300px\|At that moment, the new association started the student body reaction against the feudalist Centralamerica that prepared its students for political servility.\|Salvador Mendieta
About "El Derecho" student association
1899}}
[200px\|thumb\|College of Law in 1897\.](/wiki/File:Escuelasederecho1907.jpg "Escuelasederecho1907.jpg")
[200px\|thumb\|College of Medicine and Pharmacy in 1897\.](/wiki/File:Medicina1907.jpg "Medicina1907.jpg")
Nicaraguan citizen Salvador Mendieta, who had already been expelled once from the Central National Institute for Boys by the former president [José María Reyna Barrios](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Reyna_Barrios "José María Reyna Barrios") for attempting to form a student association aimed at criticizing the school principal,{{sfn\|Silva H.\|n.d.\|p\=5}} founded on 18 June 1899 along with other fellow students "El Derecho" student association. The new association had members from the colleges of Law, Engineering and Medicine and an ideology identified with the Central American union.{{sfn\|Silva H.\|n.d.\|p\=5\-6}} The new society became public on 15 September 1899 when the Guatemala City mayor invited some of its members to ceremonies for the Independence of Central America celebration that took place in the College of Law.
This society had several humanistic and social goals:
* gather all the Central American students around the idea of the region unity
* tighten social relationships and encourage intellectual sharing
* promote the formation of similar societies all across Central America
* organize the fight between those who think and those who oppress.{{sfn\|Silva H.\|n.d.\|p\=6\-7}}
Due to the strong accusations against his presidency, Estrada Cabrera closed "El Derecho" after only a year of its life, and they had Mendieta sent to prison after which he sent the Nicaraguan into exile for promoting rebellion against his government.{{sfn\|Silva H.\|n.d.\|p\=7}}
In April 1899, the National Assembly submitted Estrada Cabrera a decree declaring the autonomy of the university colleges to elect their own authorities; the president vetoed the decree indicating that "*the colleges could not be autonomous given that they were dependent on the State in all senses \[...]*"{{sfn\|Arévalo Martínez\|1945\|p\=76}} Therefore, the different colleges remain as dependencies of the Secretary of Public Education, which submitted a yearly review of their status, and also recommended the president whom to choose as dean and faculty members. Also, by a decree published on 16 June 1900, Estrada Cabrera militarized all the male student centers, including the university colleges, who received military instruction for the six first months of their careers.
[thumb\|200px\|Facsimile of a decree published in *El Guatemalteco*, official newspaper of Guatemala in 1907, showing that President of Guatemala appointed the National University faculty members.{{sfn\|El Guatemalteco\|1907a\|p\=4}}](/wiki/File:Usac1907.jpg "Usac1907.jpg")
By 1907, the colleges were:
* College of Law (seventy students)
* College of Medicine and Pharmacy (150 students)
* Dentistry institute (5 students)
* School of midwives (10 students)
* School of Engineering (15 students){{sfn\|El Guatemalteco\|1907b\|p\=6\-7}}
Note that in 1907, the school of Engineering was part of the National University. This school, due to budget reasons, was alternatively part of the National University and the military academy; finally in 1908, the school was left as part of the university for good, after president Estrada Cabrera closed the academy following a failed assassination attempt that the cadets had plotted against him.{{sfn\|Arévalo Martínez\|1945\|p\=128}}
In 1918, the servility towards the presidents was at its peak and the university was renamed "University of Guatemala, Estrada Cabrera", by decree of the National Assembly on 2 May 1918\.{{sfn\|El Guatemalteco\|1918\|p\=3}} Francisco Galvez Portocarrero, close friend of the president, lobbied heavily for the new university given that in a recent trip to Perú], Argentina and Chile, he liked the model the universities followed in those South American countries. Upon returning to Guatemala, Galvez – who was also a National Assembly representative\- brought along a complete library about universities and convinced both the president and the Assembly members to create the "University of Guatemala".{{sfn\|Hernández de León\|1930\|p\=15 de mayo}}
#### Carlos Herrera presidency (1920–1921\)
{{Main\|Carlos Herrera y Luna}}
University "Estrada Cabrera", was closed after the falling of the former president. However, one of the first decrees of the new president [Carlos Herrera y Luna](/wiki/Carlos_Herrera_y_Luna "Carlos Herrera y Luna") \-appointed president by the National Assembly on 8 April\- was to appoint new authorities and faculty for the National University, which now had the following academic departments:{{sfn\|Silva H.\|n.d.\|p\=58}}
* College of Natural Science and Pharmacy
* College of Law
* College of Medicine
* College of engineering
Herrera y Luna, as a token of appreciation of all the efforts of the university students during the last days of Estrada Cabrera regime, gave the different colleges their autonomy to elected their own authorities, although it did not grant them full autonomy. At this time the Student Body Association was founded and included [Miguel Ángel Asturias](/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Asturias "Miguel Ángel Asturias"), among a series of other Guatemalan intellectuals, and the second era of "El Derecho" Law student association, which had been closed by Estrada Cabrera in 1899\.{{sfn\|Silva H.\|s.f.\|p\=58}}
### Fifth era: the university after the 1944 Revolution
{{Main\|Guatemalan Revolution}}
After the revolution against general Ubico's successor, general [Federico Ponce Vaides](/wiki/Federico_Ponce_Vaides "Federico Ponce Vaides"), on 20 October 1944, the new government granted its complete autonomy to the university; Decree \#12 on 11 November 1944 granted autonomy and renamed the institution as "Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala" ("University of San Carlos of Guatemala"). The university's new role was to be director of college education in Guatemala, and to cooperated in study and solution of the critical problems that Guatemala faced at the time.{{cite journal\|author\=ODHA\|title\=Era por la vida tras por lo que íbamos\|editor\=Monseñor Mario Ríos Mont\|year\=n.d.\|location\=Guatemala\|journal\=Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado\|url\=http://www.odhag.org.gt/pdf/Era%20tras%20la%20vida.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729151405/http://www.odhag.org.gt/pdf/Era%20tras%20la%20vida.pdf\|archive\-date\=29 July 2014\|language\=es}}
New colleges were created that time:
* College of Human Studies: created by then president Dr. [Juan José Arévalo](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valo "Juan José Arévalo") on 17 September 1945\. Among its founder were Dr. [Eduardo García Máynez](/wiki/Eduardo_Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1ynez "Eduardo García Máynez") \-professor emeritus of the [Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México](/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico "Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México")\- as honorary faculty. The college studied: [Philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy"), [History](/wiki/History "History"), [Literature](/wiki/Literature "Literature"), [Psychology](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology") and [Pedagogy](/wiki/Pedagogy "Pedagogy").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Jc3KBvf5gwI \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518233909/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Jc3KBvf5gwI \|archive\-date\=2015\-05\-18 \|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Vida de Juan José Arévalo\|via\=YouTube\|access\-date\=14 August 2014}}
* College of Agriculture
* College of Architecture
* College of Economics
Likewise, access was granted to both women and to all the society members that had been excluded from the institution in the past.{{harvnb\|El Imparcial\|1944\|p\=4}}
#### After 1954 coup d'état
{{See also\|Operation PBSUCCESS}}
Following its constitutional mandate, the university became involved in the political life of the country, presenting concrete social, economic and political proposals. However, with the beginning of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") between the United States and the Soviet Union \-major super powers that split world dominance after their victory in World War II, the [1954 Guatemalan coup d'état](/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1954 Guatemalan coup d'état"), the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution "Cuban Revolution") in 1959 and the influx of students from all over the social spectrum in Guatemala, Marxism became radical in the university. Besides, then archbishop of Guatemala [Mariano Rossell y Arellano](/wiki/Mariano_Rossell_y_Arellano "Mariano Rossell y Arellano") found out that it was urgent to recover some of the former influence [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") used to have, and that it lost during the liberal regime of [Justo Rufino Barrios](/wiki/Justo_Rufino_Barrios "Justo Rufino Barrios") in 1872, and therefore decided to work with the [United Fruit Company](/wiki/United_Fruit_Company "United Fruit Company") to get rid of the Revolutionary governments whom he accused of [atheist](/wiki/Atheist "Atheist") and [communist](/wiki/Communist "Communist"). On 4 April 1954, Rossell y Arellano issued an open letter in which he denounced Communism advances in the country, and begged Guatemalans to rise in arms and fight against the common enemy of God and the Land. His letter has published all over Guatemala, and even though he kept claiming that the Catholic Church was not seeking privileges in its anticommunist quest, Rossel y Arellano was able that after the 1954 coup, new president colonel [Carlos Castillo Armas](/wiki/Carlos_Castillo_Armas "Carlos Castillo Armas") included the following back in the new Constitution of Guatemala, for the first time since 1872:
* that the Catholic Church had the right to own real estate and other properties
* that religious education was declared of public interest
* that the State supported religious education
* that there were independent private universities not connected with University of San Carlos.{{cite web\|author\=Esquipulas en línea\|url\=http://www.esquipulas.com.gt/biografias/monsenor\-mariano\-rossell\-y\-arellano/\|website\=Esquipulas en línea\|title\=Biografia de Mariano Rossell Arellano\|access\-date\=1 September 2014\|date\=n.d.\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220213329/http://www.esquipulas.com.gt/biografias/monsenor\-mariano\-rossell\-y\-arellano/\|archive\-date\=20 December 2013\|language\=es}}
This way, the Catholic Church recover some of the former power it held before 1871, when the Liberal Reform confiscated its properties and cancelled its privileges, in a direct attack against it as the main conservative party member of the time.
#### Nottebohm case and the Dean of the College of Law
{{Main\|Nottebohm case}}
[thumb\|200px\|Doctor in Law [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes "Adolfo Molina Orantes"), College of Law Dean and legal advisor of the Guatemalan delegates for the [Nottebohm case](/wiki/Nottebohm_case "Nottebohm case") before the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice "International Court of Justice").](/wiki/File:Adolfo_Molina_Orantes_005.jpg "Adolfo Molina Orantes 005.jpg")
Between 1951 and 1955, College of Law dean, Dr. [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes "Adolfo Molina Orantes"), worked as a legal advisor for the Guatemalan delegation before the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice "International Court of Justice") of [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague "The Hague") for the [Nottebohm case](/wiki/Nottebohm_case "Nottebohm case") (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) \[1955]. The case about Mr. Nottebohm, who was born 16 September 16, 1881, in Hamburg, Germany and possessed German citizenship although he lived in Guatemala from 1905 until 1943 because he never became a citizen of Guatemala. On October 9, 1939, Nottebohm applied to become a naturalized citizen of Liechtenstein. The application was approved and he became a citizen of that country. He then returned to Guatemala on his Liechtenstein passport and informed the local government of his change of nationality. When he tried to return to Guatemala once again in 1943 he was refused entry as an enemy alien since the Guatemalan authorities did not recognize his naturalization and regarded him as still German. It has been suggested that the timing of the event was due to the recent entry of the United States and Guatemala into the Second World War. He was later extradited to the United States, where he was held at an internment camp until the end of the war. All his possessions in Guatemala were confiscated. After his release, he lived out the rest of his life in Liechtenstein.
The Government of Liechtenstein granted Nottebohm protection against unjust treatment by the government of Guatemala and petitioned the International Court of Justice. However, the government of Guatemala argued that Nottebohm did not gain Liechtenstein citizenship for the purposes of international law. The court agreed and thus stopped the case from continuing.
{{harvnb\|International Court of Justice\|1955\|p\=18}}
The Nottebohm case was subsequently cited in many definitions of [nationality](/wiki/Nationality "Nationality"). and Dr. Molina Orantes was recognized as an expert in international Law and named permanent consultant of the International Court.
#### Private universities
As a result of the political climate changes after the coup of 1954, the society elites decided to create their own private universities,[Universidad Rafael Landívar](/wiki/Universidad_Rafael_Land%C3%ADvar "Universidad Rafael Landívar") in 1961, [Universidad del Valle de Guatemala](/wiki/Universidad_del_Valle_de_Guatemala "Universidad del Valle de Guatemala") in 1966, [Universidad Francisco Marroquín](/wiki/Universidad_Francisco_Marroqu%C3%ADn "Universidad Francisco Marroquín") in 1971, and so on. which would have very different ideologies from the ones presented in the University of San Carlos. Basically the new institutions would have capitalist and liberal ideologies while the national university chose Marxism. After heavy lobbying, in 1965 the new ISR tax law exonerated potential private universities from any kind of taxation and state contributions, and in 1966 the Law of Private Universities was approved.{{sfn\|Molina\|2011\|p\=}}
#### Research on Guatemalan history
In 1957 the highly regarded Marxist historian [:es:Severo Martínez Peláez](/wiki/Severo_Mart%C3%ADnez_Pel%C3%A1ez "Severo Martínez Peláez") return to Guatemala after his exile and joined the university as a faculty member. The College of Economics dean, Rafael Piedrasanta Arandi, and the university president, Edmundo Vásquez Martínez, approved a scholarship for Martinez Pelaez to research the [Archivo General de Indias](/wiki/Archivo_General_de_Indias "Archivo General de Indias") in [Sevilla](/wiki/Sevilla "Sevilla"), Spain between 1967 and 1969\. From this research comes his main work, *La patria del criollo*, published in 1970, as well as the program of Economic History of Central America of the College of Economics and the total reform of the School of History in 1978\.{{sfn\|Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC)\|1998\|p\=4}}
In 1979, due to death threats from the general [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa "Fernando Romeo Lucas García") regime, Martínez Peláez had to go into exile once again with his family and continued with his research and teaching activities in the [Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla](/wiki/Benem%C3%A9rita_Universidad_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_Puebla "Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla") in Mexico, where he was an invited speaker in several seminars and created new curricula for the College of History. Besides, he had important meetings with historians and Guatemalan exiles in Mexico.{{sfn\|Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC)\|1998\|p\=15}}
#### Veterinary medicine
{{See also\|Veterinary medicine}}
The College of Veterinary was created on 27 September 1957,{{harvnb\|Facultad de Veterinaria y Zootenica}} and initially was part of the College of Medicine and was located in the old Medicine Building in Guatemala City Historical Downtown. In 1958 and 1959 it moved into private homes that the university rented in zones 9 and 4 of Guatemala City; it also used the university's Botanic Garden library in zone 4\. By 1960, the College of Veterinary moved into its definite home in the main University campus.
On 11 January 1969 the School of Animal Studies, which was independent of the School of Veterinary medicine. and on 27 September 1974 it moved into the new modular buildings on the southwest section of the main campus, next to the Veterinary Medicine Hospital.
### Repression and decline
{{Main\|Guatemala Civil War}}
During general [Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes](/wiki/Miguel_Yd%C3%ADgoras_Fuentes "Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes") presidency, the university started suffering repression due to its position alongside the main labor unions, with three students murdered in front of the College of Law in 1962\.
#### The EXMIBAL Case
During the government of [Julio César Méndez Montenegro](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_M%C3%A9ndez_Montenegro "Julio César Méndez Montenegro") the possibility of giving the nickel mines in [Izabal](/wiki/Izabal_Department "Izabal Department") in concession to a Canadian mining company was brought to the table, but it did not materialized. As soon as the general [Carlos Arana Osorio](/wiki/Carlos_Arana_Osorio "Carlos Arana Osorio") took office on 1 July 1970, he reopened the case and began working in for EXMIBAL to get a concession. However, many social sectors opposed to it, arguing that it would be too costly for the country. One of the main opponents was the commission that the [University of San Carlos](/wiki/University_of_San_Carlos "University of San Carlos") created to discuss the matter; among the members of the commission was the lawyer [Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López](/wiki/Oscar_Adolfo_Mijangos_L%C3%B3pez "Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López"), then representative in the [Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala "Congress of Guatemala"), the respected Guatemalan intellectual [Alfonso Bauer Paiz](/wiki/Alfonso_Bauer_Paiz "Alfonso Bauer Paiz") \-who had been part of the staff of presidents [Juan José Arévalo Bermejo](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valo_Bermejo "Juan José Arévalo Bermejo") and [Jacobo Arbenz Guzman](/wiki/Jacobo_Arbenz_Guzman "Jacobo Arbenz Guzman"), and Julio Carney Herrera Both Camey Herrera and Bauer Paiz were shot in November 1970: Carney died of his wounds while Bauer Paz, severely wounded, had to go into exile.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a\=7057\|website\=MAC: Mines and communities\|title\=Victimization – the EXMIBAL Story\|last\=Rakosy\|first\=Betsy\|year\=2002\|access\-date\=17 September 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006082651/http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a\=7057\|archive\-date\=6 October 2014\|language\=es}}
The commission members had strongly opposed the conditions proposed by the Government to grant the concession EXMIBAL; after the attack against Bauer Paiz and Carney, on 13 February 1971 Mijangos López was assassinated by unknown assailants as he left his office long the 4th Avenue in Zone 1 of the [Guatemala City](/wiki/Guatemala_City "Guatemala City"). Mijangos Lopez had been under the fatal impression that the government was not going to assassinate him because he was on a wheelchair since 1958\.
On 8 May 1971, Arana Osorio's administration finally granted the concession to EXMIBAL; it covered 385 square kilometers in the area of [El Estor](/wiki/El_Estor "El Estor"), with and initial investment of US$228 million. The mine, built in the mountains of indigenous maya Q'eqchi people, included a residential complex of 700 homes, numerous offices, a hospital, a small shopping center, school, a golf course and a large area for industrial processing.
#### Laugerud and Lucas García military governments
{{Main\|Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García\|Fernando Romeo Lucas García\|Guatemalan Civil War}}
During the military governments of the seventies, the tension between the government and the university kept growing, until it reached its peak in 1978 during the massive demonstration that occurred to protest rising urban public transportation costs. The Association of University Students (AEU) had a leading role in the protests, but this brought persecution of their leaders and the murder of the secretary general of the association [Oliverio Castañeda de León](/wiki/Oliverio_Casta%C3%B1eda_de_Le%C3%B3n "Oliverio Castañeda de León"), on 20 October of that year. Just fifteen days after the murder of Castañeda de León, was missing his successor, Antonio Ciani García, and over the next 18 months almost every student leader and university faculty with political connections were threatened (even with the legal parties). Whoever did not paid attention and continued with their protest activities, was simply killed or kidnapped.
In early 1979, the following attacks occurred against renowned members of the university:
* On 25 January 1979, [Alberto Fuentes Mohr](/wiki/Alberto_Fuentes_Mohr "Alberto Fuentes Mohr"), Doctor of Economics, [Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala "Congress of Guatemala") representative, leader of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and former minister of Finance and Foreign Affairs during the administration of [Julio César Méndez Montenegro](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_M%C3%A9ndez_Montenegro "Julio César Méndez Montenegro"), was murdered.
* That same day, but a few hours later, was shot and killed the student and union leader Ricardo Martinez Solorzano.
* On 14 February, Manuel Lisandro Andrade Roca, general secretary of the university in the tenure of [Saúl Osorio Paz](/wiki/Sa%C3%BAl_Osorio_Paz "Saúl Osorio Paz") as university president \-and a student leader during the "Marches of 1962"\- was killed.
* On 22 March, former Guatemala City mayor [Manuel Colom Argueta](/wiki/Manuel_Colom_Argueta "Manuel Colom Argueta") was killed, in an operation in which his murderers allegedly used a helicopter to direct the operation{{harvnb\|Aguilera Peralta\|Romero Imery\|1981\|pp\=135–138}} Colom had been director of Center for Urban and Regional Studies (CEUR) of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala and a political leader of the United Revolutionary Front (FUR). Next to Fuentes Mohr, he was the most prominent members of the legal political opposition and their deaths ended, even more, the political space in Guatemala. These murders and threats against leaders of the FUR and the PSD continued in 1979 and 1980, and in subsequent years against the [Guatemalan Christian Democracy](/wiki/Guatemalan_Christian_Democracy "Guatemalan Christian Democracy") party.
At the university, university president [Saúl Osorio Paz](/wiki/Sa%C3%BAl_Osorio_Paz "Saúl Osorio Paz"), after attacks on his colleagues and death threats against him, began to live in presidency, protected by student brigades of the communist FRENTE student party. In an unprecedented case, the president directed the university from underground for almost two years.
The effect of state repression was worse on the student movement: the AEU ended decimated. Despite all this, the association continued to be a belligerent organization during this campaign of terror. To protect themselves, the AEU restructured its organizational form such that their leaders were not so vulnerable, and declined to reveal their names.
In January 1979, a new freshmen generation arrived to the university. Many of them had been members of the CEEM or student associations in the public institutes and had participated in the events of October 1978\. It was them who took the leadership of the AEU. But it was much more difficult to replace the fallen or exiled faculty, which resulted in a marked decline in the academic quality of the institution. Later, laws that severely restricted the university autonomy were proposed, and violating the constitutional mandate to give 5% of the national budget to the institution became commonplace for the government.{{harvnb\|Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Agudización\|1999\|p\=}}
#### Burning the Spain Embassy in Guatemala
{{See also\|Guatemalan Civil War}}
On 31 January 1980, several students from the University of San Carlos advised a k'iche' peasant group who wanted to let the world know about their precarious situation; when the country's newspapers did not dare to publish their demands, and after all legal avenues to be heard had been exhausted, the group decided to take the premises of the Embassy of Spain and use it as a platform for their demands.Ambassador [Máximo Cajal López](/wiki/M%C3%A1ximo_Cajal_L%C3%B3pez "Máximo Cajal López") had visited the k'iche' farmer communities a few months before, and had gathered information for a report on them, which was never published, but the draft of which still exists. The reaction of the government of general [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa "Fernando Romeo Lucas García") was strong and direct: police surrounded the premises of the embassy and after several hours of siege, the situation ended with the burning of the room where all the people who were inside the embassy had taken refuge, including almost the entire Embassy staff and some random visitors, including former vice president of Guatemala, [Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff](/wiki/Eduardo_C%C3%A1ceres_Lehnhoff "Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff") and former Foreign Affairs Minister, [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes "Adolfo Molina Orantes").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watchv\=FG6fh9M8wdc \|title \= Ni uno vivo\|website\=YouTube\|access\-date \= July 2, 2014\|language\=es}} The only two survivors were Ambassador [Máximo Cajal López](/wiki/M%C3%A1ximo_Cajal_L%C3%B3pez "Máximo Cajal López") and peasant Gregorio Yuja Xona, who were taken to the Private Hospital Herrera Llerandi. Yuja was kidnapped there and a group tried to kidnap the ambassador, but he was taken from the hospital just in time by the ambassador of Costa Rica in Guatemala; Cajal left the country that night. Yuja, meanwhile, was tortured and his body thrown off the premises of the president mansion at the University of San Carlos. His body was buried in the Heroes and Martyrs Plaza on Central Campus.
#### 1985 civil unrest: military invasion of Central Campus
{{Main\|Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores}}
During the government of general [Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores](/wiki/%C3%93scar_Humberto_Mej%C3%ADa_Victores "Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores"), the Mutual Support Group (GAM) \-led by [Nineth Montenegro](/wiki/Nineth_Montenegro "Nineth Montenegro")\- was founded{{sfn\|Siglo 21\|2010}} and the High School Student Coordination Group (CEEM) also gained considerable strength. The latter was formed by students from the Central National Institute for Boys, the Central Normal Institute for Young Ladies Belén and Rafael AquecheBy 1985, the economic elites had left Guatemala City downtown, along with these once premier schools which now were attended by the low middle and low income areas of the city. which organized mass protests in September 1985 against the rising prices for public transportation. At least ten people died in Guatemala City in the most extensive wave of urban unrest since protests against the government of [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa "Fernando Romeo Lucas García") in August 1978\. The unrest began with demonstrations against rising prices public transportation but then became widespread due to the bad economic situation the country was in at the time. Burning of buses, blockades and massive protests that resulted in destruction of public infrastructure occurred almost every day. The government responded with three thousand Army soldiers, whom supported by light armored forces and the riot squad of the National Police, were deployed in central and peripheral areas of the city. Also, the night of 3 September 1985 the University of San Carlos of Guatemala was occupied by the military who allegedly found an underground shooting range subversive propaganda.
Several hundred people were arrested and General Mejia Víctores addressed the nation through a television and radio address in which he announced measures to address prevailing social unrest. General Mejia announced public schools closure until further notice and the freezing of prices of consumer goods;{{harvnb\|El País\|1985\|p\=2}} in the end, as part of the process solution a high school student bonus was granted to both elementary and high schools so they could be transported free in public transportation, plus all the public school students were promoted by decree. Students who graduated by decree in 1985 were received with brutal initiations by the different student bodies through the university.
#### Constitution of 1985: Election of judges and university representatives before government institutions
* + - * + {{Quote box\|align\=right\|width\=400px\|Article 215\. Election of the Supreme Court
.
The judges of the Supreme Court shall be elected by \[\[Congress of Guatemala\|Congress]] for a period of five years, from a list of twenty\-six candidates proposed by a nominating committee consisting of a representative of the Presidents of the Universities of the country, who presides, the Deans of the Colleges of Law, an equal number of representatives elected by the General Assembly of the Association of Lawyers and Notaries of Guatemala and by an equal number of representatives elected by the judges holders the Court of Appeal and other courts that Article 217 of the Constitution refers to.
Article 269\. Integration of the Constitutionality Court.
The Constitutionality Court consists of five titular judges, each of whom has a substitute. When dealing with cases of unconstitutionality against the Supreme Court, the Congress, the President or the Vice President, the number of members can be increased to seven, choosing the two other judges from among the alternates. The judges shall hold office for five years and shall be appointed as follows:
\* One by the Supreme Court;
\* One by Congress;
\* One by the President in Council of Ministers;
\* A judge appointed by the Higher University Council of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala; and
\* A judge appointed by the Assembly of the Bar.
Simultaneously with the appointment of the holder, the respective alternate will be appointed by Congress.
\|Constitution of the Republic of Guatemala, 1985\.{{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|p\=169}}}}
After the murder or forced exile of most of its faculty, the stability of the College of Law after the [Guatemalan Civil War](/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War "Guatemalan Civil War") was recovered with deanship of Cipriano Soto Tobar, who took office in 1988\. Soto Tobar took a significant effort on hiring faculty. However, his main goal was to establish political networks to favor political lobbies exploiting the new role that the Constitution assigned to the University of San Carlos:{{cite web\|last\=Véliz\|first\=Rodrigo\|url\=https://nomada.gt/que\-hicieron\-los\-profesores\-de\-derecho\-para\-que\-la\-usac\-perdiera\-prestigio/\|title\=¿Qué hizo Derecho para que la USAC perdiera prestigio?\|year\=2014\|location\=Guatemala\|website\=Nómada\|language\=es}} which, enacted in 1985, entrusted the College of Law and the University of San Carlos with the task of naming representatives to the process of election of judges of the highest courts of the land,{{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|pp\=169\-170}} as well as the Comptroller General of Accounts,{{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|pp\=180\-181}} and the Chief Public Prosecutor {{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|p\=197}} Also, the university was given the power to send a judge to the Constitutionality Court.{{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|p\=214}}
These networks took hold and strengthened through the 1990s, with relationships set up between institutions and societal sectors beyond the university. After leaving the deanship, the University Council nominated Soto to the Constitutionality Court, although there were persistent rumors that he was selling diplomas and certificates. However, his application was accepted because his involvement in these felonies could not be proved because no credible evidence was presented.{{sfn\|Hernández Pico\|2001\|p \=}} Two of his performances in the Constitutionality Court showed possible political compromise: first, he voted to validate an illegal adoption network and, then he voted in favor of the registration as a presidential candidate of general [Efraín Ríos Montt](/wiki/Efra%C3%ADn_R%C3%ADos_Montt "Efraín Ríos Montt"), despite the prohibition of the 1985 Constitution, which does not allowed as a candidate anybody that had been part of a coup d'état.{{sfn\|Castillo Zamora\|2013\|p\=}} In those years, adoption networks operating in Guatemala could collect up to US$60,000 per child and went from delivering 1200 children in 1997 to more than four thousand in 2004\.
Estuardo Galvez, who took that dean office in 2000 and later went on to become university president, was one of the members of the networks established by Soto; realizing the importance of the Bar Association, which was also a participant in the election of judges \-and until then controlled by lawyers linked to the traditional capital of the country\- Galvez sought from the beginning of his term to favor his post graduate students placing them in public institutions so that they could show their loyalty with favorable votes in the Bar elections. After several elections, and once Galvez was no longer dean, the network that Soto set up beat the traditional capital lawyers in the Bar Association elections by 300 votes; as recorded in the minutes, the majority of his votes were young lawyers \-his former students.
#### Student leaders murders in 1989
In 1987, the president of the Student Association "El Derecho" (AED), Willy Ligorría, was expelled from the Association of University Students (AEU) for embezzling funds from the [Huelga de Dolores](/wiki/Huelga_de_Dolores "Huelga de Dolores") Committee, for his direct involvement in an embezzlement money of the association and usurpation of functions and for signing as acting as general secretary in various activities and international documents. After his departure, a series of death threats against members of the board of the AEU began: in 1989 there was a steady escalation of threats, some of them signed by death squads as "the Dolorosa", the "Jaguar of Justice" or "Secret Anticommunist\-Army". Despite his expulsion, Ligorría, maintained a very high and combative profile, while his close friend, Marco Tulio Montenegro, was still part of AEU.{{cite journal\|url\=http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/guatemala/informeREMHI\-Tomo2\.htm\#t2c3\-m20\|author\=Informe REMHI\|journal\=Fundación Acción Pro\-Derechos Humanos\|title\=Proyecto Interdiocesano de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica \|year\=n.d.\|access\-date\=23 October 2013\|language\=es}}
In 1989, several student body leaders returned to Guatemala from exile intending to achieve a resurgence of student coordination, which was practically dismantled since the seventies. But on August 21, Iván Ernesto Gonzalez was arrested and kidnapped; the next day, Carlos Contreras Conde, leader of the University Student Movement (MEU), was abducted near the university. That same day Hugo Leonel Gramajo was abducted and introduced in a red pick\-up with foreign plates. On 23 August, Victor Hugo Rodriguez Jaramillo and Silvia Azurdia Utrera founders of MEU, were kidnapped and taken violently amid two cars that blocked their way. And Mario De León left a press conference that the Student Body held that day at around 19:45 hours and was detained by the National Police and has not been seen again since. Finally, Aaron Ochoa disappeared the next day.
During an emergency meeting in which the response to the government offensive was being discussed, Willy Ligorría called to say that he knew where Hugo Gramajo and Aaron Ochoa were hidden and that he could bring the still free student leaders to them. In September other members of the student movement, Carlos Chutá Carney, Carlos Humberto Cabrera and Carlos Palencia were kidnapped and found dead shortly afterwards.
After the murders of the student leaders, Ligorría spoke at some rallies in college and participated in the demonstrations that took place. On Saturday September 15 at 14:15 hours he left for Panamá along with Marco Tulio Montenegro and Byron Milian Vicente. Montenegro returned to Guatemala on 11 November 1989 to rejoin the AEU, but he was already a suspect, and was killed with knife soon after. Meanwhile, Ligorría was appointed head of research of public prosecutions.According to research that was subsequently conducted, it was determined that Ligorría had strong ties with a "gang" of zone 18, whose members went armed at all times; College students suspected that the "maras" had been formed by the army. Ligorría was also affiliated with the Democratic Socialist Party (PSD) and even wasted money in their university activities, although he always maintained a revolutionary speech, was a member of ORPA and maintained contact with Danilo Rodriguez, chief of the FAR. On September 12, 1997, the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, which became a political party after the peace accords, formally accused Ligorría for his involvement in the murder of the student leader, claiming that he was a member of military intelligence.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### First era: Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|Saint [Carlo Borromeo](/wiki/Charles_Borromeo \"Charles Borromeo\"), by [Giovanni Ambrogio Figino](/wiki/Giovanni_Ambrogio_Figino \"Giovanni Ambrogio Figino\"). Oil on canvas, 41 × 48 cm. [Biblioteca Ambrosiana](/wiki/Biblioteca_Ambrosiana \"Biblioteca Ambrosiana\"). The University of San Carlos was established under his protection on 31 January 1676\\.](/wiki/File:Carlo_Borromeo.jpg \"Carlo Borromeo.jpg\")\nThe university tradition in Guatemala and Central America goes back to the 17th century, when the University of San Carlos was founded on 31 January 1676 by Royal Decree of [Carlos II](/wiki/Carlos_II_of_Spain \"Carlos II of Spain\") in the colonial capital of [Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala](/wiki/Antigua%2C_Guatemala \"Antigua, Guatemala\"). The Royal University of San Carlos became the third Royal College founded in Spanish America and it was consecrated by [Pope Innocent XI](/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI \"Pope Innocent XI\") on June 18, 1687\\.",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Section of the memorial to the first University in the city of [Antigua Guatemala](/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala \"Antigua Guatemala\")](/wiki/File:1a._Universidad.JPG \"1a. Universidad.JPG\")\nColonization by the Spaniards implied a new formation of society, with its brand new civil and ecclesiastical institutions. As time went by, residents demanded a place in the royal institutions for their descendants, in return for the heroics of their ancestors during the battles of conquest. However, there were no schools to teach youth to become public servants.{{cite book\\|last\\=Pavón Romero\\|first\\=Armando\\|title\\=Universitarios en la Nueva España\\|publisher\\=CESU\\-UNAM \\|location\\=México\\|year\\=2003\\|language\\=es}}",
"It was not until the second half of the 16th century that the first initiatives to found schools that covered more than religious indoctrination and reading and writing took place. The first bishop of Guatemala, [Francisco Marroquín](/wiki/Francisco_Marroqu%C3%ADn \"Francisco Marroquín\"), requested the approval of the Spanish crown to set up a grammar class, in which Latin was to be taught, as it was the intellectual language of the time. This single fact has been the basis to perpetuate the myth that links bishop Marroquin to the early stages of the University of San Carlos.{{refn\\|group\\=lower\\-alpha\\|Among those historians that have perpetuated the myth is Juan Rodríguez Cabal, who presented a letter that Marroquín sent to Spain in 1548 requesting the establishment of a university. Rodríguez Cabal's investigations were published for the first time in the 1950s, and as part of the third centennial of the foundation of the University of San Carlos in 1976, the University of San Carlos press made several more copies.}}",
"Towards the end of his life, in 1562, Marroquin left in his will some funds to set up a school, the Santo Tomás de Aquino, where Grammar, Arts, Philosophy and Theology would be taught. The beneficiaries of this pious enterprise would be the children of poor Spaniards, given that they could not travel to cities (like Mexico) where the Royal Universities were. This will has been also interpreted by scholars as the origin of the University of San Carlos. However, the late priest had a clear idea of the difference between a school (i.e., a home for students, with or without classes) and a university (or General Study) where the students earned degrees. About this, historian John Tate Lanning tells that \"his will is so well known that there are some scholars that have not even seen it and have already read a lot of things that are not there at all. Nowhere in his will Marroquín talks about any university, much less talk about his intentions to establish one...\"{{sfn\\|Tate Lanning\\|1977\\|p\\=8}} On the other hand, what is documented is that major Pedro Crespo Suárez left in his will twenty thousand pesos to set up the classes for the university that is \"in the works with the authorities\".{{harvnb\\|Hernández de León\\|1930\\|p\\=}}",
"In 1598, the third bishop of Guatemala Gómez Fernández de Córdoba y Santillán, O.S.H., following ecclesiastical directions from the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent \"Council of Trent\") and on the basis of the royal decrees issued after that council, authorized the foundation of the \"Nuestra Señora de la Asunción\" School and Seminary, which was the first higher educational institution in the [Kingdom of Guatemala](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Guatemala \"Kingdom of Guatemala\").{{sfn\\|Pérez Puente\\|2012\\|pp\\=188\\-194}} The [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits \"Jesuits\"), who already had their Colegio de San Borja and wanted to run the seminary themselves, opposed its foundation, as they did not like other [regular orders](/wiki/Regular_clergy \"Regular clergy\") – [Mercedarians](/wiki/Mercedarians \"Mercedarians\"), [Franciscans](/wiki/Franciscans \"Franciscans\") and [Dominicans](/wiki/Dominican_Order \"Dominican Order\") or the leader of the [secular clergy](/wiki/Secular_clergy \"Secular clergy\") took an initiative in religious and educational matters.",
"The president of the Real Audiencia authorized that classes should start while they were awaiting the authorization to build the new school for the students; at the time they only had one classroom in the Dominican convent where, in theory, they gave the Arts, Theology and Religion classes.{{sfn\\|Pérez Puente\\|2012\\|p\\=195}} After several decades, discussions and petitions, king [Carlos II](/wiki/Carlos_II_of_Spain \"Carlos II of Spain\") on 31 January 1676, granted a license to the city of [Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala](/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala \"Antigua Guatemala\") to found a university. This would be third royal university in the Spanish Empire in America, and the second in New Spain, after the one in Mexico.To review the process that led to the foundation of the University of San Carlos,\nit is recommended to read procedure 373 of the Guatemalan Real Audiencia en the General Archive of Indias. After the disputatious process of organization, and five years after the royal decree, the university started officially its lectures of five of the nine classes, on 7 January 1681, with little more of sixty registered students and with its first president, Dr. José de Baños y Soto Mayor, who was in charge of the cathedral, Preacher of the King of Spain and Doctor from the University of Osuna.About the first setup of the university, the historical records are not too precise and even contradictory. See in the Central American General Archive, A1\\. Leg. 1885, Exp. 12245\\. The university started under the protection of [San Carlos Borromeo](/wiki/Charles_Borromeo \"Charles Borromeo\"), with its first directive written by Francisco Saraza y Arce, who copied from those of the University of México which, in turn, were adapted from the [Universidad de Salamanca](/wiki/Universidad_de_Salamanca \"Universidad de Salamanca\") in Spain.",
"#### First graduates and science teaching",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|[Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea](/wiki/Antonio_Liendo_y_Goicoechea \"Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea\"), a Franciscan friar, reformed education at the university. He was a professor of most of the eventual leaders of the Central American independence.](/wiki/File:Antonio_Liendo_y_Goicochea.jpg \"Antonio Liendo y Goicochea.jpg\")\nIn 1660 the printer [:es:José de Pineda Ibarra](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Pineda_Ibarra \"José de Pineda Ibarra\") arrived at [Santiago de los Caballeros](/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala \"Antigua Guatemala\"). Among all his works he introduced university graduation cards, where it was written what the final exam was going to be about, date and time for the exam, and the names of the university authorities and student sponsors.{{sfn\\|Luján Muñoz\\|1980\\|p\\=12}}",
"On 11 July 1717, thirty years after its papal sanction, the first medicine student graduated; his name was Vicente Ferrer González. The next physician to graduate was Pedro Palacios y Cóbar, who presented his final exam seventeen years later; and forty\\-seven years after that, the eminent Dr. [José Felipe Flores](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Felipe_Flores \"José Felipe Flores\") graduated.",
"The Franciscan friar Juan Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea reformed university education towards the end of the 18th century by introducing science; Chemistry, Physics, Anatomy and Mathematics; and technology studies.{{sfn\\|Luján Muñoz\\|1980\\|p\\=12}}",
"### Second era: Science Academy",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Doctor [Mariano Gálvez](/wiki/Mariano_G%C3%A1lvez \"Mariano Gálvez\") during his gubernatorial term as Head of State of Guatemala. \nHe founded the agnostic Science Academy in substitution of the religious University of San Carlos. \nHe is buried in the museum of the university – formerly College of Law.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Viaje a Guatemala\\|year\\=n.d.\\|url\\=http://www.viajeaguatemala.com/museo\\-nacional\\-de\\-historia\\-donde\\-guatemala\\-cuenta\\-su\\-pasado\\|journal\\=Viaje a Guatemala\\|title\\=Museo Nacional de Historia: donde Guatemala cuenta su pasado\\|access\\-date\\=30 June 2014\\|language\\=es}}](/wiki/File:Retratogalvez_2014-06-22_11-25.jpg \"Retratogalvez 2014-06-22 11-25.jpg\")",
"After Independence, the University of San Carlos lost its Royal status and became simply the \"Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo\" but it was in a precarious position: after the move from [Santiago de los Caballeros](/wiki/Antigua_Guatemala \"Antigua Guatemala\") it had to use a borrowed building to teach, and in 1821 its new one was not finished yet; besides, the political climate of the region was very unstable at the time. In 1825, Dr. [Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_de_Aycinena_y_Pi%C3%B1ol \"Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol\") was elected as president of the university, and kept the religious curriculum that the institution had had for decades. However, in 1829, the conservative regime of his brother [Mariano de Aycinena y Piñol](/wiki/Mariano_de_Aycinena_y_Pi%C3%B1ol \"Mariano de Aycinena y Piñol\") was defeated by the liberal general [Francisco Morazán](/wiki/Francisco_Moraz%C3%A1n \"Francisco Morazán\"), and the conservatives – mainly the Aycinena family – and the [regular clergy](/wiki/Regular_clergy \"Regular clergy\") were expelled from Central America and the university was suspended. In 1834, when doctor [Mariano Gálvez](/wiki/Mariano_G%C3%A1lvez \"Mariano Gálvez\") was head of State of Guatemala, he found the Science Academy in the State, which took the position that the Pontifical University had previously occupied; the new university eliminated religious education altogether and implemented classes of [Algebra](/wiki/Algebra \"Algebra\"), [Geometry](/wiki/Geometry \"Geometry\"), [Trigonometry](/wiki/Trigonometry \"Trigonometry\") and [Physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\"); besides, the institution began to offer studies in engineering. The Academy of Science was open until 1840, because in that year the conservatives regained power in Guatemala under the strong leadership of General [Rafael Carrera](/wiki/Rafael_Carrera \"Rafael Carrera\") who reopened the old \"Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo\";{{cite book\\|last\\=Rodríguez Cabal\\|first\\=Juan\\|title\\= Universidad de Guatemala: su origen, fundación, organización\\|publisher\\=Universitaria\\|location\\=Guatemala\\|year\\=1976\\|language\\=es}} Dr. Aycinena was once again named as president of the university.",
"### Third era: Pontifical University",
"{{Main\\|Concordat of 1854}}",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Article \\#2 of the [Concordat of 1854](/wiki/Concordat_of_1854 \"Concordat of 1854\") by which the Government of Guatemala entrusted the country's education to the Catholic Church](/wiki/File:Concordato2.jpg \"Concordato2.jpg\")\nThe power that the Catholic Church and the Aycinena family – to whom most of Carrera's advisors and secretaries belonged – had during the conservative regime in Guatemala was ratified the [Concordat of 1854](/wiki/Concordat_of_1854 \"Concordat of 1854\"), in which Guatemala entrusted the education of its people to the regular clergy of the Catholic Church, committed itself to respect all church property \\-including haciendas, monasteries and sugar mills, authorized mandatory tithing and let the bishops censor all the country's publications; in return, Guatemala obtained indulgences for Army members, was allowed to keep all those properties that had been taken from the orders in 1829 – provided they were now in private hands, received a tax of the church income and had the right to prosecute any priest or bishop under Guatemalan law, if necessary.{{sfn\\|Aycinena\\|1854\\|p\\=1\\-16}} The [concordat](/wiki/Concordat \"Concordat\") was designed by [Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_de_Aycinena_y_Pi%C3%B1ol \"Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol\"), who was a cabinet member of the government – besides being the university president; then, it was first ratified by Secretary of the Interior, Justice and Ecclesiastical affairs [Pedro de Aycinena](/wiki/Pedro_de_Aycinena \"Pedro de Aycinena\") and finally, approved by president [Rafael Carrera](/wiki/Rafael_Carrera \"Rafael Carrera\"), who in 1854 was appointed as Guatemala's president for life.",
"### Fourth era: The university during the Liberal regimes",
"After the Liberal Revolution in 1871, the conservatives defeat resulted in a complete change of direction in the education in Guatemala: once again the [regular clergy](/wiki/Regular_clergy \"Regular clergy\") was expelled from the country, and all of their properties we confiscated. The education changed from completely religious to agnostic and kept like that until 1954\\.",
"The new Liberal regime founded the Polytechnic School \\-Military Academy\\- in 1873 to prepare military engineers, topographers and telegraphers, besides military officers. In July 1875, [Justo Rufino Barrios](/wiki/Justo_Rufino_Barrios \"Justo Rufino Barrios\") closed the Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo and in its place founded the Central College of Law and the Central College of Medicine and Pharmacy which formed the National University of Guatemala. The government decreed that the teaching of Medicine had to be practical – as much as possible – and philosophical, with all the modern scientific theories.{{sfn\\|Chapa Bezanilla\\|2004\\|p\\=58}} In 1877, the government found the Western College of Law in [Quetzaltenango](/wiki/Quetzaltenango \"Quetzaltenango\"){{sfn\\|Arévalo Martínez\\|1945\\|p\\=12}} and in 1879 founded the National Library.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mcd.gob.gt/biblioteca\\-nacional/\\|title\\=Biblioteca Nacional\\|location\\=Guatemala\\|author\\=Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes\\|date\\=4 March 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2014\\|language\\=es}}\n{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mcd.gob.gt/2009/03/18/biblioteca\\-nacional\\-de\\-guatemala\\-luis\\-cardoza\\-y\\-aragon/\\|author\\=Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes\\|location\\=Guatemala\\|title\\=Biblioteca Nacional de Guatemala \"Luis Cardoza y Aragón\"\\|year\\=2009\\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2014\\|language\\=es\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517034635/http://www.mcd.gob.gt/2009/03/18/biblioteca\\-nacional\\-de\\-guatemala\\-luis\\-cardoza\\-y\\-aragon/\\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2009}} Finally, in 1879 president Barrios founded the Colleges of Engineering, Philosophy and Literature.{{refn\\|group\\=lower\\-alpha\\|The college of Literature curriculum included Psychology and Logic, ethics and Philosophy history, Latin language and literature, Spanish grammar and literature and Latin American, British and German literature.{{sfn\\|Chapa Bezanilla\\|2004\\|p\\=58}}}}",
"President general [Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián](/wiki/Manuel_Lisandro_Barillas_Berci%C3%A1n \"Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián\") (1885–1892\\) founded the Western College of Medicine in [Quetzaltenango](/wiki/Quetzaltenango \"Quetzaltenango\") and granted scholarship to the best students to continue their education abroad, both from Guatemala and Quetzaltenango.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Museo Militar\\|url\\=http://museo.mil.gt/v1/index.php/manuel\\-lisandro\\-barillas \\|journal\\=Museo Militar de Guatemala\\|title\\=Manuel Lisandro Barillas\\|year\\=n.d.\\|access\\-date\\=7 August 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211055122/http://museo.mil.gt/v1/index.php/manuel\\-lisandro\\-barillas\\|archive\\-date\\=11 December 2014\\|language\\=es}}{{sfn\\|Torres\\|2007\\|p\\=12}}",
"On 21 March 1893, during the government of general [José María Reina Barrios](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Reina_Barrios \"José María Reina Barrios\"), decree \\#193 of the [National Assembly](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala \"Congress of Guatemala\") established that all the board of directors members, deans and faculty of the National University colleges would be appointed by the [President of Guatemala](/wiki/President_of_Guatemala \"President of Guatemala\"); thus the colleges lost the autonomy to select their own authorities.{{sfn\\|Arévalo Martínez\\|1945\\|p\\=76}}",
"In 1897, after the failure of the [Exposición Centroamericana](/wiki/Exposici%C3%B3n_Centroamericana \"Exposición Centroamericana\") and the deep economic crisis that ensued, Reina Barrios implemented austerity measures that included closing the schools and university colleges.{{sfn\\|Torres Espinoza\\|2007\\|p\\=14}} At the end of that year, Salvador Mendieta came back to Guatemala to attend the university, but due to the political stability of the times after the revolts against Reina Barrios both in the Eastern and Western regions of the country once it was known that Reina Barrios had extended his presidential term, and the closing of the university, decided to move to [México](/wiki/M%C3%A9xico \"México\") in early 1898\\.{{sfn\\|Silva H.\\|n.d.\\|p\\=5}} However, after the assassination of president Reina Barrios on 8 February, the Guatemalan government reopened the educational institutions, claiming that they were the basis for all the Liberal institutions; Mendieta, then, registered to begin that semester in the College of Law of the National University.{{sfn\\|Silva H.\\|n.d.\\|p\\=5}}",
"#### Estrada Cabrera presidency",
"{{Main\\|Manuel Estrada Cabrera}}",
"{{quote box\\|align\\=left\\|width\\=300px\\|At that moment, the new association started the student body reaction against the feudalist Centralamerica that prepared its students for political servility.\\|Salvador Mendieta \nAbout \"El Derecho\" student association \n1899}}",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|College of Law in 1897\\.](/wiki/File:Escuelasederecho1907.jpg \"Escuelasederecho1907.jpg\")\n[200px\\|thumb\\|College of Medicine and Pharmacy in 1897\\.](/wiki/File:Medicina1907.jpg \"Medicina1907.jpg\")",
"Nicaraguan citizen Salvador Mendieta, who had already been expelled once from the Central National Institute for Boys by the former president [José María Reyna Barrios](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Reyna_Barrios \"José María Reyna Barrios\") for attempting to form a student association aimed at criticizing the school principal,{{sfn\\|Silva H.\\|n.d.\\|p\\=5}} founded on 18 June 1899 along with other fellow students \"El Derecho\" student association. The new association had members from the colleges of Law, Engineering and Medicine and an ideology identified with the Central American union.{{sfn\\|Silva H.\\|n.d.\\|p\\=5\\-6}} The new society became public on 15 September 1899 when the Guatemala City mayor invited some of its members to ceremonies for the Independence of Central America celebration that took place in the College of Law.",
"This society had several humanistic and social goals:\n* gather all the Central American students around the idea of the region unity\n* tighten social relationships and encourage intellectual sharing\n* promote the formation of similar societies all across Central America\n* organize the fight between those who think and those who oppress.{{sfn\\|Silva H.\\|n.d.\\|p\\=6\\-7}}",
"Due to the strong accusations against his presidency, Estrada Cabrera closed \"El Derecho\" after only a year of its life, and they had Mendieta sent to prison after which he sent the Nicaraguan into exile for promoting rebellion against his government.{{sfn\\|Silva H.\\|n.d.\\|p\\=7}}",
"In April 1899, the National Assembly submitted Estrada Cabrera a decree declaring the autonomy of the university colleges to elect their own authorities; the president vetoed the decree indicating that \"*the colleges could not be autonomous given that they were dependent on the State in all senses \\[...]*\"{{sfn\\|Arévalo Martínez\\|1945\\|p\\=76}} Therefore, the different colleges remain as dependencies of the Secretary of Public Education, which submitted a yearly review of their status, and also recommended the president whom to choose as dean and faculty members. Also, by a decree published on 16 June 1900, Estrada Cabrera militarized all the male student centers, including the university colleges, who received military instruction for the six first months of their careers.",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Facsimile of a decree published in *El Guatemalteco*, official newspaper of Guatemala in 1907, showing that President of Guatemala appointed the National University faculty members.{{sfn\\|El Guatemalteco\\|1907a\\|p\\=4}}](/wiki/File:Usac1907.jpg \"Usac1907.jpg\")",
"By 1907, the colleges were:",
"* College of Law (seventy students)\n* College of Medicine and Pharmacy (150 students)\n* Dentistry institute (5 students)\n* School of midwives (10 students)\n* School of Engineering (15 students){{sfn\\|El Guatemalteco\\|1907b\\|p\\=6\\-7}}",
"Note that in 1907, the school of Engineering was part of the National University. This school, due to budget reasons, was alternatively part of the National University and the military academy; finally in 1908, the school was left as part of the university for good, after president Estrada Cabrera closed the academy following a failed assassination attempt that the cadets had plotted against him.{{sfn\\|Arévalo Martínez\\|1945\\|p\\=128}}",
"In 1918, the servility towards the presidents was at its peak and the university was renamed \"University of Guatemala, Estrada Cabrera\", by decree of the National Assembly on 2 May 1918\\.{{sfn\\|El Guatemalteco\\|1918\\|p\\=3}} Francisco Galvez Portocarrero, close friend of the president, lobbied heavily for the new university given that in a recent trip to Perú], Argentina and Chile, he liked the model the universities followed in those South American countries. Upon returning to Guatemala, Galvez – who was also a National Assembly representative\\- brought along a complete library about universities and convinced both the president and the Assembly members to create the \"University of Guatemala\".{{sfn\\|Hernández de León\\|1930\\|p\\=15 de mayo}}",
"#### Carlos Herrera presidency (1920–1921\\)",
"{{Main\\|Carlos Herrera y Luna}}",
"University \"Estrada Cabrera\", was closed after the falling of the former president. However, one of the first decrees of the new president [Carlos Herrera y Luna](/wiki/Carlos_Herrera_y_Luna \"Carlos Herrera y Luna\") \\-appointed president by the National Assembly on 8 April\\- was to appoint new authorities and faculty for the National University, which now had the following academic departments:{{sfn\\|Silva H.\\|n.d.\\|p\\=58}}",
"* College of Natural Science and Pharmacy\n* College of Law\n* College of Medicine\n* College of engineering",
"Herrera y Luna, as a token of appreciation of all the efforts of the university students during the last days of Estrada Cabrera regime, gave the different colleges their autonomy to elected their own authorities, although it did not grant them full autonomy. At this time the Student Body Association was founded and included [Miguel Ángel Asturias](/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Asturias \"Miguel Ángel Asturias\"), among a series of other Guatemalan intellectuals, and the second era of \"El Derecho\" Law student association, which had been closed by Estrada Cabrera in 1899\\.{{sfn\\|Silva H.\\|s.f.\\|p\\=58}}",
"### Fifth era: the university after the 1944 Revolution",
"{{Main\\|Guatemalan Revolution}}",
"After the revolution against general Ubico's successor, general [Federico Ponce Vaides](/wiki/Federico_Ponce_Vaides \"Federico Ponce Vaides\"), on 20 October 1944, the new government granted its complete autonomy to the university; Decree \\#12 on 11 November 1944 granted autonomy and renamed the institution as \"Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala\" (\"University of San Carlos of Guatemala\"). The university's new role was to be director of college education in Guatemala, and to cooperated in study and solution of the critical problems that Guatemala faced at the time.{{cite journal\\|author\\=ODHA\\|title\\=Era por la vida tras por lo que íbamos\\|editor\\=Monseñor Mario Ríos Mont\\|year\\=n.d.\\|location\\=Guatemala\\|journal\\=Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado\\|url\\=http://www.odhag.org.gt/pdf/Era%20tras%20la%20vida.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729151405/http://www.odhag.org.gt/pdf/Era%20tras%20la%20vida.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=29 July 2014\\|language\\=es}}",
"New colleges were created that time:",
"* College of Human Studies: created by then president Dr. [Juan José Arévalo](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valo \"Juan José Arévalo\") on 17 September 1945\\. Among its founder were Dr. [Eduardo García Máynez](/wiki/Eduardo_Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1ynez \"Eduardo García Máynez\") \\-professor emeritus of the [Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México](/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico \"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México\")\\- as honorary faculty. The college studied: [Philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\"), [History](/wiki/History \"History\"), [Literature](/wiki/Literature \"Literature\"), [Psychology](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\") and [Pedagogy](/wiki/Pedagogy \"Pedagogy\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Jc3KBvf5gwI \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518233909/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Jc3KBvf5gwI \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-18 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Vida de Juan José Arévalo\\|via\\=YouTube\\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2014}}\n* College of Agriculture\n* College of Architecture\n* College of Economics",
"Likewise, access was granted to both women and to all the society members that had been excluded from the institution in the past.{{harvnb\\|El Imparcial\\|1944\\|p\\=4}}",
"#### After 1954 coup d'état",
"{{See also\\|Operation PBSUCCESS}}",
"Following its constitutional mandate, the university became involved in the political life of the country, presenting concrete social, economic and political proposals. However, with the beginning of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") between the United States and the Soviet Union \\-major super powers that split world dominance after their victory in World War II, the [1954 Guatemalan coup d'état](/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"1954 Guatemalan coup d'état\"), the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution \"Cuban Revolution\") in 1959 and the influx of students from all over the social spectrum in Guatemala, Marxism became radical in the university. Besides, then archbishop of Guatemala [Mariano Rossell y Arellano](/wiki/Mariano_Rossell_y_Arellano \"Mariano Rossell y Arellano\") found out that it was urgent to recover some of the former influence [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") used to have, and that it lost during the liberal regime of [Justo Rufino Barrios](/wiki/Justo_Rufino_Barrios \"Justo Rufino Barrios\") in 1872, and therefore decided to work with the [United Fruit Company](/wiki/United_Fruit_Company \"United Fruit Company\") to get rid of the Revolutionary governments whom he accused of [atheist](/wiki/Atheist \"Atheist\") and [communist](/wiki/Communist \"Communist\"). On 4 April 1954, Rossell y Arellano issued an open letter in which he denounced Communism advances in the country, and begged Guatemalans to rise in arms and fight against the common enemy of God and the Land. His letter has published all over Guatemala, and even though he kept claiming that the Catholic Church was not seeking privileges in its anticommunist quest, Rossel y Arellano was able that after the 1954 coup, new president colonel [Carlos Castillo Armas](/wiki/Carlos_Castillo_Armas \"Carlos Castillo Armas\") included the following back in the new Constitution of Guatemala, for the first time since 1872:\n* that the Catholic Church had the right to own real estate and other properties\n* that religious education was declared of public interest\n* that the State supported religious education\n* that there were independent private universities not connected with University of San Carlos.{{cite web\\|author\\=Esquipulas en línea\\|url\\=http://www.esquipulas.com.gt/biografias/monsenor\\-mariano\\-rossell\\-y\\-arellano/\\|website\\=Esquipulas en línea\\|title\\=Biografia de Mariano Rossell Arellano\\|access\\-date\\=1 September 2014\\|date\\=n.d.\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220213329/http://www.esquipulas.com.gt/biografias/monsenor\\-mariano\\-rossell\\-y\\-arellano/\\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2013\\|language\\=es}}",
"This way, the Catholic Church recover some of the former power it held before 1871, when the Liberal Reform confiscated its properties and cancelled its privileges, in a direct attack against it as the main conservative party member of the time.",
"#### Nottebohm case and the Dean of the College of Law",
"{{Main\\|Nottebohm case}}",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Doctor in Law [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes \"Adolfo Molina Orantes\"), College of Law Dean and legal advisor of the Guatemalan delegates for the [Nottebohm case](/wiki/Nottebohm_case \"Nottebohm case\") before the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice \"International Court of Justice\").](/wiki/File:Adolfo_Molina_Orantes_005.jpg \"Adolfo Molina Orantes 005.jpg\")",
"Between 1951 and 1955, College of Law dean, Dr. [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes \"Adolfo Molina Orantes\"), worked as a legal advisor for the Guatemalan delegation before the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice \"International Court of Justice\") of [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague \"The Hague\") for the [Nottebohm case](/wiki/Nottebohm_case \"Nottebohm case\") (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) \\[1955]. The case about Mr. Nottebohm, who was born 16 September 16, 1881, in Hamburg, Germany and possessed German citizenship although he lived in Guatemala from 1905 until 1943 because he never became a citizen of Guatemala. On October 9, 1939, Nottebohm applied to become a naturalized citizen of Liechtenstein. The application was approved and he became a citizen of that country. He then returned to Guatemala on his Liechtenstein passport and informed the local government of his change of nationality. When he tried to return to Guatemala once again in 1943 he was refused entry as an enemy alien since the Guatemalan authorities did not recognize his naturalization and regarded him as still German. It has been suggested that the timing of the event was due to the recent entry of the United States and Guatemala into the Second World War. He was later extradited to the United States, where he was held at an internment camp until the end of the war. All his possessions in Guatemala were confiscated. After his release, he lived out the rest of his life in Liechtenstein.",
"The Government of Liechtenstein granted Nottebohm protection against unjust treatment by the government of Guatemala and petitioned the International Court of Justice. However, the government of Guatemala argued that Nottebohm did not gain Liechtenstein citizenship for the purposes of international law. The court agreed and thus stopped the case from continuing.\n{{harvnb\\|International Court of Justice\\|1955\\|p\\=18}}",
"The Nottebohm case was subsequently cited in many definitions of [nationality](/wiki/Nationality \"Nationality\"). and Dr. Molina Orantes was recognized as an expert in international Law and named permanent consultant of the International Court.",
"#### Private universities",
"As a result of the political climate changes after the coup of 1954, the society elites decided to create their own private universities,[Universidad Rafael Landívar](/wiki/Universidad_Rafael_Land%C3%ADvar \"Universidad Rafael Landívar\") in 1961, [Universidad del Valle de Guatemala](/wiki/Universidad_del_Valle_de_Guatemala \"Universidad del Valle de Guatemala\") in 1966, [Universidad Francisco Marroquín](/wiki/Universidad_Francisco_Marroqu%C3%ADn \"Universidad Francisco Marroquín\") in 1971, and so on. which would have very different ideologies from the ones presented in the University of San Carlos. Basically the new institutions would have capitalist and liberal ideologies while the national university chose Marxism. After heavy lobbying, in 1965 the new ISR tax law exonerated potential private universities from any kind of taxation and state contributions, and in 1966 the Law of Private Universities was approved.{{sfn\\|Molina\\|2011\\|p\\=}}",
"#### Research on Guatemalan history",
"In 1957 the highly regarded Marxist historian [:es:Severo Martínez Peláez](/wiki/Severo_Mart%C3%ADnez_Pel%C3%A1ez \"Severo Martínez Peláez\") return to Guatemala after his exile and joined the university as a faculty member. The College of Economics dean, Rafael Piedrasanta Arandi, and the university president, Edmundo Vásquez Martínez, approved a scholarship for Martinez Pelaez to research the [Archivo General de Indias](/wiki/Archivo_General_de_Indias \"Archivo General de Indias\") in [Sevilla](/wiki/Sevilla \"Sevilla\"), Spain between 1967 and 1969\\. From this research comes his main work, *La patria del criollo*, published in 1970, as well as the program of Economic History of Central America of the College of Economics and the total reform of the School of History in 1978\\.{{sfn\\|Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC)\\|1998\\|p\\=4}}",
"In 1979, due to death threats from the general [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa \"Fernando Romeo Lucas García\") regime, Martínez Peláez had to go into exile once again with his family and continued with his research and teaching activities in the [Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla](/wiki/Benem%C3%A9rita_Universidad_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_Puebla \"Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla\") in Mexico, where he was an invited speaker in several seminars and created new curricula for the College of History. Besides, he had important meetings with historians and Guatemalan exiles in Mexico.{{sfn\\|Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC)\\|1998\\|p\\=15}}",
"#### Veterinary medicine",
"{{See also\\|Veterinary medicine}}",
"The College of Veterinary was created on 27 September 1957,{{harvnb\\|Facultad de Veterinaria y Zootenica}} and initially was part of the College of Medicine and was located in the old Medicine Building in Guatemala City Historical Downtown. In 1958 and 1959 it moved into private homes that the university rented in zones 9 and 4 of Guatemala City; it also used the university's Botanic Garden library in zone 4\\. By 1960, the College of Veterinary moved into its definite home in the main University campus.",
"On 11 January 1969 the School of Animal Studies, which was independent of the School of Veterinary medicine. and on 27 September 1974 it moved into the new modular buildings on the southwest section of the main campus, next to the Veterinary Medicine Hospital.",
"### Repression and decline",
"{{Main\\|Guatemala Civil War}}",
"During general [Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes](/wiki/Miguel_Yd%C3%ADgoras_Fuentes \"Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes\") presidency, the university started suffering repression due to its position alongside the main labor unions, with three students murdered in front of the College of Law in 1962\\.",
"#### The EXMIBAL Case",
"During the government of [Julio César Méndez Montenegro](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_M%C3%A9ndez_Montenegro \"Julio César Méndez Montenegro\") the possibility of giving the nickel mines in [Izabal](/wiki/Izabal_Department \"Izabal Department\") in concession to a Canadian mining company was brought to the table, but it did not materialized. As soon as the general [Carlos Arana Osorio](/wiki/Carlos_Arana_Osorio \"Carlos Arana Osorio\") took office on 1 July 1970, he reopened the case and began working in for EXMIBAL to get a concession. However, many social sectors opposed to it, arguing that it would be too costly for the country. One of the main opponents was the commission that the [University of San Carlos](/wiki/University_of_San_Carlos \"University of San Carlos\") created to discuss the matter; among the members of the commission was the lawyer [Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López](/wiki/Oscar_Adolfo_Mijangos_L%C3%B3pez \"Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López\"), then representative in the [Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala \"Congress of Guatemala\"), the respected Guatemalan intellectual [Alfonso Bauer Paiz](/wiki/Alfonso_Bauer_Paiz \"Alfonso Bauer Paiz\") \\-who had been part of the staff of presidents [Juan José Arévalo Bermejo](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valo_Bermejo \"Juan José Arévalo Bermejo\") and [Jacobo Arbenz Guzman](/wiki/Jacobo_Arbenz_Guzman \"Jacobo Arbenz Guzman\"), and Julio Carney Herrera Both Camey Herrera and Bauer Paiz were shot in November 1970: Carney died of his wounds while Bauer Paz, severely wounded, had to go into exile.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a\\=7057\\|website\\=MAC: Mines and communities\\|title\\=Victimization – the EXMIBAL Story\\|last\\=Rakosy\\|first\\=Betsy\\|year\\=2002\\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006082651/http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a\\=7057\\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2014\\|language\\=es}}",
"The commission members had strongly opposed the conditions proposed by the Government to grant the concession EXMIBAL; after the attack against Bauer Paiz and Carney, on 13 February 1971 Mijangos López was assassinated by unknown assailants as he left his office long the 4th Avenue in Zone 1 of the [Guatemala City](/wiki/Guatemala_City \"Guatemala City\"). Mijangos Lopez had been under the fatal impression that the government was not going to assassinate him because he was on a wheelchair since 1958\\.",
"On 8 May 1971, Arana Osorio's administration finally granted the concession to EXMIBAL; it covered 385 square kilometers in the area of [El Estor](/wiki/El_Estor \"El Estor\"), with and initial investment of US$228 million. The mine, built in the mountains of indigenous maya Q'eqchi people, included a residential complex of 700 homes, numerous offices, a hospital, a small shopping center, school, a golf course and a large area for industrial processing.",
"#### Laugerud and Lucas García military governments",
"{{Main\\|Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García\\|Fernando Romeo Lucas García\\|Guatemalan Civil War}}",
"During the military governments of the seventies, the tension between the government and the university kept growing, until it reached its peak in 1978 during the massive demonstration that occurred to protest rising urban public transportation costs. The Association of University Students (AEU) had a leading role in the protests, but this brought persecution of their leaders and the murder of the secretary general of the association [Oliverio Castañeda de León](/wiki/Oliverio_Casta%C3%B1eda_de_Le%C3%B3n \"Oliverio Castañeda de León\"), on 20 October of that year. Just fifteen days after the murder of Castañeda de León, was missing his successor, Antonio Ciani García, and over the next 18 months almost every student leader and university faculty with political connections were threatened (even with the legal parties). Whoever did not paid attention and continued with their protest activities, was simply killed or kidnapped.",
"In early 1979, the following attacks occurred against renowned members of the university:\n* On 25 January 1979, [Alberto Fuentes Mohr](/wiki/Alberto_Fuentes_Mohr \"Alberto Fuentes Mohr\"), Doctor of Economics, [Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala \"Congress of Guatemala\") representative, leader of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and former minister of Finance and Foreign Affairs during the administration of [Julio César Méndez Montenegro](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_M%C3%A9ndez_Montenegro \"Julio César Méndez Montenegro\"), was murdered.\n* That same day, but a few hours later, was shot and killed the student and union leader Ricardo Martinez Solorzano.\n* On 14 February, Manuel Lisandro Andrade Roca, general secretary of the university in the tenure of [Saúl Osorio Paz](/wiki/Sa%C3%BAl_Osorio_Paz \"Saúl Osorio Paz\") as university president \\-and a student leader during the \"Marches of 1962\"\\- was killed.\n* On 22 March, former Guatemala City mayor [Manuel Colom Argueta](/wiki/Manuel_Colom_Argueta \"Manuel Colom Argueta\") was killed, in an operation in which his murderers allegedly used a helicopter to direct the operation{{harvnb\\|Aguilera Peralta\\|Romero Imery\\|1981\\|pp\\=135–138}} Colom had been director of Center for Urban and Regional Studies (CEUR) of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala and a political leader of the United Revolutionary Front (FUR). Next to Fuentes Mohr, he was the most prominent members of the legal political opposition and their deaths ended, even more, the political space in Guatemala. These murders and threats against leaders of the FUR and the PSD continued in 1979 and 1980, and in subsequent years against the [Guatemalan Christian Democracy](/wiki/Guatemalan_Christian_Democracy \"Guatemalan Christian Democracy\") party.\nAt the university, university president [Saúl Osorio Paz](/wiki/Sa%C3%BAl_Osorio_Paz \"Saúl Osorio Paz\"), after attacks on his colleagues and death threats against him, began to live in presidency, protected by student brigades of the communist FRENTE student party. In an unprecedented case, the president directed the university from underground for almost two years.",
"The effect of state repression was worse on the student movement: the AEU ended decimated. Despite all this, the association continued to be a belligerent organization during this campaign of terror. To protect themselves, the AEU restructured its organizational form such that their leaders were not so vulnerable, and declined to reveal their names.",
"In January 1979, a new freshmen generation arrived to the university. Many of them had been members of the CEEM or student associations in the public institutes and had participated in the events of October 1978\\. It was them who took the leadership of the AEU. But it was much more difficult to replace the fallen or exiled faculty, which resulted in a marked decline in the academic quality of the institution. Later, laws that severely restricted the university autonomy were proposed, and violating the constitutional mandate to give 5% of the national budget to the institution became commonplace for the government.{{harvnb\\|Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Agudización\\|1999\\|p\\=}}",
"#### Burning the Spain Embassy in Guatemala",
"{{See also\\|Guatemalan Civil War}}",
"On 31 January 1980, several students from the University of San Carlos advised a k'iche' peasant group who wanted to let the world know about their precarious situation; when the country's newspapers did not dare to publish their demands, and after all legal avenues to be heard had been exhausted, the group decided to take the premises of the Embassy of Spain and use it as a platform for their demands.Ambassador [Máximo Cajal López](/wiki/M%C3%A1ximo_Cajal_L%C3%B3pez \"Máximo Cajal López\") had visited the k'iche' farmer communities a few months before, and had gathered information for a report on them, which was never published, but the draft of which still exists. The reaction of the government of general [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa \"Fernando Romeo Lucas García\") was strong and direct: police surrounded the premises of the embassy and after several hours of siege, the situation ended with the burning of the room where all the people who were inside the embassy had taken refuge, including almost the entire Embassy staff and some random visitors, including former vice president of Guatemala, [Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff](/wiki/Eduardo_C%C3%A1ceres_Lehnhoff \"Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff\") and former Foreign Affairs Minister, [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes \"Adolfo Molina Orantes\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watchv\\=FG6fh9M8wdc \\|title \\= Ni uno vivo\\|website\\=YouTube\\|access\\-date \\= July 2, 2014\\|language\\=es}} The only two survivors were Ambassador [Máximo Cajal López](/wiki/M%C3%A1ximo_Cajal_L%C3%B3pez \"Máximo Cajal López\") and peasant Gregorio Yuja Xona, who were taken to the Private Hospital Herrera Llerandi. Yuja was kidnapped there and a group tried to kidnap the ambassador, but he was taken from the hospital just in time by the ambassador of Costa Rica in Guatemala; Cajal left the country that night. Yuja, meanwhile, was tortured and his body thrown off the premises of the president mansion at the University of San Carlos. His body was buried in the Heroes and Martyrs Plaza on Central Campus.",
"#### 1985 civil unrest: military invasion of Central Campus",
"{{Main\\|Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores}}",
"During the government of general [Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores](/wiki/%C3%93scar_Humberto_Mej%C3%ADa_Victores \"Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores\"), the Mutual Support Group (GAM) \\-led by [Nineth Montenegro](/wiki/Nineth_Montenegro \"Nineth Montenegro\")\\- was founded{{sfn\\|Siglo 21\\|2010}} and the High School Student Coordination Group (CEEM) also gained considerable strength. The latter was formed by students from the Central National Institute for Boys, the Central Normal Institute for Young Ladies Belén and Rafael AquecheBy 1985, the economic elites had left Guatemala City downtown, along with these once premier schools which now were attended by the low middle and low income areas of the city. which organized mass protests in September 1985 against the rising prices for public transportation. At least ten people died in Guatemala City in the most extensive wave of urban unrest since protests against the government of [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa \"Fernando Romeo Lucas García\") in August 1978\\. The unrest began with demonstrations against rising prices public transportation but then became widespread due to the bad economic situation the country was in at the time. Burning of buses, blockades and massive protests that resulted in destruction of public infrastructure occurred almost every day. The government responded with three thousand Army soldiers, whom supported by light armored forces and the riot squad of the National Police, were deployed in central and peripheral areas of the city. Also, the night of 3 September 1985 the University of San Carlos of Guatemala was occupied by the military who allegedly found an underground shooting range subversive propaganda.",
"Several hundred people were arrested and General Mejia Víctores addressed the nation through a television and radio address in which he announced measures to address prevailing social unrest. General Mejia announced public schools closure until further notice and the freezing of prices of consumer goods;{{harvnb\\|El País\\|1985\\|p\\=2}} in the end, as part of the process solution a high school student bonus was granted to both elementary and high schools so they could be transported free in public transportation, plus all the public school students were promoted by decree. Students who graduated by decree in 1985 were received with brutal initiations by the different student bodies through the university.",
"#### Constitution of 1985: Election of judges and university representatives before government institutions",
"* + - * + {{Quote box\\|align\\=right\\|width\\=400px\\|Article 215\\. Election of the Supreme Court \n\t\t\t\t.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe judges of the Supreme Court shall be elected by \\[\\[Congress of Guatemala\\|Congress]] for a period of five years, from a list of twenty\\-six candidates proposed by a nominating committee consisting of a representative of the Presidents of the Universities of the country, who presides, the Deans of the Colleges of Law, an equal number of representatives elected by the General Assembly of the Association of Lawyers and Notaries of Guatemala and by an equal number of representatives elected by the judges holders the Court of Appeal and other courts that Article 217 of the Constitution refers to.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tArticle 269\\. Integration of the Constitutionality Court.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe Constitutionality Court consists of five titular judges, each of whom has a substitute. When dealing with cases of unconstitutionality against the Supreme Court, the Congress, the President or the Vice President, the number of members can be increased to seven, choosing the two other judges from among the alternates. The judges shall hold office for five years and shall be appointed as follows: \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\\* One by the Supreme Court;\n\t\t\t\t\\* One by Congress;\n\t\t\t\t\\* One by the President in Council of Ministers;\n\t\t\t\t\\* A judge appointed by the Higher University Council of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala; and\n\t\t\t\t\\* A judge appointed by the Assembly of the Bar.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSimultaneously with the appointment of the holder, the respective alternate will be appointed by Congress.\n\t\t\t\t\\|Constitution of the Republic of Guatemala, 1985\\.{{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|p\\=169}}}}",
"After the murder or forced exile of most of its faculty, the stability of the College of Law after the [Guatemalan Civil War](/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War \"Guatemalan Civil War\") was recovered with deanship of Cipriano Soto Tobar, who took office in 1988\\. Soto Tobar took a significant effort on hiring faculty. However, his main goal was to establish political networks to favor political lobbies exploiting the new role that the Constitution assigned to the University of San Carlos:{{cite web\\|last\\=Véliz\\|first\\=Rodrigo\\|url\\=https://nomada.gt/que\\-hicieron\\-los\\-profesores\\-de\\-derecho\\-para\\-que\\-la\\-usac\\-perdiera\\-prestigio/\\|title\\=¿Qué hizo Derecho para que la USAC perdiera prestigio?\\|year\\=2014\\|location\\=Guatemala\\|website\\=Nómada\\|language\\=es}} which, enacted in 1985, entrusted the College of Law and the University of San Carlos with the task of naming representatives to the process of election of judges of the highest courts of the land,{{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|pp\\=169\\-170}} as well as the Comptroller General of Accounts,{{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|pp\\=180\\-181}} and the Chief Public Prosecutor {{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|p\\=197}} Also, the university was given the power to send a judge to the Constitutionality Court.{{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|p\\=214}}",
"These networks took hold and strengthened through the 1990s, with relationships set up between institutions and societal sectors beyond the university. After leaving the deanship, the University Council nominated Soto to the Constitutionality Court, although there were persistent rumors that he was selling diplomas and certificates. However, his application was accepted because his involvement in these felonies could not be proved because no credible evidence was presented.{{sfn\\|Hernández Pico\\|2001\\|p \\=}} Two of his performances in the Constitutionality Court showed possible political compromise: first, he voted to validate an illegal adoption network and, then he voted in favor of the registration as a presidential candidate of general [Efraín Ríos Montt](/wiki/Efra%C3%ADn_R%C3%ADos_Montt \"Efraín Ríos Montt\"), despite the prohibition of the 1985 Constitution, which does not allowed as a candidate anybody that had been part of a coup d'état.{{sfn\\|Castillo Zamora\\|2013\\|p\\=}} In those years, adoption networks operating in Guatemala could collect up to US$60,000 per child and went from delivering 1200 children in 1997 to more than four thousand in 2004\\.",
"Estuardo Galvez, who took that dean office in 2000 and later went on to become university president, was one of the members of the networks established by Soto; realizing the importance of the Bar Association, which was also a participant in the election of judges \\-and until then controlled by lawyers linked to the traditional capital of the country\\- Galvez sought from the beginning of his term to favor his post graduate students placing them in public institutions so that they could show their loyalty with favorable votes in the Bar elections. After several elections, and once Galvez was no longer dean, the network that Soto set up beat the traditional capital lawyers in the Bar Association elections by 300 votes; as recorded in the minutes, the majority of his votes were young lawyers \\-his former students.",
"#### Student leaders murders in 1989",
"In 1987, the president of the Student Association \"El Derecho\" (AED), Willy Ligorría, was expelled from the Association of University Students (AEU) for embezzling funds from the [Huelga de Dolores](/wiki/Huelga_de_Dolores \"Huelga de Dolores\") Committee, for his direct involvement in an embezzlement money of the association and usurpation of functions and for signing as acting as general secretary in various activities and international documents. After his departure, a series of death threats against members of the board of the AEU began: in 1989 there was a steady escalation of threats, some of them signed by death squads as \"the Dolorosa\", the \"Jaguar of Justice\" or \"Secret Anticommunist\\-Army\". Despite his expulsion, Ligorría, maintained a very high and combative profile, while his close friend, Marco Tulio Montenegro, was still part of AEU.{{cite journal\\|url\\=http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/guatemala/informeREMHI\\-Tomo2\\.htm\\#t2c3\\-m20\\|author\\=Informe REMHI\\|journal\\=Fundación Acción Pro\\-Derechos Humanos\\|title\\=Proyecto Interdiocesano de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica \\|year\\=n.d.\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2013\\|language\\=es}}",
"In 1989, several student body leaders returned to Guatemala from exile intending to achieve a resurgence of student coordination, which was practically dismantled since the seventies. But on August 21, Iván Ernesto Gonzalez was arrested and kidnapped; the next day, Carlos Contreras Conde, leader of the University Student Movement (MEU), was abducted near the university. That same day Hugo Leonel Gramajo was abducted and introduced in a red pick\\-up with foreign plates. On 23 August, Victor Hugo Rodriguez Jaramillo and Silvia Azurdia Utrera founders of MEU, were kidnapped and taken violently amid two cars that blocked their way. And Mario De León left a press conference that the Student Body held that day at around 19:45 hours and was detained by the National Police and has not been seen again since. Finally, Aaron Ochoa disappeared the next day.",
"During an emergency meeting in which the response to the government offensive was being discussed, Willy Ligorría called to say that he knew where Hugo Gramajo and Aaron Ochoa were hidden and that he could bring the still free student leaders to them. In September other members of the student movement, Carlos Chutá Carney, Carlos Humberto Cabrera and Carlos Palencia were kidnapped and found dead shortly afterwards.",
"After the murders of the student leaders, Ligorría spoke at some rallies in college and participated in the demonstrations that took place. On Saturday September 15 at 14:15 hours he left for Panamá along with Marco Tulio Montenegro and Byron Milian Vicente. Montenegro returned to Guatemala on 11 November 1989 to rejoin the AEU, but he was already a suspect, and was killed with knife soon after. Meanwhile, Ligorría was appointed head of research of public prosecutions.According to research that was subsequently conducted, it was determined that Ligorría had strong ties with a \"gang\" of zone 18, whose members went armed at all times; College students suspected that the \"maras\" had been formed by the army. Ligorría was also affiliated with the Democratic Socialist Party (PSD) and even wasted money in their university activities, although he always maintained a revolutionary speech, was a member of ORPA and maintained contact with Danilo Rodriguez, chief of the FAR. On September 12, 1997, the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, which became a political party after the peace accords, formally accused Ligorría for his involvement in the murder of the student leader, claiming that he was a member of military intelligence.",
""
] |
### Fifth era: the university after the 1944 Revolution
{{Main\|Guatemalan Revolution}}
After the revolution against general Ubico's successor, general [Federico Ponce Vaides](/wiki/Federico_Ponce_Vaides "Federico Ponce Vaides"), on 20 October 1944, the new government granted its complete autonomy to the university; Decree \#12 on 11 November 1944 granted autonomy and renamed the institution as "Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala" ("University of San Carlos of Guatemala"). The university's new role was to be director of college education in Guatemala, and to cooperated in study and solution of the critical problems that Guatemala faced at the time.{{cite journal\|author\=ODHA\|title\=Era por la vida tras por lo que íbamos\|editor\=Monseñor Mario Ríos Mont\|year\=n.d.\|location\=Guatemala\|journal\=Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado\|url\=http://www.odhag.org.gt/pdf/Era%20tras%20la%20vida.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729151405/http://www.odhag.org.gt/pdf/Era%20tras%20la%20vida.pdf\|archive\-date\=29 July 2014\|language\=es}}
New colleges were created that time:
* College of Human Studies: created by then president Dr. [Juan José Arévalo](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valo "Juan José Arévalo") on 17 September 1945\. Among its founder were Dr. [Eduardo García Máynez](/wiki/Eduardo_Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1ynez "Eduardo García Máynez") \-professor emeritus of the [Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México](/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico "Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México")\- as honorary faculty. The college studied: [Philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy"), [History](/wiki/History "History"), [Literature](/wiki/Literature "Literature"), [Psychology](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology") and [Pedagogy](/wiki/Pedagogy "Pedagogy").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Jc3KBvf5gwI \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518233909/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Jc3KBvf5gwI \|archive\-date\=2015\-05\-18 \|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Vida de Juan José Arévalo\|via\=YouTube\|access\-date\=14 August 2014}}
* College of Agriculture
* College of Architecture
* College of Economics
Likewise, access was granted to both women and to all the society members that had been excluded from the institution in the past.{{harvnb\|El Imparcial\|1944\|p\=4}}
#### After 1954 coup d'état
{{See also\|Operation PBSUCCESS}}
Following its constitutional mandate, the university became involved in the political life of the country, presenting concrete social, economic and political proposals. However, with the beginning of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") between the United States and the Soviet Union \-major super powers that split world dominance after their victory in World War II, the [1954 Guatemalan coup d'état](/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "1954 Guatemalan coup d'état"), the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution "Cuban Revolution") in 1959 and the influx of students from all over the social spectrum in Guatemala, Marxism became radical in the university. Besides, then archbishop of Guatemala [Mariano Rossell y Arellano](/wiki/Mariano_Rossell_y_Arellano "Mariano Rossell y Arellano") found out that it was urgent to recover some of the former influence [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") used to have, and that it lost during the liberal regime of [Justo Rufino Barrios](/wiki/Justo_Rufino_Barrios "Justo Rufino Barrios") in 1872, and therefore decided to work with the [United Fruit Company](/wiki/United_Fruit_Company "United Fruit Company") to get rid of the Revolutionary governments whom he accused of [atheist](/wiki/Atheist "Atheist") and [communist](/wiki/Communist "Communist"). On 4 April 1954, Rossell y Arellano issued an open letter in which he denounced Communism advances in the country, and begged Guatemalans to rise in arms and fight against the common enemy of God and the Land. His letter has published all over Guatemala, and even though he kept claiming that the Catholic Church was not seeking privileges in its anticommunist quest, Rossel y Arellano was able that after the 1954 coup, new president colonel [Carlos Castillo Armas](/wiki/Carlos_Castillo_Armas "Carlos Castillo Armas") included the following back in the new Constitution of Guatemala, for the first time since 1872:
* that the Catholic Church had the right to own real estate and other properties
* that religious education was declared of public interest
* that the State supported religious education
* that there were independent private universities not connected with University of San Carlos.{{cite web\|author\=Esquipulas en línea\|url\=http://www.esquipulas.com.gt/biografias/monsenor\-mariano\-rossell\-y\-arellano/\|website\=Esquipulas en línea\|title\=Biografia de Mariano Rossell Arellano\|access\-date\=1 September 2014\|date\=n.d.\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220213329/http://www.esquipulas.com.gt/biografias/monsenor\-mariano\-rossell\-y\-arellano/\|archive\-date\=20 December 2013\|language\=es}}
This way, the Catholic Church recover some of the former power it held before 1871, when the Liberal Reform confiscated its properties and cancelled its privileges, in a direct attack against it as the main conservative party member of the time.
#### Nottebohm case and the Dean of the College of Law
{{Main\|Nottebohm case}}
[thumb\|200px\|Doctor in Law [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes "Adolfo Molina Orantes"), College of Law Dean and legal advisor of the Guatemalan delegates for the [Nottebohm case](/wiki/Nottebohm_case "Nottebohm case") before the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice "International Court of Justice").](/wiki/File:Adolfo_Molina_Orantes_005.jpg "Adolfo Molina Orantes 005.jpg")
Between 1951 and 1955, College of Law dean, Dr. [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes "Adolfo Molina Orantes"), worked as a legal advisor for the Guatemalan delegation before the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice "International Court of Justice") of [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague "The Hague") for the [Nottebohm case](/wiki/Nottebohm_case "Nottebohm case") (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) \[1955]. The case about Mr. Nottebohm, who was born 16 September 16, 1881, in Hamburg, Germany and possessed German citizenship although he lived in Guatemala from 1905 until 1943 because he never became a citizen of Guatemala. On October 9, 1939, Nottebohm applied to become a naturalized citizen of Liechtenstein. The application was approved and he became a citizen of that country. He then returned to Guatemala on his Liechtenstein passport and informed the local government of his change of nationality. When he tried to return to Guatemala once again in 1943 he was refused entry as an enemy alien since the Guatemalan authorities did not recognize his naturalization and regarded him as still German. It has been suggested that the timing of the event was due to the recent entry of the United States and Guatemala into the Second World War. He was later extradited to the United States, where he was held at an internment camp until the end of the war. All his possessions in Guatemala were confiscated. After his release, he lived out the rest of his life in Liechtenstein.
The Government of Liechtenstein granted Nottebohm protection against unjust treatment by the government of Guatemala and petitioned the International Court of Justice. However, the government of Guatemala argued that Nottebohm did not gain Liechtenstein citizenship for the purposes of international law. The court agreed and thus stopped the case from continuing.
{{harvnb\|International Court of Justice\|1955\|p\=18}}
The Nottebohm case was subsequently cited in many definitions of [nationality](/wiki/Nationality "Nationality"). and Dr. Molina Orantes was recognized as an expert in international Law and named permanent consultant of the International Court.
#### Private universities
As a result of the political climate changes after the coup of 1954, the society elites decided to create their own private universities,[Universidad Rafael Landívar](/wiki/Universidad_Rafael_Land%C3%ADvar "Universidad Rafael Landívar") in 1961, [Universidad del Valle de Guatemala](/wiki/Universidad_del_Valle_de_Guatemala "Universidad del Valle de Guatemala") in 1966, [Universidad Francisco Marroquín](/wiki/Universidad_Francisco_Marroqu%C3%ADn "Universidad Francisco Marroquín") in 1971, and so on. which would have very different ideologies from the ones presented in the University of San Carlos. Basically the new institutions would have capitalist and liberal ideologies while the national university chose Marxism. After heavy lobbying, in 1965 the new ISR tax law exonerated potential private universities from any kind of taxation and state contributions, and in 1966 the Law of Private Universities was approved.{{sfn\|Molina\|2011\|p\=}}
#### Research on Guatemalan history
In 1957 the highly regarded Marxist historian [:es:Severo Martínez Peláez](/wiki/Severo_Mart%C3%ADnez_Pel%C3%A1ez "Severo Martínez Peláez") return to Guatemala after his exile and joined the university as a faculty member. The College of Economics dean, Rafael Piedrasanta Arandi, and the university president, Edmundo Vásquez Martínez, approved a scholarship for Martinez Pelaez to research the [Archivo General de Indias](/wiki/Archivo_General_de_Indias "Archivo General de Indias") in [Sevilla](/wiki/Sevilla "Sevilla"), Spain between 1967 and 1969\. From this research comes his main work, *La patria del criollo*, published in 1970, as well as the program of Economic History of Central America of the College of Economics and the total reform of the School of History in 1978\.{{sfn\|Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC)\|1998\|p\=4}}
In 1979, due to death threats from the general [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa "Fernando Romeo Lucas García") regime, Martínez Peláez had to go into exile once again with his family and continued with his research and teaching activities in the [Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla](/wiki/Benem%C3%A9rita_Universidad_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_Puebla "Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla") in Mexico, where he was an invited speaker in several seminars and created new curricula for the College of History. Besides, he had important meetings with historians and Guatemalan exiles in Mexico.{{sfn\|Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC)\|1998\|p\=15}}
#### Veterinary medicine
{{See also\|Veterinary medicine}}
The College of Veterinary was created on 27 September 1957,{{harvnb\|Facultad de Veterinaria y Zootenica}} and initially was part of the College of Medicine and was located in the old Medicine Building in Guatemala City Historical Downtown. In 1958 and 1959 it moved into private homes that the university rented in zones 9 and 4 of Guatemala City; it also used the university's Botanic Garden library in zone 4\. By 1960, the College of Veterinary moved into its definite home in the main University campus.
On 11 January 1969 the School of Animal Studies, which was independent of the School of Veterinary medicine. and on 27 September 1974 it moved into the new modular buildings on the southwest section of the main campus, next to the Veterinary Medicine Hospital.
|
[
"### Fifth era: the university after the 1944 Revolution",
"{{Main\\|Guatemalan Revolution}}",
"After the revolution against general Ubico's successor, general [Federico Ponce Vaides](/wiki/Federico_Ponce_Vaides \"Federico Ponce Vaides\"), on 20 October 1944, the new government granted its complete autonomy to the university; Decree \\#12 on 11 November 1944 granted autonomy and renamed the institution as \"Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala\" (\"University of San Carlos of Guatemala\"). The university's new role was to be director of college education in Guatemala, and to cooperated in study and solution of the critical problems that Guatemala faced at the time.{{cite journal\\|author\\=ODHA\\|title\\=Era por la vida tras por lo que íbamos\\|editor\\=Monseñor Mario Ríos Mont\\|year\\=n.d.\\|location\\=Guatemala\\|journal\\=Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado\\|url\\=http://www.odhag.org.gt/pdf/Era%20tras%20la%20vida.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729151405/http://www.odhag.org.gt/pdf/Era%20tras%20la%20vida.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=29 July 2014\\|language\\=es}}",
"New colleges were created that time:",
"* College of Human Studies: created by then president Dr. [Juan José Arévalo](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valo \"Juan José Arévalo\") on 17 September 1945\\. Among its founder were Dr. [Eduardo García Máynez](/wiki/Eduardo_Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1ynez \"Eduardo García Máynez\") \\-professor emeritus of the [Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México](/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_M%C3%A9xico \"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México\")\\- as honorary faculty. The college studied: [Philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\"), [History](/wiki/History \"History\"), [Literature](/wiki/Literature \"Literature\"), [Psychology](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\") and [Pedagogy](/wiki/Pedagogy \"Pedagogy\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Jc3KBvf5gwI \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518233909/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Jc3KBvf5gwI \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-18 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Vida de Juan José Arévalo\\|via\\=YouTube\\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2014}}\n* College of Agriculture\n* College of Architecture\n* College of Economics",
"Likewise, access was granted to both women and to all the society members that had been excluded from the institution in the past.{{harvnb\\|El Imparcial\\|1944\\|p\\=4}}",
"#### After 1954 coup d'état",
"{{See also\\|Operation PBSUCCESS}}",
"Following its constitutional mandate, the university became involved in the political life of the country, presenting concrete social, economic and political proposals. However, with the beginning of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") between the United States and the Soviet Union \\-major super powers that split world dominance after their victory in World War II, the [1954 Guatemalan coup d'état](/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"1954 Guatemalan coup d'état\"), the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution \"Cuban Revolution\") in 1959 and the influx of students from all over the social spectrum in Guatemala, Marxism became radical in the university. Besides, then archbishop of Guatemala [Mariano Rossell y Arellano](/wiki/Mariano_Rossell_y_Arellano \"Mariano Rossell y Arellano\") found out that it was urgent to recover some of the former influence [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") used to have, and that it lost during the liberal regime of [Justo Rufino Barrios](/wiki/Justo_Rufino_Barrios \"Justo Rufino Barrios\") in 1872, and therefore decided to work with the [United Fruit Company](/wiki/United_Fruit_Company \"United Fruit Company\") to get rid of the Revolutionary governments whom he accused of [atheist](/wiki/Atheist \"Atheist\") and [communist](/wiki/Communist \"Communist\"). On 4 April 1954, Rossell y Arellano issued an open letter in which he denounced Communism advances in the country, and begged Guatemalans to rise in arms and fight against the common enemy of God and the Land. His letter has published all over Guatemala, and even though he kept claiming that the Catholic Church was not seeking privileges in its anticommunist quest, Rossel y Arellano was able that after the 1954 coup, new president colonel [Carlos Castillo Armas](/wiki/Carlos_Castillo_Armas \"Carlos Castillo Armas\") included the following back in the new Constitution of Guatemala, for the first time since 1872:\n* that the Catholic Church had the right to own real estate and other properties\n* that religious education was declared of public interest\n* that the State supported religious education\n* that there were independent private universities not connected with University of San Carlos.{{cite web\\|author\\=Esquipulas en línea\\|url\\=http://www.esquipulas.com.gt/biografias/monsenor\\-mariano\\-rossell\\-y\\-arellano/\\|website\\=Esquipulas en línea\\|title\\=Biografia de Mariano Rossell Arellano\\|access\\-date\\=1 September 2014\\|date\\=n.d.\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220213329/http://www.esquipulas.com.gt/biografias/monsenor\\-mariano\\-rossell\\-y\\-arellano/\\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2013\\|language\\=es}}",
"This way, the Catholic Church recover some of the former power it held before 1871, when the Liberal Reform confiscated its properties and cancelled its privileges, in a direct attack against it as the main conservative party member of the time.",
"#### Nottebohm case and the Dean of the College of Law",
"{{Main\\|Nottebohm case}}",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Doctor in Law [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes \"Adolfo Molina Orantes\"), College of Law Dean and legal advisor of the Guatemalan delegates for the [Nottebohm case](/wiki/Nottebohm_case \"Nottebohm case\") before the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice \"International Court of Justice\").](/wiki/File:Adolfo_Molina_Orantes_005.jpg \"Adolfo Molina Orantes 005.jpg\")",
"Between 1951 and 1955, College of Law dean, Dr. [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes \"Adolfo Molina Orantes\"), worked as a legal advisor for the Guatemalan delegation before the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice \"International Court of Justice\") of [The Hague](/wiki/The_Hague \"The Hague\") for the [Nottebohm case](/wiki/Nottebohm_case \"Nottebohm case\") (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) \\[1955]. The case about Mr. Nottebohm, who was born 16 September 16, 1881, in Hamburg, Germany and possessed German citizenship although he lived in Guatemala from 1905 until 1943 because he never became a citizen of Guatemala. On October 9, 1939, Nottebohm applied to become a naturalized citizen of Liechtenstein. The application was approved and he became a citizen of that country. He then returned to Guatemala on his Liechtenstein passport and informed the local government of his change of nationality. When he tried to return to Guatemala once again in 1943 he was refused entry as an enemy alien since the Guatemalan authorities did not recognize his naturalization and regarded him as still German. It has been suggested that the timing of the event was due to the recent entry of the United States and Guatemala into the Second World War. He was later extradited to the United States, where he was held at an internment camp until the end of the war. All his possessions in Guatemala were confiscated. After his release, he lived out the rest of his life in Liechtenstein.",
"The Government of Liechtenstein granted Nottebohm protection against unjust treatment by the government of Guatemala and petitioned the International Court of Justice. However, the government of Guatemala argued that Nottebohm did not gain Liechtenstein citizenship for the purposes of international law. The court agreed and thus stopped the case from continuing.\n{{harvnb\\|International Court of Justice\\|1955\\|p\\=18}}",
"The Nottebohm case was subsequently cited in many definitions of [nationality](/wiki/Nationality \"Nationality\"). and Dr. Molina Orantes was recognized as an expert in international Law and named permanent consultant of the International Court.",
"#### Private universities",
"As a result of the political climate changes after the coup of 1954, the society elites decided to create their own private universities,[Universidad Rafael Landívar](/wiki/Universidad_Rafael_Land%C3%ADvar \"Universidad Rafael Landívar\") in 1961, [Universidad del Valle de Guatemala](/wiki/Universidad_del_Valle_de_Guatemala \"Universidad del Valle de Guatemala\") in 1966, [Universidad Francisco Marroquín](/wiki/Universidad_Francisco_Marroqu%C3%ADn \"Universidad Francisco Marroquín\") in 1971, and so on. which would have very different ideologies from the ones presented in the University of San Carlos. Basically the new institutions would have capitalist and liberal ideologies while the national university chose Marxism. After heavy lobbying, in 1965 the new ISR tax law exonerated potential private universities from any kind of taxation and state contributions, and in 1966 the Law of Private Universities was approved.{{sfn\\|Molina\\|2011\\|p\\=}}",
"#### Research on Guatemalan history",
"In 1957 the highly regarded Marxist historian [:es:Severo Martínez Peláez](/wiki/Severo_Mart%C3%ADnez_Pel%C3%A1ez \"Severo Martínez Peláez\") return to Guatemala after his exile and joined the university as a faculty member. The College of Economics dean, Rafael Piedrasanta Arandi, and the university president, Edmundo Vásquez Martínez, approved a scholarship for Martinez Pelaez to research the [Archivo General de Indias](/wiki/Archivo_General_de_Indias \"Archivo General de Indias\") in [Sevilla](/wiki/Sevilla \"Sevilla\"), Spain between 1967 and 1969\\. From this research comes his main work, *La patria del criollo*, published in 1970, as well as the program of Economic History of Central America of the College of Economics and the total reform of the School of History in 1978\\.{{sfn\\|Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC)\\|1998\\|p\\=4}}",
"In 1979, due to death threats from the general [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa \"Fernando Romeo Lucas García\") regime, Martínez Peláez had to go into exile once again with his family and continued with his research and teaching activities in the [Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla](/wiki/Benem%C3%A9rita_Universidad_Aut%C3%B3noma_de_Puebla \"Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla\") in Mexico, where he was an invited speaker in several seminars and created new curricula for the College of History. Besides, he had important meetings with historians and Guatemalan exiles in Mexico.{{sfn\\|Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales (USAC)\\|1998\\|p\\=15}}",
"#### Veterinary medicine",
"{{See also\\|Veterinary medicine}}",
"The College of Veterinary was created on 27 September 1957,{{harvnb\\|Facultad de Veterinaria y Zootenica}} and initially was part of the College of Medicine and was located in the old Medicine Building in Guatemala City Historical Downtown. In 1958 and 1959 it moved into private homes that the university rented in zones 9 and 4 of Guatemala City; it also used the university's Botanic Garden library in zone 4\\. By 1960, the College of Veterinary moved into its definite home in the main University campus.",
"On 11 January 1969 the School of Animal Studies, which was independent of the School of Veterinary medicine. and on 27 September 1974 it moved into the new modular buildings on the southwest section of the main campus, next to the Veterinary Medicine Hospital.",
""
] |
### Repression and decline
{{Main\|Guatemala Civil War}}
During general [Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes](/wiki/Miguel_Yd%C3%ADgoras_Fuentes "Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes") presidency, the university started suffering repression due to its position alongside the main labor unions, with three students murdered in front of the College of Law in 1962\.
#### The EXMIBAL Case
During the government of [Julio César Méndez Montenegro](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_M%C3%A9ndez_Montenegro "Julio César Méndez Montenegro") the possibility of giving the nickel mines in [Izabal](/wiki/Izabal_Department "Izabal Department") in concession to a Canadian mining company was brought to the table, but it did not materialized. As soon as the general [Carlos Arana Osorio](/wiki/Carlos_Arana_Osorio "Carlos Arana Osorio") took office on 1 July 1970, he reopened the case and began working in for EXMIBAL to get a concession. However, many social sectors opposed to it, arguing that it would be too costly for the country. One of the main opponents was the commission that the [University of San Carlos](/wiki/University_of_San_Carlos "University of San Carlos") created to discuss the matter; among the members of the commission was the lawyer [Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López](/wiki/Oscar_Adolfo_Mijangos_L%C3%B3pez "Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López"), then representative in the [Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala "Congress of Guatemala"), the respected Guatemalan intellectual [Alfonso Bauer Paiz](/wiki/Alfonso_Bauer_Paiz "Alfonso Bauer Paiz") \-who had been part of the staff of presidents [Juan José Arévalo Bermejo](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valo_Bermejo "Juan José Arévalo Bermejo") and [Jacobo Arbenz Guzman](/wiki/Jacobo_Arbenz_Guzman "Jacobo Arbenz Guzman"), and Julio Carney Herrera Both Camey Herrera and Bauer Paiz were shot in November 1970: Carney died of his wounds while Bauer Paz, severely wounded, had to go into exile.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a\=7057\|website\=MAC: Mines and communities\|title\=Victimization – the EXMIBAL Story\|last\=Rakosy\|first\=Betsy\|year\=2002\|access\-date\=17 September 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006082651/http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a\=7057\|archive\-date\=6 October 2014\|language\=es}}
The commission members had strongly opposed the conditions proposed by the Government to grant the concession EXMIBAL; after the attack against Bauer Paiz and Carney, on 13 February 1971 Mijangos López was assassinated by unknown assailants as he left his office long the 4th Avenue in Zone 1 of the [Guatemala City](/wiki/Guatemala_City "Guatemala City"). Mijangos Lopez had been under the fatal impression that the government was not going to assassinate him because he was on a wheelchair since 1958\.
On 8 May 1971, Arana Osorio's administration finally granted the concession to EXMIBAL; it covered 385 square kilometers in the area of [El Estor](/wiki/El_Estor "El Estor"), with and initial investment of US$228 million. The mine, built in the mountains of indigenous maya Q'eqchi people, included a residential complex of 700 homes, numerous offices, a hospital, a small shopping center, school, a golf course and a large area for industrial processing.
#### Laugerud and Lucas García military governments
{{Main\|Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García\|Fernando Romeo Lucas García\|Guatemalan Civil War}}
During the military governments of the seventies, the tension between the government and the university kept growing, until it reached its peak in 1978 during the massive demonstration that occurred to protest rising urban public transportation costs. The Association of University Students (AEU) had a leading role in the protests, but this brought persecution of their leaders and the murder of the secretary general of the association [Oliverio Castañeda de León](/wiki/Oliverio_Casta%C3%B1eda_de_Le%C3%B3n "Oliverio Castañeda de León"), on 20 October of that year. Just fifteen days after the murder of Castañeda de León, was missing his successor, Antonio Ciani García, and over the next 18 months almost every student leader and university faculty with political connections were threatened (even with the legal parties). Whoever did not paid attention and continued with their protest activities, was simply killed or kidnapped.
In early 1979, the following attacks occurred against renowned members of the university:
* On 25 January 1979, [Alberto Fuentes Mohr](/wiki/Alberto_Fuentes_Mohr "Alberto Fuentes Mohr"), Doctor of Economics, [Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala "Congress of Guatemala") representative, leader of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and former minister of Finance and Foreign Affairs during the administration of [Julio César Méndez Montenegro](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_M%C3%A9ndez_Montenegro "Julio César Méndez Montenegro"), was murdered.
* That same day, but a few hours later, was shot and killed the student and union leader Ricardo Martinez Solorzano.
* On 14 February, Manuel Lisandro Andrade Roca, general secretary of the university in the tenure of [Saúl Osorio Paz](/wiki/Sa%C3%BAl_Osorio_Paz "Saúl Osorio Paz") as university president \-and a student leader during the "Marches of 1962"\- was killed.
* On 22 March, former Guatemala City mayor [Manuel Colom Argueta](/wiki/Manuel_Colom_Argueta "Manuel Colom Argueta") was killed, in an operation in which his murderers allegedly used a helicopter to direct the operation{{harvnb\|Aguilera Peralta\|Romero Imery\|1981\|pp\=135–138}} Colom had been director of Center for Urban and Regional Studies (CEUR) of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala and a political leader of the United Revolutionary Front (FUR). Next to Fuentes Mohr, he was the most prominent members of the legal political opposition and their deaths ended, even more, the political space in Guatemala. These murders and threats against leaders of the FUR and the PSD continued in 1979 and 1980, and in subsequent years against the [Guatemalan Christian Democracy](/wiki/Guatemalan_Christian_Democracy "Guatemalan Christian Democracy") party.
At the university, university president [Saúl Osorio Paz](/wiki/Sa%C3%BAl_Osorio_Paz "Saúl Osorio Paz"), after attacks on his colleagues and death threats against him, began to live in presidency, protected by student brigades of the communist FRENTE student party. In an unprecedented case, the president directed the university from underground for almost two years.
The effect of state repression was worse on the student movement: the AEU ended decimated. Despite all this, the association continued to be a belligerent organization during this campaign of terror. To protect themselves, the AEU restructured its organizational form such that their leaders were not so vulnerable, and declined to reveal their names.
In January 1979, a new freshmen generation arrived to the university. Many of them had been members of the CEEM or student associations in the public institutes and had participated in the events of October 1978\. It was them who took the leadership of the AEU. But it was much more difficult to replace the fallen or exiled faculty, which resulted in a marked decline in the academic quality of the institution. Later, laws that severely restricted the university autonomy were proposed, and violating the constitutional mandate to give 5% of the national budget to the institution became commonplace for the government.{{harvnb\|Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Agudización\|1999\|p\=}}
#### Burning the Spain Embassy in Guatemala
{{See also\|Guatemalan Civil War}}
On 31 January 1980, several students from the University of San Carlos advised a k'iche' peasant group who wanted to let the world know about their precarious situation; when the country's newspapers did not dare to publish their demands, and after all legal avenues to be heard had been exhausted, the group decided to take the premises of the Embassy of Spain and use it as a platform for their demands.Ambassador [Máximo Cajal López](/wiki/M%C3%A1ximo_Cajal_L%C3%B3pez "Máximo Cajal López") had visited the k'iche' farmer communities a few months before, and had gathered information for a report on them, which was never published, but the draft of which still exists. The reaction of the government of general [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa "Fernando Romeo Lucas García") was strong and direct: police surrounded the premises of the embassy and after several hours of siege, the situation ended with the burning of the room where all the people who were inside the embassy had taken refuge, including almost the entire Embassy staff and some random visitors, including former vice president of Guatemala, [Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff](/wiki/Eduardo_C%C3%A1ceres_Lehnhoff "Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff") and former Foreign Affairs Minister, [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes "Adolfo Molina Orantes").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watchv\=FG6fh9M8wdc \|title \= Ni uno vivo\|website\=YouTube\|access\-date \= July 2, 2014\|language\=es}} The only two survivors were Ambassador [Máximo Cajal López](/wiki/M%C3%A1ximo_Cajal_L%C3%B3pez "Máximo Cajal López") and peasant Gregorio Yuja Xona, who were taken to the Private Hospital Herrera Llerandi. Yuja was kidnapped there and a group tried to kidnap the ambassador, but he was taken from the hospital just in time by the ambassador of Costa Rica in Guatemala; Cajal left the country that night. Yuja, meanwhile, was tortured and his body thrown off the premises of the president mansion at the University of San Carlos. His body was buried in the Heroes and Martyrs Plaza on Central Campus.
#### 1985 civil unrest: military invasion of Central Campus
{{Main\|Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores}}
During the government of general [Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores](/wiki/%C3%93scar_Humberto_Mej%C3%ADa_Victores "Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores"), the Mutual Support Group (GAM) \-led by [Nineth Montenegro](/wiki/Nineth_Montenegro "Nineth Montenegro")\- was founded{{sfn\|Siglo 21\|2010}} and the High School Student Coordination Group (CEEM) also gained considerable strength. The latter was formed by students from the Central National Institute for Boys, the Central Normal Institute for Young Ladies Belén and Rafael AquecheBy 1985, the economic elites had left Guatemala City downtown, along with these once premier schools which now were attended by the low middle and low income areas of the city. which organized mass protests in September 1985 against the rising prices for public transportation. At least ten people died in Guatemala City in the most extensive wave of urban unrest since protests against the government of [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa "Fernando Romeo Lucas García") in August 1978\. The unrest began with demonstrations against rising prices public transportation but then became widespread due to the bad economic situation the country was in at the time. Burning of buses, blockades and massive protests that resulted in destruction of public infrastructure occurred almost every day. The government responded with three thousand Army soldiers, whom supported by light armored forces and the riot squad of the National Police, were deployed in central and peripheral areas of the city. Also, the night of 3 September 1985 the University of San Carlos of Guatemala was occupied by the military who allegedly found an underground shooting range subversive propaganda.
Several hundred people were arrested and General Mejia Víctores addressed the nation through a television and radio address in which he announced measures to address prevailing social unrest. General Mejia announced public schools closure until further notice and the freezing of prices of consumer goods;{{harvnb\|El País\|1985\|p\=2}} in the end, as part of the process solution a high school student bonus was granted to both elementary and high schools so they could be transported free in public transportation, plus all the public school students were promoted by decree. Students who graduated by decree in 1985 were received with brutal initiations by the different student bodies through the university.
#### Constitution of 1985: Election of judges and university representatives before government institutions
* + - * + {{Quote box\|align\=right\|width\=400px\|Article 215\. Election of the Supreme Court
.
The judges of the Supreme Court shall be elected by \[\[Congress of Guatemala\|Congress]] for a period of five years, from a list of twenty\-six candidates proposed by a nominating committee consisting of a representative of the Presidents of the Universities of the country, who presides, the Deans of the Colleges of Law, an equal number of representatives elected by the General Assembly of the Association of Lawyers and Notaries of Guatemala and by an equal number of representatives elected by the judges holders the Court of Appeal and other courts that Article 217 of the Constitution refers to.
Article 269\. Integration of the Constitutionality Court.
The Constitutionality Court consists of five titular judges, each of whom has a substitute. When dealing with cases of unconstitutionality against the Supreme Court, the Congress, the President or the Vice President, the number of members can be increased to seven, choosing the two other judges from among the alternates. The judges shall hold office for five years and shall be appointed as follows:
\* One by the Supreme Court;
\* One by Congress;
\* One by the President in Council of Ministers;
\* A judge appointed by the Higher University Council of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala; and
\* A judge appointed by the Assembly of the Bar.
Simultaneously with the appointment of the holder, the respective alternate will be appointed by Congress.
\|Constitution of the Republic of Guatemala, 1985\.{{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|p\=169}}}}
After the murder or forced exile of most of its faculty, the stability of the College of Law after the [Guatemalan Civil War](/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War "Guatemalan Civil War") was recovered with deanship of Cipriano Soto Tobar, who took office in 1988\. Soto Tobar took a significant effort on hiring faculty. However, his main goal was to establish political networks to favor political lobbies exploiting the new role that the Constitution assigned to the University of San Carlos:{{cite web\|last\=Véliz\|first\=Rodrigo\|url\=https://nomada.gt/que\-hicieron\-los\-profesores\-de\-derecho\-para\-que\-la\-usac\-perdiera\-prestigio/\|title\=¿Qué hizo Derecho para que la USAC perdiera prestigio?\|year\=2014\|location\=Guatemala\|website\=Nómada\|language\=es}} which, enacted in 1985, entrusted the College of Law and the University of San Carlos with the task of naming representatives to the process of election of judges of the highest courts of the land,{{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|pp\=169\-170}} as well as the Comptroller General of Accounts,{{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|pp\=180\-181}} and the Chief Public Prosecutor {{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|p\=197}} Also, the university was given the power to send a judge to the Constitutionality Court.{{sfn\|Dighero Herrera\|2002\|p\=214}}
These networks took hold and strengthened through the 1990s, with relationships set up between institutions and societal sectors beyond the university. After leaving the deanship, the University Council nominated Soto to the Constitutionality Court, although there were persistent rumors that he was selling diplomas and certificates. However, his application was accepted because his involvement in these felonies could not be proved because no credible evidence was presented.{{sfn\|Hernández Pico\|2001\|p \=}} Two of his performances in the Constitutionality Court showed possible political compromise: first, he voted to validate an illegal adoption network and, then he voted in favor of the registration as a presidential candidate of general [Efraín Ríos Montt](/wiki/Efra%C3%ADn_R%C3%ADos_Montt "Efraín Ríos Montt"), despite the prohibition of the 1985 Constitution, which does not allowed as a candidate anybody that had been part of a coup d'état.{{sfn\|Castillo Zamora\|2013\|p\=}} In those years, adoption networks operating in Guatemala could collect up to US$60,000 per child and went from delivering 1200 children in 1997 to more than four thousand in 2004\.
Estuardo Galvez, who took that dean office in 2000 and later went on to become university president, was one of the members of the networks established by Soto; realizing the importance of the Bar Association, which was also a participant in the election of judges \-and until then controlled by lawyers linked to the traditional capital of the country\- Galvez sought from the beginning of his term to favor his post graduate students placing them in public institutions so that they could show their loyalty with favorable votes in the Bar elections. After several elections, and once Galvez was no longer dean, the network that Soto set up beat the traditional capital lawyers in the Bar Association elections by 300 votes; as recorded in the minutes, the majority of his votes were young lawyers \-his former students.
#### Student leaders murders in 1989
In 1987, the president of the Student Association "El Derecho" (AED), Willy Ligorría, was expelled from the Association of University Students (AEU) for embezzling funds from the [Huelga de Dolores](/wiki/Huelga_de_Dolores "Huelga de Dolores") Committee, for his direct involvement in an embezzlement money of the association and usurpation of functions and for signing as acting as general secretary in various activities and international documents. After his departure, a series of death threats against members of the board of the AEU began: in 1989 there was a steady escalation of threats, some of them signed by death squads as "the Dolorosa", the "Jaguar of Justice" or "Secret Anticommunist\-Army". Despite his expulsion, Ligorría, maintained a very high and combative profile, while his close friend, Marco Tulio Montenegro, was still part of AEU.{{cite journal\|url\=http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/guatemala/informeREMHI\-Tomo2\.htm\#t2c3\-m20\|author\=Informe REMHI\|journal\=Fundación Acción Pro\-Derechos Humanos\|title\=Proyecto Interdiocesano de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica \|year\=n.d.\|access\-date\=23 October 2013\|language\=es}}
In 1989, several student body leaders returned to Guatemala from exile intending to achieve a resurgence of student coordination, which was practically dismantled since the seventies. But on August 21, Iván Ernesto Gonzalez was arrested and kidnapped; the next day, Carlos Contreras Conde, leader of the University Student Movement (MEU), was abducted near the university. That same day Hugo Leonel Gramajo was abducted and introduced in a red pick\-up with foreign plates. On 23 August, Victor Hugo Rodriguez Jaramillo and Silvia Azurdia Utrera founders of MEU, were kidnapped and taken violently amid two cars that blocked their way. And Mario De León left a press conference that the Student Body held that day at around 19:45 hours and was detained by the National Police and has not been seen again since. Finally, Aaron Ochoa disappeared the next day.
During an emergency meeting in which the response to the government offensive was being discussed, Willy Ligorría called to say that he knew where Hugo Gramajo and Aaron Ochoa were hidden and that he could bring the still free student leaders to them. In September other members of the student movement, Carlos Chutá Carney, Carlos Humberto Cabrera and Carlos Palencia were kidnapped and found dead shortly afterwards.
After the murders of the student leaders, Ligorría spoke at some rallies in college and participated in the demonstrations that took place. On Saturday September 15 at 14:15 hours he left for Panamá along with Marco Tulio Montenegro and Byron Milian Vicente. Montenegro returned to Guatemala on 11 November 1989 to rejoin the AEU, but he was already a suspect, and was killed with knife soon after. Meanwhile, Ligorría was appointed head of research of public prosecutions.According to research that was subsequently conducted, it was determined that Ligorría had strong ties with a "gang" of zone 18, whose members went armed at all times; College students suspected that the "maras" had been formed by the army. Ligorría was also affiliated with the Democratic Socialist Party (PSD) and even wasted money in their university activities, although he always maintained a revolutionary speech, was a member of ORPA and maintained contact with Danilo Rodriguez, chief of the FAR. On September 12, 1997, the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, which became a political party after the peace accords, formally accused Ligorría for his involvement in the murder of the student leader, claiming that he was a member of military intelligence.
|
[
"### Repression and decline",
"{{Main\\|Guatemala Civil War}}",
"During general [Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes](/wiki/Miguel_Yd%C3%ADgoras_Fuentes \"Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes\") presidency, the university started suffering repression due to its position alongside the main labor unions, with three students murdered in front of the College of Law in 1962\\.",
"#### The EXMIBAL Case",
"During the government of [Julio César Méndez Montenegro](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_M%C3%A9ndez_Montenegro \"Julio César Méndez Montenegro\") the possibility of giving the nickel mines in [Izabal](/wiki/Izabal_Department \"Izabal Department\") in concession to a Canadian mining company was brought to the table, but it did not materialized. As soon as the general [Carlos Arana Osorio](/wiki/Carlos_Arana_Osorio \"Carlos Arana Osorio\") took office on 1 July 1970, he reopened the case and began working in for EXMIBAL to get a concession. However, many social sectors opposed to it, arguing that it would be too costly for the country. One of the main opponents was the commission that the [University of San Carlos](/wiki/University_of_San_Carlos \"University of San Carlos\") created to discuss the matter; among the members of the commission was the lawyer [Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López](/wiki/Oscar_Adolfo_Mijangos_L%C3%B3pez \"Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López\"), then representative in the [Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala \"Congress of Guatemala\"), the respected Guatemalan intellectual [Alfonso Bauer Paiz](/wiki/Alfonso_Bauer_Paiz \"Alfonso Bauer Paiz\") \\-who had been part of the staff of presidents [Juan José Arévalo Bermejo](/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Ar%C3%A9valo_Bermejo \"Juan José Arévalo Bermejo\") and [Jacobo Arbenz Guzman](/wiki/Jacobo_Arbenz_Guzman \"Jacobo Arbenz Guzman\"), and Julio Carney Herrera Both Camey Herrera and Bauer Paiz were shot in November 1970: Carney died of his wounds while Bauer Paz, severely wounded, had to go into exile.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a\\=7057\\|website\\=MAC: Mines and communities\\|title\\=Victimization – the EXMIBAL Story\\|last\\=Rakosy\\|first\\=Betsy\\|year\\=2002\\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006082651/http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a\\=7057\\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2014\\|language\\=es}}",
"The commission members had strongly opposed the conditions proposed by the Government to grant the concession EXMIBAL; after the attack against Bauer Paiz and Carney, on 13 February 1971 Mijangos López was assassinated by unknown assailants as he left his office long the 4th Avenue in Zone 1 of the [Guatemala City](/wiki/Guatemala_City \"Guatemala City\"). Mijangos Lopez had been under the fatal impression that the government was not going to assassinate him because he was on a wheelchair since 1958\\.",
"On 8 May 1971, Arana Osorio's administration finally granted the concession to EXMIBAL; it covered 385 square kilometers in the area of [El Estor](/wiki/El_Estor \"El Estor\"), with and initial investment of US$228 million. The mine, built in the mountains of indigenous maya Q'eqchi people, included a residential complex of 700 homes, numerous offices, a hospital, a small shopping center, school, a golf course and a large area for industrial processing.",
"#### Laugerud and Lucas García military governments",
"{{Main\\|Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García\\|Fernando Romeo Lucas García\\|Guatemalan Civil War}}",
"During the military governments of the seventies, the tension between the government and the university kept growing, until it reached its peak in 1978 during the massive demonstration that occurred to protest rising urban public transportation costs. The Association of University Students (AEU) had a leading role in the protests, but this brought persecution of their leaders and the murder of the secretary general of the association [Oliverio Castañeda de León](/wiki/Oliverio_Casta%C3%B1eda_de_Le%C3%B3n \"Oliverio Castañeda de León\"), on 20 October of that year. Just fifteen days after the murder of Castañeda de León, was missing his successor, Antonio Ciani García, and over the next 18 months almost every student leader and university faculty with political connections were threatened (even with the legal parties). Whoever did not paid attention and continued with their protest activities, was simply killed or kidnapped.",
"In early 1979, the following attacks occurred against renowned members of the university:\n* On 25 January 1979, [Alberto Fuentes Mohr](/wiki/Alberto_Fuentes_Mohr \"Alberto Fuentes Mohr\"), Doctor of Economics, [Congress](/wiki/Congress_of_Guatemala \"Congress of Guatemala\") representative, leader of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and former minister of Finance and Foreign Affairs during the administration of [Julio César Méndez Montenegro](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_M%C3%A9ndez_Montenegro \"Julio César Méndez Montenegro\"), was murdered.\n* That same day, but a few hours later, was shot and killed the student and union leader Ricardo Martinez Solorzano.\n* On 14 February, Manuel Lisandro Andrade Roca, general secretary of the university in the tenure of [Saúl Osorio Paz](/wiki/Sa%C3%BAl_Osorio_Paz \"Saúl Osorio Paz\") as university president \\-and a student leader during the \"Marches of 1962\"\\- was killed.\n* On 22 March, former Guatemala City mayor [Manuel Colom Argueta](/wiki/Manuel_Colom_Argueta \"Manuel Colom Argueta\") was killed, in an operation in which his murderers allegedly used a helicopter to direct the operation{{harvnb\\|Aguilera Peralta\\|Romero Imery\\|1981\\|pp\\=135–138}} Colom had been director of Center for Urban and Regional Studies (CEUR) of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala and a political leader of the United Revolutionary Front (FUR). Next to Fuentes Mohr, he was the most prominent members of the legal political opposition and their deaths ended, even more, the political space in Guatemala. These murders and threats against leaders of the FUR and the PSD continued in 1979 and 1980, and in subsequent years against the [Guatemalan Christian Democracy](/wiki/Guatemalan_Christian_Democracy \"Guatemalan Christian Democracy\") party.\nAt the university, university president [Saúl Osorio Paz](/wiki/Sa%C3%BAl_Osorio_Paz \"Saúl Osorio Paz\"), after attacks on his colleagues and death threats against him, began to live in presidency, protected by student brigades of the communist FRENTE student party. In an unprecedented case, the president directed the university from underground for almost two years.",
"The effect of state repression was worse on the student movement: the AEU ended decimated. Despite all this, the association continued to be a belligerent organization during this campaign of terror. To protect themselves, the AEU restructured its organizational form such that their leaders were not so vulnerable, and declined to reveal their names.",
"In January 1979, a new freshmen generation arrived to the university. Many of them had been members of the CEEM or student associations in the public institutes and had participated in the events of October 1978\\. It was them who took the leadership of the AEU. But it was much more difficult to replace the fallen or exiled faculty, which resulted in a marked decline in the academic quality of the institution. Later, laws that severely restricted the university autonomy were proposed, and violating the constitutional mandate to give 5% of the national budget to the institution became commonplace for the government.{{harvnb\\|Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Agudización\\|1999\\|p\\=}}",
"#### Burning the Spain Embassy in Guatemala",
"{{See also\\|Guatemalan Civil War}}",
"On 31 January 1980, several students from the University of San Carlos advised a k'iche' peasant group who wanted to let the world know about their precarious situation; when the country's newspapers did not dare to publish their demands, and after all legal avenues to be heard had been exhausted, the group decided to take the premises of the Embassy of Spain and use it as a platform for their demands.Ambassador [Máximo Cajal López](/wiki/M%C3%A1ximo_Cajal_L%C3%B3pez \"Máximo Cajal López\") had visited the k'iche' farmer communities a few months before, and had gathered information for a report on them, which was never published, but the draft of which still exists. The reaction of the government of general [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa \"Fernando Romeo Lucas García\") was strong and direct: police surrounded the premises of the embassy and after several hours of siege, the situation ended with the burning of the room where all the people who were inside the embassy had taken refuge, including almost the entire Embassy staff and some random visitors, including former vice president of Guatemala, [Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff](/wiki/Eduardo_C%C3%A1ceres_Lehnhoff \"Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff\") and former Foreign Affairs Minister, [Adolfo Molina Orantes](/wiki/Adolfo_Molina_Orantes \"Adolfo Molina Orantes\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watchv\\=FG6fh9M8wdc \\|title \\= Ni uno vivo\\|website\\=YouTube\\|access\\-date \\= July 2, 2014\\|language\\=es}} The only two survivors were Ambassador [Máximo Cajal López](/wiki/M%C3%A1ximo_Cajal_L%C3%B3pez \"Máximo Cajal López\") and peasant Gregorio Yuja Xona, who were taken to the Private Hospital Herrera Llerandi. Yuja was kidnapped there and a group tried to kidnap the ambassador, but he was taken from the hospital just in time by the ambassador of Costa Rica in Guatemala; Cajal left the country that night. Yuja, meanwhile, was tortured and his body thrown off the premises of the president mansion at the University of San Carlos. His body was buried in the Heroes and Martyrs Plaza on Central Campus.",
"#### 1985 civil unrest: military invasion of Central Campus",
"{{Main\\|Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores}}",
"During the government of general [Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores](/wiki/%C3%93scar_Humberto_Mej%C3%ADa_Victores \"Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores\"), the Mutual Support Group (GAM) \\-led by [Nineth Montenegro](/wiki/Nineth_Montenegro \"Nineth Montenegro\")\\- was founded{{sfn\\|Siglo 21\\|2010}} and the High School Student Coordination Group (CEEM) also gained considerable strength. The latter was formed by students from the Central National Institute for Boys, the Central Normal Institute for Young Ladies Belén and Rafael AquecheBy 1985, the economic elites had left Guatemala City downtown, along with these once premier schools which now were attended by the low middle and low income areas of the city. which organized mass protests in September 1985 against the rising prices for public transportation. At least ten people died in Guatemala City in the most extensive wave of urban unrest since protests against the government of [Fernando Romeo Lucas García](/wiki/Fernando_Romeo_Lucas_Garc%C3%ADa \"Fernando Romeo Lucas García\") in August 1978\\. The unrest began with demonstrations against rising prices public transportation but then became widespread due to the bad economic situation the country was in at the time. Burning of buses, blockades and massive protests that resulted in destruction of public infrastructure occurred almost every day. The government responded with three thousand Army soldiers, whom supported by light armored forces and the riot squad of the National Police, were deployed in central and peripheral areas of the city. Also, the night of 3 September 1985 the University of San Carlos of Guatemala was occupied by the military who allegedly found an underground shooting range subversive propaganda.",
"Several hundred people were arrested and General Mejia Víctores addressed the nation through a television and radio address in which he announced measures to address prevailing social unrest. General Mejia announced public schools closure until further notice and the freezing of prices of consumer goods;{{harvnb\\|El País\\|1985\\|p\\=2}} in the end, as part of the process solution a high school student bonus was granted to both elementary and high schools so they could be transported free in public transportation, plus all the public school students were promoted by decree. Students who graduated by decree in 1985 were received with brutal initiations by the different student bodies through the university.",
"#### Constitution of 1985: Election of judges and university representatives before government institutions",
"* + - * + {{Quote box\\|align\\=right\\|width\\=400px\\|Article 215\\. Election of the Supreme Court \n\t\t\t\t.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe judges of the Supreme Court shall be elected by \\[\\[Congress of Guatemala\\|Congress]] for a period of five years, from a list of twenty\\-six candidates proposed by a nominating committee consisting of a representative of the Presidents of the Universities of the country, who presides, the Deans of the Colleges of Law, an equal number of representatives elected by the General Assembly of the Association of Lawyers and Notaries of Guatemala and by an equal number of representatives elected by the judges holders the Court of Appeal and other courts that Article 217 of the Constitution refers to.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tArticle 269\\. Integration of the Constitutionality Court.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe Constitutionality Court consists of five titular judges, each of whom has a substitute. When dealing with cases of unconstitutionality against the Supreme Court, the Congress, the President or the Vice President, the number of members can be increased to seven, choosing the two other judges from among the alternates. The judges shall hold office for five years and shall be appointed as follows: \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\\* One by the Supreme Court;\n\t\t\t\t\\* One by Congress;\n\t\t\t\t\\* One by the President in Council of Ministers;\n\t\t\t\t\\* A judge appointed by the Higher University Council of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala; and\n\t\t\t\t\\* A judge appointed by the Assembly of the Bar.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSimultaneously with the appointment of the holder, the respective alternate will be appointed by Congress.\n\t\t\t\t\\|Constitution of the Republic of Guatemala, 1985\\.{{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|p\\=169}}}}",
"After the murder or forced exile of most of its faculty, the stability of the College of Law after the [Guatemalan Civil War](/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War \"Guatemalan Civil War\") was recovered with deanship of Cipriano Soto Tobar, who took office in 1988\\. Soto Tobar took a significant effort on hiring faculty. However, his main goal was to establish political networks to favor political lobbies exploiting the new role that the Constitution assigned to the University of San Carlos:{{cite web\\|last\\=Véliz\\|first\\=Rodrigo\\|url\\=https://nomada.gt/que\\-hicieron\\-los\\-profesores\\-de\\-derecho\\-para\\-que\\-la\\-usac\\-perdiera\\-prestigio/\\|title\\=¿Qué hizo Derecho para que la USAC perdiera prestigio?\\|year\\=2014\\|location\\=Guatemala\\|website\\=Nómada\\|language\\=es}} which, enacted in 1985, entrusted the College of Law and the University of San Carlos with the task of naming representatives to the process of election of judges of the highest courts of the land,{{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|pp\\=169\\-170}} as well as the Comptroller General of Accounts,{{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|pp\\=180\\-181}} and the Chief Public Prosecutor {{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|p\\=197}} Also, the university was given the power to send a judge to the Constitutionality Court.{{sfn\\|Dighero Herrera\\|2002\\|p\\=214}}",
"These networks took hold and strengthened through the 1990s, with relationships set up between institutions and societal sectors beyond the university. After leaving the deanship, the University Council nominated Soto to the Constitutionality Court, although there were persistent rumors that he was selling diplomas and certificates. However, his application was accepted because his involvement in these felonies could not be proved because no credible evidence was presented.{{sfn\\|Hernández Pico\\|2001\\|p \\=}} Two of his performances in the Constitutionality Court showed possible political compromise: first, he voted to validate an illegal adoption network and, then he voted in favor of the registration as a presidential candidate of general [Efraín Ríos Montt](/wiki/Efra%C3%ADn_R%C3%ADos_Montt \"Efraín Ríos Montt\"), despite the prohibition of the 1985 Constitution, which does not allowed as a candidate anybody that had been part of a coup d'état.{{sfn\\|Castillo Zamora\\|2013\\|p\\=}} In those years, adoption networks operating in Guatemala could collect up to US$60,000 per child and went from delivering 1200 children in 1997 to more than four thousand in 2004\\.",
"Estuardo Galvez, who took that dean office in 2000 and later went on to become university president, was one of the members of the networks established by Soto; realizing the importance of the Bar Association, which was also a participant in the election of judges \\-and until then controlled by lawyers linked to the traditional capital of the country\\- Galvez sought from the beginning of his term to favor his post graduate students placing them in public institutions so that they could show their loyalty with favorable votes in the Bar elections. After several elections, and once Galvez was no longer dean, the network that Soto set up beat the traditional capital lawyers in the Bar Association elections by 300 votes; as recorded in the minutes, the majority of his votes were young lawyers \\-his former students.",
"#### Student leaders murders in 1989",
"In 1987, the president of the Student Association \"El Derecho\" (AED), Willy Ligorría, was expelled from the Association of University Students (AEU) for embezzling funds from the [Huelga de Dolores](/wiki/Huelga_de_Dolores \"Huelga de Dolores\") Committee, for his direct involvement in an embezzlement money of the association and usurpation of functions and for signing as acting as general secretary in various activities and international documents. After his departure, a series of death threats against members of the board of the AEU began: in 1989 there was a steady escalation of threats, some of them signed by death squads as \"the Dolorosa\", the \"Jaguar of Justice\" or \"Secret Anticommunist\\-Army\". Despite his expulsion, Ligorría, maintained a very high and combative profile, while his close friend, Marco Tulio Montenegro, was still part of AEU.{{cite journal\\|url\\=http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/guatemala/informeREMHI\\-Tomo2\\.htm\\#t2c3\\-m20\\|author\\=Informe REMHI\\|journal\\=Fundación Acción Pro\\-Derechos Humanos\\|title\\=Proyecto Interdiocesano de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica \\|year\\=n.d.\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2013\\|language\\=es}}",
"In 1989, several student body leaders returned to Guatemala from exile intending to achieve a resurgence of student coordination, which was practically dismantled since the seventies. But on August 21, Iván Ernesto Gonzalez was arrested and kidnapped; the next day, Carlos Contreras Conde, leader of the University Student Movement (MEU), was abducted near the university. That same day Hugo Leonel Gramajo was abducted and introduced in a red pick\\-up with foreign plates. On 23 August, Victor Hugo Rodriguez Jaramillo and Silvia Azurdia Utrera founders of MEU, were kidnapped and taken violently amid two cars that blocked their way. And Mario De León left a press conference that the Student Body held that day at around 19:45 hours and was detained by the National Police and has not been seen again since. Finally, Aaron Ochoa disappeared the next day.",
"During an emergency meeting in which the response to the government offensive was being discussed, Willy Ligorría called to say that he knew where Hugo Gramajo and Aaron Ochoa were hidden and that he could bring the still free student leaders to them. In September other members of the student movement, Carlos Chutá Carney, Carlos Humberto Cabrera and Carlos Palencia were kidnapped and found dead shortly afterwards.",
"After the murders of the student leaders, Ligorría spoke at some rallies in college and participated in the demonstrations that took place. On Saturday September 15 at 14:15 hours he left for Panamá along with Marco Tulio Montenegro and Byron Milian Vicente. Montenegro returned to Guatemala on 11 November 1989 to rejoin the AEU, but he was already a suspect, and was killed with knife soon after. Meanwhile, Ligorría was appointed head of research of public prosecutions.According to research that was subsequently conducted, it was determined that Ligorría had strong ties with a \"gang\" of zone 18, whose members went armed at all times; College students suspected that the \"maras\" had been formed by the army. Ligorría was also affiliated with the Democratic Socialist Party (PSD) and even wasted money in their university activities, although he always maintained a revolutionary speech, was a member of ORPA and maintained contact with Danilo Rodriguez, chief of the FAR. On September 12, 1997, the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, which became a political party after the peace accords, formally accused Ligorría for his involvement in the murder of the student leader, claiming that he was a member of military intelligence.",
""
] |
Collections
-----------
[right\|thumb\|upright\|alt\=Older, bearded man in suit, spectacles and bow tie\|German\-Brazilian zoologist [Hermann von Ihering](/wiki/Hermann_von_Ihering "Hermann von Ihering") (1850–1930\) led the effort to acquire and study many of MZUSP's earliest specimens.](/wiki/File:Hermann_von_Ihering.jpg "Hermann von Ihering.jpg")
The Museum of Zoology is home to several significant zoological collections. Each is curated independently and organized for each animal group. It is one of Latin America's largest biological collections, with nearly 8\.5 million specimens. Several sub\-collections are among the largest in the Americas and the world, with a large number of [type specimens](/wiki/Type_specimen "Type specimen") and specimens of species now [extinct](/wiki/Extinct "Extinct"). The preparation of specimens intended for public exhibition is separate from that of research specimens.{{cite book\|last\=de Abreu\|first\=Adilson Avansi\|title\=Quantos anos faz o Brasil?\|year\=2000\|publisher\=EDUSP, Ed. da Universidade de São Paulo\|location\=São Paulo\|isbn\=85\-314\-0546\-7\|pages\=70–97\|edition\=Portuguese \& English}}
### {{anchor\|Ichthyological collection}}Fish
In 2000, the [ichthyological](/wiki/Ichthyological "Ichthyological") collection was considered one of the largest [neotropical](/wiki/Neotropical "Neotropical") fish collections and one of the 10 largest overall worldwide. It contained nearly 1\.3 million specimens, primarily preserved in [ethanol](/wiki/Ethanol "Ethanol"). By 2013 it had 100,000 lots (each lot may contain several specimens) stored in bottles, barrels and plastic boxes, occupying an area of {{convert\|700\|m2\|sqft}}.{{cite web\|title\=Coleção ictiológica\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=2137\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=7 November 2013}} Most of the fish were collected in Brazil, and the number of freshwater specimens is seven times greater than saltwater specimens.
The collection began at the end of the 19th century, in common with the other MZUSP collections, and by 1940 it comprised 3,000 lots. During the 1960s several experts were hired; the collection expanded considerably due to research expeditions and prospecting off the southern coast of Brazil by the [Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo](/wiki/Oceanographic_Institute_of_the_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo"). With the establishment of graduate programs and Brazilian research, the collection continues to grow.
### {{anchor\|Herpetological collection}}Reptiles and amphibians
In 2000 the museum's [herpetological](/wiki/Herpetological "Herpetological") collection was considered the sixth\-largest of its kind, and it is recognized as the largest assemblage of South American reptiles and [amphibians](/wiki/Amphibian "Amphibian").{{cite web\|language\=Portuguese\|title\=Coleção Herpetológica\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=2125\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=6 November 2013}} In 2013 it comprised 260,000 specimens (an increase of nearly 12 percent over 230,000 specimens 13 years earlier), including nearly 120,000 reptiles and 140,000 [amphibians](/wiki/Amphibian "Amphibian") (primarily preserved in wet media). The collection also features a large number of tissue samples (about 6,850 items) and almost 1,000 skeletons, preserved dry.
The herpetological collection began as material from sporadic expeditions by the end of the 19th century, which was still housed in the Museu Paulista. Most specimens were identified by researchers during the early 20th century. In 1946, [zoologist](/wiki/Zoologist "Zoologist") [Paulo Emílio Vanzolini](/wiki/Paulo_Em%C3%ADlio_Vanzolini "Paulo Emílio Vanzolini") became the curator of herpetology. Vanzolini was primarily responsible for the collection's expansion from about 1,200 specimens to its current size. In March 2002, he was succeeded by zoologist [Hussam El Dine Zaher](/wiki/Hussam_El_Dine_Zaher "Hussam El Dine Zaher").
### {{anchor\|Ornithological collection}}Birds
The [ornithological](/wiki/Ornithological "Ornithological") collection is the world's largest and most\-complete assembly of Brazilian birds. In 2013 this collection included 85,000 [taxidermized](/wiki/Taxidermy "Taxidermy") specimens of 150 [types](/wiki/Type_%28biology%29 "Type (biology)"), kept in storage cabinets (a 12\-percent increase over the 75,000 specimens the collection had 13 years earlier). The ornithological collection also contains tissue samples (about 4,000 items), 2,000 nests, 3,000 eggs, with over 2,000 specimens preserved in wet media. There are also recorded [vocalizations](/wiki/Animal_communication "Animal communication") from over 800 species.{{cite web\|title\=Coleção Ornitológica\|language\=Portuguese\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=2168%20C\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=7 November 2013}}
The ornithology collection dates to the first collections in the Museu Paulista, with its first known specimens collected during the late 19th century. During this first phase, the collection was curated by zoologist Hermann von Ihering and expeditions were conducted which generated knowledge of the Brazilian [avifauna](/wiki/Avifauna "Avifauna")'s diversity. Traveling naturalists associated with the museum explored remote areas (including [Juruá](/wiki/Juru%C3%A1 "Juruá") in 1902 and other regions of Brazil) and collected specimens. After Ihering's departure in 1916, field activity associated with the ornithological collection decreased. After 1929, under the curatorship of zoologist [Olivério Pinto](/wiki/Oliv%C3%A9rio_Pinto "Olivério Pinto"), activity increased; surveys were conducted in all [biomes](/wiki/Biome "Biome"), in a number of locations. Benefiting from the activity of Ecuadorian collector A. Martins Olalla, the ornithology collection became the largest and most\-complete Brazilian collection of its kind. Under Pinto's many scientific works were published, including Brazilian bird catalogs and the unfinished *[Ornithologia brasiliense](/wiki/Ornithologia_brasiliense "Ornithologia brasiliense")*.
Pinto was succeeded by Eurico Camargo and [Helio Camargo](/wiki/H%C3%A9lio_Ferraz_de_Almeida_Camargo "Hélio Ferraz de Almeida Camargo"), who continued the tradition of describing and documenting the diversity of Brazilian birds at MZUSP. After Camargo's 1981 retirement, the collection stagnated until sampling and cataloging activities were resumed in 2003\. The ornithology collection is curated by zoologist Luis Fábio Silveira.{{cite web\|title\=Ornitologia\|language\=Portuguese\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=291\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=7 November 2013}}
### {{anchor\|Mammal collection}}Mammals
In 2013, the [mammal](/wiki/Mammal "Mammal") collection comprised 50,000 specimens (an increase of almost 80 percent over the 28,000 specimens recorded in 2000\) collected in Brazilian territory, especially from the southeast and the [Amazon rainforest](/wiki/Amazon_rainforest "Amazon rainforest").{{cite web\|title\=Coleção mastozoológica\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=2156\|language\=Portuguese\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=7 November 2013}} In 2000, the museum's mammal collection was considered the second\-largest in the Americas. Its first known specimens were catalogued in 1895\. In 1930 zoologist [Carlos Octaviano da Cunha Vieira](/wiki/Carlos_Octaviano_da_Cunha_Vieira "Carlos Octaviano da Cunha Vieira") became the mammal collection's first curator, remaining in the position until his death in 1958\. During his tenure Vieira expanded the collection from about 3,000 to more than 15,000 specimens, publishing catalogues and [monographs](/wiki/Monograph "Monograph") on Brazilian mammals. Vieira was succeeded by zoologist Cory Carvalho, who was curator of the mammal collection from 1960 to 1961\. After Carvalho's departure the collection did not have an exclusive curator until 1999, when zoologist [Mario de Vivo](/wiki/Mario_de_Vivo "Mario de Vivo") assumed the position.
### {{anchor\|Crustacean collection}}Crustaceans
In 2013 the [crustacean](/wiki/Crustacean "Crustacean") collection comprised over 500,000 specimens (an increase of 2,381 percent over the 21,000 specimens catalogued in 2000\), and was considered one of the largest in Latin America.{{cite web\|title\=Coleção Carcinológica\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=1721\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=12 November 2013}} It includes 600 type specimens. The marine lots primarily comprise species from the Western Atlantic (especially the region between [French Guiana](/wiki/French_Guiana "French Guiana") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina")), and includes extensive material of the [order](/wiki/Order_%28biology%29 "Order (biology)") [Decapoda](/wiki/Decapoda "Decapoda") from other [oceanic basins](/wiki/Oceanic_basin "Oceanic basin") (including the [Indo\-Pacific](/wiki/Indo-Pacific "Indo-Pacific") and [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea")). The terrestrial and freshwater specimens are primarily from the [Neotropics](/wiki/Neotropical_realm "Neotropical realm"), including nearly all regions of Brazil. The collection began in 1894 (then at the Museu Paulista) with the work of Hermann von Ihering and his colleagues, including Ernest Garbe and Hermann von Lüderwaldt. In 1939 the collection was transferred to the Department of Zoology, where it remained until 1969 (when it was incorporated into the University of São Paulo). In 1961 the Department of Zoology hired [Gustavo Augusto Schmidt de Melo](/wiki/Gustavo_Augusto_Schmidt_de_Melo "Gustavo Augusto Schmidt de Melo"), who has participated in a number of expeditions emphasizing the collection of decapod crustaceans in marine and continental waters. Since 2003, the collection has been curated by zoologist [Marcos Domingos Siqueira Tavares](/wiki/Marcos_Domingos_Siqueira_Tavares "Marcos Domingos Siqueira Tavares").
### {{anchor\|Insect collection}}Insects
In 2000 the insect collection was the largest collection at MZUSP, with over 4\.8 million specimens preserved dry ([pinned](/wiki/Entomological_equipment_for_mounting_and_storage "Entomological equipment for mounting and storage")) or in ethanol. The collection is an aggregation of smaller collections focused on individual insect [orders](/wiki/Order_%28biology%29 "Order (biology)"), such as [Coleoptera](/wiki/Coleoptera "Coleoptera") (beetles), [Diptera](/wiki/Diptera "Diptera") (true flies), [Hemiptera](/wiki/Hemiptera "Hemiptera") (true bugs), [Hymenoptera](/wiki/Hymenoptera "Hymenoptera") (sawflies, wasps, bees and ants), [Isoptera](/wiki/Isoptera "Isoptera") (termites) and [Lepidoptera](/wiki/Lepidoptera "Lepidoptera") (moths and butterflies). Each collection is curated independently.{{cite web\|title\=Entomologia\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=1028\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=12 November 2013\|language\=Portuguese}}
Coleoptera
The [Coleoptera](/wiki/Beetle "Beetle") collection is the second\-largest insect collection at MZUSP, with nearly a million specimens from 257 [families](/wiki/Family_%28biology%29 "Family (biology)") (106 of which occur in Brazil). The collection consists primarily of neotropical species (from Brazil), and includes nearly 1,300 [primary types](/wiki/Name-bearing_type "Name-bearing type").{{cite web\|title\=Coleção de Coleoptera – Adultos\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=3170\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=14 November 2013\|language\=Portuguese}} Coleopteran [larvae](/wiki/Larvae "Larvae") are kept in metallic cabinets as a distinct collection. All its 40,000 specimens were raised in the laboratory, including 18,000 adults, 19,000 larvae and 3,200 [pupae](/wiki/Pupae "Pupae") from about 90 families. Most adult specimens are stored with the immature specimens (preserved in ethanol), but a small number are kept dry in separate cabinets. The collection consists primarily of species collected in Brazilian states such as [Pará](/wiki/Par%C3%A1 "Pará"), Mato Grosso [Federal District](/wiki/Federal_District_%28Brazil%29 "Federal District (Brazil)"), Mato Grosso do Sul, [Goiás](/wiki/Goi%C3%A1s "Goiás"), Minas Gerais, [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"), São Paulo, [Paraná](/wiki/Paran%C3%A1_%28state%29 "Paraná (state)") and [Rio Grande do Sul](/wiki/Rio_Grande_do_Sul "Rio Grande do Sul").{{cite web\|title\=Coleção de Coleoptera – Larvas\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=1707\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=14 November 2013\|language\=Portuguese}}
Diptera
The [Diptera](/wiki/Fly "Fly") collection is the largest insect collection at the MZUSP. It consists of 550,000 specimens preserved dry and more than 500,000 individuals preserved in ethanol, totalling over 1,050,000 specimens. It is considered the largest collection in Latin America and one of the most important in the world because of its large number of types.{{cite web\|title\=Coleção de Diptera\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=3188\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=14 November 2013}} The Diptera collection began in the former Zoology Section of the Museu Paulista. During the 20th century, it was amassed and curated with the aid of several researchers: Messias Carrera and Maria Aparecida Vulcano d'Andretta during the 1940s, José Henrique Guimarães and Nelson Papavero during the 1960s, and Nelson Bernardi and Francisca do Val during the early 1970s.
Hymenoptera
The [Hymenoptera](/wiki/Hymenoptera "Hymenoptera") collection comprises [wasps](/wiki/Wasps "Wasps"), [ants](/wiki/Ants "Ants") and [bees](/wiki/Bees "Bees") from acquisitions and exchanges with other institutions and expeditions. The first catalogued specimens were collected by [Hermann von Lüderwaldt](/wiki/Hermann_von_L%C3%BCderwaldt "Hermann von Lüderwaldt") and Hermann von Ihering during the early 20th century. The museum's bee collection was primarily acquired in São Paulo state, and is considered among the three largest collections of its kind in the country. The collection of [aculeate](/wiki/Bee_sting "Bee sting") wasps is notable for its representation of groups such as [Chrysididae](/wiki/Chrysididae "Chrysididae") (cuckoo wasps), [Mutillidae](/wiki/Mutillidae "Mutillidae") (ant\-witches), [Vespidae](/wiki/Vespidae "Vespidae") and, in particular, [Pompilidae](/wiki/Pompilidae "Pompilidae") (spider wasps), [Sphecidae](/wiki/Sphecidae "Sphecidae") (thread\-waisted wasps) and [Crabronidae](/wiki/Crabronidae "Crabronidae"). The [Formicidae](/wiki/Formicidae "Formicidae") (ant) collection is considered the most representative of the neotropical region for its number of type specimens, [species diversity](/wiki/Species_diversity "Species diversity") and geographical coverage.{{cite web\|title\=Hymenoptera\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=498\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=14 November 2013}}
Isoptera
The [Isoptera](/wiki/Termite "Termite") collection consists of nearly 18,000 specimens from all Brazilian [biomes](/wiki/Biomes "Biomes"). It includes specimens of all known [genera](/wiki/Genus_%28biology%29 "Genus (biology)") in the neotropical region, most of the [palearctic](/wiki/Palearctic "Palearctic") and [nearctic](/wiki/Nearctic "Nearctic"), Asia, Australia and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia").{{cite web\|title\=Isoptera – Cupins e outros Ortopteróides\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=500\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=14 November 2013}}
Lepidoptera
[thumb\|Brazilian butterfly collection](/wiki/File:Brazilian_butterflies_collection%2C_Zoology_Museum%2C_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo.jpg "Brazilian butterflies collection, Zoology Museum, University of São Paulo.jpg")
The [Lepidoptera](/wiki/Lepidoptera "Lepidoptera") collection contains nearly 290,000 specimens of butterflies and moths, and is considered second\-largest public collection in the country. The largest number of types are Lepidoptera collected in southeastern Brazil. The specimens, overall, are primarily from the neotropics. The collection began in the late 19th century (including material collected by Ernst Garbe, Hermann von Lüderwaldt and R. Spitz during the early 20th century), and was curated by zoologist Lauro Travassos from the 1940s to 1969\. Since 2006, the collection has been curated by zoologist Marcelo Duarte da Silva.{{cite web\|title\=Coleção de Lepidoptera\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=1133\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=14 November 2013}}
### {{anchor\|Malacological collection}}Molluscs
The museum's [malacological](/wiki/Malacology "Malacology") collection is probably the largest in Latin America; in 2000, there were nearly 40,000 catalogued lots. By 2013 the collection more than doubled, reaching over 100,000 lots and about 1,000,000 specimens preserved dry ([mollusc shells](/wiki/Mollusc_shell "Mollusc shell")) or in ethanol (whole animals with the shell and soft parts, or soft parts alone). The collection has over 1,000 [type specimens](/wiki/Type_specimen "Type specimen"): [primary](/wiki/Name-bearing_type "Name-bearing type") or secondary ([paratypes](/wiki/Paratype "Paratype") and [paralectotypes](/wiki/Paralectotype "Paralectotype")).{{cite web\|title\=Coleção de Mollusca\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=2202\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|accessdate\=8 November 2013\|language\=Portuguese}}{{cite journal\|last\=Dornellas\|first\=Ana Paula Siqueira\|author2\=Simone, Luiz Ricardo Lopes\|title\=Annotated list of type specimens of mollusks deposited in museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil\|journal\=Arquivos de Zoologia\|year\=2011\|volume\=42\|issue\=1\|pages\=1–81\|url\=http://www.moluscos.org/trabalhos/2011/Dornellas%20\&%20Simone%202011a%20MZUSP%20types.pdf\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|location\=São Paulo, Brazil\|issn\=0066\-7870}} It comprises specimens from many global regions, with an emphasis on the neotropics and [western Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean") coast. The collection's earliest specimens predate the Museu Paulista; nearly 2,000 specimens date to the 1880s, originating in Hermann von Ihering's collection which he brought to Brazil. Several researchers curated the collection during the 20th century, including Frederico Lange de Morretes (the 1930s), Eveline and [Ernst Marcus](/wiki/Ernst_Gustav_Gotthelf_Marcus "Ernst Gustav Gotthelf Marcus") (the 1950s) and José Luiz Moreira Leme (from the 1960s to the early 2000s). The collection is curated by zoologist Luiz Ricardo Lopes de Simone.
### {{anchor\|Arachnid collection}}Arachnids
The [arachnid](/wiki/Arachnid "Arachnid") collection is considered the third\-largest in Brazil (the second\-largest in the number of type\-specimens), with nearly 32,000 lots (an increase of more than 56 percent over the 18,000 lots catalogued in 2000\) primarily preserved in ethanol. Three\-quarters of the lots are spiders and one\-fifth are [harvestmen](/wiki/Harvestmen "Harvestmen") from Brazil. There are nearly 600 primary type specimens, of which 60 percent are spiders and 28 percent are harvestmen. The collection began with specimens collected by researchers and travelling naturalists during the 19th and early 20th centuries.{{cite web\|title\=Coleção de Arachnida\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=295\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=7 November 2013}} The collection is curated by zoologist Ricardo Pinto\-da\-Rocha.{{cite web\|title\=Chelicerata\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=295\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=7 November 2013}}
### {{anchor\|Marine invertebrates collection}}Marine invertebrates
The marine invertebrate collection is composed of specimens from [taxa](/wiki/Taxa "Taxa") other than crustaceans and molluscs. It includes [Annelida](/wiki/Annelida "Annelida"), [Brachiopoda](/wiki/Brachiopoda "Brachiopoda"), [Bryozoa](/wiki/Bryozoa "Bryozoa"), [Cestoda](/wiki/Cestoda "Cestoda"), [Cephalochordata](/wiki/Cephalochordata "Cephalochordata"), [Hemichordata](/wiki/Hemichordata "Hemichordata"), [Cnidaria](/wiki/Cnidaria "Cnidaria"), [Ctenophora](/wiki/Ctenophora "Ctenophora"), [Echinodermata](/wiki/Echinodermata "Echinodermata"), [Echiura](/wiki/Echiura "Echiura"), [Entoprocta](/wiki/Entoprocta "Entoprocta"), [Nematoda](/wiki/Nematoda "Nematoda"), [Foraminifera](/wiki/Foraminifera "Foraminifera"), [Phoronida](/wiki/Phoronida "Phoronida"), [Rotifera](/wiki/Rotifera "Rotifera"), [Turbellaria](/wiki/Turbellaria "Turbellaria"), [Trematoda](/wiki/Trematoda "Trematoda"), [Urochordata](/wiki/Urochordata "Urochordata"), [Porifera](/wiki/Porifera "Porifera"), [Priapulida](/wiki/Priapulida "Priapulida") and [Sipuncula](/wiki/Sipuncula "Sipuncula"). Specimens are mostly marine ([Western Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean") and [Antarctic Ocean](/wiki/Antarctic_Ocean "Antarctic Ocean")), but some are neotropical freshwater and terrestrial.{{cite web\|title\=Coleção Invertebrados Marinhos\|url\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\_id\=2452\|work\=MZUSP Official Website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=7 November 2013}} Containing nearly 200,000 lots and 200 type specimens, the collection was built with the efforts of late\-19th\-century researchers including Ernst and Eveline Marcus, [Gilberto Righi](/wiki/Gilberto_Righi "Gilberto Righi"), [Luis Roberto Tommasi](/wiki/Luis_Roberto_Tommasi "Luis Roberto Tommasi"), [Antonio Sérgio Ferreira Ditadi](/wiki/Antonio_S%C3%A9rgio_Ferreira_Ditadi "Antonio Sérgio Ferreira Ditadi"), [Jeanete Maron Ramos](/wiki/Jeanete_Maron_Ramos "Jeanete Maron Ramos"), [Gertrude Rita Kloss](/wiki/Gertrude_Rita_Kloss "Gertrude Rita Kloss") and [Sérgio de Almeida Rodrigues](/wiki/S%C3%A9rgio_de_Almeida_Rodrigues "Sérgio de Almeida Rodrigues").
### Other collections
In 2000, the [Acari](/wiki/Acari "Acari") (mites) collection of MZUSP was considered the second\-largest in Brazil with 1,500 lots. The [paleontological](/wiki/Paleontological "Paleontological") collection harbors fossils extracted from Brazilian [sedimentary basins](/wiki/Sedimentary_basin "Sedimentary basin"), including [Bauru](/wiki/Bauru_Group "Bauru Group"), São Francisco and Araripe.{{cite web\|title\=Paleontologia\|url\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\_id\=214\|work\=MZUSP Official website\|publisher\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\|language\=Portuguese\|accessdate\=7 November 2013}} In 2000, the [Myriapod](/wiki/Myriapod "Myriapod") (millipedes and centipedes) collection was considered the largest of its kind in Brazil with nearly 8,800 lots.
|
[
"Collections\n-----------",
"[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=Older, bearded man in suit, spectacles and bow tie\\|German\\-Brazilian zoologist [Hermann von Ihering](/wiki/Hermann_von_Ihering \"Hermann von Ihering\") (1850–1930\\) led the effort to acquire and study many of MZUSP's earliest specimens.](/wiki/File:Hermann_von_Ihering.jpg \"Hermann von Ihering.jpg\")\nThe Museum of Zoology is home to several significant zoological collections. Each is curated independently and organized for each animal group. It is one of Latin America's largest biological collections, with nearly 8\\.5 million specimens. Several sub\\-collections are among the largest in the Americas and the world, with a large number of [type specimens](/wiki/Type_specimen \"Type specimen\") and specimens of species now [extinct](/wiki/Extinct \"Extinct\"). The preparation of specimens intended for public exhibition is separate from that of research specimens.{{cite book\\|last\\=de Abreu\\|first\\=Adilson Avansi\\|title\\=Quantos anos faz o Brasil?\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=EDUSP, Ed. da Universidade de São Paulo\\|location\\=São Paulo\\|isbn\\=85\\-314\\-0546\\-7\\|pages\\=70–97\\|edition\\=Portuguese \\& English}}",
"### {{anchor\\|Ichthyological collection}}Fish",
"In 2000, the [ichthyological](/wiki/Ichthyological \"Ichthyological\") collection was considered one of the largest [neotropical](/wiki/Neotropical \"Neotropical\") fish collections and one of the 10 largest overall worldwide. It contained nearly 1\\.3 million specimens, primarily preserved in [ethanol](/wiki/Ethanol \"Ethanol\"). By 2013 it had 100,000 lots (each lot may contain several specimens) stored in bottles, barrels and plastic boxes, occupying an area of {{convert\\|700\\|m2\\|sqft}}.{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção ictiológica\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=2137\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=7 November 2013}} Most of the fish were collected in Brazil, and the number of freshwater specimens is seven times greater than saltwater specimens.",
"The collection began at the end of the 19th century, in common with the other MZUSP collections, and by 1940 it comprised 3,000 lots. During the 1960s several experts were hired; the collection expanded considerably due to research expeditions and prospecting off the southern coast of Brazil by the [Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo](/wiki/Oceanographic_Institute_of_the_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo\"). With the establishment of graduate programs and Brazilian research, the collection continues to grow.",
"### {{anchor\\|Herpetological collection}}Reptiles and amphibians",
"In 2000 the museum's [herpetological](/wiki/Herpetological \"Herpetological\") collection was considered the sixth\\-largest of its kind, and it is recognized as the largest assemblage of South American reptiles and [amphibians](/wiki/Amphibian \"Amphibian\").{{cite web\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|title\\=Coleção Herpetológica\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=2125\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=6 November 2013}} In 2013 it comprised 260,000 specimens (an increase of nearly 12 percent over 230,000 specimens 13 years earlier), including nearly 120,000 reptiles and 140,000 [amphibians](/wiki/Amphibian \"Amphibian\") (primarily preserved in wet media). The collection also features a large number of tissue samples (about 6,850 items) and almost 1,000 skeletons, preserved dry.",
"The herpetological collection began as material from sporadic expeditions by the end of the 19th century, which was still housed in the Museu Paulista. Most specimens were identified by researchers during the early 20th century. In 1946, [zoologist](/wiki/Zoologist \"Zoologist\") [Paulo Emílio Vanzolini](/wiki/Paulo_Em%C3%ADlio_Vanzolini \"Paulo Emílio Vanzolini\") became the curator of herpetology. Vanzolini was primarily responsible for the collection's expansion from about 1,200 specimens to its current size. In March 2002, he was succeeded by zoologist [Hussam El Dine Zaher](/wiki/Hussam_El_Dine_Zaher \"Hussam El Dine Zaher\").",
"### {{anchor\\|Ornithological collection}}Birds",
"The [ornithological](/wiki/Ornithological \"Ornithological\") collection is the world's largest and most\\-complete assembly of Brazilian birds. In 2013 this collection included 85,000 [taxidermized](/wiki/Taxidermy \"Taxidermy\") specimens of 150 [types](/wiki/Type_%28biology%29 \"Type (biology)\"), kept in storage cabinets (a 12\\-percent increase over the 75,000 specimens the collection had 13 years earlier). The ornithological collection also contains tissue samples (about 4,000 items), 2,000 nests, 3,000 eggs, with over 2,000 specimens preserved in wet media. There are also recorded [vocalizations](/wiki/Animal_communication \"Animal communication\") from over 800 species.{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção Ornitológica\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=2168%20C\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=7 November 2013}}",
"The ornithology collection dates to the first collections in the Museu Paulista, with its first known specimens collected during the late 19th century. During this first phase, the collection was curated by zoologist Hermann von Ihering and expeditions were conducted which generated knowledge of the Brazilian [avifauna](/wiki/Avifauna \"Avifauna\")'s diversity. Traveling naturalists associated with the museum explored remote areas (including [Juruá](/wiki/Juru%C3%A1 \"Juruá\") in 1902 and other regions of Brazil) and collected specimens. After Ihering's departure in 1916, field activity associated with the ornithological collection decreased. After 1929, under the curatorship of zoologist [Olivério Pinto](/wiki/Oliv%C3%A9rio_Pinto \"Olivério Pinto\"), activity increased; surveys were conducted in all [biomes](/wiki/Biome \"Biome\"), in a number of locations. Benefiting from the activity of Ecuadorian collector A. Martins Olalla, the ornithology collection became the largest and most\\-complete Brazilian collection of its kind. Under Pinto's many scientific works were published, including Brazilian bird catalogs and the unfinished *[Ornithologia brasiliense](/wiki/Ornithologia_brasiliense \"Ornithologia brasiliense\")*.",
"Pinto was succeeded by Eurico Camargo and [Helio Camargo](/wiki/H%C3%A9lio_Ferraz_de_Almeida_Camargo \"Hélio Ferraz de Almeida Camargo\"), who continued the tradition of describing and documenting the diversity of Brazilian birds at MZUSP. After Camargo's 1981 retirement, the collection stagnated until sampling and cataloging activities were resumed in 2003\\. The ornithology collection is curated by zoologist Luis Fábio Silveira.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ornitologia\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=291\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=7 November 2013}}",
"### {{anchor\\|Mammal collection}}Mammals",
"In 2013, the [mammal](/wiki/Mammal \"Mammal\") collection comprised 50,000 specimens (an increase of almost 80 percent over the 28,000 specimens recorded in 2000\\) collected in Brazilian territory, especially from the southeast and the [Amazon rainforest](/wiki/Amazon_rainforest \"Amazon rainforest\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção mastozoológica\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=2156\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=7 November 2013}} In 2000, the museum's mammal collection was considered the second\\-largest in the Americas. Its first known specimens were catalogued in 1895\\. In 1930 zoologist [Carlos Octaviano da Cunha Vieira](/wiki/Carlos_Octaviano_da_Cunha_Vieira \"Carlos Octaviano da Cunha Vieira\") became the mammal collection's first curator, remaining in the position until his death in 1958\\. During his tenure Vieira expanded the collection from about 3,000 to more than 15,000 specimens, publishing catalogues and [monographs](/wiki/Monograph \"Monograph\") on Brazilian mammals. Vieira was succeeded by zoologist Cory Carvalho, who was curator of the mammal collection from 1960 to 1961\\. After Carvalho's departure the collection did not have an exclusive curator until 1999, when zoologist [Mario de Vivo](/wiki/Mario_de_Vivo \"Mario de Vivo\") assumed the position.",
"### {{anchor\\|Crustacean collection}}Crustaceans",
"In 2013 the [crustacean](/wiki/Crustacean \"Crustacean\") collection comprised over 500,000 specimens (an increase of 2,381 percent over the 21,000 specimens catalogued in 2000\\), and was considered one of the largest in Latin America.{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção Carcinológica\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=1721\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=12 November 2013}} It includes 600 type specimens. The marine lots primarily comprise species from the Western Atlantic (especially the region between [French Guiana](/wiki/French_Guiana \"French Guiana\") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\")), and includes extensive material of the [order](/wiki/Order_%28biology%29 \"Order (biology)\") [Decapoda](/wiki/Decapoda \"Decapoda\") from other [oceanic basins](/wiki/Oceanic_basin \"Oceanic basin\") (including the [Indo\\-Pacific](/wiki/Indo-Pacific \"Indo-Pacific\") and [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\")). The terrestrial and freshwater specimens are primarily from the [Neotropics](/wiki/Neotropical_realm \"Neotropical realm\"), including nearly all regions of Brazil. The collection began in 1894 (then at the Museu Paulista) with the work of Hermann von Ihering and his colleagues, including Ernest Garbe and Hermann von Lüderwaldt. In 1939 the collection was transferred to the Department of Zoology, where it remained until 1969 (when it was incorporated into the University of São Paulo). In 1961 the Department of Zoology hired [Gustavo Augusto Schmidt de Melo](/wiki/Gustavo_Augusto_Schmidt_de_Melo \"Gustavo Augusto Schmidt de Melo\"), who has participated in a number of expeditions emphasizing the collection of decapod crustaceans in marine and continental waters. Since 2003, the collection has been curated by zoologist [Marcos Domingos Siqueira Tavares](/wiki/Marcos_Domingos_Siqueira_Tavares \"Marcos Domingos Siqueira Tavares\").",
"### {{anchor\\|Insect collection}}Insects",
"In 2000 the insect collection was the largest collection at MZUSP, with over 4\\.8 million specimens preserved dry ([pinned](/wiki/Entomological_equipment_for_mounting_and_storage \"Entomological equipment for mounting and storage\")) or in ethanol. The collection is an aggregation of smaller collections focused on individual insect [orders](/wiki/Order_%28biology%29 \"Order (biology)\"), such as [Coleoptera](/wiki/Coleoptera \"Coleoptera\") (beetles), [Diptera](/wiki/Diptera \"Diptera\") (true flies), [Hemiptera](/wiki/Hemiptera \"Hemiptera\") (true bugs), [Hymenoptera](/wiki/Hymenoptera \"Hymenoptera\") (sawflies, wasps, bees and ants), [Isoptera](/wiki/Isoptera \"Isoptera\") (termites) and [Lepidoptera](/wiki/Lepidoptera \"Lepidoptera\") (moths and butterflies). Each collection is curated independently.{{cite web\\|title\\=Entomologia\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=1028\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=12 November 2013\\|language\\=Portuguese}}\nColeoptera\nThe [Coleoptera](/wiki/Beetle \"Beetle\") collection is the second\\-largest insect collection at MZUSP, with nearly a million specimens from 257 [families](/wiki/Family_%28biology%29 \"Family (biology)\") (106 of which occur in Brazil). The collection consists primarily of neotropical species (from Brazil), and includes nearly 1,300 [primary types](/wiki/Name-bearing_type \"Name-bearing type\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção de Coleoptera – Adultos\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=3170\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=14 November 2013\\|language\\=Portuguese}} Coleopteran [larvae](/wiki/Larvae \"Larvae\") are kept in metallic cabinets as a distinct collection. All its 40,000 specimens were raised in the laboratory, including 18,000 adults, 19,000 larvae and 3,200 [pupae](/wiki/Pupae \"Pupae\") from about 90 families. Most adult specimens are stored with the immature specimens (preserved in ethanol), but a small number are kept dry in separate cabinets. The collection consists primarily of species collected in Brazilian states such as [Pará](/wiki/Par%C3%A1 \"Pará\"), Mato Grosso [Federal District](/wiki/Federal_District_%28Brazil%29 \"Federal District (Brazil)\"), Mato Grosso do Sul, [Goiás](/wiki/Goi%C3%A1s \"Goiás\"), Minas Gerais, [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"), São Paulo, [Paraná](/wiki/Paran%C3%A1_%28state%29 \"Paraná (state)\") and [Rio Grande do Sul](/wiki/Rio_Grande_do_Sul \"Rio Grande do Sul\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção de Coleoptera – Larvas\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=1707\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=14 November 2013\\|language\\=Portuguese}}\nDiptera\nThe [Diptera](/wiki/Fly \"Fly\") collection is the largest insect collection at the MZUSP. It consists of 550,000 specimens preserved dry and more than 500,000 individuals preserved in ethanol, totalling over 1,050,000 specimens. It is considered the largest collection in Latin America and one of the most important in the world because of its large number of types.{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção de Diptera\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=3188\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=14 November 2013}} The Diptera collection began in the former Zoology Section of the Museu Paulista. During the 20th century, it was amassed and curated with the aid of several researchers: Messias Carrera and Maria Aparecida Vulcano d'Andretta during the 1940s, José Henrique Guimarães and Nelson Papavero during the 1960s, and Nelson Bernardi and Francisca do Val during the early 1970s.\nHymenoptera\nThe [Hymenoptera](/wiki/Hymenoptera \"Hymenoptera\") collection comprises [wasps](/wiki/Wasps \"Wasps\"), [ants](/wiki/Ants \"Ants\") and [bees](/wiki/Bees \"Bees\") from acquisitions and exchanges with other institutions and expeditions. The first catalogued specimens were collected by [Hermann von Lüderwaldt](/wiki/Hermann_von_L%C3%BCderwaldt \"Hermann von Lüderwaldt\") and Hermann von Ihering during the early 20th century. The museum's bee collection was primarily acquired in São Paulo state, and is considered among the three largest collections of its kind in the country. The collection of [aculeate](/wiki/Bee_sting \"Bee sting\") wasps is notable for its representation of groups such as [Chrysididae](/wiki/Chrysididae \"Chrysididae\") (cuckoo wasps), [Mutillidae](/wiki/Mutillidae \"Mutillidae\") (ant\\-witches), [Vespidae](/wiki/Vespidae \"Vespidae\") and, in particular, [Pompilidae](/wiki/Pompilidae \"Pompilidae\") (spider wasps), [Sphecidae](/wiki/Sphecidae \"Sphecidae\") (thread\\-waisted wasps) and [Crabronidae](/wiki/Crabronidae \"Crabronidae\"). The [Formicidae](/wiki/Formicidae \"Formicidae\") (ant) collection is considered the most representative of the neotropical region for its number of type specimens, [species diversity](/wiki/Species_diversity \"Species diversity\") and geographical coverage.{{cite web\\|title\\=Hymenoptera\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=498\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=14 November 2013}}\nIsoptera\nThe [Isoptera](/wiki/Termite \"Termite\") collection consists of nearly 18,000 specimens from all Brazilian [biomes](/wiki/Biomes \"Biomes\"). It includes specimens of all known [genera](/wiki/Genus_%28biology%29 \"Genus (biology)\") in the neotropical region, most of the [palearctic](/wiki/Palearctic \"Palearctic\") and [nearctic](/wiki/Nearctic \"Nearctic\"), Asia, Australia and [Ethiopia](/wiki/Ethiopia \"Ethiopia\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Isoptera – Cupins e outros Ortopteróides\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=500\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=14 November 2013}}\nLepidoptera\n[thumb\\|Brazilian butterfly collection](/wiki/File:Brazilian_butterflies_collection%2C_Zoology_Museum%2C_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo.jpg \"Brazilian butterflies collection, Zoology Museum, University of São Paulo.jpg\")\nThe [Lepidoptera](/wiki/Lepidoptera \"Lepidoptera\") collection contains nearly 290,000 specimens of butterflies and moths, and is considered second\\-largest public collection in the country. The largest number of types are Lepidoptera collected in southeastern Brazil. The specimens, overall, are primarily from the neotropics. The collection began in the late 19th century (including material collected by Ernst Garbe, Hermann von Lüderwaldt and R. Spitz during the early 20th century), and was curated by zoologist Lauro Travassos from the 1940s to 1969\\. Since 2006, the collection has been curated by zoologist Marcelo Duarte da Silva.{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção de Lepidoptera\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=1133\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=14 November 2013}}",
"### {{anchor\\|Malacological collection}}Molluscs",
"The museum's [malacological](/wiki/Malacology \"Malacology\") collection is probably the largest in Latin America; in 2000, there were nearly 40,000 catalogued lots. By 2013 the collection more than doubled, reaching over 100,000 lots and about 1,000,000 specimens preserved dry ([mollusc shells](/wiki/Mollusc_shell \"Mollusc shell\")) or in ethanol (whole animals with the shell and soft parts, or soft parts alone). The collection has over 1,000 [type specimens](/wiki/Type_specimen \"Type specimen\"): [primary](/wiki/Name-bearing_type \"Name-bearing type\") or secondary ([paratypes](/wiki/Paratype \"Paratype\") and [paralectotypes](/wiki/Paralectotype \"Paralectotype\")).{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção de Mollusca\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=2202\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|accessdate\\=8 November 2013\\|language\\=Portuguese}}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Dornellas\\|first\\=Ana Paula Siqueira\\|author2\\=Simone, Luiz Ricardo Lopes\\|title\\=Annotated list of type specimens of mollusks deposited in museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil\\|journal\\=Arquivos de Zoologia\\|year\\=2011\\|volume\\=42\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1–81\\|url\\=http://www.moluscos.org/trabalhos/2011/Dornellas%20\\&%20Simone%202011a%20MZUSP%20types.pdf\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|location\\=São Paulo, Brazil\\|issn\\=0066\\-7870}} It comprises specimens from many global regions, with an emphasis on the neotropics and [western Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\") coast. The collection's earliest specimens predate the Museu Paulista; nearly 2,000 specimens date to the 1880s, originating in Hermann von Ihering's collection which he brought to Brazil. Several researchers curated the collection during the 20th century, including Frederico Lange de Morretes (the 1930s), Eveline and [Ernst Marcus](/wiki/Ernst_Gustav_Gotthelf_Marcus \"Ernst Gustav Gotthelf Marcus\") (the 1950s) and José Luiz Moreira Leme (from the 1960s to the early 2000s). The collection is curated by zoologist Luiz Ricardo Lopes de Simone.",
"### {{anchor\\|Arachnid collection}}Arachnids",
"The [arachnid](/wiki/Arachnid \"Arachnid\") collection is considered the third\\-largest in Brazil (the second\\-largest in the number of type\\-specimens), with nearly 32,000 lots (an increase of more than 56 percent over the 18,000 lots catalogued in 2000\\) primarily preserved in ethanol. Three\\-quarters of the lots are spiders and one\\-fifth are [harvestmen](/wiki/Harvestmen \"Harvestmen\") from Brazil. There are nearly 600 primary type specimens, of which 60 percent are spiders and 28 percent are harvestmen. The collection began with specimens collected by researchers and travelling naturalists during the 19th and early 20th centuries.{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção de Arachnida\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=295\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=7 November 2013}} The collection is curated by zoologist Ricardo Pinto\\-da\\-Rocha.{{cite web\\|title\\=Chelicerata\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=295\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=7 November 2013}}",
"### {{anchor\\|Marine invertebrates collection}}Marine invertebrates",
"The marine invertebrate collection is composed of specimens from [taxa](/wiki/Taxa \"Taxa\") other than crustaceans and molluscs. It includes [Annelida](/wiki/Annelida \"Annelida\"), [Brachiopoda](/wiki/Brachiopoda \"Brachiopoda\"), [Bryozoa](/wiki/Bryozoa \"Bryozoa\"), [Cestoda](/wiki/Cestoda \"Cestoda\"), [Cephalochordata](/wiki/Cephalochordata \"Cephalochordata\"), [Hemichordata](/wiki/Hemichordata \"Hemichordata\"), [Cnidaria](/wiki/Cnidaria \"Cnidaria\"), [Ctenophora](/wiki/Ctenophora \"Ctenophora\"), [Echinodermata](/wiki/Echinodermata \"Echinodermata\"), [Echiura](/wiki/Echiura \"Echiura\"), [Entoprocta](/wiki/Entoprocta \"Entoprocta\"), [Nematoda](/wiki/Nematoda \"Nematoda\"), [Foraminifera](/wiki/Foraminifera \"Foraminifera\"), [Phoronida](/wiki/Phoronida \"Phoronida\"), [Rotifera](/wiki/Rotifera \"Rotifera\"), [Turbellaria](/wiki/Turbellaria \"Turbellaria\"), [Trematoda](/wiki/Trematoda \"Trematoda\"), [Urochordata](/wiki/Urochordata \"Urochordata\"), [Porifera](/wiki/Porifera \"Porifera\"), [Priapulida](/wiki/Priapulida \"Priapulida\") and [Sipuncula](/wiki/Sipuncula \"Sipuncula\"). Specimens are mostly marine ([Western Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\") and [Antarctic Ocean](/wiki/Antarctic_Ocean \"Antarctic Ocean\")), but some are neotropical freshwater and terrestrial.{{cite web\\|title\\=Coleção Invertebrados Marinhos\\|url\\=http://biton.uspnet.usp.br/mz/?page\\_id\\=2452\\|work\\=MZUSP Official Website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=7 November 2013}} Containing nearly 200,000 lots and 200 type specimens, the collection was built with the efforts of late\\-19th\\-century researchers including Ernst and Eveline Marcus, [Gilberto Righi](/wiki/Gilberto_Righi \"Gilberto Righi\"), [Luis Roberto Tommasi](/wiki/Luis_Roberto_Tommasi \"Luis Roberto Tommasi\"), [Antonio Sérgio Ferreira Ditadi](/wiki/Antonio_S%C3%A9rgio_Ferreira_Ditadi \"Antonio Sérgio Ferreira Ditadi\"), [Jeanete Maron Ramos](/wiki/Jeanete_Maron_Ramos \"Jeanete Maron Ramos\"), [Gertrude Rita Kloss](/wiki/Gertrude_Rita_Kloss \"Gertrude Rita Kloss\") and [Sérgio de Almeida Rodrigues](/wiki/S%C3%A9rgio_de_Almeida_Rodrigues \"Sérgio de Almeida Rodrigues\").",
"### Other collections",
"In 2000, the [Acari](/wiki/Acari \"Acari\") (mites) collection of MZUSP was considered the second\\-largest in Brazil with 1,500 lots. The [paleontological](/wiki/Paleontological \"Paleontological\") collection harbors fossils extracted from Brazilian [sedimentary basins](/wiki/Sedimentary_basin \"Sedimentary basin\"), including [Bauru](/wiki/Bauru_Group \"Bauru Group\"), São Francisco and Araripe.{{cite web\\|title\\=Paleontologia\\|url\\=http://www.mz.usp.br/?page\\_id\\=214\\|work\\=MZUSP Official website\\|publisher\\=Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo\\|language\\=Portuguese\\|accessdate\\=7 November 2013}} In 2000, the [Myriapod](/wiki/Myriapod \"Myriapod\") (millipedes and centipedes) collection was considered the largest of its kind in Brazil with nearly 8,800 lots.",
""
] |
Career
------
Alves started his career with Brazilian third division side [Luverdense](/wiki/Luverdense_Esporte_Clube "Luverdense Esporte Clube"), helping them earn promotion to the Brazilian second division.
Before the 2015 season, Alves signed for [Boa](/wiki/Boa_Esporte_Clube "Boa Esporte Clube") in the Brazilian top flight, where he made 11 appearances and scored 1 goal.{{Soccerway\|208443}}
In 2015, he signed for Brazilian second division club [Paysandu](/wiki/Paysandu_Sport_Club "Paysandu Sport Club").
Before the 2016 season, Alves signed for [Goianiense](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Clube_Goianiense "Atlético Clube Goianiense") in the Brazilian fifth division.
In 2016, he signed for Brazilian third division team [Cuiabá](/wiki/Cuiab%C3%A1_Esporte_Clube "Cuiabá Esporte Clube").
Before the 2017 season, he signed for [Suphanburi](/wiki/Suphanburi_F.C. "Suphanburi F.C.") in Thailand after registering for Syrian citizenship to qualify as an Asian player.{{Cite web\|url\=https://football\-tribe.com/thailand/2017/02/09/3\-zamba\-syria\|title\=โควต้าเอเชีย! เผย 3 แข้งแซมบ้าลงทะเบียนสัญชาติซีเรีย\|publisher\=football\-tribe.com}}
Before the 2018 season, Alves signed for Brazilian fourth division outfit [Caxias](/wiki/Sociedade_Esportiva_e_Recreativa_Caxias_do_Sul "Sociedade Esportiva e Recreativa Caxias do Sul").
In 2018, he signed for [Brasil de Pelotas](/wiki/Gr%C3%AAmio_Esportivo_Brasil "Grêmio Esportivo Brasil") in the Brazilian second division.
Before the 2019 season, he signed for Brazilian fifth division side [Aimoré](/wiki/Clube_Esportivo_Aimor%C3%A9 "Clube Esportivo Aimoré").
In 2019, Alves signed for [Patrocinense](/wiki/Clube_Atl%C3%A9tico_Patrocinense "Clube Atlético Patrocinense") in the Brazilian fourth division.
Before the 2020 season, he signed for Brazilian third division club [Manaus](/wiki/Manaus_Futebol_Clube "Manaus Futebol Clube")
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Alves started his career with Brazilian third division side [Luverdense](/wiki/Luverdense_Esporte_Clube \"Luverdense Esporte Clube\"), helping them earn promotion to the Brazilian second division.",
"Before the 2015 season, Alves signed for [Boa](/wiki/Boa_Esporte_Clube \"Boa Esporte Clube\") in the Brazilian top flight, where he made 11 appearances and scored 1 goal.{{Soccerway\\|208443}}",
"In 2015, he signed for Brazilian second division club [Paysandu](/wiki/Paysandu_Sport_Club \"Paysandu Sport Club\").",
"Before the 2016 season, Alves signed for [Goianiense](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Clube_Goianiense \"Atlético Clube Goianiense\") in the Brazilian fifth division.",
"In 2016, he signed for Brazilian third division team [Cuiabá](/wiki/Cuiab%C3%A1_Esporte_Clube \"Cuiabá Esporte Clube\").",
"Before the 2017 season, he signed for [Suphanburi](/wiki/Suphanburi_F.C. \"Suphanburi F.C.\") in Thailand after registering for Syrian citizenship to qualify as an Asian player.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://football\\-tribe.com/thailand/2017/02/09/3\\-zamba\\-syria\\|title\\=โควต้าเอเชีย! เผย 3 แข้งแซมบ้าลงทะเบียนสัญชาติซีเรีย\\|publisher\\=football\\-tribe.com}}",
"Before the 2018 season, Alves signed for Brazilian fourth division outfit [Caxias](/wiki/Sociedade_Esportiva_e_Recreativa_Caxias_do_Sul \"Sociedade Esportiva e Recreativa Caxias do Sul\").",
"In 2018, he signed for [Brasil de Pelotas](/wiki/Gr%C3%AAmio_Esportivo_Brasil \"Grêmio Esportivo Brasil\") in the Brazilian second division.",
"Before the 2019 season, he signed for Brazilian fifth division side [Aimoré](/wiki/Clube_Esportivo_Aimor%C3%A9 \"Clube Esportivo Aimoré\").",
"In 2019, Alves signed for [Patrocinense](/wiki/Clube_Atl%C3%A9tico_Patrocinense \"Clube Atlético Patrocinense\") in the Brazilian fourth division.",
"Before the 2020 season, he signed for Brazilian third division club [Manaus](/wiki/Manaus_Futebol_Clube \"Manaus Futebol Clube\")",
""
] |
History
-------
### Founding
Although disagreement exists about who initiated the service, most media observers recognize that [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser "Gamal Abdel Nasser"), one of the coup leaders at the time and later [President of Egypt](/wiki/President_of_Egypt "President of Egypt"), was the main driving force behind the project.{{cite journal\|last\=Boyd\|first\=Douglas A\|title\=Development of Egypt's Radio: 'Voice of Arabs' under Nasser\|journal\=Journalism Quarterly\|date\=Winter 1975\|volume\=52\|issue\=4\|pages\=643–653\|doi\=10\.1177/107769907505200406\|s2cid\=144513399}} According to Douglas Boyd, the idea of the service came from [Mohammed Abdel\-Kader Hatem](/wiki/Mohammed_Abdel-Kader_Hatem "Mohammed Abdel-Kader Hatem"), who would become Minister of Information. Until 1967, director and chief announcer [Ahmed Said](/wiki/Ahmed_Said_%28broadcaster%29 "Ahmed Said (broadcaster)") headed and managed the service.{{cite book\|last\=Boyd\|first\=Douglas A.\|title\=Broadcasting in the Arab World\|year\=1993\|publisher\=Iowa State University Press\|location\=Ames, Iowa\|isbn\=0\-8138\-0468\-X\|page\=316}}
Unlike the press, which the new government did not control until 1960, the radio fell under the monopoly of the government, who used this to their advantage. Recognizing the immense potential of radio, Nasser devoted "considerable financial resources to the expansion of public broadcasting."{{cite book\|last\=Dawisha\|first\=Adeed\|title\=Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to Despair\|year\=2003\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|location\=Princeton\|isbn\=0\-691\-12272\-5\|pages\=147–159\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PjhqEusGs0UC\&pg\=PA147\|access\-date\=10 October 2015}} Voice of the Arabs first aired on 4 July 1953, one year after the [Egyptian Revolution of 1952](/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1952 "Egyptian Revolution of 1952") as a half\-hour radio program on Cairo Radio. Quickly, the show developed into its own radio station broadcasting across the [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world "Arab world").{{cite web\|last\=James\|first\=Laura M.\|title\=Whose Voice? Nasser, the Arabs, and 'Sawt al\-Arab' Radio\|url\=http://www.tbsjournal.com/James.html\|publisher\=Transnational Broadcasting Journal\|access\-date\=7 March 2011}}{{cite book\|first1\=Noha\|last1\=Mellor\|first2\=Khalil\|last2\=Rinnawi\|first3\=Nabil\|last3\=Dajani\|first4\=Muhammad I.\|last4\=Ayish\|title\=Arab Media: Globalization and Emerging Media Industries\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GoU\-NRhn1agC\&pg\=PT70\|access\-date\=5 October 2014\|date\=20 May 2013\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons\|isbn\=978\-0\-7456\-3736\-5\|page\=70}} A year after its initial broadcast, the service's transmission time tripled. By 1962, the service expanded to broadcasting 15 hours a day.{{cite book\|last\=Cull, Nicholas J; Culbert, David H. \& Welch\|first\=David\|title\=Propaganda and mass persuasion: a historical encyclopedia, 1500 to the present\|year\=2003\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|location\=California\|isbn\=1\-57607\-820\-5\|page\=16\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Byzv7rf6gL8C\&pg\=PA16\|access\-date\=10 October 2015}} This expansion made Egypt the "dominant broadcaster in the Middle East and a major international broadcaster" during the 1950s and 1960s. The following decade, the service had expanded to 24\-hour\-a\-day broadcasting.
### Under Nasser
Under Nasser's presidency and the leadership of Said, the revolutionary fervor of the coup leaders' ideology, the promotion of [pan\-Arabism](/wiki/Pan-Arabism "Pan-Arabism"), an [anti\-imperialist](/wiki/Anti-imperialism "Anti-imperialism") tone and the legendary voice of Egyptian singer [Umm Kulthum](/wiki/Umm_Kulthum "Umm Kulthum") characterized the service. Voice of the Arabs also called for the liberation of [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 "Palestine (region)") and galvanized Arabs in [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen "Yemen") to rise up against colonial and monarchical rule. The station's tagline, which Ahmed Said claims to have written,{{Cite news\|url\=https://alwafd.news/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9\-%D9%88%D9%81%D9%86/1623714\-%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9\-%D8%AA%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82\-%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1\-%D9%81%D9%8A\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D8%A9\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9\|title\=الإذاعي الكبير أحمد سعيد أول رئيس لصوت العرب لـ"لوفد" : قناة الجزيرة تطبق سياسة الدمار في المنطقة العربية\|last\=Radwan\|first\=Anis al\-Wajoud\|date\=27 August 2017\|work\=al\-Wafd\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-26\|trans\-title\=The great broadcaster Ahmed Said, first president of Voice of the Arabs to Al\-Wafd: “Al\-Jazeera is carrying out a policy of destruction in the Arab region"}} was "Sawt al\-Arab, calling to the Arab nation from the heart of Cairo" ("صوت العرب ينادى أمة العرب من قلب القاهرة").
During what came to be known as the "Ahmed Said Era" (1953–1967\), programming consisted of news, commentary on political topics, speeches by public officials including Nasser, talks by and interviews with various Arab political figures and dramas with political themes. The service also regularly featured nationalistic songs by popular musicians, like [Abdel Wahab](/wiki/Mohammed_Abdel_Wahab "Mohammed Abdel Wahab") and Umm Kulthum, praising Nasser and his accomplishments and promoting pan\-Arabism. The radio station used music not only as a propaganda tool but also to attract listeners to "serious programs schedule adjacent to the musical programs." Frequently, Nasser's speeches would be broadcast after a musical performance by Umm Kulthum.
While the audience for the service was broadly the whole Arab\-speaking world, changing social and political conditions influenced programming and subjects for discussion. The service designed targeted programs for the [Arab states of the Persian Gulf](/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf "Arab states of the Persian Gulf"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") and Yemen.
#### Pan\-Arabism
Voice of the Arabs functioned as Nasser's main vehicle in propagating his pan\-Arabist views; it played a key role in propelling him to the leadership of the [Arab nationalist movement](/wiki/Arab_nationalism "Arab nationalism").{{cite journal\|last\=Vaughan\|first\=James\|title\=Propaganda by Proxy?: Britain, America, and Arab Radio Broadcasting, 1953–1957\|journal\=Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television \|year\=2002 \|volume\=22\|issue\=2 \|pages\=158–172\|doi\=10\.1080/01439680220133774\|s2cid\=194040213}} The service filled with declarations on Arab unity and statements that highlighted Egypt's and Nasser's roles as leaders of this movement. In 1954, it declared on air that "the Voice of the Arabs speaks for the Arabs, struggles for them and expresses their unity".
#### Anti\-imperialism/anti\-colonialism
The programming was also characterized by an [anti\-colonial](/wiki/Anti-colonialism "Anti-colonialism") tone and a rejection of Western imperialism. On one occasion, the service announced that Voice of the Arabs was "in the service of the Arab nation and its struggle against Western imperialism and its lackeys in the Arab world."
The first three years of its broadcasts focused on North African political struggles. The service supported the causes of French\-exiled [Sultan Mohammed V](/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed_V "Sultan Mohammed V") in Morocco and [Habib Bourguiba](/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba "Habib Bourguiba")'s [Neo\-Destour Party](/wiki/Neo-Destour_Party "Neo-Destour Party") in [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia"). As an expression of Nasser's anti\-colonial stance, the service enabled and encouraged exiled Algerians to update Algerian followers on their activities.{{cite book\|last\=Abun\-Nasr\|first\=Jamil\|title\=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period\|year\=1987\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|location\=Cambridge\|pages\=344\|isbn\=9780521337670\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=jdlKbZ46YYkC\&pg\=PA344\|access\-date\=10 October 2015}} Voice of the Arabs supported Algerian revolutionaries not only by allowing them to use the services and facilities of the station but also by explicitly favoring the [FLN's](/wiki/FLN_%28Algeria%29 "FLN (Algeria)") struggle against the French and broadcasting anti\-French propaganda.
The service then turned its attention eastward; Iraq and Jordan became the next targets of Nasser's anti\-colonial rhetoric and broadcasts. In an effort rid the Arab world of any Western influence, Voice of the Arabs launched a propaganda war against Iraq's then\-Prime Minister [Nuri as\-Said](/wiki/Nuri_as-Said "Nuri as-Said"), criticizing Iraq's participation in the [Baghdad Pact](/wiki/Baghdad_Pact "Baghdad Pact"). It also appealed directly to Jordanian citizens, calling them to campaign against Jordan's potential participation in the Baghdad Pact. This continued until the 1958 [Iraqi Revolution](/wiki/14_July_Revolution "14 July Revolution") overthrew the [Iraqi monarchy](/wiki/Iraqi_Kingdom "Iraqi Kingdom"), and Iraq subsequently withdrew its participation from the organization.
Voice of the Arabs widely broadcast Nasser's nationalization of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal") in 1956 and the removal of British Forces from Egypt, contributing to the service's popularity and heightened concern among Western powers regarding the service. Combined with attacks on British and French allies in the region, these events led Britain and France to increase monitoring of Egyptian broadcast. Violent and non\-violent efforts to silence the radio failed and contributed to the radio's and Nasser's prestige and popularity.
From 1956 to the 1960s, Voice of the Arabs also gave expression to anti\-British sentiments vis\-à\-vis its broadcast in [North Yemen](/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen "Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen"). The service provoked action against the British presence in Aden ([Southern Yemen](/wiki/Southern_Yemen "Southern Yemen")), a move countered by Saudi Arabian\-supported pro\-British radio broadcasts from Aden. Voice of the Arabs then took a more aggressive stance against Saudi Arabia.
Following the union with Syria in 1958 and the expansion of Egypt's transmitter power, the service also promoted liberation struggles in African countries south of the Sahara.
### Decline in popularity
The station's popularity was tied to Nasser's accomplishments and successes as president and symbol of Arab unity. Therefore, the lack of spectacular success for Pan\-Arabism and Nasser between 1958 and 1967 heavily contributed to gradual loss of credibility and fame of the station. Transmission of false reports during the [Six\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") consolidated its decline.{{cite journal\|first\=Edmund\|last\=Ghareeb\|title\=New Media and the Information Revolution in the Arab World: An Assessment\|journal\=Middle East Journal\|date\=Summer 2000\|volume\=54\|issue\=3\|pages\=395–418\|jstor\=4329508}} From the start of the war, the Egyptian military relayed updates from front to the service, yet some reports had been false. Though Israel defeated Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian forces on every front, Said reported great victories. Days after the war's start and Israeli forces had captured the [Gaza Strip](/wiki/Gaza_Strip "Gaza Strip") from the Egyptians, [East Jerusalem](/wiki/East_Jerusalem "East Jerusalem") and the [West Bank](/wiki/West_Bank "West Bank") from the Jordanians, and the [Golan Heights](/wiki/Golan_Heights "Golan Heights") from Syrians, the Voice continued to report an Arab victory. Other radio stations also broadcast Said's initial claims that Egypt was winning the war, contributing to the build\-up of hope that victory was near. This made the eventual let down bigger and cost the station its credibility. Said was dismissed from his position, though Nasser had made the decisions behind the false broadcasting. The Voice of the Arabs and Said's handling later symbolized Egypt's self\-deception, and the Voice of the Arabs station has not regained its former reach or impact.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Founding",
"Although disagreement exists about who initiated the service, most media observers recognize that [Gamal Abdel Nasser](/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser \"Gamal Abdel Nasser\"), one of the coup leaders at the time and later [President of Egypt](/wiki/President_of_Egypt \"President of Egypt\"), was the main driving force behind the project.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Boyd\\|first\\=Douglas A\\|title\\=Development of Egypt's Radio: 'Voice of Arabs' under Nasser\\|journal\\=Journalism Quarterly\\|date\\=Winter 1975\\|volume\\=52\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=643–653\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/107769907505200406\\|s2cid\\=144513399}} According to Douglas Boyd, the idea of the service came from [Mohammed Abdel\\-Kader Hatem](/wiki/Mohammed_Abdel-Kader_Hatem \"Mohammed Abdel-Kader Hatem\"), who would become Minister of Information. Until 1967, director and chief announcer [Ahmed Said](/wiki/Ahmed_Said_%28broadcaster%29 \"Ahmed Said (broadcaster)\") headed and managed the service.{{cite book\\|last\\=Boyd\\|first\\=Douglas A.\\|title\\=Broadcasting in the Arab World\\|year\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Iowa State University Press\\|location\\=Ames, Iowa\\|isbn\\=0\\-8138\\-0468\\-X\\|page\\=316}}",
"Unlike the press, which the new government did not control until 1960, the radio fell under the monopoly of the government, who used this to their advantage. Recognizing the immense potential of radio, Nasser devoted \"considerable financial resources to the expansion of public broadcasting.\"{{cite book\\|last\\=Dawisha\\|first\\=Adeed\\|title\\=Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to Despair\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|location\\=Princeton\\|isbn\\=0\\-691\\-12272\\-5\\|pages\\=147–159\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PjhqEusGs0UC\\&pg\\=PA147\\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2015}} Voice of the Arabs first aired on 4 July 1953, one year after the [Egyptian Revolution of 1952](/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_1952 \"Egyptian Revolution of 1952\") as a half\\-hour radio program on Cairo Radio. Quickly, the show developed into its own radio station broadcasting across the [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world \"Arab world\").{{cite web\\|last\\=James\\|first\\=Laura M.\\|title\\=Whose Voice? Nasser, the Arabs, and 'Sawt al\\-Arab' Radio\\|url\\=http://www.tbsjournal.com/James.html\\|publisher\\=Transnational Broadcasting Journal\\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2011}}{{cite book\\|first1\\=Noha\\|last1\\=Mellor\\|first2\\=Khalil\\|last2\\=Rinnawi\\|first3\\=Nabil\\|last3\\=Dajani\\|first4\\=Muhammad I.\\|last4\\=Ayish\\|title\\=Arab Media: Globalization and Emerging Media Industries\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GoU\\-NRhn1agC\\&pg\\=PT70\\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2014\\|date\\=20 May 2013\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7456\\-3736\\-5\\|page\\=70}} A year after its initial broadcast, the service's transmission time tripled. By 1962, the service expanded to broadcasting 15 hours a day.{{cite book\\|last\\=Cull, Nicholas J; Culbert, David H. \\& Welch\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Propaganda and mass persuasion: a historical encyclopedia, 1500 to the present\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|location\\=California\\|isbn\\=1\\-57607\\-820\\-5\\|page\\=16\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Byzv7rf6gL8C\\&pg\\=PA16\\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2015}} This expansion made Egypt the \"dominant broadcaster in the Middle East and a major international broadcaster\" during the 1950s and 1960s. The following decade, the service had expanded to 24\\-hour\\-a\\-day broadcasting.",
"### Under Nasser",
"Under Nasser's presidency and the leadership of Said, the revolutionary fervor of the coup leaders' ideology, the promotion of [pan\\-Arabism](/wiki/Pan-Arabism \"Pan-Arabism\"), an [anti\\-imperialist](/wiki/Anti-imperialism \"Anti-imperialism\") tone and the legendary voice of Egyptian singer [Umm Kulthum](/wiki/Umm_Kulthum \"Umm Kulthum\") characterized the service. Voice of the Arabs also called for the liberation of [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 \"Palestine (region)\") and galvanized Arabs in [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen \"Yemen\") to rise up against colonial and monarchical rule. The station's tagline, which Ahmed Said claims to have written,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://alwafd.news/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9\\-%D9%88%D9%81%D9%86/1623714\\-%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9\\-%D8%AA%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82\\-%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1\\-%D9%81%D9%8A\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D8%A9\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9\\|title\\=الإذاعي الكبير أحمد سعيد أول رئيس لصوت العرب لـ\"لوفد\" : قناة الجزيرة تطبق سياسة الدمار في المنطقة العربية\\|last\\=Radwan\\|first\\=Anis al\\-Wajoud\\|date\\=27 August 2017\\|work\\=al\\-Wafd\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-26\\|trans\\-title\\=The great broadcaster Ahmed Said, first president of Voice of the Arabs to Al\\-Wafd: “Al\\-Jazeera is carrying out a policy of destruction in the Arab region\"}} was \"Sawt al\\-Arab, calling to the Arab nation from the heart of Cairo\" (\"صوت العرب ينادى أمة العرب من قلب القاهرة\").",
"During what came to be known as the \"Ahmed Said Era\" (1953–1967\\), programming consisted of news, commentary on political topics, speeches by public officials including Nasser, talks by and interviews with various Arab political figures and dramas with political themes. The service also regularly featured nationalistic songs by popular musicians, like [Abdel Wahab](/wiki/Mohammed_Abdel_Wahab \"Mohammed Abdel Wahab\") and Umm Kulthum, praising Nasser and his accomplishments and promoting pan\\-Arabism. The radio station used music not only as a propaganda tool but also to attract listeners to \"serious programs schedule adjacent to the musical programs.\" Frequently, Nasser's speeches would be broadcast after a musical performance by Umm Kulthum.",
"While the audience for the service was broadly the whole Arab\\-speaking world, changing social and political conditions influenced programming and subjects for discussion. The service designed targeted programs for the [Arab states of the Persian Gulf](/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf \"Arab states of the Persian Gulf\"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") and Yemen.",
"#### Pan\\-Arabism",
"Voice of the Arabs functioned as Nasser's main vehicle in propagating his pan\\-Arabist views; it played a key role in propelling him to the leadership of the [Arab nationalist movement](/wiki/Arab_nationalism \"Arab nationalism\").{{cite journal\\|last\\=Vaughan\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Propaganda by Proxy?: Britain, America, and Arab Radio Broadcasting, 1953–1957\\|journal\\=Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television \\|year\\=2002 \\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=158–172\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/01439680220133774\\|s2cid\\=194040213}} The service filled with declarations on Arab unity and statements that highlighted Egypt's and Nasser's roles as leaders of this movement. In 1954, it declared on air that \"the Voice of the Arabs speaks for the Arabs, struggles for them and expresses their unity\".",
"#### Anti\\-imperialism/anti\\-colonialism",
"The programming was also characterized by an [anti\\-colonial](/wiki/Anti-colonialism \"Anti-colonialism\") tone and a rejection of Western imperialism. On one occasion, the service announced that Voice of the Arabs was \"in the service of the Arab nation and its struggle against Western imperialism and its lackeys in the Arab world.\"",
"The first three years of its broadcasts focused on North African political struggles. The service supported the causes of French\\-exiled [Sultan Mohammed V](/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed_V \"Sultan Mohammed V\") in Morocco and [Habib Bourguiba](/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba \"Habib Bourguiba\")'s [Neo\\-Destour Party](/wiki/Neo-Destour_Party \"Neo-Destour Party\") in [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"). As an expression of Nasser's anti\\-colonial stance, the service enabled and encouraged exiled Algerians to update Algerian followers on their activities.{{cite book\\|last\\=Abun\\-Nasr\\|first\\=Jamil\\|title\\=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|location\\=Cambridge\\|pages\\=344\\|isbn\\=9780521337670\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=jdlKbZ46YYkC\\&pg\\=PA344\\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2015}} Voice of the Arabs supported Algerian revolutionaries not only by allowing them to use the services and facilities of the station but also by explicitly favoring the [FLN's](/wiki/FLN_%28Algeria%29 \"FLN (Algeria)\") struggle against the French and broadcasting anti\\-French propaganda.",
"The service then turned its attention eastward; Iraq and Jordan became the next targets of Nasser's anti\\-colonial rhetoric and broadcasts. In an effort rid the Arab world of any Western influence, Voice of the Arabs launched a propaganda war against Iraq's then\\-Prime Minister [Nuri as\\-Said](/wiki/Nuri_as-Said \"Nuri as-Said\"), criticizing Iraq's participation in the [Baghdad Pact](/wiki/Baghdad_Pact \"Baghdad Pact\"). It also appealed directly to Jordanian citizens, calling them to campaign against Jordan's potential participation in the Baghdad Pact. This continued until the 1958 [Iraqi Revolution](/wiki/14_July_Revolution \"14 July Revolution\") overthrew the [Iraqi monarchy](/wiki/Iraqi_Kingdom \"Iraqi Kingdom\"), and Iraq subsequently withdrew its participation from the organization.",
"Voice of the Arabs widely broadcast Nasser's nationalization of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\") in 1956 and the removal of British Forces from Egypt, contributing to the service's popularity and heightened concern among Western powers regarding the service. Combined with attacks on British and French allies in the region, these events led Britain and France to increase monitoring of Egyptian broadcast. Violent and non\\-violent efforts to silence the radio failed and contributed to the radio's and Nasser's prestige and popularity.",
"From 1956 to the 1960s, Voice of the Arabs also gave expression to anti\\-British sentiments vis\\-à\\-vis its broadcast in [North Yemen](/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen \"Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen\"). The service provoked action against the British presence in Aden ([Southern Yemen](/wiki/Southern_Yemen \"Southern Yemen\")), a move countered by Saudi Arabian\\-supported pro\\-British radio broadcasts from Aden. Voice of the Arabs then took a more aggressive stance against Saudi Arabia.",
"Following the union with Syria in 1958 and the expansion of Egypt's transmitter power, the service also promoted liberation struggles in African countries south of the Sahara.",
"### Decline in popularity",
"The station's popularity was tied to Nasser's accomplishments and successes as president and symbol of Arab unity. Therefore, the lack of spectacular success for Pan\\-Arabism and Nasser between 1958 and 1967 heavily contributed to gradual loss of credibility and fame of the station. Transmission of false reports during the [Six\\-Day War](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\") consolidated its decline.{{cite journal\\|first\\=Edmund\\|last\\=Ghareeb\\|title\\=New Media and the Information Revolution in the Arab World: An Assessment\\|journal\\=Middle East Journal\\|date\\=Summer 2000\\|volume\\=54\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=395–418\\|jstor\\=4329508}} From the start of the war, the Egyptian military relayed updates from front to the service, yet some reports had been false. Though Israel defeated Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian forces on every front, Said reported great victories. Days after the war's start and Israeli forces had captured the [Gaza Strip](/wiki/Gaza_Strip \"Gaza Strip\") from the Egyptians, [East Jerusalem](/wiki/East_Jerusalem \"East Jerusalem\") and the [West Bank](/wiki/West_Bank \"West Bank\") from the Jordanians, and the [Golan Heights](/wiki/Golan_Heights \"Golan Heights\") from Syrians, the Voice continued to report an Arab victory. Other radio stations also broadcast Said's initial claims that Egypt was winning the war, contributing to the build\\-up of hope that victory was near. This made the eventual let down bigger and cost the station its credibility. Said was dismissed from his position, though Nasser had made the decisions behind the false broadcasting. The Voice of the Arabs and Said's handling later symbolized Egypt's self\\-deception, and the Voice of the Arabs station has not regained its former reach or impact.",
""
] |
### Under Nasser
Under Nasser's presidency and the leadership of Said, the revolutionary fervor of the coup leaders' ideology, the promotion of [pan\-Arabism](/wiki/Pan-Arabism "Pan-Arabism"), an [anti\-imperialist](/wiki/Anti-imperialism "Anti-imperialism") tone and the legendary voice of Egyptian singer [Umm Kulthum](/wiki/Umm_Kulthum "Umm Kulthum") characterized the service. Voice of the Arabs also called for the liberation of [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 "Palestine (region)") and galvanized Arabs in [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen "Yemen") to rise up against colonial and monarchical rule. The station's tagline, which Ahmed Said claims to have written,{{Cite news\|url\=https://alwafd.news/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9\-%D9%88%D9%81%D9%86/1623714\-%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9\-%D8%AA%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82\-%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1\-%D9%81%D9%8A\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D8%A9\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9\|title\=الإذاعي الكبير أحمد سعيد أول رئيس لصوت العرب لـ"لوفد" : قناة الجزيرة تطبق سياسة الدمار في المنطقة العربية\|last\=Radwan\|first\=Anis al\-Wajoud\|date\=27 August 2017\|work\=al\-Wafd\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-26\|trans\-title\=The great broadcaster Ahmed Said, first president of Voice of the Arabs to Al\-Wafd: “Al\-Jazeera is carrying out a policy of destruction in the Arab region"}} was "Sawt al\-Arab, calling to the Arab nation from the heart of Cairo" ("صوت العرب ينادى أمة العرب من قلب القاهرة").
During what came to be known as the "Ahmed Said Era" (1953–1967\), programming consisted of news, commentary on political topics, speeches by public officials including Nasser, talks by and interviews with various Arab political figures and dramas with political themes. The service also regularly featured nationalistic songs by popular musicians, like [Abdel Wahab](/wiki/Mohammed_Abdel_Wahab "Mohammed Abdel Wahab") and Umm Kulthum, praising Nasser and his accomplishments and promoting pan\-Arabism. The radio station used music not only as a propaganda tool but also to attract listeners to "serious programs schedule adjacent to the musical programs." Frequently, Nasser's speeches would be broadcast after a musical performance by Umm Kulthum.
While the audience for the service was broadly the whole Arab\-speaking world, changing social and political conditions influenced programming and subjects for discussion. The service designed targeted programs for the [Arab states of the Persian Gulf](/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf "Arab states of the Persian Gulf"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") and Yemen.
#### Pan\-Arabism
Voice of the Arabs functioned as Nasser's main vehicle in propagating his pan\-Arabist views; it played a key role in propelling him to the leadership of the [Arab nationalist movement](/wiki/Arab_nationalism "Arab nationalism").{{cite journal\|last\=Vaughan\|first\=James\|title\=Propaganda by Proxy?: Britain, America, and Arab Radio Broadcasting, 1953–1957\|journal\=Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television \|year\=2002 \|volume\=22\|issue\=2 \|pages\=158–172\|doi\=10\.1080/01439680220133774\|s2cid\=194040213}} The service filled with declarations on Arab unity and statements that highlighted Egypt's and Nasser's roles as leaders of this movement. In 1954, it declared on air that "the Voice of the Arabs speaks for the Arabs, struggles for them and expresses their unity".
#### Anti\-imperialism/anti\-colonialism
The programming was also characterized by an [anti\-colonial](/wiki/Anti-colonialism "Anti-colonialism") tone and a rejection of Western imperialism. On one occasion, the service announced that Voice of the Arabs was "in the service of the Arab nation and its struggle against Western imperialism and its lackeys in the Arab world."
The first three years of its broadcasts focused on North African political struggles. The service supported the causes of French\-exiled [Sultan Mohammed V](/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed_V "Sultan Mohammed V") in Morocco and [Habib Bourguiba](/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba "Habib Bourguiba")'s [Neo\-Destour Party](/wiki/Neo-Destour_Party "Neo-Destour Party") in [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia"). As an expression of Nasser's anti\-colonial stance, the service enabled and encouraged exiled Algerians to update Algerian followers on their activities.{{cite book\|last\=Abun\-Nasr\|first\=Jamil\|title\=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period\|year\=1987\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|location\=Cambridge\|pages\=344\|isbn\=9780521337670\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=jdlKbZ46YYkC\&pg\=PA344\|access\-date\=10 October 2015}} Voice of the Arabs supported Algerian revolutionaries not only by allowing them to use the services and facilities of the station but also by explicitly favoring the [FLN's](/wiki/FLN_%28Algeria%29 "FLN (Algeria)") struggle against the French and broadcasting anti\-French propaganda.
The service then turned its attention eastward; Iraq and Jordan became the next targets of Nasser's anti\-colonial rhetoric and broadcasts. In an effort rid the Arab world of any Western influence, Voice of the Arabs launched a propaganda war against Iraq's then\-Prime Minister [Nuri as\-Said](/wiki/Nuri_as-Said "Nuri as-Said"), criticizing Iraq's participation in the [Baghdad Pact](/wiki/Baghdad_Pact "Baghdad Pact"). It also appealed directly to Jordanian citizens, calling them to campaign against Jordan's potential participation in the Baghdad Pact. This continued until the 1958 [Iraqi Revolution](/wiki/14_July_Revolution "14 July Revolution") overthrew the [Iraqi monarchy](/wiki/Iraqi_Kingdom "Iraqi Kingdom"), and Iraq subsequently withdrew its participation from the organization.
Voice of the Arabs widely broadcast Nasser's nationalization of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal") in 1956 and the removal of British Forces from Egypt, contributing to the service's popularity and heightened concern among Western powers regarding the service. Combined with attacks on British and French allies in the region, these events led Britain and France to increase monitoring of Egyptian broadcast. Violent and non\-violent efforts to silence the radio failed and contributed to the radio's and Nasser's prestige and popularity.
From 1956 to the 1960s, Voice of the Arabs also gave expression to anti\-British sentiments vis\-à\-vis its broadcast in [North Yemen](/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen "Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen"). The service provoked action against the British presence in Aden ([Southern Yemen](/wiki/Southern_Yemen "Southern Yemen")), a move countered by Saudi Arabian\-supported pro\-British radio broadcasts from Aden. Voice of the Arabs then took a more aggressive stance against Saudi Arabia.
Following the union with Syria in 1958 and the expansion of Egypt's transmitter power, the service also promoted liberation struggles in African countries south of the Sahara.
|
[
"### Under Nasser",
"Under Nasser's presidency and the leadership of Said, the revolutionary fervor of the coup leaders' ideology, the promotion of [pan\\-Arabism](/wiki/Pan-Arabism \"Pan-Arabism\"), an [anti\\-imperialist](/wiki/Anti-imperialism \"Anti-imperialism\") tone and the legendary voice of Egyptian singer [Umm Kulthum](/wiki/Umm_Kulthum \"Umm Kulthum\") characterized the service. Voice of the Arabs also called for the liberation of [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 \"Palestine (region)\") and galvanized Arabs in [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen \"Yemen\") to rise up against colonial and monarchical rule. The station's tagline, which Ahmed Said claims to have written,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://alwafd.news/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9\\-%D9%88%D9%81%D9%86/1623714\\-%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9\\-%D8%AA%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82\\-%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1\\-%D9%81%D9%8A\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82%D8%A9\\-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9\\|title\\=الإذاعي الكبير أحمد سعيد أول رئيس لصوت العرب لـ\"لوفد\" : قناة الجزيرة تطبق سياسة الدمار في المنطقة العربية\\|last\\=Radwan\\|first\\=Anis al\\-Wajoud\\|date\\=27 August 2017\\|work\\=al\\-Wafd\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-26\\|trans\\-title\\=The great broadcaster Ahmed Said, first president of Voice of the Arabs to Al\\-Wafd: “Al\\-Jazeera is carrying out a policy of destruction in the Arab region\"}} was \"Sawt al\\-Arab, calling to the Arab nation from the heart of Cairo\" (\"صوت العرب ينادى أمة العرب من قلب القاهرة\").",
"During what came to be known as the \"Ahmed Said Era\" (1953–1967\\), programming consisted of news, commentary on political topics, speeches by public officials including Nasser, talks by and interviews with various Arab political figures and dramas with political themes. The service also regularly featured nationalistic songs by popular musicians, like [Abdel Wahab](/wiki/Mohammed_Abdel_Wahab \"Mohammed Abdel Wahab\") and Umm Kulthum, praising Nasser and his accomplishments and promoting pan\\-Arabism. The radio station used music not only as a propaganda tool but also to attract listeners to \"serious programs schedule adjacent to the musical programs.\" Frequently, Nasser's speeches would be broadcast after a musical performance by Umm Kulthum.",
"While the audience for the service was broadly the whole Arab\\-speaking world, changing social and political conditions influenced programming and subjects for discussion. The service designed targeted programs for the [Arab states of the Persian Gulf](/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf \"Arab states of the Persian Gulf\"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") and Yemen.",
"#### Pan\\-Arabism",
"Voice of the Arabs functioned as Nasser's main vehicle in propagating his pan\\-Arabist views; it played a key role in propelling him to the leadership of the [Arab nationalist movement](/wiki/Arab_nationalism \"Arab nationalism\").{{cite journal\\|last\\=Vaughan\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Propaganda by Proxy?: Britain, America, and Arab Radio Broadcasting, 1953–1957\\|journal\\=Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television \\|year\\=2002 \\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=158–172\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/01439680220133774\\|s2cid\\=194040213}} The service filled with declarations on Arab unity and statements that highlighted Egypt's and Nasser's roles as leaders of this movement. In 1954, it declared on air that \"the Voice of the Arabs speaks for the Arabs, struggles for them and expresses their unity\".",
"#### Anti\\-imperialism/anti\\-colonialism",
"The programming was also characterized by an [anti\\-colonial](/wiki/Anti-colonialism \"Anti-colonialism\") tone and a rejection of Western imperialism. On one occasion, the service announced that Voice of the Arabs was \"in the service of the Arab nation and its struggle against Western imperialism and its lackeys in the Arab world.\"",
"The first three years of its broadcasts focused on North African political struggles. The service supported the causes of French\\-exiled [Sultan Mohammed V](/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed_V \"Sultan Mohammed V\") in Morocco and [Habib Bourguiba](/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba \"Habib Bourguiba\")'s [Neo\\-Destour Party](/wiki/Neo-Destour_Party \"Neo-Destour Party\") in [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"). As an expression of Nasser's anti\\-colonial stance, the service enabled and encouraged exiled Algerians to update Algerian followers on their activities.{{cite book\\|last\\=Abun\\-Nasr\\|first\\=Jamil\\|title\\=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|location\\=Cambridge\\|pages\\=344\\|isbn\\=9780521337670\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=jdlKbZ46YYkC\\&pg\\=PA344\\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2015}} Voice of the Arabs supported Algerian revolutionaries not only by allowing them to use the services and facilities of the station but also by explicitly favoring the [FLN's](/wiki/FLN_%28Algeria%29 \"FLN (Algeria)\") struggle against the French and broadcasting anti\\-French propaganda.",
"The service then turned its attention eastward; Iraq and Jordan became the next targets of Nasser's anti\\-colonial rhetoric and broadcasts. In an effort rid the Arab world of any Western influence, Voice of the Arabs launched a propaganda war against Iraq's then\\-Prime Minister [Nuri as\\-Said](/wiki/Nuri_as-Said \"Nuri as-Said\"), criticizing Iraq's participation in the [Baghdad Pact](/wiki/Baghdad_Pact \"Baghdad Pact\"). It also appealed directly to Jordanian citizens, calling them to campaign against Jordan's potential participation in the Baghdad Pact. This continued until the 1958 [Iraqi Revolution](/wiki/14_July_Revolution \"14 July Revolution\") overthrew the [Iraqi monarchy](/wiki/Iraqi_Kingdom \"Iraqi Kingdom\"), and Iraq subsequently withdrew its participation from the organization.",
"Voice of the Arabs widely broadcast Nasser's nationalization of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\") in 1956 and the removal of British Forces from Egypt, contributing to the service's popularity and heightened concern among Western powers regarding the service. Combined with attacks on British and French allies in the region, these events led Britain and France to increase monitoring of Egyptian broadcast. Violent and non\\-violent efforts to silence the radio failed and contributed to the radio's and Nasser's prestige and popularity.",
"From 1956 to the 1960s, Voice of the Arabs also gave expression to anti\\-British sentiments vis\\-à\\-vis its broadcast in [North Yemen](/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen \"Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen\"). The service provoked action against the British presence in Aden ([Southern Yemen](/wiki/Southern_Yemen \"Southern Yemen\")), a move countered by Saudi Arabian\\-supported pro\\-British radio broadcasts from Aden. Voice of the Arabs then took a more aggressive stance against Saudi Arabia.",
"Following the union with Syria in 1958 and the expansion of Egypt's transmitter power, the service also promoted liberation struggles in African countries south of the Sahara.",
""
] |
#### Anti\-imperialism/anti\-colonialism
The programming was also characterized by an [anti\-colonial](/wiki/Anti-colonialism "Anti-colonialism") tone and a rejection of Western imperialism. On one occasion, the service announced that Voice of the Arabs was "in the service of the Arab nation and its struggle against Western imperialism and its lackeys in the Arab world."
The first three years of its broadcasts focused on North African political struggles. The service supported the causes of French\-exiled [Sultan Mohammed V](/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed_V "Sultan Mohammed V") in Morocco and [Habib Bourguiba](/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba "Habib Bourguiba")'s [Neo\-Destour Party](/wiki/Neo-Destour_Party "Neo-Destour Party") in [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia"). As an expression of Nasser's anti\-colonial stance, the service enabled and encouraged exiled Algerians to update Algerian followers on their activities.{{cite book\|last\=Abun\-Nasr\|first\=Jamil\|title\=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period\|year\=1987\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|location\=Cambridge\|pages\=344\|isbn\=9780521337670\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=jdlKbZ46YYkC\&pg\=PA344\|access\-date\=10 October 2015}} Voice of the Arabs supported Algerian revolutionaries not only by allowing them to use the services and facilities of the station but also by explicitly favoring the [FLN's](/wiki/FLN_%28Algeria%29 "FLN (Algeria)") struggle against the French and broadcasting anti\-French propaganda.
The service then turned its attention eastward; Iraq and Jordan became the next targets of Nasser's anti\-colonial rhetoric and broadcasts. In an effort rid the Arab world of any Western influence, Voice of the Arabs launched a propaganda war against Iraq's then\-Prime Minister [Nuri as\-Said](/wiki/Nuri_as-Said "Nuri as-Said"), criticizing Iraq's participation in the [Baghdad Pact](/wiki/Baghdad_Pact "Baghdad Pact"). It also appealed directly to Jordanian citizens, calling them to campaign against Jordan's potential participation in the Baghdad Pact. This continued until the 1958 [Iraqi Revolution](/wiki/14_July_Revolution "14 July Revolution") overthrew the [Iraqi monarchy](/wiki/Iraqi_Kingdom "Iraqi Kingdom"), and Iraq subsequently withdrew its participation from the organization.
Voice of the Arabs widely broadcast Nasser's nationalization of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal") in 1956 and the removal of British Forces from Egypt, contributing to the service's popularity and heightened concern among Western powers regarding the service. Combined with attacks on British and French allies in the region, these events led Britain and France to increase monitoring of Egyptian broadcast. Violent and non\-violent efforts to silence the radio failed and contributed to the radio's and Nasser's prestige and popularity.
From 1956 to the 1960s, Voice of the Arabs also gave expression to anti\-British sentiments vis\-à\-vis its broadcast in [North Yemen](/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen "Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen"). The service provoked action against the British presence in Aden ([Southern Yemen](/wiki/Southern_Yemen "Southern Yemen")), a move countered by Saudi Arabian\-supported pro\-British radio broadcasts from Aden. Voice of the Arabs then took a more aggressive stance against Saudi Arabia.
Following the union with Syria in 1958 and the expansion of Egypt's transmitter power, the service also promoted liberation struggles in African countries south of the Sahara.
|
[
"#### Anti\\-imperialism/anti\\-colonialism",
"The programming was also characterized by an [anti\\-colonial](/wiki/Anti-colonialism \"Anti-colonialism\") tone and a rejection of Western imperialism. On one occasion, the service announced that Voice of the Arabs was \"in the service of the Arab nation and its struggle against Western imperialism and its lackeys in the Arab world.\"",
"The first three years of its broadcasts focused on North African political struggles. The service supported the causes of French\\-exiled [Sultan Mohammed V](/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed_V \"Sultan Mohammed V\") in Morocco and [Habib Bourguiba](/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba \"Habib Bourguiba\")'s [Neo\\-Destour Party](/wiki/Neo-Destour_Party \"Neo-Destour Party\") in [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"). As an expression of Nasser's anti\\-colonial stance, the service enabled and encouraged exiled Algerians to update Algerian followers on their activities.{{cite book\\|last\\=Abun\\-Nasr\\|first\\=Jamil\\|title\\=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|location\\=Cambridge\\|pages\\=344\\|isbn\\=9780521337670\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=jdlKbZ46YYkC\\&pg\\=PA344\\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2015}} Voice of the Arabs supported Algerian revolutionaries not only by allowing them to use the services and facilities of the station but also by explicitly favoring the [FLN's](/wiki/FLN_%28Algeria%29 \"FLN (Algeria)\") struggle against the French and broadcasting anti\\-French propaganda.",
"The service then turned its attention eastward; Iraq and Jordan became the next targets of Nasser's anti\\-colonial rhetoric and broadcasts. In an effort rid the Arab world of any Western influence, Voice of the Arabs launched a propaganda war against Iraq's then\\-Prime Minister [Nuri as\\-Said](/wiki/Nuri_as-Said \"Nuri as-Said\"), criticizing Iraq's participation in the [Baghdad Pact](/wiki/Baghdad_Pact \"Baghdad Pact\"). It also appealed directly to Jordanian citizens, calling them to campaign against Jordan's potential participation in the Baghdad Pact. This continued until the 1958 [Iraqi Revolution](/wiki/14_July_Revolution \"14 July Revolution\") overthrew the [Iraqi monarchy](/wiki/Iraqi_Kingdom \"Iraqi Kingdom\"), and Iraq subsequently withdrew its participation from the organization.",
"Voice of the Arabs widely broadcast Nasser's nationalization of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\") in 1956 and the removal of British Forces from Egypt, contributing to the service's popularity and heightened concern among Western powers regarding the service. Combined with attacks on British and French allies in the region, these events led Britain and France to increase monitoring of Egyptian broadcast. Violent and non\\-violent efforts to silence the radio failed and contributed to the radio's and Nasser's prestige and popularity.",
"From 1956 to the 1960s, Voice of the Arabs also gave expression to anti\\-British sentiments vis\\-à\\-vis its broadcast in [North Yemen](/wiki/Mutawakkilite_Kingdom_of_Yemen \"Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen\"). The service provoked action against the British presence in Aden ([Southern Yemen](/wiki/Southern_Yemen \"Southern Yemen\")), a move countered by Saudi Arabian\\-supported pro\\-British radio broadcasts from Aden. Voice of the Arabs then took a more aggressive stance against Saudi Arabia.",
"Following the union with Syria in 1958 and the expansion of Egypt's transmitter power, the service also promoted liberation struggles in African countries south of the Sahara.",
""
] |
Gameplay
--------
*DragonVale* is a dragon breeding simulation game in which players design an island park and display [dragons](/wiki/Dragons "Dragons") in habitats. Displaying dragons allows the player to earn "DragonCash". DragonCash can be used to upgrade a park with new islands, habitats, and decorations.{{Cite web\|url\=http://appadvice.com/appnn/2011/09/quickadvice\-dragonvale\|title\=Build A Park Full Of Dragons In DragonVale\|first\=AppAdvice Staff\|last\=Author\|date\=September 19, 2011\|website\=AppAdvice\|access\-date\=April 8, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 17, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150117050004/http://appadvice.com/appnn/2011/09/quickadvice\-dragonvale\|url\-status\=live}} The game has a maximum park level of 180, and there is a total dragon count of 841 (213 elemental dragons, 418 special dragons, and 367 epic dragons), a decoration count of 562, and an island count of 40 (not including seven special islands).{{Cite web\|url\=https://kotaku.com/dragonvale\-captured\-my\-heart\-and\-my\-wallet\-in\-2011\-5871255\|title\=Dragonvale Captured My Heart and My Wallet in 2011\|website\=Kotaku\|date\=27 December 2011\|access\-date\=8 April 2020\|archive\-date\=14 August 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814203458/https://kotaku.com/dragonvale\-captured\-my\-heart\-and\-my\-wallet\-in\-2011\-5871255\|url\-status\=live}}
Basic elemental dragons can produce a specific set of hybrid dragons by being paired in the Breeding Cave, the Epic Breeding Island, the Cooperative Breeding Cave, and the Runic Breeding Caves (the last of which are only available during Easter or Christmas time). The ten basic elements are Plant, Fire, Earth, Cold, Lightning, Water, Air, Metal, Light, and Dark.
Epic dragons are rarer than basic elemental dragons and hybrids. The epic dragons include Sun, Moon, Rainbow, Treasure, Olympus, Gemstone, Dream, Seasonal, Apocalypse, Chrysalis, Ornamental, Crystalline, Snowflake, Monolith, Aura, Hidden, Galactic, Surface, Melody, Zodiac, and their epic offspring hybrids.
There are a number of limited or rare dragons, known as "Special Dragons", that are only available during a specific period of time. These dragons are themed toward specific [holidays](/wiki/Holidays "Holidays"), seasons, DragonVale anniversaries, anomalies, months, and events. For example, the Ghost dragon is available for [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween "Halloween") and the [Reindeer](/wiki/Reindeer "Reindeer") dragon is available for [the winter holidays](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas"). Another example is the Tien Dragon, which came out during the 10th anniversary of the creation of DragonVale. Many Epic dragons are also limited; for example, the [Leap Year](/wiki/Leap_year "Leap year") Dragon that is theoretically only available every 4 years. Limited dragons are often released alongside a limited park decoration. Limited dragons include the gemstone dragons, which correspond to the monthly birthstones. Gemstone dragons earn gems rather than DragonCash. Backflip Studios held several "Bring Em Back" events to give players a chance to breed a limited dragon they may have missed the first time around. DECA has held “Dragon Week” events to give players similar opportunities.
Gems are a vital part of DragonVale. They can be used to speed up most in\-game waiting times. Gems can be acquired through trading them with friends, winning them in the colosseum and race track, completing quests and goals, collecting from gemstone and crystalline dragons, or by purchasing them directly as an [in\-game\-purchase](/wiki/Microtransaction "Microtransaction").
Breeding is the most common way to earn non\-basic dragons, they can also be bought from the market for a high amount of gems. The basic elemental dragons can be bought with DragonCash. Alternatively, players can use Etherium to buy mystery eggs, which are available in various rarities, rewarding the player with one random dragon correlating to each rarity. Players can buy new islands to make space for more habitats although there is a limit on habitats.
Players raise dragons to adulthood by feeding them treats grown from treat farms, won from the race track, or earned from the completion of quests. The higher level a dragon is, the more DragonCash it will earn per minute. Different dragons earn DragonCash at different rates. For example, a Gift dragon at level 10 can only earn 77 DragonCash per minute while a level 10 Moon Dragon can earn 256 DragonCash per minute. Certain dragons can also receive earning boosts through different buildings, increasing the amount of DragonCash they earn per minute.
The Rift is another dimension in the game. In the Rift, Gems and DragonCash are useless and the player must collect Etherium. The best way to collect Etherium is having dragons in the rift. The rift has a maximum of 75 habitats, which can be decorated using Rift habitat themes. Many dragons can go into the rift, but the rift has 36 unique dragons.
There have also been several events held in relation to time of year or holidays that require the player to do a number of activities like collecting DragonCash/Gems/Etherium, hatching or selling dragons after incubation, and other special provisions. These activities give the player a certain limited time currency that corresponds to the event and enables the player to buy exclusive or unique items. DECA almost always has a seasonal event active.
|
[
"Gameplay\n--------",
"*DragonVale* is a dragon breeding simulation game in which players design an island park and display [dragons](/wiki/Dragons \"Dragons\") in habitats. Displaying dragons allows the player to earn \"DragonCash\". DragonCash can be used to upgrade a park with new islands, habitats, and decorations.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://appadvice.com/appnn/2011/09/quickadvice\\-dragonvale\\|title\\=Build A Park Full Of Dragons In DragonVale\\|first\\=AppAdvice Staff\\|last\\=Author\\|date\\=September 19, 2011\\|website\\=AppAdvice\\|access\\-date\\=April 8, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 17, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150117050004/http://appadvice.com/appnn/2011/09/quickadvice\\-dragonvale\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The game has a maximum park level of 180, and there is a total dragon count of 841 (213 elemental dragons, 418 special dragons, and 367 epic dragons), a decoration count of 562, and an island count of 40 (not including seven special islands).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://kotaku.com/dragonvale\\-captured\\-my\\-heart\\-and\\-my\\-wallet\\-in\\-2011\\-5871255\\|title\\=Dragonvale Captured My Heart and My Wallet in 2011\\|website\\=Kotaku\\|date\\=27 December 2011\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=14 August 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814203458/https://kotaku.com/dragonvale\\-captured\\-my\\-heart\\-and\\-my\\-wallet\\-in\\-2011\\-5871255\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Basic elemental dragons can produce a specific set of hybrid dragons by being paired in the Breeding Cave, the Epic Breeding Island, the Cooperative Breeding Cave, and the Runic Breeding Caves (the last of which are only available during Easter or Christmas time). The ten basic elements are Plant, Fire, Earth, Cold, Lightning, Water, Air, Metal, Light, and Dark.",
"Epic dragons are rarer than basic elemental dragons and hybrids. The epic dragons include Sun, Moon, Rainbow, Treasure, Olympus, Gemstone, Dream, Seasonal, Apocalypse, Chrysalis, Ornamental, Crystalline, Snowflake, Monolith, Aura, Hidden, Galactic, Surface, Melody, Zodiac, and their epic offspring hybrids.",
"There are a number of limited or rare dragons, known as \"Special Dragons\", that are only available during a specific period of time. These dragons are themed toward specific [holidays](/wiki/Holidays \"Holidays\"), seasons, DragonVale anniversaries, anomalies, months, and events. For example, the Ghost dragon is available for [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween \"Halloween\") and the [Reindeer](/wiki/Reindeer \"Reindeer\") dragon is available for [the winter holidays](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\"). Another example is the Tien Dragon, which came out during the 10th anniversary of the creation of DragonVale. Many Epic dragons are also limited; for example, the [Leap Year](/wiki/Leap_year \"Leap year\") Dragon that is theoretically only available every 4 years. Limited dragons are often released alongside a limited park decoration. Limited dragons include the gemstone dragons, which correspond to the monthly birthstones. Gemstone dragons earn gems rather than DragonCash. Backflip Studios held several \"Bring Em Back\" events to give players a chance to breed a limited dragon they may have missed the first time around. DECA has held “Dragon Week” events to give players similar opportunities.",
"Gems are a vital part of DragonVale. They can be used to speed up most in\\-game waiting times. Gems can be acquired through trading them with friends, winning them in the colosseum and race track, completing quests and goals, collecting from gemstone and crystalline dragons, or by purchasing them directly as an [in\\-game\\-purchase](/wiki/Microtransaction \"Microtransaction\").",
"Breeding is the most common way to earn non\\-basic dragons, they can also be bought from the market for a high amount of gems. The basic elemental dragons can be bought with DragonCash. Alternatively, players can use Etherium to buy mystery eggs, which are available in various rarities, rewarding the player with one random dragon correlating to each rarity. Players can buy new islands to make space for more habitats although there is a limit on habitats.",
"Players raise dragons to adulthood by feeding them treats grown from treat farms, won from the race track, or earned from the completion of quests. The higher level a dragon is, the more DragonCash it will earn per minute. Different dragons earn DragonCash at different rates. For example, a Gift dragon at level 10 can only earn 77 DragonCash per minute while a level 10 Moon Dragon can earn 256 DragonCash per minute. Certain dragons can also receive earning boosts through different buildings, increasing the amount of DragonCash they earn per minute.",
"The Rift is another dimension in the game. In the Rift, Gems and DragonCash are useless and the player must collect Etherium. The best way to collect Etherium is having dragons in the rift. The rift has a maximum of 75 habitats, which can be decorated using Rift habitat themes. Many dragons can go into the rift, but the rift has 36 unique dragons.",
"There have also been several events held in relation to time of year or holidays that require the player to do a number of activities like collecting DragonCash/Gems/Etherium, hatching or selling dragons after incubation, and other special provisions. These activities give the player a certain limited time currency that corresponds to the event and enables the player to buy exclusive or unique items. DECA almost always has a seasonal event active.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early days and World War I
She was built at the [Blohm \& Voss](/wiki/Blohm_%2B_Voss "Blohm + Voss") shipyards in [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg"), launched on 29 July 1905\. She had a [steel](/wiki/Steel "Steel") hull and tonnage of 3,020 GRT (2,777 net). She had an overall length of 114\.5 m (375 ft), a beam of about 14 m (46 ft) and a draught of 7\.25 m (23\.5 ft). Three masts stood 51\.2 m (168 ft) above deck and the [main yard](/wiki/Yard_%28sailing%29 "Yard (sailing)") was 28 m (92 ft) wide. She carried 3,800 m² (40,900 ft²) of sails and could reach a top speed of {{convert\|16\|kn\|km/h}}. Her regular cruise speed was around 8\-9 knots.
She was the fifth of ten near\-sister ships. She was commissioned on 18 October 1905 and used by the Laeisz company in the South American [nitrate trade](/wiki/Nitrate_trade "Nitrate trade"). By 1914, she had made eight voyages to [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"), taking between 64 and about 70 days for a one\-way trip from Hamburg to [Valparaíso](/wiki/Valpara%C3%ADso "Valparaíso") or [Iquique](/wiki/Iquique "Iquique"), the foremost Chilean nitrate ports at the time. From October 1914, she stayed in [Santa Cruz de la Palma](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_la_Palma "Santa Cruz de la Palma") port in La Palma Island, [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands "Canary Islands"). Due to post war conditions, she did not return from Santa Cruz de la Palma to Hamburg until 17 March 1920\.
In the same year, she was handed over to [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") as [war reparation](/wiki/War_reparation "War reparation"). On 15 July 1920, she left Hamburg via [Rotterdam](/wiki/Rotterdam "Rotterdam") to [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples") towed by tugs. The Italian government was unable to find a deep\-water sailing ship crew, so she was laid up near [Castellamare](/wiki/Castellammare_di_Stabia "Castellammare di Stabia") in the Gulf of Naples.
In 1924, the F. Laeisz Company bought her back for £7,000 and put her into service in the nitrate trade again. Laeisz sold her in 1931 to the [Finnish](/wiki/Finland "Finland") shipping company of [Gustaf Erikson](/wiki/Gustaf_Erikson "Gustaf Erikson"), which used her in the [Australian](/wiki/Australia "Australia") [wheat trade](/wiki/Grain_race "Grain race").
### World War II and beyond
[thumb\|*Pamir* in Wellington ca. 1941](/wiki/File:Sailing_Ship_%27Pamir%27%2C_circa_1941_%284839368053%29.jpg "Sailing Ship 'Pamir', circa 1941 (4839368053).jpg")
[thumb\|Group photograph of *Pamir* crew, Wellington, ca. 1940](/wiki/File:Group_photograph_of_Pamir_crew%2C_Wellington_-_Circa_1940.jpg "Group photograph of Pamir crew, Wellington - Circa 1940.jpg")
[thumb\|Painting of the *Pamir* by Yasmina (2008\)](/wiki/File:Yasmina.Pamir.JPG "Yasmina.Pamir.JPG")
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), *Pamir* was seized as a [prize of war](/wiki/Prize_of_war "Prize of war") by the New Zealand government on 3 August 1941 while in port at [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington "Wellington"). Ten commercial voyages were made under the New Zealand flag: five to San Francisco, three to Vancouver,Wells, *The Vancouver Voyages of the Barque Pamir* one to Sydney and her last voyage across the Tasman from Sydney to Wellington carrying 2,700 tons of cement and 400 tons of nail wire.Tessa Duder (ed), *Seduced by the Sea \- More Stories from Seafaring Kiwis*, Harper Collins, 2002, p. 266 Weathering a storm during the last Tasman voyage is described in detail by one of the mates, Andrew Keyworth, in a letter never posted.Jack Churchouse, *The* Pamir *Under the New Zealand Ensign*, Wellington, Millwood Press, 1978
[thumb\|Plaque commemorating the *Pamir* installed on the waterfront, Wellington, New Zealand](/wiki/File:Pamir-Plaque.JPG "Pamir-Plaque.JPG")
She escaped the war unscathed despite a close call in 1943 when a Japanese submarine was spotted. Evidently as a fast\-moving barque under a strong and fair wind, she did not interest the submarine's commander.Stark, *The Last Time around Cape Horn*, p. 80 After the war, she made one voyage from Wellington via Cape Horn to London, then Antwerp to Auckland and Wellington in 1948\.
She was returned to the Erikson Line on 12 November 1948 at Wellington and sailed to Port Victoria on Spencer Gulf to load Australian grain. On her 128\-day journey to Falmouth, she was the last [windjammer](/wiki/Windjammer "Windjammer") carrying a commercial load around Cape Horn, on 11 July 1949\.Stark, p. 152; see [Grain race](/wiki/Grain_race "Grain race")
Gustaf Erikson had died in 1947\. His son Edgar found he could no longer operate her (or *[Passat](/wiki/Passat_%28ship%29 "Passat (ship)")*) at a profit, owing primarily to changing regulations and union contracts governing employment aboard ships; the standard two\-watch system on sailing ships was replaced by the three\-watch system in use on motor\-ships, requiring more crew.Stark, p. 200
In March 1951, Belgian shipbreakers paid £40,000 for her and *Passat*. As she was being towed to [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp"), German shipowner Heinz Schliewen, who had sailed on her in the late 1920s, bought her (and *Passat*, thus often erroneously referred to as a sister ship). The ships were modernized with refurbished quarters to accommodate merchant marine trainees and fitted with an auxiliary engine, a refrigeration system for the galleys (precluding the need to carry live animals for fresh meat), modern communications equipment and water ballast tanks.Apollonio, *The Last of the Cape Horners*, p. 122 Her first trip was to Brazil in 1952 with cement, to return to Germany with iron ore. Early in the outbound voyage the propeller dropped off, "much to the satisfaction of the sail\-favoring crew if not the owner."Apollonio, p. 271 The enterprise went briefly bankrupt but was bought by a new consortium of 40 German shipowners.*Stiftung Pamir und Passat* \[Foundation *Pamir* and *Passat*] For the next five years, the ships continued to sail between Europe and the east coast of South America, but not around Cape Horn.Stark, p. 201 They were used as cargo\-carrying [school ships](/wiki/Training_ship "Training ship"), primarily to [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"). Although the German public supported the concept as maritime symbols and sources of national pride, the economic realities of the post\-war years placed restraints on the operation. The ships were no longer profitable as freight haulers, and *Pamir* had increasing technical problems such as leaking decks and serious corrosion. The consortium was unable to get sufficient increased funding from German governments or contributions from shipping companies or public donations, and thus let both vessels deteriorate.Hauke Goos. ["Die Seelenverkäufer"](https://magazin.spiegel.de/EpubDelivery/spiegel/pdf/51955556) (in German) \- *[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel "Der Spiegel")*, 25/2007, pp. 86\-95
### Last voyage
[thumb\|upright\|Possible last sighting of *Pamir*](/wiki/File:Last_Sighting_of_Pamir%3F.jpg "Last Sighting of Pamir?.jpg")
Due to ill health, her regular captain, Hermann Eggers, had been replaced by Captain Johannes Diebitsch, who had sailed on her as a young seaman and had commanded sail\-training ships, but had little experience as master of cargo\-carrying sailing ships. His first officer, Rolf Köhler, was only 29 at the time, and wrote that he was "getting thin with anger" over the state of the ship and that he was intending to quit the ship's company after arriving home from the next voyage. Captain Diebitsch was criticized for being a harsh and inflexible officer.
On 10 August 1957, she left [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires "Buenos Aires") for Hamburg with a crew of 86, including 52 cadets. Her cargo of 3,780 [tons](/wiki/Ton "Ton") of [barley](/wiki/Barley "Barley") was stored loose in the holds and ballast tanks, secured by 255 tons in sacks on top of the loose grain. Records indicate that this was one of the major mistakes implicated in the sinking – she had been held up by a dockworkers' strike, and Diebitsch, under severe pressure to sail, decided to let the trimming (the correct storage of loose cargo so that it does not shift in the hold) be done by his own untrained crew. It was later found that he also had the ballast tank filled with barley. Even though testing of the roll period (the time the ship took to right itself after load transfers) showed that she was dangerously unstable, Diebitsch decided to sail.
[thumb\|Approximate course of *Pamir* and track of Hurricane Carrie in September 1957](/wiki/File:Pamir_Carrie.jpg "Pamir Carrie.jpg")
On the morning of 21 September 1957, she was caught in [Hurricane Carrie](/wiki/Hurricane_Carrie "Hurricane Carrie") before shortening sails. It was later considered that because the radio officer had also been given substantial administrative tasks (to save the money required for another officer's position), he had likely not received any of the radio storm warnings. She had also not responded to radio hails by ships that had sighted her earlier in the voyage. She soon listed severely to [port](/wiki/Port_%28nautical%29 "Port (nautical)") in the sudden storm. As hatchways and other openings were not closed at once, they probably allowed considerable amounts of water to enter, as found by the commission which examined the probable causes of the sinking. The shipping company's lawyer at the investigation claimed that the water entered her due to a leak. According to the commission, the water caused her to list further and the grain to shift, which aggravated the list.
The captain did not order the flooding of her grain\-filled ballast tanks, which would have helped her to right herself. Once she listed severely, the lifeboats could not be deployed because her port side was underwater and her starboard side was raised to an angle that did not allow use of the boats.
She sent distress signals before capsizing at 13:03 local time, and sinking after drifting keel\-up for 30 minutes in the middle of the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_%28ocean%29 "Atlantic (ocean)") {{convert\|600\|nmi\|lk\=in\|sigfig\=2}} west\-southwest of the [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores") at position {{coord\|35\|57\|N\|40\|20\|W\|scale:20000000}}. Three damaged lifeboats that had come loose before or during the capsizing and the only lifeboat that had been deployed were drifting nearby. None contained any provisions or working distress signal rockets. Many sharks were later seen near the position.
A nine\-day search for survivors was organized by the [United States Coast Guard Cutter](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Cutter "United States Coast Guard Cutter") {{USCGC\|Absecon\|WAVP\-374\|2}}, but only four crewmen and two cadets were rescued alive, from two of the lifeboats. It was reported that many of the 86 men aboard had managed to reach the boats, but most died in the next three days. As none of the officers nor the captain survived, the reasons for the capsizing remained uncertain.
The sinking made headlines around the world; it was a national tragedy in Germany.Stark, p. 202
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early days and World War I",
"She was built at the [Blohm \\& Voss](/wiki/Blohm_%2B_Voss \"Blohm + Voss\") shipyards in [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\"), launched on 29 July 1905\\. She had a [steel](/wiki/Steel \"Steel\") hull and tonnage of 3,020 GRT (2,777 net). She had an overall length of 114\\.5 m (375 ft), a beam of about 14 m (46 ft) and a draught of 7\\.25 m (23\\.5 ft). Three masts stood 51\\.2 m (168 ft) above deck and the [main yard](/wiki/Yard_%28sailing%29 \"Yard (sailing)\") was 28 m (92 ft) wide. She carried 3,800 m² (40,900 ft²) of sails and could reach a top speed of {{convert\\|16\\|kn\\|km/h}}. Her regular cruise speed was around 8\\-9 knots.",
"She was the fifth of ten near\\-sister ships. She was commissioned on 18 October 1905 and used by the Laeisz company in the South American [nitrate trade](/wiki/Nitrate_trade \"Nitrate trade\"). By 1914, she had made eight voyages to [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\"), taking between 64 and about 70 days for a one\\-way trip from Hamburg to [Valparaíso](/wiki/Valpara%C3%ADso \"Valparaíso\") or [Iquique](/wiki/Iquique \"Iquique\"), the foremost Chilean nitrate ports at the time. From October 1914, she stayed in [Santa Cruz de la Palma](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_la_Palma \"Santa Cruz de la Palma\") port in La Palma Island, [Canary Islands](/wiki/Canary_Islands \"Canary Islands\"). Due to post war conditions, she did not return from Santa Cruz de la Palma to Hamburg until 17 March 1920\\.",
"In the same year, she was handed over to [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") as [war reparation](/wiki/War_reparation \"War reparation\"). On 15 July 1920, she left Hamburg via [Rotterdam](/wiki/Rotterdam \"Rotterdam\") to [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\") towed by tugs. The Italian government was unable to find a deep\\-water sailing ship crew, so she was laid up near [Castellamare](/wiki/Castellammare_di_Stabia \"Castellammare di Stabia\") in the Gulf of Naples.",
"In 1924, the F. Laeisz Company bought her back for £7,000 and put her into service in the nitrate trade again. Laeisz sold her in 1931 to the [Finnish](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\") shipping company of [Gustaf Erikson](/wiki/Gustaf_Erikson \"Gustaf Erikson\"), which used her in the [Australian](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") [wheat trade](/wiki/Grain_race \"Grain race\").",
"### World War II and beyond",
"[thumb\\|*Pamir* in Wellington ca. 1941](/wiki/File:Sailing_Ship_%27Pamir%27%2C_circa_1941_%284839368053%29.jpg \"Sailing Ship 'Pamir', circa 1941 (4839368053).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Group photograph of *Pamir* crew, Wellington, ca. 1940](/wiki/File:Group_photograph_of_Pamir_crew%2C_Wellington_-_Circa_1940.jpg \"Group photograph of Pamir crew, Wellington - Circa 1940.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Painting of the *Pamir* by Yasmina (2008\\)](/wiki/File:Yasmina.Pamir.JPG \"Yasmina.Pamir.JPG\")\nDuring [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), *Pamir* was seized as a [prize of war](/wiki/Prize_of_war \"Prize of war\") by the New Zealand government on 3 August 1941 while in port at [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington \"Wellington\"). Ten commercial voyages were made under the New Zealand flag: five to San Francisco, three to Vancouver,Wells, *The Vancouver Voyages of the Barque Pamir* one to Sydney and her last voyage across the Tasman from Sydney to Wellington carrying 2,700 tons of cement and 400 tons of nail wire.Tessa Duder (ed), *Seduced by the Sea \\- More Stories from Seafaring Kiwis*, Harper Collins, 2002, p. 266 Weathering a storm during the last Tasman voyage is described in detail by one of the mates, Andrew Keyworth, in a letter never posted.Jack Churchouse, *The* Pamir *Under the New Zealand Ensign*, Wellington, Millwood Press, 1978",
"[thumb\\|Plaque commemorating the *Pamir* installed on the waterfront, Wellington, New Zealand](/wiki/File:Pamir-Plaque.JPG \"Pamir-Plaque.JPG\")\nShe escaped the war unscathed despite a close call in 1943 when a Japanese submarine was spotted. Evidently as a fast\\-moving barque under a strong and fair wind, she did not interest the submarine's commander.Stark, *The Last Time around Cape Horn*, p. 80 After the war, she made one voyage from Wellington via Cape Horn to London, then Antwerp to Auckland and Wellington in 1948\\.",
"She was returned to the Erikson Line on 12 November 1948 at Wellington and sailed to Port Victoria on Spencer Gulf to load Australian grain. On her 128\\-day journey to Falmouth, she was the last [windjammer](/wiki/Windjammer \"Windjammer\") carrying a commercial load around Cape Horn, on 11 July 1949\\.Stark, p. 152; see [Grain race](/wiki/Grain_race \"Grain race\")",
"Gustaf Erikson had died in 1947\\. His son Edgar found he could no longer operate her (or *[Passat](/wiki/Passat_%28ship%29 \"Passat (ship)\")*) at a profit, owing primarily to changing regulations and union contracts governing employment aboard ships; the standard two\\-watch system on sailing ships was replaced by the three\\-watch system in use on motor\\-ships, requiring more crew.Stark, p. 200",
"In March 1951, Belgian shipbreakers paid £40,000 for her and *Passat*. As she was being towed to [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\"), German shipowner Heinz Schliewen, who had sailed on her in the late 1920s, bought her (and *Passat*, thus often erroneously referred to as a sister ship). The ships were modernized with refurbished quarters to accommodate merchant marine trainees and fitted with an auxiliary engine, a refrigeration system for the galleys (precluding the need to carry live animals for fresh meat), modern communications equipment and water ballast tanks.Apollonio, *The Last of the Cape Horners*, p. 122 Her first trip was to Brazil in 1952 with cement, to return to Germany with iron ore. Early in the outbound voyage the propeller dropped off, \"much to the satisfaction of the sail\\-favoring crew if not the owner.\"Apollonio, p. 271 The enterprise went briefly bankrupt but was bought by a new consortium of 40 German shipowners.*Stiftung Pamir und Passat* \\[Foundation *Pamir* and *Passat*] For the next five years, the ships continued to sail between Europe and the east coast of South America, but not around Cape Horn.Stark, p. 201 They were used as cargo\\-carrying [school ships](/wiki/Training_ship \"Training ship\"), primarily to [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"). Although the German public supported the concept as maritime symbols and sources of national pride, the economic realities of the post\\-war years placed restraints on the operation. The ships were no longer profitable as freight haulers, and *Pamir* had increasing technical problems such as leaking decks and serious corrosion. The consortium was unable to get sufficient increased funding from German governments or contributions from shipping companies or public donations, and thus let both vessels deteriorate.Hauke Goos. [\"Die Seelenverkäufer\"](https://magazin.spiegel.de/EpubDelivery/spiegel/pdf/51955556) (in German) \\- *[Der Spiegel](/wiki/Der_Spiegel \"Der Spiegel\")*, 25/2007, pp. 86\\-95",
"### Last voyage",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Possible last sighting of *Pamir*](/wiki/File:Last_Sighting_of_Pamir%3F.jpg \"Last Sighting of Pamir?.jpg\")\nDue to ill health, her regular captain, Hermann Eggers, had been replaced by Captain Johannes Diebitsch, who had sailed on her as a young seaman and had commanded sail\\-training ships, but had little experience as master of cargo\\-carrying sailing ships. His first officer, Rolf Köhler, was only 29 at the time, and wrote that he was \"getting thin with anger\" over the state of the ship and that he was intending to quit the ship's company after arriving home from the next voyage. Captain Diebitsch was criticized for being a harsh and inflexible officer.",
"On 10 August 1957, she left [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\") for Hamburg with a crew of 86, including 52 cadets. Her cargo of 3,780 [tons](/wiki/Ton \"Ton\") of [barley](/wiki/Barley \"Barley\") was stored loose in the holds and ballast tanks, secured by 255 tons in sacks on top of the loose grain. Records indicate that this was one of the major mistakes implicated in the sinking – she had been held up by a dockworkers' strike, and Diebitsch, under severe pressure to sail, decided to let the trimming (the correct storage of loose cargo so that it does not shift in the hold) be done by his own untrained crew. It was later found that he also had the ballast tank filled with barley. Even though testing of the roll period (the time the ship took to right itself after load transfers) showed that she was dangerously unstable, Diebitsch decided to sail.\n[thumb\\|Approximate course of *Pamir* and track of Hurricane Carrie in September 1957](/wiki/File:Pamir_Carrie.jpg \"Pamir Carrie.jpg\")\nOn the morning of 21 September 1957, she was caught in [Hurricane Carrie](/wiki/Hurricane_Carrie \"Hurricane Carrie\") before shortening sails. It was later considered that because the radio officer had also been given substantial administrative tasks (to save the money required for another officer's position), he had likely not received any of the radio storm warnings. She had also not responded to radio hails by ships that had sighted her earlier in the voyage. She soon listed severely to [port](/wiki/Port_%28nautical%29 \"Port (nautical)\") in the sudden storm. As hatchways and other openings were not closed at once, they probably allowed considerable amounts of water to enter, as found by the commission which examined the probable causes of the sinking. The shipping company's lawyer at the investigation claimed that the water entered her due to a leak. According to the commission, the water caused her to list further and the grain to shift, which aggravated the list.",
"The captain did not order the flooding of her grain\\-filled ballast tanks, which would have helped her to right herself. Once she listed severely, the lifeboats could not be deployed because her port side was underwater and her starboard side was raised to an angle that did not allow use of the boats.",
"She sent distress signals before capsizing at 13:03 local time, and sinking after drifting keel\\-up for 30 minutes in the middle of the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_%28ocean%29 \"Atlantic (ocean)\") {{convert\\|600\\|nmi\\|lk\\=in\\|sigfig\\=2}} west\\-southwest of the [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\") at position {{coord\\|35\\|57\\|N\\|40\\|20\\|W\\|scale:20000000}}. Three damaged lifeboats that had come loose before or during the capsizing and the only lifeboat that had been deployed were drifting nearby. None contained any provisions or working distress signal rockets. Many sharks were later seen near the position.",
"A nine\\-day search for survivors was organized by the [United States Coast Guard Cutter](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Cutter \"United States Coast Guard Cutter\") {{USCGC\\|Absecon\\|WAVP\\-374\\|2}}, but only four crewmen and two cadets were rescued alive, from two of the lifeboats. It was reported that many of the 86 men aboard had managed to reach the boats, but most died in the next three days. As none of the officers nor the captain survived, the reasons for the capsizing remained uncertain.",
"The sinking made headlines around the world; it was a national tragedy in Germany.Stark, p. 202",
""
] |
2005: A rivalry begins
----------------------
### 2005 Qualifying Final
On 2 September 2005, Sydney and West Coast played the first in what would be a string of 6 games decided by under a goal.
In what was a tight game all day, West Coast hit the lead in the last quarter after a 14\-point difference at 3\-quarter time.
West Coast 10\.9 (69\) defeated Sydney 10\.5 (65\).
West Coast won through to the Preliminary Final where they defeated the [Adelaide Crows](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club "Adelaide Football Club"), whilst Sydney was forced to play the following week where they defeated [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club "Geelong Football Club") before beating [St Kilda](/wiki/St_Kilda_Football_Club "St Kilda Football Club") in the Preliminary Final.
### 2005 Grand Final
{{main\|2005 AFL Grand Final}}
| Team | 1 Qtr | 2 Qtr | 3 Qtr | Final |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_Swans "Sydney Swans") |3\.0
6\.3
6\.5
8\.10 (**58**)
| [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles") |2\.4
2\.7
5\.9
7\.12 (54\)
| Crowd: 91,828 at the [MCG](/wiki/MCG "MCG"). | | | | |
### Round 15, 2006
After leading most of the day, Sydney lost the replay of the preceding year's Grand Final when West Coast kicked 6 goals to 1 in the second half to win by 2 points at Subiaco Oval.
West Coast 9\.13 (67\) defeated Sydney 9\.11 (65\).
### 2006 Qualifying Final
In front of 43,000 people at Subiaco, Sydney got over the line by a single point in a game where [Michael O'Loughlin](/wiki/Michael_O%27Loughlin "Michael O'Loughlin") kicked a goal in the dying moments before interacting with Eagles fans in the front row behind the goals.
Sydney 13\.7 (85\) defeated West Coast 12\.12 (84\).
Sydney won through to the Preliminary Final where they defeated the [Fremantle Dockers](/wiki/Fremantle_Football_Club "Fremantle Football Club"), whilst West Coast were forced to play the following week where they defeated the [Western Bulldogs](/wiki/Western_Bulldogs "Western Bulldogs") before beating [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club "Adelaide Football Club") in the Preliminary Final.
### 2006 Grand Final
{{main\|2006 AFL Grand Final}}
| Team | 1 Qtr | 2 Qtr | 3 Qtr | Final |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_Swans "Sydney Swans") |1\.4
4\.6
8\.11
12\.12 (84\)
| [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles") |4\.2
8\.7
10\.10
12\.13 (**85**)
| Crowd: 97,431 at the [MCG](/wiki/MCG "MCG"). | | | | |
### Round 1, 2007
In what was literally a replay of the Grand Final, West Coast escaped with another one\-point victory after Sydney managed to kick 7 goals to one in the second half at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium "ANZ Stadium").
This was the last match in a string of 6 where games were decided by under a goal.
West Coast 11\.8 (74\) defeated Sydney 10\.13 (73\)
### Round 16, 2007
The two sides again managed to have yet another close match; however, for the first time in 7 matches, the winning margin would be over 5 points. This time Sydney would kick six goals to three in the final quarter to go down by 12 points. This was also [Ben Cousins](/wiki/Ben_Cousins "Ben Cousins")' first game for the 2007 season after a controversial off\-season. This would stand as West Coast's last win over Sydney until Round 17, 2015\.
West Coast 16\.16 (112\) defeated Sydney 15\.10 (100\).
|
[
"2005: A rivalry begins\n----------------------",
"### 2005 Qualifying Final",
"On 2 September 2005, Sydney and West Coast played the first in what would be a string of 6 games decided by under a goal.",
"In what was a tight game all day, West Coast hit the lead in the last quarter after a 14\\-point difference at 3\\-quarter time.",
"West Coast 10\\.9 (69\\) defeated Sydney 10\\.5 (65\\).",
"West Coast won through to the Preliminary Final where they defeated the [Adelaide Crows](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club \"Adelaide Football Club\"), whilst Sydney was forced to play the following week where they defeated [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club \"Geelong Football Club\") before beating [St Kilda](/wiki/St_Kilda_Football_Club \"St Kilda Football Club\") in the Preliminary Final.",
"### 2005 Grand Final",
"{{main\\|2005 AFL Grand Final}}",
"",
"| Team | 1 Qtr | 2 Qtr | 3 Qtr | Final |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_Swans \"Sydney Swans\") |3\\.0",
"6\\.3",
"6\\.5",
"8\\.10 (**58**)",
"| [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\") |2\\.4",
"2\\.7",
"5\\.9",
"7\\.12 (54\\)",
"| Crowd: 91,828 at the [MCG](/wiki/MCG \"MCG\"). | | | | |",
"### Round 15, 2006",
"After leading most of the day, Sydney lost the replay of the preceding year's Grand Final when West Coast kicked 6 goals to 1 in the second half to win by 2 points at Subiaco Oval.",
"West Coast 9\\.13 (67\\) defeated Sydney 9\\.11 (65\\).",
"### 2006 Qualifying Final",
"In front of 43,000 people at Subiaco, Sydney got over the line by a single point in a game where [Michael O'Loughlin](/wiki/Michael_O%27Loughlin \"Michael O'Loughlin\") kicked a goal in the dying moments before interacting with Eagles fans in the front row behind the goals.",
"Sydney 13\\.7 (85\\) defeated West Coast 12\\.12 (84\\).",
"Sydney won through to the Preliminary Final where they defeated the [Fremantle Dockers](/wiki/Fremantle_Football_Club \"Fremantle Football Club\"), whilst West Coast were forced to play the following week where they defeated the [Western Bulldogs](/wiki/Western_Bulldogs \"Western Bulldogs\") before beating [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club \"Adelaide Football Club\") in the Preliminary Final.",
"### 2006 Grand Final",
"{{main\\|2006 AFL Grand Final}}",
"",
"| Team | 1 Qtr | 2 Qtr | 3 Qtr | Final |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_Swans \"Sydney Swans\") |1\\.4",
"4\\.6",
"8\\.11",
"12\\.12 (84\\)",
"| [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\") |4\\.2",
"8\\.7",
"10\\.10",
"12\\.13 (**85**)",
"| Crowd: 97,431 at the [MCG](/wiki/MCG \"MCG\"). | | | | |",
"### Round 1, 2007",
"In what was literally a replay of the Grand Final, West Coast escaped with another one\\-point victory after Sydney managed to kick 7 goals to one in the second half at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium \"ANZ Stadium\").",
"This was the last match in a string of 6 where games were decided by under a goal.",
"West Coast 11\\.8 (74\\) defeated Sydney 10\\.13 (73\\)",
"### Round 16, 2007",
"The two sides again managed to have yet another close match; however, for the first time in 7 matches, the winning margin would be over 5 points. This time Sydney would kick six goals to three in the final quarter to go down by 12 points. This was also [Ben Cousins](/wiki/Ben_Cousins \"Ben Cousins\")' first game for the 2007 season after a controversial off\\-season. This would stand as West Coast's last win over Sydney until Round 17, 2015\\.",
"West Coast 16\\.16 (112\\) defeated Sydney 15\\.10 (100\\).",
""
] |
2008–present: Swans dominance
-----------------------------
### Barry Hall and Brent Staker
In round four, 2008, [Barry Hall](/wiki/Barry_Hall "Barry Hall") made headlines when he punched [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles")'s [Brent Staker](/wiki/Brent_Staker "Brent Staker") in the jaw. Staker's parents had called for Hall to be suspended for the remainder of the 2008 season, but Hall was only suspended for seven weeks. Sydney broke the trend of close games between the sides winning this match 16\.11\.(107\) to 5\.15\.(45\); it was their biggest win over the Eagles since [2000](/wiki/2000_AFL_season "2000 AFL season").
### Swans comeback
Another classic was played out in Round 11, 2008, when Sydney overturned a 36\-point halftime deficit to win at [Subiaco Oval](/wiki/Subiaco_Oval "Subiaco Oval"), their first at the venue in any home\-and\-away season since 2001\.
West Coast kicked 6 goals to none in the first quarter and carried the lead into the halftime break. The Swans managed to kick 4 goals to none in the third term before kicking the final three goals of the match, with the last coming at the 31\-minute mark, to win by 5 points.
Sydney 12\.11 (83\) defeated West Coast 11\.12 (78\).
### Another 5\-point thriller
In round eight, 2009, Sydney once again beat the Eagles by under a goal, this time at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium "ANZ Stadium"). The Eagles hit the front late in the final term after facing a 19\-point difference at 3\-quarter time.
The Eagles looked to have pinched the game away from the Swans before a late goal from [Kieren Jack](/wiki/Kieren_Jack "Kieren Jack") put the Swans in front in the dying minutes to save another game for the Swans.
Sydney 16\.10 (106\) defeated West Coast 15\.11 (101\).
### Swans again in 2011
With 4 minutes to play in round 3, 2011, scores were level as the sides once again battled out a see\-sawing event in Perth. [Andrejs Everitt](/wiki/Andrejs_Everitt "Andrejs Everitt") of Sydney kicked the final two goals of the match, with the last one only seconds before the final siren. Sydney were the only team to defeat the Eagles on its home ground in season 2011\.
Sydney 15\.11 (101\) defeated West Coast 13\.10 (88\).
### Adam Goodes booing incident
Round 17, 2015, saw West Coast end its eight\-game losing streak against the Swans with a 52\-point victory, its biggest win over the club since 2005\. However, the match was marred by [constant booing](/wiki/Adam_Goodes%23Racial_abuse "Adam Goodes#Racial abuse") from pro\-Eagles fans towards Swans player [Adam Goodes](/wiki/Adam_Goodes "Adam Goodes"), who subsequently took leave from the club for one week following the incident.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/7\.30/content/2015/s4281841\.htm\|title\='Continual battle' follows Adam Goodes but why are crowds booing him?\|publisher\=Australian Broadcasting Corporation\|first\=Tracy\|last\=Bowden\|date\=27 July 2015\|accessdate\=7 September 2015}}
West Coast 15\.13 (103\) defeated Sydney 7\.9 (51\).
### The first game at Perth Stadium
It was announced on 26 October 2017 that the two sides will contest the first ever AFL premiership match at the new [Perth Stadium](/wiki/Perth_Stadium "Perth Stadium") in [round one of the 2018 AFL season](/wiki/2018_AFL_season%23Round_1 "2018 AFL season#Round 1").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.westcoasteagles.com.au/news/2017\-10\-26/eagles\-to\-kickoff\-2018\-season\-at\-perth\-stadium\|title\=West Coast to open 2018 at Perth Stadium against Sydney\|publisher\=West Coast Eagles\|first\=Gary\|last\=Stocks\|date\=26 October 2017\|accessdate\=26 October 2017}}
Sydney 18\.7 (115\) defeated West Coast 13\.8 (86\).
### Friday night in Sydney
Despite losing the first game of the 2018 season, [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles") won the next 10 in a row. Going into the match, west coast were 1st, with [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_Swans "Sydney Swans") in 3rd on the AFL ladder.
Sydney 10\.12 (72\) defeated West Coast 7\.15 (57\).
### An upset in 2019
Despite the West Coast Eagles being the reigning premiers, and the Sydney Swans suffering a decline in on\-field performance, the Swans were able to defeat the Eagles by 45 points at the [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"), with [Lance Franklin](/wiki/Lance_Franklin "Lance Franklin") kicking a goal from the boundary line on the final siren.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/afl\-2019\-jeremy\-mcgovern\-exposed\-early\-during\-sydney\-swans\-hot\-start\-against\-eagles/news\-story/86d5cbc8b3d0b48b2785de80017b1528\|title\=AFL 2019: Jeremy McGovern exposed early during Sydney Swans' hot start against Eagles\|publisher\=Fox Sports Australia\|first\=Ben\|last\=Waterworth\|date\=9 June 2019\|accessdate\=23 September 2019}} The win extended the Eagles' hoodoo at the ground to two decades.
Sydney 18\.8 (116\) defeated West Coast 10\.11 (71\).
### Neutral territory in 2021
A [COVID\-19 outbreak in Sydney](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_South_Wales "COVID-19 pandemic in New South Wales") saw the fixtured [round 16, 2021](/wiki/2021_AFL_season%23Round_16 "2021 AFL season#Round 16") match between the Swans and Eagles shifted from the [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground") to [Kardinia Park](/wiki/Kardinia_Park_%28stadium%29 "Kardinia Park (stadium)") in Geelong, where the Swans defeated the Eagles by 92 points.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/live\-afl\-2021\-round\-16\-sydney\-swans\-vs\-west\-coast\-eagles\-live\-scores\-updates\-video\-stats\-live\-blog\-stream\-news/news\-story/9d5178e15a1f52b1eee7c8d381f77616\|title\=Potential end of Eagles era as GMHBA hoodoo continues, Buddy's new role: The 3\-2\-1\|publisher\=Fox Sports Australia\|first\=Ben\|last\=Cotton\|date\=4 July 2021\|accessdate\=11 May 2022}}
Sydney 18\.10 (118\) defeated West Coast 3\.8 (26\).
### Swans run riot on Good Friday
In just their second meeting at Optus Stadium, the Swans made it two from two against the Eagles at the ground, kicking the first nine goals of the match and keeping the Eagles scoreless in the first quarter (the first time this had happened at home in club history) en route to a 63\-point victory, which was achieved without injured forward [Lance Franklin](/wiki/Lance_Franklin "Lance Franklin").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/live\-afl\-2022\-west\-coast\-eagles\-vs\-sydney\-swans\-round\-5\-live\-scores\-updates\-stats\-video\-stream\-news\-blog/news\-story/2c379011912a6fbedef30ab501856822\|title\='Fearless' Swans enjoy 'absolute demolition' of Eagles; West Coast team tactics questioned: 3\-2\-1\|publisher\=Fox Sports Australia\|first\=Catherine\|last\=Healey\|date\=16 April 2022\|accessdate\=11 May 2022}}
Sydney 18\.13 (121\) defeated West Coast 9\.4 (58\).
### Swans massacre at the SCG
On 24 June 2023, the Swans recorded their highest score since 1987, and their equal\-biggest victory, kicking 31\.19 (205\) in a 171\-point thrashing of the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles") at the [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground "Sydney Cricket Ground"). This also marked their ninth consecutive victory against the Eagles at the ground, dating back to 2000\. As was the case in round five last season, the Swans defeated the Eagles despite being without injured forward [Lance Franklin](/wiki/Lance_Franklin "Lance Franklin").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/live\-afl\-scores\-2023\-sydney\-swans\-vs\-west\-coast\-eagles\-updates\-round\-15\-how\-to\-live\-stream\-video\-result\-news\-blog/news\-story/e58595ea1c8e4aa92644ab5b6a941ba1?fbclid\=IwAR0PPhzA1PgWOPUxA2MrwVuUz0dZt9ZB2VzS3\-hOUuj3h0\-0p8gIVkapYuU\|title\=Records tumble as 'witches hats' West Coast annihilated in brutal Bloods' bloodbath\|publisher\=Fox Sports Australia\|first1\=Ben\|last1\=Waterworth\|first2\=Catherine\|last2\=Healey\|date\=24 June 2023\|accessdate\=24 June 2023}}
Sydney 31\.19 (205\) defeated West Coast 5\.4 (34\).
|
[
"2008–present: Swans dominance\n-----------------------------",
"### Barry Hall and Brent Staker",
"In round four, 2008, [Barry Hall](/wiki/Barry_Hall \"Barry Hall\") made headlines when he punched [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\")'s [Brent Staker](/wiki/Brent_Staker \"Brent Staker\") in the jaw. Staker's parents had called for Hall to be suspended for the remainder of the 2008 season, but Hall was only suspended for seven weeks. Sydney broke the trend of close games between the sides winning this match 16\\.11\\.(107\\) to 5\\.15\\.(45\\); it was their biggest win over the Eagles since [2000](/wiki/2000_AFL_season \"2000 AFL season\").",
"### Swans comeback",
"Another classic was played out in Round 11, 2008, when Sydney overturned a 36\\-point halftime deficit to win at [Subiaco Oval](/wiki/Subiaco_Oval \"Subiaco Oval\"), their first at the venue in any home\\-and\\-away season since 2001\\.",
"West Coast kicked 6 goals to none in the first quarter and carried the lead into the halftime break. The Swans managed to kick 4 goals to none in the third term before kicking the final three goals of the match, with the last coming at the 31\\-minute mark, to win by 5 points.",
"Sydney 12\\.11 (83\\) defeated West Coast 11\\.12 (78\\).",
"### Another 5\\-point thriller",
"In round eight, 2009, Sydney once again beat the Eagles by under a goal, this time at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium \"ANZ Stadium\"). The Eagles hit the front late in the final term after facing a 19\\-point difference at 3\\-quarter time.",
"The Eagles looked to have pinched the game away from the Swans before a late goal from [Kieren Jack](/wiki/Kieren_Jack \"Kieren Jack\") put the Swans in front in the dying minutes to save another game for the Swans.",
"Sydney 16\\.10 (106\\) defeated West Coast 15\\.11 (101\\).",
"### Swans again in 2011",
"With 4 minutes to play in round 3, 2011, scores were level as the sides once again battled out a see\\-sawing event in Perth. [Andrejs Everitt](/wiki/Andrejs_Everitt \"Andrejs Everitt\") of Sydney kicked the final two goals of the match, with the last one only seconds before the final siren. Sydney were the only team to defeat the Eagles on its home ground in season 2011\\.",
"Sydney 15\\.11 (101\\) defeated West Coast 13\\.10 (88\\).",
"### Adam Goodes booing incident",
"Round 17, 2015, saw West Coast end its eight\\-game losing streak against the Swans with a 52\\-point victory, its biggest win over the club since 2005\\. However, the match was marred by [constant booing](/wiki/Adam_Goodes%23Racial_abuse \"Adam Goodes#Racial abuse\") from pro\\-Eagles fans towards Swans player [Adam Goodes](/wiki/Adam_Goodes \"Adam Goodes\"), who subsequently took leave from the club for one week following the incident.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/7\\.30/content/2015/s4281841\\.htm\\|title\\='Continual battle' follows Adam Goodes but why are crowds booing him?\\|publisher\\=Australian Broadcasting Corporation\\|first\\=Tracy\\|last\\=Bowden\\|date\\=27 July 2015\\|accessdate\\=7 September 2015}}",
"West Coast 15\\.13 (103\\) defeated Sydney 7\\.9 (51\\).",
"### The first game at Perth Stadium",
"It was announced on 26 October 2017 that the two sides will contest the first ever AFL premiership match at the new [Perth Stadium](/wiki/Perth_Stadium \"Perth Stadium\") in [round one of the 2018 AFL season](/wiki/2018_AFL_season%23Round_1 \"2018 AFL season#Round 1\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.westcoasteagles.com.au/news/2017\\-10\\-26/eagles\\-to\\-kickoff\\-2018\\-season\\-at\\-perth\\-stadium\\|title\\=West Coast to open 2018 at Perth Stadium against Sydney\\|publisher\\=West Coast Eagles\\|first\\=Gary\\|last\\=Stocks\\|date\\=26 October 2017\\|accessdate\\=26 October 2017}}",
"Sydney 18\\.7 (115\\) defeated West Coast 13\\.8 (86\\).",
"### Friday night in Sydney",
"Despite losing the first game of the 2018 season, [West Coast](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\") won the next 10 in a row. Going into the match, west coast were 1st, with [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_Swans \"Sydney Swans\") in 3rd on the AFL ladder.",
"Sydney 10\\.12 (72\\) defeated West Coast 7\\.15 (57\\).",
"### An upset in 2019",
"Despite the West Coast Eagles being the reigning premiers, and the Sydney Swans suffering a decline in on\\-field performance, the Swans were able to defeat the Eagles by 45 points at the [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"), with [Lance Franklin](/wiki/Lance_Franklin \"Lance Franklin\") kicking a goal from the boundary line on the final siren.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/afl\\-2019\\-jeremy\\-mcgovern\\-exposed\\-early\\-during\\-sydney\\-swans\\-hot\\-start\\-against\\-eagles/news\\-story/86d5cbc8b3d0b48b2785de80017b1528\\|title\\=AFL 2019: Jeremy McGovern exposed early during Sydney Swans' hot start against Eagles\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports Australia\\|first\\=Ben\\|last\\=Waterworth\\|date\\=9 June 2019\\|accessdate\\=23 September 2019}} The win extended the Eagles' hoodoo at the ground to two decades.",
"Sydney 18\\.8 (116\\) defeated West Coast 10\\.11 (71\\).",
"### Neutral territory in 2021",
"A [COVID\\-19 outbreak in Sydney](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_New_South_Wales \"COVID-19 pandemic in New South Wales\") saw the fixtured [round 16, 2021](/wiki/2021_AFL_season%23Round_16 \"2021 AFL season#Round 16\") match between the Swans and Eagles shifted from the [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\") to [Kardinia Park](/wiki/Kardinia_Park_%28stadium%29 \"Kardinia Park (stadium)\") in Geelong, where the Swans defeated the Eagles by 92 points.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/live\\-afl\\-2021\\-round\\-16\\-sydney\\-swans\\-vs\\-west\\-coast\\-eagles\\-live\\-scores\\-updates\\-video\\-stats\\-live\\-blog\\-stream\\-news/news\\-story/9d5178e15a1f52b1eee7c8d381f77616\\|title\\=Potential end of Eagles era as GMHBA hoodoo continues, Buddy's new role: The 3\\-2\\-1\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports Australia\\|first\\=Ben\\|last\\=Cotton\\|date\\=4 July 2021\\|accessdate\\=11 May 2022}}",
"Sydney 18\\.10 (118\\) defeated West Coast 3\\.8 (26\\).",
"### Swans run riot on Good Friday",
"In just their second meeting at Optus Stadium, the Swans made it two from two against the Eagles at the ground, kicking the first nine goals of the match and keeping the Eagles scoreless in the first quarter (the first time this had happened at home in club history) en route to a 63\\-point victory, which was achieved without injured forward [Lance Franklin](/wiki/Lance_Franklin \"Lance Franklin\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/live\\-afl\\-2022\\-west\\-coast\\-eagles\\-vs\\-sydney\\-swans\\-round\\-5\\-live\\-scores\\-updates\\-stats\\-video\\-stream\\-news\\-blog/news\\-story/2c379011912a6fbedef30ab501856822\\|title\\='Fearless' Swans enjoy 'absolute demolition' of Eagles; West Coast team tactics questioned: 3\\-2\\-1\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports Australia\\|first\\=Catherine\\|last\\=Healey\\|date\\=16 April 2022\\|accessdate\\=11 May 2022}}",
"Sydney 18\\.13 (121\\) defeated West Coast 9\\.4 (58\\).",
"### Swans massacre at the SCG",
"On 24 June 2023, the Swans recorded their highest score since 1987, and their equal\\-biggest victory, kicking 31\\.19 (205\\) in a 171\\-point thrashing of the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\") at the [Sydney Cricket Ground](/wiki/Sydney_Cricket_Ground \"Sydney Cricket Ground\"). This also marked their ninth consecutive victory against the Eagles at the ground, dating back to 2000\\. As was the case in round five last season, the Swans defeated the Eagles despite being without injured forward [Lance Franklin](/wiki/Lance_Franklin \"Lance Franklin\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/live\\-afl\\-scores\\-2023\\-sydney\\-swans\\-vs\\-west\\-coast\\-eagles\\-updates\\-round\\-15\\-how\\-to\\-live\\-stream\\-video\\-result\\-news\\-blog/news\\-story/e58595ea1c8e4aa92644ab5b6a941ba1?fbclid\\=IwAR0PPhzA1PgWOPUxA2MrwVuUz0dZt9ZB2VzS3\\-hOUuj3h0\\-0p8gIVkapYuU\\|title\\=Records tumble as 'witches hats' West Coast annihilated in brutal Bloods' bloodbath\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports Australia\\|first1\\=Ben\\|last1\\=Waterworth\\|first2\\=Catherine\\|last2\\=Healey\\|date\\=24 June 2023\\|accessdate\\=24 June 2023}}",
"Sydney 31\\.19 (205\\) defeated West Coast 5\\.4 (34\\).",
""
] |
Bibliography
------------
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AGNELLO G., L’architettura bizantina in Sicilia, Firenze 1952\.
AJELLO S., Canicattini Bagni\-monografia, Palermo 1907 (ristampa Canicattini Bagni 2007\).
CARPINTERI S., Canicattini Cristiana, tesi di laurea (inedita), relatore prof. G. Agnello, Università di Catania, A.A. 1955/1956\.
CUGNO S. A., Il paesaggio rurale siracusano nella tarda età romana: il territorio di Canicattini Bagni, in Forma Urbis, anno XIV, n.10, Roma ottobre 2009, pp. 46–58\.
CUGNO S. A., Canicattini Bagni (Siracusa) tardoromana e bizantina. Contributo allo studio degli insediamenti iblei nella Tarda Antichità, in Journal of Ancient Topography, XIX, 2009, pp. 139–166\.
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CUGNO S. A., Note per una storia della ricerca archeologica nei siti preistorici di Canicattini Bagni, in Floridia e dintorni, XI, Floridia 2011, pp. 38–44\.
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CUGNO S. A., Necropoli paleocristiane e chiese rupestri dell'altopiano acrense. La "Canicattini Cristiana" di Salvatore Carpinteri, in Medieval Sophia. Studi e ricerche sui saperi medievali, 12, luglio\-dicembre 2012, Officina degli Studi Medievali di Palermo, pp. 52–87\.
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MESSINA A., Le chiese rupestri del Siracusano, Palermo 1979\.
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ORSI P., Canicattini, in NSc, 1895, pp. 238–239\.
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ORSI P., Sicilia Bizantina, Tivoli 1942 (ristampa Catania 2000\).
PICONE E. G., Contributi per la topografia archeologica del Siracusano, in ArchStorSir, n.s. II, 1972–73, pp. 61–74\.
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TINÉ S., Gli scavi nella Grotta della Chiusazza, in BPI, LXXIV, 1965, pp. 123–247\.
|
[
"Bibliography\n------------",
"AGNELLO G., Argenterie e bronzi, Siracusa 1948\\.",
"AGNELLO G., L’architettura bizantina in Sicilia, Firenze 1952\\.",
"AJELLO S., Canicattini Bagni\\-monografia, Palermo 1907 (ristampa Canicattini Bagni 2007\\).",
"CARPINTERI S., Canicattini Cristiana, tesi di laurea (inedita), relatore prof. G. Agnello, Università di Catania, A.A. 1955/1956\\.",
"CUGNO S. A., Il paesaggio rurale siracusano nella tarda età romana: il territorio di Canicattini Bagni, in Forma Urbis, anno XIV, n.10, Roma ottobre 2009, pp. 46–58\\.",
"CUGNO S. A., Canicattini Bagni (Siracusa) tardoromana e bizantina. Contributo allo studio degli insediamenti iblei nella Tarda Antichità, in Journal of Ancient Topography, XIX, 2009, pp. 139–166\\.",
"CUGNO S. A., Osservazioni sul tesoro di Canicattini Bagni e su alcuni gioielli bizantini dell'altopiano acrense (Siracusa), in Bizantinistica, s. II, XII, 2010",
"CUGNO S. A., Note per una storia della ricerca archeologica nei siti preistorici di Canicattini Bagni, in Floridia e dintorni, XI, Floridia 2011, pp. 38–44\\.",
"CUGNO S. A., La necropoli protostorica di Contrada Cugno Case Vecchie, in IpoTESI di Preistoria. Rivista di contributi e studi di Preistoria e Protostoria, Vol. 4, n°2, Dipartimento di Archeologia \\- Università di Bologna 2011, pp. 47–62",
"CUGNO S. A., Necropoli paleocristiane e chiese rupestri dell'altopiano acrense. La \"Canicattini Cristiana\" di Salvatore Carpinteri, in Medieval Sophia. Studi e ricerche sui saperi medievali, 12, luglio\\-dicembre 2012, Officina degli Studi Medievali di Palermo, pp. 52–87\\.",
"CULTRERA G., Cratere con scena fliacica di giuco d’altalena, in Dioniso, V, 1935–36, pp. 199–205\\.",
"FICARA V., Genesi e sviluppo della città, in Canicattini Bagni. Storia arte tradizioni, Papa M. (a cura di), G.A.L. Val d’Anapo, Canicattini Bagni 2001, pp. 8–41\\.",
"FICARA V., Cava Ddieri, in Notiziario storico di Canicattini, I, Canicattini Bagni 2004, pp. 50–52\\.\nFIORELLI G., Canicattini, in NSc, 1879, p. 160\\.",
"FRASCA M., Canicattini Bagni, in Bibliografia Topografica della colonizzazione greca in Italia e nelle isole tirreniche, Nenci G.\\-Vallet G. (a cura di), IV, Roma 1985, pp. 350–354\\.",
"FÜHRER J. F. \\- SCHULTZE V., Die altchristlichen Grabstätten Siziliens, Berlin 1907\\.",
"GARANA O., Le catacombe siciliane e i loro martiri, Palermo 1961\\.",
"LIBERTINI G., Il grande cratere di Canicattini del Museo di Siracusa, in BdA, XXXV, 1950, pp. 97–107\\.",
"MESSINA A., Le chiese rupestri del Siracusano, Palermo 1979\\.",
"MIRISOLA R. – POLACCO L., Contributi alla paleogeografia di Siracusa e del territorio siracusano (VIII\\-V sec. a.C.), in Memorie dell’Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, LXVI, Venezia 1996\\.",
"ORSI P., Canicattini, in NSc, 1895, pp. 238–239\\.\nORSI P., Canicattini Bagni. Gruppi cemeteriali cristiani e bizantini, in NSc, 1905, pp. 425–427\\.\nORSI P., Sicilia Bizantina, Tivoli 1942 (ristampa Catania 2000\\).",
"PICONE E. G., Contributi per la topografia archeologica del Siracusano, in ArchStorSir, n.s. II, 1972–73, pp. 61–74\\.",
"TINÉ S., Giacimenti dell’Età del Rame in Sicilia e la « Cultura tipo Conca d’Oro », in BPI, LXIX\\-LXX, 1960–61, pp. 116–119\\.\nTINÉ S., Gli scavi nella Grotta della Chiusazza, in BPI, LXXIV, 1965, pp. 123–247\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
When Owen ([Luke Benward](/wiki/Luke_Benward "Luke Benward")) and his distracted older sister, Lilly ([Brittany Curran](/wiki/Brittany_Curran "Brittany Curran")), are alone and their parents are away, Owen delivers the paper while being bullied by a school bully named Dexter and his gang (who harass Owen by throwing his bike, newspapers and pants off a bridge), and spends afternoons in a forest hideaway making inventions and spinning tall tales about a "Mad Man of the Mountain" in which he claims to be a scary man who used to work in a circus freak show but later moved to live in the mountains to be free. He encounters three thugs named Blackie ([French Stewart](/wiki/French_Stewart "French Stewart")), Bud ([Kevin Farley](/wiki/Kevin_Farley "Kevin Farley")) and Arty ([Kelly Perine](/wiki/Kelly_Perine "Kelly Perine")) who have a mistreated dog and Owen's life changes.
Unbeknownst to Owen, the thugs have previously committed a diamond heist and supposedly hid the stolen diamonds on the dog's collar. With Owen's help, the dog escapes from the thugs and Owen bonds with the golden retriever whom he names Diamond. When he reads a newspaper account about the thugs' diamond heist, he soon realizes about how they are the chief suspects and how they hid the diamonds on Diamond.
He takes her to the police, but the police believe that the story is not true, thinking that Owen might be telling stories about the "Mad Man" making friends with a [bigfoot](/wiki/Bigfoot "Bigfoot"). So Owen decides to look after Diamond. He hides her at his forest hideaway and visits her often to feed her and comfort her. Meanwhile, the thugs are searching for Owen and Diamond. They attempt to confront him personally by showing up at his house after getting the location from Dexter. Owen escapes into the woods but the thugs catch up with him just as Diamond escapes. As the thugs explore the woods he warns them about the "Mad Man" and shows them some of the inventions he built for the "Mad Man". Owen then escapes the thugs and rigs his hideaway in the forest with [booby traps](/wiki/Booby_traps "Booby traps") for them. As he heads back to his house, he is caught by the thugs again, but Owen manages to escape from their grasp. He runs into the woods with Diamond and the thugs give chase. They trace Owen to his hideaway and search the whole area from him, but end up setting off Owen's booby traps one by one. At one point, Blackie finally catches Owen.
The thugs tie Owen to a chair at the hideaway, while the thugs inspect Diamond for the diamonds. Blackie notices a [band\-aid](/wiki/Band-aid "Band-aid") on Diamond's stomach that Owen previously put on her and suspects Owen did something to Diamond. When Blackie orders Owen to show him where he hid the diamonds, he leads them to a canoe trailer, which belongs to the "Mad Man" and claims he hid them in it. Bud and Arty jump into the canoe to find the diamonds and become glued to their seats of the canoe, as part of Owen's booby traps. But the two find the collar in the canoe and toss him to Blackie, but he becomes annoyed. He tells Owen he actually hid the stolen diamonds in Diamond's stomach and that the collar had fake diamonds on it so they could celebrate the diamond heist. Diamond becomes sick when the diamonds in her stomach fall down to her [intestines](/wiki/Intestines "Intestines"). Owen lets Diamond escape from Blackie, leaving him alone to fight for himself. Before Blackie gets a chance to hurt Owen, he ends up being thrown into the canoe with Bud and Arty by the "Mad Man of the Mountain" and the thugs roll down the hill in the trailer into town. Along the way, they encounter Dexter riding his bike and ends up landing in a nearby trash bin where he is presumably thrown into a garbage truck. The thugs eventually stop at a [Mexican food](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") restaurant. But they soon find themselves next to some policemen, who see the thugs whom they recognize from the diamond heist and arrest them.
With help from the "Mad Man of the Mountain," Owen comes home with Diamond sick, and he asks his sister for help. Owen and his parents are at the vet to comfort Diamond, who just had the stolen diamonds removed from her. Owen learns the truth about the "Mad Man of the Mountain" from the police chief. The "Mad Man of the Mountain" wasn't any madman at all. Nor did he escape from any circus. His name was Carl Westmeister, who had been living up in the woods for years ever since his wife died from a car crash and was badly burned trying to save her. Owen is interested in keeping Diamond but due to his sister's extreme allergy to dogs Owen then plans to give Diamond to the "Mad Man" instead. The next day, Owen goes up the mountain and gives Diamond to the man, who thanks Owen from afar. The movie ends with Owen and his girlfriend watching fireworks and the two kiss. The thugs and the "Mad Man" watch the fireworks as well.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"When Owen ([Luke Benward](/wiki/Luke_Benward \"Luke Benward\")) and his distracted older sister, Lilly ([Brittany Curran](/wiki/Brittany_Curran \"Brittany Curran\")), are alone and their parents are away, Owen delivers the paper while being bullied by a school bully named Dexter and his gang (who harass Owen by throwing his bike, newspapers and pants off a bridge), and spends afternoons in a forest hideaway making inventions and spinning tall tales about a \"Mad Man of the Mountain\" in which he claims to be a scary man who used to work in a circus freak show but later moved to live in the mountains to be free. He encounters three thugs named Blackie ([French Stewart](/wiki/French_Stewart \"French Stewart\")), Bud ([Kevin Farley](/wiki/Kevin_Farley \"Kevin Farley\")) and Arty ([Kelly Perine](/wiki/Kelly_Perine \"Kelly Perine\")) who have a mistreated dog and Owen's life changes.",
"Unbeknownst to Owen, the thugs have previously committed a diamond heist and supposedly hid the stolen diamonds on the dog's collar. With Owen's help, the dog escapes from the thugs and Owen bonds with the golden retriever whom he names Diamond. When he reads a newspaper account about the thugs' diamond heist, he soon realizes about how they are the chief suspects and how they hid the diamonds on Diamond.",
"He takes her to the police, but the police believe that the story is not true, thinking that Owen might be telling stories about the \"Mad Man\" making friends with a [bigfoot](/wiki/Bigfoot \"Bigfoot\"). So Owen decides to look after Diamond. He hides her at his forest hideaway and visits her often to feed her and comfort her. Meanwhile, the thugs are searching for Owen and Diamond. They attempt to confront him personally by showing up at his house after getting the location from Dexter. Owen escapes into the woods but the thugs catch up with him just as Diamond escapes. As the thugs explore the woods he warns them about the \"Mad Man\" and shows them some of the inventions he built for the \"Mad Man\". Owen then escapes the thugs and rigs his hideaway in the forest with [booby traps](/wiki/Booby_traps \"Booby traps\") for them. As he heads back to his house, he is caught by the thugs again, but Owen manages to escape from their grasp. He runs into the woods with Diamond and the thugs give chase. They trace Owen to his hideaway and search the whole area from him, but end up setting off Owen's booby traps one by one. At one point, Blackie finally catches Owen.",
"The thugs tie Owen to a chair at the hideaway, while the thugs inspect Diamond for the diamonds. Blackie notices a [band\\-aid](/wiki/Band-aid \"Band-aid\") on Diamond's stomach that Owen previously put on her and suspects Owen did something to Diamond. When Blackie orders Owen to show him where he hid the diamonds, he leads them to a canoe trailer, which belongs to the \"Mad Man\" and claims he hid them in it. Bud and Arty jump into the canoe to find the diamonds and become glued to their seats of the canoe, as part of Owen's booby traps. But the two find the collar in the canoe and toss him to Blackie, but he becomes annoyed. He tells Owen he actually hid the stolen diamonds in Diamond's stomach and that the collar had fake diamonds on it so they could celebrate the diamond heist. Diamond becomes sick when the diamonds in her stomach fall down to her [intestines](/wiki/Intestines \"Intestines\"). Owen lets Diamond escape from Blackie, leaving him alone to fight for himself. Before Blackie gets a chance to hurt Owen, he ends up being thrown into the canoe with Bud and Arty by the \"Mad Man of the Mountain\" and the thugs roll down the hill in the trailer into town. Along the way, they encounter Dexter riding his bike and ends up landing in a nearby trash bin where he is presumably thrown into a garbage truck. The thugs eventually stop at a [Mexican food](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") restaurant. But they soon find themselves next to some policemen, who see the thugs whom they recognize from the diamond heist and arrest them.",
"With help from the \"Mad Man of the Mountain,\" Owen comes home with Diamond sick, and he asks his sister for help. Owen and his parents are at the vet to comfort Diamond, who just had the stolen diamonds removed from her. Owen learns the truth about the \"Mad Man of the Mountain\" from the police chief. The \"Mad Man of the Mountain\" wasn't any madman at all. Nor did he escape from any circus. His name was Carl Westmeister, who had been living up in the woods for years ever since his wife died from a car crash and was badly burned trying to save her. Owen is interested in keeping Diamond but due to his sister's extreme allergy to dogs Owen then plans to give Diamond to the \"Mad Man\" instead. The next day, Owen goes up the mountain and gives Diamond to the man, who thanks Owen from afar. The movie ends with Owen and his girlfriend watching fireworks and the two kiss. The thugs and the \"Mad Man\" watch the fireworks as well.",
""
] |
Physics explanation
-------------------
[thumb\|Newton's cradle simulation with two balls of equal mass; assuming perfect elasticity which implies no energy loss in collisions. The left ball is pulled away which lifts it, and then let go. The left ball swings back as it falls and strikes the right ball, transferring all its momentum to the right ball because they are the same mass. Transferring all the momentum implies the same velocity, which confirms all the kinetic energy. The kinetic energy, proportionate to the velocity squared, is converted to potential energy as the 2nd mass rises to the same height as the initial ball, then it falls and the cycle repeats in the other direction.](/wiki/File:Newton%27s_Cradle_2_ball_cropped.gif "Newton's Cradle 2 ball cropped.gif")
[thumb\|An idealized Newton's cradle with five balls when there are no energy losses and there is always a small separation between the balls, except for when a pair is colliding](/wiki/File:Newtons_cradle_5_ball_system_cropped.gif "Newtons cradle 5 ball system cropped.gif")
[thumb\|Newton's cradle three\-ball swing in a five\-ball system. The central ball swings without any apparent interruption.](/wiki/File:Newtons_cradle_3_ball_swing_5_ball_system_cropped.gif "Newtons cradle 3 ball swing 5 ball system cropped.gif")
Newton's cradle can be modeled fairly accurately with simple mathematical equations with the assumption that the balls always collide in pairs. If one ball strikes four stationary balls that are already touching, these simple equations can not explain the resulting movements in all five balls, which are not due to [friction](/wiki/Friction "Friction") losses. For example, in a real Newton's cradle the fourth has some movement and the first ball has a slight reverse movement. All the animations in this article show idealized action (simple solution) that only occurs if the balls are *not* touching initially and only collide in pairs.
### Simple solution
The conservation of momentum {{nowrap\|(mass × velocity)}} and kinetic energy {{nowrap\|(1/2 × mass × velocity2)}} can be used to find the resulting velocities for [two colliding perfectly elastic objects](/wiki/Elastic_collision "Elastic collision"). These two equations are used to determine the resulting velocities of the two objects. For the case of two balls constrained to a straight path by the strings in the cradle, the velocities are a single number instead of a 3D vector for 3D space, so the math requires only two equations to solve for two unknowns. When the two objects have the same mass, the solution is simple: the moving object stops relative to the stationary one and the stationary one picks up all the other's initial velocity. This assumes perfectly elastic objects, so there is no need to account for heat and sound energy losses.
Steel does not compress much, but its elasticity is very efficient, so it does not cause much [waste heat](/wiki/Waste_heat "Waste heat"). The simple effect from two same\-mass efficiently elastic colliding objects constrained to a straight path is the basis of the effect seen in the cradle and gives an approximate solution to all its activities.
For a sequence of same\-mass elastic objects constrained to a straight path, the effect continues to each successive object. For example, when two balls are dropped to strike three stationary balls in a cradle, there is an unnoticed but crucial small distance between the two dropped balls, and the action is as follows: the first moving ball that strikes the first stationary ball (the second ball striking the third ball) transfers all of its momentum to the third ball and stops. The third ball then transfers the momentum to the fourth ball and stops, and then the fourth to the fifth ball.
Right behind this sequence, the second moving ball is transferring its momentum to the first moving ball that just stopped, and the sequence repeats immediately and imperceptibly behind the first sequence, ejecting the fourth ball right behind the fifth ball with the same small separation that was between the two initial striking balls. If they are simply touching when they strike the third ball, precision requires the more complete solution below.
#### Other examples of this effect
The effect of the last ball ejecting with a velocity nearly equal to the first ball can be seen in sliding a coin on a table into a line of identical coins, as long as the striking coin and its twin targets are in a straight line. The effect can similarly be seen in billiard balls. The effect can also be seen when a [sharp and strong pressure wave strikes a dense homogeneous material immersed in a less\-dense medium](/wiki/Spallation "Spallation"). If the identical [atoms](/wiki/Atom "Atom"), [molecules](/wiki/Molecule "Molecule"), or larger\-scale sub\-volumes of the dense homogeneous material are at least partially elastically connected to each other by electrostatic forces, they can act as a sequence of colliding identical elastic balls.
The surrounding atoms, molecules, or sub\-volumes experiencing the pressure wave act to constrain each other similarly to how the string constrains the cradle's balls to a straight line. As a medical example, [lithotripsy](/wiki/Lithotripsy "Lithotripsy") shock waves can be sent through the skin and tissue without harm to [burst kidney stones](/wiki/Kidney_stone_disease "Kidney stone disease"). The side of the stones opposite to the incoming pressure wave bursts, not the side receiving the initial strike. In the Indian game [carrom](/wiki/Carrom "Carrom"), a striker stops after hitting a stationery playing piece, transferring all of its momentum into the piece that was hit.
#### When the simple solution applies
For the simple solution to precisely predict the action, no pair in the midst of colliding may touch the third ball, because the presence of the third ball effectively makes the struck ball appear more massive. Applying the two conservation equations to solve the final velocities of three or more balls in a single collision results in many possible solutions, so these two principles are not enough to determine resulting action.
Even when there is a small initial separation, a third ball may become involved in the collision if the initial separation is not large enough. When this occurs, the complete solution method described below must be used.
Small steel balls work well because they remain efficiently elastic with little heat loss under strong strikes and do not compress much (up to about 30 μm in a small Newton's cradle). The small, stiff compressions mean they occur rapidly, less than 200 microseconds, so steel balls are more likely to complete a collision before touching a nearby third ball. Softer elastic balls require a larger separation to maximize the effect from pair\-wise collisions.
[thumb\|Transfer of momentum in a Newton's cradle without balls touching when three balls are dropped [(2 balls)](/wiki/Newton_cradle_wave_propagation_2_balls.svg "Newton cradle wave propagation 2 balls.svg")](/wiki/File:Newton_cradle_wave_propagation_3_balls.svg "Newton cradle wave propagation 3 balls.svg")
### More complete solution
A cradle that best follows the simple solution needs to have an initial separation between the balls that measures at least twice the amount that any one ball compresses, but most do not. This section describes the action when the initial separation is not enough and in subsequent collisions that involve more than two balls even when there is an initial separation. This solution simplifies to the simple solution when only two balls touch during a collision. It applies to all perfectly elastic identical balls that have no energy losses due to friction and can be approximated by materials such as steel, glass, plastic, and rubber.
For two balls colliding, only the two equations for conservation of momentum and energy are needed to solve the two unknown resulting velocities. For three or more simultaneously colliding elastic balls, the relative compressibilities of the colliding surfaces are the additional variables that determine the outcome. For example, five balls have four colliding points and scaling (dividing) three of them by the fourth gives the three extra variables needed to solve for all five post\-collision velocities.
Newtonian, Lagrangian, Hamiltonian, and stationary action are the different ways of mathematically expressing [classical mechanics](/wiki/Classical_mechanics "Classical mechanics"). They describe the same physics but must be solved by different methods. All enforce the conservation of energy and momentum. Newton's law has been used in research papers. It is applied to each ball and the sum of forces is made equal to zero. So there are five equations, one for each ball—and five unknowns, one for each velocity. If the balls are identical, the absolute compressibility of the surfaces becomes irrelevant, because it can be divided out of both sides of all five equations, producing zero.
Determining the velocities{{cite journal \|title\=How does the ball\-chain work? \|first1\=F. \|last1\=Herrmann \|first2\=M. \|last2\=Seitz \|url\=http://www.physikdidaktik.uni\-karlsruhe.de/publication/ajp/Ball\-chain\_part2\.pdf \|journal\=American Journal of Physics \|volume\=50 \|year\=1982 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=977–981 \|bibcode\=1982AmJPh..50\..977H \|doi\=10\.1119/1\.12936 \|access\-date\=1 July 2011 \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041819/http://www.physikdidaktik.uni\-karlsruhe.de/publication/ajp/Ball\-chain\_part2\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Lovett \| first1 \= D. R. \| last2 \= Moulding \| first2 \= K. M. \| last3 \= Anketell\-Jones \| first3 \= S. \| doi \= 10\.1088/0143\-0807/9/4/015 \| title \= Collisions between elastic bodies: Newton's cradle \| journal \= European Journal of Physics \| volume \= 9 \| issue \= 4 \| page \= 323 \| year \= 1988 \|bibcode \= 1988EJPh....9\..323L \| s2cid \= 250904041 }}{{cite journal\| title\=Rocking Newton's Cradle \|first1\=Stefan \|last1\=Hutzler \|first2\=Gary \|last2\=Delaney \|first3\=Denis \|last3\=Weaire \|first4\=Finn \|last4\=MacLeod \|journal\=American Journal of Physics \|volume\=72 \|year\=2004 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=1508–1516 \|url\=http://www.maths.tcd.ie/\~garyd/Publications/Delaney\_2004\_AmJPhys\_Rocking\_Newtons\_Cradle.pdf\|bibcode\=2004AmJPh..72\.1508H \|doi\=10\.1119/1\.1783898 \|hdl\=1885/95080 }}C F Gauld (2006\), Newton's cradle in physics education, *Science \& Education*, 15, 597–617 for the case of one ball striking four initially touching balls is found by modeling the balls as weights with non\-traditional springs on their colliding surfaces. Most materials, like steel, that are efficiently elastic approximately follow [Hooke's force law](/wiki/Hooke%27s_law "Hooke's law") for springs, F \= k \\cdot x, but because the area of contact for a sphere increases as the force increases, colliding elastic balls follow Hertz's adjustment to Hooke's law, F \= k \\cdot x^{1\.5}. This and Newton's law for motion (F \= m \\cdot a) are applied to each ball, giving five simple but interdependent [differential equations](/wiki/Differential_equation "Differential equation") that can be solved numerically.
When the fifth ball begins [accelerating](/wiki/Accelerating "Accelerating"), it is receiving momentum and energy from the third and fourth balls through the spring action of their compressed surfaces. For identical elastic balls of any type with initially touching balls, the action is the same for the first strike, except the time to complete a collision increases in softer materials. Forty to fifty percent of the kinetic energy of the initial ball from a single\-ball strike is stored in the ball surfaces as potential energy for most of the collision process. Of the initial velocity, 13% is imparted to the fourth ball (which can be seen as a 3\.3\-degree movement if the fifth ball moves out 25 degrees) and there is a slight reverse velocity in the first three balls, the first ball having the largest at −7% of the initial velocity. This separates the balls, but they come back together just before as the fifth ball returns. This is due to the pendulum phenomenon of different small angle disturbances having approximately the same time to return to the center.
The Hertzian differential equations predict that if two balls strike three, the fifth and fourth balls will leave with velocities of 1\.14 and 0\.80 times the initial velocity.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/hinch/publications/PRSLA455\_3201\.pdf \|title\=The fragmentation of a line of balls by an impact \|first1\=E.J. \|last1\=Hinch \|first2\=S. \|last2\=Saint\-Jean \|journal\=Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A \|year\=1999 \|volume\=455 \|pages\=3201–3220}} This is 2\.03 times more kinetic energy in the fifth ball than the fourth ball, which means the fifth ball would swing twice as high in the vertical direction as the fourth ball. But in a real Newton's cradle, the fourth ball swings out as far as the fifth ball. To explain the difference between theory and experiment, the two striking balls must have at least ≈ 10 μm separation (given steel, 100 g, and 1 m/s). This shows that in the common case of steel balls, unnoticed separations can be important and must be included in the Hertzian differential equations, or the simple solution gives a more accurate result.
### Effect of pressure waves
The forces in the Hertzian solution above were assumed to propagate in the balls immediately, which is not the case. Sudden changes in the force between the atoms of material build up to form a pressure wave. Pressure waves (sound) in steel travel about 5 cm in 10 microseconds, which is about 10 times faster than the time between the first ball striking and the last ball being ejected. The pressure waves reflect back and forth through all five balls about ten times, although dispersing to less of a wavefront with more reflections. This is fast enough for the Hertzian solution to not require a substantial modification to adjust for the delay in force propagation through the balls. In less\-rigid but still very elastic balls such as rubber, the propagation speed is slower, but the duration of collisions is longer, so the Hertzian solution still applies. The error introduced by the limited speed of the force propagation biases the Hertzian solution towards the simple solution because the collisions are not affected as much by the inertia of the balls that are further away.
Identically shaped balls help the pressure waves converge on the contact point of the last ball: at the initial strike point one pressure wave goes forward to the other balls while another goes backward to reflect off the opposite side of the first ball, and then it follows the first wave, being exactly one ball's diameter behind. The two waves meet up at the last contact point because the first wave reflects off the opposite side of the last ball and it meets up at the last contact point with the second wave. Then they reverberate back and forth like this about 10 times until the first ball stops connecting with the second ball. Then the reverberations reflect off the contact point between the second and third balls, but still converge at the last contact point, until the last ball is ejected—but it is less of a wavefront with each reflection.
### Effect of different types of balls
Using different types of material does not change the action as long as the material is efficiently elastic. The size of the spheres does not change the results unless the increased weight exceeds the elastic limit of the material. If the solid balls are too large, energy is being lost as heat, because the elastic limit increases with the radius raised to the power 1\.5, but the energy which had to be absorbed and released increases as the cube of the radius. Making the contact surfaces flatter can overcome this to an extent by distributing the compression to a larger amount of material but it can introduce an alignment problem. Steel is better than most materials because it allows the simple solution to apply more often in collisions after the first strike, its elastic range for storing energy remains good despite the higher energy caused by its weight, and the higher weight decreases the effect of air resistance.
|
[
"Physics explanation\n-------------------",
"[thumb\\|Newton's cradle simulation with two balls of equal mass; assuming perfect elasticity which implies no energy loss in collisions. The left ball is pulled away which lifts it, and then let go. The left ball swings back as it falls and strikes the right ball, transferring all its momentum to the right ball because they are the same mass. Transferring all the momentum implies the same velocity, which confirms all the kinetic energy. The kinetic energy, proportionate to the velocity squared, is converted to potential energy as the 2nd mass rises to the same height as the initial ball, then it falls and the cycle repeats in the other direction.](/wiki/File:Newton%27s_Cradle_2_ball_cropped.gif \"Newton's Cradle 2 ball cropped.gif\")\n[thumb\\|An idealized Newton's cradle with five balls when there are no energy losses and there is always a small separation between the balls, except for when a pair is colliding](/wiki/File:Newtons_cradle_5_ball_system_cropped.gif \"Newtons cradle 5 ball system cropped.gif\")\n[thumb\\|Newton's cradle three\\-ball swing in a five\\-ball system. The central ball swings without any apparent interruption.](/wiki/File:Newtons_cradle_3_ball_swing_5_ball_system_cropped.gif \"Newtons cradle 3 ball swing 5 ball system cropped.gif\")\nNewton's cradle can be modeled fairly accurately with simple mathematical equations with the assumption that the balls always collide in pairs. If one ball strikes four stationary balls that are already touching, these simple equations can not explain the resulting movements in all five balls, which are not due to [friction](/wiki/Friction \"Friction\") losses. For example, in a real Newton's cradle the fourth has some movement and the first ball has a slight reverse movement. All the animations in this article show idealized action (simple solution) that only occurs if the balls are *not* touching initially and only collide in pairs.",
"### Simple solution",
"The conservation of momentum {{nowrap\\|(mass × velocity)}} and kinetic energy {{nowrap\\|(1/2 × mass × velocity2)}} can be used to find the resulting velocities for [two colliding perfectly elastic objects](/wiki/Elastic_collision \"Elastic collision\"). These two equations are used to determine the resulting velocities of the two objects. For the case of two balls constrained to a straight path by the strings in the cradle, the velocities are a single number instead of a 3D vector for 3D space, so the math requires only two equations to solve for two unknowns. When the two objects have the same mass, the solution is simple: the moving object stops relative to the stationary one and the stationary one picks up all the other's initial velocity. This assumes perfectly elastic objects, so there is no need to account for heat and sound energy losses.",
"Steel does not compress much, but its elasticity is very efficient, so it does not cause much [waste heat](/wiki/Waste_heat \"Waste heat\"). The simple effect from two same\\-mass efficiently elastic colliding objects constrained to a straight path is the basis of the effect seen in the cradle and gives an approximate solution to all its activities.",
"For a sequence of same\\-mass elastic objects constrained to a straight path, the effect continues to each successive object. For example, when two balls are dropped to strike three stationary balls in a cradle, there is an unnoticed but crucial small distance between the two dropped balls, and the action is as follows: the first moving ball that strikes the first stationary ball (the second ball striking the third ball) transfers all of its momentum to the third ball and stops. The third ball then transfers the momentum to the fourth ball and stops, and then the fourth to the fifth ball.",
"Right behind this sequence, the second moving ball is transferring its momentum to the first moving ball that just stopped, and the sequence repeats immediately and imperceptibly behind the first sequence, ejecting the fourth ball right behind the fifth ball with the same small separation that was between the two initial striking balls. If they are simply touching when they strike the third ball, precision requires the more complete solution below.",
"#### Other examples of this effect",
"The effect of the last ball ejecting with a velocity nearly equal to the first ball can be seen in sliding a coin on a table into a line of identical coins, as long as the striking coin and its twin targets are in a straight line. The effect can similarly be seen in billiard balls. The effect can also be seen when a [sharp and strong pressure wave strikes a dense homogeneous material immersed in a less\\-dense medium](/wiki/Spallation \"Spallation\"). If the identical [atoms](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\"), [molecules](/wiki/Molecule \"Molecule\"), or larger\\-scale sub\\-volumes of the dense homogeneous material are at least partially elastically connected to each other by electrostatic forces, they can act as a sequence of colliding identical elastic balls.",
"The surrounding atoms, molecules, or sub\\-volumes experiencing the pressure wave act to constrain each other similarly to how the string constrains the cradle's balls to a straight line. As a medical example, [lithotripsy](/wiki/Lithotripsy \"Lithotripsy\") shock waves can be sent through the skin and tissue without harm to [burst kidney stones](/wiki/Kidney_stone_disease \"Kidney stone disease\"). The side of the stones opposite to the incoming pressure wave bursts, not the side receiving the initial strike. In the Indian game [carrom](/wiki/Carrom \"Carrom\"), a striker stops after hitting a stationery playing piece, transferring all of its momentum into the piece that was hit.",
"#### When the simple solution applies",
"For the simple solution to precisely predict the action, no pair in the midst of colliding may touch the third ball, because the presence of the third ball effectively makes the struck ball appear more massive. Applying the two conservation equations to solve the final velocities of three or more balls in a single collision results in many possible solutions, so these two principles are not enough to determine resulting action.",
"Even when there is a small initial separation, a third ball may become involved in the collision if the initial separation is not large enough. When this occurs, the complete solution method described below must be used.",
"Small steel balls work well because they remain efficiently elastic with little heat loss under strong strikes and do not compress much (up to about 30 μm in a small Newton's cradle). The small, stiff compressions mean they occur rapidly, less than 200 microseconds, so steel balls are more likely to complete a collision before touching a nearby third ball. Softer elastic balls require a larger separation to maximize the effect from pair\\-wise collisions.",
"[thumb\\|Transfer of momentum in a Newton's cradle without balls touching when three balls are dropped [(2 balls)](/wiki/Newton_cradle_wave_propagation_2_balls.svg \"Newton cradle wave propagation 2 balls.svg\")](/wiki/File:Newton_cradle_wave_propagation_3_balls.svg \"Newton cradle wave propagation 3 balls.svg\")",
"### More complete solution",
"A cradle that best follows the simple solution needs to have an initial separation between the balls that measures at least twice the amount that any one ball compresses, but most do not. This section describes the action when the initial separation is not enough and in subsequent collisions that involve more than two balls even when there is an initial separation. This solution simplifies to the simple solution when only two balls touch during a collision. It applies to all perfectly elastic identical balls that have no energy losses due to friction and can be approximated by materials such as steel, glass, plastic, and rubber.",
"For two balls colliding, only the two equations for conservation of momentum and energy are needed to solve the two unknown resulting velocities. For three or more simultaneously colliding elastic balls, the relative compressibilities of the colliding surfaces are the additional variables that determine the outcome. For example, five balls have four colliding points and scaling (dividing) three of them by the fourth gives the three extra variables needed to solve for all five post\\-collision velocities.",
"Newtonian, Lagrangian, Hamiltonian, and stationary action are the different ways of mathematically expressing [classical mechanics](/wiki/Classical_mechanics \"Classical mechanics\"). They describe the same physics but must be solved by different methods. All enforce the conservation of energy and momentum. Newton's law has been used in research papers. It is applied to each ball and the sum of forces is made equal to zero. So there are five equations, one for each ball—and five unknowns, one for each velocity. If the balls are identical, the absolute compressibility of the surfaces becomes irrelevant, because it can be divided out of both sides of all five equations, producing zero.",
"Determining the velocities{{cite journal \\|title\\=How does the ball\\-chain work? \\|first1\\=F. \\|last1\\=Herrmann \\|first2\\=M. \\|last2\\=Seitz \\|url\\=http://www.physikdidaktik.uni\\-karlsruhe.de/publication/ajp/Ball\\-chain\\_part2\\.pdf \\|journal\\=American Journal of Physics \\|volume\\=50 \\|year\\=1982 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=977–981 \\|bibcode\\=1982AmJPh..50\\..977H \\|doi\\=10\\.1119/1\\.12936 \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041819/http://www.physikdidaktik.uni\\-karlsruhe.de/publication/ajp/Ball\\-chain\\_part2\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Lovett \\| first1 \\= D. R. \\| last2 \\= Moulding \\| first2 \\= K. M. \\| last3 \\= Anketell\\-Jones \\| first3 \\= S. \\| doi \\= 10\\.1088/0143\\-0807/9/4/015 \\| title \\= Collisions between elastic bodies: Newton's cradle \\| journal \\= European Journal of Physics \\| volume \\= 9 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| page \\= 323 \\| year \\= 1988 \\|bibcode \\= 1988EJPh....9\\..323L \\| s2cid \\= 250904041 }}{{cite journal\\| title\\=Rocking Newton's Cradle \\|first1\\=Stefan \\|last1\\=Hutzler \\|first2\\=Gary \\|last2\\=Delaney \\|first3\\=Denis \\|last3\\=Weaire \\|first4\\=Finn \\|last4\\=MacLeod \\|journal\\=American Journal of Physics \\|volume\\=72 \\|year\\=2004 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=1508–1516 \\|url\\=http://www.maths.tcd.ie/\\~garyd/Publications/Delaney\\_2004\\_AmJPhys\\_Rocking\\_Newtons\\_Cradle.pdf\\|bibcode\\=2004AmJPh..72\\.1508H \\|doi\\=10\\.1119/1\\.1783898 \\|hdl\\=1885/95080 }}C F Gauld (2006\\), Newton's cradle in physics education, *Science \\& Education*, 15, 597–617 for the case of one ball striking four initially touching balls is found by modeling the balls as weights with non\\-traditional springs on their colliding surfaces. Most materials, like steel, that are efficiently elastic approximately follow [Hooke's force law](/wiki/Hooke%27s_law \"Hooke's law\") for springs, F \\= k \\\\cdot x, but because the area of contact for a sphere increases as the force increases, colliding elastic balls follow Hertz's adjustment to Hooke's law, F \\= k \\\\cdot x^{1\\.5}. This and Newton's law for motion (F \\= m \\\\cdot a) are applied to each ball, giving five simple but interdependent [differential equations](/wiki/Differential_equation \"Differential equation\") that can be solved numerically.",
"When the fifth ball begins [accelerating](/wiki/Accelerating \"Accelerating\"), it is receiving momentum and energy from the third and fourth balls through the spring action of their compressed surfaces. For identical elastic balls of any type with initially touching balls, the action is the same for the first strike, except the time to complete a collision increases in softer materials. Forty to fifty percent of the kinetic energy of the initial ball from a single\\-ball strike is stored in the ball surfaces as potential energy for most of the collision process. Of the initial velocity, 13% is imparted to the fourth ball (which can be seen as a 3\\.3\\-degree movement if the fifth ball moves out 25 degrees) and there is a slight reverse velocity in the first three balls, the first ball having the largest at −7% of the initial velocity. This separates the balls, but they come back together just before as the fifth ball returns. This is due to the pendulum phenomenon of different small angle disturbances having approximately the same time to return to the center.",
"The Hertzian differential equations predict that if two balls strike three, the fifth and fourth balls will leave with velocities of 1\\.14 and 0\\.80 times the initial velocity.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/hinch/publications/PRSLA455\\_3201\\.pdf \\|title\\=The fragmentation of a line of balls by an impact \\|first1\\=E.J. \\|last1\\=Hinch \\|first2\\=S. \\|last2\\=Saint\\-Jean \\|journal\\=Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A \\|year\\=1999 \\|volume\\=455 \\|pages\\=3201–3220}} This is 2\\.03 times more kinetic energy in the fifth ball than the fourth ball, which means the fifth ball would swing twice as high in the vertical direction as the fourth ball. But in a real Newton's cradle, the fourth ball swings out as far as the fifth ball. To explain the difference between theory and experiment, the two striking balls must have at least ≈ 10 μm separation (given steel, 100 g, and 1 m/s). This shows that in the common case of steel balls, unnoticed separations can be important and must be included in the Hertzian differential equations, or the simple solution gives a more accurate result.",
"### Effect of pressure waves",
"The forces in the Hertzian solution above were assumed to propagate in the balls immediately, which is not the case. Sudden changes in the force between the atoms of material build up to form a pressure wave. Pressure waves (sound) in steel travel about 5 cm in 10 microseconds, which is about 10 times faster than the time between the first ball striking and the last ball being ejected. The pressure waves reflect back and forth through all five balls about ten times, although dispersing to less of a wavefront with more reflections. This is fast enough for the Hertzian solution to not require a substantial modification to adjust for the delay in force propagation through the balls. In less\\-rigid but still very elastic balls such as rubber, the propagation speed is slower, but the duration of collisions is longer, so the Hertzian solution still applies. The error introduced by the limited speed of the force propagation biases the Hertzian solution towards the simple solution because the collisions are not affected as much by the inertia of the balls that are further away.",
"Identically shaped balls help the pressure waves converge on the contact point of the last ball: at the initial strike point one pressure wave goes forward to the other balls while another goes backward to reflect off the opposite side of the first ball, and then it follows the first wave, being exactly one ball's diameter behind. The two waves meet up at the last contact point because the first wave reflects off the opposite side of the last ball and it meets up at the last contact point with the second wave. Then they reverberate back and forth like this about 10 times until the first ball stops connecting with the second ball. Then the reverberations reflect off the contact point between the second and third balls, but still converge at the last contact point, until the last ball is ejected—but it is less of a wavefront with each reflection.",
"### Effect of different types of balls",
"Using different types of material does not change the action as long as the material is efficiently elastic. The size of the spheres does not change the results unless the increased weight exceeds the elastic limit of the material. If the solid balls are too large, energy is being lost as heat, because the elastic limit increases with the radius raised to the power 1\\.5, but the energy which had to be absorbed and released increases as the cube of the radius. Making the contact surfaces flatter can overcome this to an extent by distributing the compression to a larger amount of material but it can introduce an alignment problem. Steel is better than most materials because it allows the simple solution to apply more often in collisions after the first strike, its elastic range for storing energy remains good despite the higher energy caused by its weight, and the higher weight decreases the effect of air resistance.",
""
] |
### Simple solution
The conservation of momentum {{nowrap\|(mass × velocity)}} and kinetic energy {{nowrap\|(1/2 × mass × velocity2)}} can be used to find the resulting velocities for [two colliding perfectly elastic objects](/wiki/Elastic_collision "Elastic collision"). These two equations are used to determine the resulting velocities of the two objects. For the case of two balls constrained to a straight path by the strings in the cradle, the velocities are a single number instead of a 3D vector for 3D space, so the math requires only two equations to solve for two unknowns. When the two objects have the same mass, the solution is simple: the moving object stops relative to the stationary one and the stationary one picks up all the other's initial velocity. This assumes perfectly elastic objects, so there is no need to account for heat and sound energy losses.
Steel does not compress much, but its elasticity is very efficient, so it does not cause much [waste heat](/wiki/Waste_heat "Waste heat"). The simple effect from two same\-mass efficiently elastic colliding objects constrained to a straight path is the basis of the effect seen in the cradle and gives an approximate solution to all its activities.
For a sequence of same\-mass elastic objects constrained to a straight path, the effect continues to each successive object. For example, when two balls are dropped to strike three stationary balls in a cradle, there is an unnoticed but crucial small distance between the two dropped balls, and the action is as follows: the first moving ball that strikes the first stationary ball (the second ball striking the third ball) transfers all of its momentum to the third ball and stops. The third ball then transfers the momentum to the fourth ball and stops, and then the fourth to the fifth ball.
Right behind this sequence, the second moving ball is transferring its momentum to the first moving ball that just stopped, and the sequence repeats immediately and imperceptibly behind the first sequence, ejecting the fourth ball right behind the fifth ball with the same small separation that was between the two initial striking balls. If they are simply touching when they strike the third ball, precision requires the more complete solution below.
#### Other examples of this effect
The effect of the last ball ejecting with a velocity nearly equal to the first ball can be seen in sliding a coin on a table into a line of identical coins, as long as the striking coin and its twin targets are in a straight line. The effect can similarly be seen in billiard balls. The effect can also be seen when a [sharp and strong pressure wave strikes a dense homogeneous material immersed in a less\-dense medium](/wiki/Spallation "Spallation"). If the identical [atoms](/wiki/Atom "Atom"), [molecules](/wiki/Molecule "Molecule"), or larger\-scale sub\-volumes of the dense homogeneous material are at least partially elastically connected to each other by electrostatic forces, they can act as a sequence of colliding identical elastic balls.
The surrounding atoms, molecules, or sub\-volumes experiencing the pressure wave act to constrain each other similarly to how the string constrains the cradle's balls to a straight line. As a medical example, [lithotripsy](/wiki/Lithotripsy "Lithotripsy") shock waves can be sent through the skin and tissue without harm to [burst kidney stones](/wiki/Kidney_stone_disease "Kidney stone disease"). The side of the stones opposite to the incoming pressure wave bursts, not the side receiving the initial strike. In the Indian game [carrom](/wiki/Carrom "Carrom"), a striker stops after hitting a stationery playing piece, transferring all of its momentum into the piece that was hit.
#### When the simple solution applies
For the simple solution to precisely predict the action, no pair in the midst of colliding may touch the third ball, because the presence of the third ball effectively makes the struck ball appear more massive. Applying the two conservation equations to solve the final velocities of three or more balls in a single collision results in many possible solutions, so these two principles are not enough to determine resulting action.
Even when there is a small initial separation, a third ball may become involved in the collision if the initial separation is not large enough. When this occurs, the complete solution method described below must be used.
Small steel balls work well because they remain efficiently elastic with little heat loss under strong strikes and do not compress much (up to about 30 μm in a small Newton's cradle). The small, stiff compressions mean they occur rapidly, less than 200 microseconds, so steel balls are more likely to complete a collision before touching a nearby third ball. Softer elastic balls require a larger separation to maximize the effect from pair\-wise collisions.
[thumb\|Transfer of momentum in a Newton's cradle without balls touching when three balls are dropped [(2 balls)](/wiki/Newton_cradle_wave_propagation_2_balls.svg "Newton cradle wave propagation 2 balls.svg")](/wiki/File:Newton_cradle_wave_propagation_3_balls.svg "Newton cradle wave propagation 3 balls.svg")
|
[
"### Simple solution",
"The conservation of momentum {{nowrap\\|(mass × velocity)}} and kinetic energy {{nowrap\\|(1/2 × mass × velocity2)}} can be used to find the resulting velocities for [two colliding perfectly elastic objects](/wiki/Elastic_collision \"Elastic collision\"). These two equations are used to determine the resulting velocities of the two objects. For the case of two balls constrained to a straight path by the strings in the cradle, the velocities are a single number instead of a 3D vector for 3D space, so the math requires only two equations to solve for two unknowns. When the two objects have the same mass, the solution is simple: the moving object stops relative to the stationary one and the stationary one picks up all the other's initial velocity. This assumes perfectly elastic objects, so there is no need to account for heat and sound energy losses.",
"Steel does not compress much, but its elasticity is very efficient, so it does not cause much [waste heat](/wiki/Waste_heat \"Waste heat\"). The simple effect from two same\\-mass efficiently elastic colliding objects constrained to a straight path is the basis of the effect seen in the cradle and gives an approximate solution to all its activities.",
"For a sequence of same\\-mass elastic objects constrained to a straight path, the effect continues to each successive object. For example, when two balls are dropped to strike three stationary balls in a cradle, there is an unnoticed but crucial small distance between the two dropped balls, and the action is as follows: the first moving ball that strikes the first stationary ball (the second ball striking the third ball) transfers all of its momentum to the third ball and stops. The third ball then transfers the momentum to the fourth ball and stops, and then the fourth to the fifth ball.",
"Right behind this sequence, the second moving ball is transferring its momentum to the first moving ball that just stopped, and the sequence repeats immediately and imperceptibly behind the first sequence, ejecting the fourth ball right behind the fifth ball with the same small separation that was between the two initial striking balls. If they are simply touching when they strike the third ball, precision requires the more complete solution below.",
"#### Other examples of this effect",
"The effect of the last ball ejecting with a velocity nearly equal to the first ball can be seen in sliding a coin on a table into a line of identical coins, as long as the striking coin and its twin targets are in a straight line. The effect can similarly be seen in billiard balls. The effect can also be seen when a [sharp and strong pressure wave strikes a dense homogeneous material immersed in a less\\-dense medium](/wiki/Spallation \"Spallation\"). If the identical [atoms](/wiki/Atom \"Atom\"), [molecules](/wiki/Molecule \"Molecule\"), or larger\\-scale sub\\-volumes of the dense homogeneous material are at least partially elastically connected to each other by electrostatic forces, they can act as a sequence of colliding identical elastic balls.",
"The surrounding atoms, molecules, or sub\\-volumes experiencing the pressure wave act to constrain each other similarly to how the string constrains the cradle's balls to a straight line. As a medical example, [lithotripsy](/wiki/Lithotripsy \"Lithotripsy\") shock waves can be sent through the skin and tissue without harm to [burst kidney stones](/wiki/Kidney_stone_disease \"Kidney stone disease\"). The side of the stones opposite to the incoming pressure wave bursts, not the side receiving the initial strike. In the Indian game [carrom](/wiki/Carrom \"Carrom\"), a striker stops after hitting a stationery playing piece, transferring all of its momentum into the piece that was hit.",
"#### When the simple solution applies",
"For the simple solution to precisely predict the action, no pair in the midst of colliding may touch the third ball, because the presence of the third ball effectively makes the struck ball appear more massive. Applying the two conservation equations to solve the final velocities of three or more balls in a single collision results in many possible solutions, so these two principles are not enough to determine resulting action.",
"Even when there is a small initial separation, a third ball may become involved in the collision if the initial separation is not large enough. When this occurs, the complete solution method described below must be used.",
"Small steel balls work well because they remain efficiently elastic with little heat loss under strong strikes and do not compress much (up to about 30 μm in a small Newton's cradle). The small, stiff compressions mean they occur rapidly, less than 200 microseconds, so steel balls are more likely to complete a collision before touching a nearby third ball. Softer elastic balls require a larger separation to maximize the effect from pair\\-wise collisions.",
"[thumb\\|Transfer of momentum in a Newton's cradle without balls touching when three balls are dropped [(2 balls)](/wiki/Newton_cradle_wave_propagation_2_balls.svg \"Newton cradle wave propagation 2 balls.svg\")](/wiki/File:Newton_cradle_wave_propagation_3_balls.svg \"Newton cradle wave propagation 3 balls.svg\")",
""
] |
### More complete solution
A cradle that best follows the simple solution needs to have an initial separation between the balls that measures at least twice the amount that any one ball compresses, but most do not. This section describes the action when the initial separation is not enough and in subsequent collisions that involve more than two balls even when there is an initial separation. This solution simplifies to the simple solution when only two balls touch during a collision. It applies to all perfectly elastic identical balls that have no energy losses due to friction and can be approximated by materials such as steel, glass, plastic, and rubber.
For two balls colliding, only the two equations for conservation of momentum and energy are needed to solve the two unknown resulting velocities. For three or more simultaneously colliding elastic balls, the relative compressibilities of the colliding surfaces are the additional variables that determine the outcome. For example, five balls have four colliding points and scaling (dividing) three of them by the fourth gives the three extra variables needed to solve for all five post\-collision velocities.
Newtonian, Lagrangian, Hamiltonian, and stationary action are the different ways of mathematically expressing [classical mechanics](/wiki/Classical_mechanics "Classical mechanics"). They describe the same physics but must be solved by different methods. All enforce the conservation of energy and momentum. Newton's law has been used in research papers. It is applied to each ball and the sum of forces is made equal to zero. So there are five equations, one for each ball—and five unknowns, one for each velocity. If the balls are identical, the absolute compressibility of the surfaces becomes irrelevant, because it can be divided out of both sides of all five equations, producing zero.
Determining the velocities{{cite journal \|title\=How does the ball\-chain work? \|first1\=F. \|last1\=Herrmann \|first2\=M. \|last2\=Seitz \|url\=http://www.physikdidaktik.uni\-karlsruhe.de/publication/ajp/Ball\-chain\_part2\.pdf \|journal\=American Journal of Physics \|volume\=50 \|year\=1982 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=977–981 \|bibcode\=1982AmJPh..50\..977H \|doi\=10\.1119/1\.12936 \|access\-date\=1 July 2011 \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041819/http://www.physikdidaktik.uni\-karlsruhe.de/publication/ajp/Ball\-chain\_part2\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Lovett \| first1 \= D. R. \| last2 \= Moulding \| first2 \= K. M. \| last3 \= Anketell\-Jones \| first3 \= S. \| doi \= 10\.1088/0143\-0807/9/4/015 \| title \= Collisions between elastic bodies: Newton's cradle \| journal \= European Journal of Physics \| volume \= 9 \| issue \= 4 \| page \= 323 \| year \= 1988 \|bibcode \= 1988EJPh....9\..323L \| s2cid \= 250904041 }}{{cite journal\| title\=Rocking Newton's Cradle \|first1\=Stefan \|last1\=Hutzler \|first2\=Gary \|last2\=Delaney \|first3\=Denis \|last3\=Weaire \|first4\=Finn \|last4\=MacLeod \|journal\=American Journal of Physics \|volume\=72 \|year\=2004 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=1508–1516 \|url\=http://www.maths.tcd.ie/\~garyd/Publications/Delaney\_2004\_AmJPhys\_Rocking\_Newtons\_Cradle.pdf\|bibcode\=2004AmJPh..72\.1508H \|doi\=10\.1119/1\.1783898 \|hdl\=1885/95080 }}C F Gauld (2006\), Newton's cradle in physics education, *Science \& Education*, 15, 597–617 for the case of one ball striking four initially touching balls is found by modeling the balls as weights with non\-traditional springs on their colliding surfaces. Most materials, like steel, that are efficiently elastic approximately follow [Hooke's force law](/wiki/Hooke%27s_law "Hooke's law") for springs, F \= k \\cdot x, but because the area of contact for a sphere increases as the force increases, colliding elastic balls follow Hertz's adjustment to Hooke's law, F \= k \\cdot x^{1\.5}. This and Newton's law for motion (F \= m \\cdot a) are applied to each ball, giving five simple but interdependent [differential equations](/wiki/Differential_equation "Differential equation") that can be solved numerically.
When the fifth ball begins [accelerating](/wiki/Accelerating "Accelerating"), it is receiving momentum and energy from the third and fourth balls through the spring action of their compressed surfaces. For identical elastic balls of any type with initially touching balls, the action is the same for the first strike, except the time to complete a collision increases in softer materials. Forty to fifty percent of the kinetic energy of the initial ball from a single\-ball strike is stored in the ball surfaces as potential energy for most of the collision process. Of the initial velocity, 13% is imparted to the fourth ball (which can be seen as a 3\.3\-degree movement if the fifth ball moves out 25 degrees) and there is a slight reverse velocity in the first three balls, the first ball having the largest at −7% of the initial velocity. This separates the balls, but they come back together just before as the fifth ball returns. This is due to the pendulum phenomenon of different small angle disturbances having approximately the same time to return to the center.
The Hertzian differential equations predict that if two balls strike three, the fifth and fourth balls will leave with velocities of 1\.14 and 0\.80 times the initial velocity.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/hinch/publications/PRSLA455\_3201\.pdf \|title\=The fragmentation of a line of balls by an impact \|first1\=E.J. \|last1\=Hinch \|first2\=S. \|last2\=Saint\-Jean \|journal\=Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A \|year\=1999 \|volume\=455 \|pages\=3201–3220}} This is 2\.03 times more kinetic energy in the fifth ball than the fourth ball, which means the fifth ball would swing twice as high in the vertical direction as the fourth ball. But in a real Newton's cradle, the fourth ball swings out as far as the fifth ball. To explain the difference between theory and experiment, the two striking balls must have at least ≈ 10 μm separation (given steel, 100 g, and 1 m/s). This shows that in the common case of steel balls, unnoticed separations can be important and must be included in the Hertzian differential equations, or the simple solution gives a more accurate result.
|
[
"### More complete solution",
"A cradle that best follows the simple solution needs to have an initial separation between the balls that measures at least twice the amount that any one ball compresses, but most do not. This section describes the action when the initial separation is not enough and in subsequent collisions that involve more than two balls even when there is an initial separation. This solution simplifies to the simple solution when only two balls touch during a collision. It applies to all perfectly elastic identical balls that have no energy losses due to friction and can be approximated by materials such as steel, glass, plastic, and rubber.",
"For two balls colliding, only the two equations for conservation of momentum and energy are needed to solve the two unknown resulting velocities. For three or more simultaneously colliding elastic balls, the relative compressibilities of the colliding surfaces are the additional variables that determine the outcome. For example, five balls have four colliding points and scaling (dividing) three of them by the fourth gives the three extra variables needed to solve for all five post\\-collision velocities.",
"Newtonian, Lagrangian, Hamiltonian, and stationary action are the different ways of mathematically expressing [classical mechanics](/wiki/Classical_mechanics \"Classical mechanics\"). They describe the same physics but must be solved by different methods. All enforce the conservation of energy and momentum. Newton's law has been used in research papers. It is applied to each ball and the sum of forces is made equal to zero. So there are five equations, one for each ball—and five unknowns, one for each velocity. If the balls are identical, the absolute compressibility of the surfaces becomes irrelevant, because it can be divided out of both sides of all five equations, producing zero.",
"Determining the velocities{{cite journal \\|title\\=How does the ball\\-chain work? \\|first1\\=F. \\|last1\\=Herrmann \\|first2\\=M. \\|last2\\=Seitz \\|url\\=http://www.physikdidaktik.uni\\-karlsruhe.de/publication/ajp/Ball\\-chain\\_part2\\.pdf \\|journal\\=American Journal of Physics \\|volume\\=50 \\|year\\=1982 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=977–981 \\|bibcode\\=1982AmJPh..50\\..977H \\|doi\\=10\\.1119/1\\.12936 \\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041819/http://www.physikdidaktik.uni\\-karlsruhe.de/publication/ajp/Ball\\-chain\\_part2\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Lovett \\| first1 \\= D. R. \\| last2 \\= Moulding \\| first2 \\= K. M. \\| last3 \\= Anketell\\-Jones \\| first3 \\= S. \\| doi \\= 10\\.1088/0143\\-0807/9/4/015 \\| title \\= Collisions between elastic bodies: Newton's cradle \\| journal \\= European Journal of Physics \\| volume \\= 9 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| page \\= 323 \\| year \\= 1988 \\|bibcode \\= 1988EJPh....9\\..323L \\| s2cid \\= 250904041 }}{{cite journal\\| title\\=Rocking Newton's Cradle \\|first1\\=Stefan \\|last1\\=Hutzler \\|first2\\=Gary \\|last2\\=Delaney \\|first3\\=Denis \\|last3\\=Weaire \\|first4\\=Finn \\|last4\\=MacLeod \\|journal\\=American Journal of Physics \\|volume\\=72 \\|year\\=2004 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=1508–1516 \\|url\\=http://www.maths.tcd.ie/\\~garyd/Publications/Delaney\\_2004\\_AmJPhys\\_Rocking\\_Newtons\\_Cradle.pdf\\|bibcode\\=2004AmJPh..72\\.1508H \\|doi\\=10\\.1119/1\\.1783898 \\|hdl\\=1885/95080 }}C F Gauld (2006\\), Newton's cradle in physics education, *Science \\& Education*, 15, 597–617 for the case of one ball striking four initially touching balls is found by modeling the balls as weights with non\\-traditional springs on their colliding surfaces. Most materials, like steel, that are efficiently elastic approximately follow [Hooke's force law](/wiki/Hooke%27s_law \"Hooke's law\") for springs, F \\= k \\\\cdot x, but because the area of contact for a sphere increases as the force increases, colliding elastic balls follow Hertz's adjustment to Hooke's law, F \\= k \\\\cdot x^{1\\.5}. This and Newton's law for motion (F \\= m \\\\cdot a) are applied to each ball, giving five simple but interdependent [differential equations](/wiki/Differential_equation \"Differential equation\") that can be solved numerically.",
"When the fifth ball begins [accelerating](/wiki/Accelerating \"Accelerating\"), it is receiving momentum and energy from the third and fourth balls through the spring action of their compressed surfaces. For identical elastic balls of any type with initially touching balls, the action is the same for the first strike, except the time to complete a collision increases in softer materials. Forty to fifty percent of the kinetic energy of the initial ball from a single\\-ball strike is stored in the ball surfaces as potential energy for most of the collision process. Of the initial velocity, 13% is imparted to the fourth ball (which can be seen as a 3\\.3\\-degree movement if the fifth ball moves out 25 degrees) and there is a slight reverse velocity in the first three balls, the first ball having the largest at −7% of the initial velocity. This separates the balls, but they come back together just before as the fifth ball returns. This is due to the pendulum phenomenon of different small angle disturbances having approximately the same time to return to the center.",
"The Hertzian differential equations predict that if two balls strike three, the fifth and fourth balls will leave with velocities of 1\\.14 and 0\\.80 times the initial velocity.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/hinch/publications/PRSLA455\\_3201\\.pdf \\|title\\=The fragmentation of a line of balls by an impact \\|first1\\=E.J. \\|last1\\=Hinch \\|first2\\=S. \\|last2\\=Saint\\-Jean \\|journal\\=Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A \\|year\\=1999 \\|volume\\=455 \\|pages\\=3201–3220}} This is 2\\.03 times more kinetic energy in the fifth ball than the fourth ball, which means the fifth ball would swing twice as high in the vertical direction as the fourth ball. But in a real Newton's cradle, the fourth ball swings out as far as the fifth ball. To explain the difference between theory and experiment, the two striking balls must have at least ≈ 10 μm separation (given steel, 100 g, and 1 m/s). This shows that in the common case of steel balls, unnoticed separations can be important and must be included in the Hertzian differential equations, or the simple solution gives a more accurate result.",
""
] |
Thirumanimutharu River
----------------------
The **Thirumanimutharu River** originates from three reserved forests in the Eastern Ghats (Shevaroy Mountain) in [Salem district](/wiki/Salem_district "Salem district"), [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu"). It runs for 120 kilometers through [Namakkal district](/wiki/Namakkal_district "Namakkal district") before joining the [Cauvery River](/wiki/Cauvery_River "Cauvery River") near [Paramathi Velur](/wiki/Paramathi_Velur "Paramathi Velur") at Nanjai Edayar village in Namakkal district, Tamil Nadu.{{Cite web \| title\=River Thirumanimuthar cries for attention \| url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/river\-thirumanimuthar\-cries\-for\-attention/article7804532\.ece}}
### Source and Course
The river originates from three reserved forests in the Eastern Ghats:
* **Velampatti Reserved Forest** to the east,
* **Manjavadi Ghat Reserved Forest** to the north, and
* **Kapputhu Reserved Forest** to the west.
Several streams flow southward from Velampatti Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|45\|30\.6\|N\|78\|19\|51\.8\|E\|display\=inline}}), converging into a single river known as the East Thirumanimutharu. This river passes through several villages, including Kuttathupatti, Palapatti, Jalakandapuram, Sarkar Nattamangalam, and Karumapuram, before entering Karipatti village. From [Karipatti](/wiki/Karipatti "Karipatti") village, the Thirumanimutharu flows westward, passing through Ayothiyapattinam on its way to [Salem](/wiki/Salem%2C_Tamil_Nadu "Salem, Tamil Nadu") town.
Three water streams originate from the Manjavadi Ghat Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|46\|57\.7\|N\|78\|19\|03\.6\|E\|display\=inline}}), merging into a single river called the West Thirumanimutharu. This river flows towards Salem town, passing through many villages such as Achankuttapatti, Kuppanur, and Paruthikadu. Before entering Salem town, the East and West Thirumanimutharu Rivers converge at Mannarpalayam village ({{coord\|11\|41\|00\.6\|N\|78\|11\|40\.5\|E\|display\=inline}}), forming a single river that continues through the Salem town area.
A water stream originates from the Kapputhu Reserved Forest (south side of [Yercaud](/wiki/Yercaud "Yercaud") Hills) ({{coord\|11\|44\|07\.2\|N\|78\|12\|46\.6\|E\|display\=inline}}) and flows towards Salem town. Before entering Salem, it merges with the Thirumanimutharu River at Mannarpalayam ({{coord\|11\|41\|46\.3\|N\|78\|12\|04\.8\|E\|display\=inline}}). Here, part of the water from the Thirumanimutharu River is diverted to [Mookaneri Lake](/wiki/Mookaneri_Lake "Mookaneri Lake") in [Kannankurichi](/wiki/Kannankurichi "Kannankurichi") using a check dam.
Another water stream originates from the west side of the Yercaud Hills in Kurumbapatty ({{coord\|11\|44\|26\.8\|N\|78\|10\|17\.9\|E\|display\=inline}}) and merges with the Thirumanimutharu River to the north of Nethimedu ({{coord\|11\|38\|58\.7\|N\|78\|08\|04\.8\|E\|display\=inline}}) in Salem town.
The **Kannimar Stream** originates from the northern side of the Jarugumalai Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|37\|34\.4\|N\|78\|12\|21\.0\|E\|display\=inline}}), flowing through the Skandasramam Murugan Temple and reaching Kumaragiri Lake. It then continues through the middle of Salem town, eventually merging with the Thirumanimutharu River within Salem town.
Two water streams originate from the southern side of the [Kanjamalai](/wiki/Kanjamalai "Kanjamalai") Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|36\|36\.9\|N\|78\|03\|45\.6\|E\|display\=inline}}) and flow eastward, merging with the Thirumanimutharu River at Chinnasiragapadi.
The **Ponniyar River** originates to the north side of the [Kanjamalai](/wiki/Kanjamalai "Kanjamalai") Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|37\|12\.6\|N\|78\|01\|46\.6\|E\|display\=inline}}) and flows through [Elampillai](/wiki/Elampillai "Elampillai"), Magudanchavadi, and [Mallasamudram](/wiki/Mallasamudram "Mallasamudram"), merging with the Thirumanimutharu River at Konnayar village.
Several water streams (called the **Elur River**) originate from the Namagiripettai village side of the Kolli Hills ({{coord\|11\|27\|04\.8\|N\|78\|19\|04\.4\|E\|display\=inline}}). These streams flow through Elur village in Namakkal district and merge with the Thirumanimutharu River to the north of Kudacheri village.
|
[
"Thirumanimutharu River\n----------------------",
"The **Thirumanimutharu River** originates from three reserved forests in the Eastern Ghats (Shevaroy Mountain) in [Salem district](/wiki/Salem_district \"Salem district\"), [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\"). It runs for 120 kilometers through [Namakkal district](/wiki/Namakkal_district \"Namakkal district\") before joining the [Cauvery River](/wiki/Cauvery_River \"Cauvery River\") near [Paramathi Velur](/wiki/Paramathi_Velur \"Paramathi Velur\") at Nanjai Edayar village in Namakkal district, Tamil Nadu.{{Cite web \\| title\\=River Thirumanimuthar cries for attention \\| url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/river\\-thirumanimuthar\\-cries\\-for\\-attention/article7804532\\.ece}}",
"### Source and Course",
"The river originates from three reserved forests in the Eastern Ghats:\n* **Velampatti Reserved Forest** to the east,\n* **Manjavadi Ghat Reserved Forest** to the north, and\n* **Kapputhu Reserved Forest** to the west.",
"Several streams flow southward from Velampatti Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|45\\|30\\.6\\|N\\|78\\|19\\|51\\.8\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}), converging into a single river known as the East Thirumanimutharu. This river passes through several villages, including Kuttathupatti, Palapatti, Jalakandapuram, Sarkar Nattamangalam, and Karumapuram, before entering Karipatti village. From [Karipatti](/wiki/Karipatti \"Karipatti\") village, the Thirumanimutharu flows westward, passing through Ayothiyapattinam on its way to [Salem](/wiki/Salem%2C_Tamil_Nadu \"Salem, Tamil Nadu\") town.",
"Three water streams originate from the Manjavadi Ghat Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|46\\|57\\.7\\|N\\|78\\|19\\|03\\.6\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}), merging into a single river called the West Thirumanimutharu. This river flows towards Salem town, passing through many villages such as Achankuttapatti, Kuppanur, and Paruthikadu. Before entering Salem town, the East and West Thirumanimutharu Rivers converge at Mannarpalayam village ({{coord\\|11\\|41\\|00\\.6\\|N\\|78\\|11\\|40\\.5\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}), forming a single river that continues through the Salem town area.",
"A water stream originates from the Kapputhu Reserved Forest (south side of [Yercaud](/wiki/Yercaud \"Yercaud\") Hills) ({{coord\\|11\\|44\\|07\\.2\\|N\\|78\\|12\\|46\\.6\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) and flows towards Salem town. Before entering Salem, it merges with the Thirumanimutharu River at Mannarpalayam ({{coord\\|11\\|41\\|46\\.3\\|N\\|78\\|12\\|04\\.8\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}). Here, part of the water from the Thirumanimutharu River is diverted to [Mookaneri Lake](/wiki/Mookaneri_Lake \"Mookaneri Lake\") in [Kannankurichi](/wiki/Kannankurichi \"Kannankurichi\") using a check dam.",
"Another water stream originates from the west side of the Yercaud Hills in Kurumbapatty ({{coord\\|11\\|44\\|26\\.8\\|N\\|78\\|10\\|17\\.9\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) and merges with the Thirumanimutharu River to the north of Nethimedu ({{coord\\|11\\|38\\|58\\.7\\|N\\|78\\|08\\|04\\.8\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) in Salem town.",
"The **Kannimar Stream** originates from the northern side of the Jarugumalai Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|37\\|34\\.4\\|N\\|78\\|12\\|21\\.0\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}), flowing through the Skandasramam Murugan Temple and reaching Kumaragiri Lake. It then continues through the middle of Salem town, eventually merging with the Thirumanimutharu River within Salem town.",
"Two water streams originate from the southern side of the [Kanjamalai](/wiki/Kanjamalai \"Kanjamalai\") Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|36\\|36\\.9\\|N\\|78\\|03\\|45\\.6\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) and flow eastward, merging with the Thirumanimutharu River at Chinnasiragapadi.",
"The **Ponniyar River** originates to the north side of the [Kanjamalai](/wiki/Kanjamalai \"Kanjamalai\") Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|37\\|12\\.6\\|N\\|78\\|01\\|46\\.6\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) and flows through [Elampillai](/wiki/Elampillai \"Elampillai\"), Magudanchavadi, and [Mallasamudram](/wiki/Mallasamudram \"Mallasamudram\"), merging with the Thirumanimutharu River at Konnayar village.",
"Several water streams (called the **Elur River**) originate from the Namagiripettai village side of the Kolli Hills ({{coord\\|11\\|27\\|04\\.8\\|N\\|78\\|19\\|04\\.4\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}). These streams flow through Elur village in Namakkal district and merge with the Thirumanimutharu River to the north of Kudacheri village.",
""
] |
### Source and Course
The river originates from three reserved forests in the Eastern Ghats:
* **Velampatti Reserved Forest** to the east,
* **Manjavadi Ghat Reserved Forest** to the north, and
* **Kapputhu Reserved Forest** to the west.
Several streams flow southward from Velampatti Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|45\|30\.6\|N\|78\|19\|51\.8\|E\|display\=inline}}), converging into a single river known as the East Thirumanimutharu. This river passes through several villages, including Kuttathupatti, Palapatti, Jalakandapuram, Sarkar Nattamangalam, and Karumapuram, before entering Karipatti village. From [Karipatti](/wiki/Karipatti "Karipatti") village, the Thirumanimutharu flows westward, passing through Ayothiyapattinam on its way to [Salem](/wiki/Salem%2C_Tamil_Nadu "Salem, Tamil Nadu") town.
Three water streams originate from the Manjavadi Ghat Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|46\|57\.7\|N\|78\|19\|03\.6\|E\|display\=inline}}), merging into a single river called the West Thirumanimutharu. This river flows towards Salem town, passing through many villages such as Achankuttapatti, Kuppanur, and Paruthikadu. Before entering Salem town, the East and West Thirumanimutharu Rivers converge at Mannarpalayam village ({{coord\|11\|41\|00\.6\|N\|78\|11\|40\.5\|E\|display\=inline}}), forming a single river that continues through the Salem town area.
A water stream originates from the Kapputhu Reserved Forest (south side of [Yercaud](/wiki/Yercaud "Yercaud") Hills) ({{coord\|11\|44\|07\.2\|N\|78\|12\|46\.6\|E\|display\=inline}}) and flows towards Salem town. Before entering Salem, it merges with the Thirumanimutharu River at Mannarpalayam ({{coord\|11\|41\|46\.3\|N\|78\|12\|04\.8\|E\|display\=inline}}). Here, part of the water from the Thirumanimutharu River is diverted to [Mookaneri Lake](/wiki/Mookaneri_Lake "Mookaneri Lake") in [Kannankurichi](/wiki/Kannankurichi "Kannankurichi") using a check dam.
Another water stream originates from the west side of the Yercaud Hills in Kurumbapatty ({{coord\|11\|44\|26\.8\|N\|78\|10\|17\.9\|E\|display\=inline}}) and merges with the Thirumanimutharu River to the north of Nethimedu ({{coord\|11\|38\|58\.7\|N\|78\|08\|04\.8\|E\|display\=inline}}) in Salem town.
The **Kannimar Stream** originates from the northern side of the Jarugumalai Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|37\|34\.4\|N\|78\|12\|21\.0\|E\|display\=inline}}), flowing through the Skandasramam Murugan Temple and reaching Kumaragiri Lake. It then continues through the middle of Salem town, eventually merging with the Thirumanimutharu River within Salem town.
Two water streams originate from the southern side of the [Kanjamalai](/wiki/Kanjamalai "Kanjamalai") Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|36\|36\.9\|N\|78\|03\|45\.6\|E\|display\=inline}}) and flow eastward, merging with the Thirumanimutharu River at Chinnasiragapadi.
The **Ponniyar River** originates to the north side of the [Kanjamalai](/wiki/Kanjamalai "Kanjamalai") Reserved Forest ({{coord\|11\|37\|12\.6\|N\|78\|01\|46\.6\|E\|display\=inline}}) and flows through [Elampillai](/wiki/Elampillai "Elampillai"), Magudanchavadi, and [Mallasamudram](/wiki/Mallasamudram "Mallasamudram"), merging with the Thirumanimutharu River at Konnayar village.
Several water streams (called the **Elur River**) originate from the Namagiripettai village side of the Kolli Hills ({{coord\|11\|27\|04\.8\|N\|78\|19\|04\.4\|E\|display\=inline}}). These streams flow through Elur village in Namakkal district and merge with the Thirumanimutharu River to the north of Kudacheri village.
|
[
"### Source and Course",
"The river originates from three reserved forests in the Eastern Ghats:\n* **Velampatti Reserved Forest** to the east,\n* **Manjavadi Ghat Reserved Forest** to the north, and\n* **Kapputhu Reserved Forest** to the west.",
"Several streams flow southward from Velampatti Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|45\\|30\\.6\\|N\\|78\\|19\\|51\\.8\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}), converging into a single river known as the East Thirumanimutharu. This river passes through several villages, including Kuttathupatti, Palapatti, Jalakandapuram, Sarkar Nattamangalam, and Karumapuram, before entering Karipatti village. From [Karipatti](/wiki/Karipatti \"Karipatti\") village, the Thirumanimutharu flows westward, passing through Ayothiyapattinam on its way to [Salem](/wiki/Salem%2C_Tamil_Nadu \"Salem, Tamil Nadu\") town.",
"Three water streams originate from the Manjavadi Ghat Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|46\\|57\\.7\\|N\\|78\\|19\\|03\\.6\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}), merging into a single river called the West Thirumanimutharu. This river flows towards Salem town, passing through many villages such as Achankuttapatti, Kuppanur, and Paruthikadu. Before entering Salem town, the East and West Thirumanimutharu Rivers converge at Mannarpalayam village ({{coord\\|11\\|41\\|00\\.6\\|N\\|78\\|11\\|40\\.5\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}), forming a single river that continues through the Salem town area.",
"A water stream originates from the Kapputhu Reserved Forest (south side of [Yercaud](/wiki/Yercaud \"Yercaud\") Hills) ({{coord\\|11\\|44\\|07\\.2\\|N\\|78\\|12\\|46\\.6\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) and flows towards Salem town. Before entering Salem, it merges with the Thirumanimutharu River at Mannarpalayam ({{coord\\|11\\|41\\|46\\.3\\|N\\|78\\|12\\|04\\.8\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}). Here, part of the water from the Thirumanimutharu River is diverted to [Mookaneri Lake](/wiki/Mookaneri_Lake \"Mookaneri Lake\") in [Kannankurichi](/wiki/Kannankurichi \"Kannankurichi\") using a check dam.",
"Another water stream originates from the west side of the Yercaud Hills in Kurumbapatty ({{coord\\|11\\|44\\|26\\.8\\|N\\|78\\|10\\|17\\.9\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) and merges with the Thirumanimutharu River to the north of Nethimedu ({{coord\\|11\\|38\\|58\\.7\\|N\\|78\\|08\\|04\\.8\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) in Salem town.",
"The **Kannimar Stream** originates from the northern side of the Jarugumalai Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|37\\|34\\.4\\|N\\|78\\|12\\|21\\.0\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}), flowing through the Skandasramam Murugan Temple and reaching Kumaragiri Lake. It then continues through the middle of Salem town, eventually merging with the Thirumanimutharu River within Salem town.",
"Two water streams originate from the southern side of the [Kanjamalai](/wiki/Kanjamalai \"Kanjamalai\") Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|36\\|36\\.9\\|N\\|78\\|03\\|45\\.6\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) and flow eastward, merging with the Thirumanimutharu River at Chinnasiragapadi.",
"The **Ponniyar River** originates to the north side of the [Kanjamalai](/wiki/Kanjamalai \"Kanjamalai\") Reserved Forest ({{coord\\|11\\|37\\|12\\.6\\|N\\|78\\|01\\|46\\.6\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}) and flows through [Elampillai](/wiki/Elampillai \"Elampillai\"), Magudanchavadi, and [Mallasamudram](/wiki/Mallasamudram \"Mallasamudram\"), merging with the Thirumanimutharu River at Konnayar village.",
"Several water streams (called the **Elur River**) originate from the Namagiripettai village side of the Kolli Hills ({{coord\\|11\\|27\\|04\\.8\\|N\\|78\\|19\\|04\\.4\\|E\\|display\\=inline}}). These streams flow through Elur village in Namakkal district and merge with the Thirumanimutharu River to the north of Kudacheri village.",
""
] |
Thirumanimutharu River Pollution
--------------------------------
Historically, the Thirumanimutharu River has been an important water source for agriculture and local communities. However, it has become heavily polluted due to industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and agricultural runoff. The river's degradation has sparked environmental concerns, leading to government intervention and public demand for rejuvenation.
### Sources of Pollution
* **Industrial Effluents**: The banks of the Thirumanimutharu River host various industries, including sago processing units, textile dyeing, and bleaching factories. These industries discharge untreated or partially treated wastewater directly into the river, introducing harmful chemicals such as dyes, heavy metals, and other pollutants.
* **Sago Units**: The sago industry, prominent in the Salem region, is a major contributor to the pollution of the Thirumanimutharu River. The wastewater from sago processing contains a high load of organic matter, leading to increased Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels, which deplete oxygen and harm aquatic life.{{Cite web \| title\=TNPCB Report on Thirumanimutharu River Pollution \| url\=https://tnpcb.gov.in/pdf\_2019/PrsThirumanimru24919\.pdf}}{{Cite web \| title\=The New Indian Express \- Thirumanimutharu River Rejuvenation \| url\=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil\-nadu/2020/Jan/08/thirumanimutharu\-river\-rejuvenation\-on\-full\-swing\-ngt\-sets\-april\-deadline\-2086501\.html}}
* **Sewage Discharge**: A significant portion of the river's pollution comes from untreated domestic sewage. For example, [Salem Corporation](/wiki/Salem_Corporation "Salem Corporation")'s sewage is discharged directly into the river, further exacerbating pollution levels. The untreated sewage contains pathogens and organic pollutants, increasing the river's fecal coliform count and posing serious public health risks.
According to reports, BOD levels in various stretches of the river have reached critical levels, indicating severe pollution and contamination.
### Environmental Impact
The high levels of industrial pollutants and sewage have severely affected aquatic ecosystems. Oxygen depletion, caused by organic waste and chemicals, has reduced biodiversity in the river.
### Rejuvenation Efforts
In response to the severe pollution, several efforts have been made to clean up and rejuvenate the Thirumanimutharu River:
* **Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs)**: The [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") government, with the intervention of the [National Green Tribunal](/wiki/National_Green_Tribunal "National Green Tribunal") (NGT), has initiated the construction of STPs along the river to treat domestic sewage before it enters the river. As of recent reports, multiple STPs with a combined capacity of 98 million liters per day (MLD) are in various stages of completion.
* **Pollution Control Measures**: The [Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu_Pollution_Control_Board "Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board") (TNPCB) has intensified its monitoring efforts and enforcement of pollution control measures. Several illegal industrial units have been shut down, and stringent regulations have been imposed on industries to ensure compliance with environmental norms. Regular inspections are carried out to detect unauthorized effluent discharge.
Despite these efforts, the implementation of rejuvenation projects, such as the construction of STPs, has faced delays due to issues like tender processes and bureaucratic hurdles, slowing down the river's recovery.
|
[
"Thirumanimutharu River Pollution\n--------------------------------",
"Historically, the Thirumanimutharu River has been an important water source for agriculture and local communities. However, it has become heavily polluted due to industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and agricultural runoff. The river's degradation has sparked environmental concerns, leading to government intervention and public demand for rejuvenation.",
"### Sources of Pollution",
"* **Industrial Effluents**: The banks of the Thirumanimutharu River host various industries, including sago processing units, textile dyeing, and bleaching factories. These industries discharge untreated or partially treated wastewater directly into the river, introducing harmful chemicals such as dyes, heavy metals, and other pollutants.\n* **Sago Units**: The sago industry, prominent in the Salem region, is a major contributor to the pollution of the Thirumanimutharu River. The wastewater from sago processing contains a high load of organic matter, leading to increased Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels, which deplete oxygen and harm aquatic life.{{Cite web \\| title\\=TNPCB Report on Thirumanimutharu River Pollution \\| url\\=https://tnpcb.gov.in/pdf\\_2019/PrsThirumanimru24919\\.pdf}}{{Cite web \\| title\\=The New Indian Express \\- Thirumanimutharu River Rejuvenation \\| url\\=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil\\-nadu/2020/Jan/08/thirumanimutharu\\-river\\-rejuvenation\\-on\\-full\\-swing\\-ngt\\-sets\\-april\\-deadline\\-2086501\\.html}}\n* **Sewage Discharge**: A significant portion of the river's pollution comes from untreated domestic sewage. For example, [Salem Corporation](/wiki/Salem_Corporation \"Salem Corporation\")'s sewage is discharged directly into the river, further exacerbating pollution levels. The untreated sewage contains pathogens and organic pollutants, increasing the river's fecal coliform count and posing serious public health risks.",
"According to reports, BOD levels in various stretches of the river have reached critical levels, indicating severe pollution and contamination.",
"### Environmental Impact",
"The high levels of industrial pollutants and sewage have severely affected aquatic ecosystems. Oxygen depletion, caused by organic waste and chemicals, has reduced biodiversity in the river.",
"### Rejuvenation Efforts",
"In response to the severe pollution, several efforts have been made to clean up and rejuvenate the Thirumanimutharu River:\n* **Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs)**: The [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\") government, with the intervention of the [National Green Tribunal](/wiki/National_Green_Tribunal \"National Green Tribunal\") (NGT), has initiated the construction of STPs along the river to treat domestic sewage before it enters the river. As of recent reports, multiple STPs with a combined capacity of 98 million liters per day (MLD) are in various stages of completion.\n* **Pollution Control Measures**: The [Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu_Pollution_Control_Board \"Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board\") (TNPCB) has intensified its monitoring efforts and enforcement of pollution control measures. Several illegal industrial units have been shut down, and stringent regulations have been imposed on industries to ensure compliance with environmental norms. Regular inspections are carried out to detect unauthorized effluent discharge.",
"Despite these efforts, the implementation of rejuvenation projects, such as the construction of STPs, has faced delays due to issues like tender processes and bureaucratic hurdles, slowing down the river's recovery.",
""
] |
Recreational and cultural facilities
------------------------------------
The names of a number of recreational and cultural facilities commemorate Banneker. These facilities include parks, playgrounds, community centers, museums and a planetarium.
### Parks
#### Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum, Baltimore County, Maryland
A park commemorating Benjamin Banneker is located in a stream valley woodland at the former site of Banneker's farm and residence in [Oella, Maryland](/wiki/Oella%2C_Maryland "Oella, Maryland"), between [Ellicott City](/wiki/Ellicott_City%2C_Maryland "Ellicott City, Maryland") and the City of Baltimore.Multiple sources:
{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024090721/https://friendsofbenjaminbanneker.com/ \|archive\-date\=2016\-10\-24 \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum \|url\=https://friendsofbenjaminbanneker.com/ \|location\=\[\[Catonsville, Maryland]] \|publisher\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum \|access\-date\=2017\-02\-15}}
{{cite web \|last\=Clark \|first\=James W., Maryland Commission on Afro\-American and Indian History and Culture, Annapolis, Maryland \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818203231/http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/004000/004300/004382/pdf/msa\_se5\_4382\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2015\-08\-18 \|url\=http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/004000/004300/004382/pdf/msa\_se5\_4382\.pdf \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Homesite \|work\=Maryland State Historical Trust: Inventory Form for State Historic Sites Survey \|date\=1976\-06\-14 \|publisher\=\[\[Maryland State Archives]] \|location\=\[\[Annapolis, Maryland]] \|access\-date\=2015\-11\-15 }}
{{cite web\|url\=https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;\_ylt\=AwrCmmBpFu5bEjwANnUPxQt.;\_ylu\=X3oDMTByMjB0aG5zBGNvbG8DYmYxBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw\-\-?p\=Benjamin\+Banneker\+Historical\+Park\+and\+Museum\&fr\=yhs\-Lkry\-SF01\&hspart\=Lkry\&hsimp\=yhs\-SF01\|title\=Images of Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum\|via\=\[\[Yahoo]]\|access\-date\=2018\-11\-15\|archive\-date\=November 16, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116010833/https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;\_ylt\=AwrCmmBpFu5bEjwANnUPxQt.;\_ylu\=X3oDMTByMjB0aG5zBGNvbG8DYmYxBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw\-\-?p\=Benjamin\+Banneker\+Historical\+Park\+and\+Museum\&fr\=yhs\-Lkry\-SF01\&hspart\=Lkry\&hsimp\=yhs\-SF01\&guccounter\=2\#id\=223\&iurl\=http%3A%2F%2Fcatonsville.exploremd.us%2Foella%2Fbenjamin\_banneker\_historical\_park%2Fgallery%2Fimages%2FIMG\_5292\_JPG.jpg\&action\=click}}* + - Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Historical Park, Baltimore County, Maryland: {{coord\|39\.268506\|\-76\.776543\|type:landmark\|name\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park, Baltimore County, Maryland\|format\=dms}} The Baltimore County Department of Recreation and Parks manages the $2\.5 million facility, which was dedicated on June 9, 1998\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/1998/06/10/benjamin\-banneker\-park\-and\-museum\-dedicated\-in\-oella/ \|title\=Benjamin Banneker park and museum dedicated in Oella \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=1998\-06\-10 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-13 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040550/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998\-06\-10/news/1998161096\_1\_benjamin\-banneker\-oella\-museum\-dedicated \|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-29}}
The park, which encompasses {{convert\|138\|acre\|ha}} and contains [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology") sites and extensive nature trails, is the largest original African American historical site in the United States.Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|author\-link\=Elijah Cummings \|url\=http://lcweb2\.loc.gov/cocoon/legacies/MD/200003116\.html \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park \& Museum \|last\=Cummings \|first\=Elijah E., Representative (7th District) \|work\=Local Legacies \|publisher\=Library of Congress \|access\-date\=2008\-08\-28 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907105117/http://lcweb2\.loc.gov/cocoon/legacies/MD/200003116\.html \|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-07}}
{{cite web \|url\=http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/recreation/programdivision/naturearea/banneker/index.html \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum \|work\=Parks and Facilities \|publisher\=Government of Baltimore County, Maryland \|location\=\[\[Towson, Maryland]]\|date\=2012\-09\-25 \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103140625/http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/recreation/programdivision/naturearea/banneker/index.html \|archive\-date\=2013\-01\-03}}
{{cite web \|url\=http://www.museumsusa.org/museums/info/1167091 \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park \& Museum, Inc., Baltimore, Maryland: location, hours, facilities information \|publisher\=MuseumsUSA \|access\-date\=2008\-08\-28 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820082839/http://www.museumsusa.org/museums/info/1167091 \|archive\-date\=2008\-08\-20 }}
{{cite web \|title\=Banneker Historical Park \& Museum \|url\=http://catonsville.exploremd.us/oella/benjamin\_banneker\_historical\_park/\|work\=Explore Catonsville, MD, part of the ExploreMD.us network\|publisher\=Ellicott City Graphic Arts Network \|access\-date\=2019\-04\-30\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430204855/http://catonsville.exploremd.us/oella/benjamin\_banneker\_historical\_park/\|archive\-date\=April 30, 2019}}
Images of exhibits in Benjamin Banneker Museum in Oella, Maryland: {{cite web\|url\=http://catonsville.exploremd.us/oella/benjamin\_banneker\_historical\_park/gallery/index.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419182727/http://catonsville.exploremd.us/oella/benjamin\_banneker\_historical\_park/gallery/index.htm\|archive\-date\=April 19, 2016\|title\=Benjamin Banneker's Gallery\|work\=Explore Catonsville, MD, part of the ExploreMD.us network: Benjamin Banneker's Historical Park \& Museum Gallery\|publisher\=Ellicott City Graphic Arts Network\|format\=photograph\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-30}}
{{cite news \|last\=Balakrishnan \|first\=Aparna \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040552/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2004\-09\-26/news/0409160041\_1\_benjamin\-banneker\-museum\-exhibits \|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-29 \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2004/09/26/park\-museum\-a\-tribute\-to\-benjamin\-banneker/ \|title\=Park, museum a tribute to Benjamin Banneker \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|date\=2004\-09\-26 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=2015\-04\-01}}* + - * + - The primary focus of the park is a museum highlighting Banneker's contributions.Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Museum, Baltimore County, Maryland: {{coord\|39\.268927\|\-76\.775018\|type:landmark\|name\=Benjamin Banneker Museum, Baltimore County, Maryland\|format\=dms}} The museum contains a visitors center that features a collection of Banneker's works and [artifacts](/wiki/Cultural_artifact "Cultural artifact"), a community gallery, a gift shop and a patio garden.Multiple sources:
{{cite news\|last\=Levine\|first\=Susan\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/01/04/a\-banneker\-plan/2c5d4441\-4058\-4164\-b620\-bd43c7fa4ea7/\|title\=A Banneker Plan\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|publisher\=Washington Post Company, Washington, D.C.\|date\=1997\-01\-04\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-19\|quote\=More than 190 years after his death, some prized possessions of renowned black scientist Benjamin Banneker soon will be coming home. The collection, which Banneker historians, relatives and admirers once feared would be dispersed forever when it was auctioned in Sep 1996, will be sent to two Maryland museums that bear his name.}}
{{cite web \|last\=Whittle \|first\=Syd \|url\=http://www.hmdb.org/Marker.asp?Marker\=5407 \|title\=Images of Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum in Oella, Maryland (photographed 2012\-05\-15\) \|work\="Benjamin Banneker" marker \|publisher\=HMdb: \[\[Historical Marker Database\|The Historical Marker Database]]\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919101846/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=5407 \|archive\-date\=2015\-09\-19 }}
{{cite web \|last\=Scible \|first\=Kelly \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200658/http://www.carrollcountytimes.com/publications/community\_times/cct\-embracing\-history\-at\-the\-benjamin\-banneker\-historical\-park\-and\-museum\-20141118\-column.html \|archive\-date\=2015\-09\-23 \|url\=http://www.carrollcountytimes.com/publications/community\_times/cct\-embracing\-history\-at\-the\-benjamin\-banneker\-historical\-park\-and\-museum\-20141118\-column.html \|title\=Embracing history at the Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum \|publisher\=\[\[Carroll County Times]] \|location\=\[\[Westminster, Maryland]] \|date\=2014\-11\-19 \|access\-date\=2015\-08\-18}}
{{cite web \|first\=Dianne \|last\=Burch \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719160002/http://patch.com/maryland/catonsville/picture\-this\-vintage\-poster\-promotes\-a\-nearby\-national\-treasure \|archive\-date\=2016\-07\-19 \|url\=http://patch.com/maryland/catonsville/picture\-this\-vintage\-poster\-promotes\-a\-nearby\-national\-treasure \|title\=Picture This: Vintage Poster Promotes a Nearby National Treasure: America's first African\-American man of science made his home in Oella \|date\=2012\-06\-05 \|location\=\[\[Catonsville, Maryland]] \|publisher\=Catonsville Patch \|access\-date\=2016\-07\-19 \|quote\=In 1998, the Benjamin Banneker Museum opened. It contains a wealth of information about the man and his accomplishments, as well as changing exhibitions. The gallery includes a copy of the deed showing that the 100\-acre site was purchased with 7,000 pounds of tobacco.}}
* + - * The park contains an 1850s stone farmhouse, now named the "Molly Banneky House". The three\-story house was restored as an office complex in 2004\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.bannekerfoundation.com/single\-post/2016/04/09/New\-Signs\-Coming\-Soon \|title\=New Signs Coming Soon \|date\=2016\-04\-09 \|location\=\[\[Fulton, Maryland]] \|publisher\=Benjamin Banneker Foundation \|access\-date\=2017\-02\-17 \|quote\=Have you ever seen the Molly Bannaky house and wondered how old it is and who lived there? .... Constructed in the 1850s, the Bannaky house is the most prominent feature on the Park and Museum property and is symbol of the Oella's enduring history. Beginning as just a one room house, the Bannaky house steadily grew with time as several families called it home. Upon learning about the legacy of Benjamin Banneker and his property, Baltimore County purchased the house and 42\.5 acres the surrounding property to establish the Benjamin Banneker Historical Park. The house was later restored in 2004 as an office complex. It is listed on the \[\[Maryland Historical Trust]] Inventory of Historic Properties. \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218064904/https://www.bannekerfoundation.com/single\-post/2016/04/09/New\-Signs\-Coming\-Soon \|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-18 }}Coordinates of Molly Banneky House: {{coord\| 39\.270297\|\-76\.776638\|type:landmark\|name\=Molly Banneky House in Benjamin Banneker Historical Park\|format\=dms}}
On November 12, 2009, officials opened a {{convert\|224\|ft2\|m2}} replica of Banneker's [log cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin "Log cabin") on the park grounds, reportedly two days before the 278th anniversary of Banneker's birth.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920183116/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2009\-11\-13/news/bal\-md.co.banneker13nov13\_1\_gwen\-marable\-western\-baltimore\-county\-farm\-banneker\-descendant \|archive\-date\=2012\-09\-20 \|url\=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/baltimore\-county/bal\-md.co.banneker13nov13,0,1869776\.story \|title\=Small cabin offers big insight into trailblazing Banneker: Structure is replica of original built by black scientist in Md \|access\-date\=2017\-01\-16 \|author\=Hare, Mary Gail \|date\=2009\-11\-13 \|work\=The Baltimore Sun \|quote\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum now boasts a replica of the one\-room log cabin that the African\-American scientist built and lived in on his western Baltimore County farm. Officials formally opened the 224\-square\-foot cabin Thursday on the park grounds in Catonsville, two days before the 278th anniversary of Banneker's birth. ... The county legislative delegation secured a $400,000 state bond for the design and construction of the cabin.}}{{cite web \|first\=Syd \|last\=Whittle \|date\=2012\-05\-15 \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Cabin \|format\=photograph \|url\=http://www.hmdb.org/Photos2/203/Photo203981o.jpg \|work\=Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806\) marker \|publisher\=HMdb: \[\[Historical Marker Database\|The Historical Marker Database]]\|access\-date\=2017\-02\-17 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218065622/http://www.hmdb.org/Photos2/203/Photo203981o.jpg \|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-18 }}Coordinates of replica of Benjamin Banneker's log cabin: {{coord\|39\.268505\|\-76\.775552\|type:landmark\|name\=Replica of Benjamin Banneker's log cabin in Benjamin Banneker Historical Park\|format\=dms}} Baltimore County's delegation to the [Maryland General Assembly](/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly "Maryland General Assembly") secured a $400,000 state bond for the design and construction of the cabin.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402083450/https://dbm.maryland.gov/budget/Documents/capbudget/WhiteBook/whitebook1999\_2010\.pdf\|archive\-date\=April 2, 2020\|url\=https://dbm.maryland.gov/budget/Documents/capbudget/WhiteBook/whitebook1999\_2010\.pdf \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Historic Park \|page\=253 \|work\=Capital Improvements Authorized by the General Assembly: 1999 through 2010 \|publisher\=Department of Budget and Management, State of Maryland \|date\=July 2010 \|access\-date\=2017\-01\-16}} The original estimated cost to construct the cabin in accordance with its drawings and specifications was $240,700\.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203192642/http://www.cmdgroup.com/building\-types/park\-buildings/maryland/projects/1000935371/ \|archive\-date\=2016\-02\-03 \|url\=http://www.reedconstructiondata.com/building\-types/park\-buildings/maryland/projects/1000935371/ \|year\=2012 \|title\=Banneker Log Cabin: Park Building Project Case Study in Maryland \|publisher\=Reed Construction Data, Inc. \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-20}}
A historical marker that the Maryland Historical Society erected to commemorate Banneker stands on the grounds of the park.{{cite web \|author\=Maryland Historical Society \|url\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=5407 \|title\="Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806\)" marker \|publisher\=HMmdb.org: \[\[Historical Marker Database\|The Historical Marker Database]] \|access\-date\=2010\-09\-21 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019092107/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=5407 \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-19}} The marker replaced the last of three earlier markers that [vandals](/wiki/Vandal "Vandal") had previously destroyed, the first of which the [Maryland State Roads Commission](/wiki/Maryland_State_Highway_Administration "Maryland State Highway Administration") had installed nearby in 1954 on the grounds of the Westchester Grade School (now the Westchester Community Center).Multiple sources:
Bedini, 1971, pp. [301](https://archive.org/details/lifeofbenjaminba00silv/page/301), [342](https://archive.org/details/lifeofbenjaminba00silv/page/342)
{{cite news \|date\=1981\-11\-09 \|title\=\[\[The Baltimore Sun\#Editions\|Baltimore Evening Sun]] \|place\=Baltimore, Maryland}} Cited in {{cite web \|url\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=5407 \|title\="Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806\)" marker\|publisher\=HMdb.org: \[\[Historical Marker Database\|The Historical Marker Database]]\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-21\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019092107/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=5407 \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-19}}
{{cite web\|author\=Maryland Historical Society \|url\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=5407\|title\="Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806\)" marker \|publisher\=HMdb: \[\[Historical Marker Database\|The Historical Marker Database]]\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-21\|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019092107/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=5407 \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-19\|quote\=This marker has had a difficult history, due, it seems, to vandals, perhaps motivated by racism. A marker was erected by the State Roads Commission on the west side of Westchester Avenue, one block south of Oella Avenue, in 1954\. ... According to the Baltimore Evening Sun, November 9, 1981, "Within a short time this first marker was destroyed by vandals. It was replaced in 1968, but a year later the second marker was destroyed. A third marker was erected in 1969, but that marker was also destroyed.}}
{{cite web\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830041105/https://oella.org/about\|archive\-date\=2019\-08\-30\|url\=https://oella.org/about/\|title\=History of the Westchester Community Center\|work\=About the Westchester Community Center\|publisher\=Westchester Community Center\|via\=Engine X Design\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-30\|quote\=The building now known as the Westchester Community Center was originally constructed by Baltimore County in 1924 as the Westchester Consolidated School, so named because it replaced several one\-room schools. It later operated as the Westchester Elementary School and then as the Westchester Annex, when a new elementary school (the second Westchester Elementary School, now Catonsville Middle School) was constructed in the area. It was last used as a school in 1977\.}}* + - * Coordinates of Westchester Community Center, Baltimore County, Maryland: {{coord\|39\.273620\|\-76\.780550\|type:landmark\|name\=Westchester Community Center, Baltimore County, Maryland\|format\=dms}}
##### Gallery of Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum
File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\-09 PM edit (33082346766\).jpg\|{{center\|Benjamin Banneker Museum (2017\)}}
File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\-47 PM edit (33003870211\).jpg\|{{center\|Replica of Banneker's log cabin (2017\)}}
File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 2\-58 PM edit (32979270002\).jpg\|{{center\|Molly Banneky House (2017\)}}
File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 2\-57 PM edit (32320563023\).jpg\|{{center\|Stone Farmhouse historical marker (2017\)}}
File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\-06 PM edit (33112774375\).jpg\|{{center\|Benjamin Banneker historical marker (2017\)}}
File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\-034 edit (32280933004\).jpg\|{{center\|Museum interior (2017\)}}
File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\-030 edit (33124595965\).jpg\|{{center\|Title page of a Baltimore edition of Banneker's 1793 almanac (2017\)}}
File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\-29 PM edit (32742005280\).jpg\|{{center\|Pages from Banneker's almanac (2017\)}}
#### Benjamin Banneker Park and Memorial, Washington, D.C.
[thumb\|The plaza and fountain in Benjamin Banneker Park in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") in 2011](/wiki/File:Benjamin_Banneker_Park_-_Washington_DC_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg "Benjamin Banneker Park - Washington DC - Sarah Stierch.jpg")
[thumb\|The [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress") looking north at Benjamin Banneker Park and Overlook with [L'Enfant Plaza](/wiki/L%27Enfant_Plaza "L'Enfant Plaza") and the [James V. Forrestal Building](/wiki/James_V._Forrestal_Building "James V. Forrestal Building"), the [Smithsonian Institution Building](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution_Building "Smithsonian Institution Building") and the [National Mall](/wiki/National_Mall "National Mall") in the background in 1990](/wiki/File:Looking_north_at_LEnfant_Plaza_-_Washington_DC.jpg "Looking north at LEnfant Plaza - Washington DC.jpg")
A {{convert\|4\.7\|acre\|ha}} [urban park](/wiki/Urban_park "Urban park") memorializing Benjamin Banneker is located in [southwest Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Southwest%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. "Southwest, Washington, D.C."), one half mile (800 m) south of the [Smithsonian Institution's "Castle"](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution_Building "Smithsonian Institution Building") on the [National Mall](/wiki/National_Mall "National Mall"). The park features a prominent overlook at the south end of [L'Enfant Promenade](/wiki/L%27Enfant_Plaza "L'Enfant Plaza") and Tenth Street [SW](/wiki/Southwest%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. "Southwest, Washington, D.C.").{{cite book\|url\=https://comp.ddot.dc.gov/Documents/L%27Enfant%20Promenade%20and%20Benjamin%20Banneker%20Park%20Environmental%20Assessment.pdf\|chapter\=Development of L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\|title\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\|date\=March 2006\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=\[\[District Department of Transportation]], Government of the District of Columbia (DC.gov) and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, \[\[Federal Highway Administration]], \[\[United States Department of Transportation]]\|pages\=1–5, 1–6, 1–7\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-16\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116232714/https://comp.ddot.dc.gov/Documents/L%27Enfant%20Promenade%20and%20Benjamin%20Banneker%20Park%20Environmental%20Assessment.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-16}}{{cite web\|url\=http://tclf.org/sites/default/files/microsites/kiley\-legacy/BannekerPark.html\|title\=Banneker Park\|work\=The Landscape Architecture Legacy of Dan Kiley\|year\=2013\|publisher\=The Cultural Landscape Foundation\|access\-date\=2015\-04\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318085112/http://tclf.org/sites/default/files/microsites/kiley\-legacy/BannekerPark.html\|archive\-date\=2015\-03\-18}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\_Environmental\_Assessment\_Apr2016\.pdf\|title\=Banneker Park\|work\=Environmental Assessment: Benjamin Banneker Park Connection\|date\=March 2016\|pages\=3–4\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=\[\[National Park Service]]: \[\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]]\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-16\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116225359/https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\_Environmental\_Assessment\_Apr2016\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-16}}Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Park, Washington, D.C.: {{coord\|38\.8817128\|\-77\.0259833\|type:landmark\|name\=Benjamin Banneker Park, Washington, D.C.\|format\=dms}}
A traffic circle, named [Banneker Circle SW](/wiki/Banneker_Circle "Banneker Circle"), surrounds the overlook. A grassy slope descends steeply from the traffic circle to the [Southwest Freeway (Interstate 395\)](/wiki/Interstate_395_%28Virginia-District_of_Columbia%29 "Interstate 395 (Virginia-District of Columbia)"), Ninth Street SW and [Maine Avenue](/wiki/Maine_Avenue_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 "Maine Avenue (Washington, D.C.)") SW.
The National Park Service (NPS) operates the park as part of its [National Mall and Memorial Parks](/wiki/National_Mall_and_Memorial_Parks "National Mall and Memorial Parks") administrative unit.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\_Environmental\_Assessment\_Apr2016\.pdf\|title\=Environmental Assessment: Benjamin Banneker Park Connection\|date\=March 2016\|publisher\=\[\[National Park Service]]\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|work\=\[\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]]\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-16\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116225359/https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\_Environmental\_Assessment\_Apr2016\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-16}} The NPS erected a historical marker near the park's entrance in 1997\.Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|last\=Miller\|first\=Richard E.\|editor\=Kevin W.\|work\=\[\[National Park Service]], \[\[United States Department of the Interior]]\|url\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=20384\|title\="Benjamin Banneker Park" marker\|publisher\=HMdb.org: \[\[Historical Marker Database\|The Historical Marker Database]]\|date\=2009\-06\-30\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-15\|archive\-date\=October 20, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020034828/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=20384}}
{{cite web\|first\=Richard E.\|last\=Miller\|url\=https://www.hmdb.org/Photos/68/Photo68879o.jpg\|title\="Benjamin Banneker Park" marker\|format\=photograph\|publisher\=HMdb.org: \[\[Historical Marker Database\|The Historical Marker Database]]\|date\=2009\-06\-27\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-15\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715202724/https://www.hmdb.org/Photos/68/Photo68879o.jpg}}
{{cite web\|url\=http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\_Document.pdf\|title\=Land Use\|work\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\|date\=June 2006\|publisher\=Department of Transportation, Government of the District of Columbia and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway Administration\|page\=4\-3\|access\-date\=2010\-05\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916081655/http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\_Document.pdf\|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-16}}* + - {{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916081655/http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\_Document.pdf \|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-16 \|url\=http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\_Document.pdf\|title\=Existing L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park \|work\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park \|date\=June 2006 \|publisher\=Department of Transportation, Government of the District of Columbia and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway Administration \|pages\=1–3 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-18}} The park is now at stop number 8 on Washington's Southwest Heritage Trail.Multiple sources:
{{cite web \|first1\=Jane Freundel \|last1\=Levey \|first2\=Richard T. \|last2\=Busch \|first3\=J. Brendan \|last3\=Meyer \|first4\=Lisa \|last4\=Bentley \|first5\=Anne W \|last5\=Rollins \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220070300/http://www.culturaltourismdc.org/portal/c/document\_library/get\_file?uuid\=700fde5d\-3534\-4ade\-b902\-3b8ecd95a137\&groupId\=701982 \|archive\-date\=2016\-12\-20 \|url\=http://www.culturaltourismdc.org/portal/c/document\_library/get\_file?uuid\=700fde5d\-3534\-4ade\-b902\-3b8ecd95a137\&groupId\=701982 \|title\=Marker 8: Banneker Circle: Vista to the Past\|work\=River Farms to Urban Towers: Southwest Heritage Trail (pamphlet)\|publisher\=\[\[Cultural Tourism DC]]\|access\-date\=2017\-03\-27 }}
{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=25171\|title\="Banneker Circle: Vista to the Past: River Farms to Urban Towers — Southwest Heritage Trail —" marker\|publisher\=HMdb.org: \[\[Historical Marker Database\|The Historical Marker Database]]\|access\-date\=2010\-09\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021185707/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=25171 \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-21}}
* + In 1967, [landscape architect](/wiki/Landscape_architecture "Landscape architecture") [Daniel Urban Kiley](/wiki/Dan_Kiley "Dan Kiley") completed the design of the "Tenth Street Overlook".{{cite web \|url\=https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Park (10th Street Overlook)\|work\=Cultural Landscapes Inventory\|pages\=8, 29–36 \|year\=2013\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=\[\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]], \[\[National Park Service]]\|access\-date\=2017\-05\-04}} After the District of Columbia Redevelopment Land Agency completed construction of the Overlook in 1969, the Agency transferred the Overlook to the NPS in 1970\.
The [elliptical](/wiki/Ellipse "Ellipse") {{convert\|200\|ft\|m\|0}} wide overlook provides elevated views of the nearby [Southwest Waterfront](/wiki/Southwest_Waterfront "Southwest Waterfront"), [Washington Channel](/wiki/Washington_Channel "Washington Channel"), [East Potomac Park](/wiki/East_Potomac_Park "East Potomac Park"), [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River "Potomac River") and more distant areas. The centerpiece of the overlook's [modernist](/wiki/Modernism "Modernism") [plaza](/wiki/Plaza "Plaza") is a large conical fountain that projects water more than 30 feet in the air and catches it in a circular basin made from [honed](/wiki/Honing_%28metalworking%29 "Honing (metalworking)") green [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite").{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619080145/http://tclf.org/landscapes/banneker\-benjamin\-park \|archive\-date\=2012\-06\-19 \|url\=http://tclf.org/landscapes/banneker\-benjamin\-park \|title\=Banneker Park \- Tenth Street Overlook \|work\=What's Out There \|publisher\=The Cultural Landscape Foundation \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-24}}
The rings of the fountain and basin in the center of the site are reiterated in the benches, double rows of [London plane](/wiki/Platanus_%C3%97_hispanica "Platanus × hispanica") trees, and low concrete walls that establish the plaza's edge. The ground plane is paved with granite squares, a continuation of L'Enfant Promenade's materials. The ground plane is [concave](/wiki/wikt:Concave "Concave"), and with the trees and fountain helps define the spatial volume of the plaza.
In 1970, the [District of Columbia City Council](/wiki/District_of_Columbia_home_rule%23History_of_self-government "District of Columbia home rule#History of self-government") passed a resolution that petitioned the NPS to rename the Overlook as Banneker Park, arguing that the council had already renamed the adjacent highway circle as Banneker Circle, S.W. The NPS thereupon hosted a dedication ceremony in 1971 that renamed the Overlook as "Benjamin Banneker Park".[Bedini, 1999, p. 318\.](https://archive.org/details/lifeofbenjaminba00bedi/page/318) "In the two centuries since Banneker's death, his achievements have been forgotten or misrepresented ..... In November 1971, on the anniversary of Banneker's birthday, the secretary of the interior authorized the 10th Street Overlook outside L'Enfant Plaza in Washington to be renamed and dedicated by the mayor as Benjamin Banneker Park. Once again, the reasons presented by the speakers on the occasion and widely reported by the press had been all based on erroneous information: Banneker was hailed for his contribution after L'Enfant was dismissed and Banneker "saved the plan by reconstructing it from memory"."
Following completion of a restoration project, the park was ceremoniously rededicated in 1997 to again commemorate Banneker;Multiple sources:
{{cite news\|url\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/22664986\.html\|title\=Rededication Today of Banneker Park\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|date\=November 14, 1997\|page\=B.3\|access\-date\=2010\-05\-14}}{{Dead link\|date\=September 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/11/15/after\-reversal\-of\-decline\-banneker\-park\-rededicated/a1195f2a\-2495\-4ade\-ae3b\-80c9464fb51c/\|title\=After Reversal of Decline, Banneker Park Rededicated\|first\=Patrice\|last\=Gaines\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|date\=1997\-11\-15\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118194142/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/11/15/after\-reversal\-of\-decline\-banneker\-park\-rededicated/a1195f2a\-2495\-4ade\-ae3b\-80c9464fb51c/\|archive\-date\=2016\-11\-18}}* + the area has no specific connection to Banneker himself.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\_Environmental\_Assessment\_Apr2016\.pdf \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Park \|work\=Environmental Assessment: Benjamin Banneker Park Connection \|date\=March 2016 \|page\=29 \|location\=Washington, D.C. \|publisher\=\[\[National Park Service]]: \[\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]] \|access\-date\=2017\-04\-28 \|quote\=The Tenth Street Overlook was renamed Benjamin Banneker Park in 1971 by the NPS, though the area has no specific connection to Banneker himself, ...}}
In 1998, the [105th United States Congress](/wiki/105th_United_States_Congress "105th United States Congress") enacted legislation that authorized the Washington Interdependence Council of the District of Columbia to establish at the council's expense a memorial on federal land in the District that would commemorate Banneker's accomplishments.{{cite book\|url\=http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\_Document.pdf\|chapter\=Section 1\.3\.3\.: Benjamin Banneker Memorial\|title\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\|date\=March 2006\|publisher\=Department of Transportation, Government of the District of Columbia and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway Administration\|pages\=1–6 to 1–7\|access\-date\=May 5, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916081655/http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\_Document.pdf\|archive\-date\=September 16, 2008\|url\-status\=dead}}[Public Law 101\-355 (November 6, 1998\)](http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ355.105.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050226221222/http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi\-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname\=105\_cong\_public\_laws\&docid\=f%3Apubl355\.105\.pdf \|date\=February 26, 2005 }} states in Title V, Section 512 (112 Stat. 3266\): "SEC. 512\. MEMORIAL TO MR. BENJAMIN BANNEKER IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. (a) MEMORIAL AUTHORIZED.—The Washington Interdependence Council of the District of Columbia is authorized to establish a memorial in the District of Columbia to honor and commemorate the accomplishments of Mr. Benjamin Banneker. (b) COMPLIANCE WITH STANDARDS FOR COMMEMORATIVE WORKS.—The establishment of the memorial shall be in accordance with the Commemorative Works Act (40 U.S.C. 1001 et seq.). (c) PAYMENT OF EXPENSES.—The Washington Interdependence Council shall be solely responsible for acceptance of contributions for, and payment of the expenses of, the establishment of the memorial. No Federal funds may be used to pay any expense of the establishment of the memorial. ...". Retrieved 2010\-01\-21\. The Council plans to erect this memorial in or near the park.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bannekermemorial.org/memorial.htm\|title\=The Memorial \|location\=Washington, D.C. \|publisher\=Washington Interdependence Council: Administrators of the Benjamin Banneker Memorial and Banneker Institute of Math \& Science \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-21 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206054405/http://www.bannekermemorial.org/memorial.htm \|archive\-date\=2010\-02\-06 }} In 2006, the Council held a [charrette](/wiki/Charrette "Charrette") to select the artist that would design the memorial.[Comcast](/wiki/Comcast "Comcast") News Makers video: {{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705135402/http://bannekermemorial.org/videohigh.htm \|archive\-date\=2008\-07\-05 \|url\=http://www.bannekermemorial.org/videohigh.htm \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Charrette \|date\=2006\-11\-08 \|location\=Washington, D.C. \|publisher\=Washington Interdependence Council: Administrators of the Benjamin Banneker Memorial and Banneker Institute of Math \& Science \|access\-date\=2008\-08\-06}}
Construction of the memorial was expected to begin after the [United States Commission of Fine Arts](/wiki/United_States_Commission_of_Fine_Arts "United States Commission of Fine Arts") and the [National Capital Planning Commission](/wiki/National_Capital_Planning_Commission "National Capital Planning Commission") (NCPC) approved the memorial's design and location in accordance with the legislation that authorized the establishment of the memorial and with the [United States Code](/wiki/United_States_Code "United States Code") (40 U.S.C. § 8905\).{{USC\|40\|8905}} However, the proposed memorial had by 1999 become a $17 million project that would contain a visitors' center near the "Castle" at the north end of the Promenade, a clock atop a tall pedestal at the midpoint of the Promenade, a statue of Banneker in the park's circle at the south end of the Promenade and a [skyway](/wiki/Skyway "Skyway") over Interstate 395 that would connect the park to the waterfront.{{cite news \|last\=Williams \|first\=Clarence \|url\=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\-56765868\.html\|title\=Banneker Memorial Struggles for Funds: Lots of Support except for Money\|work\=\[\[The Washington Times]]\|date\=1999\-07\-18\|via\=\[\[Highbeam Research]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229135517/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\-56765868\.html\|archive\-date\=2016\-02\-29}}{{cite news\|last\=Wheeler\|first\=Linda\|url\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/408486400 \|title\=Banneker Statue Location Rejected; U.S. Panel Favors Nearby Memorial Site\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|date\=1999\-07\-29\|access\-date\=2012\-06\-27\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224105954/https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/doc/408486400\.html\|archive\-date\=2016\-02\-24\|id\={{ProQuest\|408486400}} }} After considering the proposal, the National Capital Memorial Commission rejected the placement of the statue in the park and decided to consult with the District of Columbia government about placing a Banneker memorial at the midpoint of the Promenade.{{cite web\|last\=DePillis\|first\=Lydia\|url\=http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/blogs/housingcomplex/2010/10/28/lenfants\-limbo\-d\-c\-s\-biggest\-urban\-planning\-disaster\-has\-dragged\-a\-memorial\-down\-with\-it/\|title\=L'Enfant's Limbo: D.C.'s biggest urban planning disaster has dragged a memorial down with it\|work\=\[\[Washington City Paper]]\|date\=2010\-10\-28\|access\-date\=2016\-06\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607181016/http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/news/housing\-complex/blog/13121289/lenfants\-limbo\-d\-c\-s\-biggest\-urban\-planning\-disaster\-has\-dragged\-a\-memorial\-down\-with\-it\|archive\-date\=2016\-06\-07}}
The legislative authority relative to locating the Memorial on federal land lapsed in 2005\.{{cite web\|url\=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43744\.pdf\|title\=Monuments and Memorials Authorized Under the Commemorative Works Act in the District of Columbia: Current Development of In\-Progress and Lapsed Works\|date\=May 23, 2019\|publisher\=\[\[Congressional Research Service]]\|page\=24\|id\=R43744\|access\-date\=January 4, 2021\|archive\-date\=July 13, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713215304/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43744\.pdf}}. This did not preclude the location of the memorial on lands such as the road right\-of\-way in the Promenade that are under the jurisdiction of the District of Columbia's government.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/john\-kerry\-gets\-dissed\-on\-scholars\-list/2015/02/05/d38f8f00\-ad7e\-11e4\-ad71\-7b9eba0f87d6\_story.html\|title\=John Kerry gets dissed on scholars' list\|first1\=Al\|last1\=Kamen\|first2\=Colby\|last2\=Itkowitz\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]\|date\=February 5, 2015}}
During the 2000s, various organizations proposed to develop at the site of Benjamin Banneker Park a number of large facilities including a baseball stadium (later constructed elsewhere in D.C. as [Nationals Park](/wiki/Nationals_Park "Nationals Park")), the National Museum of African American History and Culture, a [National Children's Museum](/wiki/National_Children%27s_Museum "National Children's Museum") and a [National Museum of the American Latino](/wiki/Commission_to_Study_the_Potential_Creation_of_the_National_Museum_of_the_American_Latino "Commission to Study the Potential Creation of the National Museum of the American Latino"). In 2004, the D.C. Preservation League listed the Park as one of the most endangered places in the District because of such proposals to redevelop the park's area.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dcpreservation.org/endangered/2004/banneker.html\|title\=BENJAMIN BANNEKER PARK, BANNEKER CIRCLE: SOUTHWEST AT L'ENFANT PROMENADE\|work\=Most Endangered Places for 2004\|publisher\=D.C. Preservation League\|year\=2004\|access\-date\=2011\-10\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040824133931/http://www.dcpreservation.org/endangered/2004/banneker.html\|archive\-date\=2004\-08\-24}} The League stated that the park, "Designed by renowned landscape architect Daniel Urban Kiley ... is culturally significant as the first public space in Washington named for an African American and is usually included in Black History tours".
In 2006, the District government and the [Federal Highway Administration](/wiki/Federal_Highway_Administration "Federal Highway Administration") issued an [environmental assessment](/wiki/Environmental_assessment "Environmental assessment") for "improvements" to the promenade and park that described a number of projects that could redevelop the area containing the park.{{cite book\|url\=https://comp.ddot.dc.gov/Documents/L%27Enfant%20Promenade%20and%20Benjamin%20Banneker%20Park%20Environmental%20Assessment.pdf\|title\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\|date\=March 2006\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=\[\[District Department of Transportation]], Government of the District of Columbia (DC.gov) and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, \[\[Federal Highway Administration]], \[\[United States Department of Transportation]]\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-16\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116232714/https://comp.ddot.dc.gov/Documents/L%27Enfant%20Promenade%20and%20Benjamin%20Banneker%20Park%20Environmental%20Assessment.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-16}} In 2011, a proposal surfaced that would erect a structure housing a "[National Museum of the American People](/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_American_People "National Museum of the American People")" at or near the site of the park.Multiple sources:
{{cite web \|last\=Roig\-Franzia \|first\=Manuel \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/one\-museum\-over\-all/2011/09/23/gIQA537mAL\_story.html \|title\=Proposed 'melting pot' of American history: One museum over all? \|work\=Lifestyle, The Washington Post \|date\=2011\-09\-30 \|access\-date\=2011\-10\-05 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104065554/http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/one\-museum\-over\-all/2011/09/23/gIQA537mAL\_story.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-11\-04 }}
{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nmap2015\.com/news\_architecture.html \|title\=Stunning Design Suggested for National American People Museum At Washington, DC's L'Enfant Plaza Overlook Site \|work\=National Museum of the American People \|publisher\=Coalition of the National Museum of the American People \|date\=2011\-10\-07 \|access\-date\=2011\-10\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023064059/https://buildnmap.com/news\_architecture.html\|archive\-date\=2017\-10\-23 }}
* + In 2012, the [United States Army Corps of Engineers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers "United States Army Corps of Engineers") determined that Benjamin Banneker Park was not eligible for inclusion in the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places").Multiple sources:
{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dgmarket.com/tenders/np\-notice.do?noticeId\=9527162 \|archive\-url\=https://www.webcitation.org/6qDRXR6v0?url\=http://www.dgmarket.com/tenders/np\-notice.do?noticeId\=9527162 \|archive\-date\=2017\-05\-04 \|title\=RFI \- Determination of Eligibility for Banneker Park and 10th Street Washington, DC: Request For Expressions of Interest \|author\=\[\[National Capital Planning Commission]] \|date\=2013\-07\-21 \|publisher\=dgMarket \|access\-date\=2017\-05\-04 }}
{{cite web \|url\=https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Park (10th Street Overlook) \|work\=Cultural Landscapes Inventory \|year\=2013 \|pages\=6, 8, 12, 40 \|location\=Washington, D.C. \|publisher\=\[\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]], \[\[National Park Service]] \|access\-date\=2017\-05\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114184452/https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-14 }}
+ However, the District of Columbia State Historic Preservation Office (DC SHPO) did not concur with this determination.
The DC SHPO stated that additional research and coordination with the NPS would be needed before it could make a final determination of eligibility. In 2014, the DC SHPO concurred with the superintendent of the National Mall and Memorial Parks that the park was eligible for inclusion in the National Register as an integral component of the 10th Street Promenade/Banneker Overlook composition, but not as an independent entity.
In January 2013, the National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) accepted "The SW [Ecodistrict](/wiki/Ecodistrict "Ecodistrict") Plan" (see: [Southwest Ecodistrict](/wiki/L%27Enfant_Plaza%23Southwest_Ecodistrict "L'Enfant Plaza#Southwest Ecodistrict")).{{cite web\|first1\=Stephen\|last1\=Staudigl\|first2\=Julia\|last2\=Koster\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2013/National\_Capital\_Planning\_Commission\_Accepts\_SW\_Ecodistrict\_Plan\_1102013\.pdf\|title\=National Capital Planning Commission Accepts SW Ecodistrict Plan\|date\=2013\-01\-10\|work\=Media Release\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=\[\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113044621/https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2013/National\_Capital\_Planning\_Commission\_Accepts\_SW\_Ecodistrict\_Plan\_1102013\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-13}} The Plan recommended the redesign of Benjamin Banneker Park and adjacent areas to accommodate one or more new memorials, museums and/or landscaping.Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\_Ecodistrict\_Overview.pdf\|title\=The SW Ecodistrict: A Vision for a More Sustainable Future\|date\=January 2013\|publisher\=\[\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113041455/https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\_Ecodistrict\_Overview.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-13}}
{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\_Ecodistrict\_Development\_Scenario\_and\_Focus\_Areas.pdf \|title\=Preliminary Design Concepts: Banneker Park \|work\=10th Street Corridor and Banneker Park: Section 4 \- The Development Scenario and Focus Areas: The SW Ecodistrict: A Vision for a More Sustainable Future \|pages\=68–69 \|date\=January 2013 \|publisher\=\[\[National Capital Planning Commission]] \|location\=Washington, D.C. \|access\-date\=2017\-11\-13 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113040603/https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\_Ecodistrict\_Development\_Scenario\_and\_Focus\_Areas.pdf \|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-13 }}
* + in 2013, the NPS issued a "[Cultural Landscapes](/wiki/Cultural_landscape "Cultural landscape") Inventory" report for the park. The report described the features, significance and history of the park and its surrounding area, as well the planning processes that had influenced the park's construction and development.{{cite web \|url\=https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Park (10th Street Overlook) \|work\=Cultural Landscapes Inventory \|year\=2013 \|location\=Washington, D.C. \|publisher\=\[\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]], \[\[National Park Service]] \|access\-date\=2017\-05\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114184452/https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-14 }}
In September 2014, the NCPC accepted an addendum to the SW Ecodistrict Plan.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2014/SW\_Ecodistrict\_Plan\_Addendum\_Accepted\_by\_National\_Capital\_Planning\_Commission\_September42014\.pdf\|title\=SW Ecodistrict Plan Addendum Accepted by the National Capital Planning Commission\|work\=Media Release\|first1\=Stephen\|last1\=Staudigl\|first2\=Julia\|last2\=Koster\|date\=2014\-09\-04\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113134843/https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2014/SW\_Ecodistrict\_Plan\_Addendum\_Accepted\_by\_National\_Capital\_Planning\_Commission\_September42014\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-13}} The addendum stated: "A modern, terraced landscape at Banneker Park is envisioned to enhance the park and to provide a gateway to the National Mall."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\_Ecodistrict\_Plan\_Addendum\_8\.25\.14\.pdf\|title\=Banneker Park\|work\=The SW Ecodistrict Plan Addendum\|pages\=32–33\|date\=September 2014\|publisher\=\[\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113131719/https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\_Ecodistrict\_Plan\_Addendum\_8\.25\.14\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-13}}
In April 2017, the NCPC approved plans for a staircase and ramp that would connect the park with Washington's [Southwest Waterfront](/wiki/Southwest_Waterfront "Southwest Waterfront") and that would add lighting and trees to the area. The NCPC and the NPS intended the project to be an interim improvement that could be in place for ten years while the area awaits redevelopment.Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|first\=Eliza\|last\=Voigt\|url\=https://parkplanning.nps.gov/projectHome.cfm?projectID\=59520\|title\=Benjamin Banneker Park Pedestrian Access Improvements\|publisher\=\[\[National Park Service]]\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|work\=\[\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]]\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113023550/https://parkplanning.nps.gov/projectHome.cfm?projectID\=59520\|archive\-date\=November 13, 2017}}
{{cite web\|first1\=Julia\|last1\=Koster\|first2\=Stephen\|last2\=Staudigl\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2017/NCPC\_Approves\_Banneker\_Park\_Pedestrian\_and\_Cyclist\_Access\_Improvements\_April62017\.pdf\|title\=NCPC Approves Banneker Park Pedestrian and Cyclist Access Improvements\|work\=Media Release\|date\=2017\-04\-06\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=\[\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113020750/https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2017/NCPC\_Approves\_Banneker\_Park\_Pedestrian\_and\_Cyclist\_Access\_Improvements\_April62017\.pdf\|archive\-date\=November 13, 2017}}
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/actions/2017April/7551\_Staff\_Report\_Apr2017\.pdf\|title\=Banneker Park Pedestrian Access Improvements\|work\=Executive Director's Recommendation: Commission Meeting: April 6, 2017 (NCPC File No. 7551\)\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=\[\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\|access\-date\=November 13, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113022208/https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/actions/2017April/7551\_Staff\_Report\_Apr2017\.pdf\|archive\-date\=November 13, 2017}}* + - Construction began on the project in September 2017 and was completed during the spring of 2018\.Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|url\=https://dmped.dc.gov/release/construction\-benjamin\-banneker\-park\-pedestrian\-and\-bike\-access\-project\-begins\-ahead\-wharf%E2%80%99s\|title\=Construction on Benjamin Banneker Park Pedestrian and Bike Access Project begins ahead of The Wharf's October 12 Launch\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|publisher\=Office of the Deputy Mayor for Planning and Economic Development: Government of the District of Columbia (DC.gov)\|date\=September 8, 2017\|access\-date\=November 13, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113025826/https://dmped.dc.gov/release/construction\-benjamin\-banneker\-park\-pedestrian\-and\-bike\-access\-project\-begins\-ahead\-wharf%E2%80%99s\|archive\-date\=November 13, 2017}}
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.ncpc.gov/news/item/47/1/\|first\=Stephen\|last\=Staudigl\|date\=May 25, 2018\|title\=Banneker Park Connection Helps NCPC Plans Come to Life\|work\=News Story\|publisher\=\[\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\|access\-date\=May 18, 2018\|archive\-date\=May 25, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525204522/https://www.ncpc.gov/news/item/47/1/}}
#### Benjamin Banneker Park, Arlington County, Virginia
* + [thumb\|right\|upright\=1\.05\|Benjamin Banneker: SW\-9 Intermediate Boundary Stone of the District of Columbia (2012\)](/wiki/File:DC_Boundary_stone_SW9_%28Banneker%29%2C_21_Oct_2012.JPG "DC Boundary stone SW9 (Banneker), 21 Oct 2012.JPG")
An {{convert\|11\|acre\|ha}} park in [Arlington County, Virginia](/wiki/Arlington_County%2C_Virginia "Arlington County, Virginia"), memorializes Banneker and the survey of the boundaries of the District of Columbia, in which he participated.{{cite web \|url\=https://parks.arlingtonva.us/locations/benjamin\-banneker\-park/ \|title\=Benjamin Banneker Park \|publisher\=Department of Parks and Recreation, \[\[Arlington County, Virginia]] \|access\-date\=2017\-10\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010233318/https://parks.arlingtonva.us/locations/benjamin\-banneker\-park/ \|archive\-date\=2017\-10\-10 }} The park features access to paved [trails](/wiki/Shared_use_path "Shared use path"), [picnic tables](/wiki/Picnic_table "Picnic table") with [charcoal grills](/wiki/Barbecue_grill%23Charcoal_grills "Barbecue grill#Charcoal grills"), a [playground](/wiki/Playground "Playground"), a [playing field](/wiki/Playing_field "Playing field"), a stream and a [dog park](/wiki/Dog_park "Dog park"). The [Benjamin Banneker: SW\-9 Intermediate Boundary Stone](/wiki/Benjamin_Banneker:SW-9_Intermediate_Boundary_Stone "SW-9 Intermediate Boundary Stone"), one of the forty [boundary markers of the original District of Columbia](/wiki/Boundary_Markers_of_the_Original_District_of_Columbia "Boundary Markers of the Original District of Columbia"), is within the park.Multiple sources:
{{cite web \|last\=Graves \|first\=Lynne Gomez, Historical Projects Director, Afro\-American Bicentennial Corporation, Washington, D.C \|url\=http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Arlington/000\-0015\_%20Banneker\_SW\-9\_Intermediate\_Boundary\_Stone\_1976\_Final\_Nomination\_NHL.pdf \|title\=Benjamin Banneker: SW\-9 Intermediate Boundary Stone (milestone) of the District of Columbia \|work\=United States Department of the Interior: National Park Service: National Register of Historic Places Inventory––Nomination Form \|location\=Richmond, Virginia \|publisher\=\[\[Virginia Department of Historic Resources]] \|date\=1976\-02\-03 \|access\-date\=2016\-10\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001145447/http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Arlington/000\-0015\_%20Banneker\_SW\-9\_Intermediate\_Boundary\_Stone\_1976\_Final\_Nomination\_NHL.pdf \|archive\-date\=2016\-10\-01 }}
{{cite web \|url\=http://www.fallschurchdar.org/BoundryStones.htm \|title\=The Banneker Stone (SW \#9\) \|work\=The Boundary Stones Project \|publisher\=Falls Church Chapter of the \[\[Daughters of the American Revolution]] \|date\=2017\-10\-11 \|access\-date\=2017\-06\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011000139/http://www.fallschurchdar.org/BoundryStones.htm \|archive\-date\=2017\-10\-11 }}
### Playground
#### Banneker Playground, Brooklyn, New York
* + The Banneker Playground in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"), was originally built by the federal [Works Progress Administration](/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration "Works Progress Administration") in 1937\. In 1985, the [New York City parks department](/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Parks_and_Recreation "New York City Department of Parks and Recreation") renamed the {{convert\|1\.67\|acre\|ha}} playground to commemorate Benjamin Banneker. The playground contains [handball](/wiki/American_handball "American handball") and basketball courts, trees and a sculpture of a sitting [camel](/wiki/Camel "Camel"). The Benjamin Banneker Elementary School (P.S. 256\), built in 1956, is near the playground.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429134505/http://www.nycgovparks.org:80/parks/banneker\-playground/history\|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-29 \|url\=http://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/bannekerplayground/history \|title\=Banneker Playground \|publisher\=\[\[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]] \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-12}}
### Community Centers
#### Banneker Community Center, Catonsville, Maryland
The Banneker Community Center (Banneker Recreation Center) in [Catonsville, Maryland](/wiki/Catonsville%2C_Maryland "Catonsville, Maryland"), is located near the intersection of the [Baltimore National Pike](/wiki/U.S._Route_40_in_Maryland%23Route_description "U.S. Route 40 in Maryland#Route description") ([U.S. Route 40](/wiki/U.S._Route_40_in_Maryland "U.S. Route 40 in Maryland")) and the Baltimore Beltway ([Interstate 695](/wiki/Interstate_695_%28Maryland%29 "Interstate 695 (Maryland)")), about {{convert\|2\|mi\|km\|0}} northeast of the former site of Banneker's home and farm. A unit of the Baltimore County Department of Recreation and Parks, the facility contains ballfields, multipurpose courts and a playground.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309135349/http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/recreation/countyparks/cntyparkslist.html\#B\|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-09 \|url\=http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/recreation/countyparks/cntyparkslist.html\#B \|title\=County Park Listings \|work\=Department of Recreation and Parks \|location\=\[\[Towson, Maryland]] \|publisher\=\[\[Baltimore County, Maryland]] government \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-14}}Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Community Center, Catonsville, Maryland: {{coord\|39\.2804882\|\-76\.7403379\|type:landmark\|name\=Benjamin Banneker Community Center, Catonsville, Maryland\|format\=dms}}
##### Banneker Community Center, Washington, D.C.
[thumb\|right\|upright\=1\|{{center\|Banneker Community Center, Washington, D.C. (2011\)}}](/wiki/File:Banneker_Rec_Center_DC.jpg "Banneker Rec Center DC.jpg")
The Banneker Community Center in [northwest Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Northwest%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. "Northwest, Washington, D.C.") is located near Howard University in the city's [Columbia Heights](/wiki/Columbia_Heights%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. "Columbia Heights, Washington, D.C.") neighborhood. The center, which is a unit of the [District of Columbia Department of Parks and Recreation](/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Department_of_Parks_and_Recreation "District of Columbia Department of Parks and Recreation"), contains playing fields, [basketball](/wiki/Basketball_court "Basketball court") and [tennis courts](/wiki/Tennis_court "Tennis court"), a swimming pool (Banneker pool), a [computer lab](/wiki/Computer_lab "Computer lab") and other indoor and outdoor facilities.Multiple sources:
{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127053552/http://app.dpr.dc.gov/dprmap/details.asp?cid\=2 \|archive\-date\=2010\-11\-27 \|url\=http://app.dpr.dc.gov/dprmap/details.asp?cid\=2 \|title\=Banneker Community Center \|publisher\=\[\[District of Columbia Department of Parks and Recreation]] \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-11}}
{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127053552/http://app.dpr.dc.gov/dprmap/details.asp?cid\=2\|archive\-date\=2010\-11\-27 \|url\=http://app.dpr.dc.gov/dprmap/details.asp?cid\=4 \|title\=Banneker Pool \|publisher\=\[\[District of Columbia Department of Parks and Recreation]] \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-11 }}* + Constructed in 1934 and named for Benjamin Banneker, the center's building (formerly named the [Banneker Recreation Center](/wiki/Banneker_Recreation_Center "Banneker Recreation Center")) was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") in 1986 because of its role as a focal point in the development of the black community in Washington, D.C.{{cite web \|last1\=Friedlander \|first1\=Amy \|last2\=Bowers \|first2\=Martha: Louis Berger \& Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211193305/https://npgallery.nps.gov/pdfhost/docs/NRHP/Text/86000876\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-11 \|url\={{NRHP url \|id\=86000876}}\|title\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Nomination Form: Banneker Recreation Center\|publisher\=\[\[United States Department of the Interior]]: \[\[National Park Service]]\|date\=1984\-08\-31}}
##### Benjamin Banneker Community Center, Bloomington, Indiana
The Benjamin Banneker Community Center in [Bloomington, Indiana](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Indiana "Bloomington, Indiana"), contains a gymnasium, restrooms, a kitchen, a library and a family resource center.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615220419/https://bloomington.in.gov/parks/facilities/banneker\-community\-center\|archive\-date\=2017\-06\-15 \|url\=http://bloomington.in.gov/banneker \|title\=Banneker Community Center \|location\=\[\[Bloomington, Indiana]] \|publisher\=The City of Bloomington, Indiana \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-03}} Benjamin Banneker School was a [segregated](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States "Racial segregation in the United States") school for Bloomington's African American residents from 1915 to 1951\. When the school [desegregated](/wiki/Desegregation "Desegregation"), its name was changed to Fairview Annex. In 1955, the school's building became the Westside Community Center. In 1994, the Bloomington City Council changed the community center's name to commemorate the building's history as a segregated school and to re\-commemorate Benjamin Banneker.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103238/http://www.in.gov/history/markers/545\.htm \|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-25 \|url\= http://www.in.gov/history/markers/545\.htm \|title\=Benjamin Banneker School \|work\=Indiana Historical Markers \|publisher\=State of Indiana government \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-06}}{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229033806/http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/789\.html\|archive\-date\=2012\-12\-29 \|url\=http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/789\.html \|title\=Banneker History Project involves IU education students, city government, community residents \|work\=IU News Room \|location\=\[\[Bloomington, Indiana]] \|publisher\=\[\[Indiana University]] \|date\=2003\-02\-19 \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-11}} The City of Bloomington's Parks and Recreation Department operates the center.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120034/http://issuu.com/bloomingtonparks/docs/2011\_annual\_report \|archive\-date\=2014\-08\-26 \|url\=http://issuu.com/bloomingtonparks/docs/2011\_annual\_report \|title\=Banneker Community Center \|work\=Bloomington Parks and Recreation 2011 Annual Report \|date\=March 23, 2012 \|page\=11 \|location\=Bloomington, Indiana \|publisher\=City of Bloomington Parks and Recreation Department \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-11}}
### Museums
#### Banneker\-Douglass Museum, Annapolis, Maryland
The [Banneker\-Douglass Museum](/wiki/Banneker-Douglass_Museum "Banneker-Douglass Museum") in Annapolis, Maryland, memorializes Benjamin Banneker and [Frederick Douglass](/wiki/Frederick_Douglass "Frederick Douglass").{{cite web\|url\=http://bdmuseum.maryland.gov/history/\|title\=History\|work\=Banneker\-Douglass Museum\|publisher\=Government of Maryland\|access\-date\=November 22, 2020\|archive\-date\=March 14, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314193326/http://bdmuseum.maryland.gov/history/}}. The museum, which was dedicated on February 24, 1984, is the State of Maryland's official museum of African American heritage.{{cite web\|title\=Banneker\-Douglas Museum\|url\=http://bdmuseum.maryland.gov/\|publisher\=Government of Maryland\|access\-date\=November 22, 2020\|archive\-date\=November 22, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122172828/https://bdmuseum.maryland.gov/}}. It is housed within and adjacent to the former Mount Moriah [African Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church "African Methodist Episcopal Church"), which the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service") placed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") in 1973\.Multiple sources:
{{cite web \|url\={{MHT url \|id\=117}}\|date\=November 21, 2008\|title\= Mount Moriah African Methodist Episcopal Church\|work\=\[\[Maryland Historical Trust\|Maryland Historical Trust: Maryland's National Register Properties]]\|publisher\=Government of Maryland}} {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313195334/http://mht.maryland.gov/nr/NRDetail.aspx?NRID\=117\|date\=March 13, 2016}}.
{{cite web \|url\=http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/001000/001600/001635/pdf/msa\_se5\_1635\.pdf \|title\=National Park Service: National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Nomination Form: Mount Moriah African Methodist Episcopal Church \|last1\=Wright \|first1\=Russell \|last2\=AIP \|last3\=Jacobsen \|first3\=Phoebe (Historic Annapolis, Inc., Annapolis, MD) \|date\=1972\-10\-06 \|work\=Maryland State Archives \|publisher\=Government of Maryland \|access\-date\=March 13, 2016 \|archive\-date\=April 2, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402135957/http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/001000/001600/001635/pdf/msa\_se5\_1635\.pdf }}.
#### Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C.
* + [thumb\|right\|upright\=0\.8\|Statue of Benjamin Banneker in the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C. (2020\)](/wiki/File:Benjamin_Banneker_statue_at_the_National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture.jpg "Benjamin Banneker statue at the National Museum of African American History and Culture.jpg")
The [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution")'s [National Museum of African American History and Culture](/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture "National Museum of African American History and Culture"), which opened in Washington, D.C., during 2016, displays a statue of Benjamin Banneker within an exhibit entitled "The Founding of America".Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|first1\=Charlie\|last1\=Wright\|first2\=Maya (\[\[Capital News Service (Maryland)\|Capital News Service]])\|last2\=Pottiger\|url\=https://wtop.com/dc/2016/09/smithsonians\-new\-museum\-captures\-sweep\-african\-american\-experience/\|title\=Slavery and Freedom Galleries\|work\=Smithsonian's new museum captures sweep of the African\-American experience\|date\=2016\-09\-23\|publisher\=\[\[WTOP\-FM\|WTOP]]: Washington, DC News\|access\-date\=2017\-11\-05\|quote\=After walking through the dark hallways, visitors enter an open room, greeted by the Declaration of Independence and statues of notable founders. One statue depicts Benjamin Banneker, an African American born in Baltimore County who was called on to help design Washington, D.C.\|archive\-date\=December 14, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214185151/https://wtop.com/dc/2016/09/smithsonians\-new\-museum\-captures\-sweep\-african\-american\-experience/}}.
{{cite web\|first\=Donna M.\|last\=Owens\|url\=http://www.baltimoresun.com/entertainment/arts/bs\-lt\-smithsonian\-maryland\-contributions\-20161228\-story.html\|title\=Marylanders well represented in national African\-American museum\|work\=Baltimore Sun\|date\=2016\-12\-28\|access\-date\=2018\-06\-28\|archive\-date\=December 29, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229224534/http://www.baltimoresun.com/entertainment/arts/bs\-lt\-smithsonian\-maryland\-contributions\-20161228\-story.html}}.
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews\-g28970\-d10895065\-r423572634\-National\_Museum\_of\_African\_American\_History\_and\_Culture\-Washington\_DC\_District\_o.html\#photos;geo\=28970\&detail\=10895065\&ff\=220556582\&albumViewMode\=hero\&aggregationId\=101\&albumid\=101\&baseMediaId\=220556582\&thumbnailMinWidth\=50\&cnt\=30\&offset\=\-1\&filter\=7\&autoplay\=\|title\=NMAAHC statue of Benjamin Banneker, famous scientist, astronomer and author\|author\=Pam105\|date\=September 2016\|format\=photograph\|publisher\=\[\[Trip Advisor]]\|access\-date\=December 19, 2017}}
{{cite web\|author\=Toure88 (Washington, D.C.)\|url\=https://www.tripadvisor.com/LocationPhotoDirectLink\-g28970\-d10895065\-i233511419\-National\_Museum\_of\_African\_American\_History\_and\_Culture\-Washington\_DC\_Di.html\|title\=Photo: Benjamin Banneker\|format\=photograph\|date\=December 19, 2016\|work\="One of the Best": Review of National Museum of African American History and Culture\|publisher\=\[\[TripAdvisor]]\|access\-date\=September 12, 2017\|archive\-date\=September 12, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912190818/https://www.tripadvisor.com/LocationPhotoDirectLink\-g28970\-d10895065\-i233511419\-National\_Museum\_of\_African\_American\_History\_and\_Culture\-Washington\_DC\_Di.html}}
{{cite web\|author\=Nancy S.\|date\=February 2017\|url\=https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews\-g28970\-d10895065\-r423572634\-National\_Museum\_of\_African\_American\_History\_and\_Culture\-Washington\_DC\_District\_o.html\#photos;geo\=28970\&detail\=10895065\&ff\=242087202\&albumViewMode\=hero\&aggregationId\=101\&albumid\=101\&baseMediaId\=242087202\&thumbnailMinWidth\=50\&cnt\=30\&offset\=\-1\&filter\=7\&autoplay\=\|title\=Statue of Benjamin Banneker in National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C.\|format\=photograph\|publisher\=\[\[TripAdvisor]]\|access\-date\=December 19, 2017}}
### Planetarium
#### Banneker Planetarium, Catonsville, Maryland
* + - * + The Banneker [Planetarium](/wiki/Planetarium "Planetarium") in Catonsville, Maryland, is located about {{convert\|2\|mi\|km\|0}} southeast of the former site of Benjamin Banneker's home and farm. The planetarium is a component of the [Community College of Baltimore County](/wiki/Community_College_of_Baltimore_County "Community College of Baltimore County")'s Catonsville Campus. Operated by the college's School of Mathematics and Science, the planetarium offers shows and programs to the public.{{cite web \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529164445/http://www.ccbcmd.edu/catonsvilleplanetarium/\|archive\-date\=2012\-05\-29 \|url\=http://www.ccbcmd.edu/catonsvilleplanetarium/ \|title\=Banneker Planetarium \|work\=The Community College of Baltimore County: School of Mathematics and Science (Catonsville Campus) \|publisher\=\[\[Community College of Baltimore County\|The Community College of Baltimore County]] \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-12}}Coordinates of Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville, Maryland: {{coord\|39\.2534553\|\-76\.7355797\|type:landmark\|name\=Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville, Maryland\|format\=dms}}
|
[
"Recreational and cultural facilities\n------------------------------------",
"The names of a number of recreational and cultural facilities commemorate Banneker. These facilities include parks, playgrounds, community centers, museums and a planetarium.",
"### Parks",
"#### Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum, Baltimore County, Maryland",
"A park commemorating Benjamin Banneker is located in a stream valley woodland at the former site of Banneker's farm and residence in [Oella, Maryland](/wiki/Oella%2C_Maryland \"Oella, Maryland\"), between [Ellicott City](/wiki/Ellicott_City%2C_Maryland \"Ellicott City, Maryland\") and the City of Baltimore.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024090721/https://friendsofbenjaminbanneker.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-24 \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum \\|url\\=https://friendsofbenjaminbanneker.com/ \\|location\\=\\[\\[Catonsville, Maryland]] \\|publisher\\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-15}}\n {{cite web \\|last\\=Clark \\|first\\=James W., Maryland Commission on Afro\\-American and Indian History and Culture, Annapolis, Maryland \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818203231/http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/004000/004300/004382/pdf/msa\\_se5\\_4382\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-18 \\|url\\=http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/004000/004300/004382/pdf/msa\\_se5\\_4382\\.pdf \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Homesite \\|work\\=Maryland State Historical Trust: Inventory Form for State Historic Sites Survey \\|date\\=1976\\-06\\-14 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Maryland State Archives]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[Annapolis, Maryland]] \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-11\\-15 }}\n {{cite web\\|url\\=https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;\\_ylt\\=AwrCmmBpFu5bEjwANnUPxQt.;\\_ylu\\=X3oDMTByMjB0aG5zBGNvbG8DYmYxBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw\\-\\-?p\\=Benjamin\\+Banneker\\+Historical\\+Park\\+and\\+Museum\\&fr\\=yhs\\-Lkry\\-SF01\\&hspart\\=Lkry\\&hsimp\\=yhs\\-SF01\\|title\\=Images of Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum\\|via\\=\\[\\[Yahoo]]\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=November 16, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116010833/https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;\\_ylt\\=AwrCmmBpFu5bEjwANnUPxQt.;\\_ylu\\=X3oDMTByMjB0aG5zBGNvbG8DYmYxBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw\\-\\-?p\\=Benjamin\\+Banneker\\+Historical\\+Park\\+and\\+Museum\\&fr\\=yhs\\-Lkry\\-SF01\\&hspart\\=Lkry\\&hsimp\\=yhs\\-SF01\\&guccounter\\=2\\#id\\=223\\&iurl\\=http%3A%2F%2Fcatonsville.exploremd.us%2Foella%2Fbenjamin\\_banneker\\_historical\\_park%2Fgallery%2Fimages%2FIMG\\_5292\\_JPG.jpg\\&action\\=click}}* + - Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Historical Park, Baltimore County, Maryland: {{coord\\|39\\.268506\\|\\-76\\.776543\\|type:landmark\\|name\\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park, Baltimore County, Maryland\\|format\\=dms}} The Baltimore County Department of Recreation and Parks manages the $2\\.5 million facility, which was dedicated on June 9, 1998\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/1998/06/10/benjamin\\-banneker\\-park\\-and\\-museum\\-dedicated\\-in\\-oella/ \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker park and museum dedicated in Oella \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=1998\\-06\\-10 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040550/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998\\-06\\-10/news/1998161096\\_1\\_benjamin\\-banneker\\-oella\\-museum\\-dedicated \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-29}}",
"The park, which encompasses {{convert\\|138\\|acre\\|ha}} and contains [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\") sites and extensive nature trails, is the largest original African American historical site in the United States.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web\\|author\\-link\\=Elijah Cummings \\|url\\=http://lcweb2\\.loc.gov/cocoon/legacies/MD/200003116\\.html \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park \\& Museum \\|last\\=Cummings \\|first\\=Elijah E., Representative (7th District) \\|work\\=Local Legacies \\|publisher\\=Library of Congress \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907105117/http://lcweb2\\.loc.gov/cocoon/legacies/MD/200003116\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-07}}\n {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/recreation/programdivision/naturearea/banneker/index.html \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum \\|work\\=Parks and Facilities \\|publisher\\=Government of Baltimore County, Maryland \\|location\\=\\[\\[Towson, Maryland]]\\|date\\=2012\\-09\\-25 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103140625/http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/recreation/programdivision/naturearea/banneker/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-03}}\n {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.museumsusa.org/museums/info/1167091 \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park \\& Museum, Inc., Baltimore, Maryland: location, hours, facilities information \\|publisher\\=MuseumsUSA \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820082839/http://www.museumsusa.org/museums/info/1167091 \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-20 }}\n {{cite web \\|title\\=Banneker Historical Park \\& Museum \\|url\\=http://catonsville.exploremd.us/oella/benjamin\\_banneker\\_historical\\_park/\\|work\\=Explore Catonsville, MD, part of the ExploreMD.us network\\|publisher\\=Ellicott City Graphic Arts Network \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-30\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430204855/http://catonsville.exploremd.us/oella/benjamin\\_banneker\\_historical\\_park/\\|archive\\-date\\=April 30, 2019}}\n Images of exhibits in Benjamin Banneker Museum in Oella, Maryland: {{cite web\\|url\\=http://catonsville.exploremd.us/oella/benjamin\\_banneker\\_historical\\_park/gallery/index.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419182727/http://catonsville.exploremd.us/oella/benjamin\\_banneker\\_historical\\_park/gallery/index.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=April 19, 2016\\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker's Gallery\\|work\\=Explore Catonsville, MD, part of the ExploreMD.us network: Benjamin Banneker's Historical Park \\& Museum Gallery\\|publisher\\=Ellicott City Graphic Arts Network\\|format\\=photograph\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-30}}\n {{cite news \\|last\\=Balakrishnan \\|first\\=Aparna \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040552/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2004\\-09\\-26/news/0409160041\\_1\\_benjamin\\-banneker\\-museum\\-exhibits \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-29 \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/2004/09/26/park\\-museum\\-a\\-tribute\\-to\\-benjamin\\-banneker/ \\|title\\=Park, museum a tribute to Benjamin Banneker \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|date\\=2004\\-09\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-01}}* + - * + - The primary focus of the park is a museum highlighting Banneker's contributions.Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Museum, Baltimore County, Maryland: {{coord\\|39\\.268927\\|\\-76\\.775018\\|type:landmark\\|name\\=Benjamin Banneker Museum, Baltimore County, Maryland\\|format\\=dms}} The museum contains a visitors center that features a collection of Banneker's works and [artifacts](/wiki/Cultural_artifact \"Cultural artifact\"), a community gallery, a gift shop and a patio garden.Multiple sources:\n\t\t\t\t\t {{cite news\\|last\\=Levine\\|first\\=Susan\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/01/04/a\\-banneker\\-plan/2c5d4441\\-4058\\-4164\\-b620\\-bd43c7fa4ea7/\\|title\\=A Banneker Plan\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|publisher\\=Washington Post Company, Washington, D.C.\\|date\\=1997\\-01\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-19\\|quote\\=More than 190 years after his death, some prized possessions of renowned black scientist Benjamin Banneker soon will be coming home. The collection, which Banneker historians, relatives and admirers once feared would be dispersed forever when it was auctioned in Sep 1996, will be sent to two Maryland museums that bear his name.}}\n\t\t\t\t\t {{cite web \\|last\\=Whittle \\|first\\=Syd \\|url\\=http://www.hmdb.org/Marker.asp?Marker\\=5407 \\|title\\=Images of Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum in Oella, Maryland (photographed 2012\\-05\\-15\\) \\|work\\=\"Benjamin Banneker\" marker \\|publisher\\=HMdb: \\[\\[Historical Marker Database\\|The Historical Marker Database]]\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919101846/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=5407 \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-19 }}\n\t\t\t\t\t {{cite web \\|last\\=Scible \\|first\\=Kelly \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200658/http://www.carrollcountytimes.com/publications/community\\_times/cct\\-embracing\\-history\\-at\\-the\\-benjamin\\-banneker\\-historical\\-park\\-and\\-museum\\-20141118\\-column.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-23 \\|url\\=http://www.carrollcountytimes.com/publications/community\\_times/cct\\-embracing\\-history\\-at\\-the\\-benjamin\\-banneker\\-historical\\-park\\-and\\-museum\\-20141118\\-column.html \\|title\\=Embracing history at the Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Carroll County Times]] \\|location\\=\\[\\[Westminster, Maryland]] \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-18}}\n\t\t\t\t\t {{cite web \\|first\\=Dianne \\|last\\=Burch \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719160002/http://patch.com/maryland/catonsville/picture\\-this\\-vintage\\-poster\\-promotes\\-a\\-nearby\\-national\\-treasure \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-19 \\|url\\=http://patch.com/maryland/catonsville/picture\\-this\\-vintage\\-poster\\-promotes\\-a\\-nearby\\-national\\-treasure \\|title\\=Picture This: Vintage Poster Promotes a Nearby National Treasure: America's first African\\-American man of science made his home in Oella \\|date\\=2012\\-06\\-05 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Catonsville, Maryland]] \\|publisher\\=Catonsville Patch \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-19 \\|quote\\=In 1998, the Benjamin Banneker Museum opened. It contains a wealth of information about the man and his accomplishments, as well as changing exhibitions. The gallery includes a copy of the deed showing that the 100\\-acre site was purchased with 7,000 pounds of tobacco.}}",
"* + - * The park contains an 1850s stone farmhouse, now named the \"Molly Banneky House\". The three\\-story house was restored as an office complex in 2004\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bannekerfoundation.com/single\\-post/2016/04/09/New\\-Signs\\-Coming\\-Soon \\|title\\=New Signs Coming Soon \\|date\\=2016\\-04\\-09 \\|location\\=\\[\\[Fulton, Maryland]] \\|publisher\\=Benjamin Banneker Foundation \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-17 \\|quote\\=Have you ever seen the Molly Bannaky house and wondered how old it is and who lived there? .... Constructed in the 1850s, the Bannaky house is the most prominent feature on the Park and Museum property and is symbol of the Oella's enduring history. Beginning as just a one room house, the Bannaky house steadily grew with time as several families called it home. Upon learning about the legacy of Benjamin Banneker and his property, Baltimore County purchased the house and 42\\.5 acres the surrounding property to establish the Benjamin Banneker Historical Park. The house was later restored in 2004 as an office complex. It is listed on the \\[\\[Maryland Historical Trust]] Inventory of Historic Properties. \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218064904/https://www.bannekerfoundation.com/single\\-post/2016/04/09/New\\-Signs\\-Coming\\-Soon \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-18 }}Coordinates of Molly Banneky House: {{coord\\| 39\\.270297\\|\\-76\\.776638\\|type:landmark\\|name\\=Molly Banneky House in Benjamin Banneker Historical Park\\|format\\=dms}}",
"On November 12, 2009, officials opened a {{convert\\|224\\|ft2\\|m2}} replica of Banneker's [log cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin \"Log cabin\") on the park grounds, reportedly two days before the 278th anniversary of Banneker's birth.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920183116/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2009\\-11\\-13/news/bal\\-md.co.banneker13nov13\\_1\\_gwen\\-marable\\-western\\-baltimore\\-county\\-farm\\-banneker\\-descendant \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-20 \\|url\\=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/baltimore\\-county/bal\\-md.co.banneker13nov13,0,1869776\\.story \\|title\\=Small cabin offers big insight into trailblazing Banneker: Structure is replica of original built by black scientist in Md \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-16 \\|author\\=Hare, Mary Gail \\|date\\=2009\\-11\\-13 \\|work\\=The Baltimore Sun \\|quote\\=Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum now boasts a replica of the one\\-room log cabin that the African\\-American scientist built and lived in on his western Baltimore County farm. Officials formally opened the 224\\-square\\-foot cabin Thursday on the park grounds in Catonsville, two days before the 278th anniversary of Banneker's birth. ... The county legislative delegation secured a $400,000 state bond for the design and construction of the cabin.}}{{cite web \\|first\\=Syd \\|last\\=Whittle \\|date\\=2012\\-05\\-15 \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Cabin \\|format\\=photograph \\|url\\=http://www.hmdb.org/Photos2/203/Photo203981o.jpg \\|work\\=Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806\\) marker \\|publisher\\=HMdb: \\[\\[Historical Marker Database\\|The Historical Marker Database]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218065622/http://www.hmdb.org/Photos2/203/Photo203981o.jpg \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-18 }}Coordinates of replica of Benjamin Banneker's log cabin: {{coord\\|39\\.268505\\|\\-76\\.775552\\|type:landmark\\|name\\=Replica of Benjamin Banneker's log cabin in Benjamin Banneker Historical Park\\|format\\=dms}} Baltimore County's delegation to the [Maryland General Assembly](/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly \"Maryland General Assembly\") secured a $400,000 state bond for the design and construction of the cabin.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402083450/https://dbm.maryland.gov/budget/Documents/capbudget/WhiteBook/whitebook1999\\_2010\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2020\\|url\\=https://dbm.maryland.gov/budget/Documents/capbudget/WhiteBook/whitebook1999\\_2010\\.pdf \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Historic Park \\|page\\=253 \\|work\\=Capital Improvements Authorized by the General Assembly: 1999 through 2010 \\|publisher\\=Department of Budget and Management, State of Maryland \\|date\\=July 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-16}} The original estimated cost to construct the cabin in accordance with its drawings and specifications was $240,700\\.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203192642/http://www.cmdgroup.com/building\\-types/park\\-buildings/maryland/projects/1000935371/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-03 \\|url\\=http://www.reedconstructiondata.com/building\\-types/park\\-buildings/maryland/projects/1000935371/ \\|year\\=2012 \\|title\\=Banneker Log Cabin: Park Building Project Case Study in Maryland \\|publisher\\=Reed Construction Data, Inc. \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-20}}",
"A historical marker that the Maryland Historical Society erected to commemorate Banneker stands on the grounds of the park.{{cite web \\|author\\=Maryland Historical Society \\|url\\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=5407 \\|title\\=\"Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806\\)\" marker \\|publisher\\=HMmdb.org: \\[\\[Historical Marker Database\\|The Historical Marker Database]] \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019092107/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=5407 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-19}} The marker replaced the last of three earlier markers that [vandals](/wiki/Vandal \"Vandal\") had previously destroyed, the first of which the [Maryland State Roads Commission](/wiki/Maryland_State_Highway_Administration \"Maryland State Highway Administration\") had installed nearby in 1954 on the grounds of the Westchester Grade School (now the Westchester Community Center).Multiple sources:\n Bedini, 1971, pp. [301](https://archive.org/details/lifeofbenjaminba00silv/page/301), [342](https://archive.org/details/lifeofbenjaminba00silv/page/342)\n {{cite news \\|date\\=1981\\-11\\-09 \\|title\\=\\[\\[The Baltimore Sun\\#Editions\\|Baltimore Evening Sun]] \\|place\\=Baltimore, Maryland}} Cited in {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=5407 \\|title\\=\"Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806\\)\" marker\\|publisher\\=HMdb.org: \\[\\[Historical Marker Database\\|The Historical Marker Database]]\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-21\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019092107/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=5407 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-19}}\n {{cite web\\|author\\=Maryland Historical Society \\|url\\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=5407\\|title\\=\"Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806\\)\" marker \\|publisher\\=HMdb: \\[\\[Historical Marker Database\\|The Historical Marker Database]]\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-21\\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019092107/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=5407 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-19\\|quote\\=This marker has had a difficult history, due, it seems, to vandals, perhaps motivated by racism. A marker was erected by the State Roads Commission on the west side of Westchester Avenue, one block south of Oella Avenue, in 1954\\. ... According to the Baltimore Evening Sun, November 9, 1981, \"Within a short time this first marker was destroyed by vandals. It was replaced in 1968, but a year later the second marker was destroyed. A third marker was erected in 1969, but that marker was also destroyed.}}\n {{cite web\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830041105/https://oella.org/about\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-30\\|url\\=https://oella.org/about/\\|title\\=History of the Westchester Community Center\\|work\\=About the Westchester Community Center\\|publisher\\=Westchester Community Center\\|via\\=Engine X Design\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-30\\|quote\\=The building now known as the Westchester Community Center was originally constructed by Baltimore County in 1924 as the Westchester Consolidated School, so named because it replaced several one\\-room schools. It later operated as the Westchester Elementary School and then as the Westchester Annex, when a new elementary school (the second Westchester Elementary School, now Catonsville Middle School) was constructed in the area. It was last used as a school in 1977\\.}}* + - * Coordinates of Westchester Community Center, Baltimore County, Maryland: {{coord\\|39\\.273620\\|\\-76\\.780550\\|type:landmark\\|name\\=Westchester Community Center, Baltimore County, Maryland\\|format\\=dms}}",
"##### Gallery of Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum",
"",
"",
"File:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\\-09 PM edit (33082346766\\).jpg\\|{{center\\|Benjamin Banneker Museum (2017\\)}}\nFile:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\\-47 PM edit (33003870211\\).jpg\\|{{center\\|Replica of Banneker's log cabin (2017\\)}}\nFile:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 2\\-58 PM edit (32979270002\\).jpg\\|{{center\\|Molly Banneky House (2017\\)}}\nFile:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 2\\-57 PM edit (32320563023\\).jpg\\|{{center\\|Stone Farmhouse historical marker (2017\\)}}\nFile:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\\-06 PM edit (33112774375\\).jpg\\|{{center\\|Benjamin Banneker historical marker (2017\\)}}\nFile:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\\-034 edit (32280933004\\).jpg\\|{{center\\|Museum interior (2017\\)}}\nFile:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\\-030 edit (33124595965\\).jpg\\|{{center\\|Title page of a Baltimore edition of Banneker's 1793 almanac (2017\\)}}\nFile:Benjamin Banneker Historical Park and Museum Feb 18, 2017, 1\\-29 PM edit (32742005280\\).jpg\\|{{center\\|Pages from Banneker's almanac (2017\\)}}",
"#### Benjamin Banneker Park and Memorial, Washington, D.C.",
"[thumb\\|The plaza and fountain in Benjamin Banneker Park in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") in 2011](/wiki/File:Benjamin_Banneker_Park_-_Washington_DC_-_Sarah_Stierch.jpg \"Benjamin Banneker Park - Washington DC - Sarah Stierch.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|The [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\") looking north at Benjamin Banneker Park and Overlook with [L'Enfant Plaza](/wiki/L%27Enfant_Plaza \"L'Enfant Plaza\") and the [James V. Forrestal Building](/wiki/James_V._Forrestal_Building \"James V. Forrestal Building\"), the [Smithsonian Institution Building](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution_Building \"Smithsonian Institution Building\") and the [National Mall](/wiki/National_Mall \"National Mall\") in the background in 1990](/wiki/File:Looking_north_at_LEnfant_Plaza_-_Washington_DC.jpg \"Looking north at LEnfant Plaza - Washington DC.jpg\")\nA {{convert\\|4\\.7\\|acre\\|ha}} [urban park](/wiki/Urban_park \"Urban park\") memorializing Benjamin Banneker is located in [southwest Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Southwest%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Southwest, Washington, D.C.\"), one half mile (800 m) south of the [Smithsonian Institution's \"Castle\"](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution_Building \"Smithsonian Institution Building\") on the [National Mall](/wiki/National_Mall \"National Mall\"). The park features a prominent overlook at the south end of [L'Enfant Promenade](/wiki/L%27Enfant_Plaza \"L'Enfant Plaza\") and Tenth Street [SW](/wiki/Southwest%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Southwest, Washington, D.C.\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://comp.ddot.dc.gov/Documents/L%27Enfant%20Promenade%20and%20Benjamin%20Banneker%20Park%20Environmental%20Assessment.pdf\\|chapter\\=Development of L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\\|title\\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\\|date\\=March 2006\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[District Department of Transportation]], Government of the District of Columbia (DC.gov) and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, \\[\\[Federal Highway Administration]], \\[\\[United States Department of Transportation]]\\|pages\\=1–5, 1–6, 1–7\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-16\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116232714/https://comp.ddot.dc.gov/Documents/L%27Enfant%20Promenade%20and%20Benjamin%20Banneker%20Park%20Environmental%20Assessment.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-16}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://tclf.org/sites/default/files/microsites/kiley\\-legacy/BannekerPark.html\\|title\\=Banneker Park\\|work\\=The Landscape Architecture Legacy of Dan Kiley\\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=The Cultural Landscape Foundation\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318085112/http://tclf.org/sites/default/files/microsites/kiley\\-legacy/BannekerPark.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-03\\-18}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\\_Environmental\\_Assessment\\_Apr2016\\.pdf\\|title\\=Banneker Park\\|work\\=Environmental Assessment: Benjamin Banneker Park Connection\\|date\\=March 2016\\|pages\\=3–4\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Park Service]]: \\[\\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-16\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116225359/https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\\_Environmental\\_Assessment\\_Apr2016\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-16}}Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Park, Washington, D.C.: {{coord\\|38\\.8817128\\|\\-77\\.0259833\\|type:landmark\\|name\\=Benjamin Banneker Park, Washington, D.C.\\|format\\=dms}}",
"A traffic circle, named [Banneker Circle SW](/wiki/Banneker_Circle \"Banneker Circle\"), surrounds the overlook. A grassy slope descends steeply from the traffic circle to the [Southwest Freeway (Interstate 395\\)](/wiki/Interstate_395_%28Virginia-District_of_Columbia%29 \"Interstate 395 (Virginia-District of Columbia)\"), Ninth Street SW and [Maine Avenue](/wiki/Maine_Avenue_%28Washington%2C_D.C.%29 \"Maine Avenue (Washington, D.C.)\") SW.",
"The National Park Service (NPS) operates the park as part of its [National Mall and Memorial Parks](/wiki/National_Mall_and_Memorial_Parks \"National Mall and Memorial Parks\") administrative unit.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\\_Environmental\\_Assessment\\_Apr2016\\.pdf\\|title\\=Environmental Assessment: Benjamin Banneker Park Connection\\|date\\=March 2016\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Park Service]]\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|work\\=\\[\\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-16\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116225359/https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\\_Environmental\\_Assessment\\_Apr2016\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-16}} The NPS erected a historical marker near the park's entrance in 1997\\.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web\\|last\\=Miller\\|first\\=Richard E.\\|editor\\=Kevin W.\\|work\\=\\[\\[National Park Service]], \\[\\[United States Department of the Interior]]\\|url\\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=20384\\|title\\=\"Benjamin Banneker Park\" marker\\|publisher\\=HMdb.org: \\[\\[Historical Marker Database\\|The Historical Marker Database]]\\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-30\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=October 20, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020034828/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=20384}}\n {{cite web\\|first\\=Richard E.\\|last\\=Miller\\|url\\=https://www.hmdb.org/Photos/68/Photo68879o.jpg\\|title\\=\"Benjamin Banneker Park\" marker\\|format\\=photograph\\|publisher\\=HMdb.org: \\[\\[Historical Marker Database\\|The Historical Marker Database]]\\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-27\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715202724/https://www.hmdb.org/Photos/68/Photo68879o.jpg}}\n {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\\_Document.pdf\\|title\\=Land Use\\|work\\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\\|date\\=June 2006\\|publisher\\=Department of Transportation, Government of the District of Columbia and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway Administration\\|page\\=4\\-3\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916081655/http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\\_Document.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-16}}* + - {{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916081655/http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\\_Document.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-16 \\|url\\=http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\\_Document.pdf\\|title\\=Existing L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park \\|work\\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park \\|date\\=June 2006 \\|publisher\\=Department of Transportation, Government of the District of Columbia and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway Administration \\|pages\\=1–3 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-18}} The park is now at stop number 8 on Washington's Southwest Heritage Trail.Multiple sources:\n\t\t {{cite web \\|first1\\=Jane Freundel \\|last1\\=Levey \\|first2\\=Richard T. \\|last2\\=Busch \\|first3\\=J. Brendan \\|last3\\=Meyer \\|first4\\=Lisa \\|last4\\=Bentley \\|first5\\=Anne W \\|last5\\=Rollins \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220070300/http://www.culturaltourismdc.org/portal/c/document\\_library/get\\_file?uuid\\=700fde5d\\-3534\\-4ade\\-b902\\-3b8ecd95a137\\&groupId\\=701982 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-20 \\|url\\=http://www.culturaltourismdc.org/portal/c/document\\_library/get\\_file?uuid\\=700fde5d\\-3534\\-4ade\\-b902\\-3b8ecd95a137\\&groupId\\=701982 \\|title\\=Marker 8: Banneker Circle: Vista to the Past\\|work\\=River Farms to Urban Towers: Southwest Heritage Trail (pamphlet)\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cultural Tourism DC]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-27 }}\n\t\t {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=25171\\|title\\=\"Banneker Circle: Vista to the Past: River Farms to Urban Towers — Southwest Heritage Trail —\" marker\\|publisher\\=HMdb.org: \\[\\[Historical Marker Database\\|The Historical Marker Database]]\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021185707/http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=25171 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-21}}",
"* + In 1967, [landscape architect](/wiki/Landscape_architecture \"Landscape architecture\") [Daniel Urban Kiley](/wiki/Dan_Kiley \"Dan Kiley\") completed the design of the \"Tenth Street Overlook\".{{cite web \\|url\\=https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Park (10th Street Overlook)\\|work\\=Cultural Landscapes Inventory\\|pages\\=8, 29–36 \\|year\\=2013\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]], \\[\\[National Park Service]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-05\\-04}} After the District of Columbia Redevelopment Land Agency completed construction of the Overlook in 1969, the Agency transferred the Overlook to the NPS in 1970\\.",
"The [elliptical](/wiki/Ellipse \"Ellipse\") {{convert\\|200\\|ft\\|m\\|0}} wide overlook provides elevated views of the nearby [Southwest Waterfront](/wiki/Southwest_Waterfront \"Southwest Waterfront\"), [Washington Channel](/wiki/Washington_Channel \"Washington Channel\"), [East Potomac Park](/wiki/East_Potomac_Park \"East Potomac Park\"), [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River \"Potomac River\") and more distant areas. The centerpiece of the overlook's [modernist](/wiki/Modernism \"Modernism\") [plaza](/wiki/Plaza \"Plaza\") is a large conical fountain that projects water more than 30 feet in the air and catches it in a circular basin made from [honed](/wiki/Honing_%28metalworking%29 \"Honing (metalworking)\") green [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\").{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619080145/http://tclf.org/landscapes/banneker\\-benjamin\\-park \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-19 \\|url\\=http://tclf.org/landscapes/banneker\\-benjamin\\-park \\|title\\=Banneker Park \\- Tenth Street Overlook \\|work\\=What's Out There \\|publisher\\=The Cultural Landscape Foundation \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-24}}",
"The rings of the fountain and basin in the center of the site are reiterated in the benches, double rows of [London plane](/wiki/Platanus_%C3%97_hispanica \"Platanus × hispanica\") trees, and low concrete walls that establish the plaza's edge. The ground plane is paved with granite squares, a continuation of L'Enfant Promenade's materials. The ground plane is [concave](/wiki/wikt:Concave \"Concave\"), and with the trees and fountain helps define the spatial volume of the plaza.",
"In 1970, the [District of Columbia City Council](/wiki/District_of_Columbia_home_rule%23History_of_self-government \"District of Columbia home rule#History of self-government\") passed a resolution that petitioned the NPS to rename the Overlook as Banneker Park, arguing that the council had already renamed the adjacent highway circle as Banneker Circle, S.W. The NPS thereupon hosted a dedication ceremony in 1971 that renamed the Overlook as \"Benjamin Banneker Park\".[Bedini, 1999, p. 318\\.](https://archive.org/details/lifeofbenjaminba00bedi/page/318) \"In the two centuries since Banneker's death, his achievements have been forgotten or misrepresented ..... In November 1971, on the anniversary of Banneker's birthday, the secretary of the interior authorized the 10th Street Overlook outside L'Enfant Plaza in Washington to be renamed and dedicated by the mayor as Benjamin Banneker Park. Once again, the reasons presented by the speakers on the occasion and widely reported by the press had been all based on erroneous information: Banneker was hailed for his contribution after L'Enfant was dismissed and Banneker \"saved the plan by reconstructing it from memory\".\"",
"Following completion of a restoration project, the park was ceremoniously rededicated in 1997 to again commemorate Banneker;Multiple sources:\n {{cite news\\|url\\=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/22664986\\.html\\|title\\=Rededication Today of Banneker Park\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|date\\=November 14, 1997\\|page\\=B.3\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-14}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}\n {{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/11/15/after\\-reversal\\-of\\-decline\\-banneker\\-park\\-rededicated/a1195f2a\\-2495\\-4ade\\-ae3b\\-80c9464fb51c/\\|title\\=After Reversal of Decline, Banneker Park Rededicated\\|first\\=Patrice\\|last\\=Gaines\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|date\\=1997\\-11\\-15\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118194142/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/11/15/after\\-reversal\\-of\\-decline\\-banneker\\-park\\-rededicated/a1195f2a\\-2495\\-4ade\\-ae3b\\-80c9464fb51c/\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-18}}* + the area has no specific connection to Banneker himself.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/files/projects/2016/7551\\_Environmental\\_Assessment\\_Apr2016\\.pdf \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Park \\|work\\=Environmental Assessment: Benjamin Banneker Park Connection \\|date\\=March 2016 \\|page\\=29 \\|location\\=Washington, D.C. \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Park Service]]: \\[\\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]] \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-28 \\|quote\\=The Tenth Street Overlook was renamed Benjamin Banneker Park in 1971 by the NPS, though the area has no specific connection to Banneker himself, ...}}",
"In 1998, the [105th United States Congress](/wiki/105th_United_States_Congress \"105th United States Congress\") enacted legislation that authorized the Washington Interdependence Council of the District of Columbia to establish at the council's expense a memorial on federal land in the District that would commemorate Banneker's accomplishments.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\\_Document.pdf\\|chapter\\=Section 1\\.3\\.3\\.: Benjamin Banneker Memorial\\|title\\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\\|date\\=March 2006\\|publisher\\=Department of Transportation, Government of the District of Columbia and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, Federal Highway Administration\\|pages\\=1–6 to 1–7\\|access\\-date\\=May 5, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916081655/http://www.efl.fhwa.dot.gov/files/projects/environment/LEnfantPublicEA\\_Document.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=September 16, 2008\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}[Public Law 101\\-355 (November 6, 1998\\)](http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ355.105.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050226221222/http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi\\-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname\\=105\\_cong\\_public\\_laws\\&docid\\=f%3Apubl355\\.105\\.pdf \\|date\\=February 26, 2005 }} states in Title V, Section 512 (112 Stat. 3266\\): \"SEC. 512\\. MEMORIAL TO MR. BENJAMIN BANNEKER IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. (a) MEMORIAL AUTHORIZED.—The Washington Interdependence Council of the District of Columbia is authorized to establish a memorial in the District of Columbia to honor and commemorate the accomplishments of Mr. Benjamin Banneker. (b) COMPLIANCE WITH STANDARDS FOR COMMEMORATIVE WORKS.—The establishment of the memorial shall be in accordance with the Commemorative Works Act (40 U.S.C. 1001 et seq.). (c) PAYMENT OF EXPENSES.—The Washington Interdependence Council shall be solely responsible for acceptance of contributions for, and payment of the expenses of, the establishment of the memorial. No Federal funds may be used to pay any expense of the establishment of the memorial. ...\". Retrieved 2010\\-01\\-21\\. The Council plans to erect this memorial in or near the park.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bannekermemorial.org/memorial.htm\\|title\\=The Memorial \\|location\\=Washington, D.C. \\|publisher\\=Washington Interdependence Council: Administrators of the Benjamin Banneker Memorial and Banneker Institute of Math \\& Science \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206054405/http://www.bannekermemorial.org/memorial.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-06 }} In 2006, the Council held a [charrette](/wiki/Charrette \"Charrette\") to select the artist that would design the memorial.[Comcast](/wiki/Comcast \"Comcast\") News Makers video: {{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705135402/http://bannekermemorial.org/videohigh.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-07\\-05 \\|url\\=http://www.bannekermemorial.org/videohigh.htm \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Charrette \\|date\\=2006\\-11\\-08 \\|location\\=Washington, D.C. \\|publisher\\=Washington Interdependence Council: Administrators of the Benjamin Banneker Memorial and Banneker Institute of Math \\& Science \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-08\\-06}}",
"Construction of the memorial was expected to begin after the [United States Commission of Fine Arts](/wiki/United_States_Commission_of_Fine_Arts \"United States Commission of Fine Arts\") and the [National Capital Planning Commission](/wiki/National_Capital_Planning_Commission \"National Capital Planning Commission\") (NCPC) approved the memorial's design and location in accordance with the legislation that authorized the establishment of the memorial and with the [United States Code](/wiki/United_States_Code \"United States Code\") (40 U.S.C. § 8905\\).{{USC\\|40\\|8905}} However, the proposed memorial had by 1999 become a $17 million project that would contain a visitors' center near the \"Castle\" at the north end of the Promenade, a clock atop a tall pedestal at the midpoint of the Promenade, a statue of Banneker in the park's circle at the south end of the Promenade and a [skyway](/wiki/Skyway \"Skyway\") over Interstate 395 that would connect the park to the waterfront.{{cite news \\|last\\=Williams \\|first\\=Clarence \\|url\\=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\\-56765868\\.html\\|title\\=Banneker Memorial Struggles for Funds: Lots of Support except for Money\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Washington Times]]\\|date\\=1999\\-07\\-18\\|via\\=\\[\\[Highbeam Research]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229135517/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1\\-56765868\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-29}}{{cite news\\|last\\=Wheeler\\|first\\=Linda\\|url\\=https://www.proquest.com/docview/408486400 \\|title\\=Banneker Statue Location Rejected; U.S. Panel Favors Nearby Memorial Site\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|date\\=1999\\-07\\-29\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-27\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224105954/https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/doc/408486400\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-24\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|408486400}} }} After considering the proposal, the National Capital Memorial Commission rejected the placement of the statue in the park and decided to consult with the District of Columbia government about placing a Banneker memorial at the midpoint of the Promenade.{{cite web\\|last\\=DePillis\\|first\\=Lydia\\|url\\=http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/blogs/housingcomplex/2010/10/28/lenfants\\-limbo\\-d\\-c\\-s\\-biggest\\-urban\\-planning\\-disaster\\-has\\-dragged\\-a\\-memorial\\-down\\-with\\-it/\\|title\\=L'Enfant's Limbo: D.C.'s biggest urban planning disaster has dragged a memorial down with it\\|work\\=\\[\\[Washington City Paper]]\\|date\\=2010\\-10\\-28\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607181016/http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/news/housing\\-complex/blog/13121289/lenfants\\-limbo\\-d\\-c\\-s\\-biggest\\-urban\\-planning\\-disaster\\-has\\-dragged\\-a\\-memorial\\-down\\-with\\-it\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-07}}",
"The legislative authority relative to locating the Memorial on federal land lapsed in 2005\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43744\\.pdf\\|title\\=Monuments and Memorials Authorized Under the Commemorative Works Act in the District of Columbia: Current Development of In\\-Progress and Lapsed Works\\|date\\=May 23, 2019\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Congressional Research Service]]\\|page\\=24\\|id\\=R43744\\|access\\-date\\=January 4, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=July 13, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713215304/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43744\\.pdf}}. This did not preclude the location of the memorial on lands such as the road right\\-of\\-way in the Promenade that are under the jurisdiction of the District of Columbia's government.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/john\\-kerry\\-gets\\-dissed\\-on\\-scholars\\-list/2015/02/05/d38f8f00\\-ad7e\\-11e4\\-ad71\\-7b9eba0f87d6\\_story.html\\|title\\=John Kerry gets dissed on scholars' list\\|first1\\=Al\\|last1\\=Kamen\\|first2\\=Colby\\|last2\\=Itkowitz\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]\\|date\\=February 5, 2015}}",
"During the 2000s, various organizations proposed to develop at the site of Benjamin Banneker Park a number of large facilities including a baseball stadium (later constructed elsewhere in D.C. as [Nationals Park](/wiki/Nationals_Park \"Nationals Park\")), the National Museum of African American History and Culture, a [National Children's Museum](/wiki/National_Children%27s_Museum \"National Children's Museum\") and a [National Museum of the American Latino](/wiki/Commission_to_Study_the_Potential_Creation_of_the_National_Museum_of_the_American_Latino \"Commission to Study the Potential Creation of the National Museum of the American Latino\"). In 2004, the D.C. Preservation League listed the Park as one of the most endangered places in the District because of such proposals to redevelop the park's area.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dcpreservation.org/endangered/2004/banneker.html\\|title\\=BENJAMIN BANNEKER PARK, BANNEKER CIRCLE: SOUTHWEST AT L'ENFANT PROMENADE\\|work\\=Most Endangered Places for 2004\\|publisher\\=D.C. Preservation League\\|year\\=2004\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040824133931/http://www.dcpreservation.org/endangered/2004/banneker.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2004\\-08\\-24}} The League stated that the park, \"Designed by renowned landscape architect Daniel Urban Kiley ... is culturally significant as the first public space in Washington named for an African American and is usually included in Black History tours\".",
"In 2006, the District government and the [Federal Highway Administration](/wiki/Federal_Highway_Administration \"Federal Highway Administration\") issued an [environmental assessment](/wiki/Environmental_assessment \"Environmental assessment\") for \"improvements\" to the promenade and park that described a number of projects that could redevelop the area containing the park.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://comp.ddot.dc.gov/Documents/L%27Enfant%20Promenade%20and%20Benjamin%20Banneker%20Park%20Environmental%20Assessment.pdf\\|title\\=Environmental Assessment for Improvements to L'Enfant Promenade and Benjamin Banneker Park\\|date\\=March 2006\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[District Department of Transportation]], Government of the District of Columbia (DC.gov) and Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division, \\[\\[Federal Highway Administration]], \\[\\[United States Department of Transportation]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-16\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116232714/https://comp.ddot.dc.gov/Documents/L%27Enfant%20Promenade%20and%20Benjamin%20Banneker%20Park%20Environmental%20Assessment.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-16}} In 2011, a proposal surfaced that would erect a structure housing a \"[National Museum of the American People](/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_American_People \"National Museum of the American People\")\" at or near the site of the park.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web \\|last\\=Roig\\-Franzia \\|first\\=Manuel \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/one\\-museum\\-over\\-all/2011/09/23/gIQA537mAL\\_story.html \\|title\\=Proposed 'melting pot' of American history: One museum over all? \\|work\\=Lifestyle, The Washington Post \\|date\\=2011\\-09\\-30 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-05 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104065554/http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/one\\-museum\\-over\\-all/2011/09/23/gIQA537mAL\\_story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-04 }}\n {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nmap2015\\.com/news\\_architecture.html \\|title\\=Stunning Design Suggested for National American People Museum At Washington, DC's L'Enfant Plaza Overlook Site \\|work\\=National Museum of the American People \\|publisher\\=Coalition of the National Museum of the American People \\|date\\=2011\\-10\\-07 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023064059/https://buildnmap.com/news\\_architecture.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-23 }}",
"* + In 2012, the [United States Army Corps of Engineers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers \"United States Army Corps of Engineers\") determined that Benjamin Banneker Park was not eligible for inclusion in the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\").Multiple sources:\n\t {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dgmarket.com/tenders/np\\-notice.do?noticeId\\=9527162 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://www.webcitation.org/6qDRXR6v0?url\\=http://www.dgmarket.com/tenders/np\\-notice.do?noticeId\\=9527162 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-05\\-04 \\|title\\=RFI \\- Determination of Eligibility for Banneker Park and 10th Street Washington, DC: Request For Expressions of Interest \\|author\\=\\[\\[National Capital Planning Commission]] \\|date\\=2013\\-07\\-21 \\|publisher\\=dgMarket \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-05\\-04 }}\n\t {{cite web \\|url\\=https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Park (10th Street Overlook) \\|work\\=Cultural Landscapes Inventory \\|year\\=2013 \\|pages\\=6, 8, 12, 40 \\|location\\=Washington, D.C. \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]], \\[\\[National Park Service]] \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-05\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114184452/https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-14 }}\n\t+ However, the District of Columbia State Historic Preservation Office (DC SHPO) did not concur with this determination.",
"The DC SHPO stated that additional research and coordination with the NPS would be needed before it could make a final determination of eligibility. In 2014, the DC SHPO concurred with the superintendent of the National Mall and Memorial Parks that the park was eligible for inclusion in the National Register as an integral component of the 10th Street Promenade/Banneker Overlook composition, but not as an independent entity.",
"In January 2013, the National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) accepted \"The SW [Ecodistrict](/wiki/Ecodistrict \"Ecodistrict\") Plan\" (see: [Southwest Ecodistrict](/wiki/L%27Enfant_Plaza%23Southwest_Ecodistrict \"L'Enfant Plaza#Southwest Ecodistrict\")).{{cite web\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last1\\=Staudigl\\|first2\\=Julia\\|last2\\=Koster\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2013/National\\_Capital\\_Planning\\_Commission\\_Accepts\\_SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Plan\\_1102013\\.pdf\\|title\\=National Capital Planning Commission Accepts SW Ecodistrict Plan\\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-10\\|work\\=Media Release\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113044621/https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2013/National\\_Capital\\_Planning\\_Commission\\_Accepts\\_SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Plan\\_1102013\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13}} The Plan recommended the redesign of Benjamin Banneker Park and adjacent areas to accommodate one or more new memorials, museums and/or landscaping.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Overview.pdf\\|title\\=The SW Ecodistrict: A Vision for a More Sustainable Future\\|date\\=January 2013\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113041455/https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Overview.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13}}\n {{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Development\\_Scenario\\_and\\_Focus\\_Areas.pdf \\|title\\=Preliminary Design Concepts: Banneker Park \\|work\\=10th Street Corridor and Banneker Park: Section 4 \\- The Development Scenario and Focus Areas: The SW Ecodistrict: A Vision for a More Sustainable Future \\|pages\\=68–69 \\|date\\=January 2013 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Capital Planning Commission]] \\|location\\=Washington, D.C. \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113040603/https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Development\\_Scenario\\_and\\_Focus\\_Areas.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13 }}",
"* + in 2013, the NPS issued a \"[Cultural Landscapes](/wiki/Cultural_landscape \"Cultural landscape\") Inventory\" report for the park. The report described the features, significance and history of the park and its surrounding area, as well the planning processes that had influenced the park's construction and development.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Park (10th Street Overlook) \\|work\\=Cultural Landscapes Inventory \\|year\\=2013 \\|location\\=Washington, D.C. \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]], \\[\\[National Park Service]] \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-05\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114184452/https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/DownloadFile/520058 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-14 }}",
"In September 2014, the NCPC accepted an addendum to the SW Ecodistrict Plan.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2014/SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Plan\\_Addendum\\_Accepted\\_by\\_National\\_Capital\\_Planning\\_Commission\\_September42014\\.pdf\\|title\\=SW Ecodistrict Plan Addendum Accepted by the National Capital Planning Commission\\|work\\=Media Release\\|first1\\=Stephen\\|last1\\=Staudigl\\|first2\\=Julia\\|last2\\=Koster\\|date\\=2014\\-09\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113134843/https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2014/SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Plan\\_Addendum\\_Accepted\\_by\\_National\\_Capital\\_Planning\\_Commission\\_September42014\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13}} The addendum stated: \"A modern, terraced landscape at Banneker Park is envisioned to enhance the park and to provide a gateway to the National Mall.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Plan\\_Addendum\\_8\\.25\\.14\\.pdf\\|title\\=Banneker Park\\|work\\=The SW Ecodistrict Plan Addendum\\|pages\\=32–33\\|date\\=September 2014\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113131719/https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/SW\\_Ecodistrict\\_Plan\\_Addendum\\_8\\.25\\.14\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13}}",
"In April 2017, the NCPC approved plans for a staircase and ramp that would connect the park with Washington's [Southwest Waterfront](/wiki/Southwest_Waterfront \"Southwest Waterfront\") and that would add lighting and trees to the area. The NCPC and the NPS intended the project to be an interim improvement that could be in place for ten years while the area awaits redevelopment.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web\\|first\\=Eliza\\|last\\=Voigt\\|url\\=https://parkplanning.nps.gov/projectHome.cfm?projectID\\=59520\\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Park Pedestrian Access Improvements\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Park Service]]\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|work\\=\\[\\[National Mall and Memorial Parks]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113023550/https://parkplanning.nps.gov/projectHome.cfm?projectID\\=59520\\|archive\\-date\\=November 13, 2017}}\n {{cite web\\|first1\\=Julia\\|last1\\=Koster\\|first2\\=Stephen\\|last2\\=Staudigl\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2017/NCPC\\_Approves\\_Banneker\\_Park\\_Pedestrian\\_and\\_Cyclist\\_Access\\_Improvements\\_April62017\\.pdf\\|title\\=NCPC Approves Banneker Park Pedestrian and Cyclist Access Improvements\\|work\\=Media Release\\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-06\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113020750/https://www.ncpc.gov/participate/releases/2017/NCPC\\_Approves\\_Banneker\\_Park\\_Pedestrian\\_and\\_Cyclist\\_Access\\_Improvements\\_April62017\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=November 13, 2017}} \n {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/actions/2017April/7551\\_Staff\\_Report\\_Apr2017\\.pdf\\|title\\=Banneker Park Pedestrian Access Improvements\\|work\\=Executive Director's Recommendation: Commission Meeting: April 6, 2017 (NCPC File No. 7551\\)\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\\|access\\-date\\=November 13, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113022208/https://www.ncpc.gov/docs/actions/2017April/7551\\_Staff\\_Report\\_Apr2017\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=November 13, 2017}}* + - Construction began on the project in September 2017 and was completed during the spring of 2018\\.Multiple sources:\n\t\t {{cite web\\|url\\=https://dmped.dc.gov/release/construction\\-benjamin\\-banneker\\-park\\-pedestrian\\-and\\-bike\\-access\\-project\\-begins\\-ahead\\-wharf%E2%80%99s\\|title\\=Construction on Benjamin Banneker Park Pedestrian and Bike Access Project begins ahead of The Wharf's October 12 Launch\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|publisher\\=Office of the Deputy Mayor for Planning and Economic Development: Government of the District of Columbia (DC.gov)\\|date\\=September 8, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=November 13, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113025826/https://dmped.dc.gov/release/construction\\-benjamin\\-banneker\\-park\\-pedestrian\\-and\\-bike\\-access\\-project\\-begins\\-ahead\\-wharf%E2%80%99s\\|archive\\-date\\=November 13, 2017}}\n\t\t {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ncpc.gov/news/item/47/1/\\|first\\=Stephen\\|last\\=Staudigl\\|date\\=May 25, 2018\\|title\\=Banneker Park Connection Helps NCPC Plans Come to Life\\|work\\=News Story\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Capital Planning Commission]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 18, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=May 25, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525204522/https://www.ncpc.gov/news/item/47/1/}}",
"#### Benjamin Banneker Park, Arlington County, Virginia",
"* + [thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=1\\.05\\|Benjamin Banneker: SW\\-9 Intermediate Boundary Stone of the District of Columbia (2012\\)](/wiki/File:DC_Boundary_stone_SW9_%28Banneker%29%2C_21_Oct_2012.JPG \"DC Boundary stone SW9 (Banneker), 21 Oct 2012.JPG\")\n\tAn {{convert\\|11\\|acre\\|ha}} park in [Arlington County, Virginia](/wiki/Arlington_County%2C_Virginia \"Arlington County, Virginia\"), memorializes Banneker and the survey of the boundaries of the District of Columbia, in which he participated.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://parks.arlingtonva.us/locations/benjamin\\-banneker\\-park/ \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker Park \\|publisher\\=Department of Parks and Recreation, \\[\\[Arlington County, Virginia]] \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010233318/https://parks.arlingtonva.us/locations/benjamin\\-banneker\\-park/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-10 }} The park features access to paved [trails](/wiki/Shared_use_path \"Shared use path\"), [picnic tables](/wiki/Picnic_table \"Picnic table\") with [charcoal grills](/wiki/Barbecue_grill%23Charcoal_grills \"Barbecue grill#Charcoal grills\"), a [playground](/wiki/Playground \"Playground\"), a [playing field](/wiki/Playing_field \"Playing field\"), a stream and a [dog park](/wiki/Dog_park \"Dog park\"). The [Benjamin Banneker: SW\\-9 Intermediate Boundary Stone](/wiki/Benjamin_Banneker:SW-9_Intermediate_Boundary_Stone \"SW-9 Intermediate Boundary Stone\"), one of the forty [boundary markers of the original District of Columbia](/wiki/Boundary_Markers_of_the_Original_District_of_Columbia \"Boundary Markers of the Original District of Columbia\"), is within the park.Multiple sources:\n\t {{cite web \\|last\\=Graves \\|first\\=Lynne Gomez, Historical Projects Director, Afro\\-American Bicentennial Corporation, Washington, D.C \\|url\\=http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Arlington/000\\-0015\\_%20Banneker\\_SW\\-9\\_Intermediate\\_Boundary\\_Stone\\_1976\\_Final\\_Nomination\\_NHL.pdf \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker: SW\\-9 Intermediate Boundary Stone (milestone) of the District of Columbia \\|work\\=United States Department of the Interior: National Park Service: National Register of Historic Places Inventory––Nomination Form \\|location\\=Richmond, Virginia \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Virginia Department of Historic Resources]] \\|date\\=1976\\-02\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001145447/http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Arlington/000\\-0015\\_%20Banneker\\_SW\\-9\\_Intermediate\\_Boundary\\_Stone\\_1976\\_Final\\_Nomination\\_NHL.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-01 }}\n\t {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fallschurchdar.org/BoundryStones.htm \\|title\\=The Banneker Stone (SW \\#9\\) \\|work\\=The Boundary Stones Project \\|publisher\\=Falls Church Chapter of the \\[\\[Daughters of the American Revolution]] \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011000139/http://www.fallschurchdar.org/BoundryStones.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-11 }}",
"### Playground",
"#### Banneker Playground, Brooklyn, New York",
"* + The Banneker Playground in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"), was originally built by the federal [Works Progress Administration](/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration \"Works Progress Administration\") in 1937\\. In 1985, the [New York City parks department](/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Parks_and_Recreation \"New York City Department of Parks and Recreation\") renamed the {{convert\\|1\\.67\\|acre\\|ha}} playground to commemorate Benjamin Banneker. The playground contains [handball](/wiki/American_handball \"American handball\") and basketball courts, trees and a sculpture of a sitting [camel](/wiki/Camel \"Camel\"). The Benjamin Banneker Elementary School (P.S. 256\\), built in 1956, is near the playground.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429134505/http://www.nycgovparks.org:80/parks/banneker\\-playground/history\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-29 \\|url\\=http://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/bannekerplayground/history \\|title\\=Banneker Playground \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]] \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-12}}",
"### Community Centers",
"#### Banneker Community Center, Catonsville, Maryland",
"The Banneker Community Center (Banneker Recreation Center) in [Catonsville, Maryland](/wiki/Catonsville%2C_Maryland \"Catonsville, Maryland\"), is located near the intersection of the [Baltimore National Pike](/wiki/U.S._Route_40_in_Maryland%23Route_description \"U.S. Route 40 in Maryland#Route description\") ([U.S. Route 40](/wiki/U.S._Route_40_in_Maryland \"U.S. Route 40 in Maryland\")) and the Baltimore Beltway ([Interstate 695](/wiki/Interstate_695_%28Maryland%29 \"Interstate 695 (Maryland)\")), about {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km\\|0}} northeast of the former site of Banneker's home and farm. A unit of the Baltimore County Department of Recreation and Parks, the facility contains ballfields, multipurpose courts and a playground.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309135349/http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/recreation/countyparks/cntyparkslist.html\\#B\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-09 \\|url\\=http://www.baltimorecountymd.gov/Agencies/recreation/countyparks/cntyparkslist.html\\#B \\|title\\=County Park Listings \\|work\\=Department of Recreation and Parks \\|location\\=\\[\\[Towson, Maryland]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Baltimore County, Maryland]] government \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-14}}Coordinates of Benjamin Banneker Community Center, Catonsville, Maryland: {{coord\\|39\\.2804882\\|\\-76\\.7403379\\|type:landmark\\|name\\=Benjamin Banneker Community Center, Catonsville, Maryland\\|format\\=dms}}",
"##### Banneker Community Center, Washington, D.C.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=1\\|{{center\\|Banneker Community Center, Washington, D.C. (2011\\)}}](/wiki/File:Banneker_Rec_Center_DC.jpg \"Banneker Rec Center DC.jpg\")\nThe Banneker Community Center in [northwest Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Northwest%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Northwest, Washington, D.C.\") is located near Howard University in the city's [Columbia Heights](/wiki/Columbia_Heights%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Columbia Heights, Washington, D.C.\") neighborhood. The center, which is a unit of the [District of Columbia Department of Parks and Recreation](/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Department_of_Parks_and_Recreation \"District of Columbia Department of Parks and Recreation\"), contains playing fields, [basketball](/wiki/Basketball_court \"Basketball court\") and [tennis courts](/wiki/Tennis_court \"Tennis court\"), a swimming pool (Banneker pool), a [computer lab](/wiki/Computer_lab \"Computer lab\") and other indoor and outdoor facilities.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127053552/http://app.dpr.dc.gov/dprmap/details.asp?cid\\=2 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-27 \\|url\\=http://app.dpr.dc.gov/dprmap/details.asp?cid\\=2 \\|title\\=Banneker Community Center \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[District of Columbia Department of Parks and Recreation]] \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-11}}\n {{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127053552/http://app.dpr.dc.gov/dprmap/details.asp?cid\\=2\\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-27 \\|url\\=http://app.dpr.dc.gov/dprmap/details.asp?cid\\=4 \\|title\\=Banneker Pool \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[District of Columbia Department of Parks and Recreation]] \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-11 }}* + Constructed in 1934 and named for Benjamin Banneker, the center's building (formerly named the [Banneker Recreation Center](/wiki/Banneker_Recreation_Center \"Banneker Recreation Center\")) was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") in 1986 because of its role as a focal point in the development of the black community in Washington, D.C.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Friedlander \\|first1\\=Amy \\|last2\\=Bowers \\|first2\\=Martha: Louis Berger \\& Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211193305/https://npgallery.nps.gov/pdfhost/docs/NRHP/Text/86000876\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-11 \\|url\\={{NRHP url \\|id\\=86000876}}\\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Nomination Form: Banneker Recreation Center\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Department of the Interior]]: \\[\\[National Park Service]]\\|date\\=1984\\-08\\-31}}",
"##### Benjamin Banneker Community Center, Bloomington, Indiana",
"The Benjamin Banneker Community Center in [Bloomington, Indiana](/wiki/Bloomington%2C_Indiana \"Bloomington, Indiana\"), contains a gymnasium, restrooms, a kitchen, a library and a family resource center.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615220419/https://bloomington.in.gov/parks/facilities/banneker\\-community\\-center\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-15 \\|url\\=http://bloomington.in.gov/banneker \\|title\\=Banneker Community Center \\|location\\=\\[\\[Bloomington, Indiana]] \\|publisher\\=The City of Bloomington, Indiana \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-03}} Benjamin Banneker School was a [segregated](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States \"Racial segregation in the United States\") school for Bloomington's African American residents from 1915 to 1951\\. When the school [desegregated](/wiki/Desegregation \"Desegregation\"), its name was changed to Fairview Annex. In 1955, the school's building became the Westside Community Center. In 1994, the Bloomington City Council changed the community center's name to commemorate the building's history as a segregated school and to re\\-commemorate Benjamin Banneker.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025103238/http://www.in.gov/history/markers/545\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-25 \\|url\\= http://www.in.gov/history/markers/545\\.htm \\|title\\=Benjamin Banneker School \\|work\\=Indiana Historical Markers \\|publisher\\=State of Indiana government \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-06}}{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229033806/http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/789\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-29 \\|url\\=http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/789\\.html \\|title\\=Banneker History Project involves IU education students, city government, community residents \\|work\\=IU News Room \\|location\\=\\[\\[Bloomington, Indiana]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Indiana University]] \\|date\\=2003\\-02\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-11}} The City of Bloomington's Parks and Recreation Department operates the center.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120034/http://issuu.com/bloomingtonparks/docs/2011\\_annual\\_report \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-08\\-26 \\|url\\=http://issuu.com/bloomingtonparks/docs/2011\\_annual\\_report \\|title\\=Banneker Community Center \\|work\\=Bloomington Parks and Recreation 2011 Annual Report \\|date\\=March 23, 2012 \\|page\\=11 \\|location\\=Bloomington, Indiana \\|publisher\\=City of Bloomington Parks and Recreation Department \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-11}}",
"### Museums",
"#### Banneker\\-Douglass Museum, Annapolis, Maryland",
"The [Banneker\\-Douglass Museum](/wiki/Banneker-Douglass_Museum \"Banneker-Douglass Museum\") in Annapolis, Maryland, memorializes Benjamin Banneker and [Frederick Douglass](/wiki/Frederick_Douglass \"Frederick Douglass\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bdmuseum.maryland.gov/history/\\|title\\=History\\|work\\=Banneker\\-Douglass Museum\\|publisher\\=Government of Maryland\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=March 14, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314193326/http://bdmuseum.maryland.gov/history/}}. The museum, which was dedicated on February 24, 1984, is the State of Maryland's official museum of African American heritage.{{cite web\\|title\\=Banneker\\-Douglas Museum\\|url\\=http://bdmuseum.maryland.gov/\\|publisher\\=Government of Maryland\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=November 22, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122172828/https://bdmuseum.maryland.gov/}}. It is housed within and adjacent to the former Mount Moriah [African Methodist Episcopal Church](/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church \"African Methodist Episcopal Church\"), which the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\") placed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") in 1973\\.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web \\|url\\={{MHT url \\|id\\=117}}\\|date\\=November 21, 2008\\|title\\= Mount Moriah African Methodist Episcopal Church\\|work\\=\\[\\[Maryland Historical Trust\\|Maryland Historical Trust: Maryland's National Register Properties]]\\|publisher\\=Government of Maryland}} {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313195334/http://mht.maryland.gov/nr/NRDetail.aspx?NRID\\=117\\|date\\=March 13, 2016}}.\n {{cite web \\|url\\=http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/001000/001600/001635/pdf/msa\\_se5\\_1635\\.pdf \\|title\\=National Park Service: National Register of Historic Places Inventory — Nomination Form: Mount Moriah African Methodist Episcopal Church \\|last1\\=Wright \\|first1\\=Russell \\|last2\\=AIP \\|last3\\=Jacobsen \\|first3\\=Phoebe (Historic Annapolis, Inc., Annapolis, MD) \\|date\\=1972\\-10\\-06 \\|work\\=Maryland State Archives \\|publisher\\=Government of Maryland \\|access\\-date\\=March 13, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402135957/http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/001000/001600/001635/pdf/msa\\_se5\\_1635\\.pdf }}.",
"#### Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C.",
"* + [thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|Statue of Benjamin Banneker in the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C. (2020\\)](/wiki/File:Benjamin_Banneker_statue_at_the_National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture.jpg \"Benjamin Banneker statue at the National Museum of African American History and Culture.jpg\")\n\tThe [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\")'s [National Museum of African American History and Culture](/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture \"National Museum of African American History and Culture\"), which opened in Washington, D.C., during 2016, displays a statue of Benjamin Banneker within an exhibit entitled \"The Founding of America\".Multiple sources:\n\t {{cite web\\|first1\\=Charlie\\|last1\\=Wright\\|first2\\=Maya (\\[\\[Capital News Service (Maryland)\\|Capital News Service]])\\|last2\\=Pottiger\\|url\\=https://wtop.com/dc/2016/09/smithsonians\\-new\\-museum\\-captures\\-sweep\\-african\\-american\\-experience/\\|title\\=Slavery and Freedom Galleries\\|work\\=Smithsonian's new museum captures sweep of the African\\-American experience\\|date\\=2016\\-09\\-23\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[WTOP\\-FM\\|WTOP]]: Washington, DC News\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-05\\|quote\\=After walking through the dark hallways, visitors enter an open room, greeted by the Declaration of Independence and statues of notable founders. One statue depicts Benjamin Banneker, an African American born in Baltimore County who was called on to help design Washington, D.C.\\|archive\\-date\\=December 14, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214185151/https://wtop.com/dc/2016/09/smithsonians\\-new\\-museum\\-captures\\-sweep\\-african\\-american\\-experience/}}.\n\t {{cite web\\|first\\=Donna M.\\|last\\=Owens\\|url\\=http://www.baltimoresun.com/entertainment/arts/bs\\-lt\\-smithsonian\\-maryland\\-contributions\\-20161228\\-story.html\\|title\\=Marylanders well represented in national African\\-American museum\\|work\\=Baltimore Sun\\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-28\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-28\\|archive\\-date\\=December 29, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229224534/http://www.baltimoresun.com/entertainment/arts/bs\\-lt\\-smithsonian\\-maryland\\-contributions\\-20161228\\-story.html}}.\n\t {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews\\-g28970\\-d10895065\\-r423572634\\-National\\_Museum\\_of\\_African\\_American\\_History\\_and\\_Culture\\-Washington\\_DC\\_District\\_o.html\\#photos;geo\\=28970\\&detail\\=10895065\\&ff\\=220556582\\&albumViewMode\\=hero\\&aggregationId\\=101\\&albumid\\=101\\&baseMediaId\\=220556582\\&thumbnailMinWidth\\=50\\&cnt\\=30\\&offset\\=\\-1\\&filter\\=7\\&autoplay\\=\\|title\\=NMAAHC statue of Benjamin Banneker, famous scientist, astronomer and author\\|author\\=Pam105\\|date\\=September 2016\\|format\\=photograph\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Trip Advisor]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 19, 2017}}\n\t {{cite web\\|author\\=Toure88 (Washington, D.C.)\\|url\\=https://www.tripadvisor.com/LocationPhotoDirectLink\\-g28970\\-d10895065\\-i233511419\\-National\\_Museum\\_of\\_African\\_American\\_History\\_and\\_Culture\\-Washington\\_DC\\_Di.html\\|title\\=Photo: Benjamin Banneker\\|format\\=photograph\\|date\\=December 19, 2016\\|work\\=\"One of the Best\": Review of National Museum of African American History and Culture\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TripAdvisor]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 12, 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=September 12, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912190818/https://www.tripadvisor.com/LocationPhotoDirectLink\\-g28970\\-d10895065\\-i233511419\\-National\\_Museum\\_of\\_African\\_American\\_History\\_and\\_Culture\\-Washington\\_DC\\_Di.html}}\n\t {{cite web\\|author\\=Nancy S.\\|date\\=February 2017\\|url\\=https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews\\-g28970\\-d10895065\\-r423572634\\-National\\_Museum\\_of\\_African\\_American\\_History\\_and\\_Culture\\-Washington\\_DC\\_District\\_o.html\\#photos;geo\\=28970\\&detail\\=10895065\\&ff\\=242087202\\&albumViewMode\\=hero\\&aggregationId\\=101\\&albumid\\=101\\&baseMediaId\\=242087202\\&thumbnailMinWidth\\=50\\&cnt\\=30\\&offset\\=\\-1\\&filter\\=7\\&autoplay\\=\\|title\\=Statue of Benjamin Banneker in National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C.\\|format\\=photograph\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TripAdvisor]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 19, 2017}}",
"### Planetarium",
"#### Banneker Planetarium, Catonsville, Maryland",
"* + - * + The Banneker [Planetarium](/wiki/Planetarium \"Planetarium\") in Catonsville, Maryland, is located about {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km\\|0}} southeast of the former site of Benjamin Banneker's home and farm. The planetarium is a component of the [Community College of Baltimore County](/wiki/Community_College_of_Baltimore_County \"Community College of Baltimore County\")'s Catonsville Campus. Operated by the college's School of Mathematics and Science, the planetarium offers shows and programs to the public.{{cite web \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529164445/http://www.ccbcmd.edu/catonsvilleplanetarium/\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-29 \\|url\\=http://www.ccbcmd.edu/catonsvilleplanetarium/ \\|title\\=Banneker Planetarium \\|work\\=The Community College of Baltimore County: School of Mathematics and Science (Catonsville Campus) \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Community College of Baltimore County\\|The Community College of Baltimore County]] \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-12}}Coordinates of Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville, Maryland: {{coord\\|39\\.2534553\\|\\-76\\.7355797\\|type:landmark\\|name\\=Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville, Maryland\\|format\\=dms}}",
""
] |
Renewable energy resources
--------------------------
The “Indicative plan for the generation in the electricity sector in Nicaragua, 2003\-2014” does not set any target or legal obligation for the development of renewable resources in the country. However, in April 2005, the government approved Law No. 532\., the [“Law on Promotion of Electricity Generation with Renewable Resources”](https://web.archive.org/web/20070330213923/http://www.bcn.cl/carpeta_temas/temas_portada.2006-12-18.7650530977/legislacion-extranjera/nicaragua.pdf). This law declared the development and exploitation of renewable resources to be in the national interest and established tax incentives for renewables.
### Renewable energy advances
NPR reported in 2015 that Nicaragua was increasing its renewable energy capacity. The report said that renewables generated nearly half the country's electricity, and that this could rise to 80% in the near future.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/03/11/392111931/nicaraguas\-renewable\-energy\-revolution\-picks\-up\-steam\|title \= Nicaragua's Renewable Energy Revolution Picks up Steam\|website \= NPR.org}}
### Hydroelectricity
Currently, [hydroelectric](/wiki/Hydroelectricity "Hydroelectricity") plants account only for 10% of the electricity produced in Nicaragua. The public company Hidrogesa owns and operates the two existing plants (Centroamérica and Santa Bárbara).
As a response to the recent (and still unresolved) energy crisis linked to Nicaragua's overdependence on oil products for the generation of electricity, there are plans for the construction of new hydroelectric plants. In 2006 the [Central American Bank for Economic Integration](/wiki/Central_American_Bank_for_Economic_Integration "Central American Bank for Economic Integration") (BCIE) and the Government reached an agreement by which the BCIE will provide US$120 million in the next five years (2007–2012\) in order to finance several hydroelectric projects:{{Cite web \|url\=http://impreso.elnuevodiario.com.ni/2006/11/20/economia/34416 \|title\=El Nuevo Diario (1\) \|access\-date\=2007\-11\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905074144/http://impreso.elnuevodiario.com.ni/2006/11/20/economia/34416 \|archive\-date\=2009\-09\-05 \|url\-status\=dead }}
* Modernization of the Centroamérica and Santa Bárbara plants, which generate 50 MW each.
* US$37 million for the design, construction and initial operation of the 17 MW Larreynaga hydroelectric plant, to be located 161 km North of [Managua](/wiki/Managua "Managua"), in the Department of Jinotega.
* US$42–45 million for the design, construction and initial operation of the 21 MW Sirena\-Los Calpules hydroelectric plant.
In March 2008 the government of Iran approved a US$230 million credit for the construction of a 70 MW hydropower plant by the name of Bodoke on the Tuma River in the northern department of [Jinotega](/wiki/Jinotega_Department "Jinotega Department"). According to press reports the project will be carried out by a state\-owned Iranian company with financing from the Iranian Export Bank under an agreement with the Nicaraguan Ministry of Energy and Mines.La Prensa, Panama, March 14, 2008, p. 50A, quoting an Associated Press news release; see also [International Herald Tribune](http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/03/13/america/LA-GEN-Nicaragua-Iran.php). Micro hydropower also continues to be a popular sustainable energy resource, particularly in isolated rural regions of Nicaragua which are currently not electrified [http://www.europa\-esteli.org/archivos/investigaciones/An\_Initial\_Diagnostic\_of\_Renewable\_Energy\_Potential\_and\_Viability\_in\_Esteli.pdf](http://www.europa-esteli.org/archivos/investigaciones/An_Initial_Diagnostic_of_Renewable_Energy_Potential_and_Viability_in_Esteli.pdf){{Dead link\|date\=July 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}.
The [Tumarín Dam](/wiki/Tumar%C3%ADn_Dam "Tumarín Dam"), a [gravity dam](/wiki/Gravity_dam "Gravity dam"), is currently under construction on the [Río Grande de Matagalpa](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Grande_de_Matagalpa "Río Grande de Matagalpa") just upstream of the town of Tumarín in the [South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region](/wiki/South_Caribbean_Coast_Autonomous_Region "South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region"), [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua"). It is located about {{Convert\|35\|km\|mi\|abbr\=on}} east of San Pedro del Norte, where the Río Grande de Matagalpa meets the [Tuma River](/wiki/Tuma_River "Tuma River").{{cite web \| url\=http://www.mem.gob.ni/media/file/ELECTRICIDAD%20Y%20RECURSOS/Perfil%20Hidroelectrico%20Tumarin.pdf \| title\=Perfil Central Hidroeléctrica Tumarín \| publisher\=Ministerio deEnergía y Minas \| access\-date\=29 April 2014 \| language\=es \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430054044/http://www.mem.gob.ni/media/file/ELECTRICIDAD%20Y%20RECURSOS/Perfil%20Hidroelectrico%20Tumarin.pdf \| archive\-date\=30 April 2014 \| url\-status\=dead \| df\=dmy\-all }} Preliminary construction (roads, bridges and foundation) began in 2011 and main works are expected to begin in February 2015\. Completion is scheduled for 2019\.{{cite web\|title\=Brazilian companies to build a US$1\.1 billion dam in Nicaragua as of next February\|url\=http://tradenews.la/2014/11/12/brazilian\-companies\-to\-build\-a\-us1\-1\-billion\-dam\-in\-nicaragua\-as\-of\-next\-february/\|publisher\=Trade News\|access\-date\=22 November 2014\|date\=12 November 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202000241/http://tradenews.la/2014/11/12/brazilian\-companies\-to\-build\-a\-us1\-1\-billion\-dam\-in\-nicaragua\-as\-of\-next\-february/\|archive\-date\=2 December 2014}} Brazil's [Eletrobras](/wiki/Eletrobras "Eletrobras") will fund the US$1\.1 billion under a 20 to 30 year [build–operate–transfer](/wiki/Build%E2%80%93operate%E2%80%93transfer "Build–operate–transfer") (BOT) agreement. The project is being developed by Centrales Hidroelectricas de Nicaragua (CHN).{{cite news \| url\=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2014/01/nicaragua\-set\-to\-break\-ground\-on\-253\-mw\-tumarin\-hydroelectric\-project.html \| title\=Nicaragua set to break ground on 253\-MW Tumarin hydroelectric project \| date\=29 January 2014 \| agency\=Hydro World \| access\-date\=29 April 2014}} The power station located at the base of the dam will house three 84\.33 [MW](/wiki/Watt "Watt") [Kaplan turbine](/wiki/Kaplan_turbine "Kaplan turbine")\-generators for an installed capacity of 253 MW.{{cite news \| url\=http://green.tmcnet.com/topics/green/articles/211283\-mixing\-water\-with\-oil\-nicaragua\-adds\-hydroelectric\-capacity.htm \| title\=Mixing Water with Oil: Nicaragua Adds Hydroelectric Capacity to Its Power Portfolio \| date\=24 August 2011 \| agency\=GreenTechnologyWorld \| access\-date\=29 April 2014 \| author\=Kaften, Cheryl}}
### Wind
Nicaragua's wind potential is still largely unexploited. However, steps are being taken, partially thanks to the new framework created by Law No.532\.
In February 2009, the Wind Consortium Amayo successfully connected its new 40 MW Wind Park to the SIN making it the country"s first operational wind park. During late 2009 \- early 2010 the Amayo wind farm was expanded with additional 23 MW, total capacity now amounting 60 MW. The windfarm comprises 30 turbines type S88 2\.1 MW, from Suzlon Wind Energy, India.
Amayo is currently the largest operating wind facility in Central America.
### Geothermal
Nicaragua is a country endowed with large geothermal potential thanks to the presence of volcanoes of the Marribios range along the Pacific Coast. However, the country is still very far from exploiting this natural resource extensively and efficiently. Law No. 443 regulates the exploration and exploitation of geothermal resources.
The larger of two operating geothermal plants is the Momotombo geothermal project, whose commercial exploitation started in 1983, when the first geothermal unit of 35 MW was put in operation. The second unit of 35 MW was installed in 1989\. However, mismanagement of the exploitation led to declines in output levels down to 10 MW. It is expected that with the implementation of a reinjection program and the exploitation of a deeper reservoir, production will increase from the current 20 MW to 75 MW.
Ram Power, previously Polaris Geothermal, currently operates the 10 MW San Jacinto Tizate geothermal plant, a registered [Clean Development Mechanism](/wiki/Clean_Development_Mechanism "Clean Development Mechanism") (CDM) project (see [CDM projects in electricity](/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Nicaragua%23CDM_projects_in_electricity "Electricity sector in Nicaragua#CDM projects in electricity") below), with two phases of expansion underway, the first to start operations in the autumn of 2010\. The second phase was scheduled to be in operation by December 2012\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.ram\-power.com/news\-media/ram\-power\-announces\-update\-san\-jacinto\-tizate\-project\-and\-corporate\-credit\-facility.html \| title\=Ram Power }}
### Biomass
Sugarcane [bagasse](/wiki/Bagasse "Bagasse") feeds 10% of electricity generation in thermal plants in Nicaragua.
|
[
"Renewable energy resources\n--------------------------",
"The “Indicative plan for the generation in the electricity sector in Nicaragua, 2003\\-2014” does not set any target or legal obligation for the development of renewable resources in the country. However, in April 2005, the government approved Law No. 532\\., the [“Law on Promotion of Electricity Generation with Renewable Resources”](https://web.archive.org/web/20070330213923/http://www.bcn.cl/carpeta_temas/temas_portada.2006-12-18.7650530977/legislacion-extranjera/nicaragua.pdf). This law declared the development and exploitation of renewable resources to be in the national interest and established tax incentives for renewables.",
"### Renewable energy advances",
"NPR reported in 2015 that Nicaragua was increasing its renewable energy capacity. The report said that renewables generated nearly half the country's electricity, and that this could rise to 80% in the near future.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/03/11/392111931/nicaraguas\\-renewable\\-energy\\-revolution\\-picks\\-up\\-steam\\|title \\= Nicaragua's Renewable Energy Revolution Picks up Steam\\|website \\= NPR.org}}",
"### Hydroelectricity",
"Currently, [hydroelectric](/wiki/Hydroelectricity \"Hydroelectricity\") plants account only for 10% of the electricity produced in Nicaragua. The public company Hidrogesa owns and operates the two existing plants (Centroamérica and Santa Bárbara).",
"As a response to the recent (and still unresolved) energy crisis linked to Nicaragua's overdependence on oil products for the generation of electricity, there are plans for the construction of new hydroelectric plants. In 2006 the [Central American Bank for Economic Integration](/wiki/Central_American_Bank_for_Economic_Integration \"Central American Bank for Economic Integration\") (BCIE) and the Government reached an agreement by which the BCIE will provide US$120 million in the next five years (2007–2012\\) in order to finance several hydroelectric projects:{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://impreso.elnuevodiario.com.ni/2006/11/20/economia/34416 \\|title\\=El Nuevo Diario (1\\) \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-11\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905074144/http://impreso.elnuevodiario.com.ni/2006/11/20/economia/34416 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-09\\-05 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* Modernization of the Centroamérica and Santa Bárbara plants, which generate 50 MW each.\n* US$37 million for the design, construction and initial operation of the 17 MW Larreynaga hydroelectric plant, to be located 161 km North of [Managua](/wiki/Managua \"Managua\"), in the Department of Jinotega.\n* US$42–45 million for the design, construction and initial operation of the 21 MW Sirena\\-Los Calpules hydroelectric plant.",
"In March 2008 the government of Iran approved a US$230 million credit for the construction of a 70 MW hydropower plant by the name of Bodoke on the Tuma River in the northern department of [Jinotega](/wiki/Jinotega_Department \"Jinotega Department\"). According to press reports the project will be carried out by a state\\-owned Iranian company with financing from the Iranian Export Bank under an agreement with the Nicaraguan Ministry of Energy and Mines.La Prensa, Panama, March 14, 2008, p. 50A, quoting an Associated Press news release; see also [International Herald Tribune](http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/03/13/america/LA-GEN-Nicaragua-Iran.php). Micro hydropower also continues to be a popular sustainable energy resource, particularly in isolated rural regions of Nicaragua which are currently not electrified [http://www.europa\\-esteli.org/archivos/investigaciones/An\\_Initial\\_Diagnostic\\_of\\_Renewable\\_Energy\\_Potential\\_and\\_Viability\\_in\\_Esteli.pdf](http://www.europa-esteli.org/archivos/investigaciones/An_Initial_Diagnostic_of_Renewable_Energy_Potential_and_Viability_in_Esteli.pdf){{Dead link\\|date\\=July 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}.",
"The [Tumarín Dam](/wiki/Tumar%C3%ADn_Dam \"Tumarín Dam\"), a [gravity dam](/wiki/Gravity_dam \"Gravity dam\"), is currently under construction on the [Río Grande de Matagalpa](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Grande_de_Matagalpa \"Río Grande de Matagalpa\") just upstream of the town of Tumarín in the [South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region](/wiki/South_Caribbean_Coast_Autonomous_Region \"South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region\"), [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\"). It is located about {{Convert\\|35\\|km\\|mi\\|abbr\\=on}} east of San Pedro del Norte, where the Río Grande de Matagalpa meets the [Tuma River](/wiki/Tuma_River \"Tuma River\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.mem.gob.ni/media/file/ELECTRICIDAD%20Y%20RECURSOS/Perfil%20Hidroelectrico%20Tumarin.pdf \\| title\\=Perfil Central Hidroeléctrica Tumarín \\| publisher\\=Ministerio deEnergía y Minas \\| access\\-date\\=29 April 2014 \\| language\\=es \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430054044/http://www.mem.gob.ni/media/file/ELECTRICIDAD%20Y%20RECURSOS/Perfil%20Hidroelectrico%20Tumarin.pdf \\| archive\\-date\\=30 April 2014 \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| df\\=dmy\\-all }} Preliminary construction (roads, bridges and foundation) began in 2011 and main works are expected to begin in February 2015\\. Completion is scheduled for 2019\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Brazilian companies to build a US$1\\.1 billion dam in Nicaragua as of next February\\|url\\=http://tradenews.la/2014/11/12/brazilian\\-companies\\-to\\-build\\-a\\-us1\\-1\\-billion\\-dam\\-in\\-nicaragua\\-as\\-of\\-next\\-february/\\|publisher\\=Trade News\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2014\\|date\\=12 November 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202000241/http://tradenews.la/2014/11/12/brazilian\\-companies\\-to\\-build\\-a\\-us1\\-1\\-billion\\-dam\\-in\\-nicaragua\\-as\\-of\\-next\\-february/\\|archive\\-date\\=2 December 2014}} Brazil's [Eletrobras](/wiki/Eletrobras \"Eletrobras\") will fund the US$1\\.1 billion under a 20 to 30 year [build–operate–transfer](/wiki/Build%E2%80%93operate%E2%80%93transfer \"Build–operate–transfer\") (BOT) agreement. The project is being developed by Centrales Hidroelectricas de Nicaragua (CHN).{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2014/01/nicaragua\\-set\\-to\\-break\\-ground\\-on\\-253\\-mw\\-tumarin\\-hydroelectric\\-project.html \\| title\\=Nicaragua set to break ground on 253\\-MW Tumarin hydroelectric project \\| date\\=29 January 2014 \\| agency\\=Hydro World \\| access\\-date\\=29 April 2014}} The power station located at the base of the dam will house three 84\\.33 [MW](/wiki/Watt \"Watt\") [Kaplan turbine](/wiki/Kaplan_turbine \"Kaplan turbine\")\\-generators for an installed capacity of 253 MW.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://green.tmcnet.com/topics/green/articles/211283\\-mixing\\-water\\-with\\-oil\\-nicaragua\\-adds\\-hydroelectric\\-capacity.htm \\| title\\=Mixing Water with Oil: Nicaragua Adds Hydroelectric Capacity to Its Power Portfolio \\| date\\=24 August 2011 \\| agency\\=GreenTechnologyWorld \\| access\\-date\\=29 April 2014 \\| author\\=Kaften, Cheryl}}",
"### Wind",
"Nicaragua's wind potential is still largely unexploited. However, steps are being taken, partially thanks to the new framework created by Law No.532\\.",
"In February 2009, the Wind Consortium Amayo successfully connected its new 40 MW Wind Park to the SIN making it the country\"s first operational wind park. During late 2009 \\- early 2010 the Amayo wind farm was expanded with additional 23 MW, total capacity now amounting 60 MW. The windfarm comprises 30 turbines type S88 2\\.1 MW, from Suzlon Wind Energy, India.",
"Amayo is currently the largest operating wind facility in Central America.",
"### Geothermal",
"Nicaragua is a country endowed with large geothermal potential thanks to the presence of volcanoes of the Marribios range along the Pacific Coast. However, the country is still very far from exploiting this natural resource extensively and efficiently. Law No. 443 regulates the exploration and exploitation of geothermal resources.",
"The larger of two operating geothermal plants is the Momotombo geothermal project, whose commercial exploitation started in 1983, when the first geothermal unit of 35 MW was put in operation. The second unit of 35 MW was installed in 1989\\. However, mismanagement of the exploitation led to declines in output levels down to 10 MW. It is expected that with the implementation of a reinjection program and the exploitation of a deeper reservoir, production will increase from the current 20 MW to 75 MW.",
"Ram Power, previously Polaris Geothermal, currently operates the 10 MW San Jacinto Tizate geothermal plant, a registered [Clean Development Mechanism](/wiki/Clean_Development_Mechanism \"Clean Development Mechanism\") (CDM) project (see [CDM projects in electricity](/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Nicaragua%23CDM_projects_in_electricity \"Electricity sector in Nicaragua#CDM projects in electricity\") below), with two phases of expansion underway, the first to start operations in the autumn of 2010\\. The second phase was scheduled to be in operation by December 2012\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.ram\\-power.com/news\\-media/ram\\-power\\-announces\\-update\\-san\\-jacinto\\-tizate\\-project\\-and\\-corporate\\-credit\\-facility.html \\| title\\=Ram Power }}",
"### Biomass",
"Sugarcane [bagasse](/wiki/Bagasse \"Bagasse\") feeds 10% of electricity generation in thermal plants in Nicaragua.",
""
] |
After Locke
-----------
### Early modern period
In 1709, in §95 of *An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision*, [George Berkeley](/wiki/George_Berkeley "George Berkeley") also concluded that there was no necessary connection between a tactile world and a sight world—that a connection between them could be established only on the basis of experience.
[Leibniz](/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz") (German [philosopher](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy"), 1646–1716\) also discussed this problem, but derived a different answer. He suggested that the two sets of experience have one element in common, that is, extension. Hence it is possible to infer from one type of idea to another.{{Cite book \|last1\=Bunnin \|first1\=Nicholas \|title\=The Blackwell dictionary of Western philosophy \|last2\=Yu \|first2\=Jiyuan \|date\=2004 \|publisher\=Blackwell Pub \|isbn\=978\-1\-4051\-0679\-5 \|location\=Malden, MA \|pages\=440–441}}
In 1749, [Denis Diderot](/wiki/Denis_Diderot "Denis Diderot") wrote *[Letter on the blind for the benefit of those who see](/wiki/Lettre_sur_les_aveugles_%C3%A0_l%27usage_de_ceux_qui_voient "Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient")* as a criticism of our knowledge of ultimate reality.
### Current research on human vision
One reason that Molyneux's Problem could be posed in the first place is the extreme dearth of human subjects who gain vision after extended congenital blindness. In 1971, Alberto Valvo estimated that fewer than twenty cases have been known in the last 1000 years.Valvo, A. (1971\). Sight restoration after long\-term blindness: The problems and behavior patterns of visual rehabilitation. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
In 2003, [Pawan Sinha](/wiki/Pawan_Sinha "Pawan Sinha"), a professor at the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology "Massachusetts Institute of Technology"), set up a program in the framework of the Project Prakash{{cite web\|url\=http://www.projectprakash.org/\|title\=Project Prakash\|website\=Project Prakash}} and eventually had the opportunity to find five individuals who satisfied the requirements for an experiment aimed at answering Molyneux's question experimentally. Prior to treatment, the subjects (aged 8 to 17\) were only able to discriminate between light and dark, with two of them also being able to determine the direction of a bright light. The surgical treatments took place between 2007 and 2010, and quickly brought the relevant subject from total congenital blindness to fully seeing. A carefully designed test was submitted to each subject within the next 48 hours. Based on its result, the experimenters concluded that the answer to Molyneux's problem is, in short, "no". Although after restoration of sight, the subjects could distinguish between objects visually almost as effectively as they would do by touch alone, they were unable to form the connection between an object perceived using the two different senses. The correlation was barely better than if the subjects had guessed. They had no innate ability to transfer their tactile shape knowledge to the visual domain. However, the experimenters could test three of the five subjects on later dates (5 days, 7 days, and 5 months after, respectively) and found that the performance in the touch\-to\-vision case improved significantly, reaching 80–90%.
{{Cite journal
\| pmc \=
\| doi \= 10\.1038/nn.2795
\| pmid \= 21478887
\| last1 \= Held \| first1 \= R.
\| last2 \= Ostrovsky \| first2 \= Y.
\| last3 \= De Gelder \| first3 \= B.
\| last4 \= Gandhi \| first4 \= T.
\| last5 \= Ganesh \| first5 \= S.
\| last6 \= Mathur \| first6 \= U.
\| last7 \= Sinha \| first7 \= P.
\| title \= The newly sighted fail to match seen with felt
\| journal \= Nature Neuroscience
\| year \= 2011
\| pages \= 551–553
\| volume\=14
\| issue\=5
\| s2cid \= 52849918
}}{{cite news \|last1\=Crawford \|first1\=Hayley \|title\=Mapping touch to sight takes time to learn \|url\=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20362\-mapping\-touch\-to\-sight\-takes\-time\-to\-learn.html \|work\=New Scientist \|date\=10 April 2011}}{{cite news \|last1\=Trafton \|first1\=Anne \|title\=Scientists settle centuries\-old debate on perception \|url\=http://www.physorg.com/news/2011\-04\-scientists\-centuries\-old\-debate\-perception.html \|work\=Medical Xpress \|date\=10 April 2011 }}
Ostrovsky, et al.,Ostrovsky, et al., 2006, "[Vision following extended congenital blindness](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17201779/)", Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2006, studied a woman who gained sight at the age of 12 when she underwent surgery for dense bilateral congenital cataracts. They report that the subject could recognize family members by sight six months after surgery, but took up to a year to recognize most household objects purely by sight.
Regarding Molyneux's problem, the authors [Asif A. Ghazanfar](/wiki/Asif_A._Ghazanfar "Asif A. Ghazanfar") \& [Hjalmar K. Turesson](/wiki/Hjalmar_K._Turesson "Hjalmar K. Turesson") (2008\) have recently noted that there are not separate brain processes for motor outputs and individual sensory modalities, but rather that the brain uses all available context\-specific information to act – that is, all information associated with a specific action.Ghazanfar, A. A. \& Turesson, H. K. (2008\). Speech production: How does a word feel? *Current Biology*, *18*,24: R1142–1144\. They suggest that this makes Molyneux's problem into an ill\-posed question, from a neuroscientific perspective, since Molyneux does not suggest an action to be done with the cube and the globe.
### Research on chicken vision
In 2024, chickens were reared from incubation and hatching in total darkness, then exposed in said darkness to objects of either smooth or bumpy textures for 24 hours. They were then tested on visual recognition of the objects as they first experienced light. Upon first sight, chicks that touched the smooth objects approached the smooth objects much more often than chicks that touched bumpy objects did.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Versace \|first1\=Elisabetta \|last2\=Freeland \|first2\=Laura \|last3\=Emmerson \|first3\=Michael G. \|date\=3 April 2024 \|title\=First\-sight recognition of touched objects shows that chicks can solve Molyneux's problem \|journal\=Biology Letters \|language\=en \|volume\=20 \|issue\=4 \|doi\=10\.1098/rsbl.2024\.0025 \|pmid\=38565149 \|issn\=1744\-957X \|pmc\=10987231}}
|
[
"After Locke\n-----------",
"### Early modern period",
"In 1709, in §95 of *An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision*, [George Berkeley](/wiki/George_Berkeley \"George Berkeley\") also concluded that there was no necessary connection between a tactile world and a sight world—that a connection between them could be established only on the basis of experience.",
"[Leibniz](/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz \"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz\") (German [philosopher](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\"), 1646–1716\\) also discussed this problem, but derived a different answer. He suggested that the two sets of experience have one element in common, that is, extension. Hence it is possible to infer from one type of idea to another.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Bunnin \\|first1\\=Nicholas \\|title\\=The Blackwell dictionary of Western philosophy \\|last2\\=Yu \\|first2\\=Jiyuan \\|date\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=Blackwell Pub \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4051\\-0679\\-5 \\|location\\=Malden, MA \\|pages\\=440–441}}",
"In 1749, [Denis Diderot](/wiki/Denis_Diderot \"Denis Diderot\") wrote *[Letter on the blind for the benefit of those who see](/wiki/Lettre_sur_les_aveugles_%C3%A0_l%27usage_de_ceux_qui_voient \"Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient\")* as a criticism of our knowledge of ultimate reality.",
"### Current research on human vision",
"One reason that Molyneux's Problem could be posed in the first place is the extreme dearth of human subjects who gain vision after extended congenital blindness. In 1971, Alberto Valvo estimated that fewer than twenty cases have been known in the last 1000 years.Valvo, A. (1971\\). Sight restoration after long\\-term blindness: The problems and behavior patterns of visual rehabilitation. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.",
"In 2003, [Pawan Sinha](/wiki/Pawan_Sinha \"Pawan Sinha\"), a professor at the [Massachusetts Institute of Technology](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\"), set up a program in the framework of the Project Prakash{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.projectprakash.org/\\|title\\=Project Prakash\\|website\\=Project Prakash}} and eventually had the opportunity to find five individuals who satisfied the requirements for an experiment aimed at answering Molyneux's question experimentally. Prior to treatment, the subjects (aged 8 to 17\\) were only able to discriminate between light and dark, with two of them also being able to determine the direction of a bright light. The surgical treatments took place between 2007 and 2010, and quickly brought the relevant subject from total congenital blindness to fully seeing. A carefully designed test was submitted to each subject within the next 48 hours. Based on its result, the experimenters concluded that the answer to Molyneux's problem is, in short, \"no\". Although after restoration of sight, the subjects could distinguish between objects visually almost as effectively as they would do by touch alone, they were unable to form the connection between an object perceived using the two different senses. The correlation was barely better than if the subjects had guessed. They had no innate ability to transfer their tactile shape knowledge to the visual domain. However, the experimenters could test three of the five subjects on later dates (5 days, 7 days, and 5 months after, respectively) and found that the performance in the touch\\-to\\-vision case improved significantly, reaching 80–90%.\n{{Cite journal\n \\| pmc \\=\n \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nn.2795\n \\| pmid \\= 21478887\n \\| last1 \\= Held \\| first1 \\= R.\n \\| last2 \\= Ostrovsky \\| first2 \\= Y.\n \\| last3 \\= De Gelder \\| first3 \\= B.\n \\| last4 \\= Gandhi \\| first4 \\= T.\n \\| last5 \\= Ganesh \\| first5 \\= S.\n \\| last6 \\= Mathur \\| first6 \\= U.\n \\| last7 \\= Sinha \\| first7 \\= P.\n \\| title \\= The newly sighted fail to match seen with felt\n \\| journal \\= Nature Neuroscience\n \\| year \\= 2011\n \\| pages \\= 551–553\n \\| volume\\=14\n \\| issue\\=5\n\\| s2cid \\= 52849918\n }}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Crawford \\|first1\\=Hayley \\|title\\=Mapping touch to sight takes time to learn \\|url\\=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20362\\-mapping\\-touch\\-to\\-sight\\-takes\\-time\\-to\\-learn.html \\|work\\=New Scientist \\|date\\=10 April 2011}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Trafton \\|first1\\=Anne \\|title\\=Scientists settle centuries\\-old debate on perception \\|url\\=http://www.physorg.com/news/2011\\-04\\-scientists\\-centuries\\-old\\-debate\\-perception.html \\|work\\=Medical Xpress \\|date\\=10 April 2011 }}",
"Ostrovsky, et al.,Ostrovsky, et al., 2006, \"[Vision following extended congenital blindness](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17201779/)\", Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2006, studied a woman who gained sight at the age of 12 when she underwent surgery for dense bilateral congenital cataracts. They report that the subject could recognize family members by sight six months after surgery, but took up to a year to recognize most household objects purely by sight.",
"Regarding Molyneux's problem, the authors [Asif A. Ghazanfar](/wiki/Asif_A._Ghazanfar \"Asif A. Ghazanfar\") \\& [Hjalmar K. Turesson](/wiki/Hjalmar_K._Turesson \"Hjalmar K. Turesson\") (2008\\) have recently noted that there are not separate brain processes for motor outputs and individual sensory modalities, but rather that the brain uses all available context\\-specific information to act – that is, all information associated with a specific action.Ghazanfar, A. A. \\& Turesson, H. K. (2008\\). Speech production: How does a word feel? *Current Biology*, *18*,24: R1142–1144\\. They suggest that this makes Molyneux's problem into an ill\\-posed question, from a neuroscientific perspective, since Molyneux does not suggest an action to be done with the cube and the globe.",
"### Research on chicken vision",
"In 2024, chickens were reared from incubation and hatching in total darkness, then exposed in said darkness to objects of either smooth or bumpy textures for 24 hours. They were then tested on visual recognition of the objects as they first experienced light. Upon first sight, chicks that touched the smooth objects approached the smooth objects much more often than chicks that touched bumpy objects did.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Versace \\|first1\\=Elisabetta \\|last2\\=Freeland \\|first2\\=Laura \\|last3\\=Emmerson \\|first3\\=Michael G. \\|date\\=3 April 2024 \\|title\\=First\\-sight recognition of touched objects shows that chicks can solve Molyneux's problem \\|journal\\=Biology Letters \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=20 \\|issue\\=4 \\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rsbl.2024\\.0025 \\|pmid\\=38565149 \\|issn\\=1744\\-957X \\|pmc\\=10987231}}",
""
] |
Choosing a triangulation scheme
-------------------------------
The efficiency of a kinetic data structure is defined based on the ratio of the number of internal events to external events, thus good runtime bounds can sometimes be obtained by choosing to use a triangulation scheme that generates a small number of external events.
For simple [affine motion](/wiki/Affine_motion "Affine motion") of the points, the number of discrete changes to the [convex hull](/wiki/Convex_hull "Convex hull") is [estimated by](/wiki/Big_O_notation%23Family_of_Bachmann%E2%80%93Landau_notations "Big O notation#Family of Bachmann–Landau notations") \\Omega(n^2\), thus the number of changes to any triangulation is also lower bounded by \\Omega(n^2\). Finding any triangulation scheme that has a near\-quadratic bound on the number of discrete changes is an important open problem.
### Delaunay triangulation
The [Delaunay triangulation](/wiki/Delaunay_triangulation "Delaunay triangulation") seems like a natural candidate, but a tight worst\-case analysis of the number of discrete changes that will occur to the Delaunay triangulation (external events) was considered an open problem until 2015; it has now been bounded to be between \\Omega(n^2\) and O(n^{2\+\\epsilon}).
There is a kinetic data structure that [efficiently](/wiki/Kinetic_data_structure%23Performance "Kinetic data structure#Performance") maintains the Delaunay triangulation of a set of moving points,Gerhard Albers, [Leonidas J. Guibas](/wiki/Leonidas_J._Guibas "Leonidas J. Guibas"), Joseph S. B. Mitchell, and Thomas Roos. Voronoi diagrams of moving points. Int. J. Comput. Geometry Appl., 8(3\):365{380, 1998\. in which the ratio of the total number of events to the number of external events is O(1\).
### Other triangulations
Kaplan et al. developed a [randomized](/wiki/Randomized_algorithm "Randomized algorithm") triangulation scheme that experiences an expected number of O(n^2 \\beta\_{s\+2}(n) \\log^2 n) external events, where s is the maximum number of times each triple of points can become collinear, \\beta\_{s\+2}(q) \= \\frac{\\lambda\_{s\+2}(q)}{q}, and \\lambda\_{s\+2}(q) is the maximum length of a [Davenport\-Schinzel sequence](/wiki/Davenport-Schinzel_sequence "Davenport-Schinzel sequence") of order s \+ 2 on n symbols.
### Pseudo\-triangulations
There is a kinetic data structure (due to Agarwal et al.) which maintains a [pseudo\-triangulation](/wiki/Pseudo-triangulation "Pseudo-triangulation") in O(n^22^{\\sqrt{\\log n\\log\\log n}}) events total.Pankaj K. Agarwal, Julien Basch, Leonidas J. Guibas, John Hershberger, and Li Zhang. Deformable free\-space tilings for kinetic collision detection. I. J. Robotic Res., 21(3\):179{198, 2002\. [http://research.microsoft.com/en\-us/um/people/lzha/papers/pset\-j.pdf](http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/lzha/papers/pset-j.pdf) All events are [external](/wiki/Kinetic_data_structure%23Certificates_Approach "Kinetic data structure#Certificates Approach") and require O(\\lg n) time to process.
|
[
"Choosing a triangulation scheme\n-------------------------------",
"The efficiency of a kinetic data structure is defined based on the ratio of the number of internal events to external events, thus good runtime bounds can sometimes be obtained by choosing to use a triangulation scheme that generates a small number of external events.\nFor simple [affine motion](/wiki/Affine_motion \"Affine motion\") of the points, the number of discrete changes to the [convex hull](/wiki/Convex_hull \"Convex hull\") is [estimated by](/wiki/Big_O_notation%23Family_of_Bachmann%E2%80%93Landau_notations \"Big O notation#Family of Bachmann–Landau notations\") \\\\Omega(n^2\\), thus the number of changes to any triangulation is also lower bounded by \\\\Omega(n^2\\). Finding any triangulation scheme that has a near\\-quadratic bound on the number of discrete changes is an important open problem.",
"### Delaunay triangulation",
"The [Delaunay triangulation](/wiki/Delaunay_triangulation \"Delaunay triangulation\") seems like a natural candidate, but a tight worst\\-case analysis of the number of discrete changes that will occur to the Delaunay triangulation (external events) was considered an open problem until 2015; it has now been bounded to be between \\\\Omega(n^2\\) and O(n^{2\\+\\\\epsilon}).",
"There is a kinetic data structure that [efficiently](/wiki/Kinetic_data_structure%23Performance \"Kinetic data structure#Performance\") maintains the Delaunay triangulation of a set of moving points,Gerhard Albers, [Leonidas J. Guibas](/wiki/Leonidas_J._Guibas \"Leonidas J. Guibas\"), Joseph S. B. Mitchell, and Thomas Roos. Voronoi diagrams of moving points. Int. J. Comput. Geometry Appl., 8(3\\):365{380, 1998\\. in which the ratio of the total number of events to the number of external events is O(1\\).",
"### Other triangulations",
"Kaplan et al. developed a [randomized](/wiki/Randomized_algorithm \"Randomized algorithm\") triangulation scheme that experiences an expected number of O(n^2 \\\\beta\\_{s\\+2}(n) \\\\log^2 n) external events, where s is the maximum number of times each triple of points can become collinear, \\\\beta\\_{s\\+2}(q) \\= \\\\frac{\\\\lambda\\_{s\\+2}(q)}{q}, and \\\\lambda\\_{s\\+2}(q) is the maximum length of a [Davenport\\-Schinzel sequence](/wiki/Davenport-Schinzel_sequence \"Davenport-Schinzel sequence\") of order s \\+ 2 on n symbols.",
"### Pseudo\\-triangulations",
"There is a kinetic data structure (due to Agarwal et al.) which maintains a [pseudo\\-triangulation](/wiki/Pseudo-triangulation \"Pseudo-triangulation\") in O(n^22^{\\\\sqrt{\\\\log n\\\\log\\\\log n}}) events total.Pankaj K. Agarwal, Julien Basch, Leonidas J. Guibas, John Hershberger, and Li Zhang. Deformable free\\-space tilings for kinetic collision detection. I. J. Robotic Res., 21(3\\):179{198, 2002\\. [http://research.microsoft.com/en\\-us/um/people/lzha/papers/pset\\-j.pdf](http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/lzha/papers/pset-j.pdf) All events are [external](/wiki/Kinetic_data_structure%23Certificates_Approach \"Kinetic data structure#Certificates Approach\") and require O(\\\\lg n) time to process.",
""
] |
Early life
----------
[left\|thumb\|216x216px\|Ismail Berzeg (right)](/wiki/File:Sc%C3%A8nes%2C_paysages%2C_moeurs_et_costumes_du_Caucase_dessin%C3%A9s_d%27apr%C3%A9s_nature_par_le_prince_G._Gagarine.3.jpg "Scènes, paysages, moeurs et costumes du Caucase dessinés d'aprés nature par le prince G. Gagarine.3.jpg")
Berzeg was born in 1763 in [Ubykhia](/wiki/Ubykhia "Ubykhia"). English agent and traveler [James Bell](/wiki/James_Bell_%28adventurer%29 "James Bell (adventurer)") noted that each Berzeg family member could send 150 men to the battlefield, a combined 3,000 warriors. Saad\-Girey Berzeg, Ismail's predecessor, was the Ubykh leader at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1823, after Saad\-Girey's death, Ismail was elected leader of the Berzeg clan and the commander of all Ubykhs. Ismail lived in the valley of the Sochi River, on its right bank, two hours from the sea.
Bell described Ismail Dogomuko Berzeg: "He was a tall man with beautiful gray eyes. His influence was determined not only by belonging to the strongest surname among the Ubykhs, but also by his ebullient energy, courage and intelligence." Bell described him as a religious Muslim.
Beginning in 1827, Ismail engaged in organizing a military confederation of the tribes living on the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea") coast. By the end of 1839, he had united the population between [Tuapse](/wiki/Tuapse "Tuapse") and [Gagra](/wiki/Gagra "Gagra") into a union. During this period Bell characterized him as, "Circassian Washington". At an old age, in 1835, during the assault on Gagra, Berzeg was seriously wounded. In 1836 he commanded the Ubykh detachment during another raid. In the war, Hajji Ismail lost all nine of his sons.
In 1840, Berzeg organized an attack on Russian coastal outposts. In February\-March, the Ubykhs stormed the fortresses of Lazarevskoe, Velyaminovskoe and Mikhailovskoe on the Vulan River. Attempts were made to occupy Adler, Golovinskoe and Navaginskoe forts.
Russian troops made great efforts to recapture these strongholds. Later that year, Berzeg organized a punitive campaign against the Abaza clans on the coast, who did not take part in the anti\-Russian struggle.
In 1841, he participated in negotiations with Russian military leaders in Sochi, but the negotiations failed. Russian leaders stated that the Circassians were "poor villagers waiting for help from the English". A Russian officer, Lorer, who witnessed Ismail Berzeg's meeting with the Russians, later wrote in his memoirs:{{Cite journal\|last\=Hatajuqua\|first\=Ali\|title\=Hadji\-Ismail Dagomuqua Berzeg, Circassian Warrior and Diplomat\|journal\=Eurasia Daily Monitor\|volume\=7\|issue\=38}}
{{Blockquote\|text\=I must say, General, your statements truly astound me. If your master, the Tsar, is so wealthy, and we are so poor and barbaric, why does your master envy us and forbid us from living in our humble mountains? Your lord appears to be greedy and lustful. I'm afraid, sir, we won't be surrendering the Englishmen and Turkish pashas in our lands; we can not abandon them because they are our friends and visitors. No amount of gold or silver, I swear to God, will be able to deviate us from the path of honor.\|author\=Ismail Berzeg}}
In 1846, Berzeg, together with his nephew [Qerandiqo Berzeg](/wiki/Qerandiqo_Berzeg "Qerandiqo Berzeg"), fought many battles with the Russian armies before leaving for [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj "Hajj"). He died that year returning home.
|
[
"Early life\n----------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|216x216px\\|Ismail Berzeg (right)](/wiki/File:Sc%C3%A8nes%2C_paysages%2C_moeurs_et_costumes_du_Caucase_dessin%C3%A9s_d%27apr%C3%A9s_nature_par_le_prince_G._Gagarine.3.jpg \"Scènes, paysages, moeurs et costumes du Caucase dessinés d'aprés nature par le prince G. Gagarine.3.jpg\")\nBerzeg was born in 1763 in [Ubykhia](/wiki/Ubykhia \"Ubykhia\"). English agent and traveler [James Bell](/wiki/James_Bell_%28adventurer%29 \"James Bell (adventurer)\") noted that each Berzeg family member could send 150 men to the battlefield, a combined 3,000 warriors. Saad\\-Girey Berzeg, Ismail's predecessor, was the Ubykh leader at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1823, after Saad\\-Girey's death, Ismail was elected leader of the Berzeg clan and the commander of all Ubykhs. Ismail lived in the valley of the Sochi River, on its right bank, two hours from the sea.",
"Bell described Ismail Dogomuko Berzeg: \"He was a tall man with beautiful gray eyes. His influence was determined not only by belonging to the strongest surname among the Ubykhs, but also by his ebullient energy, courage and intelligence.\" Bell described him as a religious Muslim.",
"Beginning in 1827, Ismail engaged in organizing a military confederation of the tribes living on the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea \"Black Sea\") coast. By the end of 1839, he had united the population between [Tuapse](/wiki/Tuapse \"Tuapse\") and [Gagra](/wiki/Gagra \"Gagra\") into a union. During this period Bell characterized him as, \"Circassian Washington\". At an old age, in 1835, during the assault on Gagra, Berzeg was seriously wounded. In 1836 he commanded the Ubykh detachment during another raid. In the war, Hajji Ismail lost all nine of his sons.",
"In 1840, Berzeg organized an attack on Russian coastal outposts. In February\\-March, the Ubykhs stormed the fortresses of Lazarevskoe, Velyaminovskoe and Mikhailovskoe on the Vulan River. Attempts were made to occupy Adler, Golovinskoe and Navaginskoe forts.",
"Russian troops made great efforts to recapture these strongholds. Later that year, Berzeg organized a punitive campaign against the Abaza clans on the coast, who did not take part in the anti\\-Russian struggle.",
"In 1841, he participated in negotiations with Russian military leaders in Sochi, but the negotiations failed. Russian leaders stated that the Circassians were \"poor villagers waiting for help from the English\". A Russian officer, Lorer, who witnessed Ismail Berzeg's meeting with the Russians, later wrote in his memoirs:{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Hatajuqua\\|first\\=Ali\\|title\\=Hadji\\-Ismail Dagomuqua Berzeg, Circassian Warrior and Diplomat\\|journal\\=Eurasia Daily Monitor\\|volume\\=7\\|issue\\=38}}",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=I must say, General, your statements truly astound me. If your master, the Tsar, is so wealthy, and we are so poor and barbaric, why does your master envy us and forbid us from living in our humble mountains? Your lord appears to be greedy and lustful. I'm afraid, sir, we won't be surrendering the Englishmen and Turkish pashas in our lands; we can not abandon them because they are our friends and visitors. No amount of gold or silver, I swear to God, will be able to deviate us from the path of honor.\\|author\\=Ismail Berzeg}}",
"In 1846, Berzeg, together with his nephew [Qerandiqo Berzeg](/wiki/Qerandiqo_Berzeg \"Qerandiqo Berzeg\"), fought many battles with the Russian armies before leaving for [Hajj](/wiki/Hajj \"Hajj\"). He died that year returning home.",
""
] |
Behaviour and ecology
---------------------
### Feeding
The grey cuckooshrike is insectivorous; feeding mostly on crickets, caterpillars and locusts. Spiders, winged termites and beetles also form a part of their diet. They forage in the upper forest canopy, looking for insects in the foliage and on tree trunks. They hop on branches and examine the underside of the leaves above for insects, when they see one they snatch the prey and return to their perch before eating it.
### Breeding
In Southern Africa, breeding occurs in the summer months between October and January, and nest building has been recorded as early as September in the most southern parts of South Africa. The central African subspecies breeds during the rainy season, but avoids the wettest periods.
| \+Breeding periods of grey cuckooshrike in various African countries | Country | Breeding months |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Cameroon | Nov |
| DRC | Jan–Jun and Aug |
| Ethiopia | Feb–Mar |
| Kenya | Jan–Mar; Aug, Oct and Dec |
| Malawi | Sept |
| Sudan | Aug and Dec |
| Tanzania | Jan–Mar; Aug, Oct and Dec |
| Uganda | Jan–Mar; Aug, Oct and Dec |
Their nests are a shallow bowl shape and constructed by both sexes from *[Usnea](/wiki/Usnea "Usnea")* lichen and spider webs, perched 17 to 20 meters up in trees on the forest edge. The clutch size is one or two eggs which are an oval shape and pale bluish\-green with olive and brown spots. The chicks are black with grey down when they hatch, and remain in the nest until the following breeding season. Both the male and female incubate the eggs, but little else is known about the incubation or fledging periods. They are monogamous breeders and will stay in that pair until one dies; and the surviving individual will seek a new mate.
### Social behaviour and calls
The grey cuckooshrike is somewhat inconspicuous, making observations about its behaviour challenging. They are usually observed alone or in pairs and less frequently in small groups of up to 7 individuals. During the non\-breeding season they have been seen foraging in [mixed species flocks](/wiki/Mixed-species_foraging_flock "Mixed-species foraging flock"). Their flight is described as "slow and level with heavy wing beats".
These are relatively quiet birds, their call is described as a faint, high\-pitched "tseeeeep" while foraging and a "seeeeea" call at their nests. Other calls include a weaver\-like chatter and sneeze\-like "chi\-ooo" sounds.
|
[
"Behaviour and ecology\n---------------------",
"### Feeding",
"The grey cuckooshrike is insectivorous; feeding mostly on crickets, caterpillars and locusts. Spiders, winged termites and beetles also form a part of their diet. They forage in the upper forest canopy, looking for insects in the foliage and on tree trunks. They hop on branches and examine the underside of the leaves above for insects, when they see one they snatch the prey and return to their perch before eating it.",
"### Breeding",
"In Southern Africa, breeding occurs in the summer months between October and January, and nest building has been recorded as early as September in the most southern parts of South Africa. The central African subspecies breeds during the rainy season, but avoids the wettest periods.",
"| \\+Breeding periods of grey cuckooshrike in various African countries | Country | Breeding months |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Cameroon | Nov |\n| DRC | Jan–Jun and Aug |\n| Ethiopia | Feb–Mar |\n| Kenya | Jan–Mar; Aug, Oct and Dec |\n| Malawi | Sept |\n| Sudan | Aug and Dec |\n| Tanzania | Jan–Mar; Aug, Oct and Dec |\n| Uganda | Jan–Mar; Aug, Oct and Dec |",
"Their nests are a shallow bowl shape and constructed by both sexes from *[Usnea](/wiki/Usnea \"Usnea\")* lichen and spider webs, perched 17 to 20 meters up in trees on the forest edge. The clutch size is one or two eggs which are an oval shape and pale bluish\\-green with olive and brown spots. The chicks are black with grey down when they hatch, and remain in the nest until the following breeding season. Both the male and female incubate the eggs, but little else is known about the incubation or fledging periods. They are monogamous breeders and will stay in that pair until one dies; and the surviving individual will seek a new mate.",
"### Social behaviour and calls",
"The grey cuckooshrike is somewhat inconspicuous, making observations about its behaviour challenging. They are usually observed alone or in pairs and less frequently in small groups of up to 7 individuals. During the non\\-breeding season they have been seen foraging in [mixed species flocks](/wiki/Mixed-species_foraging_flock \"Mixed-species foraging flock\"). Their flight is described as \"slow and level with heavy wing beats\".",
"These are relatively quiet birds, their call is described as a faint, high\\-pitched \"tseeeeep\" while foraging and a \"seeeeea\" call at their nests. Other calls include a weaver\\-like chatter and sneeze\\-like \"chi\\-ooo\" sounds.",
""
] |
Toyota's (Ohno's) seven forms of waste
--------------------------------------
One of the key steps in lean process and TPS is to identify which activities add value and which do not, then to progressively work to improve or eliminate them.
[Taiichi Ohno](/wiki/Taiichi_Ohno "Taiichi Ohno"), "father" of the Toyota Production System, originally identified seven forms of *muda* or waste:Ohno, T. (1988\), *Toyota Production System: Beyond Large Scale Production*, Productivity Press, Portland, Oregon
[thumb\|center\|upright\=2\.0\|Seven types of waste identified in lean manufacturing](/wiki/File:Different_kinds_of_waste_in_lean_manufacturing.png "Different kinds of waste in lean manufacturing.png")
A mnemonic may be useful for remembering the categories of waste, such as TIM WOOD or TIM WOODS (with the S referring to Skills).Phillips Healthcare Ultrasound Division. "Gemba Tour: Come and see for yourself", 2016\. Pamphlet distributed by Philips Ultrasound Factory in Bothell, WA.
### Transporting
Every time a product is touched or moved unnecessarily there is a risk that it could be damaged, lost, delayed, etc. as well as being a cost for no added value. Transporting does not add value to the product, i.e. is not a transformation for which the consumer is willing to pay.
### Inventory
Whether in the form of raw materials, [work\-in\-progress](/wiki/Work_in_process "Work in process") (WIP), or finished goods, represents a capital outlay that cannot yet produce an income. The longer a product sits in one of these states, the more it contributes to waste. The smooth, continuous flow of work through each process ensures excess amounts of inventory are minimized.
### Motion
In contrast to transportation, which refers to damage and transaction costs associated with moving the product, motion refers to the damage and costs inflicted on what creates the product. This can include [wear and tear](/wiki/Wear_and_tear "Wear and tear") for equipment, [repetitive strain injuries](/wiki/Repetitive_strain_injury "Repetitive strain injury") for workers or unnecessary downtime.
### Waiting
Whenever the product is not in transportation or being processed, it is waiting (typically in a queue). In traditional processes, a large part of an individual product's life is spent waiting to be worked on.
### Overproduction
Making more of a product than is required results in several forms of waste, typically caused by production in large batches. The customer's needs often change over the time it takes to produce a larger batch. Over\-production has been described as the worst kind of waste.{{cite web\|url\=http://xp\-consulting.fr/FR/2015/01/04/why\-overproduction\-is\-the\-worst\-muda/\|title\=Why is Overproduction the Worst Muda? \|publisher\=XP Consulting\|work\=Le BLOG\|date\=4 January 2015\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-29}}
### Over processing
Doing more to a product than is required by the end\-customer results in it taking longer and costing more to produce. This also includes using components that are more precise, complex, expensive or higher quality than absolutely required.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2018}}
### Defects
Having to discard or rework a product due to earlier defective work or components results in additional cost and delays.
|
[
"Toyota's (Ohno's) seven forms of waste\n--------------------------------------",
"One of the key steps in lean process and TPS is to identify which activities add value and which do not, then to progressively work to improve or eliminate them.",
"[Taiichi Ohno](/wiki/Taiichi_Ohno \"Taiichi Ohno\"), \"father\" of the Toyota Production System, originally identified seven forms of *muda* or waste:Ohno, T. (1988\\), *Toyota Production System: Beyond Large Scale Production*, Productivity Press, Portland, Oregon",
"[thumb\\|center\\|upright\\=2\\.0\\|Seven types of waste identified in lean manufacturing](/wiki/File:Different_kinds_of_waste_in_lean_manufacturing.png \"Different kinds of waste in lean manufacturing.png\")",
"A mnemonic may be useful for remembering the categories of waste, such as TIM WOOD or TIM WOODS (with the S referring to Skills).Phillips Healthcare Ultrasound Division. \"Gemba Tour: Come and see for yourself\", 2016\\. Pamphlet distributed by Philips Ultrasound Factory in Bothell, WA.",
"### Transporting",
"Every time a product is touched or moved unnecessarily there is a risk that it could be damaged, lost, delayed, etc. as well as being a cost for no added value. Transporting does not add value to the product, i.e. is not a transformation for which the consumer is willing to pay.",
"### Inventory",
"Whether in the form of raw materials, [work\\-in\\-progress](/wiki/Work_in_process \"Work in process\") (WIP), or finished goods, represents a capital outlay that cannot yet produce an income. The longer a product sits in one of these states, the more it contributes to waste. The smooth, continuous flow of work through each process ensures excess amounts of inventory are minimized.",
"### Motion",
"In contrast to transportation, which refers to damage and transaction costs associated with moving the product, motion refers to the damage and costs inflicted on what creates the product. This can include [wear and tear](/wiki/Wear_and_tear \"Wear and tear\") for equipment, [repetitive strain injuries](/wiki/Repetitive_strain_injury \"Repetitive strain injury\") for workers or unnecessary downtime.",
"### Waiting",
"Whenever the product is not in transportation or being processed, it is waiting (typically in a queue). In traditional processes, a large part of an individual product's life is spent waiting to be worked on.",
"### Overproduction",
"Making more of a product than is required results in several forms of waste, typically caused by production in large batches. The customer's needs often change over the time it takes to produce a larger batch. Over\\-production has been described as the worst kind of waste.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://xp\\-consulting.fr/FR/2015/01/04/why\\-overproduction\\-is\\-the\\-worst\\-muda/\\|title\\=Why is Overproduction the Worst Muda? \\|publisher\\=XP Consulting\\|work\\=Le BLOG\\|date\\=4 January 2015\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-29}}",
"### Over processing",
"Doing more to a product than is required by the end\\-customer results in it taking longer and costing more to produce. This also includes using components that are more precise, complex, expensive or higher quality than absolutely required.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2018}}",
"### Defects",
"Having to discard or rework a product due to earlier defective work or components results in additional cost and delays.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Origins
The 8th Aero Squadron was drawn from enlisted personnel of the 2d Company "I" Provisional aviation camp, [Kelly Field](/wiki/Kelly_Field "Kelly Field"), Texas. After a short period of training at Kelly Field, the squadron moved to [Selfridge Field](/wiki/Selfridge_Field "Selfridge Field"), Michigan, on 5 July 1917\. Together with the [9th Aero Squadron](/wiki/9th_Aero_Squadron "9th Aero Squadron"), the 8th helped to construct the new flying field. For three and a half months, the 8th Aero Squadron was engaged in training, the flight cadets completing primary aviation flight training, including soloing on [Curtiss JN\-4](/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4 "Curtiss JN-4") "Jenny" trainers.
By mid October, the squadron was placed on alert for overseas duty, and on the 27th, the 8th Aero moved to Aviation Concentration Center, Garden City, New York to await transportation overseas, and spent the next month being trained in the fundamentals of soldiering.
On 22 November, the squadron was ordered on board the {{RMS\|Carpathia}}, arriving at [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool"), England, on 7 December, moving on to the American Rest Camp "Winnaldon", near [Winchester](/wiki/Winchester "Winchester"). There, the squadron was divided into four Flights, which were sent to several [Royal Flying Corps](/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps "Royal Flying Corps") Airdromes for additional training. The squadron was re\-assembled at RFC Thetford on 1 May 1918 for final training, and was ordered to France on 16 July.
### Combat in France
The squadron crossed the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel "English Channel") on the night of the 17th, arriving at [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre "Le Havre") and proceeded to the Air Service Replacement Concentration Center at [St. Maixent Replacement Barracks](/wiki/St._Maixent_Replacement_Barracks "St. Maixent Replacement Barracks"). After a short stay, it was classified as a Corps Observation squadron and ordered to the 1st Observation Group School at [Amanty Airdrome](/wiki/Amanty_Airdrome "Amanty Airdrome"), arriving on 31 July. At Amanty, the squadron was equipped with American\-made [Dayton\-Wright DH\-4](/wiki/Dayton-Wright_DH-4 "Dayton-Wright DH-4") aircraft, the second squadron equipped with the aircraft to reach the Western Front. In addition, owing to the short distance from the front, two weeks of intensive training was given to the pilots and observers, flying over enemy territory.
On 31 August the squadron was moved by train to [Ourches Aerodrome](/wiki/Ourches_Aerodrome "Ourches Aerodrome") from which it would fly combat missions. There the squadron became part of the [IV Corps Observation Group](/wiki/IV_Corps_Observation_Group "IV Corps Observation Group") and was attached as a Divisional Observation Squadron to the First Division. The squadron was immediately engaged in combat duty, flying photographic and reconnaissance missions over the St. Mihiel Salient. On 29 September, the entire IV Corps Group moved up to [Croix de Metz Aerodrome](/wiki/Toul-Croix_de_Metz_Airfield "Toul-Croix de Metz Airfield"), situated about two kilometers northeast of [Toul](/wiki/Toul "Toul"), Meurthe et Moselle, France. The squadron remained here little less than a month. During this time considerable work was accomplished; at the suggestion of Col. Kahn, two photographic planes were sent out on single missions with protection, instead of one aircraft. On such a trip made 25 September, a string of pictures covering some forty kilometers were taken. This was one of the longest, if not *the* longest, strip photographed by an American Observation squadron on a single mission. One of the duties assigned the squadron at this time was photographing the entire Corps front to a depth of ten kilometers, an area of 600 square kilometers. A large number of these pictures had been taken before the squadron was transferred to the VI Corps.
On 8 October {{Not a typo\|1st}} Lt. Edward R. Moore and 1st Lt. Gardner P. Allen while on a photographic mission displayed extraordinary heroism for which they were later awarded the [Distinguished Service Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Service Cross (United States)"). The next day, 1st Lt. Robert J. Cochran and 1st Lt. Claude S. Garrett, Flight commander of Flight "C" were brought down in flames while taking pictures. They, with three other planes, were attacked by twenty\-six German aircraft. Three German planes were brought down, two by Sgt. F.G. Smith and one by Lt. S. Chambers.
On 23 October, the squadron was moved to [Saizerais Aerodrome](/wiki/Saizerais_Aerodrome "Saizerais Aerodrome") and attached to the VI Army Corps, where shortly after arrival it was joined by the [354th Aero squadron](/wiki/354th_Aero_squadron "354th Aero squadron"). This squadron had just arrived on the front and in order to place experienced flyers in the squadron, Major McNarney ordered seven pilots and seven observers transferred to the 354th Squadron. While at Saizerais and before the Armistice was signed, five officers were lost. Both at Toul and Saizerais a number of successful voluntary bombing missions were carried out. While at Saizerais, one German aircraft was destroyed and officially credited to Lt. F. B. Fort and Sergeant B.B. Cook.
### Post\-Armistice activities
The 8th Aero Squadron was engaged in active combat in France for about two and one\-half months. They logged over 900 combat hours on photographic/bombing missions in the Dayton\-Wright DH\-4, "Liberty Plane", with only one forced landing and four enemy aircraft kills credited.
On 5 February 1919, G\-3 order.s NJ. 129, Headquarters, Second Army, was received relieving the squadron from the II and VI Army Corps, with instructions to proceed by truck train to the 1st Air Depot, [Colombey\-les\-Belles Airdrome](/wiki/Colombey-les-Belles_Airdrome "Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome"), for preparation to return to the United States. Under G.H.Q. orders, only ten officers were allowed to be taken with the squadron, so it became necessary to detach the surplus officers. The DH\-4 aircraft were to be delivered to Air Service Production Center No. 2\. at [Romorantin Aerodrome](/wiki/Romorantin_Aerodrome "Romorantin Aerodrome"), a distance of about four hundred miles from the airdrome. One plane, however, was transferred to the 354th Squadron. The flight leaders were given orders to land at [Orly Field](/wiki/Orly_Field "Orly Field"), near Paris, for gas and oil and then proceed to their destination. One plane was forced to land because of losing the drain plug from its water pump while in the air. A safe landing was made, however, and the plane was later flown to destination. By 9:00 P.M. 8 February 1919, all planes had been heard from and were safe. The 8th Aero Squadron then became a ground unit.History, 8th Bombardment Squadron (L), 3d Bombardment Group (L) AAF, 31 May 1917 – 31 March 1944
On 19 February, the squadron entrained at Barisey\-la\-Cote, for St. Andre\-de\-Culizac. Seven box cars were assigned the squadron for officers and men. Five days were consumed on the move to [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux "Bordeaux") where, upon arrival, billets were assigned to officers and men in the small village of [Fargues\-Saint\-Hilaire](/wiki/Fargues-Saint-Hilaire "Fargues-Saint-Hilaire"). The billets were the usual French rooms but the men were very comfortable. The squadron commander and his adjutant were assigned one of the largest chateaux in the village, splendidly furnished and equipped with billiard tables and a huge library.
The squadron remained there until 19 April spending the time in preparing for embarkation. It then moved by marching to Camp Genicort, a distance of about ten kilometers, and went through the delousing mill the same day. On 20 April, the reign of terror of final preparation for return was completed and found the squadron on board the {{USS\|Pastores\|AF\-16\|6}} with the shores of La Belle, France, receding in the distance. On 2 May 1919, the squadron debarked and moved by ferry and train to [Camp Mills](/wiki/Camp_Mills "Camp Mills"), Garden City, Long Island, and was once again deloused. On 3 May the organization moved to [Mitchell Field](/wiki/Mitchell_Field "Mitchell Field"), Long Island, and the work of transferring the enlisted men to different cantonments for discharge commenced. This was completed by 20 May and the squadron then consisted of one officer, 1st Lt. Walter Bender, and eight men, all of whom were on furlough.
The squadron was then sent back to Kelly Field, Texas on 25 May 1919\. One officer and the squadron records were transferred to Kelly Field, Texas. After reorganization at Kelly Field, Texas on 5 July 1919 in which one officer and 150 men were assigned from Rockwell Field, California.
### Lineage
* Organized as **8th Aero Squadron** on 21 June 1917
Re\-designated: **8th Aero Squadron (Corps Observation)**, 31 July 1918
Re\-designated: **8th Aero Squadron**, 3 May 1919
Re\-designated: **8th Surveillance Squadron**, 25 May 1919{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\=10482 \|title\=8 Special Operations Squadron (AFSOC) \|access\-date\=6 May 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225095421/http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\=10482 \|archive\-date\=25 February 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Assignments
{{Col\-begin}}
{{Col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* Post Headquarters, Kelly Field, 21 June 1917
* Post Headquarters, Selfridge Field, 8 July 1917
* Aviation Concentration Center, 28 October 1917
* Headquarters American Rest Camp, 8 December 1917
* Air Service Headquarters, AEF, British Isles, 24 December 1917
Attached to: [Royal Flying Corps](/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps "Royal Flying Corps") for training
* Headquarters American Air Service Camp, 18 July 1918
* Air Service Replacement Concentration Center, 20 July 1918
{{Col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* [IV Corps Observation Group](/wiki/IV_Corps_Observation_Group "IV Corps Observation Group"), 31 August 1918
Attached to: First Division, AEF, 8–14 Sep 1918
* [VI Corps Observation Group](/wiki/VI_Corps_Observation_Group "VI Corps Observation Group"), 23 October 1918
* 2d Air Instructional Center, 21 November 1919
* 1st Air Depot, 5 February 1919
* Commanding General, Services of Supply, February\-20 Apr 1919
* Post Headquarters, Mitchell Field, 3 May 1919
* Post Headquarters, Kelly Field, 25 May 1919
{{col\-end}}
### Stations
{{col\-begin}}
{{col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* [Kelly Field](/wiki/Kelly_Field "Kelly Field"), Texas, 21 June 1917
* [Selfridge Field](/wiki/Selfridge_Field "Selfridge Field"), Michigan, 8 July 1917
* [Aviation Concentration Center](/wiki/Aviation_Concentration_Center "Aviation Concentration Center"), Garden City, New York, 28 Oct\-22 Nov 1917
* Port of Entry, [Hoboken, New Jersey](/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey "Hoboken, New Jersey")
Overseas transport, {{RMS\|Carpathia}}, 22 November\-7 December 1917
* [Winchester](/wiki/Winchester "Winchester"), England, 8 December 1917
* RFC Dartford, England, c. 24 December 1917
Detachments at RFC Thetford, [RFC Wyton](/wiki/RFC_Wyton "RFC Wyton"), and [RFC Northolt](/wiki/RFC_Northolt "RFC Northolt"), England
* RFC Thetford, England, 1 May\-17 Jul 1918
* [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre "Le Havre"), France, 18 July 1918
{{col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* [St. Maixent Replacement Barracks](/wiki/St._Maixent_Replacement_Barracks "St. Maixent Replacement Barracks"), France, 20 July 1918
* [Amanty Airdrome](/wiki/Amanty_Airdrome "Amanty Airdrome"), France, 31 July 1918
* [Ourches Aerodrome](/wiki/Ourches_Aerodrome "Ourches Aerodrome"), France, 31 August 1918
* [Croix de Metz Aerodrome](/wiki/Toul-Croix_de_Metz_Airfield "Toul-Croix de Metz Airfield") (Toul), France, 29 September 1918
* [Saizerais Aerodrome](/wiki/Saizerais_Aerodrome "Saizerais Aerodrome"), France, 23 October 1918
* [Tours Aerodrome](/wiki/Tours_Aerodrome "Tours Aerodrome"), France, 21 November 1918
* [Colombey\-les\-Belles Airdrome](/wiki/Colombey-les-Belles_Airdrome "Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome"), France, 5 February 1919
* [Fargues\-Saint\-Hilaire](/wiki/Fargues-Saint-Hilaire "Fargues-Saint-Hilaire"), France, 22 Feb\-18 Apr 1919
Return transport, {{USS\|Pastores\|AF\-16\|6}}, 20 April\-2 May 1919
* [Mitchel Field](/wiki/Mitchel_Field "Mitchel Field"), New York, 3 May 1919
* [Kelly Field](/wiki/Kelly_Field "Kelly Field"), Texas, 25 May 1919
{{col\-end}}
### Combat sectors and campaigns
| Streamer | Sector/Campaign | Dates | Notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [250px](/wiki/File:Streamer_ST._MIHIEL_1918_ARMY.png "Streamer ST. MIHIEL 1918 ARMY.png") | [St. Mihiel Offensive Campaign](/wiki/St._Mihiel_Offensive_Campaign "St. Mihiel Offensive Campaign") | 12–16 September 1918 | |
| | Toul Sector | 17 September\-11 November 1918 | United States War Department (1920\), Battle Participation of Organizations of the American Expeditionary Forces in France, Belgium and Italy, 1917–1919, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1920 |
### Notable personnel
{{Col\-begin}}
{{Col\-break\|width\=50%}}
* Lt. Gardner P. Allen, DSC
* Lt. Claude S. Garrett, Flight Leader, KIA
* Lt. Edward R. Moore, DSC
* Lt. Charles E. Whitehouse
* [Capt. John G. Winant](/wiki/John_Gilbert_Winant "John Gilbert Winant")
* Capt. William B. Wynn, SSC
{{col\-end}}
DSC: [Distinguished Service Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Service Cross (United States)"); SSC: [Silver Star Citation](/wiki/Citation_Star "Citation Star"); KIA: [Killed in Action](/wiki/Killed_in_Action "Killed in Action"){{Cite web \|url\=http://projects.militarytimes.com/citations\-medals\-awards/search.php?term\=8th\+Aero\+Squadron \|title\=Military Times Hall of Valor Search, 8th Aero Squadron \|access\-date\=29 August 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130829131350/http://projects.militarytimes.com/citations\-medals\-awards/search.php?term\=8th\+Aero\+Squadron \|archive\-date\=29 August 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Origins",
"The 8th Aero Squadron was drawn from enlisted personnel of the 2d Company \"I\" Provisional aviation camp, [Kelly Field](/wiki/Kelly_Field \"Kelly Field\"), Texas. After a short period of training at Kelly Field, the squadron moved to [Selfridge Field](/wiki/Selfridge_Field \"Selfridge Field\"), Michigan, on 5 July 1917\\. Together with the [9th Aero Squadron](/wiki/9th_Aero_Squadron \"9th Aero Squadron\"), the 8th helped to construct the new flying field. For three and a half months, the 8th Aero Squadron was engaged in training, the flight cadets completing primary aviation flight training, including soloing on [Curtiss JN\\-4](/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4 \"Curtiss JN-4\") \"Jenny\" trainers.",
"By mid October, the squadron was placed on alert for overseas duty, and on the 27th, the 8th Aero moved to Aviation Concentration Center, Garden City, New York to await transportation overseas, and spent the next month being trained in the fundamentals of soldiering.",
"On 22 November, the squadron was ordered on board the {{RMS\\|Carpathia}}, arriving at [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\"), England, on 7 December, moving on to the American Rest Camp \"Winnaldon\", near [Winchester](/wiki/Winchester \"Winchester\"). There, the squadron was divided into four Flights, which were sent to several [Royal Flying Corps](/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps \"Royal Flying Corps\") Airdromes for additional training. The squadron was re\\-assembled at RFC Thetford on 1 May 1918 for final training, and was ordered to France on 16 July.",
"### Combat in France",
"The squadron crossed the [English Channel](/wiki/English_Channel \"English Channel\") on the night of the 17th, arriving at [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\") and proceeded to the Air Service Replacement Concentration Center at [St. Maixent Replacement Barracks](/wiki/St._Maixent_Replacement_Barracks \"St. Maixent Replacement Barracks\"). After a short stay, it was classified as a Corps Observation squadron and ordered to the 1st Observation Group School at [Amanty Airdrome](/wiki/Amanty_Airdrome \"Amanty Airdrome\"), arriving on 31 July. At Amanty, the squadron was equipped with American\\-made [Dayton\\-Wright DH\\-4](/wiki/Dayton-Wright_DH-4 \"Dayton-Wright DH-4\") aircraft, the second squadron equipped with the aircraft to reach the Western Front. In addition, owing to the short distance from the front, two weeks of intensive training was given to the pilots and observers, flying over enemy territory.",
"On 31 August the squadron was moved by train to [Ourches Aerodrome](/wiki/Ourches_Aerodrome \"Ourches Aerodrome\") from which it would fly combat missions. There the squadron became part of the [IV Corps Observation Group](/wiki/IV_Corps_Observation_Group \"IV Corps Observation Group\") and was attached as a Divisional Observation Squadron to the First Division. The squadron was immediately engaged in combat duty, flying photographic and reconnaissance missions over the St. Mihiel Salient. On 29 September, the entire IV Corps Group moved up to [Croix de Metz Aerodrome](/wiki/Toul-Croix_de_Metz_Airfield \"Toul-Croix de Metz Airfield\"), situated about two kilometers northeast of [Toul](/wiki/Toul \"Toul\"), Meurthe et Moselle, France. The squadron remained here little less than a month. During this time considerable work was accomplished; at the suggestion of Col. Kahn, two photographic planes were sent out on single missions with protection, instead of one aircraft. On such a trip made 25 September, a string of pictures covering some forty kilometers were taken. This was one of the longest, if not *the* longest, strip photographed by an American Observation squadron on a single mission. One of the duties assigned the squadron at this time was photographing the entire Corps front to a depth of ten kilometers, an area of 600 square kilometers. A large number of these pictures had been taken before the squadron was transferred to the VI Corps.",
"On 8 October {{Not a typo\\|1st}} Lt. Edward R. Moore and 1st Lt. Gardner P. Allen while on a photographic mission displayed extraordinary heroism for which they were later awarded the [Distinguished Service Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Service Cross (United States)\"). The next day, 1st Lt. Robert J. Cochran and 1st Lt. Claude S. Garrett, Flight commander of Flight \"C\" were brought down in flames while taking pictures. They, with three other planes, were attacked by twenty\\-six German aircraft. Three German planes were brought down, two by Sgt. F.G. Smith and one by Lt. S. Chambers.",
"On 23 October, the squadron was moved to [Saizerais Aerodrome](/wiki/Saizerais_Aerodrome \"Saizerais Aerodrome\") and attached to the VI Army Corps, where shortly after arrival it was joined by the [354th Aero squadron](/wiki/354th_Aero_squadron \"354th Aero squadron\"). This squadron had just arrived on the front and in order to place experienced flyers in the squadron, Major McNarney ordered seven pilots and seven observers transferred to the 354th Squadron. While at Saizerais and before the Armistice was signed, five officers were lost. Both at Toul and Saizerais a number of successful voluntary bombing missions were carried out. While at Saizerais, one German aircraft was destroyed and officially credited to Lt. F. B. Fort and Sergeant B.B. Cook.",
"### Post\\-Armistice activities",
"The 8th Aero Squadron was engaged in active combat in France for about two and one\\-half months. They logged over 900 combat hours on photographic/bombing missions in the Dayton\\-Wright DH\\-4, \"Liberty Plane\", with only one forced landing and four enemy aircraft kills credited.",
"On 5 February 1919, G\\-3 order.s NJ. 129, Headquarters, Second Army, was received relieving the squadron from the II and VI Army Corps, with instructions to proceed by truck train to the 1st Air Depot, [Colombey\\-les\\-Belles Airdrome](/wiki/Colombey-les-Belles_Airdrome \"Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome\"), for preparation to return to the United States. Under G.H.Q. orders, only ten officers were allowed to be taken with the squadron, so it became necessary to detach the surplus officers. The DH\\-4 aircraft were to be delivered to Air Service Production Center No. 2\\. at [Romorantin Aerodrome](/wiki/Romorantin_Aerodrome \"Romorantin Aerodrome\"), a distance of about four hundred miles from the airdrome. One plane, however, was transferred to the 354th Squadron. The flight leaders were given orders to land at [Orly Field](/wiki/Orly_Field \"Orly Field\"), near Paris, for gas and oil and then proceed to their destination. One plane was forced to land because of losing the drain plug from its water pump while in the air. A safe landing was made, however, and the plane was later flown to destination. By 9:00 P.M. 8 February 1919, all planes had been heard from and were safe. The 8th Aero Squadron then became a ground unit.History, 8th Bombardment Squadron (L), 3d Bombardment Group (L) AAF, 31 May 1917 – 31 March 1944",
"On 19 February, the squadron entrained at Barisey\\-la\\-Cote, for St. Andre\\-de\\-Culizac. Seven box cars were assigned the squadron for officers and men. Five days were consumed on the move to [Bordeaux](/wiki/Bordeaux \"Bordeaux\") where, upon arrival, billets were assigned to officers and men in the small village of [Fargues\\-Saint\\-Hilaire](/wiki/Fargues-Saint-Hilaire \"Fargues-Saint-Hilaire\"). The billets were the usual French rooms but the men were very comfortable. The squadron commander and his adjutant were assigned one of the largest chateaux in the village, splendidly furnished and equipped with billiard tables and a huge library.",
"The squadron remained there until 19 April spending the time in preparing for embarkation. It then moved by marching to Camp Genicort, a distance of about ten kilometers, and went through the delousing mill the same day. On 20 April, the reign of terror of final preparation for return was completed and found the squadron on board the {{USS\\|Pastores\\|AF\\-16\\|6}} with the shores of La Belle, France, receding in the distance. On 2 May 1919, the squadron debarked and moved by ferry and train to [Camp Mills](/wiki/Camp_Mills \"Camp Mills\"), Garden City, Long Island, and was once again deloused. On 3 May the organization moved to [Mitchell Field](/wiki/Mitchell_Field \"Mitchell Field\"), Long Island, and the work of transferring the enlisted men to different cantonments for discharge commenced. This was completed by 20 May and the squadron then consisted of one officer, 1st Lt. Walter Bender, and eight men, all of whom were on furlough.",
"The squadron was then sent back to Kelly Field, Texas on 25 May 1919\\. One officer and the squadron records were transferred to Kelly Field, Texas. After reorganization at Kelly Field, Texas on 5 July 1919 in which one officer and 150 men were assigned from Rockwell Field, California.",
"### Lineage",
"* Organized as **8th Aero Squadron** on 21 June 1917",
"Re\\-designated: **8th Aero Squadron (Corps Observation)**, 31 July 1918\n Re\\-designated: **8th Aero Squadron**, 3 May 1919\n Re\\-designated: **8th Surveillance Squadron**, 25 May 1919{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\\=10482 \\|title\\=8 Special Operations Squadron (AFSOC) \\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225095421/http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\\=10482 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n### Assignments",
"{{Col\\-begin}}\n{{Col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* Post Headquarters, Kelly Field, 21 June 1917\n* Post Headquarters, Selfridge Field, 8 July 1917\n* Aviation Concentration Center, 28 October 1917\n* Headquarters American Rest Camp, 8 December 1917\n* Air Service Headquarters, AEF, British Isles, 24 December 1917",
"Attached to: [Royal Flying Corps](/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps \"Royal Flying Corps\") for training\n* Headquarters American Air Service Camp, 18 July 1918\n* Air Service Replacement Concentration Center, 20 July 1918\n{{Col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* [IV Corps Observation Group](/wiki/IV_Corps_Observation_Group \"IV Corps Observation Group\"), 31 August 1918",
"Attached to: First Division, AEF, 8–14 Sep 1918\n* [VI Corps Observation Group](/wiki/VI_Corps_Observation_Group \"VI Corps Observation Group\"), 23 October 1918\n* 2d Air Instructional Center, 21 November 1919\n* 1st Air Depot, 5 February 1919\n* Commanding General, Services of Supply, February\\-20 Apr 1919\n* Post Headquarters, Mitchell Field, 3 May 1919\n* Post Headquarters, Kelly Field, 25 May 1919\n{{col\\-end}}",
"### Stations",
"{{col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* [Kelly Field](/wiki/Kelly_Field \"Kelly Field\"), Texas, 21 June 1917\n* [Selfridge Field](/wiki/Selfridge_Field \"Selfridge Field\"), Michigan, 8 July 1917\n* [Aviation Concentration Center](/wiki/Aviation_Concentration_Center \"Aviation Concentration Center\"), Garden City, New York, 28 Oct\\-22 Nov 1917\n* Port of Entry, [Hoboken, New Jersey](/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey \"Hoboken, New Jersey\")",
"Overseas transport, {{RMS\\|Carpathia}}, 22 November\\-7 December 1917\n* [Winchester](/wiki/Winchester \"Winchester\"), England, 8 December 1917\n* RFC Dartford, England, c. 24 December 1917",
"Detachments at RFC Thetford, [RFC Wyton](/wiki/RFC_Wyton \"RFC Wyton\"), and [RFC Northolt](/wiki/RFC_Northolt \"RFC Northolt\"), England\n* RFC Thetford, England, 1 May\\-17 Jul 1918\n* [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\"), France, 18 July 1918\n{{col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* [St. Maixent Replacement Barracks](/wiki/St._Maixent_Replacement_Barracks \"St. Maixent Replacement Barracks\"), France, 20 July 1918\n* [Amanty Airdrome](/wiki/Amanty_Airdrome \"Amanty Airdrome\"), France, 31 July 1918\n* [Ourches Aerodrome](/wiki/Ourches_Aerodrome \"Ourches Aerodrome\"), France, 31 August 1918\n* [Croix de Metz Aerodrome](/wiki/Toul-Croix_de_Metz_Airfield \"Toul-Croix de Metz Airfield\") (Toul), France, 29 September 1918\n* [Saizerais Aerodrome](/wiki/Saizerais_Aerodrome \"Saizerais Aerodrome\"), France, 23 October 1918\n* [Tours Aerodrome](/wiki/Tours_Aerodrome \"Tours Aerodrome\"), France, 21 November 1918\n* [Colombey\\-les\\-Belles Airdrome](/wiki/Colombey-les-Belles_Airdrome \"Colombey-les-Belles Airdrome\"), France, 5 February 1919\n* [Fargues\\-Saint\\-Hilaire](/wiki/Fargues-Saint-Hilaire \"Fargues-Saint-Hilaire\"), France, 22 Feb\\-18 Apr 1919",
"Return transport, {{USS\\|Pastores\\|AF\\-16\\|6}}, 20 April\\-2 May 1919\n* [Mitchel Field](/wiki/Mitchel_Field \"Mitchel Field\"), New York, 3 May 1919\n* [Kelly Field](/wiki/Kelly_Field \"Kelly Field\"), Texas, 25 May 1919\n{{col\\-end}}",
"### Combat sectors and campaigns",
"",
"| Streamer | Sector/Campaign | Dates | Notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [250px](/wiki/File:Streamer_ST._MIHIEL_1918_ARMY.png \"Streamer ST. MIHIEL 1918 ARMY.png\") | [St. Mihiel Offensive Campaign](/wiki/St._Mihiel_Offensive_Campaign \"St. Mihiel Offensive Campaign\") | 12–16 September 1918 | |\n| | Toul Sector | 17 September\\-11 November 1918 | United States War Department (1920\\), Battle Participation of Organizations of the American Expeditionary Forces in France, Belgium and Italy, 1917–1919, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1920 |",
"### Notable personnel",
"{{Col\\-begin}}\n{{Col\\-break\\|width\\=50%}}\n* Lt. Gardner P. Allen, DSC\n* Lt. Claude S. Garrett, Flight Leader, KIA\n* Lt. Edward R. Moore, DSC\n* Lt. Charles E. Whitehouse\n* [Capt. John G. Winant](/wiki/John_Gilbert_Winant \"John Gilbert Winant\")\n* Capt. William B. Wynn, SSC\n{{col\\-end}}\n DSC: [Distinguished Service Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Service Cross (United States)\"); SSC: [Silver Star Citation](/wiki/Citation_Star \"Citation Star\"); KIA: [Killed in Action](/wiki/Killed_in_Action \"Killed in Action\"){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://projects.militarytimes.com/citations\\-medals\\-awards/search.php?term\\=8th\\+Aero\\+Squadron \\|title\\=Military Times Hall of Valor Search, 8th Aero Squadron \\|access\\-date\\=29 August 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130829131350/http://projects.militarytimes.com/citations\\-medals\\-awards/search.php?term\\=8th\\+Aero\\+Squadron \\|archive\\-date\\=29 August 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
""
] |
Career
------
Between 1866 and 1869, she worked in the tea and Chinese porcelain industry at "À la Porte Chinoise", run by her sister, Hélène, in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels").
During the short Franco\-Prussian War (1870–1871\), according to family oral tradition, she became involved as a volunteer nurse in the Belgian Association for the Relief of Soldiers Wounded in Wartime, made up mainly of notables.Associations Belge de secours aux militaires Blessés en temps de guerre, "Compte rendu des opérations du comité de Bruxelles", Imprimerie J. Sannes, Brussels, 1871, p. 17\.
In 1875,{{efn\|According to Cherrington (1928\), the couple married in 1871\.}} she married François Keelhoff, a painter from [Limbourg](/wiki/Limbourg "Limbourg") and son of the notary of {{ill\|Neerhaeren\|nl}}. She was then 42 years old, her husband 55\. She settled in Neerhaeren, her husband's hometown, and she invested in the education of poor children.AVB, Nyssens Fund, box 17, letter addressed to Antonia Nyssens\-Van\-Dreveld, December 25, 1942 by her nephew Raymond Van der Burght, notary in Vilvoorde, accompanying a biography of Joséphine Keelhoff (“Aunt Josse”), written by Burght in 1921\.
### Temperance
Widowed in 1893, and without descendants, Keelhoff sold a large part of her possessions and moved to Brussels to devote herself to the fight against alcohol and to mobilize for the women's cause. As president of the *Union des femmes belges contre l'alcoolism* of which she was also one of the founders, her long tenure of office (1899–1914\) bore witness to her efficient leadership of that society. She was the founder of the temperance journal *La Clairiere* and of the Flemish publication *Het Geluk der Huisgezin* (The Health of the Family). From 1904 to 1914, she directed the publication of *L'almanach de la femme* (The Woman's Almanac), and wrote several small brochures, among others "La Poupee Humaine" (The Human Doll).
The Union's ideals also included more progressive issues such as the status of the worker, women's rights, and compulsory education. The aim was to improve the social system of the time. These ideals became international, and Keelhoff took part in major anti\-alcohol demonstrations in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") in 1900, [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva") in 1903, [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest") in 1905, and [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") in 1907\. She received honors at these events: the honorary diploma in Budapest and three gold medal diplomas in Milan. The Union was later subsidized by the [Ministry of Agriculture](/wiki/Minister_of_Agriculture_%28Belgium%29 "Minister of Agriculture (Belgium)").AVB, Fond Nyssens, box 8, L'Union des femmes..., PV des séances, séance du 298 June 1900 and G. Malherbe, {{lang\|fr\|Les sociétés de temperance\|italics\=yes}}, Binche\-Bruxelles, 1900, p. 22\-27
Keelhoff's most remarkable achievement was the opening of the Restaurant Hygiénique, on 3 December 1901, on the [Place du Sablon](/wiki/Sablon%2C_Brussels "Sablon, Brussels") in Brussels. With her own funds, Keelhoff took the initiative of renting the first floor of number 40 and setting up a restaurant offering complete meals at affordable prices. The Hygienic Restaurant also housed a library, a reading room, and a conference room. It was in these rooms that feminist speakers would give speeches, for Keelhoff's activism was first and foremost a feminist one. The Restaurant hygiénique was so successful that several similar establishments were built throughout the country.
For some time, she was a member of the general council of the *La Ligue patriotique contre l'alcoolisme* (The Patriotic League Against Alcoholism). She attended the Sixth International Congress Against Alcoholism, at Brussels, in 1897, and the Eighth Congress, at [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), in 1901\. At the latter meeting, she read in French a paper, "On Woman’s Participation in the Fight Against Alcoholism". In 1905, Keelhoff became a member of the {{lang\|fr\|Conseil Général du Comité National contre l’Alcoolisme\|italics\=yes}} (General Council of the National Committee against Alcoholism).
### Feminism
Keelhoff's feminist struggle was an extension of her anti\-alcoholism campaign. She held feminist conferences in her Restaurant Hygiénique and delivered speeches that were very modern for the time, calling for gender equality at all levels and denouncing male oppression.
In 1899, Keelhoff joined the [Ligue belge du droit des femmes](/wiki/Ligue_belge_du_droit_des_femmes "Ligue belge du droit des femmes") (Belgian League for Women's Rights). She became increasingly involved. In 1905, she joined the [Conseil national des femmes belges](/wiki/Conseil_national_des_femmes_belges "Conseil national des femmes belges") (CNFB) under the leadership of [Marie Popelin](/wiki/Marie_Popelin "Marie Popelin"), its founder. This council also included the Ligue belge du droit des femmes. Keelhoff contributed to the development of Belgian feminism, while at the same time displaying a pacifism imbued with great humanism. In the same year, she took on the role of Commissioner in the {{lang\|fr\|Association des cités\-jardins\|italics\=yes}}, one of eleven associations developed by the CNBF, offering social housing to families living in slums. In 1909, she became a member of the [Belgian Labour Party](/wiki/Belgian_Labour_Party "Belgian Labour Party") and devoted her life to the peaceful defense of the Belgian feminist movement.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Between 1866 and 1869, she worked in the tea and Chinese porcelain industry at \"À la Porte Chinoise\", run by her sister, Hélène, in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\").",
"During the short Franco\\-Prussian War (1870–1871\\), according to family oral tradition, she became involved as a volunteer nurse in the Belgian Association for the Relief of Soldiers Wounded in Wartime, made up mainly of notables.Associations Belge de secours aux militaires Blessés en temps de guerre, \"Compte rendu des opérations du comité de Bruxelles\", Imprimerie J. Sannes, Brussels, 1871, p. 17\\.",
"In 1875,{{efn\\|According to Cherrington (1928\\), the couple married in 1871\\.}} she married François Keelhoff, a painter from [Limbourg](/wiki/Limbourg \"Limbourg\") and son of the notary of {{ill\\|Neerhaeren\\|nl}}. She was then 42 years old, her husband 55\\. She settled in Neerhaeren, her husband's hometown, and she invested in the education of poor children.AVB, Nyssens Fund, box 17, letter addressed to Antonia Nyssens\\-Van\\-Dreveld, December 25, 1942 by her nephew Raymond Van der Burght, notary in Vilvoorde, accompanying a biography of Joséphine Keelhoff (“Aunt Josse”), written by Burght in 1921\\.",
"### Temperance",
"Widowed in 1893, and without descendants, Keelhoff sold a large part of her possessions and moved to Brussels to devote herself to the fight against alcohol and to mobilize for the women's cause. As president of the *Union des femmes belges contre l'alcoolism* of which she was also one of the founders, her long tenure of office (1899–1914\\) bore witness to her efficient leadership of that society. She was the founder of the temperance journal *La Clairiere* and of the Flemish publication *Het Geluk der Huisgezin* (The Health of the Family). From 1904 to 1914, she directed the publication of *L'almanach de la femme* (The Woman's Almanac), and wrote several small brochures, among others \"La Poupee Humaine\" (The Human Doll).",
"The Union's ideals also included more progressive issues such as the status of the worker, women's rights, and compulsory education. The aim was to improve the social system of the time. These ideals became international, and Keelhoff took part in major anti\\-alcohol demonstrations in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") in 1900, [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\") in 1903, [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\") in 1905, and [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") in 1907\\. She received honors at these events: the honorary diploma in Budapest and three gold medal diplomas in Milan. The Union was later subsidized by the [Ministry of Agriculture](/wiki/Minister_of_Agriculture_%28Belgium%29 \"Minister of Agriculture (Belgium)\").AVB, Fond Nyssens, box 8, L'Union des femmes..., PV des séances, séance du 298 June 1900 and G. Malherbe, {{lang\\|fr\\|Les sociétés de temperance\\|italics\\=yes}}, Binche\\-Bruxelles, 1900, p. 22\\-27",
"Keelhoff's most remarkable achievement was the opening of the Restaurant Hygiénique, on 3 December 1901, on the [Place du Sablon](/wiki/Sablon%2C_Brussels \"Sablon, Brussels\") in Brussels. With her own funds, Keelhoff took the initiative of renting the first floor of number 40 and setting up a restaurant offering complete meals at affordable prices. The Hygienic Restaurant also housed a library, a reading room, and a conference room. It was in these rooms that feminist speakers would give speeches, for Keelhoff's activism was first and foremost a feminist one. The Restaurant hygiénique was so successful that several similar establishments were built throughout the country.",
"For some time, she was a member of the general council of the *La Ligue patriotique contre l'alcoolisme* (The Patriotic League Against Alcoholism). She attended the Sixth International Congress Against Alcoholism, at Brussels, in 1897, and the Eighth Congress, at [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), in 1901\\. At the latter meeting, she read in French a paper, \"On Woman’s Participation in the Fight Against Alcoholism\". In 1905, Keelhoff became a member of the {{lang\\|fr\\|Conseil Général du Comité National contre l’Alcoolisme\\|italics\\=yes}} (General Council of the National Committee against Alcoholism).",
"### Feminism",
"Keelhoff's feminist struggle was an extension of her anti\\-alcoholism campaign. She held feminist conferences in her Restaurant Hygiénique and delivered speeches that were very modern for the time, calling for gender equality at all levels and denouncing male oppression.",
"In 1899, Keelhoff joined the [Ligue belge du droit des femmes](/wiki/Ligue_belge_du_droit_des_femmes \"Ligue belge du droit des femmes\") (Belgian League for Women's Rights). She became increasingly involved. In 1905, she joined the [Conseil national des femmes belges](/wiki/Conseil_national_des_femmes_belges \"Conseil national des femmes belges\") (CNFB) under the leadership of [Marie Popelin](/wiki/Marie_Popelin \"Marie Popelin\"), its founder. This council also included the Ligue belge du droit des femmes. Keelhoff contributed to the development of Belgian feminism, while at the same time displaying a pacifism imbued with great humanism. In the same year, she took on the role of Commissioner in the {{lang\\|fr\\|Association des cités\\-jardins\\|italics\\=yes}}, one of eleven associations developed by the CNBF, offering social housing to families living in slums. In 1909, she became a member of the [Belgian Labour Party](/wiki/Belgian_Labour_Party \"Belgian Labour Party\") and devoted her life to the peaceful defense of the Belgian feminist movement.",
""
] |
Life
----
A [szlachcic](/wiki/Szlachcic "Szlachcic") of [Jastrzębiec coat of arms](/wiki/Jastrz%C4%99biec_coat_of_arms "Jastrzębiec coat of arms"), Mikołaj Abramowicz was the son of [Smolensk voivode](/wiki/Smole%C5%84sk_Voivodeship "Smoleńsk Voivodeship") [Jan Abramowicz](/wiki/Jan_Abramowicz "Jan Abramowicz"). His birth documents have not survived, but it is recorded that he served as the senior cannon officer (artillery leader) during the 1621–22 [war with Sweden](/wiki/Polish-Swedish_wars "Polish-Swedish wars"). In subsequent conflicts with [Sweden](/wiki/History_of_Sweden_%281611-1648%29 "History of Sweden (1611-1648)"), he fought in the failed [1625 campaign](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_%281621%E2%80%931625%29 "Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625)"), capturing the bridge crossing at [Daugava](/wiki/Daugava_River "Daugava River"), and particularly distinguished himself as a regimental commander during the [1626–29 war](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_%281626%E2%80%931629%29 "Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)"), in the [Battle of Vistula](/wiki/Battle_of_Vistula "Battle of Vistula").
As one of the last [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") leaders in the predominantly [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church") region, he granted his [Lutsk](/wiki/Lutsk "Lutsk") mansion to the Lithuanian [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinist "Calvinist") [synod](/wiki/Synod "Synod") for use as an evangelical school.
Returning to military service, Abramowicz served in the 1633–34 [Smolensk War](/wiki/Smolensk_War "Smolensk War") and, holding the rank of colonel, was one of the negotiators in the June 1634 [Treaty of Polyanovka](/wiki/Treaty_of_Polyanovka "Treaty of Polyanovka"), which ended the conflict. In 1638 King [Władysław IV Vasa](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_IV_Vasa "Władysław IV Vasa") nominated him as [Cześnik](/wiki/Cze%C5%9Bnik "Cześnik") Wielki Litewski (Great Grand Duke's Cup\-Bearer of Lithuania). He rose to the office of [castellan](/wiki/Castellan "Castellan") of [Mścisław](/wiki/Mstsislaw "Mstsislaw") in 1639, General (top commander) of the artillery of Lithuania in 1640, [Voivode of Mścisław](/wiki/Voivode_of_M%C5%9Bcis%C5%82aw "Voivode of Mścisław") in 1643, and [voivode of Trakai](/wiki/Trakai_voivodeship "Trakai voivodeship") in 1647\.
In view of Abramowicz's prominent activity in the Lithuanian Calvinist synod at a time of increased [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation") in the Commonwealth, his ability to retain high offices, was taken as sign of King Władysław's faith in his leadership. The confidence proved particularly well\-founded during the 1645 event known as the [Trubchevsk](/wiki/Trubchevsk "Trubchevsk") incident ({{lang\|pl\|incydent trubecki}}), as Lithuanian nobles rose in opposition to the king's treaty with Russia, which signed away the fortified border town of Trubchevsk. The king sent Abramowicz at the head of a company of King's Guards to restore order and oversee the territorial transfer. In the aftermath, the [Lithuanian Tribunal](/wiki/Lithuanian_Tribunal "Lithuanian Tribunal") lodged a high complaint against Abramowicz for illegal expropriation of property and sentenced him to loss of honor, banishment and a high compensatory damage. The sentences were never carried out due to the intervention of the king, who rewarded Abramowicz's loyalty with advancement to the [Trakai Voivodeship](/wiki/Trakai_Voivodeship "Trakai Voivodeship").
In the final three years of his life, Abramowicz served as a diplomat in the 1648 negotiations with Sweden, and in the Senate talks of 1649\. In his final public function, he signed the Senate resolution known as the *Evangelical Salvation*, providing certain rights to Calvinists. He died in Vilnius in his early to mid\-fifties.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"A [szlachcic](/wiki/Szlachcic \"Szlachcic\") of [Jastrzębiec coat of arms](/wiki/Jastrz%C4%99biec_coat_of_arms \"Jastrzębiec coat of arms\"), Mikołaj Abramowicz was the son of [Smolensk voivode](/wiki/Smole%C5%84sk_Voivodeship \"Smoleńsk Voivodeship\") [Jan Abramowicz](/wiki/Jan_Abramowicz \"Jan Abramowicz\"). His birth documents have not survived, but it is recorded that he served as the senior cannon officer (artillery leader) during the 1621–22 [war with Sweden](/wiki/Polish-Swedish_wars \"Polish-Swedish wars\"). In subsequent conflicts with [Sweden](/wiki/History_of_Sweden_%281611-1648%29 \"History of Sweden (1611-1648)\"), he fought in the failed [1625 campaign](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_%281621%E2%80%931625%29 \"Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625)\"), capturing the bridge crossing at [Daugava](/wiki/Daugava_River \"Daugava River\"), and particularly distinguished himself as a regimental commander during the [1626–29 war](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_War_%281626%E2%80%931629%29 \"Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)\"), in the [Battle of Vistula](/wiki/Battle_of_Vistula \"Battle of Vistula\").",
"As one of the last [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") leaders in the predominantly [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") region, he granted his [Lutsk](/wiki/Lutsk \"Lutsk\") mansion to the Lithuanian [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinist \"Calvinist\") [synod](/wiki/Synod \"Synod\") for use as an evangelical school.",
"Returning to military service, Abramowicz served in the 1633–34 [Smolensk War](/wiki/Smolensk_War \"Smolensk War\") and, holding the rank of colonel, was one of the negotiators in the June 1634 [Treaty of Polyanovka](/wiki/Treaty_of_Polyanovka \"Treaty of Polyanovka\"), which ended the conflict. In 1638 King [Władysław IV Vasa](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_IV_Vasa \"Władysław IV Vasa\") nominated him as [Cześnik](/wiki/Cze%C5%9Bnik \"Cześnik\") Wielki Litewski (Great Grand Duke's Cup\\-Bearer of Lithuania). He rose to the office of [castellan](/wiki/Castellan \"Castellan\") of [Mścisław](/wiki/Mstsislaw \"Mstsislaw\") in 1639, General (top commander) of the artillery of Lithuania in 1640, [Voivode of Mścisław](/wiki/Voivode_of_M%C5%9Bcis%C5%82aw \"Voivode of Mścisław\") in 1643, and [voivode of Trakai](/wiki/Trakai_voivodeship \"Trakai voivodeship\") in 1647\\.",
"In view of Abramowicz's prominent activity in the Lithuanian Calvinist synod at a time of increased [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\") in the Commonwealth, his ability to retain high offices, was taken as sign of King Władysław's faith in his leadership. The confidence proved particularly well\\-founded during the 1645 event known as the [Trubchevsk](/wiki/Trubchevsk \"Trubchevsk\") incident ({{lang\\|pl\\|incydent trubecki}}), as Lithuanian nobles rose in opposition to the king's treaty with Russia, which signed away the fortified border town of Trubchevsk. The king sent Abramowicz at the head of a company of King's Guards to restore order and oversee the territorial transfer. In the aftermath, the [Lithuanian Tribunal](/wiki/Lithuanian_Tribunal \"Lithuanian Tribunal\") lodged a high complaint against Abramowicz for illegal expropriation of property and sentenced him to loss of honor, banishment and a high compensatory damage. The sentences were never carried out due to the intervention of the king, who rewarded Abramowicz's loyalty with advancement to the [Trakai Voivodeship](/wiki/Trakai_Voivodeship \"Trakai Voivodeship\").",
"In the final three years of his life, Abramowicz served as a diplomat in the 1648 negotiations with Sweden, and in the Senate talks of 1649\\. In his final public function, he signed the Senate resolution known as the *Evangelical Salvation*, providing certain rights to Calvinists. He died in Vilnius in his early to mid\\-fifties.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Adelaide 36ers
Darryl Pearce was born in [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide"), [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia "South Australia"), and was a member of junior South Australian teams in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The [Adelaide 36ers](/wiki/Adelaide_36ers "Adelaide 36ers") were formed for the [1982 NBL season](/wiki/1982_NBL_season "1982 NBL season") (as the *Adelaide City Eagles*) with Pearce one of the first [guards](/wiki/Guard_%28basketball%29 "Guard (basketball)") signed by the club. He made his NBL debut on 6 February 1982 in Adelaide's 87–84 loss to the [Coburg Giants](/wiki/Coburg_Giants "Coburg Giants") at Adelaide's [Apollo Stadium](/wiki/Apollo_Stadium "Apollo Stadium"). Pearce scored 14 points and collected 4 rebounds on debut for the new club. He would go on to average 15\.9 points, 2\.7 rebounds and 2\.0 assists in his first season.
The club changed its name to the Adelaide 36ers from the [1983 NBL season](/wiki/1983_NBL_season "1983 NBL season"), though the club failed to make the [playoffs](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_Finals "NBL (Australia) Finals") until [1984](/wiki/1984_NBL_season "1984 NBL season") where they were defeated in the Elimination Finals by the [Nunawading Spectres](/wiki/South_East_Melbourne_Magic "South East Melbourne Magic"). By this time "The Iceman" had cemented his place as one of the premier shooting guards in the league.
Following the 1984 season, Adelaide's "other" team, the [1982 champion](/wiki/1982_NBL_Finals "1982 NBL Finals") [West Adelaide Bearcats](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Bearcats "West Adelaide Bearcats"), pulled out of the NBL and a number of their star players including 1982 season [MVP](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_Most_Valuable_Player "NBL (Australia) Most Valuable Player") [Al Green](/wiki/Al_Green_%28basketball%29 "Al Green (basketball)"), [Australian boomers](/wiki/Australian_boomers "Australian boomers") representatives Peter Ali and Ray Wood, and young gun [Mike McKay](/wiki/Mike_McKay_%28basketball%29 "Mike McKay (basketball)"), moved across to play for the 36ers.
Former [Australian Boomer](/wiki/Australia_men%27s_national_basketball_team "Australia men's national basketball team") and [1964](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_1964_Summer_Olympics "Basketball at the 1964 Summer Olympics") Olympic representative Ken Cole was signed as coach of the Adelaide 36ers for the [1985 NBL season](/wiki/1985_NBL_season "1985 NBL season"). Under Cole, the 36ers became one of the league's premier teams. Also joining the 36ers was 6'9" (206 cm) [centre](/wiki/Center_%28basketball%29 "Center (basketball)") [Bill Jones](/wiki/Bill_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1958%29 "Bill Jones (basketball, born 1958)"), and 6'7" (201 cm) rebounding [Power forward](/wiki/Power_forward_%28basketball%29 "Power forward (basketball)") [Mark Davis](/wiki/Mark_Davis_%28basketball%2C_born_1960%29 "Mark Davis (basketball, born 1960)"). Adelaide went on to a 20–6 record and second on the regular season ladder behind the [Brisbane Bullets](/wiki/Brisbane_Bullets "Brisbane Bullets"). The team had a bye going into the semi\-final where they easily defeated for the [Newcastle Falcons](/wiki/Newcastle_Falcons_%28basketball%29 "Newcastle Falcons (basketball)") 151–103 at home in what is still a record semi\-final win in the NBL. In the last single game NBL grand final ever played, Adelaide were up against the Brisbane Bullets on the Bullets' home court ([Sleeman Sports Centre](/wiki/Chandler_Arena "Chandler Arena")). Going into the final period the game the Bullets' were leading 78–74 but a 42–21 last period in favour of the home team saw Adelaide fail to win their first grand final going down 95–120\.
Statistically Darryl Pearce enjoyed his best ever NBL season in 1985, averaging 22\.8 points, 2\.9 rebounds and 4\.6 assists. With Green and Pearce, the 36ers had what many believed to be the league's best guard combination despite both being natural shooting guards. Cole successfully chose to leave Pearce at SG (primarily due to his better outside shooting) and move Green to play [Point guard](/wiki/Point_guard "Point guard"). Green jokingly later told that he "hated" Pearce for being forced to play the point, but added seriously that he would play alongside him any day because he is "a true winner".
Pearce and the 36ers won their first NBL championship in [1986](/wiki/1986_NBL_season "1986 NBL season"), defeating the Brisbane Bullets 2–1 in the NBL's first ever three game Grand Final series. The Iceman averaged 19\.3 points, 3\.1 rebounds and 3\.9 assists for the season while averaging 23\.0 points, 4\.0 rebounds and 4\.0 assists in the GF series.
While Adelaide, now under the coaching of [Gary Fox](/wiki/Gary_Fox_%28basketball%29 "Gary Fox (basketball)"), was still at the top of the league in [1987](/wiki/1987_NBL_season "1987 NBL season") and [1988](/wiki/1988_NBL_season "1988 NBL season"), they were unable to progress past the Semi\-finals in both seasons. Pearce averaged 20\.6 points in both seasons. In Round 2 of the 1988 season against the Ken Cole coached Newcastle Falcons in Newcastle, Pearce set two Adelaide 36ers records that still stand as of the [2014–15 NBL season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NBL_season "2014–15 NBL season"). He set the 36ers single game scoring record with 48 points and also set the record for most three\-pointers made when he hit 11/14 from outside the arc with only [Brett Maher](/wiki/Brett_Maher_%28basketball%29 "Brett Maher (basketball)") able to match his 3\-point record when he hit 11/12 in a game against Brisbane in [1996](/wiki/1996_NBL_season "1996 NBL season").
The team slipped to 6th place in [1989](/wiki/1989_NBL_season "1989 NBL season") in Fox's last year as coach before missing the playoffs for the first time in seven years by finishing 9th in [1990](/wiki/1990_NBL_season "1990 NBL season") under new coach and long time team assistant Don Shipway. Despite Adelaide missing the playoffs in 1990, Pearce was selected to his only [NBL All Star Game](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_All-Star_Game "NBL (Australia) All-Star Game") played at the [Perth Entertainment Centre](/wiki/Perth_Entertainment_Centre "Perth Entertainment Centre").
The club was back in the Semi\-finals in [1991](/wiki/1991_NBL_season "1991 NBL season"), but once again fell short, losing the Semis to defending champions the [Perth Wildcats](/wiki/Perth_Wildcats "Perth Wildcats"). 1991 would prove to be Darryl Pearce's last as a 36ers player and before the [1992 NBL season](/wiki/1992_NBL_season "1992 NBL season") he was released by the club and would join the North Melbourne Giants.
Darryl Pearce played 258 NBL games for the Adelaide 36ers.
### North Melbourne Giants
Pearce joined North Melbourne for the 1992 season, with his first game for the club being against Adelaide at the 36ers new home, the 8,000 seat [Clipsal Powerhouse](/wiki/Clipsal_Powerhouse "Clipsal Powerhouse"). He scored 8 points, 4 rebounds and 4 assists for the Giants, though they were beaten 106–84\. Despite their poor start, the Giants would make the Semi\-finals in 1992 where they were defeated in two games by the [South East Melbourne Magic](/wiki/South_East_Melbourne_Magic "South East Melbourne Magic").
After being eliminated in the [1993](/wiki/1993_NBL_season "1993 NBL season") Quarter finals by the [Perth Wildcats](/wiki/Perth_Wildcats "Perth Wildcats"), the Giants bounced back in [1994](/wiki/1994_NBL_season "1994 NBL season") to win their second NBL championship after defeating Pearce's former club Adelaide 2–0 in the Grand Final series.
Darryl Pearce's last season in the NBL came in [1995](/wiki/1995_NBL_season "1995 NBL season"). He announced his retirement after the Giants lost the Grand Final series to the Wildcats.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Adelaide 36ers",
"Darryl Pearce was born in [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\"), [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), and was a member of junior South Australian teams in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The [Adelaide 36ers](/wiki/Adelaide_36ers \"Adelaide 36ers\") were formed for the [1982 NBL season](/wiki/1982_NBL_season \"1982 NBL season\") (as the *Adelaide City Eagles*) with Pearce one of the first [guards](/wiki/Guard_%28basketball%29 \"Guard (basketball)\") signed by the club. He made his NBL debut on 6 February 1982 in Adelaide's 87–84 loss to the [Coburg Giants](/wiki/Coburg_Giants \"Coburg Giants\") at Adelaide's [Apollo Stadium](/wiki/Apollo_Stadium \"Apollo Stadium\"). Pearce scored 14 points and collected 4 rebounds on debut for the new club. He would go on to average 15\\.9 points, 2\\.7 rebounds and 2\\.0 assists in his first season.",
"The club changed its name to the Adelaide 36ers from the [1983 NBL season](/wiki/1983_NBL_season \"1983 NBL season\"), though the club failed to make the [playoffs](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_Finals \"NBL (Australia) Finals\") until [1984](/wiki/1984_NBL_season \"1984 NBL season\") where they were defeated in the Elimination Finals by the [Nunawading Spectres](/wiki/South_East_Melbourne_Magic \"South East Melbourne Magic\"). By this time \"The Iceman\" had cemented his place as one of the premier shooting guards in the league.",
"Following the 1984 season, Adelaide's \"other\" team, the [1982 champion](/wiki/1982_NBL_Finals \"1982 NBL Finals\") [West Adelaide Bearcats](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Bearcats \"West Adelaide Bearcats\"), pulled out of the NBL and a number of their star players including 1982 season [MVP](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_Most_Valuable_Player \"NBL (Australia) Most Valuable Player\") [Al Green](/wiki/Al_Green_%28basketball%29 \"Al Green (basketball)\"), [Australian boomers](/wiki/Australian_boomers \"Australian boomers\") representatives Peter Ali and Ray Wood, and young gun [Mike McKay](/wiki/Mike_McKay_%28basketball%29 \"Mike McKay (basketball)\"), moved across to play for the 36ers.",
"Former [Australian Boomer](/wiki/Australia_men%27s_national_basketball_team \"Australia men's national basketball team\") and [1964](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_1964_Summer_Olympics \"Basketball at the 1964 Summer Olympics\") Olympic representative Ken Cole was signed as coach of the Adelaide 36ers for the [1985 NBL season](/wiki/1985_NBL_season \"1985 NBL season\"). Under Cole, the 36ers became one of the league's premier teams. Also joining the 36ers was 6'9\" (206 cm) [centre](/wiki/Center_%28basketball%29 \"Center (basketball)\") [Bill Jones](/wiki/Bill_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1958%29 \"Bill Jones (basketball, born 1958)\"), and 6'7\" (201 cm) rebounding [Power forward](/wiki/Power_forward_%28basketball%29 \"Power forward (basketball)\") [Mark Davis](/wiki/Mark_Davis_%28basketball%2C_born_1960%29 \"Mark Davis (basketball, born 1960)\"). Adelaide went on to a 20–6 record and second on the regular season ladder behind the [Brisbane Bullets](/wiki/Brisbane_Bullets \"Brisbane Bullets\"). The team had a bye going into the semi\\-final where they easily defeated for the [Newcastle Falcons](/wiki/Newcastle_Falcons_%28basketball%29 \"Newcastle Falcons (basketball)\") 151–103 at home in what is still a record semi\\-final win in the NBL. In the last single game NBL grand final ever played, Adelaide were up against the Brisbane Bullets on the Bullets' home court ([Sleeman Sports Centre](/wiki/Chandler_Arena \"Chandler Arena\")). Going into the final period the game the Bullets' were leading 78–74 but a 42–21 last period in favour of the home team saw Adelaide fail to win their first grand final going down 95–120\\.",
"Statistically Darryl Pearce enjoyed his best ever NBL season in 1985, averaging 22\\.8 points, 2\\.9 rebounds and 4\\.6 assists. With Green and Pearce, the 36ers had what many believed to be the league's best guard combination despite both being natural shooting guards. Cole successfully chose to leave Pearce at SG (primarily due to his better outside shooting) and move Green to play [Point guard](/wiki/Point_guard \"Point guard\"). Green jokingly later told that he \"hated\" Pearce for being forced to play the point, but added seriously that he would play alongside him any day because he is \"a true winner\".",
"Pearce and the 36ers won their first NBL championship in [1986](/wiki/1986_NBL_season \"1986 NBL season\"), defeating the Brisbane Bullets 2–1 in the NBL's first ever three game Grand Final series. The Iceman averaged 19\\.3 points, 3\\.1 rebounds and 3\\.9 assists for the season while averaging 23\\.0 points, 4\\.0 rebounds and 4\\.0 assists in the GF series.",
"While Adelaide, now under the coaching of [Gary Fox](/wiki/Gary_Fox_%28basketball%29 \"Gary Fox (basketball)\"), was still at the top of the league in [1987](/wiki/1987_NBL_season \"1987 NBL season\") and [1988](/wiki/1988_NBL_season \"1988 NBL season\"), they were unable to progress past the Semi\\-finals in both seasons. Pearce averaged 20\\.6 points in both seasons. In Round 2 of the 1988 season against the Ken Cole coached Newcastle Falcons in Newcastle, Pearce set two Adelaide 36ers records that still stand as of the [2014–15 NBL season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NBL_season \"2014–15 NBL season\"). He set the 36ers single game scoring record with 48 points and also set the record for most three\\-pointers made when he hit 11/14 from outside the arc with only [Brett Maher](/wiki/Brett_Maher_%28basketball%29 \"Brett Maher (basketball)\") able to match his 3\\-point record when he hit 11/12 in a game against Brisbane in [1996](/wiki/1996_NBL_season \"1996 NBL season\").",
"The team slipped to 6th place in [1989](/wiki/1989_NBL_season \"1989 NBL season\") in Fox's last year as coach before missing the playoffs for the first time in seven years by finishing 9th in [1990](/wiki/1990_NBL_season \"1990 NBL season\") under new coach and long time team assistant Don Shipway. Despite Adelaide missing the playoffs in 1990, Pearce was selected to his only [NBL All Star Game](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_All-Star_Game \"NBL (Australia) All-Star Game\") played at the [Perth Entertainment Centre](/wiki/Perth_Entertainment_Centre \"Perth Entertainment Centre\").",
"The club was back in the Semi\\-finals in [1991](/wiki/1991_NBL_season \"1991 NBL season\"), but once again fell short, losing the Semis to defending champions the [Perth Wildcats](/wiki/Perth_Wildcats \"Perth Wildcats\"). 1991 would prove to be Darryl Pearce's last as a 36ers player and before the [1992 NBL season](/wiki/1992_NBL_season \"1992 NBL season\") he was released by the club and would join the North Melbourne Giants.",
"Darryl Pearce played 258 NBL games for the Adelaide 36ers.",
"### North Melbourne Giants",
"Pearce joined North Melbourne for the 1992 season, with his first game for the club being against Adelaide at the 36ers new home, the 8,000 seat [Clipsal Powerhouse](/wiki/Clipsal_Powerhouse \"Clipsal Powerhouse\"). He scored 8 points, 4 rebounds and 4 assists for the Giants, though they were beaten 106–84\\. Despite their poor start, the Giants would make the Semi\\-finals in 1992 where they were defeated in two games by the [South East Melbourne Magic](/wiki/South_East_Melbourne_Magic \"South East Melbourne Magic\").",
"After being eliminated in the [1993](/wiki/1993_NBL_season \"1993 NBL season\") Quarter finals by the [Perth Wildcats](/wiki/Perth_Wildcats \"Perth Wildcats\"), the Giants bounced back in [1994](/wiki/1994_NBL_season \"1994 NBL season\") to win their second NBL championship after defeating Pearce's former club Adelaide 2–0 in the Grand Final series.",
"Darryl Pearce's last season in the NBL came in [1995](/wiki/1995_NBL_season \"1995 NBL season\"). He announced his retirement after the Giants lost the Grand Final series to the Wildcats.",
""
] |
### Adelaide 36ers
Darryl Pearce was born in [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide"), [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia "South Australia"), and was a member of junior South Australian teams in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The [Adelaide 36ers](/wiki/Adelaide_36ers "Adelaide 36ers") were formed for the [1982 NBL season](/wiki/1982_NBL_season "1982 NBL season") (as the *Adelaide City Eagles*) with Pearce one of the first [guards](/wiki/Guard_%28basketball%29 "Guard (basketball)") signed by the club. He made his NBL debut on 6 February 1982 in Adelaide's 87–84 loss to the [Coburg Giants](/wiki/Coburg_Giants "Coburg Giants") at Adelaide's [Apollo Stadium](/wiki/Apollo_Stadium "Apollo Stadium"). Pearce scored 14 points and collected 4 rebounds on debut for the new club. He would go on to average 15\.9 points, 2\.7 rebounds and 2\.0 assists in his first season.
The club changed its name to the Adelaide 36ers from the [1983 NBL season](/wiki/1983_NBL_season "1983 NBL season"), though the club failed to make the [playoffs](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_Finals "NBL (Australia) Finals") until [1984](/wiki/1984_NBL_season "1984 NBL season") where they were defeated in the Elimination Finals by the [Nunawading Spectres](/wiki/South_East_Melbourne_Magic "South East Melbourne Magic"). By this time "The Iceman" had cemented his place as one of the premier shooting guards in the league.
Following the 1984 season, Adelaide's "other" team, the [1982 champion](/wiki/1982_NBL_Finals "1982 NBL Finals") [West Adelaide Bearcats](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Bearcats "West Adelaide Bearcats"), pulled out of the NBL and a number of their star players including 1982 season [MVP](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_Most_Valuable_Player "NBL (Australia) Most Valuable Player") [Al Green](/wiki/Al_Green_%28basketball%29 "Al Green (basketball)"), [Australian boomers](/wiki/Australian_boomers "Australian boomers") representatives Peter Ali and Ray Wood, and young gun [Mike McKay](/wiki/Mike_McKay_%28basketball%29 "Mike McKay (basketball)"), moved across to play for the 36ers.
Former [Australian Boomer](/wiki/Australia_men%27s_national_basketball_team "Australia men's national basketball team") and [1964](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_1964_Summer_Olympics "Basketball at the 1964 Summer Olympics") Olympic representative Ken Cole was signed as coach of the Adelaide 36ers for the [1985 NBL season](/wiki/1985_NBL_season "1985 NBL season"). Under Cole, the 36ers became one of the league's premier teams. Also joining the 36ers was 6'9" (206 cm) [centre](/wiki/Center_%28basketball%29 "Center (basketball)") [Bill Jones](/wiki/Bill_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1958%29 "Bill Jones (basketball, born 1958)"), and 6'7" (201 cm) rebounding [Power forward](/wiki/Power_forward_%28basketball%29 "Power forward (basketball)") [Mark Davis](/wiki/Mark_Davis_%28basketball%2C_born_1960%29 "Mark Davis (basketball, born 1960)"). Adelaide went on to a 20–6 record and second on the regular season ladder behind the [Brisbane Bullets](/wiki/Brisbane_Bullets "Brisbane Bullets"). The team had a bye going into the semi\-final where they easily defeated for the [Newcastle Falcons](/wiki/Newcastle_Falcons_%28basketball%29 "Newcastle Falcons (basketball)") 151–103 at home in what is still a record semi\-final win in the NBL. In the last single game NBL grand final ever played, Adelaide were up against the Brisbane Bullets on the Bullets' home court ([Sleeman Sports Centre](/wiki/Chandler_Arena "Chandler Arena")). Going into the final period the game the Bullets' were leading 78–74 but a 42–21 last period in favour of the home team saw Adelaide fail to win their first grand final going down 95–120\.
Statistically Darryl Pearce enjoyed his best ever NBL season in 1985, averaging 22\.8 points, 2\.9 rebounds and 4\.6 assists. With Green and Pearce, the 36ers had what many believed to be the league's best guard combination despite both being natural shooting guards. Cole successfully chose to leave Pearce at SG (primarily due to his better outside shooting) and move Green to play [Point guard](/wiki/Point_guard "Point guard"). Green jokingly later told that he "hated" Pearce for being forced to play the point, but added seriously that he would play alongside him any day because he is "a true winner".
Pearce and the 36ers won their first NBL championship in [1986](/wiki/1986_NBL_season "1986 NBL season"), defeating the Brisbane Bullets 2–1 in the NBL's first ever three game Grand Final series. The Iceman averaged 19\.3 points, 3\.1 rebounds and 3\.9 assists for the season while averaging 23\.0 points, 4\.0 rebounds and 4\.0 assists in the GF series.
While Adelaide, now under the coaching of [Gary Fox](/wiki/Gary_Fox_%28basketball%29 "Gary Fox (basketball)"), was still at the top of the league in [1987](/wiki/1987_NBL_season "1987 NBL season") and [1988](/wiki/1988_NBL_season "1988 NBL season"), they were unable to progress past the Semi\-finals in both seasons. Pearce averaged 20\.6 points in both seasons. In Round 2 of the 1988 season against the Ken Cole coached Newcastle Falcons in Newcastle, Pearce set two Adelaide 36ers records that still stand as of the [2014–15 NBL season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NBL_season "2014–15 NBL season"). He set the 36ers single game scoring record with 48 points and also set the record for most three\-pointers made when he hit 11/14 from outside the arc with only [Brett Maher](/wiki/Brett_Maher_%28basketball%29 "Brett Maher (basketball)") able to match his 3\-point record when he hit 11/12 in a game against Brisbane in [1996](/wiki/1996_NBL_season "1996 NBL season").
The team slipped to 6th place in [1989](/wiki/1989_NBL_season "1989 NBL season") in Fox's last year as coach before missing the playoffs for the first time in seven years by finishing 9th in [1990](/wiki/1990_NBL_season "1990 NBL season") under new coach and long time team assistant Don Shipway. Despite Adelaide missing the playoffs in 1990, Pearce was selected to his only [NBL All Star Game](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_All-Star_Game "NBL (Australia) All-Star Game") played at the [Perth Entertainment Centre](/wiki/Perth_Entertainment_Centre "Perth Entertainment Centre").
The club was back in the Semi\-finals in [1991](/wiki/1991_NBL_season "1991 NBL season"), but once again fell short, losing the Semis to defending champions the [Perth Wildcats](/wiki/Perth_Wildcats "Perth Wildcats"). 1991 would prove to be Darryl Pearce's last as a 36ers player and before the [1992 NBL season](/wiki/1992_NBL_season "1992 NBL season") he was released by the club and would join the North Melbourne Giants.
Darryl Pearce played 258 NBL games for the Adelaide 36ers.
|
[
"### Adelaide 36ers",
"Darryl Pearce was born in [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\"), [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), and was a member of junior South Australian teams in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The [Adelaide 36ers](/wiki/Adelaide_36ers \"Adelaide 36ers\") were formed for the [1982 NBL season](/wiki/1982_NBL_season \"1982 NBL season\") (as the *Adelaide City Eagles*) with Pearce one of the first [guards](/wiki/Guard_%28basketball%29 \"Guard (basketball)\") signed by the club. He made his NBL debut on 6 February 1982 in Adelaide's 87–84 loss to the [Coburg Giants](/wiki/Coburg_Giants \"Coburg Giants\") at Adelaide's [Apollo Stadium](/wiki/Apollo_Stadium \"Apollo Stadium\"). Pearce scored 14 points and collected 4 rebounds on debut for the new club. He would go on to average 15\\.9 points, 2\\.7 rebounds and 2\\.0 assists in his first season.",
"The club changed its name to the Adelaide 36ers from the [1983 NBL season](/wiki/1983_NBL_season \"1983 NBL season\"), though the club failed to make the [playoffs](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_Finals \"NBL (Australia) Finals\") until [1984](/wiki/1984_NBL_season \"1984 NBL season\") where they were defeated in the Elimination Finals by the [Nunawading Spectres](/wiki/South_East_Melbourne_Magic \"South East Melbourne Magic\"). By this time \"The Iceman\" had cemented his place as one of the premier shooting guards in the league.",
"Following the 1984 season, Adelaide's \"other\" team, the [1982 champion](/wiki/1982_NBL_Finals \"1982 NBL Finals\") [West Adelaide Bearcats](/wiki/West_Adelaide_Bearcats \"West Adelaide Bearcats\"), pulled out of the NBL and a number of their star players including 1982 season [MVP](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_Most_Valuable_Player \"NBL (Australia) Most Valuable Player\") [Al Green](/wiki/Al_Green_%28basketball%29 \"Al Green (basketball)\"), [Australian boomers](/wiki/Australian_boomers \"Australian boomers\") representatives Peter Ali and Ray Wood, and young gun [Mike McKay](/wiki/Mike_McKay_%28basketball%29 \"Mike McKay (basketball)\"), moved across to play for the 36ers.",
"Former [Australian Boomer](/wiki/Australia_men%27s_national_basketball_team \"Australia men's national basketball team\") and [1964](/wiki/Basketball_at_the_1964_Summer_Olympics \"Basketball at the 1964 Summer Olympics\") Olympic representative Ken Cole was signed as coach of the Adelaide 36ers for the [1985 NBL season](/wiki/1985_NBL_season \"1985 NBL season\"). Under Cole, the 36ers became one of the league's premier teams. Also joining the 36ers was 6'9\" (206 cm) [centre](/wiki/Center_%28basketball%29 \"Center (basketball)\") [Bill Jones](/wiki/Bill_Jones_%28basketball%2C_born_1958%29 \"Bill Jones (basketball, born 1958)\"), and 6'7\" (201 cm) rebounding [Power forward](/wiki/Power_forward_%28basketball%29 \"Power forward (basketball)\") [Mark Davis](/wiki/Mark_Davis_%28basketball%2C_born_1960%29 \"Mark Davis (basketball, born 1960)\"). Adelaide went on to a 20–6 record and second on the regular season ladder behind the [Brisbane Bullets](/wiki/Brisbane_Bullets \"Brisbane Bullets\"). The team had a bye going into the semi\\-final where they easily defeated for the [Newcastle Falcons](/wiki/Newcastle_Falcons_%28basketball%29 \"Newcastle Falcons (basketball)\") 151–103 at home in what is still a record semi\\-final win in the NBL. In the last single game NBL grand final ever played, Adelaide were up against the Brisbane Bullets on the Bullets' home court ([Sleeman Sports Centre](/wiki/Chandler_Arena \"Chandler Arena\")). Going into the final period the game the Bullets' were leading 78–74 but a 42–21 last period in favour of the home team saw Adelaide fail to win their first grand final going down 95–120\\.",
"Statistically Darryl Pearce enjoyed his best ever NBL season in 1985, averaging 22\\.8 points, 2\\.9 rebounds and 4\\.6 assists. With Green and Pearce, the 36ers had what many believed to be the league's best guard combination despite both being natural shooting guards. Cole successfully chose to leave Pearce at SG (primarily due to his better outside shooting) and move Green to play [Point guard](/wiki/Point_guard \"Point guard\"). Green jokingly later told that he \"hated\" Pearce for being forced to play the point, but added seriously that he would play alongside him any day because he is \"a true winner\".",
"Pearce and the 36ers won their first NBL championship in [1986](/wiki/1986_NBL_season \"1986 NBL season\"), defeating the Brisbane Bullets 2–1 in the NBL's first ever three game Grand Final series. The Iceman averaged 19\\.3 points, 3\\.1 rebounds and 3\\.9 assists for the season while averaging 23\\.0 points, 4\\.0 rebounds and 4\\.0 assists in the GF series.",
"While Adelaide, now under the coaching of [Gary Fox](/wiki/Gary_Fox_%28basketball%29 \"Gary Fox (basketball)\"), was still at the top of the league in [1987](/wiki/1987_NBL_season \"1987 NBL season\") and [1988](/wiki/1988_NBL_season \"1988 NBL season\"), they were unable to progress past the Semi\\-finals in both seasons. Pearce averaged 20\\.6 points in both seasons. In Round 2 of the 1988 season against the Ken Cole coached Newcastle Falcons in Newcastle, Pearce set two Adelaide 36ers records that still stand as of the [2014–15 NBL season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NBL_season \"2014–15 NBL season\"). He set the 36ers single game scoring record with 48 points and also set the record for most three\\-pointers made when he hit 11/14 from outside the arc with only [Brett Maher](/wiki/Brett_Maher_%28basketball%29 \"Brett Maher (basketball)\") able to match his 3\\-point record when he hit 11/12 in a game against Brisbane in [1996](/wiki/1996_NBL_season \"1996 NBL season\").",
"The team slipped to 6th place in [1989](/wiki/1989_NBL_season \"1989 NBL season\") in Fox's last year as coach before missing the playoffs for the first time in seven years by finishing 9th in [1990](/wiki/1990_NBL_season \"1990 NBL season\") under new coach and long time team assistant Don Shipway. Despite Adelaide missing the playoffs in 1990, Pearce was selected to his only [NBL All Star Game](/wiki/NBL_%28Australia%29_All-Star_Game \"NBL (Australia) All-Star Game\") played at the [Perth Entertainment Centre](/wiki/Perth_Entertainment_Centre \"Perth Entertainment Centre\").",
"The club was back in the Semi\\-finals in [1991](/wiki/1991_NBL_season \"1991 NBL season\"), but once again fell short, losing the Semis to defending champions the [Perth Wildcats](/wiki/Perth_Wildcats \"Perth Wildcats\"). 1991 would prove to be Darryl Pearce's last as a 36ers player and before the [1992 NBL season](/wiki/1992_NBL_season \"1992 NBL season\") he was released by the club and would join the North Melbourne Giants.",
"Darryl Pearce played 258 NBL games for the Adelaide 36ers.",
""
] |
Swimming career
---------------
It was however in 1993 that he emerged at the highest level by winning a place on the national team that represented Portugal in Latin Cup held in Florence, as a result of his performance in the National Championships, held in [Algés](/wiki/Alg%C3%A9s_%28Oeiras%29 "Algés (Oeiras)") in March, in the pool of Sport Algés e Dafundo. He achieved in this [short course](/wiki/Short_course "Short course") competition the marks of 16:12\.58 minutes in the 1500 metres freestyle, and 8:32\.97 minutes in the 800 metres freestyle (on the way to the 1500 metres, the 800 metres at the time was still exclusively a women’s event). These marks would give him G1 age group national title (16 years old) and the 2nd place in all age groups, both marks would become later G1 national records, when the redefinition of the age groups occurred by the Portuguese Swimming Federation. In that same season, in the Clube Futebol os Belenenses [Olympic sized swimming pool](/wiki/Olympic_sized_swimming_pool "Olympic sized swimming pool"), he would become for the first time national champion in all age groups in the 1500 metres freestyle, with the mark of 16:29,17 minutes. This mark along with the 08:43\.32 minutes at the 800 metres freestyle (again on the way to the 1500 metres) would become records later, as well as national records of the G1 age group.
In 1994 in the winter Portuguese National Championships (short course), in [Braga](/wiki/Braga "Braga"), he would break the 400 metres freestyle Junior national record with a time of 4:04\.14 minutes. In that same year, he would also become the national club record holder of the 4x200 metres freestyle in [long course](/wiki/Long_course "Long course") with the mark of 7:49,00 (in Restelo). It was a record that he would break later in 1996 with 7:44,93 (in [Famalicão](/wiki/Vila_Nova_de_Famalic%C3%A3o_Municipality "Vila Nova de Famalicão Municipality")), and again in 1998 with 7:40,81 (in [Lisboa](/wiki/Lisboa "Lisboa")), this last one lasted for many years before another team was able to break it. In 1999 with the Portuguese National Team in the international Latin Cup competition, he would also break the record at this event (there are two different records in relays, the marks done by a sports club team and by the National Team). He was as well the short course national club record holder in this event in 1996 with 7:30,78 {{cite web\|url\=http://www.record.xl.pt/Modalidades/interior.aspx?content\_id\=28894\|title\=National Record in the 4x200 meters Freestyle in 2000, Record newspaper}} (in [Felgueiras](/wiki/Felgueiras "Felgueiras")). In 1999 he broke the national club record in the 4x100 metres freestyle with 3:29,35 (in Lisboa).
Team wise he was the winner, with his club Sport Algés e Dafundo, of the Portuguese National Championships in 1992 (in [Aveiro](/wiki/Aveiro%2C_Portugal "Aveiro, Portugal")) and 1993 (in Restelo), in the old score system. Already in the current system, he was the winner of 6 Portuguese National Championships in 7 years: 1995/[Olivais](/wiki/Olivais%2C_Lisbon "Olivais, Lisbon"), 1996/[Restelo](/wiki/Bel%C3%A9m%2C_Lisbon "Belém, Lisbon"), 1997/Restelo, 1998/EUL, 2000/[Jamor](/wiki/Jamor "Jamor"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.record.xl.pt/Modalidades/interior.aspx?content\_id\=21353\|title\=National team Title in 2000, Record newspaper}} e 2001/Póvoa Varzim. His contribution for the team and titles was crucial since he was one of the top Portuguese long distance freestyle swimmers.
Internationally he took part, in 1994, in what at the time was maybe the most important and emblematic junior competition in the world, at least certainly for a European swimmer: the [European Junior Swimming Championships](/wiki/European_Junior_Swimming_Championships "European Junior Swimming Championships").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.fpnatacao.pt/natacao\-pura/historico\-selecao\-nacional\-de\-natacao\-pura\|title\=History of the Portuguese Swimming National Teams, Portuguese Swimming Federation\|access\-date\=2015\-01\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222195036/http://www.fpnatacao.pt/natacao\-pura/historico\-selecao\-nacional\-de\-natacao\-pura\|archive\-date\=2014\-12\-22\|url\-status\=dead}} He swam the 200 metres freestyle (37th place with 2:00\.60\), the 400 metres freestyle (15th place in the morning heats with 4:07\.02, and 7th in the Final B with 4:10,91\), the 400 metres medley (16th in the heats with 4:46\.07, and 4th in the Final B with 4:41\.73\), and anchored the 4x200 metres freestyle relay (14th with 8:08\.88\). He also took part in several other international competitions, like the Multinations, 1993 Latin Cup ([Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence")), 1998 Latin Cup (Lisbon), 1999 Latin Cup ([Guadeloupe](/wiki/Guadeloupe "Guadeloupe")), the 1997 ([Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily")) and the 1999 (Palma de Maiorca) World University Championships.
He had the following best personal times: in the 200 metres freestyle: 1:53\.29/1:54\.71 (short course/long course); in the 400 metres freestyle: 3:59\.11/4:04\.45, in the 800 metres freestyle: 8:24\.38/8:37\.23, in the 1500 metres freestyle: 15:53\.12/16:12\.66 and in the 400 metres medley: 4:24\.85/4:35\.43\. All these times were achieved between 1996 and 1999, well before the high\-tech fabric swimsuits era that revolutionized swimming years after.
In his trophy gallery, one can also find Cristina Chaves award in 1997\. This is the highest swimming award given by Sport Algés e Dafundo, as recognition of the contribution given to the club.
One of the less known and most curious episodes of his sports career was when he participated in a swimming event in the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America "United States of America"). The event called Turning of the Tides, a beneficence event to [MS](/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis "Multiple sclerosis") that was held in September 2001, just a few weeks after the [9/11 terrorist attacks](/wiki/9/11_terrorist_attacks "9/11 terrorist attacks"). An [open water swimming](/wiki/Open_water_swimming "Open water swimming") competition that consisted in a 35 kilometres swimming relay, with one\-hour legs, between [Santa Catalina Island](/wiki/Santa_Catalina_Island%2C_California "Santa Catalina Island, California") and [Santa Monica](/wiki/Santa_Monica "Santa Monica") shore. Nuno Dias was on the second leg of the Portuguese relay, still in the early stages of the distance, when suddenly an intense fog come across the area and as a result the support boat lost sight of him and the canoeist that was beside him, and the same thing ended up happening also with other countries' relays. With panic established within the event organization, the National Guard was called to help find the missing athletes in the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean"). Nuno Dias and the canoeist were later found and safely collected by the American support boat.
|
[
"Swimming career\n---------------",
"It was however in 1993 that he emerged at the highest level by winning a place on the national team that represented Portugal in Latin Cup held in Florence, as a result of his performance in the National Championships, held in [Algés](/wiki/Alg%C3%A9s_%28Oeiras%29 \"Algés (Oeiras)\") in March, in the pool of Sport Algés e Dafundo. He achieved in this [short course](/wiki/Short_course \"Short course\") competition the marks of 16:12\\.58 minutes in the 1500 metres freestyle, and 8:32\\.97 minutes in the 800 metres freestyle (on the way to the 1500 metres, the 800 metres at the time was still exclusively a women’s event). These marks would give him G1 age group national title (16 years old) and the 2nd place in all age groups, both marks would become later G1 national records, when the redefinition of the age groups occurred by the Portuguese Swimming Federation. In that same season, in the Clube Futebol os Belenenses [Olympic sized swimming pool](/wiki/Olympic_sized_swimming_pool \"Olympic sized swimming pool\"), he would become for the first time national champion in all age groups in the 1500 metres freestyle, with the mark of 16:29,17 minutes. This mark along with the 08:43\\.32 minutes at the 800 metres freestyle (again on the way to the 1500 metres) would become records later, as well as national records of the G1 age group.",
"In 1994 in the winter Portuguese National Championships (short course), in [Braga](/wiki/Braga \"Braga\"), he would break the 400 metres freestyle Junior national record with a time of 4:04\\.14 minutes. In that same year, he would also become the national club record holder of the 4x200 metres freestyle in [long course](/wiki/Long_course \"Long course\") with the mark of 7:49,00 (in Restelo). It was a record that he would break later in 1996 with 7:44,93 (in [Famalicão](/wiki/Vila_Nova_de_Famalic%C3%A3o_Municipality \"Vila Nova de Famalicão Municipality\")), and again in 1998 with 7:40,81 (in [Lisboa](/wiki/Lisboa \"Lisboa\")), this last one lasted for many years before another team was able to break it. In 1999 with the Portuguese National Team in the international Latin Cup competition, he would also break the record at this event (there are two different records in relays, the marks done by a sports club team and by the National Team). He was as well the short course national club record holder in this event in 1996 with 7:30,78 {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.record.xl.pt/Modalidades/interior.aspx?content\\_id\\=28894\\|title\\=National Record in the 4x200 meters Freestyle in 2000, Record newspaper}} (in [Felgueiras](/wiki/Felgueiras \"Felgueiras\")). In 1999 he broke the national club record in the 4x100 metres freestyle with 3:29,35 (in Lisboa).",
"Team wise he was the winner, with his club Sport Algés e Dafundo, of the Portuguese National Championships in 1992 (in [Aveiro](/wiki/Aveiro%2C_Portugal \"Aveiro, Portugal\")) and 1993 (in Restelo), in the old score system. Already in the current system, he was the winner of 6 Portuguese National Championships in 7 years: 1995/[Olivais](/wiki/Olivais%2C_Lisbon \"Olivais, Lisbon\"), 1996/[Restelo](/wiki/Bel%C3%A9m%2C_Lisbon \"Belém, Lisbon\"), 1997/Restelo, 1998/EUL, 2000/[Jamor](/wiki/Jamor \"Jamor\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.record.xl.pt/Modalidades/interior.aspx?content\\_id\\=21353\\|title\\=National team Title in 2000, Record newspaper}} e 2001/Póvoa Varzim. His contribution for the team and titles was crucial since he was one of the top Portuguese long distance freestyle swimmers.",
"Internationally he took part, in 1994, in what at the time was maybe the most important and emblematic junior competition in the world, at least certainly for a European swimmer: the [European Junior Swimming Championships](/wiki/European_Junior_Swimming_Championships \"European Junior Swimming Championships\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fpnatacao.pt/natacao\\-pura/historico\\-selecao\\-nacional\\-de\\-natacao\\-pura\\|title\\=History of the Portuguese Swimming National Teams, Portuguese Swimming Federation\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-01\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222195036/http://www.fpnatacao.pt/natacao\\-pura/historico\\-selecao\\-nacional\\-de\\-natacao\\-pura\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-12\\-22\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He swam the 200 metres freestyle (37th place with 2:00\\.60\\), the 400 metres freestyle (15th place in the morning heats with 4:07\\.02, and 7th in the Final B with 4:10,91\\), the 400 metres medley (16th in the heats with 4:46\\.07, and 4th in the Final B with 4:41\\.73\\), and anchored the 4x200 metres freestyle relay (14th with 8:08\\.88\\). He also took part in several other international competitions, like the Multinations, 1993 Latin Cup ([Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\")), 1998 Latin Cup (Lisbon), 1999 Latin Cup ([Guadeloupe](/wiki/Guadeloupe \"Guadeloupe\")), the 1997 ([Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\")) and the 1999 (Palma de Maiorca) World University Championships.",
"He had the following best personal times: in the 200 metres freestyle: 1:53\\.29/1:54\\.71 (short course/long course); in the 400 metres freestyle: 3:59\\.11/4:04\\.45, in the 800 metres freestyle: 8:24\\.38/8:37\\.23, in the 1500 metres freestyle: 15:53\\.12/16:12\\.66 and in the 400 metres medley: 4:24\\.85/4:35\\.43\\. All these times were achieved between 1996 and 1999, well before the high\\-tech fabric swimsuits era that revolutionized swimming years after.",
"In his trophy gallery, one can also find Cristina Chaves award in 1997\\. This is the highest swimming award given by Sport Algés e Dafundo, as recognition of the contribution given to the club.",
"One of the less known and most curious episodes of his sports career was when he participated in a swimming event in the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America \"United States of America\"). The event called Turning of the Tides, a beneficence event to [MS](/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis \"Multiple sclerosis\") that was held in September 2001, just a few weeks after the [9/11 terrorist attacks](/wiki/9/11_terrorist_attacks \"9/11 terrorist attacks\"). An [open water swimming](/wiki/Open_water_swimming \"Open water swimming\") competition that consisted in a 35 kilometres swimming relay, with one\\-hour legs, between [Santa Catalina Island](/wiki/Santa_Catalina_Island%2C_California \"Santa Catalina Island, California\") and [Santa Monica](/wiki/Santa_Monica \"Santa Monica\") shore. Nuno Dias was on the second leg of the Portuguese relay, still in the early stages of the distance, when suddenly an intense fog come across the area and as a result the support boat lost sight of him and the canoeist that was beside him, and the same thing ended up happening also with other countries' relays. With panic established within the event organization, the National Guard was called to help find the missing athletes in the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"). Nuno Dias and the canoeist were later found and safely collected by the American support boat.",
""
] |
Performances
------------
The London premiere featured [Peter Wyngarde](/wiki/Peter_Wyngarde "Peter Wyngarde") and [Mary Ure](/wiki/Mary_Ure "Mary Ure"), and its director was James Roose\-Evans. Williams then revised the play, and the revised version, under the title of *Out Cry*, received its first performance in Chicago with Donald Madden and [Eileen Herlie](/wiki/Eileen_Herlie "Eileen Herlie").Saddik, Annette J, *Tennessee Williams and the Theatre of Excess*. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, UK), 2015 ({{ISBN\|978\-1\-107\-07668\-6}}), p 17\.
The play was produced in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") before it moved to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre").{{cite news \| author\=Lawrence van Gelder \| title\=Stage: Williams' '2 Character Play' \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/08/22/archives/stage\-williamss\-2\-character\-play.html \| work\=New York Times \| date\=1975\-08\-22 \| accessdate\=2016\-05\-28}} David Merrick produced the play on Broadway in 1973, under the title of *Out Cry*.{{cite news \| author\=Ben Brantley \| title\=Brother, Can You Spare My Sanity? Amanda Plummer and Brad Dourif in Tennessee Williams Rarity \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/22/theater/reviews/amanda\-plummer\-and\-brad\-dourif\-in\-tennessee\-williams\-rarity.html?pagewanted\=all \| work\=New York Times \| date\=2013\-06\-21 \| accessdate\=2016\-05\-25}}
A 30th Anniversary production (of the 1975 version) was staged in [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") in 2005 at the [University of Melbourne](/wiki/University_of_Melbourne "University of Melbourne") with siblings Stephen Ryan and Sarah Ryan playing the roles of Felice and Clare. For his performance as Felice, Stephen Ryan won the Murray Sutherland Prize for the most outstanding performance in a dramatic production at the [University of Melbourne](/wiki/University_of_Melbourne "University of Melbourne"). San Francisco's [Theatre Rhinoceros](/wiki/Theatre_Rhinoceros "Theatre Rhinoceros") staged the show in January 2012\.
The play was produced at London's [Jermyn Street Theatre](/wiki/Jermyn_Street_Theatre "Jermyn Street Theatre") in October 2010\. The production starred [Catherine Cusack](/wiki/Catherine_Cusack "Catherine Cusack") and Paul McEwan, and was directed by the then\-Artistic Director of the theater, Gene David Kirk.
*The Two\-Character Play* opened [Off Broadway](/wiki/Off_Broadway "Off Broadway") to critical acclaim on June 19, 2013 at [New World Stages](/wiki/New_World_Stages "New World Stages"). The production featured winner [Amanda Plummer](/wiki/Amanda_Plummer "Amanda Plummer") and [Brad Dourif](/wiki/Brad_Dourif "Brad Dourif").
The play was produced as a senior directorial at [The College of William and Mary](/wiki/The_College_of_William_and_Mary "The College of William and Mary") in October 2013\. In October 2013, Spooky Action Theater produced the play, with David Bryan Jackson and Lee Mikeska Gardner, directed by Richard Henrich.{{cite news \| author\=Jessica Goldstein \| title\=''Two\-Character Play'' benefits from actors' shared history \| url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/theater\_dance/two\-character\-play\-benefits\-from\-actors\-shared\-history/2013/10/01/20604ad6\-2ac7\-11e3\-97a3\-ff2758228523\_story.html \| work\=Washington Post \| date\=2013\-10\-01 \| accessdate\=2016\-05\-25}}
In March 2014, the 292 Theatre on East 3rd Street in New York City mounted a production of *The Two\-Character Play* which ran from March 19 through April 26, directed by Romy Ashby, and starring husband and wife Charles Schick and Regina Bartkoff.
In July, 2017, Playhouse Creatures Theatre Company, produced an acclaimed production in New York City (at the Duo Theatre on East 4th Street). The production was directed by Austin Pendleton, and starred Irene Glezos (as Clare), and Joseph W. Rodriguez (as Felice). This production transferred to The NOLA Tennessee Williams Festival (Playhouse Creatures Theatre Company and Southern Rep co\-producing), in March/April 2018\.
*The Two\-Character Play* was the first play produced by the Texas theatre company Bliss Out Productions in April 2023\. The production was directed by Jax Schuck and starred Carly Geary and Blake Kump.
|
[
"Performances\n------------",
"The London premiere featured [Peter Wyngarde](/wiki/Peter_Wyngarde \"Peter Wyngarde\") and [Mary Ure](/wiki/Mary_Ure \"Mary Ure\"), and its director was James Roose\\-Evans. Williams then revised the play, and the revised version, under the title of *Out Cry*, received its first performance in Chicago with Donald Madden and [Eileen Herlie](/wiki/Eileen_Herlie \"Eileen Herlie\").Saddik, Annette J, *Tennessee Williams and the Theatre of Excess*. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, UK), 2015 ({{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-107\\-07668\\-6}}), p 17\\.",
"The play was produced in [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") before it moved to [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\").{{cite news \\| author\\=Lawrence van Gelder \\| title\\=Stage: Williams' '2 Character Play' \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/08/22/archives/stage\\-williamss\\-2\\-character\\-play.html \\| work\\=New York Times \\| date\\=1975\\-08\\-22 \\| accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-28}} David Merrick produced the play on Broadway in 1973, under the title of *Out Cry*.{{cite news \\| author\\=Ben Brantley \\| title\\=Brother, Can You Spare My Sanity? Amanda Plummer and Brad Dourif in Tennessee Williams Rarity \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/22/theater/reviews/amanda\\-plummer\\-and\\-brad\\-dourif\\-in\\-tennessee\\-williams\\-rarity.html?pagewanted\\=all \\| work\\=New York Times \\| date\\=2013\\-06\\-21 \\| accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-25}}",
"A 30th Anniversary production (of the 1975 version) was staged in [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") in 2005 at the [University of Melbourne](/wiki/University_of_Melbourne \"University of Melbourne\") with siblings Stephen Ryan and Sarah Ryan playing the roles of Felice and Clare. For his performance as Felice, Stephen Ryan won the Murray Sutherland Prize for the most outstanding performance in a dramatic production at the [University of Melbourne](/wiki/University_of_Melbourne \"University of Melbourne\"). San Francisco's [Theatre Rhinoceros](/wiki/Theatre_Rhinoceros \"Theatre Rhinoceros\") staged the show in January 2012\\.",
"The play was produced at London's [Jermyn Street Theatre](/wiki/Jermyn_Street_Theatre \"Jermyn Street Theatre\") in October 2010\\. The production starred [Catherine Cusack](/wiki/Catherine_Cusack \"Catherine Cusack\") and Paul McEwan, and was directed by the then\\-Artistic Director of the theater, Gene David Kirk.",
"*The Two\\-Character Play* opened [Off Broadway](/wiki/Off_Broadway \"Off Broadway\") to critical acclaim on June 19, 2013 at [New World Stages](/wiki/New_World_Stages \"New World Stages\"). The production featured winner [Amanda Plummer](/wiki/Amanda_Plummer \"Amanda Plummer\") and [Brad Dourif](/wiki/Brad_Dourif \"Brad Dourif\").",
"The play was produced as a senior directorial at [The College of William and Mary](/wiki/The_College_of_William_and_Mary \"The College of William and Mary\") in October 2013\\. In October 2013, Spooky Action Theater produced the play, with David Bryan Jackson and Lee Mikeska Gardner, directed by Richard Henrich.{{cite news \\| author\\=Jessica Goldstein \\| title\\=''Two\\-Character Play'' benefits from actors' shared history \\| url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/theater\\_dance/two\\-character\\-play\\-benefits\\-from\\-actors\\-shared\\-history/2013/10/01/20604ad6\\-2ac7\\-11e3\\-97a3\\-ff2758228523\\_story.html \\| work\\=Washington Post \\| date\\=2013\\-10\\-01 \\| accessdate\\=2016\\-05\\-25}}",
"In March 2014, the 292 Theatre on East 3rd Street in New York City mounted a production of *The Two\\-Character Play* which ran from March 19 through April 26, directed by Romy Ashby, and starring husband and wife Charles Schick and Regina Bartkoff.",
"In July, 2017, Playhouse Creatures Theatre Company, produced an acclaimed production in New York City (at the Duo Theatre on East 4th Street). The production was directed by Austin Pendleton, and starred Irene Glezos (as Clare), and Joseph W. Rodriguez (as Felice). This production transferred to The NOLA Tennessee Williams Festival (Playhouse Creatures Theatre Company and Southern Rep co\\-producing), in March/April 2018\\.",
"*The Two\\-Character Play* was the first play produced by the Texas theatre company Bliss Out Productions in April 2023\\. The production was directed by Jax Schuck and starred Carly Geary and Blake Kump.",
""
] |
Life cycle
----------
[right\|thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|The life cycle of the monarch butterfly](/wiki/File:Butterfly_life_cycle_diagram_in_English.svg "Butterfly life cycle diagram in English.svg")
Like all Lepidoptera, monarchs undergo complete [metamorphosis](/wiki/Metamorphosis_%28biology%29%23Insects "Metamorphosis (biology)#Insects"); their life cycle has four phases: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Monarchs transition from eggs to adults during warm summer temperatures in as little as 25 days, extending to as many as seven weeks during cool spring conditions. During their development, both larvae and their milkweed hosts are vulnerable to weather extremes, predators, parasites, and diseases; commonly fewer than 10% of monarch eggs and caterpillars survive.{{rp\|21–22}}
### Egg
[thumb\|upright\|right\|Egg](/wiki/File:Danaus_plexippus%2C_Monarch_egg.jpg "Danaus plexippus, Monarch egg.jpg")
The egg is derived from materials ingested as a larva and from the [spermatophores](/wiki/Spermatophore "Spermatophore") received from males during mating.[Oberhauser (2004\)](/wiki/%23%7B%7Bharvid%7COberhauser2004%7D%7D "#{{harvid|Oberhauser2004}}"), p. 3 Female monarchs lay eggs singly, most often on the underside of a young leaf of a milkweed plant during the spring and summer. Females secrete a small amount of glue to attach their eggs directly to the plant. They typically lay 300 to 500 eggs over a two\- to five\-week period.{{cite web\|url\=https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\-biology/life\-cycle/egg\|title\=Egg\|year\=2021\|publisher\=Monarch Joint Venture\|access\-date\=October 6, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711120121/https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\-biology/life\-cycle/egg\|archive\-date\=July 11, 2021\|url\-status\=live}}
Eggs are cream colored or light green, ovate to conical in shape, and about {{cvt\|1\.2\|×\|0\.9\|mm}} in size. The eggs weigh less than {{cvt\|0\.5\|mg}} each and have raised ridges that form longitudinally from the point to apex to the base. Although each egg is {{frac\|1\|1000}} the mass of the female, she may lay up to her own mass in eggs. Females lay smaller eggs as they age. Larger females lay larger eggs. The number of eggs laid by a female, which may mate several times, can reach 1,180\.{{cite book \|last1\=Oberhauser \|first1\=Karen S. \|author\-link1\=Karen Oberhauser \|last2\=Solensky \|first2\=Michelle J \|title\=The Monarch Butterfly: Biology and Conservation \|year\=2004 \|publisher\=Cornell University Press \|location\=Ithaca NY \|isbn\=978\-0801441882 \|edition\=First \|ref\={{harvid\|Oberhauser2004}} \|url\=https://archive.org/details/monarchbutterfly00mich \|page\=23}}
Eggs take three to eight days to develop and hatch into larvae or [caterpillars](/wiki/Caterpillar "Caterpillar").{{rp\|21}} The offspring's consumption of milkweed benefits health and helps defend them against predators. Monarchs lay eggs along the southern migration route.{{sfn\|Oberhauser\|2004\|p\=51}}
### Larva
[thumb\|upright\|right\|Size comparison between a [black swallowtail caterpillar](/wiki/Papilio_polyxenes "Papilio polyxenes") (top), a monarch caterpillar (middle), and a [queen caterpillar](/wiki/Queen_%28butterfly%29 "Queen (butterfly)") (bottom) all on a human hand](/wiki/File:Swallowtail_Caterpillar%2C_Monarch_Caterpillar_%26_Queen_Caterpillar_in_Florida_%2827224446333%29.jpg "Swallowtail Caterpillar, Monarch Caterpillar & Queen Caterpillar in Florida (27224446333).jpg")
The larva (caterpillar) has five stages ([instars](/wiki/Instar "Instar")), [molting](/wiki/Molt "Molt") at the end of each instar. Instars last about 3 to 5 days, depending on factors such as temperature and food availability.{{cite web\|url\=https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\-biology/life\-cycle/larva/guide\-to\-monarch\-instars\|title\=Guide to Monarch Instars\|year\=2021\|publisher\=Monarch Joint Venture\|access\-date\=October 1, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813231235/https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\-biology/life\-cycle/larva/guide\-to\-monarch\-instars\|archive\-date\=August 13, 2021\|url\-status\=live}}
The first\-instar caterpillar that emerges from the egg is pale green or grayish\-white, shiny, and almost translucent, with a large, black head. It lacks banding coloration or tentacles. The larvae or caterpillar eats its egg case and begins to feed on milkweed with a circular motion, often leaving a characteristic, arc\-shaped hole in the leaf. Older first\-instar larvae have dark stripes on a greenish background and develop small bumps that later become front tentacles. The first instar is usually between {{cvt\|2 and 6\|mm}} long.
The second\-instar larva develops a characteristic pattern of white, yellow, and black transverse bands. The larva has a yellow triangle on the head and two sets of yellow bands around this central triangle. It is no longer translucent, and is covered in short [setae](/wiki/Setae "Setae"). Pairs of black tentacles begin to grow, a larger pair on the thorax and a smaller pair on the abdomen. The second instar is usually between {{cvt\|6\|mm}} and {{cvt\|1\|cm}} long.
[thumb\|upright\|right\|thumbtime\=0\|Fifth\-instar monarch larva eating milkweed leaves (Some at 20 × speed). A second\-instar larva grazing on leaf and cutting through a latex vein.](/wiki/File:Monarch_caterpillars.webm "Monarch caterpillars.webm")
The third\-instar larva has more distinct bands and the two pairs of tentacles become longer. Legs on the thorax differentiate into a smaller pair near the head and larger pairs further back. Third\-instar larvae usually feed using a cutting motion on leaf edges. The third instar is usually between {{cvt\|1 and 1\.5\|cm}} long. The fourth\-instar larva has a different banding pattern. It develops white spots on the [prolegs](/wiki/Proleg "Proleg") near its back, and is usually between {{cvt\|1\.5 and 2\.5\|cm}} long.
[thumb\|upright\|A monarch caterpillar on milkweed](/wiki/File:Monarch_butterfly_caterpillar_on_common_milkweed.jpg "Monarch butterfly caterpillar on common milkweed.jpg")
The fifth\-instar larva has a more complex banding pattern and white dots on the prolegs, with front legs that are small and very close to the head. Its length ranges from {{cvt\|2\.5 to 4\.5\|cm}}.
The larvae typically chew through a latex vein to relieve the pressure and feed above it. Fifth\-instar larvae often chew a notch in the [petiole](/wiki/Petiole_%28botany%29 "Petiole (botany)") of the leaf they are eating, which relieves the latex pressure and causes the leaf to fall into a vertical position.
As the caterpillar completes its growth, it is {{cvt\|4\.5\|cm}} long (large specimens can reach {{cvt\|5\|cm}}) and {{cvt\|7 to 8\|mm}} wide, and weighs about {{cvt\|1\.5\|g}}, compared to the first instar, which is {{cvt\|2 to 6\|mm}} long and {{cvt\|0\.5 to 1\.5\|mm}} wide. Fifth\-instar larvae greatly increase in size and weight. They then stop feeding and are often found far from milkweed plants as they seek a site for pupating.
In a laboratory setting, the fourth\- and fifth\-instar stages of the caterpillar showed signs of aggressive behavior with lower food availability. Attacked caterpillars were found to be attacked when it was feeding on milkweed leaves, and the caterpillars attacked when foraging for milkweed.{{cite journal \|last1\=Collie \|first1\=Joseph \|last2\=Granela \|first2\=Odelvys \|last3\=Brown \|first3\=Elizabeth B. \|last4\=Keene \|first4\=Alex C. \|title\=Aggression Is Induced by Resource Limitation in the Monarch Caterpillar \|journal\=\[\[iScience]] \|date\=November 2020 \|volume\=23 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=101791 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.isci.2020\.101791\|pmid\=33376972 \|pmc\=7756136 \|bibcode\=2020iSci...23j1791C \|doi\-access\=free}} This demonstrates the aggressive behavior of monarch caterpillars due to the availability of milkweed.
### Pupa
[thumb\|upright\=0\.9\|right\|Chrysalis](/wiki/File:Monarch_Butterfly_Cocoon_3.jpg "Monarch Butterfly Cocoon 3.jpg")
To prepare for the pupal or [chrysalis](/wiki/Chrysalis "Chrysalis") stage, the caterpillar chooses a safe place for pupation, where it spins a silk pad on a downward\-facing horizontal surface. At this point, it turns around and securely latches on with its last pair of hind legs and hangs upside down, in the form of the letter J. After "J\-hanging" for about 12–16 hours, it soon straightens out its body and goes into [peristalsis](/wiki/Peristalsis "Peristalsis") some seconds before its skin splits behind its head. It then sheds its skin over a period of a few minutes, revealing a green chrysalis (video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=QLQmrIUILzc](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QLQmrIUILzc)). At first, the chrysalis is long, soft, and somewhat amorphous, but over a few hours, it compacts into its distinct shape – an opaque, pale\-green chrysalis with small golden dots near the bottom, and a gold\-and\-black rim around the dorsal side near the top.{{Cite journal\|last\=Petersen\|first\=B.\|date\=1964\|title\=Humidity, Darkness, and Gold Spots as Possible Factors in Pupal Duration of Monarch Butterflies\|journal\=\[\[Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society]]\|volume\=18\|pages\=230–232}} At first, its exoskeleton is soft and fragile, but it hardens and becomes more durable within about a day. At this point, it is about {{cvt\|2\.5\|cm}} long and {{cvt\|10–12\|mm}} wide, weighing about {{cvt\|1\.2\|g}}. At normal summer temperatures, it matures in 8–15 days (usually 11–12 days). During this pupal stage, the adult butterfly forms inside. A day or so before emerging, the exoskeleton first becomes translucent and the chrysalis more bluish. Finally, within 12 hours or so, it becomes transparent, revealing the black and orange colors of the butterfly inside before it [ecloses](/wiki/Eclosion "Eclosion") (emerges).Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|url\=https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\-biology/life\-cycle/pupa\|title\=Pupa\|year\=2021\|publisher\=Monarch Joint Venture\|access\-date\=October 5, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711050853/https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\-biology/life\-cycle/pupa\|archive\-date\=July 11, 2021\|url\-status\=dead}}
{{Cite journal\|last1\=Pocius\|first1\=V. M.\|last2\=Debinski\|first2\=D. M.\|last3\=Pleasants\|first3\=J. M.\|last4\=Bidne\|first4\=K. G.\|last5\=Hellmich\|first5\=R. L.\|last6\=Brower\|first6\=L. P.\|date\=2017\-09\-07\|title\=Milkweed Matters: Monarch Butterfly (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) Survival and Development on Nine Midwestern Milkweed Species\|journal\=\[\[Environmental Entomology]]\|volume\=46\|issue\=5\|pages\=1098–1105\|doi\=10\.1093/ee/nvx137\|pmid\=28961914\|pmc\=5850784\|issn\=0046\-225X\|doi\-access\=free}}
* + In 2009, monarchs were reared on the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station "International Space Station"), successfully emerging from pupae located in the station's Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus.Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nasa.gov/mission\_pages/station/expeditions/expedition22/butterflies.html\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091215044602/http://www.nasa.gov/mission\_pages/station/expeditions/expedition22/butterflies.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=December 15, 2009\|title\=Butterflies Emerge from Cocoons Aboard Station\|year\=2009\|publisher\=NASA}}
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna34349127\|title\=First Monarch butterflies in space take flight\|work\=\[\[NBC News]]\|date\=December 9, 2009\|accessdate\=November 12, 2023}}
### Adult
* + [thumb\|upright\=0\.9\|right\|An emergent monarch clinging to its chrysalis shell](/wiki/File:Danaus_plexippus_emerging_from_chrysalis_04.jpg "Danaus plexippus emerging from chrysalis 04.jpg")
The adult emerges from its chrysalis after about two weeks of pupation (video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=tQDGizDHVs8](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQDGizDHVs8) ). The emergent adult hangs upside down for several hours while it pumps fluids and air into its wings, which expand, dry, and stiffen. The butterfly then extends and retracts its wings. Once conditions allow, it flies and feeds on a variety of nectar plants. During the breeding season, adults reach sexual maturity in 4–5 days. However, the migrating generation does not reach maturity until overwintering is complete.
[thumb\|upright\=0\.9\|right\|Monarch butterflies flying and sipping [nectar](/wiki/Nectar "Nectar") from milkweed flowers](/wiki/File:Monarchs_flying_and_sipping.webm "Monarchs flying and sipping.webm")
The adult's wingspan ranges from {{convert\|8\.9\|to\|10\.2\|cm}}. The upper sides of the [wings](/wiki/Insect_wing "Insect wing") are tawny orange, the veins and margins are black, and two series of small white spots occur in the margins. Monarch forewings also have a few orange spots near their tips. Wing undersides are similar, but the tips of forewings and hindwings are yellow brown instead of tawny orange and the white spots are larger. The shape and color of the wings change at the beginning of the migration and appear redder and more elongated than later migrants. Wings size and shape differ between migratory and nonmigratory monarchs. Monarchs from eastern North America have larger and more angular forewings than those in the western population.
In eastern North American populations, overall wing size in the physical dimensions of wings varies. Males tend to have larger wings than females, and are typically heavier than females. Both males and females have similar thoracic dimensions. Female monarchs tended to have thicker wings, which is thought to convey greater tensile strength and reduce the likelihood of being damaged during migration. Additionally, females had lower [wing loading](/wiki/Wing_loading "Wing loading") than males, which would mean females require less energy to fly.{{cite journal\|last1\=Davis\|first1\=A. K.\|last2\=Holden\|first2\= Michael T.\|year\=2015\|url\=http://downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2015/591705\.pdf\|title\=Measuring Intraspecific Variation in Flight\-Related Morphology of Monarch Butterflies (''Danaus plexippus''): Which Sex Has the Best Flying Gear?\|journal\=Journal of Insects \|volume\=2015\|issue\=59170\|pages\=1–6\|publisher\=Hindawi Publishing Corporation\|doi\=10\.1155/2015/591705\|access\-date\=October 17, 2020\|doi\-access\=free}}
Adults are [sexually dimorphic](/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism "Sexual dimorphism"). Males are slightly larger than females and have a black spot on a vein on each hindwing. The spots contain scales that produce [pheromones](/wiki/Pheromone "Pheromone") that many Lepidoptera use during courtship. Females are often darker than males and have wider veins on their wings. The ends of the abdomens of males and females differ in shape.Multiple sources:
{{cite web\|url\=https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\-biology/life\-cycle/adult\|title\=Adult\|year\=2021\|publisher\=Monarch Joint Venture\|access\-date\=October 5, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721001949/https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\-biology/life\-cycle/adult\|archive\-date\=July 21, 2021\|url\-status\=dead }}
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.monarchwatch.org/biology/sense1\.htm\|title\=Sensory Systems\|work\=Biology\|publisher\=\[\[Monarch Watch]]\|access\-date\=October 5, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319015951/https://www.monarchwatch.org/biology/sense1\.htm\|archive\-date\=March 19, 2018\|url\-status\=live}}
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.monarchwatch.org/biology/sexing.htm\|title\=Sexing Monarchs\|work\=Biology\|publisher\=\[\[Monarch Watch]]\|access\-date\=October 5, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505140543/https://www.monarchwatch.org/biology/sexing.htm\|archive\-date\=May 5, 2021\|url\-status\=live}}
* + - The adult's [thorax](/wiki/Thorax "Thorax") has six legs, but as in all of the Nymphalidae, the forelegs are small and held against the body. The butterfly uses only its middle and hindlegs when walking and clinging.
Adults typically live for 2–5 weeks during their breeding season.{{rp\|22–23}} Larvae growing in high densities are smaller, have lower survival, and weigh less as adults compared with those growing in lower densities.
|
[
"Life cycle\n----------",
"[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|The life cycle of the monarch butterfly](/wiki/File:Butterfly_life_cycle_diagram_in_English.svg \"Butterfly life cycle diagram in English.svg\")",
"Like all Lepidoptera, monarchs undergo complete [metamorphosis](/wiki/Metamorphosis_%28biology%29%23Insects \"Metamorphosis (biology)#Insects\"); their life cycle has four phases: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Monarchs transition from eggs to adults during warm summer temperatures in as little as 25 days, extending to as many as seven weeks during cool spring conditions. During their development, both larvae and their milkweed hosts are vulnerable to weather extremes, predators, parasites, and diseases; commonly fewer than 10% of monarch eggs and caterpillars survive.{{rp\\|21–22}}",
"### Egg",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|Egg](/wiki/File:Danaus_plexippus%2C_Monarch_egg.jpg \"Danaus plexippus, Monarch egg.jpg\")\nThe egg is derived from materials ingested as a larva and from the [spermatophores](/wiki/Spermatophore \"Spermatophore\") received from males during mating.[Oberhauser (2004\\)](/wiki/%23%7B%7Bharvid%7COberhauser2004%7D%7D \"#{{harvid|Oberhauser2004}}\"), p. 3 Female monarchs lay eggs singly, most often on the underside of a young leaf of a milkweed plant during the spring and summer. Females secrete a small amount of glue to attach their eggs directly to the plant. They typically lay 300 to 500 eggs over a two\\- to five\\-week period.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\\-biology/life\\-cycle/egg\\|title\\=Egg\\|year\\=2021\\|publisher\\=Monarch Joint Venture\\|access\\-date\\=October 6, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711120121/https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\\-biology/life\\-cycle/egg\\|archive\\-date\\=July 11, 2021\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Eggs are cream colored or light green, ovate to conical in shape, and about {{cvt\\|1\\.2\\|×\\|0\\.9\\|mm}} in size. The eggs weigh less than {{cvt\\|0\\.5\\|mg}} each and have raised ridges that form longitudinally from the point to apex to the base. Although each egg is {{frac\\|1\\|1000}} the mass of the female, she may lay up to her own mass in eggs. Females lay smaller eggs as they age. Larger females lay larger eggs. The number of eggs laid by a female, which may mate several times, can reach 1,180\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Oberhauser \\|first1\\=Karen S. \\|author\\-link1\\=Karen Oberhauser \\|last2\\=Solensky \\|first2\\=Michelle J \\|title\\=The Monarch Butterfly: Biology and Conservation \\|year\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press \\|location\\=Ithaca NY \\|isbn\\=978\\-0801441882 \\|edition\\=First \\|ref\\={{harvid\\|Oberhauser2004}} \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/monarchbutterfly00mich \\|page\\=23}}",
"Eggs take three to eight days to develop and hatch into larvae or [caterpillars](/wiki/Caterpillar \"Caterpillar\").{{rp\\|21}} The offspring's consumption of milkweed benefits health and helps defend them against predators. Monarchs lay eggs along the southern migration route.{{sfn\\|Oberhauser\\|2004\\|p\\=51}}",
"### Larva",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|Size comparison between a [black swallowtail caterpillar](/wiki/Papilio_polyxenes \"Papilio polyxenes\") (top), a monarch caterpillar (middle), and a [queen caterpillar](/wiki/Queen_%28butterfly%29 \"Queen (butterfly)\") (bottom) all on a human hand](/wiki/File:Swallowtail_Caterpillar%2C_Monarch_Caterpillar_%26_Queen_Caterpillar_in_Florida_%2827224446333%29.jpg \"Swallowtail Caterpillar, Monarch Caterpillar & Queen Caterpillar in Florida (27224446333).jpg\")",
"The larva (caterpillar) has five stages ([instars](/wiki/Instar \"Instar\")), [molting](/wiki/Molt \"Molt\") at the end of each instar. Instars last about 3 to 5 days, depending on factors such as temperature and food availability.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\\-biology/life\\-cycle/larva/guide\\-to\\-monarch\\-instars\\|title\\=Guide to Monarch Instars\\|year\\=2021\\|publisher\\=Monarch Joint Venture\\|access\\-date\\=October 1, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813231235/https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\\-biology/life\\-cycle/larva/guide\\-to\\-monarch\\-instars\\|archive\\-date\\=August 13, 2021\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The first\\-instar caterpillar that emerges from the egg is pale green or grayish\\-white, shiny, and almost translucent, with a large, black head. It lacks banding coloration or tentacles. The larvae or caterpillar eats its egg case and begins to feed on milkweed with a circular motion, often leaving a characteristic, arc\\-shaped hole in the leaf. Older first\\-instar larvae have dark stripes on a greenish background and develop small bumps that later become front tentacles. The first instar is usually between {{cvt\\|2 and 6\\|mm}} long.",
"The second\\-instar larva develops a characteristic pattern of white, yellow, and black transverse bands. The larva has a yellow triangle on the head and two sets of yellow bands around this central triangle. It is no longer translucent, and is covered in short [setae](/wiki/Setae \"Setae\"). Pairs of black tentacles begin to grow, a larger pair on the thorax and a smaller pair on the abdomen. The second instar is usually between {{cvt\\|6\\|mm}} and {{cvt\\|1\\|cm}} long.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|thumbtime\\=0\\|Fifth\\-instar monarch larva eating milkweed leaves (Some at 20 × speed). A second\\-instar larva grazing on leaf and cutting through a latex vein.](/wiki/File:Monarch_caterpillars.webm \"Monarch caterpillars.webm\")\nThe third\\-instar larva has more distinct bands and the two pairs of tentacles become longer. Legs on the thorax differentiate into a smaller pair near the head and larger pairs further back. Third\\-instar larvae usually feed using a cutting motion on leaf edges. The third instar is usually between {{cvt\\|1 and 1\\.5\\|cm}} long. The fourth\\-instar larva has a different banding pattern. It develops white spots on the [prolegs](/wiki/Proleg \"Proleg\") near its back, and is usually between {{cvt\\|1\\.5 and 2\\.5\\|cm}} long.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|A monarch caterpillar on milkweed](/wiki/File:Monarch_butterfly_caterpillar_on_common_milkweed.jpg \"Monarch butterfly caterpillar on common milkweed.jpg\")\nThe fifth\\-instar larva has a more complex banding pattern and white dots on the prolegs, with front legs that are small and very close to the head. Its length ranges from {{cvt\\|2\\.5 to 4\\.5\\|cm}}.\nThe larvae typically chew through a latex vein to relieve the pressure and feed above it. Fifth\\-instar larvae often chew a notch in the [petiole](/wiki/Petiole_%28botany%29 \"Petiole (botany)\") of the leaf they are eating, which relieves the latex pressure and causes the leaf to fall into a vertical position.",
"As the caterpillar completes its growth, it is {{cvt\\|4\\.5\\|cm}} long (large specimens can reach {{cvt\\|5\\|cm}}) and {{cvt\\|7 to 8\\|mm}} wide, and weighs about {{cvt\\|1\\.5\\|g}}, compared to the first instar, which is {{cvt\\|2 to 6\\|mm}} long and {{cvt\\|0\\.5 to 1\\.5\\|mm}} wide. Fifth\\-instar larvae greatly increase in size and weight. They then stop feeding and are often found far from milkweed plants as they seek a site for pupating.",
"In a laboratory setting, the fourth\\- and fifth\\-instar stages of the caterpillar showed signs of aggressive behavior with lower food availability. Attacked caterpillars were found to be attacked when it was feeding on milkweed leaves, and the caterpillars attacked when foraging for milkweed.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Collie \\|first1\\=Joseph \\|last2\\=Granela \\|first2\\=Odelvys \\|last3\\=Brown \\|first3\\=Elizabeth B. \\|last4\\=Keene \\|first4\\=Alex C. \\|title\\=Aggression Is Induced by Resource Limitation in the Monarch Caterpillar \\|journal\\=\\[\\[iScience]] \\|date\\=November 2020 \\|volume\\=23 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=101791 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.isci.2020\\.101791\\|pmid\\=33376972 \\|pmc\\=7756136 \\|bibcode\\=2020iSci...23j1791C \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} This demonstrates the aggressive behavior of monarch caterpillars due to the availability of milkweed.",
"### Pupa",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.9\\|right\\|Chrysalis](/wiki/File:Monarch_Butterfly_Cocoon_3.jpg \"Monarch Butterfly Cocoon 3.jpg\")\nTo prepare for the pupal or [chrysalis](/wiki/Chrysalis \"Chrysalis\") stage, the caterpillar chooses a safe place for pupation, where it spins a silk pad on a downward\\-facing horizontal surface. At this point, it turns around and securely latches on with its last pair of hind legs and hangs upside down, in the form of the letter J. After \"J\\-hanging\" for about 12–16 hours, it soon straightens out its body and goes into [peristalsis](/wiki/Peristalsis \"Peristalsis\") some seconds before its skin splits behind its head. It then sheds its skin over a period of a few minutes, revealing a green chrysalis (video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=QLQmrIUILzc](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QLQmrIUILzc)). At first, the chrysalis is long, soft, and somewhat amorphous, but over a few hours, it compacts into its distinct shape – an opaque, pale\\-green chrysalis with small golden dots near the bottom, and a gold\\-and\\-black rim around the dorsal side near the top.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Petersen\\|first\\=B.\\|date\\=1964\\|title\\=Humidity, Darkness, and Gold Spots as Possible Factors in Pupal Duration of Monarch Butterflies\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society]]\\|volume\\=18\\|pages\\=230–232}} At first, its exoskeleton is soft and fragile, but it hardens and becomes more durable within about a day. At this point, it is about {{cvt\\|2\\.5\\|cm}} long and {{cvt\\|10–12\\|mm}} wide, weighing about {{cvt\\|1\\.2\\|g}}. At normal summer temperatures, it matures in 8–15 days (usually 11–12 days). During this pupal stage, the adult butterfly forms inside. A day or so before emerging, the exoskeleton first becomes translucent and the chrysalis more bluish. Finally, within 12 hours or so, it becomes transparent, revealing the black and orange colors of the butterfly inside before it [ecloses](/wiki/Eclosion \"Eclosion\") (emerges).Multiple sources:\n {{cite web\\|url\\=https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\\-biology/life\\-cycle/pupa\\|title\\=Pupa\\|year\\=2021\\|publisher\\=Monarch Joint Venture\\|access\\-date\\=October 5, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711050853/https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\\-biology/life\\-cycle/pupa\\|archive\\-date\\=July 11, 2021\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n {{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Pocius\\|first1\\=V. M.\\|last2\\=Debinski\\|first2\\=D. M.\\|last3\\=Pleasants\\|first3\\=J. M.\\|last4\\=Bidne\\|first4\\=K. G.\\|last5\\=Hellmich\\|first5\\=R. L.\\|last6\\=Brower\\|first6\\=L. P.\\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-07\\|title\\=Milkweed Matters: Monarch Butterfly (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) Survival and Development on Nine Midwestern Milkweed Species\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Environmental Entomology]]\\|volume\\=46\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=1098–1105\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/ee/nvx137\\|pmid\\=28961914\\|pmc\\=5850784\\|issn\\=0046\\-225X\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"* + In 2009, monarchs were reared on the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\"), successfully emerging from pupae located in the station's Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus.Multiple sources:\n\t {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nasa.gov/mission\\_pages/station/expeditions/expedition22/butterflies.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091215044602/http://www.nasa.gov/mission\\_pages/station/expeditions/expedition22/butterflies.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=December 15, 2009\\|title\\=Butterflies Emerge from Cocoons Aboard Station\\|year\\=2009\\|publisher\\=NASA}}\n\t {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna34349127\\|title\\=First Monarch butterflies in space take flight\\|work\\=\\[\\[NBC News]]\\|date\\=December 9, 2009\\|accessdate\\=November 12, 2023}}",
"### Adult",
"* + [thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.9\\|right\\|An emergent monarch clinging to its chrysalis shell](/wiki/File:Danaus_plexippus_emerging_from_chrysalis_04.jpg \"Danaus plexippus emerging from chrysalis 04.jpg\")\n\tThe adult emerges from its chrysalis after about two weeks of pupation (video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=tQDGizDHVs8](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQDGizDHVs8) ). The emergent adult hangs upside down for several hours while it pumps fluids and air into its wings, which expand, dry, and stiffen. The butterfly then extends and retracts its wings. Once conditions allow, it flies and feeds on a variety of nectar plants. During the breeding season, adults reach sexual maturity in 4–5 days. However, the migrating generation does not reach maturity until overwintering is complete.\n\t[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.9\\|right\\|Monarch butterflies flying and sipping [nectar](/wiki/Nectar \"Nectar\") from milkweed flowers](/wiki/File:Monarchs_flying_and_sipping.webm \"Monarchs flying and sipping.webm\")",
"The adult's wingspan ranges from {{convert\\|8\\.9\\|to\\|10\\.2\\|cm}}. The upper sides of the [wings](/wiki/Insect_wing \"Insect wing\") are tawny orange, the veins and margins are black, and two series of small white spots occur in the margins. Monarch forewings also have a few orange spots near their tips. Wing undersides are similar, but the tips of forewings and hindwings are yellow brown instead of tawny orange and the white spots are larger. The shape and color of the wings change at the beginning of the migration and appear redder and more elongated than later migrants. Wings size and shape differ between migratory and nonmigratory monarchs. Monarchs from eastern North America have larger and more angular forewings than those in the western population.",
"In eastern North American populations, overall wing size in the physical dimensions of wings varies. Males tend to have larger wings than females, and are typically heavier than females. Both males and females have similar thoracic dimensions. Female monarchs tended to have thicker wings, which is thought to convey greater tensile strength and reduce the likelihood of being damaged during migration. Additionally, females had lower [wing loading](/wiki/Wing_loading \"Wing loading\") than males, which would mean females require less energy to fly.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Davis\\|first1\\=A. K.\\|last2\\=Holden\\|first2\\= Michael T.\\|year\\=2015\\|url\\=http://downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2015/591705\\.pdf\\|title\\=Measuring Intraspecific Variation in Flight\\-Related Morphology of Monarch Butterflies (''Danaus plexippus''): Which Sex Has the Best Flying Gear?\\|journal\\=Journal of Insects \\|volume\\=2015\\|issue\\=59170\\|pages\\=1–6\\|publisher\\=Hindawi Publishing Corporation\\|doi\\=10\\.1155/2015/591705\\|access\\-date\\=October 17, 2020\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"Adults are [sexually dimorphic](/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism \"Sexual dimorphism\"). Males are slightly larger than females and have a black spot on a vein on each hindwing. The spots contain scales that produce [pheromones](/wiki/Pheromone \"Pheromone\") that many Lepidoptera use during courtship. Females are often darker than males and have wider veins on their wings. The ends of the abdomens of males and females differ in shape.Multiple sources:\n {{cite web\\|url\\=https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\\-biology/life\\-cycle/adult\\|title\\=Adult\\|year\\=2021\\|publisher\\=Monarch Joint Venture\\|access\\-date\\=October 5, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721001949/https://monarchjointventure.org/monarch\\-biology/life\\-cycle/adult\\|archive\\-date\\=July 21, 2021\\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.monarchwatch.org/biology/sense1\\.htm\\|title\\=Sensory Systems\\|work\\=Biology\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Monarch Watch]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 5, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319015951/https://www.monarchwatch.org/biology/sense1\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=March 19, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.monarchwatch.org/biology/sexing.htm\\|title\\=Sexing Monarchs\\|work\\=Biology\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Monarch Watch]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 5, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505140543/https://www.monarchwatch.org/biology/sexing.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=May 5, 2021\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"* + - The adult's [thorax](/wiki/Thorax \"Thorax\") has six legs, but as in all of the Nymphalidae, the forelegs are small and held against the body. The butterfly uses only its middle and hindlegs when walking and clinging.",
"Adults typically live for 2–5 weeks during their breeding season.{{rp\\|22–23}} Larvae growing in high densities are smaller, have lower survival, and weigh less as adults compared with those growing in lower densities.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|[Armenian Catholic Cathedral](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Cathedral%2C_Gherla "Holy Trinity Cathedral, Gherla")](/wiki/File:Armenian_Catholic_Cathedral.jpg "Armenian Catholic Cathedral.jpg")
A clay tablet containing a fragmentary [Old Persian cuneiform](/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform "Old Persian cuneiform") of the [Achaemenid](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire "Achaemenid Empire") king [Darius I](/wiki/Darius_I "Darius I") was found at Gherla in 1937\. It may be connected to Darius I's epigraphic activities in relation to [his Scythian campaign](/wiki/European_Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I "European Scythian campaign of Darius I") of 513 BC as reported by [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus "Herodotus").{{sfn\|Kuhrt\|2013\|page\=197}}{{sfn\|Frye\|1984\|page\=103}}{{sfn\|Schmitt\|2000\|page\=53}}
The locality was first recorded in 1291 as a village named *Gherlahida,* (probably derived from the [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_languages "Slavic languages") word *grle*, meaning "[ford](/wiki/Ford_%28river%29 "Ford (river)")"). The second name was Armenian ({{Lang\-hy\|Հայաքաղաք\|translit\=Hayakaghak\|label\=none}}) meaning "Armenian city"; it took the [Medieval Latin](/wiki/Medieval_Latin "Medieval Latin") and [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language "Greek language") official name *Armenopolis*, as well as the German alternative name *Armenierstadt*. Later, the name *Szamosújvár* was used in official [Hungarian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary "Kingdom of Hungary") records, meaning "the new town on the [Someș](/wiki/Some%C8%99 "Someș")".
The modern city was built in the early 18th century by [Armenians](/wiki/Armenians "Armenians"), successors of the [Cilician Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia%23Dispersion_of_the_Armenian_population_of_Cilicia "Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia#Dispersion of the Armenian population of Cilicia") [diaspora](/wiki/Armenian_diaspora "Armenian diaspora"), who had originally settled in [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea") and [Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia "Moldavia"), and moved to Transylvania sometime after 1650\. After a two years' campaign by the [Armenian\-Catholic](/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church "Armenian Catholic Church") Bishop [Oxendius Vărzărescu](/wiki/Oxendius_V%C4%83rz%C4%83rescu "Oxendius Vărzărescu"), they converted from the [Armenian Apostolic Church](/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church "Armenian Apostolic Church") to the [Armenian Catholic Church](/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church "Armenian Catholic Church"); an Armenian Catholic cathedral in Gherla was consecrated in 1748\.{{Cite book \|last\=Lang \|first\=David Marshall \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=oTlJEAAAQBAJ \|title\=The Armenians: A People in Exile \|date\=2021\-12\-19 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-000\-51469\-8 \|pages\=104 \|language\=en}}
Gherla is the seat of the [Ordinariate for Catholics of Armenian Rite in Romania](/wiki/Ordinariate_for_Catholics_of_Armenian_Rite_in_Romania "Ordinariate for Catholics of Armenian Rite in Romania"), as well as that of a [Greek\-Catholic](/wiki/Romanian_Church_United_with_Rome%2C_Greek-Catholic "Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic") [diocese](/wiki/Diocese "Diocese") – the [Cluj\-Gherla Diocese](/wiki/Cluj-Gherla_Diocese "Cluj-Gherla Diocese") ([suffragan](/wiki/Suffragan "Suffragan") to the [Greek\-Catholic Archbishop of Alba Iulia and Făgăraș\-Blaj](/wiki/Romanian_Greek_Catholic_Major_Archdiocese_of_F%C4%83g%C4%83ra%C8%99_and_Alba_Iulia "Romanian Greek Catholic Major Archdiocese of Făgăraș and Alba Iulia"), who resided in [Blaj](/wiki/Blaj "Blaj")). In the center of the city lie the Saint [Gregory the Illuminator](/wiki/Gregory_the_Illuminator "Gregory the Illuminator") and the Holy Trinity Armenian Cathedral. The main Armenian\-Catholic church was built in 1792\. The Greek Catholic diocese was created by the [Papal Bull](/wiki/Papal_Bull "Papal Bull") *[Ad Apostolicam Sedem](/wiki/Ad_Apostolicam_Sedem "Ad Apostolicam Sedem")* of November 26, 1853, and the first bishop was [Ioan Alexi](/wiki/Ioan_Alexi "Ioan Alexi").
A [Habsburg](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy") fortress was built here and converted to a [prison](/wiki/Gherla_Prison "Gherla Prison") in 1785\. During the [Communist regime](/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania "Socialist Republic of Romania"), the prison was used for political detainees. Today it is a Romanian high\-security prison.
During the [Years of Revolution of 1848 and 1849](/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848 "Hungarian Revolution of 1848"), Gherla was the stage for numerous battles between the warring parties, changing hands several times. The Austrian commander [Karl von Urban](/wiki/Karl_von_Urban "Karl von Urban") and his Romanian Regiment liberated the city three times from Hungarian revolutionary forces, winning the Battle of Szamosújvár on 13 November 1848, a landmark of the stormy period. Starting in 1867, Gherla was no more part of the Principality of Transilvania and was annexed until 1918, to the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary "Kingdom of Hungary") *[comitatus](/wiki/Comitatus_%28Kingdom_of_Hungary%29 "Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary)")* of [Szolnok\-Doboka](/wiki/Szolnok-Doboka "Szolnok-Doboka").
After the collapse of [Austria\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary "Austria-Hungary") at the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), and the declaration of the [Union of Transylvania with Romania](/wiki/Union_of_Transylvania_with_Romania "Union of Transylvania with Romania"), the [Romanian Army](/wiki/Romanian_Army "Romanian Army") took control of Gherla in December 1918, during the [Hungarian–Romanian War](/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War "Hungarian–Romanian War"). The town officially became part of the territory ceded to the [Kingdom of Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania "Kingdom of Romania") in June 1920 under the terms of the [Treaty of Trianon](/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon "Treaty of Trianon"). During the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period "Interwar period"), the city was the headquarters of [plasa](/wiki/Plas%C4%83 "Plasă") Gherla, within [Someș County](/wiki/Some%C8%99_County "Someș County"), after which it became part of [Ținutul Crișuri](/wiki/%C8%9Ainutul_Cri%C8%99uri "Ținutul Crișuri").
In the wake of the [Second Vienna Award](/wiki/Second_Vienna_Award "Second Vienna Award") of August 30, 1940, the territory of [Northern Transylvania](/wiki/Northern_Transylvania "Northern Transylvania") (of which the city of Gherla was part) reverted to the Kingdom of Hungary. In early September, the [Hungarian administration](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281920%E2%80%931946%29 "Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)") was installed, and proceeded to take discriminatory measures against Romanians and [Jews](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania "History of the Jews in Romania"), forcing many Romanians to take refuge in Romania. Gherla had a significant Jewish population which was decimated during [the Holocaust](/wiki/The_Holocaust "The Holocaust"), due to Horthyst regime and the policies of [Ferenc Szálasi](/wiki/Ferenc_Sz%C3%A1lasi "Ferenc Szálasi") after September 1, 1944\. Towards the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), however, the town was taken back from Hungarian and [German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") troops by Romanian and [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") forces in October 1944\. After 1950, the city became the headquarters of Gherla [raion](/wiki/Raion "Raion") within the [Cluj Region](/wiki/Cluj_Region "Cluj Region"). Following the administrative reform of 1968, Gherla became part of Cluj County.
After the war, most of the remaining Jewish population left the city. The [Gherla Synagogue](/wiki/Gherla_Synagogue "Gherla Synagogue") and the Holocaust Memorial Monument are visited by tourists from many countries.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2019}} The town is also often visited by [Orthodox](/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church "Romanian Orthodox Church") pilgrims on their way to the nearby village of [Nicula](/wiki/Fize%C8%99u_Gherlii "Fizeșu Gherlii") and [Nicula Monastery](/wiki/Nicula_Monastery "Nicula Monastery").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Armenian Catholic Cathedral](/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Cathedral%2C_Gherla \"Holy Trinity Cathedral, Gherla\")](/wiki/File:Armenian_Catholic_Cathedral.jpg \"Armenian Catholic Cathedral.jpg\")",
"A clay tablet containing a fragmentary [Old Persian cuneiform](/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform \"Old Persian cuneiform\") of the [Achaemenid](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire \"Achaemenid Empire\") king [Darius I](/wiki/Darius_I \"Darius I\") was found at Gherla in 1937\\. It may be connected to Darius I's epigraphic activities in relation to [his Scythian campaign](/wiki/European_Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I \"European Scythian campaign of Darius I\") of 513 BC as reported by [Herodotus](/wiki/Herodotus \"Herodotus\").{{sfn\\|Kuhrt\\|2013\\|page\\=197}}{{sfn\\|Frye\\|1984\\|page\\=103}}{{sfn\\|Schmitt\\|2000\\|page\\=53}}",
"The locality was first recorded in 1291 as a village named *Gherlahida,* (probably derived from the [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_languages \"Slavic languages\") word *grle*, meaning \"[ford](/wiki/Ford_%28river%29 \"Ford (river)\")\"). The second name was Armenian ({{Lang\\-hy\\|Հայաքաղաք\\|translit\\=Hayakaghak\\|label\\=none}}) meaning \"Armenian city\"; it took the [Medieval Latin](/wiki/Medieval_Latin \"Medieval Latin\") and [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language \"Greek language\") official name *Armenopolis*, as well as the German alternative name *Armenierstadt*. Later, the name *Szamosújvár* was used in official [Hungarian](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary \"Kingdom of Hungary\") records, meaning \"the new town on the [Someș](/wiki/Some%C8%99 \"Someș\")\".",
"The modern city was built in the early 18th century by [Armenians](/wiki/Armenians \"Armenians\"), successors of the [Cilician Armenian](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia%23Dispersion_of_the_Armenian_population_of_Cilicia \"Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia#Dispersion of the Armenian population of Cilicia\") [diaspora](/wiki/Armenian_diaspora \"Armenian diaspora\"), who had originally settled in [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\") and [Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia \"Moldavia\"), and moved to Transylvania sometime after 1650\\. After a two years' campaign by the [Armenian\\-Catholic](/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church \"Armenian Catholic Church\") Bishop [Oxendius Vărzărescu](/wiki/Oxendius_V%C4%83rz%C4%83rescu \"Oxendius Vărzărescu\"), they converted from the [Armenian Apostolic Church](/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church \"Armenian Apostolic Church\") to the [Armenian Catholic Church](/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church \"Armenian Catholic Church\"); an Armenian Catholic cathedral in Gherla was consecrated in 1748\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Lang \\|first\\=David Marshall \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oTlJEAAAQBAJ \\|title\\=The Armenians: A People in Exile \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-19 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-000\\-51469\\-8 \\|pages\\=104 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Gherla is the seat of the [Ordinariate for Catholics of Armenian Rite in Romania](/wiki/Ordinariate_for_Catholics_of_Armenian_Rite_in_Romania \"Ordinariate for Catholics of Armenian Rite in Romania\"), as well as that of a [Greek\\-Catholic](/wiki/Romanian_Church_United_with_Rome%2C_Greek-Catholic \"Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic\") [diocese](/wiki/Diocese \"Diocese\") – the [Cluj\\-Gherla Diocese](/wiki/Cluj-Gherla_Diocese \"Cluj-Gherla Diocese\") ([suffragan](/wiki/Suffragan \"Suffragan\") to the [Greek\\-Catholic Archbishop of Alba Iulia and Făgăraș\\-Blaj](/wiki/Romanian_Greek_Catholic_Major_Archdiocese_of_F%C4%83g%C4%83ra%C8%99_and_Alba_Iulia \"Romanian Greek Catholic Major Archdiocese of Făgăraș and Alba Iulia\"), who resided in [Blaj](/wiki/Blaj \"Blaj\")). In the center of the city lie the Saint [Gregory the Illuminator](/wiki/Gregory_the_Illuminator \"Gregory the Illuminator\") and the Holy Trinity Armenian Cathedral. The main Armenian\\-Catholic church was built in 1792\\. The Greek Catholic diocese was created by the [Papal Bull](/wiki/Papal_Bull \"Papal Bull\") *[Ad Apostolicam Sedem](/wiki/Ad_Apostolicam_Sedem \"Ad Apostolicam Sedem\")* of November 26, 1853, and the first bishop was [Ioan Alexi](/wiki/Ioan_Alexi \"Ioan Alexi\").",
"A [Habsburg](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\") fortress was built here and converted to a [prison](/wiki/Gherla_Prison \"Gherla Prison\") in 1785\\. During the [Communist regime](/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania \"Socialist Republic of Romania\"), the prison was used for political detainees. Today it is a Romanian high\\-security prison.",
"During the [Years of Revolution of 1848 and 1849](/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848 \"Hungarian Revolution of 1848\"), Gherla was the stage for numerous battles between the warring parties, changing hands several times. The Austrian commander [Karl von Urban](/wiki/Karl_von_Urban \"Karl von Urban\") and his Romanian Regiment liberated the city three times from Hungarian revolutionary forces, winning the Battle of Szamosújvár on 13 November 1848, a landmark of the stormy period. Starting in 1867, Gherla was no more part of the Principality of Transilvania and was annexed until 1918, to the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary \"Kingdom of Hungary\") *[comitatus](/wiki/Comitatus_%28Kingdom_of_Hungary%29 \"Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary)\")* of [Szolnok\\-Doboka](/wiki/Szolnok-Doboka \"Szolnok-Doboka\").",
"After the collapse of [Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary \"Austria-Hungary\") at the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), and the declaration of the [Union of Transylvania with Romania](/wiki/Union_of_Transylvania_with_Romania \"Union of Transylvania with Romania\"), the [Romanian Army](/wiki/Romanian_Army \"Romanian Army\") took control of Gherla in December 1918, during the [Hungarian–Romanian War](/wiki/Hungarian%E2%80%93Romanian_War \"Hungarian–Romanian War\"). The town officially became part of the territory ceded to the [Kingdom of Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania \"Kingdom of Romania\") in June 1920 under the terms of the [Treaty of Trianon](/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon \"Treaty of Trianon\"). During the [interwar period](/wiki/Interwar_period \"Interwar period\"), the city was the headquarters of [plasa](/wiki/Plas%C4%83 \"Plasă\") Gherla, within [Someș County](/wiki/Some%C8%99_County \"Someș County\"), after which it became part of [Ținutul Crișuri](/wiki/%C8%9Ainutul_Cri%C8%99uri \"Ținutul Crișuri\").",
"In the wake of the [Second Vienna Award](/wiki/Second_Vienna_Award \"Second Vienna Award\") of August 30, 1940, the territory of [Northern Transylvania](/wiki/Northern_Transylvania \"Northern Transylvania\") (of which the city of Gherla was part) reverted to the Kingdom of Hungary. In early September, the [Hungarian administration](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281920%E2%80%931946%29 \"Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)\") was installed, and proceeded to take discriminatory measures against Romanians and [Jews](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania \"History of the Jews in Romania\"), forcing many Romanians to take refuge in Romania. Gherla had a significant Jewish population which was decimated during [the Holocaust](/wiki/The_Holocaust \"The Holocaust\"), due to Horthyst regime and the policies of [Ferenc Szálasi](/wiki/Ferenc_Sz%C3%A1lasi \"Ferenc Szálasi\") after September 1, 1944\\. Towards the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), however, the town was taken back from Hungarian and [German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") troops by Romanian and [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") forces in October 1944\\. After 1950, the city became the headquarters of Gherla [raion](/wiki/Raion \"Raion\") within the [Cluj Region](/wiki/Cluj_Region \"Cluj Region\"). Following the administrative reform of 1968, Gherla became part of Cluj County.",
"After the war, most of the remaining Jewish population left the city. The [Gherla Synagogue](/wiki/Gherla_Synagogue \"Gherla Synagogue\") and the Holocaust Memorial Monument are visited by tourists from many countries.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2019}} The town is also often visited by [Orthodox](/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church \"Romanian Orthodox Church\") pilgrims on their way to the nearby village of [Nicula](/wiki/Fize%C8%99u_Gherlii \"Fizeșu Gherlii\") and [Nicula Monastery](/wiki/Nicula_Monastery \"Nicula Monastery\").",
""
] |
Synopsis
--------
The libretto is based on the Biblical story of [Joseph](/wiki/Joseph_%28Genesis%29 "Joseph (Genesis)") found in [Genesis](/wiki/Book_of_Genesis "Book of Genesis") chapters 38–45\. The libretto is hard to read without background context because the audience of Handel's oratorios was very familiar with the stories of the Hebrew Bible and would have known the whole story of Joseph as part of their cultural knowledge. Taking advantage of this, Miller tells the story in poetical form, leaving out events and background information which give it a fragmentary feel if read straight through.
[thumb\|A picture of the theatre at Covent Garden where *Joseph and his Brethren* was first performed](/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_027_-_Covent_Garden_Theatre_edited.jpg "Microcosm of London Plate 027 - Covent Garden Theatre edited.jpg")
The story (but not the oratorio) begins when Joseph's eleven brothers, jealous that their father [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob "Jacob") loved Joseph best of all of them, seize him and sell him into slavery, telling their father that he has been eaten by wild beasts. The slave traders took Joseph to Egypt, where he became a servant in the house of [Potiphar](/wiki/Potiphar "Potiphar"), captain of Pharaoh's guard. A good servant, Joseph eventually rose to be the head of the household servants. Potiphar's wife became attracted to Joseph and attempted to seduce him, but he rebuffed her. Because of this, she accused him of making advances on her and he was placed in jail. While in jail, Joseph interpreted the dreams of two of his prison\-mates, both servants in Pharaoh's household. One of them Phanor, promised to help free Joseph from prison when he was restored to his position in Pharaoh's household, but forgot and several years pass.
Act 1 opens with Joseph lamenting his lot in life, abandoned, in prison. Pharaoh has been troubled by dreams which no one can interpret for him, and Phanor remembers Joseph and fetches him. Joseph comes before Pharaoh and, calling on Jehovah, interprets Pharaoh's dreams: He says that the dreams foretell of 7 years of plenty followed by 7 years of famine and that Pharaoh should store food during the time of plenty for the time of famine. Meanwhile, Asenath, daughter of the high priest Potiphera, falls in love with the young Joseph. Pharaoh rejoices at Joseph's interpretations, makes him his prime minister to oversee the saving of food, names him "Zaphnath", and offers him Asenath's hand in marriage.
Now, before act 2 begins, more biblical story needs to be inserted: After Joseph saves wisely during the seven years of plenty, the famine begins. Because Egypt is now well\-positioned for food, people from afar come to purchase grain to replace their own failing crops. Among these are Joseph's brothers, who do not recognize him (although he recognizes them). He accuses them of being spies and orders them to leave one of them, Simeon, here in jail while they go home and return with their youngest brother Benjamin (who did not come the first time).
Act 2 begins a year later, with Simeon still languishing in jail and his fear and guilt over having betrayed Joseph racking his brain. Joseph plays into the dramatic irony and manipulates Simeon to feel guilt for having abandoned Joseph. When his brothers return with Benjamin, they state their case again for the plight of their homeland in Canaan and he sells them grain and sends them on their way. Not mentioned in the libretto, Joseph arranges to have a silver cup of his hidden in Benjamin's things.
In act 3, Joseph has the Egyptian guards catch up to and seize the brothers, bring them back, and accuses them of stealing the cup. Playing the guilt and drama to the hilt, he demands to keep Benjamin as a prisoner to test the brothers if they will abandon Benjamin as they did him all those years ago. The brothers plead for their fathers sake—the heartbreak of losing another youngest son would kill him—and Simeon offers himself in Benjamin's stead. Passing Joseph's test, he reveals himself as their long\-lost brother. All sing praises to God and the country of Egypt which Joseph has so gloriously managed and Joseph and his brethren settle in this happy land.
|
[
"Synopsis\n--------",
"The libretto is based on the Biblical story of [Joseph](/wiki/Joseph_%28Genesis%29 \"Joseph (Genesis)\") found in [Genesis](/wiki/Book_of_Genesis \"Book of Genesis\") chapters 38–45\\. The libretto is hard to read without background context because the audience of Handel's oratorios was very familiar with the stories of the Hebrew Bible and would have known the whole story of Joseph as part of their cultural knowledge. Taking advantage of this, Miller tells the story in poetical form, leaving out events and background information which give it a fragmentary feel if read straight through.\n[thumb\\|A picture of the theatre at Covent Garden where *Joseph and his Brethren* was first performed](/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_027_-_Covent_Garden_Theatre_edited.jpg \"Microcosm of London Plate 027 - Covent Garden Theatre edited.jpg\")\nThe story (but not the oratorio) begins when Joseph's eleven brothers, jealous that their father [Jacob](/wiki/Jacob \"Jacob\") loved Joseph best of all of them, seize him and sell him into slavery, telling their father that he has been eaten by wild beasts. The slave traders took Joseph to Egypt, where he became a servant in the house of [Potiphar](/wiki/Potiphar \"Potiphar\"), captain of Pharaoh's guard. A good servant, Joseph eventually rose to be the head of the household servants. Potiphar's wife became attracted to Joseph and attempted to seduce him, but he rebuffed her. Because of this, she accused him of making advances on her and he was placed in jail. While in jail, Joseph interpreted the dreams of two of his prison\\-mates, both servants in Pharaoh's household. One of them Phanor, promised to help free Joseph from prison when he was restored to his position in Pharaoh's household, but forgot and several years pass.",
"Act 1 opens with Joseph lamenting his lot in life, abandoned, in prison. Pharaoh has been troubled by dreams which no one can interpret for him, and Phanor remembers Joseph and fetches him. Joseph comes before Pharaoh and, calling on Jehovah, interprets Pharaoh's dreams: He says that the dreams foretell of 7 years of plenty followed by 7 years of famine and that Pharaoh should store food during the time of plenty for the time of famine. Meanwhile, Asenath, daughter of the high priest Potiphera, falls in love with the young Joseph. Pharaoh rejoices at Joseph's interpretations, makes him his prime minister to oversee the saving of food, names him \"Zaphnath\", and offers him Asenath's hand in marriage.",
"Now, before act 2 begins, more biblical story needs to be inserted: After Joseph saves wisely during the seven years of plenty, the famine begins. Because Egypt is now well\\-positioned for food, people from afar come to purchase grain to replace their own failing crops. Among these are Joseph's brothers, who do not recognize him (although he recognizes them). He accuses them of being spies and orders them to leave one of them, Simeon, here in jail while they go home and return with their youngest brother Benjamin (who did not come the first time).",
"Act 2 begins a year later, with Simeon still languishing in jail and his fear and guilt over having betrayed Joseph racking his brain. Joseph plays into the dramatic irony and manipulates Simeon to feel guilt for having abandoned Joseph. When his brothers return with Benjamin, they state their case again for the plight of their homeland in Canaan and he sells them grain and sends them on their way. Not mentioned in the libretto, Joseph arranges to have a silver cup of his hidden in Benjamin's things.",
"In act 3, Joseph has the Egyptian guards catch up to and seize the brothers, bring them back, and accuses them of stealing the cup. Playing the guilt and drama to the hilt, he demands to keep Benjamin as a prisoner to test the brothers if they will abandon Benjamin as they did him all those years ago. The brothers plead for their fathers sake—the heartbreak of losing another youngest son would kill him—and Simeon offers himself in Benjamin's stead. Passing Joseph's test, he reveals himself as their long\\-lost brother. All sing praises to God and the country of Egypt which Joseph has so gloriously managed and Joseph and his brethren settle in this happy land.",
""
] |
History
-------
The suggestion to open a "Preparatory Department of a High School" was first presented at an Alameda Board of Education meeting held on March 6, 1874\. On April 17, 1874, C. Y. Johns was elected as the first principal. Classes began with 52 students, in July 1874, in a rented room over a drugstore on Park Street known as "Boehmer's Hall". The building still exists today as the China House restaurant.
Boehmer's Hall was only temporary. A new building was already being built on a site on Santa Clara at Chestnut, and was completed and occupied in 1875\. The high school shared space with the Grammar Department in what became known as Haight School. The site is still occupied by this school today. The class of 1878, totalling nine students, was the first to graduate from Alameda High School.
It was not long before the number of students enrolled in the high school outgrew the space available at Haight. Temporary quarters were located at the Porter school, located on Alameda Avenue, by 1900\. A campaign was started for a new separate high school building.
With the help of the high school student body, a bond was passed in the city for the new school. The cornerstone was laid in 1902 on the new site at Central and Walnut. The building was dedicated in 1903 and occupied in time for the December 1903 term.
Continued growth in enrollment required an even larger campus. In 1925 a new bond issue was voted on. The new school, dedicated in 1926, comprised three connected buildings, including the original 1903 structure which was refurbished to blend with the architectural style of the other two. The architecture, designed by local architect [Carl Werner](/wiki/Carl_Werner_%28architect%29 "Carl Werner (architect)"), is early twentieth\-century [Neo\-Classical Revival](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture") in nature, evoking images of [ancient Greek temples](/wiki/Architecture_of_Ancient_Greece "Architecture of Ancient Greece") with [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") columns in front of the Kofman Auditorium, a facility known throughout the Bay Area as one of the best of the local playhouses.{{cite web\|url\=http://thealamedan.org/news/residents\-fix\-old\-alameda\-high\-buildings\-students\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701065717/http://thealamedan.org/news/residents\-fix\-old\-alameda\-high\-buildings\-students\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=July 1, 2014\|title\=Residents: Fix old Alameda High buildings for students\|website\=thealamedan.org\|publisher\=The Alamedan\|date\=April 12, 2013\|last1\=Ellson\|first1\=Michelle\|access\-date\=August 20, 2016}}
By 1955, the "old building" had outlived its usefulness and was replaced with what became known as the "new building" by subsequent students until 1977\.
Campaigns to replace old public buildings with newer earthquake\-safe structures led to the construction of the newest high school building, across the street from the established campus, on Encinal at Walnut.
Original plans involved tearing down the 1926 buildings and replacing them with a sports complex, and only keeping the "new building" of 1955\. A dedicated group of alumni and citizens saved the venerable buildings, and the planned new construction was scaled back to what exists today.
The newest building was first occupied in 1978 and included the site of the former Porter school. The west wing now houses Language and Fine Arts, as well as the Frederick L. Chacon Little Theater. The school was made an Alameda Historical Monument in 1976 and was listed in the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") in 1977\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The suggestion to open a \"Preparatory Department of a High School\" was first presented at an Alameda Board of Education meeting held on March 6, 1874\\. On April 17, 1874, C. Y. Johns was elected as the first principal. Classes began with 52 students, in July 1874, in a rented room over a drugstore on Park Street known as \"Boehmer's Hall\". The building still exists today as the China House restaurant.",
"Boehmer's Hall was only temporary. A new building was already being built on a site on Santa Clara at Chestnut, and was completed and occupied in 1875\\. The high school shared space with the Grammar Department in what became known as Haight School. The site is still occupied by this school today. The class of 1878, totalling nine students, was the first to graduate from Alameda High School.",
"It was not long before the number of students enrolled in the high school outgrew the space available at Haight. Temporary quarters were located at the Porter school, located on Alameda Avenue, by 1900\\. A campaign was started for a new separate high school building.",
"With the help of the high school student body, a bond was passed in the city for the new school. The cornerstone was laid in 1902 on the new site at Central and Walnut. The building was dedicated in 1903 and occupied in time for the December 1903 term.",
"Continued growth in enrollment required an even larger campus. In 1925 a new bond issue was voted on. The new school, dedicated in 1926, comprised three connected buildings, including the original 1903 structure which was refurbished to blend with the architectural style of the other two. The architecture, designed by local architect [Carl Werner](/wiki/Carl_Werner_%28architect%29 \"Carl Werner (architect)\"), is early twentieth\\-century [Neo\\-Classical Revival](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\") in nature, evoking images of [ancient Greek temples](/wiki/Architecture_of_Ancient_Greece \"Architecture of Ancient Greece\") with [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") columns in front of the Kofman Auditorium, a facility known throughout the Bay Area as one of the best of the local playhouses.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://thealamedan.org/news/residents\\-fix\\-old\\-alameda\\-high\\-buildings\\-students\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701065717/http://thealamedan.org/news/residents\\-fix\\-old\\-alameda\\-high\\-buildings\\-students\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=July 1, 2014\\|title\\=Residents: Fix old Alameda High buildings for students\\|website\\=thealamedan.org\\|publisher\\=The Alamedan\\|date\\=April 12, 2013\\|last1\\=Ellson\\|first1\\=Michelle\\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2016}}",
"By 1955, the \"old building\" had outlived its usefulness and was replaced with what became known as the \"new building\" by subsequent students until 1977\\.",
"Campaigns to replace old public buildings with newer earthquake\\-safe structures led to the construction of the newest high school building, across the street from the established campus, on Encinal at Walnut.",
"Original plans involved tearing down the 1926 buildings and replacing them with a sports complex, and only keeping the \"new building\" of 1955\\. A dedicated group of alumni and citizens saved the venerable buildings, and the planned new construction was scaled back to what exists today.",
"The newest building was first occupied in 1978 and included the site of the former Porter school. The west wing now houses Language and Fine Arts, as well as the Frederick L. Chacon Little Theater. The school was made an Alameda Historical Monument in 1976 and was listed in the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") in 1977\\.",
""
] |
Life
----
### Family
Born in [Weimar](/wiki/Weimar "Weimar"), Dorothea Maria was the youngest daughter of Duke [William IV of Saxe\-Weimar](/wiki/William%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar "William, Duke of Saxe-Weimar") from his marriage to [Eleonore Dorothea of Anhalt\-Dessau](/wiki/Eleonore_Dorothea_of_Anhalt-Dessau "Eleonore Dorothea of Anhalt-Dessau"), the daughter of Prince [John George I](/wiki/John_George_I%2C_Prince_of_Anhalt-Dessau "John George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau") of Anhalt\-Dessau. She was named after her maternal grandmother [Dorothea Maria of Anhalt](/wiki/Dorothea_Maria_of_Anhalt "Dorothea Maria of Anhalt"), who had already died at that point in time.
### Wedding to Maurice of Saxony, and activity in the Principality of Saxe\-Zeitz
Her marriage to Duke Maurice of Saxe\-Zeitz can be understood against the background of the fact that Maurice had been administrator of the [Bishopric of Naumburg\-Zeitz](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Naumburg-Zeitz "Bishopric of Naumburg-Zeitz") since 1653 and lived in City Palace in [Naumburg](/wiki/Naumburg "Naumburg"). Furthermore, Maurice had been a member since 1646, of the [Fruitbearing Society](/wiki/Fruitbearing_Society "Fruitbearing Society"), led by Dorothea Maria's father.
Maurice had been married before and had been a widower since 7 October 1652\. When the customary mourning period had ended, he married Dorothea Maria, who was only 15 years old. Maurice's father, Elector [John George I](/wiki/John_George_I%2C_Elector_of_Saxony "John George I, Elector of Saxony") of Saxony died. Maurice inherited the Lordship of [Zeitz](/wiki/Zeitz "Zeitz") as an [apanage](/wiki/Apanage "Apanage"), making him the founder of the [Saxe\-Zeitz](/wiki/Saxe-Zeitz "Saxe-Zeitz") branch of the [House of Wettin](/wiki/House_of_Wettin "House of Wettin").
Maurice held that the City Palace in Naumburg was not a befitting residence for a person of his station and summoned his father court architect, [Johann Moritz Richter](/wiki/Johann_Moritz_Richter "Johann Moritz Richter"), to discuss the design of a magnificent [baroque](/wiki/Baroque "Baroque") palace, [Moritzburg Palace](/wiki/Schloss_Moritzburg_%28Zeitz%29 "Schloss Moritzburg (Zeitz)"), in his new capital Zeitz.
The Duke and Duchess saw as their main task to revive the economy and to repair the devastation of the infrastructure of their principality during the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War"). They also devoted themselves to the reconstruction of the seminary in Zeitz. [Christoph Cellarius](/wiki/Christoph_Cellarius "Christoph Cellarius") would later add great prestige to this seminary.
Dorothea Maria died in the [Moritzburg Palace](/wiki/Schloss_Moritzburg_%28Zeitz%29 "Schloss Moritzburg (Zeitz)"), [Zeitz](/wiki/Zeitz "Zeitz") on 11 June 1675, at the age of 33\. She was buried in a magnificent sarcophagus in the hall crypt below the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul in Zeitz. Her husband remarried after her death. This third marriage, however, remained childless, so that the Saxe\-Zeitz line descends from Dorothea Maria. However, the line died out after the third generation, due to lack of male heirs.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"### Family",
"Born in [Weimar](/wiki/Weimar \"Weimar\"), Dorothea Maria was the youngest daughter of Duke [William IV of Saxe\\-Weimar](/wiki/William%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Weimar \"William, Duke of Saxe-Weimar\") from his marriage to [Eleonore Dorothea of Anhalt\\-Dessau](/wiki/Eleonore_Dorothea_of_Anhalt-Dessau \"Eleonore Dorothea of Anhalt-Dessau\"), the daughter of Prince [John George I](/wiki/John_George_I%2C_Prince_of_Anhalt-Dessau \"John George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau\") of Anhalt\\-Dessau. She was named after her maternal grandmother [Dorothea Maria of Anhalt](/wiki/Dorothea_Maria_of_Anhalt \"Dorothea Maria of Anhalt\"), who had already died at that point in time.",
"### Wedding to Maurice of Saxony, and activity in the Principality of Saxe\\-Zeitz",
"Her marriage to Duke Maurice of Saxe\\-Zeitz can be understood against the background of the fact that Maurice had been administrator of the [Bishopric of Naumburg\\-Zeitz](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Naumburg-Zeitz \"Bishopric of Naumburg-Zeitz\") since 1653 and lived in City Palace in [Naumburg](/wiki/Naumburg \"Naumburg\"). Furthermore, Maurice had been a member since 1646, of the [Fruitbearing Society](/wiki/Fruitbearing_Society \"Fruitbearing Society\"), led by Dorothea Maria's father.",
"Maurice had been married before and had been a widower since 7 October 1652\\. When the customary mourning period had ended, he married Dorothea Maria, who was only 15 years old. Maurice's father, Elector [John George I](/wiki/John_George_I%2C_Elector_of_Saxony \"John George I, Elector of Saxony\") of Saxony died. Maurice inherited the Lordship of [Zeitz](/wiki/Zeitz \"Zeitz\") as an [apanage](/wiki/Apanage \"Apanage\"), making him the founder of the [Saxe\\-Zeitz](/wiki/Saxe-Zeitz \"Saxe-Zeitz\") branch of the [House of Wettin](/wiki/House_of_Wettin \"House of Wettin\").",
"Maurice held that the City Palace in Naumburg was not a befitting residence for a person of his station and summoned his father court architect, [Johann Moritz Richter](/wiki/Johann_Moritz_Richter \"Johann Moritz Richter\"), to discuss the design of a magnificent [baroque](/wiki/Baroque \"Baroque\") palace, [Moritzburg Palace](/wiki/Schloss_Moritzburg_%28Zeitz%29 \"Schloss Moritzburg (Zeitz)\"), in his new capital Zeitz.",
"The Duke and Duchess saw as their main task to revive the economy and to repair the devastation of the infrastructure of their principality during the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\"). They also devoted themselves to the reconstruction of the seminary in Zeitz. [Christoph Cellarius](/wiki/Christoph_Cellarius \"Christoph Cellarius\") would later add great prestige to this seminary.",
"Dorothea Maria died in the [Moritzburg Palace](/wiki/Schloss_Moritzburg_%28Zeitz%29 \"Schloss Moritzburg (Zeitz)\"), [Zeitz](/wiki/Zeitz \"Zeitz\") on 11 June 1675, at the age of 33\\. She was buried in a magnificent sarcophagus in the hall crypt below the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul in Zeitz. Her husband remarried after her death. This third marriage, however, remained childless, so that the Saxe\\-Zeitz line descends from Dorothea Maria. However, the line died out after the third generation, due to lack of male heirs.",
""
] |
### Wedding to Maurice of Saxony, and activity in the Principality of Saxe\-Zeitz
Her marriage to Duke Maurice of Saxe\-Zeitz can be understood against the background of the fact that Maurice had been administrator of the [Bishopric of Naumburg\-Zeitz](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Naumburg-Zeitz "Bishopric of Naumburg-Zeitz") since 1653 and lived in City Palace in [Naumburg](/wiki/Naumburg "Naumburg"). Furthermore, Maurice had been a member since 1646, of the [Fruitbearing Society](/wiki/Fruitbearing_Society "Fruitbearing Society"), led by Dorothea Maria's father.
Maurice had been married before and had been a widower since 7 October 1652\. When the customary mourning period had ended, he married Dorothea Maria, who was only 15 years old. Maurice's father, Elector [John George I](/wiki/John_George_I%2C_Elector_of_Saxony "John George I, Elector of Saxony") of Saxony died. Maurice inherited the Lordship of [Zeitz](/wiki/Zeitz "Zeitz") as an [apanage](/wiki/Apanage "Apanage"), making him the founder of the [Saxe\-Zeitz](/wiki/Saxe-Zeitz "Saxe-Zeitz") branch of the [House of Wettin](/wiki/House_of_Wettin "House of Wettin").
Maurice held that the City Palace in Naumburg was not a befitting residence for a person of his station and summoned his father court architect, [Johann Moritz Richter](/wiki/Johann_Moritz_Richter "Johann Moritz Richter"), to discuss the design of a magnificent [baroque](/wiki/Baroque "Baroque") palace, [Moritzburg Palace](/wiki/Schloss_Moritzburg_%28Zeitz%29 "Schloss Moritzburg (Zeitz)"), in his new capital Zeitz.
The Duke and Duchess saw as their main task to revive the economy and to repair the devastation of the infrastructure of their principality during the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War"). They also devoted themselves to the reconstruction of the seminary in Zeitz. [Christoph Cellarius](/wiki/Christoph_Cellarius "Christoph Cellarius") would later add great prestige to this seminary.
Dorothea Maria died in the [Moritzburg Palace](/wiki/Schloss_Moritzburg_%28Zeitz%29 "Schloss Moritzburg (Zeitz)"), [Zeitz](/wiki/Zeitz "Zeitz") on 11 June 1675, at the age of 33\. She was buried in a magnificent sarcophagus in the hall crypt below the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul in Zeitz. Her husband remarried after her death. This third marriage, however, remained childless, so that the Saxe\-Zeitz line descends from Dorothea Maria. However, the line died out after the third generation, due to lack of male heirs.
|
[
"### Wedding to Maurice of Saxony, and activity in the Principality of Saxe\\-Zeitz",
"Her marriage to Duke Maurice of Saxe\\-Zeitz can be understood against the background of the fact that Maurice had been administrator of the [Bishopric of Naumburg\\-Zeitz](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Naumburg-Zeitz \"Bishopric of Naumburg-Zeitz\") since 1653 and lived in City Palace in [Naumburg](/wiki/Naumburg \"Naumburg\"). Furthermore, Maurice had been a member since 1646, of the [Fruitbearing Society](/wiki/Fruitbearing_Society \"Fruitbearing Society\"), led by Dorothea Maria's father.",
"Maurice had been married before and had been a widower since 7 October 1652\\. When the customary mourning period had ended, he married Dorothea Maria, who was only 15 years old. Maurice's father, Elector [John George I](/wiki/John_George_I%2C_Elector_of_Saxony \"John George I, Elector of Saxony\") of Saxony died. Maurice inherited the Lordship of [Zeitz](/wiki/Zeitz \"Zeitz\") as an [apanage](/wiki/Apanage \"Apanage\"), making him the founder of the [Saxe\\-Zeitz](/wiki/Saxe-Zeitz \"Saxe-Zeitz\") branch of the [House of Wettin](/wiki/House_of_Wettin \"House of Wettin\").",
"Maurice held that the City Palace in Naumburg was not a befitting residence for a person of his station and summoned his father court architect, [Johann Moritz Richter](/wiki/Johann_Moritz_Richter \"Johann Moritz Richter\"), to discuss the design of a magnificent [baroque](/wiki/Baroque \"Baroque\") palace, [Moritzburg Palace](/wiki/Schloss_Moritzburg_%28Zeitz%29 \"Schloss Moritzburg (Zeitz)\"), in his new capital Zeitz.",
"The Duke and Duchess saw as their main task to revive the economy and to repair the devastation of the infrastructure of their principality during the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\"). They also devoted themselves to the reconstruction of the seminary in Zeitz. [Christoph Cellarius](/wiki/Christoph_Cellarius \"Christoph Cellarius\") would later add great prestige to this seminary.",
"Dorothea Maria died in the [Moritzburg Palace](/wiki/Schloss_Moritzburg_%28Zeitz%29 \"Schloss Moritzburg (Zeitz)\"), [Zeitz](/wiki/Zeitz \"Zeitz\") on 11 June 1675, at the age of 33\\. She was buried in a magnificent sarcophagus in the hall crypt below the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul in Zeitz. Her husband remarried after her death. This third marriage, however, remained childless, so that the Saxe\\-Zeitz line descends from Dorothea Maria. However, the line died out after the third generation, due to lack of male heirs.",
""
] |
Post\-Industrial Revolution
---------------------------
### Transport and industry
The [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") gathered momentum after the [Bridgewater Canal](/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal "Bridgewater Canal") was opened to [Castlefield](/wiki/Castlefield "Castlefield") on 10 July 1761\.{{citation\|title\=Bridgewater Canal:Vision and masterplan for a regional tourist attraction \|url\=http://www.salford.gov.uk/d/Bridgewater\_Canal\_Masterplan\_\-\_Final.pdf \|page\=23 \|publisher\=Salford Council \|access\-date\=30 October 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110172016/http://www.salford.gov.uk/d/Bridgewater\_Canal\_Masterplan\_\-\_Final.pdf \|archive\-date\=10 January 2014 }} The canal brought coal to the town from [Worsley](/wiki/Worsley "Worsley") and when in 1776 it had been extended, cotton could be shipped into the town from the [Port of Liverpool](/wiki/Port_of_Liverpool "Port of Liverpool"). At Castlefield Basin are a series of early warehouses, such as the Dukes Warehouse and the Grocers Warehouse. By 1800 the Bridgewater at Castlefield was connected to the [Rochdale Canal](/wiki/Rochdale_Canal "Rochdale Canal") and beyond that to the [Ashton Canal](/wiki/Ashton_Canal "Ashton Canal").{{sfn\|Parkinson\-Bailey\|2000\|pp\=14\-18}} On the Ashton Canal the [Store Street Aqueduct](/wiki/Store_Street_Aqueduct "Store Street Aqueduct") designed by [Benjamin Outram](/wiki/Benjamin_Outram "Benjamin Outram"), is believed to be the first skewed aqueduct of its kind and the oldest still in use{{NHLE \|num\= 1270666\|desc\= Store Street Aqueduct\|access\-date\= 11 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} and a brick lock\-keeper's cottage constructed about 1800 survives by Number 2 Lock.{{NHLE \|num\= 1279636\|desc\= Lock\-keeper's cottage beside Lock No.2 at Islington Branch junction basin \|access\-date\= 11 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
The canals shaped the layout of the city attracting wharves and warehouses, transporting coal and heavy materials and provided water to run [steam\-engines](/wiki/Stationary_steam_engine "Stationary steam engine"). Large [cotton mill](/wiki/Cotton_mill "Cotton mill") complexes survive on the fringes of the city centre, [Murrays Mills](/wiki/Murrays_Mills "Murrays Mills"), the [McConnel \& Kennedy Mills](/wiki/McConnel_%26_Kennedy_Mills "McConnel & Kennedy Mills") and [Beehive Mill](/wiki/Beehive_Mill "Beehive Mill") at [Ancoats](/wiki/Ancoats "Ancoats") were built from the 1790s. The oldest surviving fireproof mill is at Chorlton New Mills in [Chorlton on Medlock](/wiki/Chorlton_on_Medlock "Chorlton on Medlock").{{citation \|title\= Industrial Manchester \|url\= http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/an\-introduction/industrial\-manchester.html\|publisher\=Looking at Buildings\|access\-date \= 30 October 2012}}{{NHLE \|num\= 1197774\|desc\= Chorlton New Mill and attached chimney\|access\-date\= 29 October 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
File:Castlefield Grocers4652\.JPG\|The \[\[Bridgewater Canal]] and the remains of the Grocer's Warehouse in \[\[Castlefield]]
File:Ancoats Redhill Street\- 4557\.JPG\|The \[\[Rochdale Canal]] in Ancoats and \[\[Murrays' Mills]] built 1797–1804
File:Dale Street warehouse 3\.JPG\|The \[\[Dale Street Warehouse]] built in 1806\.
File:Store Street Aqueduct.jpg\|\[\[Store Street Aqueduct]], which carries the \[\[Ashton Canal]]
Manchester was linked to Salford across the River Irwell by a ford and subsequently by Salford Old Bridge in the 14th century. During the 19th century more bridges were built. The old bridge was replaced by [Victoria Bridge](/wiki/Victoria_Bridge%2C_Manchester "Victoria Bridge, Manchester") which has a single arch of about 100 feet span constructed from [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone") in 1839\.{{sfn\|Hartwell\|2002\|p\=236}} Other Victorian bridges over the Irwell are the three\-arched [Blackfriars Bridge](/wiki/Blackfriars_Bridge%2C_Manchester "Blackfriars Bridge, Manchester"),{{NHLE \|num\= 1279490\|desc\= Blackfriars Bridge (that part in 04/02/88 City of Manchester) \|access\-date\= 22 November 2012\|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} the [skew arched](/wiki/Skew_arch "Skew arch") [Albert Bridge](/wiki/Albert_Bridge%2C_Manchester "Albert Bridge, Manchester"){{NHLE \|num\= 1293278\|desc\= Albert Bridge (that part in the City 20/06/88 of Manchester) \|access\-date\= 22 November 2012\|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} and the [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron "Wrought iron") [Palatine Bridge](/wiki/Palatine_Bridge%2C_Salford "Palatine Bridge, Salford").{{Citation \| title \= Opening of the Salford Bridge \| date \= 25 August 1864 \| page \= 3 \| id \= {{ProQuest\|474467690}} }}
Modern bridges include the [Hulme Arch Bridge](/wiki/Hulme_Arch_Bridge "Hulme Arch Bridge") completed in 1997 and the [Trinity footbridge](/wiki/Trinity_Bridge_%28Greater_Manchester%29 "Trinity Bridge (Greater Manchester)") across the Irwell designed by [Santiago Calatrava](/wiki/Santiago_Calatrava "Santiago Calatrava") in 1994\. It has a rotund pylon which rises to 41 metres from which tension cables hang down to suspend the footbridge deck.{{Cite book \|title\=Manchester \|last\=Hands and Parker \|publisher\=ellipsis \|isbn\= 1\-899858\-77\-6\|year\=2000 }} Merchants Bridge at Castlefield Basin, built in 1996 by Whitby Bird, is a dramatic curving footbridge contrasting with seven older bridges.{{citation\|url\=http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching\_resources/architectural\_studio\_reference/design/bridges/examples\_of\_modern\_bridge\_design/ \|title\=Examples of modern bridge design \|publisher\=Tata Steel Construction \|access\-date\=14 November 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114012133/http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching\_resources/architectural\_studio\_reference/design/bridges/examples\_of\_modern\_bridge\_design \|archive\-date\=14 November 2012 }}
The [Liverpool and Manchester Railway](/wiki/Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway "Liverpool and Manchester Railway"), the world's first passenger railway was built in 1830 and [Manchester Liverpool Road railway station](/wiki/Manchester_Liverpool_Road_railway_station "Manchester Liverpool Road railway station") opened. The classically designed station and adjoining Georgian station master's house are part of the [Museum of Science and Industry](/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_%28Manchester%29 "Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)").{{NHLE \|num\=1291477\|desc\=Former Liverpool Road Railway Station, and Station Master's House \|access\-date\= 30 October 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} The railways required large railway viaducts and bridges to carry the track into Manchester's several stations. Four [viaducts](/wiki/Viaduct "Viaduct") cross the canal basin at Castlefield, and from there an arched brick viaduct carries the railway to Manchester Piccadilly, Oxford Road and Deansgate Stations. At Castlefield there are [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") arch bridges crossing the [Rochdale Canal](/wiki/Rochdale_Canal "Rochdale Canal"), Castle Street and Chester Road.{{citation\|title\=Castlefield 1849 Viaduct, MSJ\&A Railway \|url\=http://www.engineering\-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id\=616 \|publisher\=Engineering Timelines \|access\-date\=31 October 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223175936/http://www.engineering\-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id\=616 \|archive\-date\=23 February 2012 \|df\=dmy }} Liverpool Road was the first of the city's stations, of which four remain in the city centre. [Piccadilly](/wiki/Manchester_Piccadilly_railway_station "Manchester Piccadilly railway station") and [Victoria](/wiki/Manchester_Victoria_railway_station "Manchester Victoria railway station") which has a long Baroque frontage and glass canopy are the largest, Piccadilly retains is [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_era "Victorian era") [train shed](/wiki/Train_shed "Train shed"){{NHLE \|num\= 1283014\|desc\= Train shed at Piccadilly Station\|access\-date\= 13 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} and Victoria its Edwardian [facade](/wiki/Facade "Facade"). [Deansgate](/wiki/Deansgate_railway_station "Deansgate railway station") has a curved corner frontage with mock portcullis and embattled parapet. [Oxford Road](/wiki/Manchester_Oxford_Road_railway_station "Manchester Oxford Road railway station") was rebuilt in 1960 in concrete and wood.{{NHLE \|num\= 1255053\|desc\= Manchester Oxford Road Station (including platform structures) \|access\-date\= 14 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
The [Midland Railway](/wiki/Midland_Railway "Midland Railway")'s [Manchester Central Station](/wiki/Manchester_Central_Convention_Complex "Manchester Central Convention Complex"), one of the city's main railway terminals was built between 1875 and 1880 and was closed in 1969\. Its large arched roof – a huge wrought\-iron single\-span arched roof, spanning {{convert\|210\|ft\|m\|0}}, {{convert\|550\|ft\|0}} long and {{convert\|90\|ft\|0}} high is a listed building. The station has been converted for use as a conference centre.{{NHLE \|num\=1270514\|desc\= G MEX \|access\-date\= 13 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} The associated [Midland Hotel](/wiki/Midland_Hotel%2C_Manchester "Midland Hotel, Manchester") designed by [Charles Trubshaw](/wiki/Charles_Trubshaw "Charles Trubshaw") was constructed between 1898 and 1903 from red brick and brown [terracotta](/wiki/Architectural_terracotta "Architectural terracotta") and clad in several varieties of polished [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite") and [Burmantofts terracotta](/wiki/Burmantofts_Pottery "Burmantofts Pottery") to withstand the polluted environment of Manchester.{{NHLE \|num\= 1271154\|desc\= Midland Hotel, Manchester\|access\-date\= 14 November 2012\|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} [Mayfield Station](/wiki/Manchester_Mayfield_railway_station "Manchester Mayfield railway station"), opened in 1910 next to Manchester Piccadilly by the [London \& North Western Railway](/wiki/London_%26_North_Western_Railway "London & North Western Railway"), closed in 1960 and lies derelict.{{citation \| url\=http://www.subbrit.org.uk/sb\-sites/stations/m/manchester\_mayfield/index.shtml \| title\=Station name: Manchester Mayfield Station\|publisher \=disusedstations.org \| access\-date\=14 November 2012}} [Manchester Exchange](/wiki/Manchester_Exchange_Station "Manchester Exchange Station") operated between 1884 and 1969 near [Manchester Cathedral](/wiki/Manchester_Cathedral "Manchester Cathedral"), most of the station was in Salford and its 1929 extension east of the Irwell was in Manchester and was linked with the adjacent Victoria Station.{{citation \| url\=http://www.disused\-stations.org.uk/m/manchester\_exchange/index.shtml \| title\=Station name: Manchester Exchange Station\|publisher \=disused stations.org \| access\-date\=14 November 2012}}
File:Oxford Road timber roof.jpg\|Oxford Road Station
File:Manchester Central Arena.jpg\|Manchester Central railway station, now a conference centre
File:Knott Mill Station \- geograph.org.uk \- 1447337\.jpg\|Deansgate Station
File:Manchester Victoria station 19\-10\-2009 12\-11\-47kopie.jpg\|Facade of Victoria Station
File:Piccadilly Station Manchester \- geograph.org.uk \- 692981\.jpg\|Piccadilly Station from above
### Public buildings
Manchester's first town hall, designed by [Francis Goodwin](/wiki/Francis_Goodwin_%28architect%29 "Francis Goodwin (architect)"), was constructed during 1822–25 in the neo\-classical style with a screen of [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") columns.{{sfn\|Parkinson\-Bailey \|2000\|p\=60}} Its facade was re\-erected as a [folly](/wiki/Folly "Folly") in [Heaton Park](/wiki/Heaton_Park "Heaton Park") at the west end of its lake in 1913\.{{citation\|title\=Heaton Park, Manchester, England \|url\=http://www.parksandgardens.ac.uk/component/option,com\_parksandgardens/task,site/id,1677/tab,history/Itemid,292/ \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20121223164234/http://www.parksandgardens.ac.uk/component/option,com\_parksandgardens/task,site/id,1677/tab,history/Itemid,292/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=23 December 2012 \|publisher\=Parks and Gardens \|access\-date\=22 November 2012 }} Manchester was granted a Charter of Incorporation in 1838\.{{sfn\|Frangopulo\|1977\|p\=21\|ps\=}}
Classical architecture gave way to [Neo\-gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture "Gothic Revival architecture") and [Palazzo](/wiki/Palazzo_style_architecture "Palazzo style architecture") styles in the [Victorian Era](/wiki/Victorian_Era "Victorian Era"). [Edward Walters](/wiki/Edward_Walters "Edward Walters") designed the [Free Trade Hall](/wiki/Free_Trade_Hall "Free Trade Hall") in the 1850s as a monument to the [Peterloo Massacre](/wiki/Peterloo_Massacre "Peterloo Massacre") and Manchester's pivotal role in the [Anti\-Corn Law League](/wiki/Anti-Corn_Law_League "Anti-Corn Law League"). Built as a public hall only the facade remains.{{sfn\|Hartwell\|Hyde\|Pevsner\|2005\|p\=260\|ps\=}} The old town hall was replaced by the present [Manchester Town Hall](/wiki/Manchester_Town_Hall "Manchester Town Hall"), designed by [Alfred Waterhouse](/wiki/Alfred_Waterhouse "Alfred Waterhouse"). Completed in 1877, its Great Hall contains the [Manchester Murals](/wiki/Manchester_Murals "Manchester Murals") by [Ford Madox Brown](/wiki/Ford_Madox_Brown "Ford Madox Brown").{{NHLE \|num\= 1207469\|desc\= Town Hall, Manchester\|access\-date\= 31 October 2012\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
Waterhouse was influenced by [Pugin](/wiki/Augustus_Welby_Northmore_Pugin "Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin") and most of his designs were in the [Gothic Revival](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture "Gothic Revival architecture") style. He is a prolific contributor to the design of Manchester's public, educational and commercial buildings. Waterhouse's exteriors used large quantities of "self\-washing" [terracotta](/wiki/Terracotta "Terracotta") to provide rich ornament in the polluted atmosphere and after 1880 his interiors were decorated with moulded and glazed faience both manufactured by the [Burmantofts Pottery](/wiki/Burmantofts_Pottery "Burmantofts Pottery"). He designed the Royal Insurance Office, in which he had an office, in 1861\. The now demolished [Manchester Assize Courts](/wiki/Manchester_Assize_Courts "Manchester Assize Courts"), built between 1864 and 1877 in the neo\-Gothic style, was a major commission. In the 1860s Waterhouse designed [Strangeways Gaol](/wiki/Strangeways_Prison "Strangeways Prison") and its French Gothic style gatehouse in red brick with sandstone dressings{{NHLE \|num\= 1254670\|desc\=Gatehouse of Strangeways Gaol \|access\-date\= 1 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} and landmark tower in red brick with sandstone dressings in the style of a [minaret](/wiki/Minaret "Minaret").{{NHLE \|num\= 1254672\|desc\= The Tower of Strangeways Gaol \|access\-date\= 23 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
The [City Police Courts](/wiki/City_Police_Courts%2C_Manchester "City Police Courts, Manchester") in red brick with an impressive tower in the Italian Gothic style was completed in 1871 in Minshull Street by another proponent of the Gothic style [Thomas Worthington](/wiki/Thomas_Worthington_%28architect%29 "Thomas Worthington (architect)").{{NHLE \|num\= 1219894\|desc\= City Police Courts\|access\-date\= 20 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} Worthington's last commission in the city was the flamboyant Flemish Gothic [Nicholls Hospital](/wiki/Ellen_Wilkinson_High_School "Ellen Wilkinson High School"), an orphanage that is now part of [The Manchester College](/wiki/The_Manchester_College "The Manchester College") and has similarities with the Minshull Street Courts.{{NHLE \|num\= 1291812\|desc\= Ellen Wilkinson High School\|access\-date\= 20 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
Acres Fair moved to Castlefield in 1872 and after it was abolished, the market traders remained at Lower Campfield Market and Higher Campfield Market{{NHLE \|num\=1197915\|desc\= Former Market Hall Liverpool Street \|access\-date\= 14 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} which were later covered by large, glazed buildings with cast\-iron frames by Mangnall and Littlewood. Lower Campfield Market is now the Air and Space Gallery of the Museum of Science and Industry.{{NHLE \|num\=1200807 \|desc\= Museum of Science and Industry, Air and Space Museum \|access\-date\= 14 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
London Road Fire Station of 1906 was designed in the [Edwardian Baroque style](/wiki/Edwardian_Baroque_architecture "Edwardian Baroque architecture") by Woodhouse, Willoughby and Langham in [red brick and terracotta](/wiki/Red_brick_and_terracotta "Red brick and terracotta"). The building, on the Buildings at Risk Register, is currently unoccupied. The eclectic [Jacobean](/wiki/Jacobean_architecture "Jacobean architecture") and Baroque styled [Victoria Baths](/wiki/Victoria_Baths "Victoria Baths") in Chorlton on Medlock opened in September 1906 providing private baths, a [laundry](/wiki/Laundry "Laundry"), three [swimming pools](/wiki/Swimming_pool "Swimming pool") and a [Victorian\-style Turkish bath](/wiki/Victorian_Turkish_baths "Victorian Turkish baths").{{NHLE \|num\= 1200808\|desc\=Victoria Baths with attached forecourt walls\|access\-date\= 13 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}{{cite web\|title\=The Victoria Baths Turkish Baths\|url\=http://www.victorianturkishbath.org/\_6DIRECTORY/AtoZEstab/England/ManHiS/1MHSEng.htm\|website\=Victorian Turkish Baths\|access\-date\=26 September 2015}}
In the 1930s [Vincent Harris](/wiki/Vincent_Harris "Vincent Harris") won competitions to design two of the city's civic buildings. [Manchester Town Hall Extension](/wiki/Manchester_Town_Hall_Extension "Manchester Town Hall Extension") between St Peter's Square and Lloyd Street was built between 1934 and 1938 to provide accommodation for local government services.{{NHLE \|num\= 1197917\|desc\= Town Hall Extension Lloyd Street\|access\-date\= 17 December 2011 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} Its eclectic style was designed to be a link between the ornate Gothic Revival Town Hall and the [classical](/wiki/Classical_architecture "Classical architecture") [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 "Rotunda (architecture)") of the [Central Library](/wiki/Manchester_Central_Library "Manchester Central Library") built four years earlier.{{NHLE \|num\= 1270759\|desc\= Central Public Library \|access\-date\=14 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
File:The Free Trade Hall, Manchester.jpg\|The \[\[Free Trade Hall]]
File:Strangeways Prison.jpg\| The French Gothic gatehouse of \[\[Strangeways Prison]] by Alfred Waterhouse.
File:London Road Fire Station Manchester, September 2012\.jpg\|\[\[London Road Fire Station, Manchester\|London Road Fire Station]] opened in 1903\.
File:VictoriaBaths.jpg\|The ornate façade of Victoria Baths
File:Manchester Central Library.jpg\|The \[\[Neoclassical architecture\|neoclassical]] \[\[Manchester Central Library]]
File:Manchester Town Hall Annexe.jpg\|Town Hall Extension and tram
### Education and culture
Education and culture became important in Georgian times leading to the construction of buildings that endure today. The [Portico Library](/wiki/Portico_Library "Portico Library") designed by [Thomas Harrison](/wiki/Thomas_Harrison_%28architect%29 "Thomas Harrison (architect)") was the first [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture "Greek Revival architecture") building in Manchester and the only surviving building by Harrison in the city. Its interior was inspired by [John Soane](/wiki/John_Soane "John Soane").{{NHLE \|num\= 1197930\|desc\= Portico Library and Bank Public House\|access\-date\= 30 October 2012\|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}{{sfn\|Hartwell\|2002\|pp\=174–75\|ps\=}} The [Royal Manchester Institution](/wiki/Royal_Manchester_Institution "Royal Manchester Institution") a [learned society](/wiki/Learned_society "Learned society") was founded in 1823\. Its home in [Mosley Street](/wiki/Mosley_Street "Mosley Street") was designed by [Charles Barry](/wiki/Charles_Barry "Charles Barry"), his only public building in the Greek [neo\-classical style](/wiki/Neo-classical_style "Neo-classical style"). The building and its collections became [Manchester Art Gallery](/wiki/Manchester_Art_Gallery "Manchester Art Gallery"){{NHLE \|num\= 1282980\|desc\= City Art Gallery Mosley Street \|access\-date\= 30 October 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} which also incorporates the [Manchester Athenaeum](/wiki/Manchester_Athenaeum "Manchester Athenaeum"), designed in the [palazzo style](/wiki/Palazzo_style "Palazzo style") by Barry in 1836\.{{NHLE \|num\=1270889\|desc\=The Athenaeum 81 Princess Street \|access\-date\= 30 October 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
As Manchester emerged as the world's first industrial city, a [Mechanics' Institute](/wiki/Mechanics%27_Institute%2C_Manchester "Mechanics' Institute, Manchester"),{{NHLE \|num\= 1247391\|desc\= Municipal High School of Commerce\|access\-date\= 14 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} the forerunner of the [University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology](/wiki/University_of_Manchester_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology "University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology"), was established in 1824\. [Owens College](/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester "Victoria University of Manchester"), founded with a bequest from [John Owens](/wiki/John_Owens_%28merchant%29 "John Owens (merchant)") in 1851, became the Victoria University of Manchester in 1880\. Alfred Waterhouse was appointed architect for Owens College and the Victoria University where he designed several of its buildings from 1860 until his retirement.{{cite ODNB \|last\=Cunningham \|first\=Colin \|contribution\= Waterhouse, Alfred (1830–1905\) \|title\=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography \|date\=January 2010 \|url\= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36758\|access\-date\=1 November 2012 \|doi\=10\.1093/ref:odnb/36758}} An early commission for Owens College was the [Manchester Museum](/wiki/Manchester_Museum "Manchester Museum") on a new site in Chorlton on Medlock.{{citation\|title\=The History of The Manchester Museum \|url\=http://www.museum.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/history/ \|publisher\=\[\[Manchester University]] \|access\-date\=29 October 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627082857/http://www.museum.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/history/ \|archive\-date\=27 June 2009 }} The Whitworth Institute and its surrounding park was founded in 1889 in the name of Sir [Joseph Whitworth](/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth "Joseph Whitworth"), one of the city's great industrialists. Designed by J.W.Beaumont in red brick with details in matching terracotta,{{NHLE \|num\= 1246569\|desc\= Whitworth Gallery \|access\-date\= 14 November 2012\|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} it was transferred to the university and changed its name to the [Whitworth Art Gallery](/wiki/Whitworth_Art_Gallery "Whitworth Art Gallery") in 1958\.{{citation\|title\=A Short History of The Whitworth Art Gallery \|url\=http://www.whitworth.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/history/ \|publisher\=\[\[Manchester University]] \|access\-date\=14 November 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104125323/http://www.whitworth.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/history/ \|archive\-date\=4 November 2012 }} Alfred Waterhouse's son, Paul Waterhouse continued the Gothic tradition with the university's elaborate [Whitworth Hall](/wiki/Whitworth_Hall "Whitworth Hall"), its ceremonial venue built between 1895 and 1902\.{{NHLE \|num\= 1271428\|desc\= Victoria University of Manchester including Christie Library, Whitworth Hall \|access\-date\= 14 November 2012\|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
The [Manchester School of Art](/wiki/Manchester_School_of_Art "Manchester School of Art") was built in two stages, the main building is by [G.T.Redmayne](/wiki/George_Tunstal_Redmayne "George Tunstal Redmayne") in the Neo\-Gothic style in stone with gabled wings and pinnacles and an 1897 rear extension by [Joseph Gibbon Sankey](/wiki/Joseph_Gibbon_Sankey "Joseph Gibbon Sankey") in red brick and terracotta with [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") decoration.{{NHLE \|num\= 1293192\|desc\= Manchester Polytechnic School of Art\|access\-date\= 23 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
The [John Rylands Library](/wiki/John_Rylands_Library "John Rylands Library") by [Basil Champneys](/wiki/Basil_Champneys "Basil Champneys") on [Deansgate](/wiki/Deansgate "Deansgate"), designed like a church in the Decorated Gothic style with [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_Movement "Arts and Crafts Movement") details, opened in 1900\.{{NHLE \|num\= 1217800\|desc\= John Rylands Library and attached railings, gates and lamp standards \|access\-date\= 14 November 2012\|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
File:Portico Library, Manchester.jpg\|The \[\[Portico Library]]
File:Manchester Art Gallery \- geograph.org.uk \- 1748756\.jpg\|\[\[Manchester Art Gallery]]
File:Former Athenaeum, Princess Street, Manchester.jpg\|Manchester Athenaeum
File:Rylands Library Deansgate.jpg\|The \[\[neogothic]] \[\[John Rylands Library]] opened 1900\.
File:Whitworth Hall Manchester.jpg\|\[\[Whitworth Hall]] opened in 1902\.
### Commerce
The commercial hub of Manchester or [Cottonopolis](/wiki/Cottonopolis "Cottonopolis") was the Exchange, of which there were four, the first was in the market place in 1727{{sfn\|Hartwell\|2002\|p\=10}} and it was re\-built three times. Thomas Harrison built the second in the Greek Revival style between 1806 and 1809{{sfn\|Hartwell\|2002\|p\=18}} and it was enlarged between 1847 and 1849\. Queen Victoria granted it the title the [Manchester Royal Exchange](/wiki/Manchester_Royal_Exchange "Manchester Royal Exchange") in 1851\. The third exchange in the Classical style by Mills and Murgatroyd, opened in 1874 and was lavishly re\-built [Bradshaw Gass \& Hope](/wiki/Bradshaw_Gass_%26_Hope "Bradshaw Gass & Hope") between 1914 and 1921\. It had the largest trading room in the world but closed for cotton trading in 1968 and now is a theatre.{{NHLE \|num\= 1200826\|desc\=Former Royal Exchange \|access\-date\= 1 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
Early [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_era "Victorian era") warehouses were built of brick with stone dressings typically up to six storeys tall with basements and steps to the front door. Fireproof construction was used towards the end of the century. They had loading bays with hydraulic wall cranes at the side or rear. Some traders built their own warehouses but others shared speculative developments that were built for multiple users.{{citation \|title\= The Commercial Warehouse\|url\= http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/topics\-and\-themes/the\-commercial\-warehouse.html \|publisher\=Looking at Buildings\|access\-date \= 1 November 2012}} [Watts Warehouse](/wiki/Watts_Warehouse "Watts Warehouse") by [Travis \& Mangnall](/wiki/Travis_%26_Mangnall "Travis & Mangnall") in the form of a Venetian [palazzo](/wiki/Palazzo "Palazzo"), was built in 1856, the largest single\-occupancy textile warehouse in Manchester .{{NHLE \|num\= 1246952\|desc\= BritanniaHotel \|access\-date\= 31 October 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
Warehouses were built into the 20th century, many in the highly decorated [Edwardian Baroque](/wiki/Edwardian_Baroque "Edwardian Baroque") style leaving the city with a legacy of some of the finest buildings of this type in the world. The continuing urbanisation and narrow roads in Manchester have impacted on views of these ornate buildings, many of which were often decorative at the top of the building. A flurry of ornate warehouses were built, many of which dominated the area around Whitworth Street and included [Asia House, Manchester](/wiki/Asia_House%2C_Manchester "Asia House, Manchester"), [India House](/wiki/India_House%2C_Manchester "India House, Manchester") and [Lancaster House](/wiki/Lancaster_House%2C_Manchester "Lancaster House, Manchester") designed by [Harry S. Fairhurst](/wiki/Harry_S._Fairhurst "Harry S. Fairhurst").
From the early 19th century residential [King Street](/wiki/King_Street%2C_Manchester "King Street, Manchester") and [Spring Gardens](/wiki/Spring_Gardens%2C_Manchester "Spring Gardens, Manchester") developed into the city's financial quarter. Banks were designed by local architects Edward Walters, J.E. Gregan and [Charles Heathcote](/wiki/Charles_Heathcote "Charles Heathcote") and by [Charles Cockerell](/wiki/Charles_Robert_Cockerell "Charles Robert Cockerell") and [Edwin Lutyens](/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens "Edwin Lutyens").{{citation \|title\= Manchester's Banks \|url\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\-and\-tours/manchesters\-banks.html \|publisher\=Looking at Buildings\|access\-date \= 2 November 2012}} Benjamin Heywood's [palazzo](/wiki/Palazzo "Palazzo") style bank in St Ann's Square, (the Royal Bank of Scotland), was built in 1848 to the designs of J.E. Gregan.{{citation \|title\= St Ann's Square \|url\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\-and\-tours/manchesters\-banks/st\-anns\-square.html \|publisher\=Looking at Buildings\|access\-date \= 2 November 2012}} Charles Cockerell designed the Bank of England's Manchester branch on King Street in 1845\-6 but the street is dominated by the former Midland Bank designed by Edwin Lutyens in 1928 his major work in the city.{{citation \|title\= King Street \|url\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\-and\-tours/manchesters\-banks/king\-street.html \|publisher\=Looking at Buildings\|access\-date \= 2 November 2012}} The Royal Bank of Scotland on [Mosley Street](/wiki/Mosley_Street "Mosley Street") was designed for the Manchester and Salford Bank by Edward Walters in 1862\.{{citation \|title\= Mosley Street\|url\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\-and\-tours/manchesters\-banks/mosley\-street.html\|publisher\=Looking at Buildings\|access\-date \= 2 November 2012}} On the corner of Spring Gardens and York Street is the former [Parrs Bank](/wiki/Former_National_Westminster_Bank "Former National Westminster Bank") in red sandstone with a corner entrance designed in 1902 by Charles Heathcote in the Edwardian Baroque with Art Nouveau motifs in its ironwork.{{citation \|title\= York Street \|url\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\-and\-tours/manchesters\-banks/york\-street.html \|publisher\=Looking at Buildings\|access\-date \= 2 November 2012}} Heathcote also designed the Baroque [Lloyds Bank](/wiki/53_King_Street "53 King Street") in 1915 on King Street in the heart of the city's banking district.{{NHLE \|num\= 1291610\|desc\= Lloyds Bank\|access\-date\= 28 September 2012\|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
File:Asia House 3\.JPG\|\[\[Asia House, Manchester\|Asia House]], opened in 1909
File:67 Whitworth Street.jpg\|\[\[Lancaster House, Manchester\|Lancaster House]], opened in 1910
File:Former National Westminster Bank, York Street, Manchester 4\.JPG\|\[\[Former National Westminster Bank]], 1902
File:Lloyds Bank Manchester.jpg\|\[\[53 King Street\|Lloyds Bank]] opened in 1915
File:38 and 42 Mosley Street, Manchester 4 straight.JPG\|\[\[38 and 42 Mosley Street]], opened in 1880
File:100 King Street Manchester.jpg\|\[\[Edwin Lutyens\|Lutyens]]' Midland Bank on King Street
[Ship Canal House](/wiki/Ship_Canal_House "Ship Canal House") was completed in 1927 for the [Manchester Ship Canal Company](/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal_Company "Manchester Ship Canal Company") by Harry S Fairhurst in a transitional Edwardian Baroque/Art Deco style.{{NHLE \|num\= 1219203\|desc\= Ship Canal House\|access\-date\= 7 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}{{citation \|title\=The House on Ship Canal House \|url\=http://theskyliner.org/post/17284928473/the\-house\-on\-ship\-canal\-house \|work\=skyliner.org \|access\-date\=5 October 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030160709/http://theskyliner.org/post/17284928473/the\-house\-on\-ship\-canal\-house \|archive\-date\=30 October 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} [Owen Williams](/wiki/Owen_Williams_%28engineer%29 "Owen Williams (engineer)") designed the [Daily Express Building](/wiki/Daily_Express_Building%2C_Manchester "Daily Express Building, Manchester") with a futuristic dark glass façade. [Nikolaus Pevsner](/wiki/Nikolaus_Pevsner "Nikolaus Pevsner") described it as "all\-glass front, absolutely flush, with rounded corners and translucent glass and black glass".{{sfn\|Hartwell\|2002\|p\=285\|ps\=}} [Sunlight House](/wiki/Sunlight_House "Sunlight House") which opened in 1932 on [Quay Street](/wiki/Quay_Street "Quay Street") was designed in the art deco style by [Joseph Sunlight](/wiki/Joseph_Sunlight "Joseph Sunlight"). The brown\-brick [Redfern Building](/wiki/Redfern_Building "Redfern Building") on the Co\-operative Estate is an individualistic interpretation of the Art Deco, although Pevsner believed it shared more in common with '[Dutch Brick modernism](/wiki/Dutch_Brick_modernism "Dutch Brick modernism")'.{{sfn\|Hartwell\|2002\|p\=241\|ps\=}}
File:Express Building Manchester.jpg\|The futuristic \[\[art deco]] \[\[Daily Express Building, Manchester\|Daily Express Building]]
File:Sunlight House.jpg\|Sunlight House on Quay Street
### Places of worship
[thumb\|right\|[Edgar Wood Centre](/wiki/Edgar_Wood_Centre "Edgar Wood Centre"), opened in 1906 (Grade I)](/wiki/File:EdgarWoodBuilding.jpg "EdgarWoodBuilding.jpg")
The medieval [parish church](/wiki/Parish_church "Parish church") was altered and rebuilt between 1814 and 1815\. It became a cathedral in 1847 and was extensively restored and rebuilt by J.P. Holden between 1862 and 1868, by [J. S. Crowther](/wiki/J._S._Crowther "J. S. Crowther") in the 1880s and in 1898 by [Basil Champneys](/wiki/Basil_Champneys "Basil Champneys") who added annexes in 1903\.
In 1828 the Quakers built their Meeting House in Mount Street. Designed by [Richard Lane](/wiki/Richard_Lane_%28architect%29 "Richard Lane (architect)") it has an [ashlar](/wiki/Ashlar "Ashlar") facade and a three\-bay [pedimented](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment") [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico") with a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze").{{NHLE \|num\= 1291062\|desc\= Friends' Meeting House \|access\-date\= 20 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
Victorian churches, particularly those of the Roman Catholics, espoused the Gothic principles of [A. W. N. Pugin](/wiki/A._W._N._Pugin "A. W. N. Pugin") who designed the red brick St Wilfrid's Roman Catholic Church in the early English style in [Hulme](/wiki/Hulme "Hulme") of 1842\.{{NHLE \|num\= 1283075\|desc\= Roman Catholic Church of St Wilfrid \|access\-date\= 20 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} St Mary's Roman Catholic Church, [The Hidden Gem](/wiki/The_Hidden_Gem "The Hidden Gem"), on Mulberry Street, the first Roman Catholic church in the city centre, was designed by Weightman \& [Hadfield](/wiki/Matthew_Ellison_Hadfield "Matthew Ellison Hadfield") in 1848\.{{NHLE \|num\= 1197894\|desc\= Roman Catholic Church of St Mary \|access\-date\= 20 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} On the outskirts of the city centre, [J. A. Hansom](/wiki/J._A._Hansom "J. A. Hansom") designed the Roman Catholic Church of the Holy Name of Jesus in [Chorlton\-on\-Medlock](/wiki/Chorlton-on-Medlock "Chorlton-on-Medlock") which was completed 1928 by [Adrian Gilbert Scott](/wiki/Adrian_Gilbert_Scott "Adrian Gilbert Scott"){{NHLE \|num\= 1271296\|desc\= Roman Catholic church of the Holy Name of Jesus \|access\-date\= 20 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} and [E.W. Pugin](/wiki/E.W._Pugin "E.W. Pugin")'s Grade II\* Church and Friary of St Francis, [Gorton Monastery](/wiki/Gorton_Monastery "Gorton Monastery") are "of more than local interest".{{NHLE \|num\= 1282967 \|desc\= Roman Catholic Church of St Francis and monastic building attached to church\|access\-date\= 19 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}}
In the late 19th century the large Jewish community around [Cheetham Hill](/wiki/Cheetham_Hill "Cheetham Hill") built the [Sephardic](/wiki/Sephardic "Sephardic") Synagogue of 1874–75 to the designs of [Edward Salomons](/wiki/Edward_Salomons "Edward Salomons") in the [Moorish style](/wiki/Moorish_style "Moorish style") and survives as [Manchester Jewish Museum](/wiki/Manchester_Jewish_Museum "Manchester Jewish Museum").{{citation \|title\= Manchester's Churches and Faiths\|url\= http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/an\-introduction/manchesters\-churches\-and\-faiths.html \|publisher\=Looking at Buildings\|access\-date \= 19 November 2012}}
The [Church of Christ, Scientist](/wiki/Edgar_Wood_Centre "Edgar Wood Centre") in [Fallowfield](/wiki/Fallowfield "Fallowfield"), designed by [Edgar Wood](/wiki/Edgar_Wood "Edgar Wood") opened in 1907\. [Nikolaus Pevsner](/wiki/Nikolaus_Pevsner "Nikolaus Pevsner") considered it "the only religious building in Lancashire that would be indispensable in a survey of twentieth century church design in all England."{{sfn\|Hartwell\|2002\|p\=338}} and "one of the most original buildings of that time in England, or indeed anywhere."{{cite book \| title\= South Lancashire \| series\= The buildings of England \| author\= Pevsner, Nikolaus \| year\= 1969 \| publisher\= Penguin \| location\= Harmondsworth \| isbn\= 0\-14\-071036\-1}}
### Modernism
After World War II, work to rebuild [war\-damaged](/wiki/Manchester_Blitz "Manchester Blitz") Manchester began and the transition from warehouse to office blocks accelerated as the city's industrial prowess waned. Few aesthetically memorable buildings were constructed in the 1950s and 1960s,{{Cite news \|title\=The Best Architecture in Manchester \|url\=http://www.prideofmanchester.com/architecture/best.htm \|work\=prideofmanchester \|access\-date\=10 November 2011}} but some grew into landmarks for the city.
The first major building constructed after the war was the [Granada Studios](/wiki/Granada_Studios "Granada Studios") complex designed by [Ralph Tubbs](/wiki/Ralph_Tubbs "Ralph Tubbs") in 1954\.{{Cite news \|title\=Coronation Street set refused listed status \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment\-arts\-18398827 \|work\=BBC News \|date\=11 June 2012 \|access\-date\=12 October 2012}} The studios' notable features were a lattice tower and red, [neon sign](/wiki/Neon_sign "Neon sign").
When the 118\-metre tall [CIS Tower](/wiki/CIS_Tower "CIS Tower") was built in 1962,{{NHLE \|num\= 1270494\|desc\= Co\-operative Insurance Society\|access\-date\= 25 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} it was the tallest building in the United Kingdom. The tower by, Sir John Bumet, [Gordon Tait](/wiki/Gordon_Tait "Gordon Tait") and Partners with G.S. Hay, is recognised as one of the best 1960s modernist buildings. As home to [the Co\-operative Group](/wiki/The_Co-operative_Group "The Co-operative Group"), it was designed to showcase Manchester and the Co\-operative movement. It was clad in [photovoltaic cells](/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell "Photovoltaic cell") in 2005 and is the tallest [listed building](/wiki/Listed_building "Listed building") in the United Kingdom. Along with [New Century House](/wiki/New_Century_House "New Century House") which also opened in 1962, its "design of discipline and consistency which forms part of a group with the Co\-operative Insurance Society".{{NHLE \|num\= 1255052\|desc\= New Century House\|access\-date\= 7 November 2012 \|mode\=cs2\|fewer\-links\=yes}} Gateway House, a [modernist](/wiki/Modern_architecture "Modern architecture") office block designed by [Richard Seifert \& Partners](/wiki/Richard_Seifert "Richard Seifert") in 1969 on the approach to [Manchester Piccadilly station](/wiki/Manchester_Piccadilly_station "Manchester Piccadilly station"), is considered to be one of Seifert's most loveable buildings.{{citation\|title\=Gateway House \|url\=http://manchestermodernists.wordpress.com/2012/01/23/gateway\-housestation\-approach\-piccadilly\-rail\-station\-richart\-seifert\-partners1967\-9/ \|publisher\=Manchester Modernist Society \|access\-date\=12 September 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208101009/http://manchestermodernists.wordpress.com/2012/01/23/gateway\-housestation\-approach\-piccadilly\-rail\-station\-richart\-seifert\-partners1967\-9/ \|archive\-date\=8 February 2013 \|df\=dmy }}
[Hollins College](/wiki/Toast_Rack_%28building%29 "Toast Rack (building)"), known as the *Toast rack*, is representative of work produced by Manchester's City Council's city architect [L. C. Howitt](/wiki/Leonard_Cecil_Howitt "Leonard Cecil Howitt") while implementing the city's post\-war rebuilding plans.{{cite web\|title\=Building of the month Toast Rack (building)\|url\=http://c20society.org.uk/botm/domestic\-and\-trades\-college\-manchester/\|publisher\=\[\[Twentieth Century Society]]\|access\-date\=19 April 2017}}
File:CIS Tower Manchester.jpg\|The CIS Tower (1962\) was the tallest listed building in the UK
File:Gateway House wavy facade.jpg\|The wavy frontage of \[\[Gateway House, Manchester\|Gateway House]] (1969\)
File:Maths and Social Sciences and Faraday Building at UMIST Campus.jpg\|The former \[\[UMIST]] Campus consists of many Modernist buildings built in the 1960s
File:Hollings Campus, Fallowfield.jpg\|The Grade II \[\[Toast Rack (building)\|Toast Rack building]] (1960\)
### New millennium architecture
After the destruction caused by the [1996 bombing](/wiki/1996_Manchester_bombing "1996 Manchester bombing"), the city had a chance to reinvent itself. Tall buildings, many in a post\-modernist style incorporating glass façades were constructed, the most prominent is a skyscraper built in 2006 – the 168\-metre tall [Beetham Tower](/wiki/Beetham_Tower%2C_Manchester "Beetham Tower, Manchester") by architecture firm, [SimpsonHaugh and Partners](/wiki/SimpsonHaugh_and_Partners "SimpsonHaugh and Partners"). Other buildings with glass incorporated into their design include [Urbis](/wiki/Urbis "Urbis"), [No. 1 Deansgate](/wiki/No._1_Deansgate "No. 1 Deansgate"), the [Manchester Civil Justice Centre](/wiki/Manchester_Civil_Justice_Centre "Manchester Civil Justice Centre") and the [Great Northern Tower](/wiki/Great_Northern_Tower "Great Northern Tower"), by [Assael Architecture](/wiki/Assael_Architecture "Assael Architecture"). Manchester City Council has been more sympathetic to tall buildings since 1990 and its Manchester Core Strategy 2012–2027 considered 'iconic' developments which reflect the non\-conformity and uniqueness of the city would be viewed more sympathetically.{{Cite news \|title\=Masterplan to take Manchester into the future \|last\=Linton \|first\=Deborah \|url\=http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1581573\_masterplan\-to\-take\-manchester\-into\-the\-future \|newspaper\=Manchester Evening News \|date\=19 June 2012 \|access\-date\=21 September 2012 \|archive\-date\=25 June 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625170156/http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1581573\_masterplan\-to\-take\-manchester\-into\-the\-future \|url\-status\=dead }}
The [Manchester Civil Justice Centre](/wiki/Manchester_Civil_Justice_Centre "Manchester Civil Justice Centre") was built in 2007 in [Spinningfields](/wiki/Spinningfields "Spinningfields") \- Manchester's new business district. It has been well received by architecture critics who praised its aesthetics, environmental credentials and structural quality. *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")* architecture critic [Owen Hatherley](/wiki/Owen_Hatherley "Owen Hatherley") described it as a "genuinely striking building".{{Cite news\|title\=New book attacks modern Manchester as 'New Labour boom town' that's lost its cultural edge \|url\=http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1367086\_new\_book\_attacks\_modern\_manchester\_as\_new\_labour\_boom\_town\_thats\_lost\_its\_cultural\_edge \|newspaper\=Manchester Evening News \|date\=3 November 2010 \|access\-date\=25 September 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107203229/http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1367086\_new\_book\_attacks\_modern\_manchester\_as\_new\_labour\_boom\_town\_thats\_lost\_its\_cultural\_edge \|archive\-date\=7 November 2010 }}
File:The Urbis Building \- geograph.org.uk \- 332225\.jpg\|\[\[Urbis]], 2002
File:Joe Mercer way in 2011\.jpg\|The \[\[City of Manchester Stadium]], completed in 2001
File:Beetham Tower from below.jpg\|\[\[Beetham Tower, Manchester]]
File:Chips2\.jpg\|\[\[Will Alsop]]'s \[\[Chips, Manchester\|Chips building]] in \[\[New Islington]], 2007
File:Manchester Civil Justice Centre from Bridge Street.jpg\|\[\[Manchester Civil Justice Centre]], 2007
File:Alan Turing Building 2\.jpg\|\[\[Alan Turing Building]], 2007
File:Number 1 Deansgate.jpg\|\[\[No. 1 Deansgate]], 2001
File:Angel Square, front facade.jpg\|\[\[One Angel Square]] under construction, 2013
{{clear}}
### Monuments and sculpture
{{See also\|List of public art in Greater Manchester}}
[thumb\|right\|The Albert Memorial, Albert Square](/wiki/File:Manchester_Town_Hall_and_Memorial.jpg "Manchester Town Hall and Memorial.jpg")
In Manchester are monuments to people and events that have shaped the city and influenced the wider community. Two squares holding many public monuments are [Albert Square](/wiki/Albert_Square%2C_Manchester "Albert Square, Manchester") in front of the town hall which has monuments to [Prince Albert](/wiki/Albert%2C_Prince_Consort "Albert, Prince Consort"), [Bishop James Fraser](/wiki/James_Fraser_%28bishop%29 "James Fraser (bishop)"), [Oliver Heywood](/wiki/Oliver_Heywood "Oliver Heywood"), [William Ewart Gladstone](/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone "William Ewart Gladstone") and [John Bright](/wiki/John_Bright "John Bright"), and [Piccadilly Gardens](/wiki/Piccadilly_Gardens "Piccadilly Gardens") with monuments to [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria"), [Robert Peel](/wiki/Robert_Peel "Robert Peel"), [James Watt](/wiki/James_Watt_%28inventor%29 "James Watt (inventor)") and [The Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington").
Notable monuments elsewhere in the city include the [Alan Turing Memorial](/wiki/Alan_Turing_Memorial "Alan Turing Memorial") in [Sackville Park](/wiki/Sackville_Park "Sackville Park") commemorating the father of modern computing. A monument to [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln") by [George Gray Barnard](/wiki/George_Gray_Barnard "George Gray Barnard") in the eponymous Lincoln Square was presented to the city by Mr \& Mrs Charles Phelps Taft and marks the part Lancashire played in the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") and its consequence the [cotton famine](/wiki/Cotton_famine "Cotton famine") of 1861–1865\. In the entrance to Watts Warehouse is a bronze statue, "The Sentry", by [Charles Sargeant Jagger](/wiki/Charles_Sargeant_Jagger "Charles Sargeant Jagger"), a memorial to the staff of S \& J Watts \& Co who died in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). The city's principal war memorial is [the Cenotaph](/wiki/Manchester_Cenotaph "Manchester Cenotaph") in St Peter's Square, designed by [Edwin Lutyens](/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens "Edwin Lutyens") after [his original](/wiki/The_Cenotaph%2C_Whitehall "The Cenotaph, Whitehall") in London.
[Thomas Heatherwick](/wiki/Thomas_Heatherwick "Thomas Heatherwick")'s *[B of the Bang](/wiki/B_of_the_Bang "B of the Bang")* was a {{convert\|56\|m\|ft\|0}}\-high metal sculpture commissioned for the [2002 Commonwealth Games](/wiki/2002_Commonwealth_Games "2002 Commonwealth Games"). Erected near the [City of Manchester Stadium](/wiki/City_of_Manchester_Stadium "City of Manchester Stadium") in [Eastlands](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"), the sculpture was beset by structural problems and dismantled in 2009\.{{cite news\|title\=Work starts on Bang dismantling\|date\=15 April 2009\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\_news/england/manchester/7999570\.stm\|access\-date\=31 July 2009\|work\=BBC News}}
{{clear}}
### Streets and plazas
[thumb\|right\|[Piccadilly Gardens](/wiki/Piccadilly_Gardens "Piccadilly Gardens"), redesigned by [Tadao Ando](/wiki/Tadao_Ando "Tadao Ando") in the early 2000s](/wiki/File:Piccadilly_Gardens_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1462705.jpg "Piccadilly Gardens - geograph.org.uk - 1462705.jpg")
Manchester has a number of squares, plazas and shopping streets many of which are pedestrianised and other streets have [Metrolink](/wiki/Manchester_Metrolink "Manchester Metrolink") or [bus priority](/wiki/Bus_priority "Bus priority").
One of the oldest thoroughfares is [Market Street](/wiki/Market_Street_%28Manchester%2C_England%29 "Market Street (Manchester, England)"), originally *Market Stede Lane*. Much of the [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") street pattern around the original market place was cleared in 1970s developments. Ancient streets such as Smithy Door were lost. One ancient survivor is Long Millgate, a winding lane, leading north from the old market place across Fennel Street to Todd Street (formerly Toad Lane – thought to be a corruption of T'owd Lane, or The Old Lane), an attractive and peaceful thoroughfare bounded by gardens.
[Whitworth Street](/wiki/Whitworth_Street "Whitworth Street") is a broad 19th\-century road from London Road to [Deansgate](/wiki/Deansgate "Deansgate"), running parallel to the [Rochdale Canal](/wiki/Rochdale_Canal "Rochdale Canal") for much of its length, intersecting Princess Street, Chepstow Street and Albion Street (the western section is called Whitworth Street West). It is lined with impressive former warehouses now converted to residential use. [Mosley Street](/wiki/Mosley_Street%2C_Manchester "Mosley Street, Manchester") runs roughly parallel to Portland Street, Whitworth Street and Deansgate, from Piccadilly Gardens to [St Peter's Square](/wiki/St_Peter%27s_Square%2C_Manchester "St Peter's Square, Manchester"). It is closed to traffic as Metrolink trams run along its length. Another Victorian addition to the city's street pattern was Corporation Street, which cut through slums to the north of Market Street providing a direct route from Cross Street and [Albert Square](/wiki/Albert_Square%2C_Manchester "Albert Square, Manchester") to the routes north of the city. South\-east of the city centre [Wilmslow Road](/wiki/Wilmslow_Road "Wilmslow Road") runs from [Oxford Road](/wiki/Oxford_Road%2C_Manchester "Oxford Road, Manchester"), the hub of student life and home to Manchester's [curry mile](/wiki/Curry_mile "Curry mile") in Rusholme.
Other notable places in Manchester include: [Great Northern Square](/wiki/Great_Northern_Warehouse "Great Northern Warehouse"), [Lincoln Square](/wiki/Lincoln_Square%2C_Manchester%23Lincoln_Square "Lincoln Square, Manchester#Lincoln Square"), [Spring Gardens](/wiki/Spring_Gardens%2C_Manchester "Spring Gardens, Manchester"), [Cathedral Gardens](/wiki/Cathedral_Gardens "Cathedral Gardens"), [Whitworth Gardens](/wiki/Whitworth_Gardens "Whitworth Gardens"), [New Cathedral Street](/wiki/New_Cathedral_Street "New Cathedral Street"), the [Gay Village](/wiki/Canal_Street_%28Manchester%29 "Canal Street (Manchester)") and [Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Manchester "Chinatown, Manchester").
|
[
"Post\\-Industrial Revolution\n---------------------------",
"### Transport and industry",
"The [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") gathered momentum after the [Bridgewater Canal](/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal \"Bridgewater Canal\") was opened to [Castlefield](/wiki/Castlefield \"Castlefield\") on 10 July 1761\\.{{citation\\|title\\=Bridgewater Canal:Vision and masterplan for a regional tourist attraction \\|url\\=http://www.salford.gov.uk/d/Bridgewater\\_Canal\\_Masterplan\\_\\-\\_Final.pdf \\|page\\=23 \\|publisher\\=Salford Council \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110172016/http://www.salford.gov.uk/d/Bridgewater\\_Canal\\_Masterplan\\_\\-\\_Final.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=10 January 2014 }} The canal brought coal to the town from [Worsley](/wiki/Worsley \"Worsley\") and when in 1776 it had been extended, cotton could be shipped into the town from the [Port of Liverpool](/wiki/Port_of_Liverpool \"Port of Liverpool\"). At Castlefield Basin are a series of early warehouses, such as the Dukes Warehouse and the Grocers Warehouse. By 1800 the Bridgewater at Castlefield was connected to the [Rochdale Canal](/wiki/Rochdale_Canal \"Rochdale Canal\") and beyond that to the [Ashton Canal](/wiki/Ashton_Canal \"Ashton Canal\").{{sfn\\|Parkinson\\-Bailey\\|2000\\|pp\\=14\\-18}} On the Ashton Canal the [Store Street Aqueduct](/wiki/Store_Street_Aqueduct \"Store Street Aqueduct\") designed by [Benjamin Outram](/wiki/Benjamin_Outram \"Benjamin Outram\"), is believed to be the first skewed aqueduct of its kind and the oldest still in use{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1270666\\|desc\\= Store Street Aqueduct\\|access\\-date\\= 11 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} and a brick lock\\-keeper's cottage constructed about 1800 survives by Number 2 Lock.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1279636\\|desc\\= Lock\\-keeper's cottage beside Lock No.2 at Islington Branch junction basin \\|access\\-date\\= 11 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"The canals shaped the layout of the city attracting wharves and warehouses, transporting coal and heavy materials and provided water to run [steam\\-engines](/wiki/Stationary_steam_engine \"Stationary steam engine\"). Large [cotton mill](/wiki/Cotton_mill \"Cotton mill\") complexes survive on the fringes of the city centre, [Murrays Mills](/wiki/Murrays_Mills \"Murrays Mills\"), the [McConnel \\& Kennedy Mills](/wiki/McConnel_%26_Kennedy_Mills \"McConnel & Kennedy Mills\") and [Beehive Mill](/wiki/Beehive_Mill \"Beehive Mill\") at [Ancoats](/wiki/Ancoats \"Ancoats\") were built from the 1790s. The oldest surviving fireproof mill is at Chorlton New Mills in [Chorlton on Medlock](/wiki/Chorlton_on_Medlock \"Chorlton on Medlock\").{{citation \\|title\\= Industrial Manchester \\|url\\= http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/an\\-introduction/industrial\\-manchester.html\\|publisher\\=Looking at Buildings\\|access\\-date \\= 30 October 2012}}{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1197774\\|desc\\= Chorlton New Mill and attached chimney\\|access\\-date\\= 29 October 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"",
"File:Castlefield Grocers4652\\.JPG\\|The \\[\\[Bridgewater Canal]] and the remains of the Grocer's Warehouse in \\[\\[Castlefield]]\nFile:Ancoats Redhill Street\\- 4557\\.JPG\\|The \\[\\[Rochdale Canal]] in Ancoats and \\[\\[Murrays' Mills]] built 1797–1804 \nFile:Dale Street warehouse 3\\.JPG\\|The \\[\\[Dale Street Warehouse]] built in 1806\\. \nFile:Store Street Aqueduct.jpg\\|\\[\\[Store Street Aqueduct]], which carries the \\[\\[Ashton Canal]]",
"",
"Manchester was linked to Salford across the River Irwell by a ford and subsequently by Salford Old Bridge in the 14th century. During the 19th century more bridges were built. The old bridge was replaced by [Victoria Bridge](/wiki/Victoria_Bridge%2C_Manchester \"Victoria Bridge, Manchester\") which has a single arch of about 100 feet span constructed from [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\") in 1839\\.{{sfn\\|Hartwell\\|2002\\|p\\=236}} Other Victorian bridges over the Irwell are the three\\-arched [Blackfriars Bridge](/wiki/Blackfriars_Bridge%2C_Manchester \"Blackfriars Bridge, Manchester\"),{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1279490\\|desc\\= Blackfriars Bridge (that part in 04/02/88 City of Manchester) \\|access\\-date\\= 22 November 2012\\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} the [skew arched](/wiki/Skew_arch \"Skew arch\") [Albert Bridge](/wiki/Albert_Bridge%2C_Manchester \"Albert Bridge, Manchester\"){{NHLE \\|num\\= 1293278\\|desc\\= Albert Bridge (that part in the City 20/06/88 of Manchester) \\|access\\-date\\= 22 November 2012\\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} and the [wrought iron](/wiki/Wrought_iron \"Wrought iron\") [Palatine Bridge](/wiki/Palatine_Bridge%2C_Salford \"Palatine Bridge, Salford\").{{Citation \\| title \\= Opening of the Salford Bridge \\| date \\= 25 August 1864 \\| page \\= 3 \\| id \\= {{ProQuest\\|474467690}} }}",
"Modern bridges include the [Hulme Arch Bridge](/wiki/Hulme_Arch_Bridge \"Hulme Arch Bridge\") completed in 1997 and the [Trinity footbridge](/wiki/Trinity_Bridge_%28Greater_Manchester%29 \"Trinity Bridge (Greater Manchester)\") across the Irwell designed by [Santiago Calatrava](/wiki/Santiago_Calatrava \"Santiago Calatrava\") in 1994\\. It has a rotund pylon which rises to 41 metres from which tension cables hang down to suspend the footbridge deck.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Manchester \\|last\\=Hands and Parker \\|publisher\\=ellipsis \\|isbn\\= 1\\-899858\\-77\\-6\\|year\\=2000 }} Merchants Bridge at Castlefield Basin, built in 1996 by Whitby Bird, is a dramatic curving footbridge contrasting with seven older bridges.{{citation\\|url\\=http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching\\_resources/architectural\\_studio\\_reference/design/bridges/examples\\_of\\_modern\\_bridge\\_design/ \\|title\\=Examples of modern bridge design \\|publisher\\=Tata Steel Construction \\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114012133/http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching\\_resources/architectural\\_studio\\_reference/design/bridges/examples\\_of\\_modern\\_bridge\\_design \\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2012 }}",
"The [Liverpool and Manchester Railway](/wiki/Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway \"Liverpool and Manchester Railway\"), the world's first passenger railway was built in 1830 and [Manchester Liverpool Road railway station](/wiki/Manchester_Liverpool_Road_railway_station \"Manchester Liverpool Road railway station\") opened. The classically designed station and adjoining Georgian station master's house are part of the [Museum of Science and Industry](/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_%28Manchester%29 \"Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)\").{{NHLE \\|num\\=1291477\\|desc\\=Former Liverpool Road Railway Station, and Station Master's House \\|access\\-date\\= 30 October 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} The railways required large railway viaducts and bridges to carry the track into Manchester's several stations. Four [viaducts](/wiki/Viaduct \"Viaduct\") cross the canal basin at Castlefield, and from there an arched brick viaduct carries the railway to Manchester Piccadilly, Oxford Road and Deansgate Stations. At Castlefield there are [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") arch bridges crossing the [Rochdale Canal](/wiki/Rochdale_Canal \"Rochdale Canal\"), Castle Street and Chester Road.{{citation\\|title\\=Castlefield 1849 Viaduct, MSJ\\&A Railway \\|url\\=http://www.engineering\\-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id\\=616 \\|publisher\\=Engineering Timelines \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223175936/http://www.engineering\\-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id\\=616 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 February 2012 \\|df\\=dmy }} Liverpool Road was the first of the city's stations, of which four remain in the city centre. [Piccadilly](/wiki/Manchester_Piccadilly_railway_station \"Manchester Piccadilly railway station\") and [Victoria](/wiki/Manchester_Victoria_railway_station \"Manchester Victoria railway station\") which has a long Baroque frontage and glass canopy are the largest, Piccadilly retains is [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_era \"Victorian era\") [train shed](/wiki/Train_shed \"Train shed\"){{NHLE \\|num\\= 1283014\\|desc\\= Train shed at Piccadilly Station\\|access\\-date\\= 13 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} and Victoria its Edwardian [facade](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\"). [Deansgate](/wiki/Deansgate_railway_station \"Deansgate railway station\") has a curved corner frontage with mock portcullis and embattled parapet. [Oxford Road](/wiki/Manchester_Oxford_Road_railway_station \"Manchester Oxford Road railway station\") was rebuilt in 1960 in concrete and wood.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1255053\\|desc\\= Manchester Oxford Road Station (including platform structures) \\|access\\-date\\= 14 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"The [Midland Railway](/wiki/Midland_Railway \"Midland Railway\")'s [Manchester Central Station](/wiki/Manchester_Central_Convention_Complex \"Manchester Central Convention Complex\"), one of the city's main railway terminals was built between 1875 and 1880 and was closed in 1969\\. Its large arched roof – a huge wrought\\-iron single\\-span arched roof, spanning {{convert\\|210\\|ft\\|m\\|0}}, {{convert\\|550\\|ft\\|0}} long and {{convert\\|90\\|ft\\|0}} high is a listed building. The station has been converted for use as a conference centre.{{NHLE \\|num\\=1270514\\|desc\\= G MEX \\|access\\-date\\= 13 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} The associated [Midland Hotel](/wiki/Midland_Hotel%2C_Manchester \"Midland Hotel, Manchester\") designed by [Charles Trubshaw](/wiki/Charles_Trubshaw \"Charles Trubshaw\") was constructed between 1898 and 1903 from red brick and brown [terracotta](/wiki/Architectural_terracotta \"Architectural terracotta\") and clad in several varieties of polished [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\") and [Burmantofts terracotta](/wiki/Burmantofts_Pottery \"Burmantofts Pottery\") to withstand the polluted environment of Manchester.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1271154\\|desc\\= Midland Hotel, Manchester\\|access\\-date\\= 14 November 2012\\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} [Mayfield Station](/wiki/Manchester_Mayfield_railway_station \"Manchester Mayfield railway station\"), opened in 1910 next to Manchester Piccadilly by the [London \\& North Western Railway](/wiki/London_%26_North_Western_Railway \"London & North Western Railway\"), closed in 1960 and lies derelict.{{citation \\| url\\=http://www.subbrit.org.uk/sb\\-sites/stations/m/manchester\\_mayfield/index.shtml \\| title\\=Station name: Manchester Mayfield Station\\|publisher \\=disusedstations.org \\| access\\-date\\=14 November 2012}} [Manchester Exchange](/wiki/Manchester_Exchange_Station \"Manchester Exchange Station\") operated between 1884 and 1969 near [Manchester Cathedral](/wiki/Manchester_Cathedral \"Manchester Cathedral\"), most of the station was in Salford and its 1929 extension east of the Irwell was in Manchester and was linked with the adjacent Victoria Station.{{citation \\| url\\=http://www.disused\\-stations.org.uk/m/manchester\\_exchange/index.shtml \\| title\\=Station name: Manchester Exchange Station\\|publisher \\=disused stations.org \\| access\\-date\\=14 November 2012}}",
"File:Oxford Road timber roof.jpg\\|Oxford Road Station\nFile:Manchester Central Arena.jpg\\|Manchester Central railway station, now a conference centre\nFile:Knott Mill Station \\- geograph.org.uk \\- 1447337\\.jpg\\|Deansgate Station\nFile:Manchester Victoria station 19\\-10\\-2009 12\\-11\\-47kopie.jpg\\|Facade of Victoria Station\nFile:Piccadilly Station Manchester \\- geograph.org.uk \\- 692981\\.jpg\\|Piccadilly Station from above",
"",
"### Public buildings",
"Manchester's first town hall, designed by [Francis Goodwin](/wiki/Francis_Goodwin_%28architect%29 \"Francis Goodwin (architect)\"), was constructed during 1822–25 in the neo\\-classical style with a screen of [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") columns.{{sfn\\|Parkinson\\-Bailey \\|2000\\|p\\=60}} Its facade was re\\-erected as a [folly](/wiki/Folly \"Folly\") in [Heaton Park](/wiki/Heaton_Park \"Heaton Park\") at the west end of its lake in 1913\\.{{citation\\|title\\=Heaton Park, Manchester, England \\|url\\=http://www.parksandgardens.ac.uk/component/option,com\\_parksandgardens/task,site/id,1677/tab,history/Itemid,292/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20121223164234/http://www.parksandgardens.ac.uk/component/option,com\\_parksandgardens/task,site/id,1677/tab,history/Itemid,292/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2012 \\|publisher\\=Parks and Gardens \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2012 }} Manchester was granted a Charter of Incorporation in 1838\\.{{sfn\\|Frangopulo\\|1977\\|p\\=21\\|ps\\=}} \nClassical architecture gave way to [Neo\\-gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture \"Gothic Revival architecture\") and [Palazzo](/wiki/Palazzo_style_architecture \"Palazzo style architecture\") styles in the [Victorian Era](/wiki/Victorian_Era \"Victorian Era\"). [Edward Walters](/wiki/Edward_Walters \"Edward Walters\") designed the [Free Trade Hall](/wiki/Free_Trade_Hall \"Free Trade Hall\") in the 1850s as a monument to the [Peterloo Massacre](/wiki/Peterloo_Massacre \"Peterloo Massacre\") and Manchester's pivotal role in the [Anti\\-Corn Law League](/wiki/Anti-Corn_Law_League \"Anti-Corn Law League\"). Built as a public hall only the facade remains.{{sfn\\|Hartwell\\|Hyde\\|Pevsner\\|2005\\|p\\=260\\|ps\\=}} The old town hall was replaced by the present [Manchester Town Hall](/wiki/Manchester_Town_Hall \"Manchester Town Hall\"), designed by [Alfred Waterhouse](/wiki/Alfred_Waterhouse \"Alfred Waterhouse\"). Completed in 1877, its Great Hall contains the [Manchester Murals](/wiki/Manchester_Murals \"Manchester Murals\") by [Ford Madox Brown](/wiki/Ford_Madox_Brown \"Ford Madox Brown\").{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1207469\\|desc\\= Town Hall, Manchester\\|access\\-date\\= 31 October 2012\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"Waterhouse was influenced by [Pugin](/wiki/Augustus_Welby_Northmore_Pugin \"Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin\") and most of his designs were in the [Gothic Revival](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture \"Gothic Revival architecture\") style. He is a prolific contributor to the design of Manchester's public, educational and commercial buildings. Waterhouse's exteriors used large quantities of \"self\\-washing\" [terracotta](/wiki/Terracotta \"Terracotta\") to provide rich ornament in the polluted atmosphere and after 1880 his interiors were decorated with moulded and glazed faience both manufactured by the [Burmantofts Pottery](/wiki/Burmantofts_Pottery \"Burmantofts Pottery\"). He designed the Royal Insurance Office, in which he had an office, in 1861\\. The now demolished [Manchester Assize Courts](/wiki/Manchester_Assize_Courts \"Manchester Assize Courts\"), built between 1864 and 1877 in the neo\\-Gothic style, was a major commission. In the 1860s Waterhouse designed [Strangeways Gaol](/wiki/Strangeways_Prison \"Strangeways Prison\") and its French Gothic style gatehouse in red brick with sandstone dressings{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1254670\\|desc\\=Gatehouse of Strangeways Gaol \\|access\\-date\\= 1 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} and landmark tower in red brick with sandstone dressings in the style of a [minaret](/wiki/Minaret \"Minaret\").{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1254672\\|desc\\= The Tower of Strangeways Gaol \\|access\\-date\\= 23 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"The [City Police Courts](/wiki/City_Police_Courts%2C_Manchester \"City Police Courts, Manchester\") in red brick with an impressive tower in the Italian Gothic style was completed in 1871 in Minshull Street by another proponent of the Gothic style [Thomas Worthington](/wiki/Thomas_Worthington_%28architect%29 \"Thomas Worthington (architect)\").{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1219894\\|desc\\= City Police Courts\\|access\\-date\\= 20 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} Worthington's last commission in the city was the flamboyant Flemish Gothic [Nicholls Hospital](/wiki/Ellen_Wilkinson_High_School \"Ellen Wilkinson High School\"), an orphanage that is now part of [The Manchester College](/wiki/The_Manchester_College \"The Manchester College\") and has similarities with the Minshull Street Courts.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1291812\\|desc\\= Ellen Wilkinson High School\\|access\\-date\\= 20 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"Acres Fair moved to Castlefield in 1872 and after it was abolished, the market traders remained at Lower Campfield Market and Higher Campfield Market{{NHLE \\|num\\=1197915\\|desc\\= Former Market Hall Liverpool Street \\|access\\-date\\= 14 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} which were later covered by large, glazed buildings with cast\\-iron frames by Mangnall and Littlewood. Lower Campfield Market is now the Air and Space Gallery of the Museum of Science and Industry.{{NHLE \\|num\\=1200807 \\|desc\\= Museum of Science and Industry, Air and Space Museum \\|access\\-date\\= 14 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"London Road Fire Station of 1906 was designed in the [Edwardian Baroque style](/wiki/Edwardian_Baroque_architecture \"Edwardian Baroque architecture\") by Woodhouse, Willoughby and Langham in [red brick and terracotta](/wiki/Red_brick_and_terracotta \"Red brick and terracotta\"). The building, on the Buildings at Risk Register, is currently unoccupied. The eclectic [Jacobean](/wiki/Jacobean_architecture \"Jacobean architecture\") and Baroque styled [Victoria Baths](/wiki/Victoria_Baths \"Victoria Baths\") in Chorlton on Medlock opened in September 1906 providing private baths, a [laundry](/wiki/Laundry \"Laundry\"), three [swimming pools](/wiki/Swimming_pool \"Swimming pool\") and a [Victorian\\-style Turkish bath](/wiki/Victorian_Turkish_baths \"Victorian Turkish baths\").{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1200808\\|desc\\=Victoria Baths with attached forecourt walls\\|access\\-date\\= 13 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}{{cite web\\|title\\=The Victoria Baths Turkish Baths\\|url\\=http://www.victorianturkishbath.org/\\_6DIRECTORY/AtoZEstab/England/ManHiS/1MHSEng.htm\\|website\\=Victorian Turkish Baths\\|access\\-date\\=26 September 2015}}",
"In the 1930s [Vincent Harris](/wiki/Vincent_Harris \"Vincent Harris\") won competitions to design two of the city's civic buildings. [Manchester Town Hall Extension](/wiki/Manchester_Town_Hall_Extension \"Manchester Town Hall Extension\") between St Peter's Square and Lloyd Street was built between 1934 and 1938 to provide accommodation for local government services.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1197917\\|desc\\= Town Hall Extension Lloyd Street\\|access\\-date\\= 17 December 2011 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} Its eclectic style was designed to be a link between the ornate Gothic Revival Town Hall and the [classical](/wiki/Classical_architecture \"Classical architecture\") [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 \"Rotunda (architecture)\") of the [Central Library](/wiki/Manchester_Central_Library \"Manchester Central Library\") built four years earlier.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1270759\\|desc\\= Central Public Library \\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"File:The Free Trade Hall, Manchester.jpg\\|The \\[\\[Free Trade Hall]]\nFile:Strangeways Prison.jpg\\| The French Gothic gatehouse of \\[\\[Strangeways Prison]] by Alfred Waterhouse.\nFile:London Road Fire Station Manchester, September 2012\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[London Road Fire Station, Manchester\\|London Road Fire Station]] opened in 1903\\.\nFile:VictoriaBaths.jpg\\|The ornate façade of Victoria Baths\nFile:Manchester Central Library.jpg\\|The \\[\\[Neoclassical architecture\\|neoclassical]] \\[\\[Manchester Central Library]]\nFile:Manchester Town Hall Annexe.jpg\\|Town Hall Extension and tram",
"",
"### Education and culture",
"Education and culture became important in Georgian times leading to the construction of buildings that endure today. The [Portico Library](/wiki/Portico_Library \"Portico Library\") designed by [Thomas Harrison](/wiki/Thomas_Harrison_%28architect%29 \"Thomas Harrison (architect)\") was the first [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture \"Greek Revival architecture\") building in Manchester and the only surviving building by Harrison in the city. Its interior was inspired by [John Soane](/wiki/John_Soane \"John Soane\").{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1197930\\|desc\\= Portico Library and Bank Public House\\|access\\-date\\= 30 October 2012\\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}{{sfn\\|Hartwell\\|2002\\|pp\\=174–75\\|ps\\=}} The [Royal Manchester Institution](/wiki/Royal_Manchester_Institution \"Royal Manchester Institution\") a [learned society](/wiki/Learned_society \"Learned society\") was founded in 1823\\. Its home in [Mosley Street](/wiki/Mosley_Street \"Mosley Street\") was designed by [Charles Barry](/wiki/Charles_Barry \"Charles Barry\"), his only public building in the Greek [neo\\-classical style](/wiki/Neo-classical_style \"Neo-classical style\"). The building and its collections became [Manchester Art Gallery](/wiki/Manchester_Art_Gallery \"Manchester Art Gallery\"){{NHLE \\|num\\= 1282980\\|desc\\= City Art Gallery Mosley Street \\|access\\-date\\= 30 October 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} which also incorporates the [Manchester Athenaeum](/wiki/Manchester_Athenaeum \"Manchester Athenaeum\"), designed in the [palazzo style](/wiki/Palazzo_style \"Palazzo style\") by Barry in 1836\\.{{NHLE \\|num\\=1270889\\|desc\\=The Athenaeum 81 Princess Street \\|access\\-date\\= 30 October 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"As Manchester emerged as the world's first industrial city, a [Mechanics' Institute](/wiki/Mechanics%27_Institute%2C_Manchester \"Mechanics' Institute, Manchester\"),{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1247391\\|desc\\= Municipal High School of Commerce\\|access\\-date\\= 14 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} the forerunner of the [University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology](/wiki/University_of_Manchester_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology \"University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology\"), was established in 1824\\. [Owens College](/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester \"Victoria University of Manchester\"), founded with a bequest from [John Owens](/wiki/John_Owens_%28merchant%29 \"John Owens (merchant)\") in 1851, became the Victoria University of Manchester in 1880\\. Alfred Waterhouse was appointed architect for Owens College and the Victoria University where he designed several of its buildings from 1860 until his retirement.{{cite ODNB \\|last\\=Cunningham \\|first\\=Colin \\|contribution\\= Waterhouse, Alfred (1830–1905\\) \\|title\\=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography \\|date\\=January 2010 \\|url\\= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36758\\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2012 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/ref:odnb/36758}} An early commission for Owens College was the [Manchester Museum](/wiki/Manchester_Museum \"Manchester Museum\") on a new site in Chorlton on Medlock.{{citation\\|title\\=The History of The Manchester Museum \\|url\\=http://www.museum.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/history/ \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Manchester University]] \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627082857/http://www.museum.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/history/ \\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2009 }} The Whitworth Institute and its surrounding park was founded in 1889 in the name of Sir [Joseph Whitworth](/wiki/Joseph_Whitworth \"Joseph Whitworth\"), one of the city's great industrialists. Designed by J.W.Beaumont in red brick with details in matching terracotta,{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1246569\\|desc\\= Whitworth Gallery \\|access\\-date\\= 14 November 2012\\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} it was transferred to the university and changed its name to the [Whitworth Art Gallery](/wiki/Whitworth_Art_Gallery \"Whitworth Art Gallery\") in 1958\\.{{citation\\|title\\=A Short History of The Whitworth Art Gallery \\|url\\=http://www.whitworth.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/history/ \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Manchester University]] \\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104125323/http://www.whitworth.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/history/ \\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2012 }} Alfred Waterhouse's son, Paul Waterhouse continued the Gothic tradition with the university's elaborate [Whitworth Hall](/wiki/Whitworth_Hall \"Whitworth Hall\"), its ceremonial venue built between 1895 and 1902\\.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1271428\\|desc\\= Victoria University of Manchester including Christie Library, Whitworth Hall \\|access\\-date\\= 14 November 2012\\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"The [Manchester School of Art](/wiki/Manchester_School_of_Art \"Manchester School of Art\") was built in two stages, the main building is by [G.T.Redmayne](/wiki/George_Tunstal_Redmayne \"George Tunstal Redmayne\") in the Neo\\-Gothic style in stone with gabled wings and pinnacles and an 1897 rear extension by [Joseph Gibbon Sankey](/wiki/Joseph_Gibbon_Sankey \"Joseph Gibbon Sankey\") in red brick and terracotta with [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") decoration.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1293192\\|desc\\= Manchester Polytechnic School of Art\\|access\\-date\\= 23 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"The [John Rylands Library](/wiki/John_Rylands_Library \"John Rylands Library\") by [Basil Champneys](/wiki/Basil_Champneys \"Basil Champneys\") on [Deansgate](/wiki/Deansgate \"Deansgate\"), designed like a church in the Decorated Gothic style with [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_Movement \"Arts and Crafts Movement\") details, opened in 1900\\.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1217800\\|desc\\= John Rylands Library and attached railings, gates and lamp standards \\|access\\-date\\= 14 November 2012\\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"",
"File:Portico Library, Manchester.jpg\\|The \\[\\[Portico Library]]\nFile:Manchester Art Gallery \\- geograph.org.uk \\- 1748756\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Manchester Art Gallery]]\nFile:Former Athenaeum, Princess Street, Manchester.jpg\\|Manchester Athenaeum\nFile:Rylands Library Deansgate.jpg\\|The \\[\\[neogothic]] \\[\\[John Rylands Library]] opened 1900\\.\nFile:Whitworth Hall Manchester.jpg\\|\\[\\[Whitworth Hall]] opened in 1902\\.",
"",
"### Commerce",
"The commercial hub of Manchester or [Cottonopolis](/wiki/Cottonopolis \"Cottonopolis\") was the Exchange, of which there were four, the first was in the market place in 1727{{sfn\\|Hartwell\\|2002\\|p\\=10}} and it was re\\-built three times. Thomas Harrison built the second in the Greek Revival style between 1806 and 1809{{sfn\\|Hartwell\\|2002\\|p\\=18}} and it was enlarged between 1847 and 1849\\. Queen Victoria granted it the title the [Manchester Royal Exchange](/wiki/Manchester_Royal_Exchange \"Manchester Royal Exchange\") in 1851\\. The third exchange in the Classical style by Mills and Murgatroyd, opened in 1874 and was lavishly re\\-built [Bradshaw Gass \\& Hope](/wiki/Bradshaw_Gass_%26_Hope \"Bradshaw Gass & Hope\") between 1914 and 1921\\. It had the largest trading room in the world but closed for cotton trading in 1968 and now is a theatre.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1200826\\|desc\\=Former Royal Exchange \\|access\\-date\\= 1 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"Early [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_era \"Victorian era\") warehouses were built of brick with stone dressings typically up to six storeys tall with basements and steps to the front door. Fireproof construction was used towards the end of the century. They had loading bays with hydraulic wall cranes at the side or rear. Some traders built their own warehouses but others shared speculative developments that were built for multiple users.{{citation \\|title\\= The Commercial Warehouse\\|url\\= http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/topics\\-and\\-themes/the\\-commercial\\-warehouse.html \\|publisher\\=Looking at Buildings\\|access\\-date \\= 1 November 2012}} [Watts Warehouse](/wiki/Watts_Warehouse \"Watts Warehouse\") by [Travis \\& Mangnall](/wiki/Travis_%26_Mangnall \"Travis & Mangnall\") in the form of a Venetian [palazzo](/wiki/Palazzo \"Palazzo\"), was built in 1856, the largest single\\-occupancy textile warehouse in Manchester .{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1246952\\|desc\\= BritanniaHotel \\|access\\-date\\= 31 October 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"Warehouses were built into the 20th century, many in the highly decorated [Edwardian Baroque](/wiki/Edwardian_Baroque \"Edwardian Baroque\") style leaving the city with a legacy of some of the finest buildings of this type in the world. The continuing urbanisation and narrow roads in Manchester have impacted on views of these ornate buildings, many of which were often decorative at the top of the building. A flurry of ornate warehouses were built, many of which dominated the area around Whitworth Street and included [Asia House, Manchester](/wiki/Asia_House%2C_Manchester \"Asia House, Manchester\"), [India House](/wiki/India_House%2C_Manchester \"India House, Manchester\") and [Lancaster House](/wiki/Lancaster_House%2C_Manchester \"Lancaster House, Manchester\") designed by [Harry S. Fairhurst](/wiki/Harry_S._Fairhurst \"Harry S. Fairhurst\").",
"From the early 19th century residential [King Street](/wiki/King_Street%2C_Manchester \"King Street, Manchester\") and [Spring Gardens](/wiki/Spring_Gardens%2C_Manchester \"Spring Gardens, Manchester\") developed into the city's financial quarter. Banks were designed by local architects Edward Walters, J.E. Gregan and [Charles Heathcote](/wiki/Charles_Heathcote \"Charles Heathcote\") and by [Charles Cockerell](/wiki/Charles_Robert_Cockerell \"Charles Robert Cockerell\") and [Edwin Lutyens](/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens \"Edwin Lutyens\").{{citation \\|title\\= Manchester's Banks \\|url\\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\\-and\\-tours/manchesters\\-banks.html \\|publisher\\=Looking at Buildings\\|access\\-date \\= 2 November 2012}} Benjamin Heywood's [palazzo](/wiki/Palazzo \"Palazzo\") style bank in St Ann's Square, (the Royal Bank of Scotland), was built in 1848 to the designs of J.E. Gregan.{{citation \\|title\\= St Ann's Square \\|url\\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\\-and\\-tours/manchesters\\-banks/st\\-anns\\-square.html \\|publisher\\=Looking at Buildings\\|access\\-date \\= 2 November 2012}} Charles Cockerell designed the Bank of England's Manchester branch on King Street in 1845\\-6 but the street is dominated by the former Midland Bank designed by Edwin Lutyens in 1928 his major work in the city.{{citation \\|title\\= King Street \\|url\\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\\-and\\-tours/manchesters\\-banks/king\\-street.html \\|publisher\\=Looking at Buildings\\|access\\-date \\= 2 November 2012}} The Royal Bank of Scotland on [Mosley Street](/wiki/Mosley_Street \"Mosley Street\") was designed for the Manchester and Salford Bank by Edward Walters in 1862\\.{{citation \\|title\\= Mosley Street\\|url\\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\\-and\\-tours/manchesters\\-banks/mosley\\-street.html\\|publisher\\=Looking at Buildings\\|access\\-date \\= 2 November 2012}} On the corner of Spring Gardens and York Street is the former [Parrs Bank](/wiki/Former_National_Westminster_Bank \"Former National Westminster Bank\") in red sandstone with a corner entrance designed in 1902 by Charles Heathcote in the Edwardian Baroque with Art Nouveau motifs in its ironwork.{{citation \\|title\\= York Street \\|url\\=http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/walks\\-and\\-tours/manchesters\\-banks/york\\-street.html \\|publisher\\=Looking at Buildings\\|access\\-date \\= 2 November 2012}} Heathcote also designed the Baroque [Lloyds Bank](/wiki/53_King_Street \"53 King Street\") in 1915 on King Street in the heart of the city's banking district.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1291610\\|desc\\= Lloyds Bank\\|access\\-date\\= 28 September 2012\\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"File:Asia House 3\\.JPG\\|\\[\\[Asia House, Manchester\\|Asia House]], opened in 1909 \nFile:67 Whitworth Street.jpg\\|\\[\\[Lancaster House, Manchester\\|Lancaster House]], opened in 1910 \nFile:Former National Westminster Bank, York Street, Manchester 4\\.JPG\\|\\[\\[Former National Westminster Bank]], 1902 \nFile:Lloyds Bank Manchester.jpg\\|\\[\\[53 King Street\\|Lloyds Bank]] opened in 1915 \nFile:38 and 42 Mosley Street, Manchester 4 straight.JPG\\|\\[\\[38 and 42 Mosley Street]], opened in 1880 \nFile:100 King Street Manchester.jpg\\|\\[\\[Edwin Lutyens\\|Lutyens]]' Midland Bank on King Street",
"",
"[Ship Canal House](/wiki/Ship_Canal_House \"Ship Canal House\") was completed in 1927 for the [Manchester Ship Canal Company](/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal_Company \"Manchester Ship Canal Company\") by Harry S Fairhurst in a transitional Edwardian Baroque/Art Deco style.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1219203\\|desc\\= Ship Canal House\\|access\\-date\\= 7 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}{{citation \\|title\\=The House on Ship Canal House \\|url\\=http://theskyliner.org/post/17284928473/the\\-house\\-on\\-ship\\-canal\\-house \\|work\\=skyliner.org \\|access\\-date\\=5 October 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030160709/http://theskyliner.org/post/17284928473/the\\-house\\-on\\-ship\\-canal\\-house \\|archive\\-date\\=30 October 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} [Owen Williams](/wiki/Owen_Williams_%28engineer%29 \"Owen Williams (engineer)\") designed the [Daily Express Building](/wiki/Daily_Express_Building%2C_Manchester \"Daily Express Building, Manchester\") with a futuristic dark glass façade. [Nikolaus Pevsner](/wiki/Nikolaus_Pevsner \"Nikolaus Pevsner\") described it as \"all\\-glass front, absolutely flush, with rounded corners and translucent glass and black glass\".{{sfn\\|Hartwell\\|2002\\|p\\=285\\|ps\\=}} [Sunlight House](/wiki/Sunlight_House \"Sunlight House\") which opened in 1932 on [Quay Street](/wiki/Quay_Street \"Quay Street\") was designed in the art deco style by [Joseph Sunlight](/wiki/Joseph_Sunlight \"Joseph Sunlight\"). The brown\\-brick [Redfern Building](/wiki/Redfern_Building \"Redfern Building\") on the Co\\-operative Estate is an individualistic interpretation of the Art Deco, although Pevsner believed it shared more in common with '[Dutch Brick modernism](/wiki/Dutch_Brick_modernism \"Dutch Brick modernism\")'.{{sfn\\|Hartwell\\|2002\\|p\\=241\\|ps\\=}}",
"File:Express Building Manchester.jpg\\|The futuristic \\[\\[art deco]] \\[\\[Daily Express Building, Manchester\\|Daily Express Building]]\nFile:Sunlight House.jpg\\|Sunlight House on Quay Street",
"",
"### Places of worship",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Edgar Wood Centre](/wiki/Edgar_Wood_Centre \"Edgar Wood Centre\"), opened in 1906 (Grade I)](/wiki/File:EdgarWoodBuilding.jpg \"EdgarWoodBuilding.jpg\")\nThe medieval [parish church](/wiki/Parish_church \"Parish church\") was altered and rebuilt between 1814 and 1815\\. It became a cathedral in 1847 and was extensively restored and rebuilt by J.P. Holden between 1862 and 1868, by [J. S. Crowther](/wiki/J._S._Crowther \"J. S. Crowther\") in the 1880s and in 1898 by [Basil Champneys](/wiki/Basil_Champneys \"Basil Champneys\") who added annexes in 1903\\.",
"In 1828 the Quakers built their Meeting House in Mount Street. Designed by [Richard Lane](/wiki/Richard_Lane_%28architect%29 \"Richard Lane (architect)\") it has an [ashlar](/wiki/Ashlar \"Ashlar\") facade and a three\\-bay [pedimented](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\") [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\") with a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\").{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1291062\\|desc\\= Friends' Meeting House \\|access\\-date\\= 20 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"Victorian churches, particularly those of the Roman Catholics, espoused the Gothic principles of [A. W. N. Pugin](/wiki/A._W._N._Pugin \"A. W. N. Pugin\") who designed the red brick St Wilfrid's Roman Catholic Church in the early English style in [Hulme](/wiki/Hulme \"Hulme\") of 1842\\.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1283075\\|desc\\= Roman Catholic Church of St Wilfrid \\|access\\-date\\= 20 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} St Mary's Roman Catholic Church, [The Hidden Gem](/wiki/The_Hidden_Gem \"The Hidden Gem\"), on Mulberry Street, the first Roman Catholic church in the city centre, was designed by Weightman \\& [Hadfield](/wiki/Matthew_Ellison_Hadfield \"Matthew Ellison Hadfield\") in 1848\\.{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1197894\\|desc\\= Roman Catholic Church of St Mary \\|access\\-date\\= 20 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} On the outskirts of the city centre, [J. A. Hansom](/wiki/J._A._Hansom \"J. A. Hansom\") designed the Roman Catholic Church of the Holy Name of Jesus in [Chorlton\\-on\\-Medlock](/wiki/Chorlton-on-Medlock \"Chorlton-on-Medlock\") which was completed 1928 by [Adrian Gilbert Scott](/wiki/Adrian_Gilbert_Scott \"Adrian Gilbert Scott\"){{NHLE \\|num\\= 1271296\\|desc\\= Roman Catholic church of the Holy Name of Jesus \\|access\\-date\\= 20 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} and [E.W. Pugin](/wiki/E.W._Pugin \"E.W. Pugin\")'s Grade II\\* Church and Friary of St Francis, [Gorton Monastery](/wiki/Gorton_Monastery \"Gorton Monastery\") are \"of more than local interest\".{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1282967 \\|desc\\= Roman Catholic Church of St Francis and monastic building attached to church\\|access\\-date\\= 19 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}}",
"In the late 19th century the large Jewish community around [Cheetham Hill](/wiki/Cheetham_Hill \"Cheetham Hill\") built the [Sephardic](/wiki/Sephardic \"Sephardic\") Synagogue of 1874–75 to the designs of [Edward Salomons](/wiki/Edward_Salomons \"Edward Salomons\") in the [Moorish style](/wiki/Moorish_style \"Moorish style\") and survives as [Manchester Jewish Museum](/wiki/Manchester_Jewish_Museum \"Manchester Jewish Museum\").{{citation \\|title\\= Manchester's Churches and Faiths\\|url\\= http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/cities/manchester/an\\-introduction/manchesters\\-churches\\-and\\-faiths.html \\|publisher\\=Looking at Buildings\\|access\\-date \\= 19 November 2012}}",
"The [Church of Christ, Scientist](/wiki/Edgar_Wood_Centre \"Edgar Wood Centre\") in [Fallowfield](/wiki/Fallowfield \"Fallowfield\"), designed by [Edgar Wood](/wiki/Edgar_Wood \"Edgar Wood\") opened in 1907\\. [Nikolaus Pevsner](/wiki/Nikolaus_Pevsner \"Nikolaus Pevsner\") considered it \"the only religious building in Lancashire that would be indispensable in a survey of twentieth century church design in all England.\"{{sfn\\|Hartwell\\|2002\\|p\\=338}} and \"one of the most original buildings of that time in England, or indeed anywhere.\"{{cite book \\| title\\= South Lancashire \\| series\\= The buildings of England \\| author\\= Pevsner, Nikolaus \\| year\\= 1969 \\| publisher\\= Penguin \\| location\\= Harmondsworth \\| isbn\\= 0\\-14\\-071036\\-1}}",
"### Modernism",
"After World War II, work to rebuild [war\\-damaged](/wiki/Manchester_Blitz \"Manchester Blitz\") Manchester began and the transition from warehouse to office blocks accelerated as the city's industrial prowess waned. Few aesthetically memorable buildings were constructed in the 1950s and 1960s,{{Cite news \\|title\\=The Best Architecture in Manchester \\|url\\=http://www.prideofmanchester.com/architecture/best.htm \\|work\\=prideofmanchester \\|access\\-date\\=10 November 2011}} but some grew into landmarks for the city.",
"The first major building constructed after the war was the [Granada Studios](/wiki/Granada_Studios \"Granada Studios\") complex designed by [Ralph Tubbs](/wiki/Ralph_Tubbs \"Ralph Tubbs\") in 1954\\.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Coronation Street set refused listed status \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment\\-arts\\-18398827 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=11 June 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2012}} The studios' notable features were a lattice tower and red, [neon sign](/wiki/Neon_sign \"Neon sign\").",
"When the 118\\-metre tall [CIS Tower](/wiki/CIS_Tower \"CIS Tower\") was built in 1962,{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1270494\\|desc\\= Co\\-operative Insurance Society\\|access\\-date\\= 25 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} it was the tallest building in the United Kingdom. The tower by, Sir John Bumet, [Gordon Tait](/wiki/Gordon_Tait \"Gordon Tait\") and Partners with G.S. Hay, is recognised as one of the best 1960s modernist buildings. As home to [the Co\\-operative Group](/wiki/The_Co-operative_Group \"The Co-operative Group\"), it was designed to showcase Manchester and the Co\\-operative movement. It was clad in [photovoltaic cells](/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell \"Photovoltaic cell\") in 2005 and is the tallest [listed building](/wiki/Listed_building \"Listed building\") in the United Kingdom. Along with [New Century House](/wiki/New_Century_House \"New Century House\") which also opened in 1962, its \"design of discipline and consistency which forms part of a group with the Co\\-operative Insurance Society\".{{NHLE \\|num\\= 1255052\\|desc\\= New Century House\\|access\\-date\\= 7 November 2012 \\|mode\\=cs2\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes}} Gateway House, a [modernist](/wiki/Modern_architecture \"Modern architecture\") office block designed by [Richard Seifert \\& Partners](/wiki/Richard_Seifert \"Richard Seifert\") in 1969 on the approach to [Manchester Piccadilly station](/wiki/Manchester_Piccadilly_station \"Manchester Piccadilly station\"), is considered to be one of Seifert's most loveable buildings.{{citation\\|title\\=Gateway House \\|url\\=http://manchestermodernists.wordpress.com/2012/01/23/gateway\\-housestation\\-approach\\-piccadilly\\-rail\\-station\\-richart\\-seifert\\-partners1967\\-9/ \\|publisher\\=Manchester Modernist Society \\|access\\-date\\=12 September 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208101009/http://manchestermodernists.wordpress.com/2012/01/23/gateway\\-housestation\\-approach\\-piccadilly\\-rail\\-station\\-richart\\-seifert\\-partners1967\\-9/ \\|archive\\-date\\=8 February 2013 \\|df\\=dmy }}\n[Hollins College](/wiki/Toast_Rack_%28building%29 \"Toast Rack (building)\"), known as the *Toast rack*, is representative of work produced by Manchester's City Council's city architect [L. C. Howitt](/wiki/Leonard_Cecil_Howitt \"Leonard Cecil Howitt\") while implementing the city's post\\-war rebuilding plans.{{cite web\\|title\\=Building of the month Toast Rack (building)\\|url\\=http://c20society.org.uk/botm/domestic\\-and\\-trades\\-college\\-manchester/\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Twentieth Century Society]]\\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2017}}",
"File:CIS Tower Manchester.jpg\\|The CIS Tower (1962\\) was the tallest listed building in the UK\nFile:Gateway House wavy facade.jpg\\|The wavy frontage of \\[\\[Gateway House, Manchester\\|Gateway House]] (1969\\)\nFile:Maths and Social Sciences and Faraday Building at UMIST Campus.jpg\\|The former \\[\\[UMIST]] Campus consists of many Modernist buildings built in the 1960s\nFile:Hollings Campus, Fallowfield.jpg\\|The Grade II \\[\\[Toast Rack (building)\\|Toast Rack building]] (1960\\)",
"",
"### New millennium architecture",
"After the destruction caused by the [1996 bombing](/wiki/1996_Manchester_bombing \"1996 Manchester bombing\"), the city had a chance to reinvent itself. Tall buildings, many in a post\\-modernist style incorporating glass façades were constructed, the most prominent is a skyscraper built in 2006 – the 168\\-metre tall [Beetham Tower](/wiki/Beetham_Tower%2C_Manchester \"Beetham Tower, Manchester\") by architecture firm, [SimpsonHaugh and Partners](/wiki/SimpsonHaugh_and_Partners \"SimpsonHaugh and Partners\"). Other buildings with glass incorporated into their design include [Urbis](/wiki/Urbis \"Urbis\"), [No. 1 Deansgate](/wiki/No._1_Deansgate \"No. 1 Deansgate\"), the [Manchester Civil Justice Centre](/wiki/Manchester_Civil_Justice_Centre \"Manchester Civil Justice Centre\") and the [Great Northern Tower](/wiki/Great_Northern_Tower \"Great Northern Tower\"), by [Assael Architecture](/wiki/Assael_Architecture \"Assael Architecture\"). Manchester City Council has been more sympathetic to tall buildings since 1990 and its Manchester Core Strategy 2012–2027 considered 'iconic' developments which reflect the non\\-conformity and uniqueness of the city would be viewed more sympathetically.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Masterplan to take Manchester into the future \\|last\\=Linton \\|first\\=Deborah \\|url\\=http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1581573\\_masterplan\\-to\\-take\\-manchester\\-into\\-the\\-future \\|newspaper\\=Manchester Evening News \\|date\\=19 June 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 June 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625170156/http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1581573\\_masterplan\\-to\\-take\\-manchester\\-into\\-the\\-future \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"The [Manchester Civil Justice Centre](/wiki/Manchester_Civil_Justice_Centre \"Manchester Civil Justice Centre\") was built in 2007 in [Spinningfields](/wiki/Spinningfields \"Spinningfields\") \\- Manchester's new business district. It has been well received by architecture critics who praised its aesthetics, environmental credentials and structural quality. *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")* architecture critic [Owen Hatherley](/wiki/Owen_Hatherley \"Owen Hatherley\") described it as a \"genuinely striking building\".{{Cite news\\|title\\=New book attacks modern Manchester as 'New Labour boom town' that's lost its cultural edge \\|url\\=http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1367086\\_new\\_book\\_attacks\\_modern\\_manchester\\_as\\_new\\_labour\\_boom\\_town\\_thats\\_lost\\_its\\_cultural\\_edge \\|newspaper\\=Manchester Evening News \\|date\\=3 November 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=25 September 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107203229/http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1367086\\_new\\_book\\_attacks\\_modern\\_manchester\\_as\\_new\\_labour\\_boom\\_town\\_thats\\_lost\\_its\\_cultural\\_edge \\|archive\\-date\\=7 November 2010 }}",
"",
"File:The Urbis Building \\- geograph.org.uk \\- 332225\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Urbis]], 2002\nFile:Joe Mercer way in 2011\\.jpg\\|The \\[\\[City of Manchester Stadium]], completed in 2001\nFile:Beetham Tower from below.jpg\\|\\[\\[Beetham Tower, Manchester]]\nFile:Chips2\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Will Alsop]]'s \\[\\[Chips, Manchester\\|Chips building]] in \\[\\[New Islington]], 2007",
"File:Manchester Civil Justice Centre from Bridge Street.jpg\\|\\[\\[Manchester Civil Justice Centre]], 2007\nFile:Alan Turing Building 2\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Alan Turing Building]], 2007\nFile:Number 1 Deansgate.jpg\\|\\[\\[No. 1 Deansgate]], 2001\nFile:Angel Square, front facade.jpg\\|\\[\\[One Angel Square]] under construction, 2013",
"{{clear}}",
"### Monuments and sculpture",
"{{See also\\|List of public art in Greater Manchester}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The Albert Memorial, Albert Square](/wiki/File:Manchester_Town_Hall_and_Memorial.jpg \"Manchester Town Hall and Memorial.jpg\")\nIn Manchester are monuments to people and events that have shaped the city and influenced the wider community. Two squares holding many public monuments are [Albert Square](/wiki/Albert_Square%2C_Manchester \"Albert Square, Manchester\") in front of the town hall which has monuments to [Prince Albert](/wiki/Albert%2C_Prince_Consort \"Albert, Prince Consort\"), [Bishop James Fraser](/wiki/James_Fraser_%28bishop%29 \"James Fraser (bishop)\"), [Oliver Heywood](/wiki/Oliver_Heywood \"Oliver Heywood\"), [William Ewart Gladstone](/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone \"William Ewart Gladstone\") and [John Bright](/wiki/John_Bright \"John Bright\"), and [Piccadilly Gardens](/wiki/Piccadilly_Gardens \"Piccadilly Gardens\") with monuments to [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\"), [Robert Peel](/wiki/Robert_Peel \"Robert Peel\"), [James Watt](/wiki/James_Watt_%28inventor%29 \"James Watt (inventor)\") and [The Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington \"Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\").",
"Notable monuments elsewhere in the city include the [Alan Turing Memorial](/wiki/Alan_Turing_Memorial \"Alan Turing Memorial\") in [Sackville Park](/wiki/Sackville_Park \"Sackville Park\") commemorating the father of modern computing. A monument to [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\") by [George Gray Barnard](/wiki/George_Gray_Barnard \"George Gray Barnard\") in the eponymous Lincoln Square was presented to the city by Mr \\& Mrs Charles Phelps Taft and marks the part Lancashire played in the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") and its consequence the [cotton famine](/wiki/Cotton_famine \"Cotton famine\") of 1861–1865\\. In the entrance to Watts Warehouse is a bronze statue, \"The Sentry\", by [Charles Sargeant Jagger](/wiki/Charles_Sargeant_Jagger \"Charles Sargeant Jagger\"), a memorial to the staff of S \\& J Watts \\& Co who died in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). The city's principal war memorial is [the Cenotaph](/wiki/Manchester_Cenotaph \"Manchester Cenotaph\") in St Peter's Square, designed by [Edwin Lutyens](/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens \"Edwin Lutyens\") after [his original](/wiki/The_Cenotaph%2C_Whitehall \"The Cenotaph, Whitehall\") in London.",
"[Thomas Heatherwick](/wiki/Thomas_Heatherwick \"Thomas Heatherwick\")'s *[B of the Bang](/wiki/B_of_the_Bang \"B of the Bang\")* was a {{convert\\|56\\|m\\|ft\\|0}}\\-high metal sculpture commissioned for the [2002 Commonwealth Games](/wiki/2002_Commonwealth_Games \"2002 Commonwealth Games\"). Erected near the [City of Manchester Stadium](/wiki/City_of_Manchester_Stadium \"City of Manchester Stadium\") in [Eastlands](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"), the sculpture was beset by structural problems and dismantled in 2009\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Work starts on Bang dismantling\\|date\\=15 April 2009\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\\_news/england/manchester/7999570\\.stm\\|access\\-date\\=31 July 2009\\|work\\=BBC News}}\n {{clear}}",
"### Streets and plazas",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Piccadilly Gardens](/wiki/Piccadilly_Gardens \"Piccadilly Gardens\"), redesigned by [Tadao Ando](/wiki/Tadao_Ando \"Tadao Ando\") in the early 2000s](/wiki/File:Piccadilly_Gardens_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1462705.jpg \"Piccadilly Gardens - geograph.org.uk - 1462705.jpg\")\nManchester has a number of squares, plazas and shopping streets many of which are pedestrianised and other streets have [Metrolink](/wiki/Manchester_Metrolink \"Manchester Metrolink\") or [bus priority](/wiki/Bus_priority \"Bus priority\").",
"One of the oldest thoroughfares is [Market Street](/wiki/Market_Street_%28Manchester%2C_England%29 \"Market Street (Manchester, England)\"), originally *Market Stede Lane*. Much of the [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") street pattern around the original market place was cleared in 1970s developments. Ancient streets such as Smithy Door were lost. One ancient survivor is Long Millgate, a winding lane, leading north from the old market place across Fennel Street to Todd Street (formerly Toad Lane – thought to be a corruption of T'owd Lane, or The Old Lane), an attractive and peaceful thoroughfare bounded by gardens.",
"[Whitworth Street](/wiki/Whitworth_Street \"Whitworth Street\") is a broad 19th\\-century road from London Road to [Deansgate](/wiki/Deansgate \"Deansgate\"), running parallel to the [Rochdale Canal](/wiki/Rochdale_Canal \"Rochdale Canal\") for much of its length, intersecting Princess Street, Chepstow Street and Albion Street (the western section is called Whitworth Street West). It is lined with impressive former warehouses now converted to residential use. [Mosley Street](/wiki/Mosley_Street%2C_Manchester \"Mosley Street, Manchester\") runs roughly parallel to Portland Street, Whitworth Street and Deansgate, from Piccadilly Gardens to [St Peter's Square](/wiki/St_Peter%27s_Square%2C_Manchester \"St Peter's Square, Manchester\"). It is closed to traffic as Metrolink trams run along its length. Another Victorian addition to the city's street pattern was Corporation Street, which cut through slums to the north of Market Street providing a direct route from Cross Street and [Albert Square](/wiki/Albert_Square%2C_Manchester \"Albert Square, Manchester\") to the routes north of the city. South\\-east of the city centre [Wilmslow Road](/wiki/Wilmslow_Road \"Wilmslow Road\") runs from [Oxford Road](/wiki/Oxford_Road%2C_Manchester \"Oxford Road, Manchester\"), the hub of student life and home to Manchester's [curry mile](/wiki/Curry_mile \"Curry mile\") in Rusholme.",
"Other notable places in Manchester include: [Great Northern Square](/wiki/Great_Northern_Warehouse \"Great Northern Warehouse\"), [Lincoln Square](/wiki/Lincoln_Square%2C_Manchester%23Lincoln_Square \"Lincoln Square, Manchester#Lincoln Square\"), [Spring Gardens](/wiki/Spring_Gardens%2C_Manchester \"Spring Gardens, Manchester\"), [Cathedral Gardens](/wiki/Cathedral_Gardens \"Cathedral Gardens\"), [Whitworth Gardens](/wiki/Whitworth_Gardens \"Whitworth Gardens\"), [New Cathedral Street](/wiki/New_Cathedral_Street \"New Cathedral Street\"), the [Gay Village](/wiki/Canal_Street_%28Manchester%29 \"Canal Street (Manchester)\") and [Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Manchester \"Chinatown, Manchester\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
[thumb\|1939 oil painting *Guqin*](/wiki/File:Guqin_by_Situ_Qiao.jpg "Guqin by Situ Qiao.jpg")
Situ Qiao was born to a poor family in Chikan, [Kaiping](/wiki/Kaiping "Kaiping"), [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong "Guangdong") province in 1902\. His name at birth was **Situ Qiaoxing** ({{lang\|zh\|司徒乔兴}}). His father was an amateur painter.{{cite web \|url\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2003\-07/15/content\_974993\.htm \|script\-title\=zh:司徒乔 《古琴图》 \|trans\-title\=Situ Qiao's ''Guqin'' \|publisher\=Xinhua \|language\=Chinese \|access\-date\=20 October 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115184849/http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2003\-07/15/content\_974993\.htm \|archive\-date\=15 November 2013 }}
In 1924, Situ entered the School of [Theology](/wiki/Theology "Theology") of [Yenching University](/wiki/Yenching_University "Yenching University") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"), but was more interested in painting. In 1926, he held his first personal exhibition, which was noticed by [Lu Xun](/wiki/Lu_Xun "Lu Xun"), who purchased his drawing *[Five Policemen and an O](/wiki/5_polices_and_one_0.jpg "5 polices and one 0.jpg")*. When the [Northern Expedition](/wiki/Northern_Expedition "Northern Expedition") war erupted in 1927, he moved to [Wuhan](/wiki/Wuhan "Wuhan") to work for the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") advisor [Mikhail Borodin](/wiki/Mikhail_Borodin "Mikhail Borodin").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cafa.edu.cn/aboutcafa/?c\=303\&N\=1914 \|script\-title\=zh:司徒乔 \|trans\-title\=Situ Qiao \|publisher\=\[\[China Central Academy of Fine Arts]] \|language\=Chinese \|access\-date\=20 October 2013}}
By 1928, he had moved to [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai") and set up a studio. He held an exhibition in March 1928, which was again noticed by Lu Xun, who wrote about his conversation with Situ Qiao. In winter 1928, Situ left for France to study painting, and exhibited at the [Paris Salon](/wiki/Salon_%28Paris%29 "Salon (Paris)") the following year.
In 1930, Situ Qiao left [France](/wiki/France "France") to study in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). He supported his studies by selling his own paintings. However, his activity was considered working, which was illegal for a holder of a student visa, and he was arrested. While being held in a prison for immigrants, he painted a painting entitled *Painting the Statue of Liberty from the Most Unfree Place*.
After being deported back to China, in 1931 he taught at [Lingnan University](/wiki/Lingnan_University_%28Guangzhou%29 "Lingnan University (Guangzhou)") in [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou"). In 1934, he went to [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"), working as an art editor for *[Ta Kung Pao](/wiki/Ta_Kung_Pao "Ta Kung Pao")*, and moved to Shanghai in 1936\. Situ Qiao was present when Lu Xun died on 19 October 1936 in Shanghai, and drew the famous final sketches of the writer.
He soon moved to [Nanjing](/wiki/Nanjing "Nanjing"), then capital of China. When the invading Japanese army [attacked Nanjing](/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking "Battle of Nanking") in 1937, all his personal collection of paintings were destroyed.
[thumb\|left\|1940 oil painting *Put Down Your Whip*](/wiki/File:Put_Down_Your_Whip_by_Situ_Qiao.jpg "Put Down Your Whip by Situ Qiao.jpg")
Fleeing from the [Sino\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War "Second Sino-Japanese War"), Situ Qiao left China for [Rangoon](/wiki/Rangoon "Rangoon"), [Burma](/wiki/Burma "Burma"), and later to [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"). In 1940, he saw actor [Jin Shan](/wiki/Jin_Shan "Jin Shan") and actress [Wang Ying](/wiki/Wang_Ying_%28actress%29 "Wang Ying (actress)")'s performance of [Chen Liting](/wiki/Chen_Liting "Chen Liting")'s patriotic play *[Put Down Your Whip](/wiki/Put_Down_Your_Whip "Put Down Your Whip")*. He invited Jin Shan and Wang Ying to his studio, and painted his eponymous oil painting,{{cite web \|url\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/collection/2005\-06/17/content\_3096014\.htm \|script\-title\=zh:油画《放下你的鞭子》 \|trans\-title\=Oil Painting ''Put Down Your Whip'' \|publisher\=Xinhua \|language\=Chinese \|date\=17 June 2005 \|access\-date\=21 October 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114194119/http://news.xinhuanet.com/collection/2005\-06/17/content\_3096014\.htm \|archive\-date\=14 November 2013 }} which has become his most famous work.
When Singapore also fell to the Japanese in 1941, Situ Qiao escaped to the wartime Chinese capital [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing "Chongqing").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.orgcc.com/mhtml/situqiao123/n2011052010198\.html \|script\-title\=zh:司徒乔 \|trans\-title\=Situ Qiao \|publisher\=Chinese Culture and Art Network \|language\=Chinese \|date\=20 May 2011 \|access\-date\=3 November 2013}} After WWII, Situ Qiao went to New York City with his wife, Feng Yimei in September 1946 to seek treatment for his lung disease. They returned to Beijing in 1950 after the founding of the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China"). He taught at the [China Central Academy of Fine Arts](/wiki/China_Central_Academy_of_Fine_Arts "China Central Academy of Fine Arts") and helped to set up the [Museum of the Chinese Revolution](/wiki/Museum_of_the_Chinese_Revolution "Museum of the Chinese Revolution").
On 16 February 1958, Situ Qiao died in his studio in Beijing. He donated all his paintings to the state, which are now in the collections of various museums in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and his hometown, Kaiping. A compilation of his paintings was published by Beijing People's Art Publishing House.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|1939 oil painting *Guqin*](/wiki/File:Guqin_by_Situ_Qiao.jpg \"Guqin by Situ Qiao.jpg\")",
"Situ Qiao was born to a poor family in Chikan, [Kaiping](/wiki/Kaiping \"Kaiping\"), [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong \"Guangdong\") province in 1902\\. His name at birth was **Situ Qiaoxing** ({{lang\\|zh\\|司徒乔兴}}). His father was an amateur painter.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2003\\-07/15/content\\_974993\\.htm \\|script\\-title\\=zh:司徒乔 《古琴图》 \\|trans\\-title\\=Situ Qiao's ''Guqin'' \\|publisher\\=Xinhua \\|language\\=Chinese \\|access\\-date\\=20 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115184849/http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2003\\-07/15/content\\_974993\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=15 November 2013 }}",
"In 1924, Situ entered the School of [Theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\") of [Yenching University](/wiki/Yenching_University \"Yenching University\") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"), but was more interested in painting. In 1926, he held his first personal exhibition, which was noticed by [Lu Xun](/wiki/Lu_Xun \"Lu Xun\"), who purchased his drawing *[Five Policemen and an O](/wiki/5_polices_and_one_0.jpg \"5 polices and one 0.jpg\")*. When the [Northern Expedition](/wiki/Northern_Expedition \"Northern Expedition\") war erupted in 1927, he moved to [Wuhan](/wiki/Wuhan \"Wuhan\") to work for the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") advisor [Mikhail Borodin](/wiki/Mikhail_Borodin \"Mikhail Borodin\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cafa.edu.cn/aboutcafa/?c\\=303\\&N\\=1914 \\|script\\-title\\=zh:司徒乔 \\|trans\\-title\\=Situ Qiao \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[China Central Academy of Fine Arts]] \\|language\\=Chinese \\|access\\-date\\=20 October 2013}}",
"By 1928, he had moved to [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\") and set up a studio. He held an exhibition in March 1928, which was again noticed by Lu Xun, who wrote about his conversation with Situ Qiao. In winter 1928, Situ left for France to study painting, and exhibited at the [Paris Salon](/wiki/Salon_%28Paris%29 \"Salon (Paris)\") the following year.",
"In 1930, Situ Qiao left [France](/wiki/France \"France\") to study in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). He supported his studies by selling his own paintings. However, his activity was considered working, which was illegal for a holder of a student visa, and he was arrested. While being held in a prison for immigrants, he painted a painting entitled *Painting the Statue of Liberty from the Most Unfree Place*.",
"After being deported back to China, in 1931 he taught at [Lingnan University](/wiki/Lingnan_University_%28Guangzhou%29 \"Lingnan University (Guangzhou)\") in [Guangzhou](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\"). In 1934, he went to [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"), working as an art editor for *[Ta Kung Pao](/wiki/Ta_Kung_Pao \"Ta Kung Pao\")*, and moved to Shanghai in 1936\\. Situ Qiao was present when Lu Xun died on 19 October 1936 in Shanghai, and drew the famous final sketches of the writer.",
"He soon moved to [Nanjing](/wiki/Nanjing \"Nanjing\"), then capital of China. When the invading Japanese army [attacked Nanjing](/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking \"Battle of Nanking\") in 1937, all his personal collection of paintings were destroyed.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|1940 oil painting *Put Down Your Whip*](/wiki/File:Put_Down_Your_Whip_by_Situ_Qiao.jpg \"Put Down Your Whip by Situ Qiao.jpg\")\nFleeing from the [Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War \"Second Sino-Japanese War\"), Situ Qiao left China for [Rangoon](/wiki/Rangoon \"Rangoon\"), [Burma](/wiki/Burma \"Burma\"), and later to [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"). In 1940, he saw actor [Jin Shan](/wiki/Jin_Shan \"Jin Shan\") and actress [Wang Ying](/wiki/Wang_Ying_%28actress%29 \"Wang Ying (actress)\")'s performance of [Chen Liting](/wiki/Chen_Liting \"Chen Liting\")'s patriotic play *[Put Down Your Whip](/wiki/Put_Down_Your_Whip \"Put Down Your Whip\")*. He invited Jin Shan and Wang Ying to his studio, and painted his eponymous oil painting,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://news.xinhuanet.com/collection/2005\\-06/17/content\\_3096014\\.htm \\|script\\-title\\=zh:油画《放下你的鞭子》 \\|trans\\-title\\=Oil Painting ''Put Down Your Whip'' \\|publisher\\=Xinhua \\|language\\=Chinese \\|date\\=17 June 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=21 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114194119/http://news.xinhuanet.com/collection/2005\\-06/17/content\\_3096014\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2013 }} which has become his most famous work.",
"When Singapore also fell to the Japanese in 1941, Situ Qiao escaped to the wartime Chinese capital [Chongqing](/wiki/Chongqing \"Chongqing\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.orgcc.com/mhtml/situqiao123/n2011052010198\\.html \\|script\\-title\\=zh:司徒乔 \\|trans\\-title\\=Situ Qiao \\|publisher\\=Chinese Culture and Art Network \\|language\\=Chinese \\|date\\=20 May 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2013}} After WWII, Situ Qiao went to New York City with his wife, Feng Yimei in September 1946 to seek treatment for his lung disease. They returned to Beijing in 1950 after the founding of the [People's Republic of China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\"). He taught at the [China Central Academy of Fine Arts](/wiki/China_Central_Academy_of_Fine_Arts \"China Central Academy of Fine Arts\") and helped to set up the [Museum of the Chinese Revolution](/wiki/Museum_of_the_Chinese_Revolution \"Museum of the Chinese Revolution\").",
"On 16 February 1958, Situ Qiao died in his studio in Beijing. He donated all his paintings to the state, which are now in the collections of various museums in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and his hometown, Kaiping. A compilation of his paintings was published by Beijing People's Art Publishing House.",
""
] |
The Scottish mint
-----------------
[thumb\|right\|The 1566 silver rial of Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/File:Mary_silver_rial_1566_681821.jpg "Mary silver rial 1566 681821.jpg")
Acheson was in Paris in 1553 to engrave the portrait of [Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/Mary%2C_Queen_of_Scots "Mary, Queen of Scots") for coins.Andrea Thomas, *Glory and Honour: The Renaissance in Scotland* (Edinburgh, 2013\), p. 75\. Acheson and his business partner John Aslowan received silver from the royal treasurer [Robert Richardson](/wiki/Robert_Richardson_%28Lord_Treasurer%29 "Robert Richardson (Lord Treasurer)"), [Prior of St Mary's Isle](/wiki/Commendator_of_St_Mary%27s_Isle "Commendator of St Mary's Isle"), to coin into testoons.John Hill Burton, *Register of the Privy Council of Scotland: 1545–1569*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1877\), pp. 343–4: Robert William Cochran\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\), p. cxxxxvii–vii. In May 1559 Acheson was involved in minting a gold ducat of [Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/Mary%2C_Queen_of_Scots "Mary, Queen of Scots") and [Francis II](/wiki/Francis_II_of_France "Francis II of France").Robert William Cochran\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\), p. cxl.
In 1561 Acheson visited France to go to the queen and John Hart took his role at the mint.Robert William Cochran\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\), p. cxl. He wrote from Edinburgh to Mary in on April 1561, mentioning he had delivered her letters to Comptroller Villemore and others. The great and the poor in Scotland wished she would soon return. He had taken her letters to [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton_Palace "Hamilton Palace") to the [Duke of Châtellerault](/wiki/James_Hamilton%2C_Duke_of_Ch%C3%A2tellerault "James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault").*HMC 6th Report: Earl of Moray* (London, 1877\), p. 640\.
In December 1565, David Forrest, Acheson, and the officers of the mint were directed to coin a new "Marie ryall" worth 30 shillings, depicting a crowned palm tree, with a tortoise, called a "schell padocke" (a toad in a shell) climbing the trunk, with the motto "Dat Gloria Vires", with "Exurgat Deus et Dissipentur Inimici Eius" around the edge. On the other side the coin had the royal arms and inscription for Mary and [Lord Darnley](/wiki/Henry_Stuart%2C_Lord_Darnley "Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley"), "Maria et Henricus Dei Gratia Regina et Rex Scotorum".John Hill Burton, *Register of the Privy Council of Scotland: 1545–1569*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1877\), p. 101\.
Mary Queen of Scots later used the emblem of the tortoise and the palm tree, with the same motto from Ovid, *Tristia*, V. 12, "Glory gives strength" in an embroidered panel among the [Oxburgh Hall hangings](/wiki/Oxburgh_Hangings "Oxburgh Hangings"). One source of the image may have been [Hadrianus Junius](/wiki/Hadrianus_Junius "Hadrianus Junius"), *Emblemata* (Antwerp, 1565\).Michael Bath, *Emblems for a Queen* (London, 2008\), pp. 38–42\. The image was used on a bed curtain.*Calendar State Papers Scotland: 1586–1588*, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1915\), p. 504\.
On 10 July 1567 Mary's opponents, the Confederate lords, ordered her servant [Servais de Condé](/wiki/Servais_de_Cond%C3%A9 "Servais de Condé") to surrender silverware in his keeping for coining to Acheson.Joseph Stevenson, [*Selections from unpublished manuscripts illustrating the reign of Mary Queen of Scotland* (Glasgow, 1837\), pp. 194–195](https://archive.org/details/selectionsfromu00stevgoog/page/n227/mode/2up)John Parker Lawson, [*History of Scotland by Robert Keith*, 1 (Edinburgh, 1844\), p. cv](https://digital.nls.uk/publications-by-scottish-clubs/archive/79598144) This included a silver gilt [nef or ship](/wiki/Nef_%28metalwork%29 "Nef (metalwork)") for the queen's table.[Joseph Robertson](/wiki/Joseph_Robertson_%28historian%29 "Joseph Robertson (historian)"), *Inventaires de la Royne Descosse* (Edinburgh, 1863\), p. cxlviii. In August 1567 [Regent Moray](/wiki/Regent_Moray "Regent Moray") ordered Acheson to coin a "James Ryall", depicting a crowned sword with the motto "Pro Me Si Merior in Me" and on the other side the royal arms with crowned letters "JR" for [James VI](/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland "James VI of Scotland"), and the legend "Jacobus 6 Dei Gra Rex Scotorum."John Hill Burton, *Register of the Privy Council of Scotland: 1545–1569*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1877\), p. 413\.
During the [Marian Civil War](/wiki/Marian_Civil_War "Marian Civil War"), in June 1572, conditions were agreed at Leith with [Robert Richardson](/wiki/Robert_Richardson_%28Lord_Treasurer%29 "Robert Richardson (Lord Treasurer)"), as furnisher of the mint or "cunziehous" and Acheson to mint silver coins.*HMC 16th Report: Manuscripts of the Earl of Mar and Kellie* (London, 1904\), pp. 28–29\. In 1576 [Regent Morton](/wiki/Regent_Morton "Regent Morton") and John Acheson contracted with a Flemish metallurgist Abraham Peterson for the supply of refined silver.Robert William Cochran\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\), pp. clxviii, 142\-5\.John Hill Burton, *Register of the Privy Council of Scotland*, vol. 2 (Edinburgh, 1878\), pp. 506–514, 598–601\. Peterson was also a business partner of the Flemish gold miner [Cornelius de Vos](/wiki/Cornelius_de_Vos "Cornelius de Vos"), and became "melter of metal" in the mint in 1578\.*Register of the Privy Council of Scotland*, vol. 3 (Edinburgh, 1880\), p. 412: Robert William Cochran\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\), p. 103\.
In February 1580 Acheson was paid for riding to [Stirling Castle](/wiki/Stirling_Castle "Stirling Castle"), where the king had stayed over the previous decade, and back to Edinburgh eleven times, staying each time ten days or more.Charles Thorpe McInnes, *Accounts of the Treasurer: 1574–1580*, vol. 13 (Edinburgh, 1978\), p. 310\.
John Acheson was confirmed as Master of the Mint in 1578\.Gordon Donaldson, *Register of the Privy Seal of Scotland: 1575–1585*, vol. 7 (Edinburgh, 1966\), p. 255\-6 no. 1608\. Other members of the Acheson family became officers of the mint, Thomas Acheson, master coiner,Gordon Donaldson, *Register of the Privy Seal: 1581–1584*, vol. 8 (Edinburgh, 1982\), p. 112 no. 656\. gave his name to groats worth eight pence minted in 1583\. In 1597 John's son, James Acheson was master of the mint. He recommended a copper coinage of penny and two penny coins called [placks](/wiki/Plack_%28coin%29 "Plack (coin)"), and these were minted using machinery to form the blanks.Nicholas Holmes, *Scottish Coins: A History of Small Change in Scotland* (Edinburgh, 1998\), pp. 48, 52–4\. James Acheson mended two gilt ships or nefs for the king's table in 1602\. He and [Thomas Foulis](/wiki/Thomas_Foulis "Thomas Foulis") made the dies for the coinage of 1605\.Robert William Cochran\-Patrick, 'Mint Accounts of the Coinage of Scotland', *Numismatic Chronicle*, 19 (London, 1879\), pp. 66–7: National Records of Scotland, treasury vouchers, E23/11/24\.
|
[
"The Scottish mint\n-----------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The 1566 silver rial of Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/File:Mary_silver_rial_1566_681821.jpg \"Mary silver rial 1566 681821.jpg\")\nAcheson was in Paris in 1553 to engrave the portrait of [Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/Mary%2C_Queen_of_Scots \"Mary, Queen of Scots\") for coins.Andrea Thomas, *Glory and Honour: The Renaissance in Scotland* (Edinburgh, 2013\\), p. 75\\. Acheson and his business partner John Aslowan received silver from the royal treasurer [Robert Richardson](/wiki/Robert_Richardson_%28Lord_Treasurer%29 \"Robert Richardson (Lord Treasurer)\"), [Prior of St Mary's Isle](/wiki/Commendator_of_St_Mary%27s_Isle \"Commendator of St Mary's Isle\"), to coin into testoons.John Hill Burton, *Register of the Privy Council of Scotland: 1545–1569*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1877\\), pp. 343–4: Robert William Cochran\\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\\), p. cxxxxvii–vii. In May 1559 Acheson was involved in minting a gold ducat of [Mary, Queen of Scots](/wiki/Mary%2C_Queen_of_Scots \"Mary, Queen of Scots\") and [Francis II](/wiki/Francis_II_of_France \"Francis II of France\").Robert William Cochran\\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\\), p. cxl.",
"In 1561 Acheson visited France to go to the queen and John Hart took his role at the mint.Robert William Cochran\\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\\), p. cxl. He wrote from Edinburgh to Mary in on April 1561, mentioning he had delivered her letters to Comptroller Villemore and others. The great and the poor in Scotland wished she would soon return. He had taken her letters to [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton_Palace \"Hamilton Palace\") to the [Duke of Châtellerault](/wiki/James_Hamilton%2C_Duke_of_Ch%C3%A2tellerault \"James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault\").*HMC 6th Report: Earl of Moray* (London, 1877\\), p. 640\\.",
"In December 1565, David Forrest, Acheson, and the officers of the mint were directed to coin a new \"Marie ryall\" worth 30 shillings, depicting a crowned palm tree, with a tortoise, called a \"schell padocke\" (a toad in a shell) climbing the trunk, with the motto \"Dat Gloria Vires\", with \"Exurgat Deus et Dissipentur Inimici Eius\" around the edge. On the other side the coin had the royal arms and inscription for Mary and [Lord Darnley](/wiki/Henry_Stuart%2C_Lord_Darnley \"Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley\"), \"Maria et Henricus Dei Gratia Regina et Rex Scotorum\".John Hill Burton, *Register of the Privy Council of Scotland: 1545–1569*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1877\\), p. 101\\.",
"Mary Queen of Scots later used the emblem of the tortoise and the palm tree, with the same motto from Ovid, *Tristia*, V. 12, \"Glory gives strength\" in an embroidered panel among the [Oxburgh Hall hangings](/wiki/Oxburgh_Hangings \"Oxburgh Hangings\"). One source of the image may have been [Hadrianus Junius](/wiki/Hadrianus_Junius \"Hadrianus Junius\"), *Emblemata* (Antwerp, 1565\\).Michael Bath, *Emblems for a Queen* (London, 2008\\), pp. 38–42\\. The image was used on a bed curtain.*Calendar State Papers Scotland: 1586–1588*, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1915\\), p. 504\\.",
"On 10 July 1567 Mary's opponents, the Confederate lords, ordered her servant [Servais de Condé](/wiki/Servais_de_Cond%C3%A9 \"Servais de Condé\") to surrender silverware in his keeping for coining to Acheson.Joseph Stevenson, [*Selections from unpublished manuscripts illustrating the reign of Mary Queen of Scotland* (Glasgow, 1837\\), pp. 194–195](https://archive.org/details/selectionsfromu00stevgoog/page/n227/mode/2up)John Parker Lawson, [*History of Scotland by Robert Keith*, 1 (Edinburgh, 1844\\), p. cv](https://digital.nls.uk/publications-by-scottish-clubs/archive/79598144) This included a silver gilt [nef or ship](/wiki/Nef_%28metalwork%29 \"Nef (metalwork)\") for the queen's table.[Joseph Robertson](/wiki/Joseph_Robertson_%28historian%29 \"Joseph Robertson (historian)\"), *Inventaires de la Royne Descosse* (Edinburgh, 1863\\), p. cxlviii. In August 1567 [Regent Moray](/wiki/Regent_Moray \"Regent Moray\") ordered Acheson to coin a \"James Ryall\", depicting a crowned sword with the motto \"Pro Me Si Merior in Me\" and on the other side the royal arms with crowned letters \"JR\" for [James VI](/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland \"James VI of Scotland\"), and the legend \"Jacobus 6 Dei Gra Rex Scotorum.\"John Hill Burton, *Register of the Privy Council of Scotland: 1545–1569*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1877\\), p. 413\\.",
"During the [Marian Civil War](/wiki/Marian_Civil_War \"Marian Civil War\"), in June 1572, conditions were agreed at Leith with [Robert Richardson](/wiki/Robert_Richardson_%28Lord_Treasurer%29 \"Robert Richardson (Lord Treasurer)\"), as furnisher of the mint or \"cunziehous\" and Acheson to mint silver coins.*HMC 16th Report: Manuscripts of the Earl of Mar and Kellie* (London, 1904\\), pp. 28–29\\. In 1576 [Regent Morton](/wiki/Regent_Morton \"Regent Morton\") and John Acheson contracted with a Flemish metallurgist Abraham Peterson for the supply of refined silver.Robert William Cochran\\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\\), pp. clxviii, 142\\-5\\.John Hill Burton, *Register of the Privy Council of Scotland*, vol. 2 (Edinburgh, 1878\\), pp. 506–514, 598–601\\. Peterson was also a business partner of the Flemish gold miner [Cornelius de Vos](/wiki/Cornelius_de_Vos \"Cornelius de Vos\"), and became \"melter of metal\" in the mint in 1578\\.*Register of the Privy Council of Scotland*, vol. 3 (Edinburgh, 1880\\), p. 412: Robert William Cochran\\-Patrick, *Records of the Coinage of Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1879\\), p. 103\\.",
"In February 1580 Acheson was paid for riding to [Stirling Castle](/wiki/Stirling_Castle \"Stirling Castle\"), where the king had stayed over the previous decade, and back to Edinburgh eleven times, staying each time ten days or more.Charles Thorpe McInnes, *Accounts of the Treasurer: 1574–1580*, vol. 13 (Edinburgh, 1978\\), p. 310\\.",
"John Acheson was confirmed as Master of the Mint in 1578\\.Gordon Donaldson, *Register of the Privy Seal of Scotland: 1575–1585*, vol. 7 (Edinburgh, 1966\\), p. 255\\-6 no. 1608\\. Other members of the Acheson family became officers of the mint, Thomas Acheson, master coiner,Gordon Donaldson, *Register of the Privy Seal: 1581–1584*, vol. 8 (Edinburgh, 1982\\), p. 112 no. 656\\. gave his name to groats worth eight pence minted in 1583\\. In 1597 John's son, James Acheson was master of the mint. He recommended a copper coinage of penny and two penny coins called [placks](/wiki/Plack_%28coin%29 \"Plack (coin)\"), and these were minted using machinery to form the blanks.Nicholas Holmes, *Scottish Coins: A History of Small Change in Scotland* (Edinburgh, 1998\\), pp. 48, 52–4\\. James Acheson mended two gilt ships or nefs for the king's table in 1602\\. He and [Thomas Foulis](/wiki/Thomas_Foulis \"Thomas Foulis\") made the dies for the coinage of 1605\\.Robert William Cochran\\-Patrick, 'Mint Accounts of the Coinage of Scotland', *Numismatic Chronicle*, 19 (London, 1879\\), pp. 66–7: National Records of Scotland, treasury vouchers, E23/11/24\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Milwaukee Brewers
[thumb\|Jeffress pitching in [Arizona Fall League](/wiki/Arizona_Fall_League "Arizona Fall League") in 2008](/wiki/File:DSC03960_Jeremy_Jeffress_%28AFL%29.jpg "DSC03960 Jeremy Jeffress (AFL).jpg")
After graduating from [Halifax County High School](/wiki/Halifax_County_High_School "Halifax County High School") in [South Boston, Virginia](/wiki/South_Boston%2C_Virginia "South Boston, Virginia"), Jeffress was selected by the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers "Milwaukee Brewers") as the 16th overall pick in the [2006 Major League Baseball draft](/wiki/2006_Major_League_Baseball_draft "2006 Major League Baseball draft"). He signed a contract with a $1\.55 million signing bonus in 2006\.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2020}}
In 2008, Jeffress started on the [Brevard County Manatees](/wiki/Brevard_County_Manatees "Brevard County Manatees")' roster on the restricted list. On August 6, the Milwaukee Brewers organization announced that he was promoted to their Double\-A team, the [Huntsville Stars](/wiki/Huntsville_Stars "Huntsville Stars"). Jeffress began the 2009 season with Huntsville, but struggled and was sent back to Brevard County in May 2009\. At the beginning of the 2010 campaign, he was sent down to the Class A affiliate, the [Wisconsin Timber Rattlers](/wiki/Wisconsin_Timber_Rattlers "Wisconsin Timber Rattlers").
On July 1, 2010, Jeffress was called up to Class A\-Advanced Brevard County, where he continued to throw out of the bullpen. Jeffress was later promoted to Huntsville. He was called up to the majors for the first time on September 1, 2010\.McCalvy, Adam. [Cain has stiff neck from highlight catch."](http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20100831&content_id=14140024¬ebook_id=14142308&vkey=notebook_mil&fext=.jsp&c_id=mil) Major League Baseball. September 1, 2010\. Retrieved September 1, 2010\. Jeffress made his major league debut that evening, pitching one scoreless inning.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2020}} On the year, Jeffress made 10 appearances, finishing with a 1–0 record with a 2\.70 ERA in 10 innings with 10 strikeouts and 6 walks.
### Kansas City Royals
On December 18, 2010, Jeffress was traded to the [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals "Kansas City Royals") with [Alcides Escobar](/wiki/Alcides_Escobar "Alcides Escobar"), [Lorenzo Cain](/wiki/Lorenzo_Cain "Lorenzo Cain"), and [Jake Odorizzi](/wiki/Jake_Odorizzi "Jake Odorizzi") for [Zack Greinke](/wiki/Zack_Greinke "Zack Greinke") and [Yuniesky Betancourt](/wiki/Yuniesky_Betancourt "Yuniesky Betancourt").{{cite web \|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20101219\&content\_id\=16345284\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&c\_id\=mlb \|title\=Brewers add Greinke in deal with Royals \|author\=McCalvy, Adam \|access\-date\=December 19, 2010 \|date\=December 19, 2010 \|website\=\[\[MLB.com]] \|archive\-date\=December 21, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221120139/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20101219\&content\_id\=16345284\&vkey\=news\_mlb\&c\_id\=mlb \|url\-status\=dead }} In spring training in 2011, Jeffress led the major leagues in wild pitches, with five in 11 innings.{{cite web\|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/stats/sortable\_player\_stats.jsp?statType\=2\&teamPosCode\=all\&subScope\=pos\&statSet2\=2\§ion2\=1\&c\_id\=mlb\&timeFrame\=1\&baseballScope\=mlb\&sitSplit\=\&venueID\=\&timeSubFrame\=23\&\&sortByStat\=WP \|title\=Major League Baseball Stats: Sortable Statistics \|work\=mlb.com \|access\-date\=April 6, 2011}}
Jeffress began the year on the Royals roster, and got his first win as a Royal on April 5 against the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox "Chicago White Sox"). He made 14 appearances with a 4\.70 ERA in 15\.1 innings of work, adding on 13 strikeouts, but also had 11 walks and 12 hits allowed. On May 21, Jeffress was optioned to the [Omaha Storm Chasers](/wiki/Omaha_Storm_Chasers "Omaha Storm Chasers"), the Royals Triple\-A affiliate, posting a 7\.13 ERA in 16 games, 3 of which were starts. These struggles led him to be moved down to the Royals Double\-A affiliate, the [Northwest Arkansas Naturals](/wiki/Northwest_Arkansas_Naturals "Northwest Arkansas Naturals") on July 20, where he appeared in 9 games, starting 8, posting a 4\.26 ERA in 31\.2 innings, adding on 20 strikeouts as well as 22 walks and 32 hits allowed.
In the 2012 season, Jeffress split time between the Storm Chasers and Royals, as he was unable to find his footing in the majors posting a 6\.75 ERA in just 13 appearances, allowing 19 hits, 14 runs and 14 walks to just 14 strikeouts in 13\.1 innings. His play in the minors showed signs of improvement as he made 37 appearances, going 5–4 with 4\.97 ERA, with 61 strikeouts to just 25 walks.
On November 2, 2012, the Royals designated Jeffress for assignment.{{cite web\|url\=https://sports.yahoo.com/news/royals\-claim\-rhp\-moscoso\-c\-200203787\-\-mlb.html;\_ylt\=AoN7sYiBhQ6bkeV1q9SiCjERvLYF;\_ylu\=X3oDMTRtY2lqZ2xqBG1pdANMSVNUUyBNaXhlZCBMaXN0IE1MQiBIZWFkbGluZXMEcGtnA2Y2NGQ3YWRiLWZhZjItM2M5MC05NTM2LTZiNTQ5ZDBmYTJiYQRwb3MDOQRzZWMDTWVkaWFCTGlzdE1peGVkTFBDQVRlbXAEdmVyA2E3MDEzNTUwLTI1MjgtMTFlMi05ZmVmLWE1ODEwNDM5N2MyMQ\-\-;\_ylg\=X3oDMTFoODgyNmttBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDBHBzdGNhdANtbGIEcHQDc2VjdGlvbnM\-;\_ylv\=3\|title\=Royals claim RHP Moscoso, C Hayes off waivers\|publisher\=Associated Press via Yahoo Sports.com\|date\=November 2, 2012\|access\-date\=November 2, 2012}}{{Dead link\|date\=October 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
### Toronto Blue Jays
On November 8, 2012, the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays "Toronto Blue Jays") received Jeffress from the Royals in exchange for cash considerations.{{cite web\|url\=http://toronto.bluejays.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20121108\&content\_id\=40210002\&vkey\=pr\_tor\&c\_id\=tor\|title\=Blue Jays acquire Jeffress\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=November 8, 2012\|access\-date\=November 8, 2012}}{{dead link\|date\=October 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} Jeffress was designated for assignment by the Blue Jays on April 6, 2013 after pitching in one game.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sportsnet.ca/baseball/mlb/blue\-jays\-send\-jeffress\-to\-triple\-a\-recall\-bush/\|title\=Blue Jays send Jeffress to triple\-A, recall Bush\|date\=April 6, 2013\|access\-date\=April 6, 2013}} Jeffress cleared waivers, and was assigned outright to the Triple\-A [Buffalo Bisons](/wiki/Buffalo_Bisons "Buffalo Bisons") on April 16\. Jeffress was sent to the Class A [Dunedin Blue Jays](/wiki/Dunedin_Blue_Jays "Dunedin Blue Jays") on April 25 without having pitched for the Bisons. He was brought up to the Bisons on May 3\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.milb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20130503\&content\_id\=46503658\&fext\=.jsp\&vkey\=news\_t422\&sid\=t422\|title\=Reliever Jeremy Jeffress joins Herd\|date\=May 3, 2013\|access\-date\=May 3, 2013}} His contract was selected by the Blue Jays on September 3 after the Bisons season ended, and the major league rosters expanded.{{cite web\|url\=http://sports.nationalpost.com/2013/09/02/blue\-jays\-call\-up\-ricky\-romero\-kyle\-drabek\-and\-three\-others\-for\-september//\|title\=Blue Jays call up Ricky Romero, Kyle Drabek and three others for September\|date\=September 2, 2013\|access\-date\=September 3, 2013\|first\=John\|last\=Lott\|work\=National Post\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130903144014/http://sports.nationalpost.com/2013/09/02/blue\-jays\-call\-up\-ricky\-romero\-kyle\-drabek\-and\-three\-others\-for\-september//\|archive\-date\=September 3, 2013\|url\-status\=dead}} He appeared in 10 games for the Blue Jays posting a 0\.87 ERA in 10\.1 innings, while in his time with the Bison he had a 1–0 record with a 1\.65 ERA in 25 appearances.
Jeffress opened the 2014 season on the major league roster, where he struggled mightly after showing flashes the year prior. In just 3 appearances, Jeffress posted a 10\.80 ERA in 3 innings of work. Jeffress was designated for assignment after the game on April 4, 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.milb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20140404\&content\_id\=71012790\&fext\=.jsp\&vkey\=news\_t422\&sid\=t422\| title\=Blue Jays recall Bisons' Jenkins\|work\=Buffalo Bisons\|date\=April 4, 2014\| access\-date\=April 5, 2014}} On April 15, after clearing waivers, Jeffress was assigned to Buffalo;{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2014/04/blue\-jays\-designate\-marcus\-walden\-outright\-jeremy\-jeffress.html\|title\=Blue Jays Designate Marcus Walden, Outright Jeremy Jeffress\|last\=Adams\|first\=Steve\|work\=mlbtraderumors.com\|date\=April 15, 2014\|access\-date\=April 15, 2014}} however, he chose free agency rather than report to Buffalo.{{cite web\|url\=http://hardballtalk.nbcsports.com/2014/04/17/jeremy\-jeffress\-elects\-free\-agency/\|title\=Jeremy Jeffress elects free agency\|last\=Short\|first\=D.J.\|work\=hardballtalk.nbcsports.com\|date\=April 17, 2014\|access\-date\=April 17, 2014}}
### Return to the Milwaukee Brewers
Jeffress signed a minor league contract with the Milwaukee Brewers on April 18, 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2014/04/brewers\-sign\-jeremy\-jeffress.html\|title\=Brewers Sign Jeremy Jeffress\|last\=Todd\|first\=Jeff\|work\=mlbtradermors.com\|date\=April 18, 2014\|access\-date\=April 18, 2014}} He was assigned to the Triple\-A [Nashville Sounds](/wiki/Nashville_Sounds "Nashville Sounds"). The Brewers selected the contract of Jeffress from Nashville on July 21, 2014\. Jeffress thrived in his return to Milwaukee, emerging as a stellar setup\-man to closer [Francisco Rodriguez](/wiki/Francisco_Rodriguez_%28Venezuelan_pitcher%29 "Francisco Rodriguez (Venezuelan pitcher)") and posting a 1–1 record with a 1\.88 ERA in 29 games.
In 2015, after struggles from setup man [Jonathan Broxton](/wiki/Jonathan_Broxton "Jonathan Broxton"), Jeffress took over as the eight\-inning man for Milwaukee. He continued his success from last season in his new role, posting a 2\.65 ERA in 68 innings, striking out 67 batters while walking just 22 in 72 appearances.
In 2016, Jeffress was slated to be Milwaukee's setup man to closer [Will Smith](/wiki/Will_Smith_%28pitcher%29 "Will Smith (pitcher)") but before spring training could begin, Jeffress was named closer when Smith suffered a knee injury.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2020}}
As the closer, Jeffress made 47 appearances, posting a 2\.22 ERA with 27 saves (Tied for 4th in NL at the time) in 58 innings, striking out 35 batters while walking only 11\.
### Texas Rangers
[thumb\|right\|Jeffress with the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)") in 2017](/wiki/File:Jeremy_Jeffress_2017.jpg "Jeremy Jeffress 2017.jpg")
On August 1, 2016, the Brewers traded Jeffress and [Jonathan Lucroy](/wiki/Jonathan_Lucroy "Jonathan Lucroy") to the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)") for [Lewis Brinson](/wiki/Lewis_Brinson "Lewis Brinson"), [Luis Ortiz](/wiki/Luis_Ortiz_%28pitcher%2C_born_1995%29 "Luis Ortiz (pitcher, born 1995)"), and a [player to be named later](/wiki/Player_to_be_named_later "Player to be named later").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/17194805/jonathan\-lucroy\-acquired\-texas\-rangers\-milwaukee\-brewers\|title\=Lucroy finally gets traded, going to Rangers\|date\=August 1, 2016\|website\=ESPN.com}}
He made 9 appearances following the trade, posting a 4\.00 ERA in 9 innings, before being placed on the restricted list for a DUI. Jeffress would make 3 more appearances following his return, finishing the season with a 3–2 record with a 2\.33 ERA in 58 innings with 27 saves, which was good enough for 7th in the [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28baseball%29 "National League (baseball)") despite only playing half the season there.
After a 2016 season on\-par with his career statistics, Jeffress struggled with the Rangers in 2017\. He posted a 5\.31 ERA and a 1–2 record over 40\.2 innings while with the Rangers that season.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/players/j/jeffrje01\.shtml\|title\=Jeremy Jeffress Stats\|website\=Baseball\-Reference.com}}
### Third stint with Milwaukee
On July 31, 2017, the Rangers traded Jeffress to the Milwaukee Brewers for [Tayler Scott](/wiki/Tayler_Scott "Tayler Scott").{{cite web\|url\=http://m.rangers.mlb.com/news/article/245559184/rangers\-trade\-jeremy\-jeffress\-back\-to\-brewers/?topicId\=27118410\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801032357/http://m.rangers.mlb.com/news/article/245559184/rangers\-trade\-jeremy\-jeffress\-back\-to\-brewers/?topicId\=27118410\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=August 1, 2017\|title\=Texas returns Jeffress to Crew for righty Scott\|last\=Sullivan\|first\=T. R.\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=July 31, 2017\|access\-date\=July 31, 2017}} He made 22 appearances following the trade posting a 4–0 record with a 3\.65 ERA in 24\.2 innings.
In 2018, Jeffress returned to his former [setup man](/wiki/Setup_man "Setup man") role, with [Corey Knebel](/wiki/Corey_Knebel "Corey Knebel") following him. Jeffress had a 0\.99 ERA in 45\.1 innings in the first half of the season, with fellow bullpen arm [Josh Hader](/wiki/Josh_Hader "Josh Hader") posting a 1\.55 ERA in 46\.1 innings, creating a dominant bullpen for the contending Brewers. On July 12, 2018, Jeffress was named to his first All\-Star team as a replacement for [Sean Doolittle](/wiki/Sean_Doolittle "Sean Doolittle").[MLB on Twitter: ".@JMontana41 has been named to the NL All\-Star team to replace Sean Doolittle (left toe inflammation).… "](https://twitter.com/MLB/status/1017597058151321600) On the season, Jeffress appeared in 73 games, posting an 8–1 record with 1\.29 ERA in 76\.2 innings, as well as 15 saves.
Jeffress began the 2019 season with the Brewers Triple\-A affiliate, the [San Antonio Missions](/wiki/San_Antonio_Missions "San Antonio Missions"), after suffering a shoulder injury in spring training. He made his season debut on April 17, pitching for {{frac\|2\|3}} of an inning, striking out one batter. On August 25, Jeffress was placed on the 10\-day [injured list](/wiki/Injured_list "Injured list") after suffering a hip injury, and was later released by the Brewers on September 1\.
### Chicago Cubs
On January 28, 2020, Jeffress was signed by the [Chicago Cubs](/wiki/Chicago_Cubs "Chicago Cubs") for a one\-year, $850,000 major league contract, with the possibility he could earn an additional $200,000 based on games pitched.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\_/id/28585117/cubs\-sign\-reliever\-jeremy\-jeffress\-one\-year\-800k\-deal\|title\=Source: Cubs sign P Jeffress to one\-year deal\|date\=January 28, 2020\|website\=ESPN.com}} During the shortened 2020 season, Jeffress earned eight saves, recorded a 1\.54 ERA, and held opposing hitters to a .137 [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)"). He was one of the Cubs' three nominees for the 2020 [All\-MLB Team](/wiki/All-MLB_Team "All-MLB Team") and was a finalist for the [NL Reliever of the Year](/wiki/NL_Reliever_of_the_Year "NL Reliever of the Year") award.{{Cite web\|url\=https://cubbiescrib.com/2020/10/20/cubs\-news\-jeremy\-jeffress\-finalist\-reliever\-award\|title\=Cubs News: Jeremy Jeffress named finalist for NL Reliever of the Year\|date\=October 20, 2020}}
### Washington Nationals
On February 22, 2021, Jeffress signed a minor league contract with the [Washington Nationals](/wiki/Washington_Nationals "Washington Nationals") organization that included an invitation to Spring Training.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2021/02/nationals\-to\-sign\-jeremy\-jeffress\-to\-minors\-deal.html\|title \= Nationals to Sign Jeremy Jeffress to Minors Deal\| date\=February 22, 2021 }} On March 7, Jeffress was released by the Nationals.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2021/03/nationals\-release\-jeremy\-jeffress.html\|title \= Nationals Release Jeremy Jeffress\| date\=March 7, 2021 }}
### Lexington Legends
On July 7, 2021, Jeffress signed with the [Lexington Legends](/wiki/Lexington_Legends "Lexington Legends") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball "Atlantic League of Professional Baseball").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/lexington\-legends\-sign\-two\-mlb\-pitchers\-2018\-all\-star/n\-5716441\|title\=Lexington Legends Sign Two MLB Pitchers, 2018 All Star\|date\=July 7, 2021}} In 23 relief appearances, Jeffress posted a 1–1 record with a 6\.45 ERA and 27 strikeouts. He was released by the team on September 12, 2021\.[Atlantic League Transactions](https://atlanticleague.com/stats/transactions/)
### Diablos Rojos del México
On March 18, 2022, Jeffress signed with the [Diablos Rojos del México](/wiki/Diablos_Rojos_del_M%C3%A9xico "Diablos Rojos del México") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League").{{cite web\|title\=Diablos Rojos suma refuerzo con experiencias en Grandes Ligas\|url\=https://www.tvazteca.com/aztecadeportes/diablos\-rojos\-jeremy\-jeffress\-experiencias\-beisbol\-ogr\|website\=tvazteca.com\|date\=19 March 2022\|access\-date\=19 April 2022\|language\=es}} In 17 relief appearances, Jeffress posted a 3–2 record with a 7\.36 ERA and 17 strikeouts over 18\.1 innings. He was released on June 11, 2022\.{{Cite web \|title\=Jeremy Jeffress Stats, Fantasy \& News \|url\=https://www.milb.com/player/jeremy\-jeffress\-502026 \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-16 \|website\=MiLB.com \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Milwaukee Brewers",
"[thumb\\|Jeffress pitching in [Arizona Fall League](/wiki/Arizona_Fall_League \"Arizona Fall League\") in 2008](/wiki/File:DSC03960_Jeremy_Jeffress_%28AFL%29.jpg \"DSC03960 Jeremy Jeffress (AFL).jpg\")\nAfter graduating from [Halifax County High School](/wiki/Halifax_County_High_School \"Halifax County High School\") in [South Boston, Virginia](/wiki/South_Boston%2C_Virginia \"South Boston, Virginia\"), Jeffress was selected by the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers \"Milwaukee Brewers\") as the 16th overall pick in the [2006 Major League Baseball draft](/wiki/2006_Major_League_Baseball_draft \"2006 Major League Baseball draft\"). He signed a contract with a $1\\.55 million signing bonus in 2006\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2020}}",
"In 2008, Jeffress started on the [Brevard County Manatees](/wiki/Brevard_County_Manatees \"Brevard County Manatees\")' roster on the restricted list. On August 6, the Milwaukee Brewers organization announced that he was promoted to their Double\\-A team, the [Huntsville Stars](/wiki/Huntsville_Stars \"Huntsville Stars\"). Jeffress began the 2009 season with Huntsville, but struggled and was sent back to Brevard County in May 2009\\. At the beginning of the 2010 campaign, he was sent down to the Class A affiliate, the [Wisconsin Timber Rattlers](/wiki/Wisconsin_Timber_Rattlers \"Wisconsin Timber Rattlers\").",
"On July 1, 2010, Jeffress was called up to Class A\\-Advanced Brevard County, where he continued to throw out of the bullpen. Jeffress was later promoted to Huntsville. He was called up to the majors for the first time on September 1, 2010\\.McCalvy, Adam. [Cain has stiff neck from highlight catch.\"](http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20100831&content_id=14140024¬ebook_id=14142308&vkey=notebook_mil&fext=.jsp&c_id=mil) Major League Baseball. September 1, 2010\\. Retrieved September 1, 2010\\. Jeffress made his major league debut that evening, pitching one scoreless inning.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2020}} On the year, Jeffress made 10 appearances, finishing with a 1–0 record with a 2\\.70 ERA in 10 innings with 10 strikeouts and 6 walks.",
"### Kansas City Royals",
"On December 18, 2010, Jeffress was traded to the [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals \"Kansas City Royals\") with [Alcides Escobar](/wiki/Alcides_Escobar \"Alcides Escobar\"), [Lorenzo Cain](/wiki/Lorenzo_Cain \"Lorenzo Cain\"), and [Jake Odorizzi](/wiki/Jake_Odorizzi \"Jake Odorizzi\") for [Zack Greinke](/wiki/Zack_Greinke \"Zack Greinke\") and [Yuniesky Betancourt](/wiki/Yuniesky_Betancourt \"Yuniesky Betancourt\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20101219\\&content\\_id\\=16345284\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&c\\_id\\=mlb \\|title\\=Brewers add Greinke in deal with Royals \\|author\\=McCalvy, Adam \\|access\\-date\\=December 19, 2010 \\|date\\=December 19, 2010 \\|website\\=\\[\\[MLB.com]] \\|archive\\-date\\=December 21, 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221120139/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20101219\\&content\\_id\\=16345284\\&vkey\\=news\\_mlb\\&c\\_id\\=mlb \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In spring training in 2011, Jeffress led the major leagues in wild pitches, with five in 11 innings.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/stats/sortable\\_player\\_stats.jsp?statType\\=2\\&teamPosCode\\=all\\&subScope\\=pos\\&statSet2\\=2\\§ion2\\=1\\&c\\_id\\=mlb\\&timeFrame\\=1\\&baseballScope\\=mlb\\&sitSplit\\=\\&venueID\\=\\&timeSubFrame\\=23\\&\\&sortByStat\\=WP \\|title\\=Major League Baseball Stats: Sortable Statistics \\|work\\=mlb.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 6, 2011}} \nJeffress began the year on the Royals roster, and got his first win as a Royal on April 5 against the [Chicago White Sox](/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox \"Chicago White Sox\"). He made 14 appearances with a 4\\.70 ERA in 15\\.1 innings of work, adding on 13 strikeouts, but also had 11 walks and 12 hits allowed. On May 21, Jeffress was optioned to the [Omaha Storm Chasers](/wiki/Omaha_Storm_Chasers \"Omaha Storm Chasers\"), the Royals Triple\\-A affiliate, posting a 7\\.13 ERA in 16 games, 3 of which were starts. These struggles led him to be moved down to the Royals Double\\-A affiliate, the [Northwest Arkansas Naturals](/wiki/Northwest_Arkansas_Naturals \"Northwest Arkansas Naturals\") on July 20, where he appeared in 9 games, starting 8, posting a 4\\.26 ERA in 31\\.2 innings, adding on 20 strikeouts as well as 22 walks and 32 hits allowed.",
"In the 2012 season, Jeffress split time between the Storm Chasers and Royals, as he was unable to find his footing in the majors posting a 6\\.75 ERA in just 13 appearances, allowing 19 hits, 14 runs and 14 walks to just 14 strikeouts in 13\\.1 innings. His play in the minors showed signs of improvement as he made 37 appearances, going 5–4 with 4\\.97 ERA, with 61 strikeouts to just 25 walks.",
"On November 2, 2012, the Royals designated Jeffress for assignment.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sports.yahoo.com/news/royals\\-claim\\-rhp\\-moscoso\\-c\\-200203787\\-\\-mlb.html;\\_ylt\\=AoN7sYiBhQ6bkeV1q9SiCjERvLYF;\\_ylu\\=X3oDMTRtY2lqZ2xqBG1pdANMSVNUUyBNaXhlZCBMaXN0IE1MQiBIZWFkbGluZXMEcGtnA2Y2NGQ3YWRiLWZhZjItM2M5MC05NTM2LTZiNTQ5ZDBmYTJiYQRwb3MDOQRzZWMDTWVkaWFCTGlzdE1peGVkTFBDQVRlbXAEdmVyA2E3MDEzNTUwLTI1MjgtMTFlMi05ZmVmLWE1ODEwNDM5N2MyMQ\\-\\-;\\_ylg\\=X3oDMTFoODgyNmttBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDBHBzdGNhdANtbGIEcHQDc2VjdGlvbnM\\-;\\_ylv\\=3\\|title\\=Royals claim RHP Moscoso, C Hayes off waivers\\|publisher\\=Associated Press via Yahoo Sports.com\\|date\\=November 2, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=November 2, 2012}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=October 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"### Toronto Blue Jays",
"On November 8, 2012, the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays \"Toronto Blue Jays\") received Jeffress from the Royals in exchange for cash considerations.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://toronto.bluejays.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20121108\\&content\\_id\\=40210002\\&vkey\\=pr\\_tor\\&c\\_id\\=tor\\|title\\=Blue Jays acquire Jeffress\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=November 8, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=November 8, 2012}}{{dead link\\|date\\=October 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}} Jeffress was designated for assignment by the Blue Jays on April 6, 2013 after pitching in one game.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sportsnet.ca/baseball/mlb/blue\\-jays\\-send\\-jeffress\\-to\\-triple\\-a\\-recall\\-bush/\\|title\\=Blue Jays send Jeffress to triple\\-A, recall Bush\\|date\\=April 6, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=April 6, 2013}} Jeffress cleared waivers, and was assigned outright to the Triple\\-A [Buffalo Bisons](/wiki/Buffalo_Bisons \"Buffalo Bisons\") on April 16\\. Jeffress was sent to the Class A [Dunedin Blue Jays](/wiki/Dunedin_Blue_Jays \"Dunedin Blue Jays\") on April 25 without having pitched for the Bisons. He was brought up to the Bisons on May 3\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.milb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20130503\\&content\\_id\\=46503658\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&vkey\\=news\\_t422\\&sid\\=t422\\|title\\=Reliever Jeremy Jeffress joins Herd\\|date\\=May 3, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2013}} His contract was selected by the Blue Jays on September 3 after the Bisons season ended, and the major league rosters expanded.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sports.nationalpost.com/2013/09/02/blue\\-jays\\-call\\-up\\-ricky\\-romero\\-kyle\\-drabek\\-and\\-three\\-others\\-for\\-september//\\|title\\=Blue Jays call up Ricky Romero, Kyle Drabek and three others for September\\|date\\=September 2, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=September 3, 2013\\|first\\=John\\|last\\=Lott\\|work\\=National Post\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130903144014/http://sports.nationalpost.com/2013/09/02/blue\\-jays\\-call\\-up\\-ricky\\-romero\\-kyle\\-drabek\\-and\\-three\\-others\\-for\\-september//\\|archive\\-date\\=September 3, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He appeared in 10 games for the Blue Jays posting a 0\\.87 ERA in 10\\.1 innings, while in his time with the Bison he had a 1–0 record with a 1\\.65 ERA in 25 appearances.",
"Jeffress opened the 2014 season on the major league roster, where he struggled mightly after showing flashes the year prior. In just 3 appearances, Jeffress posted a 10\\.80 ERA in 3 innings of work. Jeffress was designated for assignment after the game on April 4, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.milb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20140404\\&content\\_id\\=71012790\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&vkey\\=news\\_t422\\&sid\\=t422\\| title\\=Blue Jays recall Bisons' Jenkins\\|work\\=Buffalo Bisons\\|date\\=April 4, 2014\\| access\\-date\\=April 5, 2014}} On April 15, after clearing waivers, Jeffress was assigned to Buffalo;{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2014/04/blue\\-jays\\-designate\\-marcus\\-walden\\-outright\\-jeremy\\-jeffress.html\\|title\\=Blue Jays Designate Marcus Walden, Outright Jeremy Jeffress\\|last\\=Adams\\|first\\=Steve\\|work\\=mlbtraderumors.com\\|date\\=April 15, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=April 15, 2014}} however, he chose free agency rather than report to Buffalo.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hardballtalk.nbcsports.com/2014/04/17/jeremy\\-jeffress\\-elects\\-free\\-agency/\\|title\\=Jeremy Jeffress elects free agency\\|last\\=Short\\|first\\=D.J.\\|work\\=hardballtalk.nbcsports.com\\|date\\=April 17, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=April 17, 2014}}",
"### Return to the Milwaukee Brewers",
"Jeffress signed a minor league contract with the Milwaukee Brewers on April 18, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2014/04/brewers\\-sign\\-jeremy\\-jeffress.html\\|title\\=Brewers Sign Jeremy Jeffress\\|last\\=Todd\\|first\\=Jeff\\|work\\=mlbtradermors.com\\|date\\=April 18, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=April 18, 2014}} He was assigned to the Triple\\-A [Nashville Sounds](/wiki/Nashville_Sounds \"Nashville Sounds\"). The Brewers selected the contract of Jeffress from Nashville on July 21, 2014\\. Jeffress thrived in his return to Milwaukee, emerging as a stellar setup\\-man to closer [Francisco Rodriguez](/wiki/Francisco_Rodriguez_%28Venezuelan_pitcher%29 \"Francisco Rodriguez (Venezuelan pitcher)\") and posting a 1–1 record with a 1\\.88 ERA in 29 games.",
"In 2015, after struggles from setup man [Jonathan Broxton](/wiki/Jonathan_Broxton \"Jonathan Broxton\"), Jeffress took over as the eight\\-inning man for Milwaukee. He continued his success from last season in his new role, posting a 2\\.65 ERA in 68 innings, striking out 67 batters while walking just 22 in 72 appearances.",
"In 2016, Jeffress was slated to be Milwaukee's setup man to closer [Will Smith](/wiki/Will_Smith_%28pitcher%29 \"Will Smith (pitcher)\") but before spring training could begin, Jeffress was named closer when Smith suffered a knee injury.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2020}}\nAs the closer, Jeffress made 47 appearances, posting a 2\\.22 ERA with 27 saves (Tied for 4th in NL at the time) in 58 innings, striking out 35 batters while walking only 11\\.",
"### Texas Rangers",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Jeffress with the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\") in 2017](/wiki/File:Jeremy_Jeffress_2017.jpg \"Jeremy Jeffress 2017.jpg\")\nOn August 1, 2016, the Brewers traded Jeffress and [Jonathan Lucroy](/wiki/Jonathan_Lucroy \"Jonathan Lucroy\") to the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\") for [Lewis Brinson](/wiki/Lewis_Brinson \"Lewis Brinson\"), [Luis Ortiz](/wiki/Luis_Ortiz_%28pitcher%2C_born_1995%29 \"Luis Ortiz (pitcher, born 1995)\"), and a [player to be named later](/wiki/Player_to_be_named_later \"Player to be named later\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/17194805/jonathan\\-lucroy\\-acquired\\-texas\\-rangers\\-milwaukee\\-brewers\\|title\\=Lucroy finally gets traded, going to Rangers\\|date\\=August 1, 2016\\|website\\=ESPN.com}} \nHe made 9 appearances following the trade, posting a 4\\.00 ERA in 9 innings, before being placed on the restricted list for a DUI. Jeffress would make 3 more appearances following his return, finishing the season with a 3–2 record with a 2\\.33 ERA in 58 innings with 27 saves, which was good enough for 7th in the [National League](/wiki/National_League_%28baseball%29 \"National League (baseball)\") despite only playing half the season there.",
"After a 2016 season on\\-par with his career statistics, Jeffress struggled with the Rangers in 2017\\. He posted a 5\\.31 ERA and a 1–2 record over 40\\.2 innings while with the Rangers that season.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/players/j/jeffrje01\\.shtml\\|title\\=Jeremy Jeffress Stats\\|website\\=Baseball\\-Reference.com}}",
"### Third stint with Milwaukee",
"On July 31, 2017, the Rangers traded Jeffress to the Milwaukee Brewers for [Tayler Scott](/wiki/Tayler_Scott \"Tayler Scott\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://m.rangers.mlb.com/news/article/245559184/rangers\\-trade\\-jeremy\\-jeffress\\-back\\-to\\-brewers/?topicId\\=27118410\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801032357/http://m.rangers.mlb.com/news/article/245559184/rangers\\-trade\\-jeremy\\-jeffress\\-back\\-to\\-brewers/?topicId\\=27118410\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=August 1, 2017\\|title\\=Texas returns Jeffress to Crew for righty Scott\\|last\\=Sullivan\\|first\\=T. R.\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=July 31, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2017}} He made 22 appearances following the trade posting a 4–0 record with a 3\\.65 ERA in 24\\.2 innings.",
"In 2018, Jeffress returned to his former [setup man](/wiki/Setup_man \"Setup man\") role, with [Corey Knebel](/wiki/Corey_Knebel \"Corey Knebel\") following him. Jeffress had a 0\\.99 ERA in 45\\.1 innings in the first half of the season, with fellow bullpen arm [Josh Hader](/wiki/Josh_Hader \"Josh Hader\") posting a 1\\.55 ERA in 46\\.1 innings, creating a dominant bullpen for the contending Brewers. On July 12, 2018, Jeffress was named to his first All\\-Star team as a replacement for [Sean Doolittle](/wiki/Sean_Doolittle \"Sean Doolittle\").[MLB on Twitter: \".@JMontana41 has been named to the NL All\\-Star team to replace Sean Doolittle (left toe inflammation).… \"](https://twitter.com/MLB/status/1017597058151321600) On the season, Jeffress appeared in 73 games, posting an 8–1 record with 1\\.29 ERA in 76\\.2 innings, as well as 15 saves.",
"Jeffress began the 2019 season with the Brewers Triple\\-A affiliate, the [San Antonio Missions](/wiki/San_Antonio_Missions \"San Antonio Missions\"), after suffering a shoulder injury in spring training. He made his season debut on April 17, pitching for {{frac\\|2\\|3}} of an inning, striking out one batter. On August 25, Jeffress was placed on the 10\\-day [injured list](/wiki/Injured_list \"Injured list\") after suffering a hip injury, and was later released by the Brewers on September 1\\.",
"### Chicago Cubs",
"On January 28, 2020, Jeffress was signed by the [Chicago Cubs](/wiki/Chicago_Cubs \"Chicago Cubs\") for a one\\-year, $850,000 major league contract, with the possibility he could earn an additional $200,000 based on games pitched.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/\\_/id/28585117/cubs\\-sign\\-reliever\\-jeremy\\-jeffress\\-one\\-year\\-800k\\-deal\\|title\\=Source: Cubs sign P Jeffress to one\\-year deal\\|date\\=January 28, 2020\\|website\\=ESPN.com}} During the shortened 2020 season, Jeffress earned eight saves, recorded a 1\\.54 ERA, and held opposing hitters to a .137 [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\"). He was one of the Cubs' three nominees for the 2020 [All\\-MLB Team](/wiki/All-MLB_Team \"All-MLB Team\") and was a finalist for the [NL Reliever of the Year](/wiki/NL_Reliever_of_the_Year \"NL Reliever of the Year\") award.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://cubbiescrib.com/2020/10/20/cubs\\-news\\-jeremy\\-jeffress\\-finalist\\-reliever\\-award\\|title\\=Cubs News: Jeremy Jeffress named finalist for NL Reliever of the Year\\|date\\=October 20, 2020}}",
"### Washington Nationals",
"On February 22, 2021, Jeffress signed a minor league contract with the [Washington Nationals](/wiki/Washington_Nationals \"Washington Nationals\") organization that included an invitation to Spring Training.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2021/02/nationals\\-to\\-sign\\-jeremy\\-jeffress\\-to\\-minors\\-deal.html\\|title \\= Nationals to Sign Jeremy Jeffress to Minors Deal\\| date\\=February 22, 2021 }} On March 7, Jeffress was released by the Nationals.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2021/03/nationals\\-release\\-jeremy\\-jeffress.html\\|title \\= Nationals Release Jeremy Jeffress\\| date\\=March 7, 2021 }}",
"### Lexington Legends",
"On July 7, 2021, Jeffress signed with the [Lexington Legends](/wiki/Lexington_Legends \"Lexington Legends\") of the [Atlantic League of Professional Baseball](/wiki/Atlantic_League_of_Professional_Baseball \"Atlantic League of Professional Baseball\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/lexington\\-legends\\-sign\\-two\\-mlb\\-pitchers\\-2018\\-all\\-star/n\\-5716441\\|title\\=Lexington Legends Sign Two MLB Pitchers, 2018 All Star\\|date\\=July 7, 2021}} In 23 relief appearances, Jeffress posted a 1–1 record with a 6\\.45 ERA and 27 strikeouts. He was released by the team on September 12, 2021\\.[Atlantic League Transactions](https://atlanticleague.com/stats/transactions/)",
"### Diablos Rojos del México",
"On March 18, 2022, Jeffress signed with the [Diablos Rojos del México](/wiki/Diablos_Rojos_del_M%C3%A9xico \"Diablos Rojos del México\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Diablos Rojos suma refuerzo con experiencias en Grandes Ligas\\|url\\=https://www.tvazteca.com/aztecadeportes/diablos\\-rojos\\-jeremy\\-jeffress\\-experiencias\\-beisbol\\-ogr\\|website\\=tvazteca.com\\|date\\=19 March 2022\\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2022\\|language\\=es}} In 17 relief appearances, Jeffress posted a 3–2 record with a 7\\.36 ERA and 17 strikeouts over 18\\.1 innings. He was released on June 11, 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Jeremy Jeffress Stats, Fantasy \\& News \\|url\\=https://www.milb.com/player/jeremy\\-jeffress\\-502026 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-16 \\|website\\=MiLB.com \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Significant structures
----------------------
The Historic Jamestowne area of [Jamestown Island](/wiki/Jamestown_Island "Jamestown Island") includes several important structures, both historical and modern.
### Old Town
This area includes the ruins within the original 1607 James Fort, the restored [Jamestown Church](/wiki/Jamestown_Church "Jamestown Church"), and the ruins of the Statehouse.
### New Town
Situated to the east of the Old Towne area, this area includes the Ambler Mansion ruins, the rowhouse, and Governor Harvey House.
### Monuments
The tall [Tercentenary Monument](/wiki/Jamestown_Tercentennial_Monument "Jamestown Tercentennial Monument"), which resembles the [Washington Monument](/wiki/Washington_Monument "Washington Monument") in Washington, was placed on [Jamestown Island](/wiki/Jamestown_Island "Jamestown Island") by the United States government in 1907 for the 300th anniversary of the settlement. It cost $50,000 at the time, stands {{convert\|103\|ft\|m\|abbr\=off\|sp\=us}} tall, and is made of New Hampshire granite.{{Cite web\|url\=https://historicjamestowne.org/visit/plan\-your\-visit/monuments/\|title\=Monuments {{!}} Historic Jamestowne\|website\=historicjamestowne.org\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2017\-01\-09}} The north face inscription reads: *Jamestown \- The first permanent colony of the English people. The birthplace of Virginia and of the United States \- May 13, 1607*.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\=11467\|title\=Jamestown Tercentenary Monument Historical Marker\|access\-date\=2017\-01\-09}}
The **General Assembly Monument** was unveiled on July 31, 1907, as a gift of the Norfolk branch of the APVA. Located near the church, it is a small obelisk designed to commemorate the first meeting of Virginia's General Assembly in July 1619\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/188\|title\=Monument Listing Names of the Members of the First General Assembly, 1619 · Document Bank of Virginia\|website\=edu.lva.virginia.gov\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-03}}
A **horse trough**, a gift from the Society of Colonial Wars in 1907, was installed in a place now just outside the Yeardley House offices of the *Jamestown Rediscovery* project. It was designed by architect [Harold Van Buren Magonigle](/wiki/Harold_Van_Buren_Magonigle "Harold Van Buren Magonigle").
The **APVA Gates**, a brick and iron entrance to the land owned by the APVA, was presented on May 9, 1909, by The Colonial Dames of America. They were relocated to its present location northeast of the [Memorial Church](/wiki/Jamestown_Church "Jamestown Church") in 1957\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.hmdb.org/Marker.asp?Marker\=10262\|title\=Jamestown Historical Marker\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-03}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://historicjamestowne.org/visit/plan\-your\-visit/monuments/\|title\=Monuments {{!}} Historic Jamestowne\|website\=historicjamestowne.org\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-03}}
The bronze **John Smith statue** was unveiled on May 13, 1909, and was a gift from Joseph Bryan and his wife, Isobel, early supporters of the APVA. William Couper, from Norfolk, designed the statue. It has a granite base, and measures 20 feet tall. The inscription on the base reads: *John Smith, Governor of Virginia, 1608* and features Smith's adopted coat of arms and motto, *vincere est vivere* ("to live is to conquer").
The bronze **[Pocahontas](/wiki/Pocahontas "Pocahontas") statue** was unveiled in June 1922, and stood south of the church, where it could "welcome" visitors coming from off the ferry. It was moved to the low rock base near the APVA entrance gate for the 350th celebration in 1957\. In 2014 it was moved slightly to the west to make way for archaeological work.
Also in June 1922, The Colonial Dames of America erected the **Hunt Shrine** (dedicated to [Robert Hunt](/wiki/Robert_Hunt_%28chaplain%29 "Robert Hunt (chaplain)")), the first Anglican minister of the colony. It was designed by Ralph Adams Cram. The shrine frames a bas\-relief depicting the 1607 service. It was first set with its back to the James River, but in 1960 it was rotated to face the river from the northern earthwork of the Civil War's [Fort Pocahontas](/wiki/Fort_Pocahontas "Fort Pocahontas"). Its inscription, taken from John Smith, reads
> Our factions were oft qualified, and our wants and greater extremities so comforted that they seemed easie in comparison of what we endured after his memorable death. ...
The **wooden cross** that stands near the entrance to the Archaearium museum was erected by the APVA in 1957 to honor the settlers who died in first years of the settlement. The inscription reads:
> To the Glory of God and in grateful memory of those early settlers, the founders of this nation who died at Jamestown during the first perilous years of the colony. Their bodies lie along the ridge beyond this cross, in the earliest known burial ground of the English in America.
### Voorhees Archaearium
Officially named the [Nathalie P. and Alan M. Voorhees Archaearium](http://www.historicjamestowne.org/visit/archaearium.php), or simply the *Voorhees Archaearium*, it is a museum with excavated artifacts and exhibits about Jamestown. The building is located over the excavated remains of the last Statehouse in Jamestown, which visitors can see. The museum onsite opened just prior to the 400th anniversary and displays objects that belonged to Jamestown colonists 400 years ago, unearthed from the long\-lost James Fort site, in a 7,500 sq ft gallery space that integrates both life and death experiences of the colonists and the landscape they shaped.
|
[
"Significant structures\n----------------------",
"The Historic Jamestowne area of [Jamestown Island](/wiki/Jamestown_Island \"Jamestown Island\") includes several important structures, both historical and modern.",
"### Old Town",
"This area includes the ruins within the original 1607 James Fort, the restored [Jamestown Church](/wiki/Jamestown_Church \"Jamestown Church\"), and the ruins of the Statehouse.",
"### New Town",
"Situated to the east of the Old Towne area, this area includes the Ambler Mansion ruins, the rowhouse, and Governor Harvey House.",
"### Monuments",
"The tall [Tercentenary Monument](/wiki/Jamestown_Tercentennial_Monument \"Jamestown Tercentennial Monument\"), which resembles the [Washington Monument](/wiki/Washington_Monument \"Washington Monument\") in Washington, was placed on [Jamestown Island](/wiki/Jamestown_Island \"Jamestown Island\") by the United States government in 1907 for the 300th anniversary of the settlement. It cost $50,000 at the time, stands {{convert\\|103\\|ft\\|m\\|abbr\\=off\\|sp\\=us}} tall, and is made of New Hampshire granite.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://historicjamestowne.org/visit/plan\\-your\\-visit/monuments/\\|title\\=Monuments {{!}} Historic Jamestowne\\|website\\=historicjamestowne.org\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-09}} The north face inscription reads: *Jamestown \\- The first permanent colony of the English people. The birthplace of Virginia and of the United States \\- May 13, 1607*.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker\\=11467\\|title\\=Jamestown Tercentenary Monument Historical Marker\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-09}}",
"The **General Assembly Monument** was unveiled on July 31, 1907, as a gift of the Norfolk branch of the APVA. Located near the church, it is a small obelisk designed to commemorate the first meeting of Virginia's General Assembly in July 1619\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://edu.lva.virginia.gov/dbva/items/show/188\\|title\\=Monument Listing Names of the Members of the First General Assembly, 1619 · Document Bank of Virginia\\|website\\=edu.lva.virginia.gov\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-03}}",
"A **horse trough**, a gift from the Society of Colonial Wars in 1907, was installed in a place now just outside the Yeardley House offices of the *Jamestown Rediscovery* project. It was designed by architect [Harold Van Buren Magonigle](/wiki/Harold_Van_Buren_Magonigle \"Harold Van Buren Magonigle\").",
"The **APVA Gates**, a brick and iron entrance to the land owned by the APVA, was presented on May 9, 1909, by The Colonial Dames of America. They were relocated to its present location northeast of the [Memorial Church](/wiki/Jamestown_Church \"Jamestown Church\") in 1957\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.hmdb.org/Marker.asp?Marker\\=10262\\|title\\=Jamestown Historical Marker\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-03}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://historicjamestowne.org/visit/plan\\-your\\-visit/monuments/\\|title\\=Monuments {{!}} Historic Jamestowne\\|website\\=historicjamestowne.org\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-03}}",
"The bronze **John Smith statue** was unveiled on May 13, 1909, and was a gift from Joseph Bryan and his wife, Isobel, early supporters of the APVA. William Couper, from Norfolk, designed the statue. It has a granite base, and measures 20 feet tall. The inscription on the base reads: *John Smith, Governor of Virginia, 1608* and features Smith's adopted coat of arms and motto, *vincere est vivere* (\"to live is to conquer\").",
"The bronze **[Pocahontas](/wiki/Pocahontas \"Pocahontas\") statue** was unveiled in June 1922, and stood south of the church, where it could \"welcome\" visitors coming from off the ferry. It was moved to the low rock base near the APVA entrance gate for the 350th celebration in 1957\\. In 2014 it was moved slightly to the west to make way for archaeological work.",
"Also in June 1922, The Colonial Dames of America erected the **Hunt Shrine** (dedicated to [Robert Hunt](/wiki/Robert_Hunt_%28chaplain%29 \"Robert Hunt (chaplain)\")), the first Anglican minister of the colony. It was designed by Ralph Adams Cram. The shrine frames a bas\\-relief depicting the 1607 service. It was first set with its back to the James River, but in 1960 it was rotated to face the river from the northern earthwork of the Civil War's [Fort Pocahontas](/wiki/Fort_Pocahontas \"Fort Pocahontas\"). Its inscription, taken from John Smith, reads",
"",
"> Our factions were oft qualified, and our wants and greater extremities so comforted that they seemed easie in comparison of what we endured after his memorable death. ...",
"The **wooden cross** that stands near the entrance to the Archaearium museum was erected by the APVA in 1957 to honor the settlers who died in first years of the settlement. The inscription reads:\n> To the Glory of God and in grateful memory of those early settlers, the founders of this nation who died at Jamestown during the first perilous years of the colony. Their bodies lie along the ridge beyond this cross, in the earliest known burial ground of the English in America.",
"",
"### Voorhees Archaearium",
"Officially named the [Nathalie P. and Alan M. Voorhees Archaearium](http://www.historicjamestowne.org/visit/archaearium.php), or simply the *Voorhees Archaearium*, it is a museum with excavated artifacts and exhibits about Jamestown. The building is located over the excavated remains of the last Statehouse in Jamestown, which visitors can see. The museum onsite opened just prior to the 400th anniversary and displays objects that belonged to Jamestown colonists 400 years ago, unearthed from the long\\-lost James Fort site, in a 7,500 sq ft gallery space that integrates both life and death experiences of the colonists and the landscape they shaped.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In [Ravenna](/wiki/Ravenna "Ravenna"), Italy, Giuliana is walking with her young son, Valerio, towards the petrochemical plant managed by her husband, Ugo. Passing workers who are on strike, Giuliana nervously and impulsively purchases a half\-eaten sandwich from one of the workers. They are surrounded by strange industrial structures and debris that create inhuman images and sounds. Inside the plant, Ugo is speaking with a visiting business associate, Corrado Zeller, who is looking to recruit workers for an industrial operation in [Patagonia](/wiki/Patagonia "Patagonia"), Argentina. Ugo and Corrado converse comfortably in the noisy factory when Giuliana arrives. Ugo introduces Corrado to Giuliana who departs to wait in Ugo's office.
Ugo later tells Corrado that his wife had a recent auto accident, and though she was physically unhurt, she has not been right mentally. That night in their apartment, Giuliana becomes highly agitated and fearful over a dream she had about sinking in quicksand. Ugo is unable to calm her or understand what she's experiencing.
Corrado visits her at an empty shop she's planning to open and talks about his life and the restless nature of his existence. She accompanies him to [Ferrara](/wiki/Ferrara "Ferrara") on one of his worker recruitment drives, and she indirectly reveals details about her mental state. She tells him that when she was in the hospital, she met a young woman patient who was advised by her doctors to find someone or something to love. She speaks of the young woman feeling like there was "no ground beneath her, like she was sliding down a slope, sinking, always on the verge of drowning." They travel to a radio observatory in [Medicina](/wiki/Medicina "Medicina"), where Corrado hopes to recruit a top worker. Surrounded by cold industrial architecture, Giuliana seems lost in her loneliness and isolation.
The following weekend, Giuliana, Ugo, and Corrado are walking beside a polluted estuary when they meet up with another couple, Max and Linda, and together they drive to a small riverside shack at Porto Corsini where they meet Emilia. They spend time in the shack engaged in trivial small talk filled with jokes, role\-playing, and sexual innuendo. Giuliana seems to find temporary solace in these mindless distractions. In a dense fog, a mysterious ship docks directly outside their shack. During their conversations, Corrado and Giuliana have grown closer, and he shows interest and sympathy for her. When a doctor arrives to board the ship, Giuliana, seeing that the ship is now quarantined because of an infectious disease, rushes off in a state of panic almost driving off the pier.
Sometime later, Ugo leaves on a business trip, and Giuliana spends more time with Corrado, revealing more about her anxieties. One day, her son becomes suddenly paralyzed from the waist down. Fearing he has contracted polio, Giuliana tries to comfort him with a story about a young girl who lives on an island and swims off a beach at an isolated cove. The girl is at home with her surroundings, but after a mysterious sailing ship approaches offshore, all the rocks of the cove seem to come alive and sing to her in one voice. Soon after, Giuliana discovers to her shock that Valerio was only pretending to be paralyzed. Unable to imagine why her son would do such a cruel thing, Giuliana's sense of loneliness and isolation returns.
Desperate to end her inner turmoil, Giuliana goes to Corrado's room. Giuliana is distraught and begins to disrobe. Initially she resists Corrado's advances, but eventually the two make love in his bed. The intimacy, however, does little to relieve Giuliana's sense of isolation. Corrado drives Giuliana to her empty shop, where she remarks that there is something "awful" about reality. Later, Giuliana wanders to a dockside ship where she meets a foreign sailor and asks if the ship takes passengers. She tries to communicate her feelings to him, but he cannot understand her words. Acknowledging the reality of her isolation, she says, "We are all separate."
Later in the daytime, Giuliana is walking with her son near her husband's plant. Valerio notices a nearby smokestack emitting poisonous yellow smoke and wonders if birds are being killed by the toxic emissions. Giuliana tells him that the birds have learned not to fly near the smoke. The two then walk away out of frame as the film ends.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In [Ravenna](/wiki/Ravenna \"Ravenna\"), Italy, Giuliana is walking with her young son, Valerio, towards the petrochemical plant managed by her husband, Ugo. Passing workers who are on strike, Giuliana nervously and impulsively purchases a half\\-eaten sandwich from one of the workers. They are surrounded by strange industrial structures and debris that create inhuman images and sounds. Inside the plant, Ugo is speaking with a visiting business associate, Corrado Zeller, who is looking to recruit workers for an industrial operation in [Patagonia](/wiki/Patagonia \"Patagonia\"), Argentina. Ugo and Corrado converse comfortably in the noisy factory when Giuliana arrives. Ugo introduces Corrado to Giuliana who departs to wait in Ugo's office.",
"Ugo later tells Corrado that his wife had a recent auto accident, and though she was physically unhurt, she has not been right mentally. That night in their apartment, Giuliana becomes highly agitated and fearful over a dream she had about sinking in quicksand. Ugo is unable to calm her or understand what she's experiencing.",
"Corrado visits her at an empty shop she's planning to open and talks about his life and the restless nature of his existence. She accompanies him to [Ferrara](/wiki/Ferrara \"Ferrara\") on one of his worker recruitment drives, and she indirectly reveals details about her mental state. She tells him that when she was in the hospital, she met a young woman patient who was advised by her doctors to find someone or something to love. She speaks of the young woman feeling like there was \"no ground beneath her, like she was sliding down a slope, sinking, always on the verge of drowning.\" They travel to a radio observatory in [Medicina](/wiki/Medicina \"Medicina\"), where Corrado hopes to recruit a top worker. Surrounded by cold industrial architecture, Giuliana seems lost in her loneliness and isolation.",
"The following weekend, Giuliana, Ugo, and Corrado are walking beside a polluted estuary when they meet up with another couple, Max and Linda, and together they drive to a small riverside shack at Porto Corsini where they meet Emilia. They spend time in the shack engaged in trivial small talk filled with jokes, role\\-playing, and sexual innuendo. Giuliana seems to find temporary solace in these mindless distractions. In a dense fog, a mysterious ship docks directly outside their shack. During their conversations, Corrado and Giuliana have grown closer, and he shows interest and sympathy for her. When a doctor arrives to board the ship, Giuliana, seeing that the ship is now quarantined because of an infectious disease, rushes off in a state of panic almost driving off the pier.",
"Sometime later, Ugo leaves on a business trip, and Giuliana spends more time with Corrado, revealing more about her anxieties. One day, her son becomes suddenly paralyzed from the waist down. Fearing he has contracted polio, Giuliana tries to comfort him with a story about a young girl who lives on an island and swims off a beach at an isolated cove. The girl is at home with her surroundings, but after a mysterious sailing ship approaches offshore, all the rocks of the cove seem to come alive and sing to her in one voice. Soon after, Giuliana discovers to her shock that Valerio was only pretending to be paralyzed. Unable to imagine why her son would do such a cruel thing, Giuliana's sense of loneliness and isolation returns.",
"Desperate to end her inner turmoil, Giuliana goes to Corrado's room. Giuliana is distraught and begins to disrobe. Initially she resists Corrado's advances, but eventually the two make love in his bed. The intimacy, however, does little to relieve Giuliana's sense of isolation. Corrado drives Giuliana to her empty shop, where she remarks that there is something \"awful\" about reality. Later, Giuliana wanders to a dockside ship where she meets a foreign sailor and asks if the ship takes passengers. She tries to communicate her feelings to him, but he cannot understand her words. Acknowledging the reality of her isolation, she says, \"We are all separate.\"",
"Later in the daytime, Giuliana is walking with her son near her husband's plant. Valerio notices a nearby smokestack emitting poisonous yellow smoke and wonders if birds are being killed by the toxic emissions. Giuliana tells him that the birds have learned not to fly near the smoke. The two then walk away out of frame as the film ends.",
""
] |
Career
------
Mak made his directorial debut in 1997, with his first film being *[Nude Fear](/wiki/Nude_Fear "Nude Fear")*, which was written and produced by [Joe Ma](/wiki/Joe_Ma_Wai-Ho "Joe Ma Wai-Ho"). After that, Mak directed further films such as *[Rave Fever](/wiki/Rave_Fever "Rave Fever")*, *[A War Named Desire](/wiki/A_War_Named_Desire "A War Named Desire")*, *[Final Romance](/wiki/Final_Romance "Final Romance")* and *Stolen Love*, which would be his first collaboration with writer [Felix Chong](/wiki/Felix_Chong "Felix Chong").
In 2002, Mak and Chong wrote their first script together. The movie was *[Infernal Affairs](/wiki/Infernal_Affairs "Infernal Affairs")*, which was produced by Mak's directing partner, [Andrew Lau](/wiki/Andrew_Lau "Andrew Lau"), who also served as [cinematographer](/wiki/Cinematographer "Cinematographer"). Lau and Mak also served as directors for the film, and it would be the first of many collaborations involving the directing duo.
*Infernal Affairs* starred the four top actors of its year—[Andy Lau](/wiki/Andy_Lau "Andy Lau"), [Tony Leung Chiu\-Wai](/wiki/Tony_Leung_Chiu-Wai "Tony Leung Chiu-Wai"), [Eric Tsang](/wiki/Eric_Tsang "Eric Tsang") and [Anthony Wong](/wiki/Anthony_Wong_Chau_Sang "Anthony Wong Chau Sang")—along with the year's two top actresses—[Kelly Chen](/wiki/Kelly_Chen "Kelly Chen") and [Sammi Cheng](/wiki/Sammi_Cheng "Sammi Cheng"). *Infernal Affairs* was the number one box\-office hit in Hong Kong that year, breaking several box office records alone. Furthermore, the film won many [Hong Kong Film Awards](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Award "Hong Kong Film Award"), including Best Picture, Best Directors (Lau and Mak), Best Screenplay (Mak and co\-writer Chong), and Best Supporting Actor (Wong). *Infernal Affairs* also went on win awards at the 40th [Golden Horse Awards](/wiki/Golden_Horse_Awards "Golden Horse Awards") and the [Golden Bauhinia Awards](/wiki/Golden_Bauhinia_Awards "Golden Bauhinia Awards").
In 2003, Lau and Mak completed the trilogy with the prequel *[Infernal Affairs II](/wiki/Infernal_Affairs_II "Infernal Affairs II")* and the sequel/prequel *[Infernal Affairs III](/wiki/Infernal_Affairs_III "Infernal Affairs III")*. That same year, Mak received the 2003 Leader of the Year award in the Sports/Culture/Entertainment category.
In 2004, Lau and Mak worked on another blockbuster, [*Initial D*](/wiki/Initial_D_%28film%29 "Initial D (film)"), which was shot in [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") and released in Hong Kong during the summer. Once again, it was also another successful film for Lau and Mak, winning multiple awards at the Hong Kong Film Awards, winning for Best New Performer ([Jay Chou](/wiki/Jay_Chou "Jay Chou")), Best Supporting Actor (Anthony Wong Chau Sang\| Anthony Wong), and Best Visual Effects.
In 2006, Lau, Mak and scriptwriter Felix Chong re\-teamed to make the 2005 film, *[Moonlight in Tokyo](/wiki/Moonlight_in_Tokyo "Moonlight in Tokyo")*. They re\-teamed again for the 2006 film *[Confession of Pain](/wiki/Confession_of_Pain "Confession of Pain")*, once again re\-teaming with *Infernal Affairs* star Tony Leung Chiu\-Wai. He also created *[The Silent War](/wiki/The_Silent_War_%282012_film%29 "The Silent War (2012 film)")*.
Mak's next film was *[Lady Cop \& Papa Crook](/wiki/Lady_Cop_%26_Papa_Crook "Lady Cop & Papa Crook")* which he co\-wrote and co\-directed with [Felix Chong](/wiki/Felix_Chong "Felix Chong"). The film was released in 2008 and marked the feature\-film return of [Sammi Cheng](/wiki/Sammi_Cheng "Sammi Cheng") after a three\-year hiatus.
He has worked solidly since then releasing films up until 2019's *Integrity*. His next film *Justices Seeker* is in post\-production.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Mak made his directorial debut in 1997, with his first film being *[Nude Fear](/wiki/Nude_Fear \"Nude Fear\")*, which was written and produced by [Joe Ma](/wiki/Joe_Ma_Wai-Ho \"Joe Ma Wai-Ho\"). After that, Mak directed further films such as *[Rave Fever](/wiki/Rave_Fever \"Rave Fever\")*, *[A War Named Desire](/wiki/A_War_Named_Desire \"A War Named Desire\")*, *[Final Romance](/wiki/Final_Romance \"Final Romance\")* and *Stolen Love*, which would be his first collaboration with writer [Felix Chong](/wiki/Felix_Chong \"Felix Chong\").",
"In 2002, Mak and Chong wrote their first script together. The movie was *[Infernal Affairs](/wiki/Infernal_Affairs \"Infernal Affairs\")*, which was produced by Mak's directing partner, [Andrew Lau](/wiki/Andrew_Lau \"Andrew Lau\"), who also served as [cinematographer](/wiki/Cinematographer \"Cinematographer\"). Lau and Mak also served as directors for the film, and it would be the first of many collaborations involving the directing duo.",
"*Infernal Affairs* starred the four top actors of its year—[Andy Lau](/wiki/Andy_Lau \"Andy Lau\"), [Tony Leung Chiu\\-Wai](/wiki/Tony_Leung_Chiu-Wai \"Tony Leung Chiu-Wai\"), [Eric Tsang](/wiki/Eric_Tsang \"Eric Tsang\") and [Anthony Wong](/wiki/Anthony_Wong_Chau_Sang \"Anthony Wong Chau Sang\")—along with the year's two top actresses—[Kelly Chen](/wiki/Kelly_Chen \"Kelly Chen\") and [Sammi Cheng](/wiki/Sammi_Cheng \"Sammi Cheng\"). *Infernal Affairs* was the number one box\\-office hit in Hong Kong that year, breaking several box office records alone. Furthermore, the film won many [Hong Kong Film Awards](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Award \"Hong Kong Film Award\"), including Best Picture, Best Directors (Lau and Mak), Best Screenplay (Mak and co\\-writer Chong), and Best Supporting Actor (Wong). *Infernal Affairs* also went on win awards at the 40th [Golden Horse Awards](/wiki/Golden_Horse_Awards \"Golden Horse Awards\") and the [Golden Bauhinia Awards](/wiki/Golden_Bauhinia_Awards \"Golden Bauhinia Awards\").",
"In 2003, Lau and Mak completed the trilogy with the prequel *[Infernal Affairs II](/wiki/Infernal_Affairs_II \"Infernal Affairs II\")* and the sequel/prequel *[Infernal Affairs III](/wiki/Infernal_Affairs_III \"Infernal Affairs III\")*. That same year, Mak received the 2003 Leader of the Year award in the Sports/Culture/Entertainment category.",
"In 2004, Lau and Mak worked on another blockbuster, [*Initial D*](/wiki/Initial_D_%28film%29 \"Initial D (film)\"), which was shot in [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") and released in Hong Kong during the summer. Once again, it was also another successful film for Lau and Mak, winning multiple awards at the Hong Kong Film Awards, winning for Best New Performer ([Jay Chou](/wiki/Jay_Chou \"Jay Chou\")), Best Supporting Actor (Anthony Wong Chau Sang\\| Anthony Wong), and Best Visual Effects.",
"In 2006, Lau, Mak and scriptwriter Felix Chong re\\-teamed to make the 2005 film, *[Moonlight in Tokyo](/wiki/Moonlight_in_Tokyo \"Moonlight in Tokyo\")*. They re\\-teamed again for the 2006 film *[Confession of Pain](/wiki/Confession_of_Pain \"Confession of Pain\")*, once again re\\-teaming with *Infernal Affairs* star Tony Leung Chiu\\-Wai. He also created *[The Silent War](/wiki/The_Silent_War_%282012_film%29 \"The Silent War (2012 film)\")*.",
"Mak's next film was *[Lady Cop \\& Papa Crook](/wiki/Lady_Cop_%26_Papa_Crook \"Lady Cop & Papa Crook\")* which he co\\-wrote and co\\-directed with [Felix Chong](/wiki/Felix_Chong \"Felix Chong\"). The film was released in 2008 and marked the feature\\-film return of [Sammi Cheng](/wiki/Sammi_Cheng \"Sammi Cheng\") after a three\\-year hiatus.",
"He has worked solidly since then releasing films up until 2019's *Integrity*. His next film *Justices Seeker* is in post\\-production.",
""
] |
Route description
-----------------
[left\|thumb\|NY 443 at the junction with NY 30 in Schoharie](/wiki/File:NY_443W_at_NY_30.jpg "NY 443W at NY 30.jpg")
NY 443 begins at an intersection with [NY 30](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_30 "New York State Route 30") in the town of [Schoharie](/wiki/Schoharie_%28town%29%2C_New_York "Schoharie (town), New York"), just north of the namesake [village](/wiki/Schoharie_%28village%29%2C_New_York "Schoharie (village), New York"). NY 443 proceeds east along a tributary of [Schoharie Creek](/wiki/Schoharie_Creek "Schoharie Creek"), crossing through rural parts of [Schoharie County](/wiki/Schoharie_County%2C_New_York "Schoharie County, New York") as a two\-lane roadway. The route begins to wind eastward as it enters the [hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28New_York%29 "Hamlet (New York)") of Shutters Corners, bending southeast through the town of [Wright](/wiki/Wright%2C_New_York "Wright, New York"). After leaving the residential hamlet of Shutters Corners, NY 443 continues creekside through Wright, entering the hamlet of [Gallupville](/wiki/Gallupville%2C_New_York "Gallupville, New York"). In the residential community, NY 443 turns southward at a junction with the western terminus of [NY 146](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_146 "New York State Route 146").{{bing maps\|url\=http://binged.it/XGbGYa\|title\=overview map of NY 443\|accessdate\=March 1, 2013}}
At the Factory Street intersection, NY 443 turns eastward through Gallupville, turning southeast once again at a junction with [County Route 24](/wiki/County_Route_24_%28Schoharie_County%2C_New_York%29 "County Route 24 (Schoharie County, New York)") (CR 24; Knox Road). NY 443 and CR 24 parallel each other through Wright as they leave Gallupville, paralleling a nearby creek before it turns southeast along Fox Creek. After a long stretch along Fox Creek, NY 443 turns east at Freeman Hill Road, turning southeast again after Schell Road. A short distance southeast of Schell Road, NY 443 and Fox Creek cross the county line into [Albany County](/wiki/Albany_County%2C_New_York "Albany County, New York"). Now in the town of [Knox](/wiki/Knox%2C_New_York "Knox, New York"). Now known as Helderberg Trail, NY 443 turns south into the hamlet of West Berne. In West Berne, the route turns east at a junction with [CR 9](/wiki/County_Route_9_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 "County Route 9 (Albany County, New York)") (Bradt Hollow Road).
[right\|thumb\|NY 443 at NY 146 in Gallupville](/wiki/File:NY_443_at_NY_146.jpg "NY 443 at NY 146.jpg")
Crossing east through West Berne, NY 443 continues along the creek, soon leaving West Berne for the town of [Berne](/wiki/Berne%2C_New_York "Berne, New York"). The route crosses [CR 1](/wiki/County_Route_1_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 "County Route 1 (Albany County, New York)") (Switz Kill Road) and skirts the northern edge of Town of Berne Park. At the junction with the eastern terminus of CR 9 (Canaday Hill Road), NY 443 enters the hamlet of Berne, becoming the main commercial street, turning northward at a junction with Irish Hill Road. At the northern end of the north stretch, the route intersects with the western terminus of [NY 156](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_156 "New York State Route 156") (Berne–Altamont Road). NY 443 continues east along Helderberg Trail through Berne, soon turning southeast through the town. At the junction with Turner Road, the route bends southward, then turns eastward once again.
Continuing east through Berne, NY 443 becomes a two\-lane rural roadway, reaching the hamlet of East Berne. The route passes south of Warners Lake and intersects with Thacher Park Road ([NY 910J](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_910J "New York State Route 910J")) just south of that road's junction with [NY 157A](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_157A "New York State Route 157A"). Bending southeast out of East Berne, NY 443 passes south of a local airstrip, bending southeast through the rural community. At the junction with [CR 303](/wiki/County_Route_303_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 "County Route 303 (Albany County, New York)") (Pinnacle Road), NY 443 makes a short dart to the southeast and intersects with [NY 85](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_85 "New York State Route 85") (Delaware Turnpike). Dropping the Helderberg Trail moniker, NY 443 and NY 85 become concurrent along Delaware Turnpike, passing south of Helderberg Lake. NY 443 and NY 85 remain a two\-lane residential road, crossing into the town of [New Scotland](/wiki/New_Scotland%2C_New_York "New Scotland, New York").
After passing the Letter S roads, NY 443 and NY 85 turn southeast, reaching a junction with New Scotland Road, where NY 85 turns eastward. NY 443 continues southward on Delaware Turnpike. Crossing through a wooded section of New Scotland, NY 443 soon bends southeast, reaching the northern terminus of [CR 312](/wiki/County_Route_312_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 "County Route 312 (Albany County, New York)") (Clarksville South Road). After a short distance east, through the residential neighborhood of New Scotland, intersecting with the western terminus of [CR 301](/wiki/County_Route_301_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 "County Route 301 (Albany County, New York)") (Tarrytown Road), which eventually becomes [NY 396](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_396 "New York State Route 396") in [Bethlehem](/wiki/Bethlehem%2C_New_York "Bethlehem, New York"). Continuing east along Delaware Turnpike, NY 443 leaves the residential area, returning to the dense woods in New Scotland.
[left\|thumb\|NY 85 at the junction with NY 443 in the town of Berne](/wiki/File:NY_85_at_NY_443.jpg "NY 85 at NY 443.jpg")
Bending northeast through New Scotland, NY 443 crosses multiple residential roads that branch off, soon crossing into another residential area near the junction with [CR 308](/wiki/County_Route_308_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 "County Route 308 (Albany County, New York)") (New Scotland South Road). Entering the hamlet of [Unionville](/wiki/Unionville%2C_Albany_County%2C_New_York "Unionville, Albany County, New York"), NY 443 crosses another junction with CR 308 (Feura Bush Unionville Road). NY 443 crosses under the [Selkirk Subdivision](/wiki/Selkirk_Subdivision "Selkirk Subdivision") of [CSX Transportation](/wiki/CSX_Transportation "CSX Transportation"), passing through the center of Unionville. The route bends northward and crosses into the town of Bethlehem, changing names to Delaware Avenue. Passing south of multiple housing residences, NY 443 passes an intersection with [CR 52](/wiki/County_Route_52_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 "County Route 52 (Albany County, New York)") (Elm Avenue / Cherry Avenue).
After crossing CR 52, NY 443 continues northeast along Delaware Avenue, entering the hamlet of [Delmar](/wiki/Delmar%2C_New_York "Delmar, New York"). Along this stretch, NY 443 is a long residential street, intersecting with the eastern terminus of [NY 140](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_140 "New York State Route 140") (Kenwood Avenue) in the center of Delmar. Reaching the hamlet of Elsmere, NY 443 intersects with the northern terminus of [NY 335](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_335 "New York State Route 335") (Elsmere Avenue). Near Euclid Avenue, the route begins to parallel the Normans Kill, crossing under the [New York State Thruway](/wiki/New_York_State_Thruway "New York State Thruway") ([I\-87](/wiki/Interstate_87_%28New_York%29 "Interstate 87 (New York)")) just east of the latter's exit 23\. The route now enters the city of [Albany](/wiki/Albany%2C_New_York "Albany, New York"), crossing through the Delaware Avenue section of the city. A commercial and residential street, NY 443 soon intersects with [US 9W](/wiki/U.S._Route_9W "U.S. Route 9W") (Southern Boulevard).
NY 443 and US 9W continue northeast along Delaware Avenue, running along the western edge of Lincoln Park, crossing into the Capitol Hill section of Albany. In this neighborhood, NY 443 and US 9W turn north into a junction with [US 20](/wiki/U.S._Route_20_in_New_York "U.S. Route 20 in New York") (Madison Avenue). At this intersection, US 9W runs north on Lark Street, while NY 443 terminates at this intersection and the right\-of\-way merges into Lark Street.
|
[
"Route description\n-----------------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|NY 443 at the junction with NY 30 in Schoharie](/wiki/File:NY_443W_at_NY_30.jpg \"NY 443W at NY 30.jpg\")\nNY 443 begins at an intersection with [NY 30](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_30 \"New York State Route 30\") in the town of [Schoharie](/wiki/Schoharie_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Schoharie (town), New York\"), just north of the namesake [village](/wiki/Schoharie_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Schoharie (village), New York\"). NY 443 proceeds east along a tributary of [Schoharie Creek](/wiki/Schoharie_Creek \"Schoharie Creek\"), crossing through rural parts of [Schoharie County](/wiki/Schoharie_County%2C_New_York \"Schoharie County, New York\") as a two\\-lane roadway. The route begins to wind eastward as it enters the [hamlet](/wiki/Hamlet_%28New_York%29 \"Hamlet (New York)\") of Shutters Corners, bending southeast through the town of [Wright](/wiki/Wright%2C_New_York \"Wright, New York\"). After leaving the residential hamlet of Shutters Corners, NY 443 continues creekside through Wright, entering the hamlet of [Gallupville](/wiki/Gallupville%2C_New_York \"Gallupville, New York\"). In the residential community, NY 443 turns southward at a junction with the western terminus of [NY 146](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_146 \"New York State Route 146\").{{bing maps\\|url\\=http://binged.it/XGbGYa\\|title\\=overview map of NY 443\\|accessdate\\=March 1, 2013}}",
"At the Factory Street intersection, NY 443 turns eastward through Gallupville, turning southeast once again at a junction with [County Route 24](/wiki/County_Route_24_%28Schoharie_County%2C_New_York%29 \"County Route 24 (Schoharie County, New York)\") (CR 24; Knox Road). NY 443 and CR 24 parallel each other through Wright as they leave Gallupville, paralleling a nearby creek before it turns southeast along Fox Creek. After a long stretch along Fox Creek, NY 443 turns east at Freeman Hill Road, turning southeast again after Schell Road. A short distance southeast of Schell Road, NY 443 and Fox Creek cross the county line into [Albany County](/wiki/Albany_County%2C_New_York \"Albany County, New York\"). Now in the town of [Knox](/wiki/Knox%2C_New_York \"Knox, New York\"). Now known as Helderberg Trail, NY 443 turns south into the hamlet of West Berne. In West Berne, the route turns east at a junction with [CR 9](/wiki/County_Route_9_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 \"County Route 9 (Albany County, New York)\") (Bradt Hollow Road).\n[right\\|thumb\\|NY 443 at NY 146 in Gallupville](/wiki/File:NY_443_at_NY_146.jpg \"NY 443 at NY 146.jpg\")\nCrossing east through West Berne, NY 443 continues along the creek, soon leaving West Berne for the town of [Berne](/wiki/Berne%2C_New_York \"Berne, New York\"). The route crosses [CR 1](/wiki/County_Route_1_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 \"County Route 1 (Albany County, New York)\") (Switz Kill Road) and skirts the northern edge of Town of Berne Park. At the junction with the eastern terminus of CR 9 (Canaday Hill Road), NY 443 enters the hamlet of Berne, becoming the main commercial street, turning northward at a junction with Irish Hill Road. At the northern end of the north stretch, the route intersects with the western terminus of [NY 156](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_156 \"New York State Route 156\") (Berne–Altamont Road). NY 443 continues east along Helderberg Trail through Berne, soon turning southeast through the town. At the junction with Turner Road, the route bends southward, then turns eastward once again.",
"Continuing east through Berne, NY 443 becomes a two\\-lane rural roadway, reaching the hamlet of East Berne. The route passes south of Warners Lake and intersects with Thacher Park Road ([NY 910J](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_910J \"New York State Route 910J\")) just south of that road's junction with [NY 157A](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_157A \"New York State Route 157A\"). Bending southeast out of East Berne, NY 443 passes south of a local airstrip, bending southeast through the rural community. At the junction with [CR 303](/wiki/County_Route_303_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 \"County Route 303 (Albany County, New York)\") (Pinnacle Road), NY 443 makes a short dart to the southeast and intersects with [NY 85](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_85 \"New York State Route 85\") (Delaware Turnpike). Dropping the Helderberg Trail moniker, NY 443 and NY 85 become concurrent along Delaware Turnpike, passing south of Helderberg Lake. NY 443 and NY 85 remain a two\\-lane residential road, crossing into the town of [New Scotland](/wiki/New_Scotland%2C_New_York \"New Scotland, New York\").",
"After passing the Letter S roads, NY 443 and NY 85 turn southeast, reaching a junction with New Scotland Road, where NY 85 turns eastward. NY 443 continues southward on Delaware Turnpike. Crossing through a wooded section of New Scotland, NY 443 soon bends southeast, reaching the northern terminus of [CR 312](/wiki/County_Route_312_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 \"County Route 312 (Albany County, New York)\") (Clarksville South Road). After a short distance east, through the residential neighborhood of New Scotland, intersecting with the western terminus of [CR 301](/wiki/County_Route_301_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 \"County Route 301 (Albany County, New York)\") (Tarrytown Road), which eventually becomes [NY 396](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_396 \"New York State Route 396\") in [Bethlehem](/wiki/Bethlehem%2C_New_York \"Bethlehem, New York\"). Continuing east along Delaware Turnpike, NY 443 leaves the residential area, returning to the dense woods in New Scotland.\n[left\\|thumb\\|NY 85 at the junction with NY 443 in the town of Berne](/wiki/File:NY_85_at_NY_443.jpg \"NY 85 at NY 443.jpg\")\nBending northeast through New Scotland, NY 443 crosses multiple residential roads that branch off, soon crossing into another residential area near the junction with [CR 308](/wiki/County_Route_308_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 \"County Route 308 (Albany County, New York)\") (New Scotland South Road). Entering the hamlet of [Unionville](/wiki/Unionville%2C_Albany_County%2C_New_York \"Unionville, Albany County, New York\"), NY 443 crosses another junction with CR 308 (Feura Bush Unionville Road). NY 443 crosses under the [Selkirk Subdivision](/wiki/Selkirk_Subdivision \"Selkirk Subdivision\") of [CSX Transportation](/wiki/CSX_Transportation \"CSX Transportation\"), passing through the center of Unionville. The route bends northward and crosses into the town of Bethlehem, changing names to Delaware Avenue. Passing south of multiple housing residences, NY 443 passes an intersection with [CR 52](/wiki/County_Route_52_%28Albany_County%2C_New_York%29 \"County Route 52 (Albany County, New York)\") (Elm Avenue / Cherry Avenue).",
"After crossing CR 52, NY 443 continues northeast along Delaware Avenue, entering the hamlet of [Delmar](/wiki/Delmar%2C_New_York \"Delmar, New York\"). Along this stretch, NY 443 is a long residential street, intersecting with the eastern terminus of [NY 140](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_140 \"New York State Route 140\") (Kenwood Avenue) in the center of Delmar. Reaching the hamlet of Elsmere, NY 443 intersects with the northern terminus of [NY 335](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_335 \"New York State Route 335\") (Elsmere Avenue). Near Euclid Avenue, the route begins to parallel the Normans Kill, crossing under the [New York State Thruway](/wiki/New_York_State_Thruway \"New York State Thruway\") ([I\\-87](/wiki/Interstate_87_%28New_York%29 \"Interstate 87 (New York)\")) just east of the latter's exit 23\\. The route now enters the city of [Albany](/wiki/Albany%2C_New_York \"Albany, New York\"), crossing through the Delaware Avenue section of the city. A commercial and residential street, NY 443 soon intersects with [US 9W](/wiki/U.S._Route_9W \"U.S. Route 9W\") (Southern Boulevard).",
"NY 443 and US 9W continue northeast along Delaware Avenue, running along the western edge of Lincoln Park, crossing into the Capitol Hill section of Albany. In this neighborhood, NY 443 and US 9W turn north into a junction with [US 20](/wiki/U.S._Route_20_in_New_York \"U.S. Route 20 in New York\") (Madison Avenue). At this intersection, US 9W runs north on Lark Street, while NY 443 terminates at this intersection and the right\\-of\\-way merges into Lark Street.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Arizona Cardinals
After going undrafted in the [2014 NFL draft](/wiki/2014_NFL_draft "2014 NFL draft"), he signed with the Arizona Cardinals. He was waived on August 30, 2014\.
### New England Patriots
He was signed to the Patriots’ practice squad on August 31, 2014, but was later waived on September 3, 2014\.
### Miami Dolphins
On September 4, 2014, Gaston was signed to the Dolphins’ active roster, but was later waived on September 20\. He signed with their practice squad on September 23, 2014\.
### Arizona Cardinals
Gaston joined the Cardinals’ active roster by being signed off the Dolphins’ practice squad on September 24, 2014\. He was later waived on November 1, 2014, but was signed to Arizona’s practice squad on November 4, 2014\.
### Green Bay Packers
He was signed to the Packers’ active roster from the Cardinals’ practice squad on December 8, 2014\.{{cite web\|work\=Packers.com\|url\=http://www.packers.com/news\-and\-events/article\-roster\-moves/article\-1/Packers\-sign\-Gaston\-to\-active\-roster\-place\-Robinson\-on\-IR/091e66c5\-3a4e\-418c\-8734\-874e2cf26a16\|title\=Packers sign Gaston to active roster, place Robinson on IR\|date\=December 8, 2014\|access\-date\=January 13, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221084912/http://www.packers.com/news\-and\-events/article\-roster\-moves/article\-1/Packers\-sign\-Gaston\-to\-active\-roster\-place\-Robinson\-on\-IR/091e66c5\-3a4e\-418c\-8734\-874e2cf26a16\|archive\-date\=February 21, 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} He was later waived on October 3, 2015, but was signed to their practice squad on October 6, 2015\.
### Chicago Bears
On October 17, 2015, Gaston was signed off the Packers' practice squad by the [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears "Chicago Bears") to their active roster.{{cite news\|work\=ChicagoTribune.com\|url\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/football/bears/ct\-ego\-ferguson\-injured\-reserve\-20151017\-story.html\|title\=Ego Ferguson out for year; Bears poach lineman from Packers\|first\=Bruce\|last\=Briggs\|date\=October 17, 2015}} He played in seven games for the Bears in 2015, recording 11 total tackles and one sack.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/players/G/GastBr00\.htm \| title\=Bruce Gaston \| publisher\=Sports Reference LLC \| work\=pro\-football\-reference.com \| access\-date\=July 28, 2016}} He was released by the Bears on May 16, 2016\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.foxsports.com/nfl/bruce\-gaston\-player\-transactions \| title\=BRUCE GASTON \| work\=foxsports.com \| access\-date\=July 28, 2016}}
### Minnesota Vikings
Gaston signed with the [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/Minnesota_Vikings "Minnesota Vikings") on May 31, 2016\. He was released by the team on June 16, 2016\.{{cite news\|work\=NBCSports.com\|url\=http://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2016/06/16/vikings\-cut\-bruce\-gaston\-travis\-lewis/\|title\=Vikings cut Bruce Gaston, Travis Lewis\|first\=Josh\|last\=Alper \|date\=June 16, 2016\|access\-date\=August 29, 2016}}
### San Diego Chargers
Gaston signed with the [San Diego Chargers](/wiki/San_Diego_Chargers "San Diego Chargers") on July 31, 2016\.{{cite web\|work\=Chargers.com\|url\=http://www.chargers.com/news/2016/07/31/chargers\-sign\-pair\-defensive\-veterans\|title\=Chargers Sign Pair of Defensive Veterans\|date\=July 31, 2016\|first\=Ricky \|last\=Henne\|access\-date\=August 29, 2016}} On August 29, 2016, the Chargers waived him.{{cite web\|work\=Chargers.com\|url\=http://www.chargers.com/news/2016/08/29/chargers\-waive\-six\-claim\-rb\-gus\-johnson\|title\=Chargers Waive Six; Claim RB Gus Johnson\|first\=Ricky \|last\=Henne\|date\=August 29, 2016\|access\-date\=August 29, 2016}}
### Philadelphia Eagles
Gaston signed with the Eagles on August 30, 2016\. On September 3, 2016, he was released by the Eagles.{{cite web\|title\=Eagles Trim Roster to 53 Players\|url\=http://www.philadelphiaeagles.com/news/article\-1/Eagles\-Trim\-Roster\-to\-53\-Players/d944f9aa\-c29e\-4e64\-8fcc\-0016e13dcdec\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827043215/http://www.philadelphiaeagles.com/news/article\-1/Eagles\-Trim\-Roster\-to\-53\-Players/d944f9aa\-c29e\-4e64\-8fcc\-0016e13dcdec\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=August 27, 2017\|last\=McPherson\|first\=Chris\|website\=PhiladelphiaEagles.com\|date\=September 3, 2016}}
### Carolina Panthers
On November 8, 2016, Gaston was signed to the Panthers' practice squad.{{cite web\|title\=Panthers Sign DT Bruce Gaston To Practice Squad\|url\=http://nfltraderumors.co/panthers\-sign\-dt\-bruce\-gaston\-practice\-squad/\|date\=November 8, 2016}} He was released by the Panthers on November 22, 2016\.{{cite web\|title\=Panthers add CB Tyler Patmon to practice squad\|url\=https://www.panthers.com/news/panthers\-add\-cb\-tyler\-patmon\-to\-practice\-squad\-18131273\|website\=Panthers.com\|date\=November 22, 2016}}
### Detroit Lions
On June 8, 2017, Gaston signed with the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions").{{cite web\|title\=Lions sign free agents DT Ego Ferguson and DT Bruce Gaston\|url\=http://www.detroitlions.com/news/news\-short/article\-1/Lions\-sign\-free\-agents\-DT\-Ego\-Ferguson\-and\-DT\-Bruce\-Gaston/600f0eda\-9b5c\-4817\-b1c3\-633e051f0db3\|website\=DetroitLions.com\|date\=June 8, 2017\|access\-date\=June 8, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608145413/http://www.detroitlions.com/news/news\-short/article\-1/Lions\-sign\-free\-agents\-DT\-Ego\-Ferguson\-and\-DT\-Bruce\-Gaston/600f0eda\-9b5c\-4817\-b1c3\-633e051f0db3\|archive\-date\=June 8, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} He was waived/injured on August 21, 2017 and placed on injured reserve.{{cite web\|title\=Lions sign free agent TE Scott Orndoff\|url\=http://www.detroitlions.com/news/news\-short/article\-1/Lions\-sign\-free\-agent\-TE\-Scott\-Orndoff/9ca0b1f3\-302a\-4c3d\-b2de\-6583ff607076\|website\=DetroitLions.com\|date\=August 21, 2017\|access\-date\=August 21, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821180506/http://www.detroitlions.com/news/news\-short/article\-1/Lions\-sign\-free\-agent\-TE\-Scott\-Orndoff/9ca0b1f3\-302a\-4c3d\-b2de\-6583ff607076\|archive\-date\=August 21, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} He was released on August 26, 2017\.
### Ottawa Redblacks
On May 23, 2018 the [Ottawa Redblacks](/wiki/Ottawa_Redblacks "Ottawa Redblacks") of the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League "Canadian Football League") (CFL) announced the signing of Gaston.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.ottawaredblacks.com/2018/05/24/transactions\-may\-23\-2018/\|title\=Transactions: May 23, 2018 – Ottawa REDBLACKS\|date\=2018\-05\-24\|work\=Ottawa REDBLACKS\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-25\|language\=en\-US}} He was released on June 9, 2018\.{{cite web \|url\=https://ottawasun.com/sports/football/cfl/ottawa\-redblacks/ottawa\-redblacks\-release\-nine\-players\-including\-usports\-mvp\-ed\-ilnicki \|title\=Ottawa Redblacks release nine players, including USports MVP Ed Ilnicki \|author\=Tim Baines \|date\=June 9, 2018 \|publisher\=Postmedia Network Inc. \|work\=www.ottawasun.com \|access\-date\=March 28, 2019}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Arizona Cardinals",
"After going undrafted in the [2014 NFL draft](/wiki/2014_NFL_draft \"2014 NFL draft\"), he signed with the Arizona Cardinals. He was waived on August 30, 2014\\.",
"### New England Patriots",
"He was signed to the Patriots’ practice squad on August 31, 2014, but was later waived on September 3, 2014\\.",
"### Miami Dolphins",
"On September 4, 2014, Gaston was signed to the Dolphins’ active roster, but was later waived on September 20\\. He signed with their practice squad on September 23, 2014\\.",
"### Arizona Cardinals",
"Gaston joined the Cardinals’ active roster by being signed off the Dolphins’ practice squad on September 24, 2014\\. He was later waived on November 1, 2014, but was signed to Arizona’s practice squad on November 4, 2014\\.",
"### Green Bay Packers",
"He was signed to the Packers’ active roster from the Cardinals’ practice squad on December 8, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|work\\=Packers.com\\|url\\=http://www.packers.com/news\\-and\\-events/article\\-roster\\-moves/article\\-1/Packers\\-sign\\-Gaston\\-to\\-active\\-roster\\-place\\-Robinson\\-on\\-IR/091e66c5\\-3a4e\\-418c\\-8734\\-874e2cf26a16\\|title\\=Packers sign Gaston to active roster, place Robinson on IR\\|date\\=December 8, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221084912/http://www.packers.com/news\\-and\\-events/article\\-roster\\-moves/article\\-1/Packers\\-sign\\-Gaston\\-to\\-active\\-roster\\-place\\-Robinson\\-on\\-IR/091e66c5\\-3a4e\\-418c\\-8734\\-874e2cf26a16\\|archive\\-date\\=February 21, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was later waived on October 3, 2015, but was signed to their practice squad on October 6, 2015\\.",
"### Chicago Bears",
"On October 17, 2015, Gaston was signed off the Packers' practice squad by the [Chicago Bears](/wiki/Chicago_Bears \"Chicago Bears\") to their active roster.{{cite news\\|work\\=ChicagoTribune.com\\|url\\=http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/football/bears/ct\\-ego\\-ferguson\\-injured\\-reserve\\-20151017\\-story.html\\|title\\=Ego Ferguson out for year; Bears poach lineman from Packers\\|first\\=Bruce\\|last\\=Briggs\\|date\\=October 17, 2015}} He played in seven games for the Bears in 2015, recording 11 total tackles and one sack.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/players/G/GastBr00\\.htm \\| title\\=Bruce Gaston \\| publisher\\=Sports Reference LLC \\| work\\=pro\\-football\\-reference.com \\| access\\-date\\=July 28, 2016}} He was released by the Bears on May 16, 2016\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.foxsports.com/nfl/bruce\\-gaston\\-player\\-transactions \\| title\\=BRUCE GASTON \\| work\\=foxsports.com \\| access\\-date\\=July 28, 2016}}",
"### Minnesota Vikings",
"Gaston signed with the [Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/Minnesota_Vikings \"Minnesota Vikings\") on May 31, 2016\\. He was released by the team on June 16, 2016\\.{{cite news\\|work\\=NBCSports.com\\|url\\=http://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2016/06/16/vikings\\-cut\\-bruce\\-gaston\\-travis\\-lewis/\\|title\\=Vikings cut Bruce Gaston, Travis Lewis\\|first\\=Josh\\|last\\=Alper \\|date\\=June 16, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2016}}",
"### San Diego Chargers",
"Gaston signed with the [San Diego Chargers](/wiki/San_Diego_Chargers \"San Diego Chargers\") on July 31, 2016\\.{{cite web\\|work\\=Chargers.com\\|url\\=http://www.chargers.com/news/2016/07/31/chargers\\-sign\\-pair\\-defensive\\-veterans\\|title\\=Chargers Sign Pair of Defensive Veterans\\|date\\=July 31, 2016\\|first\\=Ricky \\|last\\=Henne\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2016}} On August 29, 2016, the Chargers waived him.{{cite web\\|work\\=Chargers.com\\|url\\=http://www.chargers.com/news/2016/08/29/chargers\\-waive\\-six\\-claim\\-rb\\-gus\\-johnson\\|title\\=Chargers Waive Six; Claim RB Gus Johnson\\|first\\=Ricky \\|last\\=Henne\\|date\\=August 29, 2016\\|access\\-date\\=August 29, 2016}}",
"### Philadelphia Eagles",
"Gaston signed with the Eagles on August 30, 2016\\. On September 3, 2016, he was released by the Eagles.{{cite web\\|title\\=Eagles Trim Roster to 53 Players\\|url\\=http://www.philadelphiaeagles.com/news/article\\-1/Eagles\\-Trim\\-Roster\\-to\\-53\\-Players/d944f9aa\\-c29e\\-4e64\\-8fcc\\-0016e13dcdec\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827043215/http://www.philadelphiaeagles.com/news/article\\-1/Eagles\\-Trim\\-Roster\\-to\\-53\\-Players/d944f9aa\\-c29e\\-4e64\\-8fcc\\-0016e13dcdec\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=August 27, 2017\\|last\\=McPherson\\|first\\=Chris\\|website\\=PhiladelphiaEagles.com\\|date\\=September 3, 2016}}",
"### Carolina Panthers",
"On November 8, 2016, Gaston was signed to the Panthers' practice squad.{{cite web\\|title\\=Panthers Sign DT Bruce Gaston To Practice Squad\\|url\\=http://nfltraderumors.co/panthers\\-sign\\-dt\\-bruce\\-gaston\\-practice\\-squad/\\|date\\=November 8, 2016}} He was released by the Panthers on November 22, 2016\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Panthers add CB Tyler Patmon to practice squad\\|url\\=https://www.panthers.com/news/panthers\\-add\\-cb\\-tyler\\-patmon\\-to\\-practice\\-squad\\-18131273\\|website\\=Panthers.com\\|date\\=November 22, 2016}}",
"### Detroit Lions",
"On June 8, 2017, Gaston signed with the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Lions sign free agents DT Ego Ferguson and DT Bruce Gaston\\|url\\=http://www.detroitlions.com/news/news\\-short/article\\-1/Lions\\-sign\\-free\\-agents\\-DT\\-Ego\\-Ferguson\\-and\\-DT\\-Bruce\\-Gaston/600f0eda\\-9b5c\\-4817\\-b1c3\\-633e051f0db3\\|website\\=DetroitLions.com\\|date\\=June 8, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=June 8, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608145413/http://www.detroitlions.com/news/news\\-short/article\\-1/Lions\\-sign\\-free\\-agents\\-DT\\-Ego\\-Ferguson\\-and\\-DT\\-Bruce\\-Gaston/600f0eda\\-9b5c\\-4817\\-b1c3\\-633e051f0db3\\|archive\\-date\\=June 8, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was waived/injured on August 21, 2017 and placed on injured reserve.{{cite web\\|title\\=Lions sign free agent TE Scott Orndoff\\|url\\=http://www.detroitlions.com/news/news\\-short/article\\-1/Lions\\-sign\\-free\\-agent\\-TE\\-Scott\\-Orndoff/9ca0b1f3\\-302a\\-4c3d\\-b2de\\-6583ff607076\\|website\\=DetroitLions.com\\|date\\=August 21, 2017\\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821180506/http://www.detroitlions.com/news/news\\-short/article\\-1/Lions\\-sign\\-free\\-agent\\-TE\\-Scott\\-Orndoff/9ca0b1f3\\-302a\\-4c3d\\-b2de\\-6583ff607076\\|archive\\-date\\=August 21, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He was released on August 26, 2017\\.",
"### Ottawa Redblacks",
"On May 23, 2018 the [Ottawa Redblacks](/wiki/Ottawa_Redblacks \"Ottawa Redblacks\") of the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League \"Canadian Football League\") (CFL) announced the signing of Gaston.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.ottawaredblacks.com/2018/05/24/transactions\\-may\\-23\\-2018/\\|title\\=Transactions: May 23, 2018 – Ottawa REDBLACKS\\|date\\=2018\\-05\\-24\\|work\\=Ottawa REDBLACKS\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-25\\|language\\=en\\-US}} He was released on June 9, 2018\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://ottawasun.com/sports/football/cfl/ottawa\\-redblacks/ottawa\\-redblacks\\-release\\-nine\\-players\\-including\\-usports\\-mvp\\-ed\\-ilnicki \\|title\\=Ottawa Redblacks release nine players, including USports MVP Ed Ilnicki \\|author\\=Tim Baines \\|date\\=June 9, 2018 \\|publisher\\=Postmedia Network Inc. \\|work\\=www.ottawasun.com \\|access\\-date\\=March 28, 2019}}",
""
] |
Cricket
-------
A second trial with Kent in 1947 saw Witherden judged to be a "fair" player but one who, at the age of 26, was considered to be "too old".Quoted in KCCC Annual 2020, p.220\. He was playing for [Leigh](/wiki/Leigh%2C_Kent "Leigh, Kent") Cricket Club in [Kent](/wiki/Kent "Kent") [A Potted History of Leigh CC](http://www.leighcc.co.uk/history.htm), Leigh Cricket Club. Retrieved 5 September 2017 and working on the ground staff at [Tonbridge School](/wiki/Tonbridge_School "Tonbridge School") when he played his first matches for Kent Second XI in 1950\.[Ted Witherden](https://www.thepca.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Beyond-the-Boundaries-issue-25.pdf), Obituaries, Beyond the Boundaries, issue 25, [Professional Cricketers Association](/wiki/Professional_Cricketers_Association "Professional Cricketers Association"), 2019\. Retrieved 7 August 2020\. In three matches he took 19 wickets with his off\-spin at a [bowling average](/wiki/Bowling_average "Bowling average") of 13\.52 and, despite his age, was taken on to the Kent staff for the 1951 season.*[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack](/wiki/Wisden_Cricketers%27_Almanack "Wisden Cricketers' Almanack")*, 1951, pp. 653, 677\.
He played as a professional for Kent from 1951 to 1955, but never established a firm place in the side. Good bowling performances for the Kent Club and Ground and Second XI sides saw Witherden make his first\-class debut in 1951 against [a Minor Counties XI](/wiki/Minor_counties_of_English_and_Welsh_cricket "Minor counties of English and Welsh cricket"), taking [five wickets](/wiki/Five-wicket_haul "Five-wicket haul") on debut for a cost of 32 runs (5/32\) in the second innings. He played once more for the First XI during the season, but impressed for the Second XI, recording a [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28cricket%29 "Batting average (cricket)") of 76\.83 during the season. A single First XI appearance in 1952 followed, although he scored 844 runs and took 66 wickets for the Second XI, and ahead of the 1953 season it was announced that he would be acting as an assistant coach as well as being retained as a professional.
Three centuries for the Second XI saw Witherden called into the Kent side in July 1953\. He enjoyed a purple patch, scoring both of his first\-class centuries in a fortnight. At [Blackheath](/wiki/Rectory_Field "Rectory Field") he scored 26 not out in a Kent first innings total of 63 against [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey_County_Cricket_Club "Surrey County Cricket Club"), who were beginning to dominate county cricket, and then made 125 not out in five hours in the second innings, his first first\-class century, almost single\-handedly preventing defeat.Obituaries in 2019, *Wisden*, 2020\. ([Available online](https://books.google.com/books?id=l97bDwAAQBAJ&dq=ted+witherden&pg=PT248). Retrieved 7 August 2020\.)Kent v Surrey, *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")*, 14 July 1953, p.9\. ([Available online](https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS151212270/TTDA?u=nl_earl&sid=TTDA&xid=34370873) at The Times Digital Archive {{subscription required}}. Retrieved 8 August 2020\.)Kent v Surrey, *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")*, 15 July 1953, p.6\. ([Available online](https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS100880623/TTDA?u=nl_earl&sid=TTDA&xid=c9fa91c9) at The Times Digital Archive {{subscription required}}. Retrieved 8 August 2020\.) In the following match, Witherden made 8 and 51 against [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club "Warwickshire County Cricket Club") at [Maidstone](/wiki/Mote_Park_%28cricket_ground%29 "Mote Park (cricket ground)"), and the following day scored 100, his only other first\-class century, in three hours in an innings victory over [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire_County_Cricket_Club "Worcestershire County Cricket Club") on the same ground.*Wisden*, 1954, pp. 412–15\.Kent v Worcestershire, *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")*, 20 July 1953, p.3\. ([Available online](https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS50548980/TTDA?u=nl_earl&sid=TTDA&xid=4c3ce008) at The Times Digital Archive {{subscription required}}. Retrieved 8 August 2020\.)
The remainder of the 1953 season saw only two more double\-figure scores for Witherden as he played in nine Kent matches. Two half\-centuries at the start of the 1954 season showed more promise, but in 22 appearances for Kent he only made one other score of 50, scoring 72 against [Essex](/wiki/Essex_County_Cricket_Club "Essex County Cricket Club") at Blackheath. The following season he made only six appearances for the First XI, although he again scored well for the Second XI. In total he made 40 first\-class appearances for Kent, scoring 1,380 runs and taking nine wickets.
After 1955 he left Kent and joined the minor county [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk_County_Cricket_Club "Norfolk County Cricket Club"), where he played as their professional for seven seasons, replacing [Cecil Boswell](/wiki/Cecil_Boswell "Cecil Boswell").Hounsome K (2015\) *A Game Well Played: a history of cricket in Norfolk*, p.212\. Norwich: Hounsome. {{isbn\|978\-0\-9932296\-0\-2}} He was highly successful in his first five seasons, and was the leading run\-scorer in the [Minor Counties Championship](/wiki/Minor_Counties_Championship "Minor Counties Championship") in 1958, scoring 808 runs at a [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28cricket%29 "Batting average (cricket)") of 44\.88,*Wisden* 1959, pp. 702, 718–19\. in 1959 (1,031 runs at 79\.30 with three centuries)Hounsome, p.214\.*Wisden* 1960, pp.708, 718\. and in 1960 (855 runs at 53\.43\).*Wisden* 1961, pp.707, 716\. He was also one of the leading Minor Counties bowlers in 1956\.*Wisden* 1957, pp.708–9\. His 1959 performance was the first time a Norfolk batsman had scored 1,000 runs in the Minor Counties Championship and remains one of only 13 times the feat has been achieved and is the eighth highest season's aggregate in the competition's history.
In his seven seasons with Norfolk, Witherden played 76 Minor County matches, scoring 4,794 runs at an average of 45\.65, with 13 centuries, and taking 104 wickets at 21\.15\.Hounsome, p.218\. He was awarded a [benefit season](/wiki/Benefit_season "Benefit season") in 1961, but suffered an injury to his right hand. This required an operation in 1962, meaning that he missed half of Norfolk's matches.
|
[
"Cricket\n-------",
"A second trial with Kent in 1947 saw Witherden judged to be a \"fair\" player but one who, at the age of 26, was considered to be \"too old\".Quoted in KCCC Annual 2020, p.220\\. He was playing for [Leigh](/wiki/Leigh%2C_Kent \"Leigh, Kent\") Cricket Club in [Kent](/wiki/Kent \"Kent\") [A Potted History of Leigh CC](http://www.leighcc.co.uk/history.htm), Leigh Cricket Club. Retrieved 5 September 2017 and working on the ground staff at [Tonbridge School](/wiki/Tonbridge_School \"Tonbridge School\") when he played his first matches for Kent Second XI in 1950\\.[Ted Witherden](https://www.thepca.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Beyond-the-Boundaries-issue-25.pdf), Obituaries, Beyond the Boundaries, issue 25, [Professional Cricketers Association](/wiki/Professional_Cricketers_Association \"Professional Cricketers Association\"), 2019\\. Retrieved 7 August 2020\\. In three matches he took 19 wickets with his off\\-spin at a [bowling average](/wiki/Bowling_average \"Bowling average\") of 13\\.52 and, despite his age, was taken on to the Kent staff for the 1951 season.*[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack](/wiki/Wisden_Cricketers%27_Almanack \"Wisden Cricketers' Almanack\")*, 1951, pp. 653, 677\\.",
"He played as a professional for Kent from 1951 to 1955, but never established a firm place in the side. Good bowling performances for the Kent Club and Ground and Second XI sides saw Witherden make his first\\-class debut in 1951 against [a Minor Counties XI](/wiki/Minor_counties_of_English_and_Welsh_cricket \"Minor counties of English and Welsh cricket\"), taking [five wickets](/wiki/Five-wicket_haul \"Five-wicket haul\") on debut for a cost of 32 runs (5/32\\) in the second innings. He played once more for the First XI during the season, but impressed for the Second XI, recording a [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28cricket%29 \"Batting average (cricket)\") of 76\\.83 during the season. A single First XI appearance in 1952 followed, although he scored 844 runs and took 66 wickets for the Second XI, and ahead of the 1953 season it was announced that he would be acting as an assistant coach as well as being retained as a professional.",
"Three centuries for the Second XI saw Witherden called into the Kent side in July 1953\\. He enjoyed a purple patch, scoring both of his first\\-class centuries in a fortnight. At [Blackheath](/wiki/Rectory_Field \"Rectory Field\") he scored 26 not out in a Kent first innings total of 63 against [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey_County_Cricket_Club \"Surrey County Cricket Club\"), who were beginning to dominate county cricket, and then made 125 not out in five hours in the second innings, his first first\\-class century, almost single\\-handedly preventing defeat.Obituaries in 2019, *Wisden*, 2020\\. ([Available online](https://books.google.com/books?id=l97bDwAAQBAJ&dq=ted+witherden&pg=PT248). Retrieved 7 August 2020\\.)Kent v Surrey, *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")*, 14 July 1953, p.9\\. ([Available online](https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS151212270/TTDA?u=nl_earl&sid=TTDA&xid=34370873) at The Times Digital Archive {{subscription required}}. Retrieved 8 August 2020\\.)Kent v Surrey, *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")*, 15 July 1953, p.6\\. ([Available online](https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS100880623/TTDA?u=nl_earl&sid=TTDA&xid=c9fa91c9) at The Times Digital Archive {{subscription required}}. Retrieved 8 August 2020\\.) In the following match, Witherden made 8 and 51 against [Warwickshire](/wiki/Warwickshire_County_Cricket_Club \"Warwickshire County Cricket Club\") at [Maidstone](/wiki/Mote_Park_%28cricket_ground%29 \"Mote Park (cricket ground)\"), and the following day scored 100, his only other first\\-class century, in three hours in an innings victory over [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire_County_Cricket_Club \"Worcestershire County Cricket Club\") on the same ground.*Wisden*, 1954, pp. 412–15\\.Kent v Worcestershire, *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")*, 20 July 1953, p.3\\. ([Available online](https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS50548980/TTDA?u=nl_earl&sid=TTDA&xid=4c3ce008) at The Times Digital Archive {{subscription required}}. Retrieved 8 August 2020\\.)",
"The remainder of the 1953 season saw only two more double\\-figure scores for Witherden as he played in nine Kent matches. Two half\\-centuries at the start of the 1954 season showed more promise, but in 22 appearances for Kent he only made one other score of 50, scoring 72 against [Essex](/wiki/Essex_County_Cricket_Club \"Essex County Cricket Club\") at Blackheath. The following season he made only six appearances for the First XI, although he again scored well for the Second XI. In total he made 40 first\\-class appearances for Kent, scoring 1,380 runs and taking nine wickets.",
"After 1955 he left Kent and joined the minor county [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk_County_Cricket_Club \"Norfolk County Cricket Club\"), where he played as their professional for seven seasons, replacing [Cecil Boswell](/wiki/Cecil_Boswell \"Cecil Boswell\").Hounsome K (2015\\) *A Game Well Played: a history of cricket in Norfolk*, p.212\\. Norwich: Hounsome. {{isbn\\|978\\-0\\-9932296\\-0\\-2}} He was highly successful in his first five seasons, and was the leading run\\-scorer in the [Minor Counties Championship](/wiki/Minor_Counties_Championship \"Minor Counties Championship\") in 1958, scoring 808 runs at a [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28cricket%29 \"Batting average (cricket)\") of 44\\.88,*Wisden* 1959, pp. 702, 718–19\\. in 1959 (1,031 runs at 79\\.30 with three centuries)Hounsome, p.214\\.*Wisden* 1960, pp.708, 718\\. and in 1960 (855 runs at 53\\.43\\).*Wisden* 1961, pp.707, 716\\. He was also one of the leading Minor Counties bowlers in 1956\\.*Wisden* 1957, pp.708–9\\. His 1959 performance was the first time a Norfolk batsman had scored 1,000 runs in the Minor Counties Championship and remains one of only 13 times the feat has been achieved and is the eighth highest season's aggregate in the competition's history.",
"In his seven seasons with Norfolk, Witherden played 76 Minor County matches, scoring 4,794 runs at an average of 45\\.65, with 13 centuries, and taking 104 wickets at 21\\.15\\.Hounsome, p.218\\. He was awarded a [benefit season](/wiki/Benefit_season \"Benefit season\") in 1961, but suffered an injury to his right hand. This required an operation in 1962, meaning that he missed half of Norfolk's matches.",
""
] |
Storylines
----------
### Backstory
Brady is born onscreen in 1992 to [John Black](/wiki/John_Black_%28Days_of_Our_Lives%29 "John Black (Days of Our Lives)") and his wife, [Isabella](/wiki/Isabella_Toscano "Isabella Toscano"). Sadly, Isabella dies soon after, leaving John to raise Brady on his own. John later marries [Marlena Evans](/wiki/Marlena_Evans "Marlena Evans"), and the two raise Brady and their daughter, [Belle](/wiki/Belle_Black "Belle Black"), together. Eventually, Brady is sent to a private school away from Salem.
### 2000–2005
Brady returns to Salem as a spoiled, disrespectful college student loner who lashes out at everyone, especially Marlena. As a result, he is distrusted by many, including his uncle, [Philip Kiriakis](/wiki/Philip_Kiriakis "Philip Kiriakis"), who considers him a freak. However, [Chloe Lane](/wiki/Chloe_Lane "Chloe Lane"), Philip's girlfriend, sees a glimmer of her once ostracized\-self in Brady and develops a friendship with him, which eventually turns into something more. The couple marry in 2005, and move to Vienna. By then, Brady had long\-since resolved his animosity towards Marlena, becoming a loving son and brother, as well as a responsible, promising executive in his father's fashion and publishing company, Basic Black.
After leaving Salem, Brady becomes addicted to drugs. Blaming Chloe for his addiction, Brady's grandfather [Victor Kiriakis](/wiki/Victor_Kiriakis "Victor Kiriakis") kidnaps him and places him in a drug rehabilitation clinic. Brady blames Chloe for his addiction and subsequently files for divorce.
### 2008–present
Brady returns to Salem in November 2008 after beating his addiction. Divorced from Chloe, he comes back to Salem to talk things out with her and reunite with his troubled family. Brady and Chloe eventually come to terms with the end of their marriage and decide to remain friends. Brady sensitively deals with a father who does not remember him. Supporting Marlena in her quest to help John regain his memory, Brady foils the plot for revenge leveled against his stepmother, and masterminded by none other than his father's therapist, Dr. Charlotte Taylor. Brady also makes peace with his old flame, [Nicole Walker](/wiki/Nicole_Walker "Nicole Walker"), who was pregnant at the time with [EJ DiMera](/wiki/EJ_DiMera "EJ DiMera")'s child. As a peace offering, going through his own recovery, he offers to be her shoulder if she needs help with not drinking while carrying the child. When Nicole suffers a miscarriage, she confides in Brady about it, deeming she would continue to fake her pregnancy, something Brady was not taking kindly to. Brady soon enters into a relationship with [Arianna Hernandez](/wiki/Arianna_Hernandez "Arianna Hernandez"), the sister of [Rafe Hernandez](/wiki/Rafe_Hernandez "Rafe Hernandez"). After proposing to Arianna, she is framed by Nicole for the Salem muggings. Unable to convince Brady of her innocence, she breaks off the engagement. Determined to reconcile her relationship with Brady, Nicole begins to romance him and they rekindle their broken relationship. Brady soon begins drinking once again, providing worry for his close family and friends. Brady's life continues to spiral downward when Arianna is killed in a hit\-and\-run car accident. Nicole and Brady subsequently end their relationship once again when Nicole makes an arrangement with EJ, to get visitation with his daughter, [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_DiMera "Sydney DiMera"). But when EJ cheats on Nicole with her sister [Taylor](/wiki/Taylor_Walker_%28Days_of_Our_Lives%29 "Taylor Walker (Days of Our Lives)"), Nicole and Brady realize they both still love each other, and are reunited. However, the relationship ends when both of them feel like they have "fizzled out", and they decide to be good friends as Nicole vows to be independent. However, Nicole is eventually reunited with EJ.
In 2011, Titan acquires Mad World Cosmetics, and with it comes the feisty CEO of the company, [Madison James](/wiki/Madison_James "Madison James"). After fighting the sexual tension between them, Brady and Madison eventually sleep together and begin a relationship. Brady also reconciles with his father, John, who returns to town. In early 2012, Brady decides to leave Titan to go back into business with his father at Basic Black. After proposing and it being turned down, Madison's husband [Ian McAllister](/wiki/Ian_McAllister "Ian McAllister") arrives in town, causing a further rift between Madison and Brady. By August 2012, they reconcile and plan to marry. On the day of their wedding, Brady leaves to rescue his friend, [Melanie Jonas](/wiki/Melanie_Jonas "Melanie Jonas"), who is trapped in the tunnels beneath Salem. An explosion occurs, trapping them inside. They managed to escape, but Brady found out that Madison was killed in the explosion, and he was devastated. In 2013, he starts dating [Kristen DiMera](/wiki/Kristen_DiMera "Kristen DiMera") and becomes entangled in Kristen's twisted revenge plot against John and Marlena. Brady and Kristen are almost married when he finds out that his fiancée raped his step\-brother [Eric Brady](/wiki/Eric_Brady "Eric Brady"); he breaks up with her and starts drinking again. Brady hates his step\-brother for sleeping with Kristen.
A few months later in 2014, he meets [Theresa Donovan](/wiki/Theresa_Donovan "Theresa Donovan"), whom he doesn't like at first, but he eventually ends up sleeping and getting high with her, much to his loved ones' disapproval, thinking she's using him for money and is a bad influence on him. After months of dating, Brady and Theresa take a trip to Las Vegas, where he gets drunk and marries her. Once they get back to Salem, John confronts Theresa leading for her to hit him in the back of the head with a fire poker and sending him into a coma. Theresa blames Brady for the incident and due to his not being able to remember anything he believes the story but charges are not pressed against Brady. Brady gets sober and gets an annulment from Theresa; however, when Kristen comes back it sends him right back into the arms of Theresa. Kristen then begins suggesting that it was Theresa who hit John which Brady deems ridiculous and thinks Kristen is simply jealous of Theresa. Kristen then gets a drug which takes John out of his coma, where he backs up Theresa's story because he wants to keep Brady away from Kristen. Brady later finds out the truth after walking in on a conversation between John and Theresa and proceeds to dump Theresa. However just as he began to cut Theresa out of his life she announces to him that she is pregnant and he is the father. They go and get a pregnancy test done at the hospital where it is revealed that Theresa wasn't pregnant much to the shock of Theresa.
Soon after, Brady's old friend Melanie Jonas comes back and starts a rivalry with Theresa much to the disdain of Brady and Daniel. Brady then begins a relationship with Melanie in which she figures out that Theresa really was pregnant, and that Kristen had stolen the embryo before she left town and gave birth to the child, naming it Christopher. When Brady and Theresa are reunited with their baby, they change his name to Tate. After Brady allows Theresa and Tate to move into the Kiriakis Mansion, he begins to fall for Theresa, to the disappointment of Victor. Brady ends up leaving Titan and he, Theresa and Tate move into a townhouse, and he becomes engaged to Theresa. On New Year's Eve of 2015, Brady, his brother Eric, Jennifer Horton, and Daniel Jonas are involved in a tragic car accident due to Eric driving drunk. The accident leaves Daniel brain dead, and Brady in need of a heart transplant. With Maggie's permission, Daniel is taken off of life support and his heart is donated to Brady. Eric is later sent to prison for causing Daniel's death. In August 2016, Tate is kidnapped, but is later found and the kidnapper is revealed to be [Kate Roberts](/wiki/Kate_Roberts_%28Days_of_our_Lives%29 "Kate Roberts (Days of our Lives)"), after Victor was accused of being the kidnapper.
Later, Theresa leaves Brady and Tate for Crime Lord El Fideo in order to protect them. After her return, Theresa got sole custody of Tate and then left Salem with Tate to go to California to take care of her mother Kimberly after her cancer return.
After learning that Kristen is alive and well, who returns to Salem donning a mask, disguising herself as [Nicole Walker](/wiki/Nicole_Walker "Nicole Walker") ([Arianne Zucker](/wiki/Arianne_Zucker "Arianne Zucker")). She is helped, once again, by [Xander Kiriakis](/wiki/Xander_Kiriakis "Xander Kiriakis") ([Paul Telfer](/wiki/Paul_Telfer_%28actor%29 "Paul Telfer (actor)")) in carrying out her plan, which involves trying to seduce Brady while also using Nicole's identity to manipulate Stefan into giving her a place in the family business. Kristen talks her brother Tony, who is alive and still in love with his former wife [Anna](/wiki/Anna_DiMera "Anna DiMera") ([Leann Hunley](/wiki/Leann_Hunley "Leann Hunley")), into marrying her as Nicole in a scheme to take back DiMera Enterprises from Stefan ([Brandon Barash](/wiki/Brandon_Barash "Brandon Barash")) and [Gabi Hernandez](/wiki/Gabi_Hernandez "Gabi Hernandez") ([Camila Banus](/wiki/Camila_Banus "Camila Banus")). Her scheme and true identity is exposed at John and Marlena's wedding anniversary celebration. While in custody, Kristen admits to Brady that Nicole and her daughter Holly are alive. After making a deal with the D.A., Kristen is set free. She once again sets her sights on getting back with Brady. Kristen discovers that [Sarah Horton](/wiki/Sarah_Horton "Sarah Horton") ([Linsey Godfrey](/wiki/Linsey_Godfrey "Linsey Godfrey")) is pregnant and has decided to have an abortion. With the assistance of Dr. Rolf and Xander, she decides to steal Sarah's embryo and implant it in herself, in an attempt to pass the baby off as her own with Brady. Rolf informs Kristen that she is already pregnant after sleeping with Brady while impersonating Nicole, thus making the procedure on Sarah both unnecessary and impossible. Months later, the newborn baby dies, unaware that his newborn daughter Rachel Isabella, who was named after both Kristen's mother Rachel Blake and his mother [Isabella Toscano](/wiki/Isabella_Toscano "Isabella Toscano") was switched at birth by his cousin Xander under orders from his grandfather Victor to spare the knowledge that his wife [Maggie Horton](/wiki/Maggie_Horton "Maggie Horton") is responsible for the deaths of [Adrienne Johnson](/wiki/Adrienne_Johnson_Kiriakis "Adrienne Johnson Kiriakis") and her own granddaughter: the real Mackenzie, Rachel is currently being raised as Mackenzie Horton. A year later, Brady was fired from Titan after the death of his daughter Rachel and Kristen left Salem. Brady is currently working for Basic Black with Nicole. Brady is unaware that his baby is alive and has developed cancer and will need a bone marrow transplant from her parents. Mackenzie's life is saved when Gabi donates her bone marrow to escape a prison sentence, but Kristen does not learn the truth until Nicole conducts her own investigation; Nicole admits that as much as she hates Kristen, she also knows a mother's pain of being separated from her child. After finding out his daughter is alive, Brady realizes that his grandfather Victor and his cousin Xander were behind the baby switch that cause Sarah to kidnap Rachel and flee to her cousin [Abigail](/wiki/Abigail_Deveraux "Abigail Deveraux") and [Chad's](/wiki/Chad_DiMera "Chad DiMera") apartment in Paris. After learning that Kristen stabbed Victor, Brady took the blame in order to protect her and went to jail. Kristen later tells Lani the truth about Victor's stabbing. Later, Kristen receive a phone call from [Rex Brady](/wiki/Rex_Brady "Rex Brady") (Lowder) and with the help of her nephew and Lani's brother [Theo Carver](/wiki/Theo_Carver "Theo Carver") ([Kyler Pettis](/wiki/Kyler_Pettis "Kyler Pettis")), she learns that Rachel and Sarah are in Paris by tracking Rex's phone.
After getting Rachel back, he deals Kristen and her schemes. He breaks it off with her for good after she poses as Susan Banks in order escape her jail sentence. Around this time, he began rekindling his relationship with Chloe much to the chagrin of Philip. After Philip leaves Salem, Brady and Chloe cement their relationship.
|
[
"Storylines\n----------",
"### Backstory",
"Brady is born onscreen in 1992 to [John Black](/wiki/John_Black_%28Days_of_Our_Lives%29 \"John Black (Days of Our Lives)\") and his wife, [Isabella](/wiki/Isabella_Toscano \"Isabella Toscano\"). Sadly, Isabella dies soon after, leaving John to raise Brady on his own. John later marries [Marlena Evans](/wiki/Marlena_Evans \"Marlena Evans\"), and the two raise Brady and their daughter, [Belle](/wiki/Belle_Black \"Belle Black\"), together. Eventually, Brady is sent to a private school away from Salem.",
"### 2000–2005",
"Brady returns to Salem as a spoiled, disrespectful college student loner who lashes out at everyone, especially Marlena. As a result, he is distrusted by many, including his uncle, [Philip Kiriakis](/wiki/Philip_Kiriakis \"Philip Kiriakis\"), who considers him a freak. However, [Chloe Lane](/wiki/Chloe_Lane \"Chloe Lane\"), Philip's girlfriend, sees a glimmer of her once ostracized\\-self in Brady and develops a friendship with him, which eventually turns into something more. The couple marry in 2005, and move to Vienna. By then, Brady had long\\-since resolved his animosity towards Marlena, becoming a loving son and brother, as well as a responsible, promising executive in his father's fashion and publishing company, Basic Black.",
"After leaving Salem, Brady becomes addicted to drugs. Blaming Chloe for his addiction, Brady's grandfather [Victor Kiriakis](/wiki/Victor_Kiriakis \"Victor Kiriakis\") kidnaps him and places him in a drug rehabilitation clinic. Brady blames Chloe for his addiction and subsequently files for divorce.",
"### 2008–present",
"Brady returns to Salem in November 2008 after beating his addiction. Divorced from Chloe, he comes back to Salem to talk things out with her and reunite with his troubled family. Brady and Chloe eventually come to terms with the end of their marriage and decide to remain friends. Brady sensitively deals with a father who does not remember him. Supporting Marlena in her quest to help John regain his memory, Brady foils the plot for revenge leveled against his stepmother, and masterminded by none other than his father's therapist, Dr. Charlotte Taylor. Brady also makes peace with his old flame, [Nicole Walker](/wiki/Nicole_Walker \"Nicole Walker\"), who was pregnant at the time with [EJ DiMera](/wiki/EJ_DiMera \"EJ DiMera\")'s child. As a peace offering, going through his own recovery, he offers to be her shoulder if she needs help with not drinking while carrying the child. When Nicole suffers a miscarriage, she confides in Brady about it, deeming she would continue to fake her pregnancy, something Brady was not taking kindly to. Brady soon enters into a relationship with [Arianna Hernandez](/wiki/Arianna_Hernandez \"Arianna Hernandez\"), the sister of [Rafe Hernandez](/wiki/Rafe_Hernandez \"Rafe Hernandez\"). After proposing to Arianna, she is framed by Nicole for the Salem muggings. Unable to convince Brady of her innocence, she breaks off the engagement. Determined to reconcile her relationship with Brady, Nicole begins to romance him and they rekindle their broken relationship. Brady soon begins drinking once again, providing worry for his close family and friends. Brady's life continues to spiral downward when Arianna is killed in a hit\\-and\\-run car accident. Nicole and Brady subsequently end their relationship once again when Nicole makes an arrangement with EJ, to get visitation with his daughter, [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_DiMera \"Sydney DiMera\"). But when EJ cheats on Nicole with her sister [Taylor](/wiki/Taylor_Walker_%28Days_of_Our_Lives%29 \"Taylor Walker (Days of Our Lives)\"), Nicole and Brady realize they both still love each other, and are reunited. However, the relationship ends when both of them feel like they have \"fizzled out\", and they decide to be good friends as Nicole vows to be independent. However, Nicole is eventually reunited with EJ.",
"In 2011, Titan acquires Mad World Cosmetics, and with it comes the feisty CEO of the company, [Madison James](/wiki/Madison_James \"Madison James\"). After fighting the sexual tension between them, Brady and Madison eventually sleep together and begin a relationship. Brady also reconciles with his father, John, who returns to town. In early 2012, Brady decides to leave Titan to go back into business with his father at Basic Black. After proposing and it being turned down, Madison's husband [Ian McAllister](/wiki/Ian_McAllister \"Ian McAllister\") arrives in town, causing a further rift between Madison and Brady. By August 2012, they reconcile and plan to marry. On the day of their wedding, Brady leaves to rescue his friend, [Melanie Jonas](/wiki/Melanie_Jonas \"Melanie Jonas\"), who is trapped in the tunnels beneath Salem. An explosion occurs, trapping them inside. They managed to escape, but Brady found out that Madison was killed in the explosion, and he was devastated. In 2013, he starts dating [Kristen DiMera](/wiki/Kristen_DiMera \"Kristen DiMera\") and becomes entangled in Kristen's twisted revenge plot against John and Marlena. Brady and Kristen are almost married when he finds out that his fiancée raped his step\\-brother [Eric Brady](/wiki/Eric_Brady \"Eric Brady\"); he breaks up with her and starts drinking again. Brady hates his step\\-brother for sleeping with Kristen.",
"A few months later in 2014, he meets [Theresa Donovan](/wiki/Theresa_Donovan \"Theresa Donovan\"), whom he doesn't like at first, but he eventually ends up sleeping and getting high with her, much to his loved ones' disapproval, thinking she's using him for money and is a bad influence on him. After months of dating, Brady and Theresa take a trip to Las Vegas, where he gets drunk and marries her. Once they get back to Salem, John confronts Theresa leading for her to hit him in the back of the head with a fire poker and sending him into a coma. Theresa blames Brady for the incident and due to his not being able to remember anything he believes the story but charges are not pressed against Brady. Brady gets sober and gets an annulment from Theresa; however, when Kristen comes back it sends him right back into the arms of Theresa. Kristen then begins suggesting that it was Theresa who hit John which Brady deems ridiculous and thinks Kristen is simply jealous of Theresa. Kristen then gets a drug which takes John out of his coma, where he backs up Theresa's story because he wants to keep Brady away from Kristen. Brady later finds out the truth after walking in on a conversation between John and Theresa and proceeds to dump Theresa. However just as he began to cut Theresa out of his life she announces to him that she is pregnant and he is the father. They go and get a pregnancy test done at the hospital where it is revealed that Theresa wasn't pregnant much to the shock of Theresa.",
"Soon after, Brady's old friend Melanie Jonas comes back and starts a rivalry with Theresa much to the disdain of Brady and Daniel. Brady then begins a relationship with Melanie in which she figures out that Theresa really was pregnant, and that Kristen had stolen the embryo before she left town and gave birth to the child, naming it Christopher. When Brady and Theresa are reunited with their baby, they change his name to Tate. After Brady allows Theresa and Tate to move into the Kiriakis Mansion, he begins to fall for Theresa, to the disappointment of Victor. Brady ends up leaving Titan and he, Theresa and Tate move into a townhouse, and he becomes engaged to Theresa. On New Year's Eve of 2015, Brady, his brother Eric, Jennifer Horton, and Daniel Jonas are involved in a tragic car accident due to Eric driving drunk. The accident leaves Daniel brain dead, and Brady in need of a heart transplant. With Maggie's permission, Daniel is taken off of life support and his heart is donated to Brady. Eric is later sent to prison for causing Daniel's death. In August 2016, Tate is kidnapped, but is later found and the kidnapper is revealed to be [Kate Roberts](/wiki/Kate_Roberts_%28Days_of_our_Lives%29 \"Kate Roberts (Days of our Lives)\"), after Victor was accused of being the kidnapper.",
"Later, Theresa leaves Brady and Tate for Crime Lord El Fideo in order to protect them. After her return, Theresa got sole custody of Tate and then left Salem with Tate to go to California to take care of her mother Kimberly after her cancer return.",
"After learning that Kristen is alive and well, who returns to Salem donning a mask, disguising herself as [Nicole Walker](/wiki/Nicole_Walker \"Nicole Walker\") ([Arianne Zucker](/wiki/Arianne_Zucker \"Arianne Zucker\")). She is helped, once again, by [Xander Kiriakis](/wiki/Xander_Kiriakis \"Xander Kiriakis\") ([Paul Telfer](/wiki/Paul_Telfer_%28actor%29 \"Paul Telfer (actor)\")) in carrying out her plan, which involves trying to seduce Brady while also using Nicole's identity to manipulate Stefan into giving her a place in the family business. Kristen talks her brother Tony, who is alive and still in love with his former wife [Anna](/wiki/Anna_DiMera \"Anna DiMera\") ([Leann Hunley](/wiki/Leann_Hunley \"Leann Hunley\")), into marrying her as Nicole in a scheme to take back DiMera Enterprises from Stefan ([Brandon Barash](/wiki/Brandon_Barash \"Brandon Barash\")) and [Gabi Hernandez](/wiki/Gabi_Hernandez \"Gabi Hernandez\") ([Camila Banus](/wiki/Camila_Banus \"Camila Banus\")). Her scheme and true identity is exposed at John and Marlena's wedding anniversary celebration. While in custody, Kristen admits to Brady that Nicole and her daughter Holly are alive. After making a deal with the D.A., Kristen is set free. She once again sets her sights on getting back with Brady. Kristen discovers that [Sarah Horton](/wiki/Sarah_Horton \"Sarah Horton\") ([Linsey Godfrey](/wiki/Linsey_Godfrey \"Linsey Godfrey\")) is pregnant and has decided to have an abortion. With the assistance of Dr. Rolf and Xander, she decides to steal Sarah's embryo and implant it in herself, in an attempt to pass the baby off as her own with Brady. Rolf informs Kristen that she is already pregnant after sleeping with Brady while impersonating Nicole, thus making the procedure on Sarah both unnecessary and impossible. Months later, the newborn baby dies, unaware that his newborn daughter Rachel Isabella, who was named after both Kristen's mother Rachel Blake and his mother [Isabella Toscano](/wiki/Isabella_Toscano \"Isabella Toscano\") was switched at birth by his cousin Xander under orders from his grandfather Victor to spare the knowledge that his wife [Maggie Horton](/wiki/Maggie_Horton \"Maggie Horton\") is responsible for the deaths of [Adrienne Johnson](/wiki/Adrienne_Johnson_Kiriakis \"Adrienne Johnson Kiriakis\") and her own granddaughter: the real Mackenzie, Rachel is currently being raised as Mackenzie Horton. A year later, Brady was fired from Titan after the death of his daughter Rachel and Kristen left Salem. Brady is currently working for Basic Black with Nicole. Brady is unaware that his baby is alive and has developed cancer and will need a bone marrow transplant from her parents. Mackenzie's life is saved when Gabi donates her bone marrow to escape a prison sentence, but Kristen does not learn the truth until Nicole conducts her own investigation; Nicole admits that as much as she hates Kristen, she also knows a mother's pain of being separated from her child. After finding out his daughter is alive, Brady realizes that his grandfather Victor and his cousin Xander were behind the baby switch that cause Sarah to kidnap Rachel and flee to her cousin [Abigail](/wiki/Abigail_Deveraux \"Abigail Deveraux\") and [Chad's](/wiki/Chad_DiMera \"Chad DiMera\") apartment in Paris. After learning that Kristen stabbed Victor, Brady took the blame in order to protect her and went to jail. Kristen later tells Lani the truth about Victor's stabbing. Later, Kristen receive a phone call from [Rex Brady](/wiki/Rex_Brady \"Rex Brady\") (Lowder) and with the help of her nephew and Lani's brother [Theo Carver](/wiki/Theo_Carver \"Theo Carver\") ([Kyler Pettis](/wiki/Kyler_Pettis \"Kyler Pettis\")), she learns that Rachel and Sarah are in Paris by tracking Rex's phone.",
"After getting Rachel back, he deals Kristen and her schemes. He breaks it off with her for good after she poses as Susan Banks in order escape her jail sentence. Around this time, he began rekindling his relationship with Chloe much to the chagrin of Philip. After Philip leaves Salem, Brady and Chloe cement their relationship.",
""
] |
### 2008–present
Brady returns to Salem in November 2008 after beating his addiction. Divorced from Chloe, he comes back to Salem to talk things out with her and reunite with his troubled family. Brady and Chloe eventually come to terms with the end of their marriage and decide to remain friends. Brady sensitively deals with a father who does not remember him. Supporting Marlena in her quest to help John regain his memory, Brady foils the plot for revenge leveled against his stepmother, and masterminded by none other than his father's therapist, Dr. Charlotte Taylor. Brady also makes peace with his old flame, [Nicole Walker](/wiki/Nicole_Walker "Nicole Walker"), who was pregnant at the time with [EJ DiMera](/wiki/EJ_DiMera "EJ DiMera")'s child. As a peace offering, going through his own recovery, he offers to be her shoulder if she needs help with not drinking while carrying the child. When Nicole suffers a miscarriage, she confides in Brady about it, deeming she would continue to fake her pregnancy, something Brady was not taking kindly to. Brady soon enters into a relationship with [Arianna Hernandez](/wiki/Arianna_Hernandez "Arianna Hernandez"), the sister of [Rafe Hernandez](/wiki/Rafe_Hernandez "Rafe Hernandez"). After proposing to Arianna, she is framed by Nicole for the Salem muggings. Unable to convince Brady of her innocence, she breaks off the engagement. Determined to reconcile her relationship with Brady, Nicole begins to romance him and they rekindle their broken relationship. Brady soon begins drinking once again, providing worry for his close family and friends. Brady's life continues to spiral downward when Arianna is killed in a hit\-and\-run car accident. Nicole and Brady subsequently end their relationship once again when Nicole makes an arrangement with EJ, to get visitation with his daughter, [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_DiMera "Sydney DiMera"). But when EJ cheats on Nicole with her sister [Taylor](/wiki/Taylor_Walker_%28Days_of_Our_Lives%29 "Taylor Walker (Days of Our Lives)"), Nicole and Brady realize they both still love each other, and are reunited. However, the relationship ends when both of them feel like they have "fizzled out", and they decide to be good friends as Nicole vows to be independent. However, Nicole is eventually reunited with EJ.
In 2011, Titan acquires Mad World Cosmetics, and with it comes the feisty CEO of the company, [Madison James](/wiki/Madison_James "Madison James"). After fighting the sexual tension between them, Brady and Madison eventually sleep together and begin a relationship. Brady also reconciles with his father, John, who returns to town. In early 2012, Brady decides to leave Titan to go back into business with his father at Basic Black. After proposing and it being turned down, Madison's husband [Ian McAllister](/wiki/Ian_McAllister "Ian McAllister") arrives in town, causing a further rift between Madison and Brady. By August 2012, they reconcile and plan to marry. On the day of their wedding, Brady leaves to rescue his friend, [Melanie Jonas](/wiki/Melanie_Jonas "Melanie Jonas"), who is trapped in the tunnels beneath Salem. An explosion occurs, trapping them inside. They managed to escape, but Brady found out that Madison was killed in the explosion, and he was devastated. In 2013, he starts dating [Kristen DiMera](/wiki/Kristen_DiMera "Kristen DiMera") and becomes entangled in Kristen's twisted revenge plot against John and Marlena. Brady and Kristen are almost married when he finds out that his fiancée raped his step\-brother [Eric Brady](/wiki/Eric_Brady "Eric Brady"); he breaks up with her and starts drinking again. Brady hates his step\-brother for sleeping with Kristen.
A few months later in 2014, he meets [Theresa Donovan](/wiki/Theresa_Donovan "Theresa Donovan"), whom he doesn't like at first, but he eventually ends up sleeping and getting high with her, much to his loved ones' disapproval, thinking she's using him for money and is a bad influence on him. After months of dating, Brady and Theresa take a trip to Las Vegas, where he gets drunk and marries her. Once they get back to Salem, John confronts Theresa leading for her to hit him in the back of the head with a fire poker and sending him into a coma. Theresa blames Brady for the incident and due to his not being able to remember anything he believes the story but charges are not pressed against Brady. Brady gets sober and gets an annulment from Theresa; however, when Kristen comes back it sends him right back into the arms of Theresa. Kristen then begins suggesting that it was Theresa who hit John which Brady deems ridiculous and thinks Kristen is simply jealous of Theresa. Kristen then gets a drug which takes John out of his coma, where he backs up Theresa's story because he wants to keep Brady away from Kristen. Brady later finds out the truth after walking in on a conversation between John and Theresa and proceeds to dump Theresa. However just as he began to cut Theresa out of his life she announces to him that she is pregnant and he is the father. They go and get a pregnancy test done at the hospital where it is revealed that Theresa wasn't pregnant much to the shock of Theresa.
Soon after, Brady's old friend Melanie Jonas comes back and starts a rivalry with Theresa much to the disdain of Brady and Daniel. Brady then begins a relationship with Melanie in which she figures out that Theresa really was pregnant, and that Kristen had stolen the embryo before she left town and gave birth to the child, naming it Christopher. When Brady and Theresa are reunited with their baby, they change his name to Tate. After Brady allows Theresa and Tate to move into the Kiriakis Mansion, he begins to fall for Theresa, to the disappointment of Victor. Brady ends up leaving Titan and he, Theresa and Tate move into a townhouse, and he becomes engaged to Theresa. On New Year's Eve of 2015, Brady, his brother Eric, Jennifer Horton, and Daniel Jonas are involved in a tragic car accident due to Eric driving drunk. The accident leaves Daniel brain dead, and Brady in need of a heart transplant. With Maggie's permission, Daniel is taken off of life support and his heart is donated to Brady. Eric is later sent to prison for causing Daniel's death. In August 2016, Tate is kidnapped, but is later found and the kidnapper is revealed to be [Kate Roberts](/wiki/Kate_Roberts_%28Days_of_our_Lives%29 "Kate Roberts (Days of our Lives)"), after Victor was accused of being the kidnapper.
Later, Theresa leaves Brady and Tate for Crime Lord El Fideo in order to protect them. After her return, Theresa got sole custody of Tate and then left Salem with Tate to go to California to take care of her mother Kimberly after her cancer return.
After learning that Kristen is alive and well, who returns to Salem donning a mask, disguising herself as [Nicole Walker](/wiki/Nicole_Walker "Nicole Walker") ([Arianne Zucker](/wiki/Arianne_Zucker "Arianne Zucker")). She is helped, once again, by [Xander Kiriakis](/wiki/Xander_Kiriakis "Xander Kiriakis") ([Paul Telfer](/wiki/Paul_Telfer_%28actor%29 "Paul Telfer (actor)")) in carrying out her plan, which involves trying to seduce Brady while also using Nicole's identity to manipulate Stefan into giving her a place in the family business. Kristen talks her brother Tony, who is alive and still in love with his former wife [Anna](/wiki/Anna_DiMera "Anna DiMera") ([Leann Hunley](/wiki/Leann_Hunley "Leann Hunley")), into marrying her as Nicole in a scheme to take back DiMera Enterprises from Stefan ([Brandon Barash](/wiki/Brandon_Barash "Brandon Barash")) and [Gabi Hernandez](/wiki/Gabi_Hernandez "Gabi Hernandez") ([Camila Banus](/wiki/Camila_Banus "Camila Banus")). Her scheme and true identity is exposed at John and Marlena's wedding anniversary celebration. While in custody, Kristen admits to Brady that Nicole and her daughter Holly are alive. After making a deal with the D.A., Kristen is set free. She once again sets her sights on getting back with Brady. Kristen discovers that [Sarah Horton](/wiki/Sarah_Horton "Sarah Horton") ([Linsey Godfrey](/wiki/Linsey_Godfrey "Linsey Godfrey")) is pregnant and has decided to have an abortion. With the assistance of Dr. Rolf and Xander, she decides to steal Sarah's embryo and implant it in herself, in an attempt to pass the baby off as her own with Brady. Rolf informs Kristen that she is already pregnant after sleeping with Brady while impersonating Nicole, thus making the procedure on Sarah both unnecessary and impossible. Months later, the newborn baby dies, unaware that his newborn daughter Rachel Isabella, who was named after both Kristen's mother Rachel Blake and his mother [Isabella Toscano](/wiki/Isabella_Toscano "Isabella Toscano") was switched at birth by his cousin Xander under orders from his grandfather Victor to spare the knowledge that his wife [Maggie Horton](/wiki/Maggie_Horton "Maggie Horton") is responsible for the deaths of [Adrienne Johnson](/wiki/Adrienne_Johnson_Kiriakis "Adrienne Johnson Kiriakis") and her own granddaughter: the real Mackenzie, Rachel is currently being raised as Mackenzie Horton. A year later, Brady was fired from Titan after the death of his daughter Rachel and Kristen left Salem. Brady is currently working for Basic Black with Nicole. Brady is unaware that his baby is alive and has developed cancer and will need a bone marrow transplant from her parents. Mackenzie's life is saved when Gabi donates her bone marrow to escape a prison sentence, but Kristen does not learn the truth until Nicole conducts her own investigation; Nicole admits that as much as she hates Kristen, she also knows a mother's pain of being separated from her child. After finding out his daughter is alive, Brady realizes that his grandfather Victor and his cousin Xander were behind the baby switch that cause Sarah to kidnap Rachel and flee to her cousin [Abigail](/wiki/Abigail_Deveraux "Abigail Deveraux") and [Chad's](/wiki/Chad_DiMera "Chad DiMera") apartment in Paris. After learning that Kristen stabbed Victor, Brady took the blame in order to protect her and went to jail. Kristen later tells Lani the truth about Victor's stabbing. Later, Kristen receive a phone call from [Rex Brady](/wiki/Rex_Brady "Rex Brady") (Lowder) and with the help of her nephew and Lani's brother [Theo Carver](/wiki/Theo_Carver "Theo Carver") ([Kyler Pettis](/wiki/Kyler_Pettis "Kyler Pettis")), she learns that Rachel and Sarah are in Paris by tracking Rex's phone.
After getting Rachel back, he deals Kristen and her schemes. He breaks it off with her for good after she poses as Susan Banks in order escape her jail sentence. Around this time, he began rekindling his relationship with Chloe much to the chagrin of Philip. After Philip leaves Salem, Brady and Chloe cement their relationship.
|
[
"### 2008–present",
"Brady returns to Salem in November 2008 after beating his addiction. Divorced from Chloe, he comes back to Salem to talk things out with her and reunite with his troubled family. Brady and Chloe eventually come to terms with the end of their marriage and decide to remain friends. Brady sensitively deals with a father who does not remember him. Supporting Marlena in her quest to help John regain his memory, Brady foils the plot for revenge leveled against his stepmother, and masterminded by none other than his father's therapist, Dr. Charlotte Taylor. Brady also makes peace with his old flame, [Nicole Walker](/wiki/Nicole_Walker \"Nicole Walker\"), who was pregnant at the time with [EJ DiMera](/wiki/EJ_DiMera \"EJ DiMera\")'s child. As a peace offering, going through his own recovery, he offers to be her shoulder if she needs help with not drinking while carrying the child. When Nicole suffers a miscarriage, she confides in Brady about it, deeming she would continue to fake her pregnancy, something Brady was not taking kindly to. Brady soon enters into a relationship with [Arianna Hernandez](/wiki/Arianna_Hernandez \"Arianna Hernandez\"), the sister of [Rafe Hernandez](/wiki/Rafe_Hernandez \"Rafe Hernandez\"). After proposing to Arianna, she is framed by Nicole for the Salem muggings. Unable to convince Brady of her innocence, she breaks off the engagement. Determined to reconcile her relationship with Brady, Nicole begins to romance him and they rekindle their broken relationship. Brady soon begins drinking once again, providing worry for his close family and friends. Brady's life continues to spiral downward when Arianna is killed in a hit\\-and\\-run car accident. Nicole and Brady subsequently end their relationship once again when Nicole makes an arrangement with EJ, to get visitation with his daughter, [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney_DiMera \"Sydney DiMera\"). But when EJ cheats on Nicole with her sister [Taylor](/wiki/Taylor_Walker_%28Days_of_Our_Lives%29 \"Taylor Walker (Days of Our Lives)\"), Nicole and Brady realize they both still love each other, and are reunited. However, the relationship ends when both of them feel like they have \"fizzled out\", and they decide to be good friends as Nicole vows to be independent. However, Nicole is eventually reunited with EJ.",
"In 2011, Titan acquires Mad World Cosmetics, and with it comes the feisty CEO of the company, [Madison James](/wiki/Madison_James \"Madison James\"). After fighting the sexual tension between them, Brady and Madison eventually sleep together and begin a relationship. Brady also reconciles with his father, John, who returns to town. In early 2012, Brady decides to leave Titan to go back into business with his father at Basic Black. After proposing and it being turned down, Madison's husband [Ian McAllister](/wiki/Ian_McAllister \"Ian McAllister\") arrives in town, causing a further rift between Madison and Brady. By August 2012, they reconcile and plan to marry. On the day of their wedding, Brady leaves to rescue his friend, [Melanie Jonas](/wiki/Melanie_Jonas \"Melanie Jonas\"), who is trapped in the tunnels beneath Salem. An explosion occurs, trapping them inside. They managed to escape, but Brady found out that Madison was killed in the explosion, and he was devastated. In 2013, he starts dating [Kristen DiMera](/wiki/Kristen_DiMera \"Kristen DiMera\") and becomes entangled in Kristen's twisted revenge plot against John and Marlena. Brady and Kristen are almost married when he finds out that his fiancée raped his step\\-brother [Eric Brady](/wiki/Eric_Brady \"Eric Brady\"); he breaks up with her and starts drinking again. Brady hates his step\\-brother for sleeping with Kristen.",
"A few months later in 2014, he meets [Theresa Donovan](/wiki/Theresa_Donovan \"Theresa Donovan\"), whom he doesn't like at first, but he eventually ends up sleeping and getting high with her, much to his loved ones' disapproval, thinking she's using him for money and is a bad influence on him. After months of dating, Brady and Theresa take a trip to Las Vegas, where he gets drunk and marries her. Once they get back to Salem, John confronts Theresa leading for her to hit him in the back of the head with a fire poker and sending him into a coma. Theresa blames Brady for the incident and due to his not being able to remember anything he believes the story but charges are not pressed against Brady. Brady gets sober and gets an annulment from Theresa; however, when Kristen comes back it sends him right back into the arms of Theresa. Kristen then begins suggesting that it was Theresa who hit John which Brady deems ridiculous and thinks Kristen is simply jealous of Theresa. Kristen then gets a drug which takes John out of his coma, where he backs up Theresa's story because he wants to keep Brady away from Kristen. Brady later finds out the truth after walking in on a conversation between John and Theresa and proceeds to dump Theresa. However just as he began to cut Theresa out of his life she announces to him that she is pregnant and he is the father. They go and get a pregnancy test done at the hospital where it is revealed that Theresa wasn't pregnant much to the shock of Theresa.",
"Soon after, Brady's old friend Melanie Jonas comes back and starts a rivalry with Theresa much to the disdain of Brady and Daniel. Brady then begins a relationship with Melanie in which she figures out that Theresa really was pregnant, and that Kristen had stolen the embryo before she left town and gave birth to the child, naming it Christopher. When Brady and Theresa are reunited with their baby, they change his name to Tate. After Brady allows Theresa and Tate to move into the Kiriakis Mansion, he begins to fall for Theresa, to the disappointment of Victor. Brady ends up leaving Titan and he, Theresa and Tate move into a townhouse, and he becomes engaged to Theresa. On New Year's Eve of 2015, Brady, his brother Eric, Jennifer Horton, and Daniel Jonas are involved in a tragic car accident due to Eric driving drunk. The accident leaves Daniel brain dead, and Brady in need of a heart transplant. With Maggie's permission, Daniel is taken off of life support and his heart is donated to Brady. Eric is later sent to prison for causing Daniel's death. In August 2016, Tate is kidnapped, but is later found and the kidnapper is revealed to be [Kate Roberts](/wiki/Kate_Roberts_%28Days_of_our_Lives%29 \"Kate Roberts (Days of our Lives)\"), after Victor was accused of being the kidnapper.",
"Later, Theresa leaves Brady and Tate for Crime Lord El Fideo in order to protect them. After her return, Theresa got sole custody of Tate and then left Salem with Tate to go to California to take care of her mother Kimberly after her cancer return.",
"After learning that Kristen is alive and well, who returns to Salem donning a mask, disguising herself as [Nicole Walker](/wiki/Nicole_Walker \"Nicole Walker\") ([Arianne Zucker](/wiki/Arianne_Zucker \"Arianne Zucker\")). She is helped, once again, by [Xander Kiriakis](/wiki/Xander_Kiriakis \"Xander Kiriakis\") ([Paul Telfer](/wiki/Paul_Telfer_%28actor%29 \"Paul Telfer (actor)\")) in carrying out her plan, which involves trying to seduce Brady while also using Nicole's identity to manipulate Stefan into giving her a place in the family business. Kristen talks her brother Tony, who is alive and still in love with his former wife [Anna](/wiki/Anna_DiMera \"Anna DiMera\") ([Leann Hunley](/wiki/Leann_Hunley \"Leann Hunley\")), into marrying her as Nicole in a scheme to take back DiMera Enterprises from Stefan ([Brandon Barash](/wiki/Brandon_Barash \"Brandon Barash\")) and [Gabi Hernandez](/wiki/Gabi_Hernandez \"Gabi Hernandez\") ([Camila Banus](/wiki/Camila_Banus \"Camila Banus\")). Her scheme and true identity is exposed at John and Marlena's wedding anniversary celebration. While in custody, Kristen admits to Brady that Nicole and her daughter Holly are alive. After making a deal with the D.A., Kristen is set free. She once again sets her sights on getting back with Brady. Kristen discovers that [Sarah Horton](/wiki/Sarah_Horton \"Sarah Horton\") ([Linsey Godfrey](/wiki/Linsey_Godfrey \"Linsey Godfrey\")) is pregnant and has decided to have an abortion. With the assistance of Dr. Rolf and Xander, she decides to steal Sarah's embryo and implant it in herself, in an attempt to pass the baby off as her own with Brady. Rolf informs Kristen that she is already pregnant after sleeping with Brady while impersonating Nicole, thus making the procedure on Sarah both unnecessary and impossible. Months later, the newborn baby dies, unaware that his newborn daughter Rachel Isabella, who was named after both Kristen's mother Rachel Blake and his mother [Isabella Toscano](/wiki/Isabella_Toscano \"Isabella Toscano\") was switched at birth by his cousin Xander under orders from his grandfather Victor to spare the knowledge that his wife [Maggie Horton](/wiki/Maggie_Horton \"Maggie Horton\") is responsible for the deaths of [Adrienne Johnson](/wiki/Adrienne_Johnson_Kiriakis \"Adrienne Johnson Kiriakis\") and her own granddaughter: the real Mackenzie, Rachel is currently being raised as Mackenzie Horton. A year later, Brady was fired from Titan after the death of his daughter Rachel and Kristen left Salem. Brady is currently working for Basic Black with Nicole. Brady is unaware that his baby is alive and has developed cancer and will need a bone marrow transplant from her parents. Mackenzie's life is saved when Gabi donates her bone marrow to escape a prison sentence, but Kristen does not learn the truth until Nicole conducts her own investigation; Nicole admits that as much as she hates Kristen, she also knows a mother's pain of being separated from her child. After finding out his daughter is alive, Brady realizes that his grandfather Victor and his cousin Xander were behind the baby switch that cause Sarah to kidnap Rachel and flee to her cousin [Abigail](/wiki/Abigail_Deveraux \"Abigail Deveraux\") and [Chad's](/wiki/Chad_DiMera \"Chad DiMera\") apartment in Paris. After learning that Kristen stabbed Victor, Brady took the blame in order to protect her and went to jail. Kristen later tells Lani the truth about Victor's stabbing. Later, Kristen receive a phone call from [Rex Brady](/wiki/Rex_Brady \"Rex Brady\") (Lowder) and with the help of her nephew and Lani's brother [Theo Carver](/wiki/Theo_Carver \"Theo Carver\") ([Kyler Pettis](/wiki/Kyler_Pettis \"Kyler Pettis\")), she learns that Rachel and Sarah are in Paris by tracking Rex's phone.",
"After getting Rachel back, he deals Kristen and her schemes. He breaks it off with her for good after she poses as Susan Banks in order escape her jail sentence. Around this time, he began rekindling his relationship with Chloe much to the chagrin of Philip. After Philip leaves Salem, Brady and Chloe cement their relationship.",
""
] |
Criminal case
-------------
[thumb\|Former Winkler residence in [Selmer, Tennessee](/wiki/Selmer%2C_Tennessee "Selmer, Tennessee")](/wiki/Image:174_Mollie_Dr_Selmer_TN.jpg "174 Mollie Dr Selmer TN.jpg")
According to police, Mary Winkler confessed to the March 22, 2006 fatal shooting of her husband, whose body was discovered in their home by church members after he missed that evening's service. He had been shot in the back with a [12\-gauge](/wiki/Gauge_%28bore_diameter%29 "Gauge (bore diameter)") shotgun.
The couple had been married since 1996\. One neighborhood family reported that Matthew Winkler had repeatedly threatened to shoot that family's dog after it strayed onto the Winklers' lawn. Also, other people as well as Mary Winkler's family alleged that Matthew Winkler had been abusive to Mary.{{cite web\|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/LegalCenter/story?id\=2667042\&page\=1 \|title\=ABC News: Preacher's Wife Killed Husband Because of Abuse, Family Says \|publisher\=Abcnews.go.com \|date\=2006\-11\-20 \|accessdate\=2011\-04\-10}} Winkler maintained this was the reason for the shooting.
After police issued an [Amber Alert](/wiki/Amber_Alert "Amber Alert") due to fears of kidnapping, Mary Winkler and the children (Patricia, then 8; Mary Alice, then 6; Breanna, then 1\) were discovered in [Orange Beach, Alabama](/wiki/Orange_Beach%2C_Alabama "Orange Beach, Alabama"). Winkler was placed into custody there and later extradited to the city of Selmer, Tennessee to stand trial. When asked by investigators about what had happened to her husband, Winkler stated that she and her husband had argued about money and offered "I guess that's when my ugly came out."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2007/LAW/04/18/winkler.testimony/index.html \|title\=Slain preacher's wife denies pulling trigger \|publisher\=Cnn.com \|date\=2007\-04\-18 \|accessdate\=2011\-04\-10}} A grand jury indicted Winkler on June 12, 2006, accusing her of first\-degree murder.
### Bond hearing
On June 30, 2006, Mary Winkler's bond hearing was held. A [Tennessee Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Tennessee_Bureau_of_Investigation "Tennessee Bureau of Investigation") agent read a statement Winkler gave to authorities in Alabama, where she was arrested a day after her husband's body was found; in it, Winkler says she did not remember getting the gun but she did know her husband kept a shotgun in their home. The next thing she heard was a loud boom. Matthew Winkler was shot in the back as he lay in bed. He rolled from the bed onto the floor, and, still alive, he asked his wife, "Why?" to which she responded, "I'm sorry." When she left the home, Matthew Winkler was still alive in the bedroom, and the phone had been disconnected from its socket. According to the statement, she and her husband had been arguing throughout the evening about many things, including family finances. She admitted some of the problems were "her fault."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.independentappeal.com/html/winkler/bond2\.html \|title\=Mary Winkler's bond hearing \|publisher\=Independentappeal.com \|date\= \|accessdate\=2011\-04\-10}}
Mary had lost money in what her lawyer said was a scam. She had deposited checks that came from "unidentified sources" in Canada and Nigeria into bank accounts belonging to her and her husband. The checks amounted to more than $17,000\. Winkler had become caught up in a swindle known as the "[Nigerian scam](/wiki/Advance-fee_fraud "Advance-fee fraud")", which promises riches to victims who send money to cover the processing expenses. She added "He had really been on me lately criticizing me for things — the way I walk, I eat, everything. It was just building up to a point. I was tired of it. I guess I got to a point and snapped."{{cite news\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1350\&dat\=20060701\&id\=OmpPAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=dQQEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5613,21788\|title\=Wife of Pastor Details Dispute Before Slaying\|date\=2006\-07\-01\|publisher\=Toledo Blade\|accessdate\=16 May 2012}}
Bond was later set at $750,000, an amount that defense lawyer Steve Farese Sr. claimed was excessive and "tantamount to no bond at all". A plea for reduction of bond was filed and subsequently denied. Winkler's lawyers, Leslie Ballin and Steve Farese Sr., also filed motions to throw out her confession on a technicality, to require prosecutors to state whether or not they would seek the death penalty (they did not), to give potential jurors an extensive questionnaire, and other motions relating to [voir dire](/wiki/Voir_dire "Voir dire").
Winkler's entire defense team (her attorneys Steve Farese Sr., Leslie Ballin, Tony Farese, Steve Farese, Jr. and Investigator Terry Cox) represented her pro bono throughout the criminal case.
### Release from jail on bond
Winkler made bond on August 12, 2006 and was set for release from jail. Initially, problems stemming from a 1999 suspension of the bail bond company kept her in jail. However, Winkler was able to post $750,000 bond and was released on August 15, on the stipulation that she live with Rudolf and Kathy Thomsen, friends in [McMinnville, Tennessee](/wiki/McMinnville%2C_Tennessee "McMinnville, Tennessee"). The trial commenced on April 9, 2007, with the prosecution resting on April 16\. The defense rested two days later.
|
[
"Criminal case\n-------------",
"[thumb\\|Former Winkler residence in [Selmer, Tennessee](/wiki/Selmer%2C_Tennessee \"Selmer, Tennessee\")](/wiki/Image:174_Mollie_Dr_Selmer_TN.jpg \"174 Mollie Dr Selmer TN.jpg\")",
"According to police, Mary Winkler confessed to the March 22, 2006 fatal shooting of her husband, whose body was discovered in their home by church members after he missed that evening's service. He had been shot in the back with a [12\\-gauge](/wiki/Gauge_%28bore_diameter%29 \"Gauge (bore diameter)\") shotgun.",
"The couple had been married since 1996\\. One neighborhood family reported that Matthew Winkler had repeatedly threatened to shoot that family's dog after it strayed onto the Winklers' lawn. Also, other people as well as Mary Winkler's family alleged that Matthew Winkler had been abusive to Mary.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/LegalCenter/story?id\\=2667042\\&page\\=1 \\|title\\=ABC News: Preacher's Wife Killed Husband Because of Abuse, Family Says \\|publisher\\=Abcnews.go.com \\|date\\=2006\\-11\\-20 \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-04\\-10}} Winkler maintained this was the reason for the shooting.",
"After police issued an [Amber Alert](/wiki/Amber_Alert \"Amber Alert\") due to fears of kidnapping, Mary Winkler and the children (Patricia, then 8; Mary Alice, then 6; Breanna, then 1\\) were discovered in [Orange Beach, Alabama](/wiki/Orange_Beach%2C_Alabama \"Orange Beach, Alabama\"). Winkler was placed into custody there and later extradited to the city of Selmer, Tennessee to stand trial. When asked by investigators about what had happened to her husband, Winkler stated that she and her husband had argued about money and offered \"I guess that's when my ugly came out.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2007/LAW/04/18/winkler.testimony/index.html \\|title\\=Slain preacher's wife denies pulling trigger \\|publisher\\=Cnn.com \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-18 \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-04\\-10}} A grand jury indicted Winkler on June 12, 2006, accusing her of first\\-degree murder.",
"### Bond hearing",
"On June 30, 2006, Mary Winkler's bond hearing was held. A [Tennessee Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Tennessee_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Tennessee Bureau of Investigation\") agent read a statement Winkler gave to authorities in Alabama, where she was arrested a day after her husband's body was found; in it, Winkler says she did not remember getting the gun but she did know her husband kept a shotgun in their home. The next thing she heard was a loud boom. Matthew Winkler was shot in the back as he lay in bed. He rolled from the bed onto the floor, and, still alive, he asked his wife, \"Why?\" to which she responded, \"I'm sorry.\" When she left the home, Matthew Winkler was still alive in the bedroom, and the phone had been disconnected from its socket. According to the statement, she and her husband had been arguing throughout the evening about many things, including family finances. She admitted some of the problems were \"her fault.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.independentappeal.com/html/winkler/bond2\\.html \\|title\\=Mary Winkler's bond hearing \\|publisher\\=Independentappeal.com \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-04\\-10}}",
"Mary had lost money in what her lawyer said was a scam. She had deposited checks that came from \"unidentified sources\" in Canada and Nigeria into bank accounts belonging to her and her husband. The checks amounted to more than $17,000\\. Winkler had become caught up in a swindle known as the \"[Nigerian scam](/wiki/Advance-fee_fraud \"Advance-fee fraud\")\", which promises riches to victims who send money to cover the processing expenses. She added \"He had really been on me lately criticizing me for things — the way I walk, I eat, everything. It was just building up to a point. I was tired of it. I guess I got to a point and snapped.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1350\\&dat\\=20060701\\&id\\=OmpPAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=dQQEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5613,21788\\|title\\=Wife of Pastor Details Dispute Before Slaying\\|date\\=2006\\-07\\-01\\|publisher\\=Toledo Blade\\|accessdate\\=16 May 2012}}",
"Bond was later set at $750,000, an amount that defense lawyer Steve Farese Sr. claimed was excessive and \"tantamount to no bond at all\". A plea for reduction of bond was filed and subsequently denied. Winkler's lawyers, Leslie Ballin and Steve Farese Sr., also filed motions to throw out her confession on a technicality, to require prosecutors to state whether or not they would seek the death penalty (they did not), to give potential jurors an extensive questionnaire, and other motions relating to [voir dire](/wiki/Voir_dire \"Voir dire\").",
"Winkler's entire defense team (her attorneys Steve Farese Sr., Leslie Ballin, Tony Farese, Steve Farese, Jr. and Investigator Terry Cox) represented her pro bono throughout the criminal case.",
"### Release from jail on bond",
"Winkler made bond on August 12, 2006 and was set for release from jail. Initially, problems stemming from a 1999 suspension of the bail bond company kept her in jail. However, Winkler was able to post $750,000 bond and was released on August 15, on the stipulation that she live with Rudolf and Kathy Thomsen, friends in [McMinnville, Tennessee](/wiki/McMinnville%2C_Tennessee \"McMinnville, Tennessee\"). The trial commenced on April 9, 2007, with the prosecution resting on April 16\\. The defense rested two days later.",
""
] |
Trial
-----
On April 18, 2007, Mary Winkler took the stand in her own defense. She told a jury of ten women and two men that her husband often "berated" her and forced her to wear "slutty" costumes for sex. As proof she displayed a pair of high\-heeled shoes and a wig at which those in attendance gasped. Winkler claimed that she only shot her husband accidentally. She said that she went to the bedroom closet and retrieved a shotgun because she wanted to force him to work through their problems. "I just wanted him to stop being so mean," she said through tears. Winkler denied she ever actually pulled the trigger, but told the jury "something went off". She heard a boom, then ran from the house because she thought he would be mad at her.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2007/LAW/04/18/winkler.testimony/index.html \|title\=CNN report of trial testimony \|publisher\=Cnn.com \|date\=2007\-04\-18 \|accessdate\=2011\-04\-10}}
### Verdict
On April 19, 2007, the jury came back with the verdict: guilty of [voluntary manslaughter](/wiki/Voluntary_manslaughter "Voluntary manslaughter"). Prosecutors had asked that Winkler be convicted of first\-degree murder, but the jury settled on the lesser charge after deliberating for eight hours.
### Sentencing
The sentencing phase was set to begin on May 18, 2007, but was delayed due to a scheduling conflict by one of the attorneys. On June 8, 2007, a Tennessee judge sentenced Mary Winkler to 210 days in prison for the conviction of [voluntary manslaughter](/wiki/Voluntary_manslaughter "Voluntary manslaughter"). She had credit for already serving five months and the judge permitted her to spend up to 60 days in an undisclosed mental health facility in Tennessee. She was to be put on probation for the rest of her sentence.
### Reaction
Some [men's rights](/wiki/Men%27s_rights "Men's rights") activists argue the sentence did not constitute justice for the killing of Matthew Winkler. They argued that society sees males only as victimizers{{cite AV media \| people\= Karen Straughan \| date\= November 4, 2011 \|accessdate\= November 4, 2011 \| title\= Feminism and the disposable male \| medium\= Video \| publisher\= Karen Straughan via \[\[YouTube]] \| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=vp8tToFv\-bA }}{{Self published inline\| date \= June 2017 \|certain\=yes}} and say that the definition of [emotional abuse](/wiki/Emotional_abuse "Emotional abuse") has been expanded to include mere criticism, thereby giving anyone who does not like being criticized justification to commit murder in order to end the criticism. Mary Winkler's family alleges that she was reacting to a combination of emotional, sexual, and physical [spousal abuse](/wiki/Spousal_abuse "Spousal abuse").
In a 2007 interview with [Oprah Winfrey](/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey "Oprah Winfrey"), Winkler stated that her jail time was too short. "There's no amount of time I think you can put on something like this. I was just ready for them to lock the door and throw away the key", she told Winfrey.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/law/09/12/winkler.oprah/index.html \|title\=Oprah interview \|publisher\=Cnn.com \|date\=2007\-09\-12 \|accessdate\=2011\-04\-10}}
### In modern popular culture
The song "The Wig He Made Her Wear" from Southern alt\-rock band [Drive\-By Truckers](/wiki/Drive-By_Truckers "Drive-By Truckers")' [2010](/wiki/2010_in_music "2010 in music") album *[The Big To\-Do](/wiki/The_Big_To-Do "The Big To-Do")* describes the case and the details surrounding the actions of the Winklers, particularly that of Mary.
The transcript of Mary's police interview was used by Lithuanian artist Ignas Krunglevicius in a piece called "Interrogation" in 2009, in which he changed her last name to show some respect for her privacy.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.biennaleofsydney.com.au/19bos/artists/krunglevicius/\|title\=19th Biennale of Sydney, You Imagine What You Desire}}
Mary Winkler's murder trial was the subject of the 2011 TV film *[The Pastor's Wife](/wiki/The_Pastor%27s_Wife_%28film%29 "The Pastor's Wife (film)")* starring [Rose McGowan](/wiki/Rose_McGowan "Rose McGowan").
In April 2020, this case was in a new episode "The Pastor's Secrets" in the *Sex and Murder* series on HLN cable network.
|
[
"Trial\n-----",
"On April 18, 2007, Mary Winkler took the stand in her own defense. She told a jury of ten women and two men that her husband often \"berated\" her and forced her to wear \"slutty\" costumes for sex. As proof she displayed a pair of high\\-heeled shoes and a wig at which those in attendance gasped. Winkler claimed that she only shot her husband accidentally. She said that she went to the bedroom closet and retrieved a shotgun because she wanted to force him to work through their problems. \"I just wanted him to stop being so mean,\" she said through tears. Winkler denied she ever actually pulled the trigger, but told the jury \"something went off\". She heard a boom, then ran from the house because she thought he would be mad at her.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2007/LAW/04/18/winkler.testimony/index.html \\|title\\=CNN report of trial testimony \\|publisher\\=Cnn.com \\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-18 \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-04\\-10}}",
"### Verdict",
"On April 19, 2007, the jury came back with the verdict: guilty of [voluntary manslaughter](/wiki/Voluntary_manslaughter \"Voluntary manslaughter\"). Prosecutors had asked that Winkler be convicted of first\\-degree murder, but the jury settled on the lesser charge after deliberating for eight hours.",
"### Sentencing",
"The sentencing phase was set to begin on May 18, 2007, but was delayed due to a scheduling conflict by one of the attorneys. On June 8, 2007, a Tennessee judge sentenced Mary Winkler to 210 days in prison for the conviction of [voluntary manslaughter](/wiki/Voluntary_manslaughter \"Voluntary manslaughter\"). She had credit for already serving five months and the judge permitted her to spend up to 60 days in an undisclosed mental health facility in Tennessee. She was to be put on probation for the rest of her sentence.",
"### Reaction",
"Some [men's rights](/wiki/Men%27s_rights \"Men's rights\") activists argue the sentence did not constitute justice for the killing of Matthew Winkler. They argued that society sees males only as victimizers{{cite AV media \\| people\\= Karen Straughan \\| date\\= November 4, 2011 \\|accessdate\\= November 4, 2011 \\| title\\= Feminism and the disposable male \\| medium\\= Video \\| publisher\\= Karen Straughan via \\[\\[YouTube]] \\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=vp8tToFv\\-bA }}{{Self published inline\\| date \\= June 2017 \\|certain\\=yes}} and say that the definition of [emotional abuse](/wiki/Emotional_abuse \"Emotional abuse\") has been expanded to include mere criticism, thereby giving anyone who does not like being criticized justification to commit murder in order to end the criticism. Mary Winkler's family alleges that she was reacting to a combination of emotional, sexual, and physical [spousal abuse](/wiki/Spousal_abuse \"Spousal abuse\").",
"In a 2007 interview with [Oprah Winfrey](/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey \"Oprah Winfrey\"), Winkler stated that her jail time was too short. \"There's no amount of time I think you can put on something like this. I was just ready for them to lock the door and throw away the key\", she told Winfrey.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/law/09/12/winkler.oprah/index.html \\|title\\=Oprah interview \\|publisher\\=Cnn.com \\|date\\=2007\\-09\\-12 \\|accessdate\\=2011\\-04\\-10}}",
"### In modern popular culture",
"The song \"The Wig He Made Her Wear\" from Southern alt\\-rock band [Drive\\-By Truckers](/wiki/Drive-By_Truckers \"Drive-By Truckers\")' [2010](/wiki/2010_in_music \"2010 in music\") album *[The Big To\\-Do](/wiki/The_Big_To-Do \"The Big To-Do\")* describes the case and the details surrounding the actions of the Winklers, particularly that of Mary.",
"The transcript of Mary's police interview was used by Lithuanian artist Ignas Krunglevicius in a piece called \"Interrogation\" in 2009, in which he changed her last name to show some respect for her privacy.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.biennaleofsydney.com.au/19bos/artists/krunglevicius/\\|title\\=19th Biennale of Sydney, You Imagine What You Desire}}",
"Mary Winkler's murder trial was the subject of the 2011 TV film *[The Pastor's Wife](/wiki/The_Pastor%27s_Wife_%28film%29 \"The Pastor's Wife (film)\")* starring [Rose McGowan](/wiki/Rose_McGowan \"Rose McGowan\").",
"In April 2020, this case was in a new episode \"The Pastor's Secrets\" in the *Sex and Murder* series on HLN cable network.",
""
] |
Government and politics
-----------------------
{{Main\|Politics of Northern Cyprus}}
[150px\|thumb\|[Ersin Tatar](/wiki/Ersin_Tatar "Ersin Tatar"), [President of Northern Cyprus](/wiki/President_of_Northern_Cyprus "President of Northern Cyprus")](/wiki/File:Ilham_Aliyev_received_President_of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus_in_Konya_%281%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "Ilham Aliyev received President of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in Konya (1) (cropped).jpg")
The politics of Northern Cyprus takes place in a framework of a [semi\-presidential](/wiki/Semi-presidential_system "Semi-presidential system") [representative democratic](/wiki/Representative_democracy "Representative democracy") [republic](/wiki/Republic "Republic"), whereby the [president](/wiki/President_of_Northern_Cyprus "President of Northern Cyprus") is [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state "Head of state") and the [prime minister](/wiki/Prime_minister "Prime minister") [head of government](/wiki/Head_of_government "Head of government"), and of a [multi\-party system](/wiki/Multi-party_system "Multi-party system"). [Executive power](/wiki/Executive_power "Executive power") is exercised by the government. [Legislative power](/wiki/Legislative_power "Legislative power") is vested in both the [government](/wiki/Government "Government") and the [Assembly of the Republic](/wiki/Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus "Assembly of the Republic of Northern Cyprus"). The [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_Northern_Cyprus "Judiciary of Northern Cyprus") is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The president is elected for a five\-year term and is currently [Ersin Tatar](/wiki/Ersin_Tatar "Ersin Tatar"). The current prime minister is Ersan Saner. The legislature is the Assembly of the Republic, which has 50 members elected by [proportional representation](/wiki/Proportional_representation "Proportional representation") from six electoral districts. In the elections of January 2018, the right\-wing [National Unity Party](/wiki/National_Unity_Party_%28Northern_Cyprus%29 "National Unity Party (Northern Cyprus)") won the most seats in the Assembly, and the current government is a coalition of the National Unity Party and the centrist [People's Party](/wiki/People%27s_Party_%28Northern_Cyprus%29 "People's Party (Northern Cyprus)").{{cite web \|title\=The new North Cyprus coalition \|date\=23 May 2019 \|url\=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/yusuf\-kanli/the\-new\-north\-cyprus\-coalition\-143631 \|publisher\=Hürriyet \|access\-date\=30 May 2019 \|archive\-date\=30 May 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530004925/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/yusuf\-kanli/the\-new\-north\-cyprus\-coalition\-143631 \|url\-status\=live }}
Due to Northern Cyprus's isolation and heavy reliance on Turkish support, Turkey has a high level of influence over the country's politics. This has led to some experts characterising it as an effective [puppet state](/wiki/Puppet_state "Puppet state") of Turkey.{{cite book \|first\=Ersun N. \|last\=Kurtulus \|title\=State Sovereignty: Concept, Phenomenon and Ramifications \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=jeTFAAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA136 \|date\=27 November 2005 \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|isbn\=978\-1\-4039\-7708\-3 \|pages\=136– \|quote\=It may be argued that the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which was declared in 1983 and which was only recognized as a state by Turkey and for a short period by Pakistan, is at the moment of writing the only existent puppet state in the world. \|access\-date\=20 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905235953/https://books.google.com/books?id\=jeTFAAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA136 \|archive\-date\=5 September 2015 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all }}{{cite book \|first\=Carlo \|last\=Focarelli \|title\=International Law as Social Construct: The Struggle for Global Justice \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=oTYc6WY0\_icC\&pg\=PA161 \|date\=24 May 2012 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-958483\-3 \|pages\=161– \|quote\=In the 1995 and 1996 Loizidou Judgments the ECtHR treated the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) as a sort of puppet government whose acts fall within the jurisdiction of (and are attributable to) Turkey as an (unlawful) occupier. \|access\-date\=20 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234814/https://books.google.com/books?id\=oTYc6WY0\_icC\&pg\=PA161 \|archive\-date\=5 September 2015 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all }}{{cite book \|first1\=Carlo \|last1\=Panara \|first2\=Gary \|last2\=Wilson \|title\=The Arab Spring: New Patterns for Democracy and International Law \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rWAzAQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA59 \|date\=9 January 2013 \|publisher\=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers \|isbn\=978\-90\-04\-24341\-5 \|pages\=59– \|quote\=The situation with the South African homelands was similar and so was collective non\-acceptance of the Turkish puppet\-government in northern Cyprus which has resulted in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus not being recognized as a state. \|access\-date\=20 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906000129/https://books.google.com/books?id\=rWAzAQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA59 \|archive\-date\=6 September 2015 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all }} Other experts, however, have pointed out to the independent nature of elections and appointments in Northern Cyprus and disputes between the Turkish Cypriot and Turkish governments, concluding that "puppet state" is not an accurate description for Northern Cyprus.{{cite book \|last1\=Bartmann \|first1\=Barry \|editor1\-last\=Bahcheli \|editor1\-first\=Tozun \|editor2\-last\=Bartmann \|editor2\-first\=Barry \|editor3\-last\=Srebrnik \|editor3\-first\=Henry \|title\=De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty \|date\=2004 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-135\-77121\-8 \|page\=24 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Gk2QAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA24 }}{{cite book \|last1\=Dodd \|first1\=Clement Henry \|title\=The political, social and economic development of Northern Cyprus \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=Eothen Press \|isbn\=9780906719183 \|page\=377 \|quote\=In short, the electorate of Northern Cyprus votes freely for its political leaders and gives them substantial support. Nor is Northern Cyprus a Turkish puppet state. Mr Denktaş and the Turkish\-Cypriot case have a powerful following in Turkey...}}
### Administrative divisions
{{Main\|Districts of Northern Cyprus}}
Northern Cyprus is divided into six districts: [Lefkoşa](/wiki/Lefko%C5%9Fa_District "Lefkoşa District"), [Gazimağusa](/wiki/Gazima%C4%9Fusa_District "Gazimağusa District"), [Girne](/wiki/Kyrenia_District "Kyrenia District"), [Güzelyurt](/wiki/G%C3%BCzelyurt_District "Güzelyurt District"), [İskele](/wiki/%C4%B0skele_District "İskele District") and [Lefke](/wiki/Lefke_District "Lefke District"). Lefke District was established by separation from the Güzelyurt District in 2016\.{{cite web \|title\=Lefke 6\. ilçe oldu! \|url\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/lefke\-6\-ilce\-oldu!\-27122016 \|publisher\=Kıbrıs Postası \|access\-date\=27 December 2016 \|date\=27 December 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228135624/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/lefke\-6\-ilce\-oldu!\-27122016 \|archive\-date\=28 December 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy\-all}} In addition, there are further twelve sub\-districts divided between the five larger districts and twenty\-eight municipalities.
[600px\|Blank district map of Northern Cyprus](/wiki/File:Blank_district_map_Northern_Cyprus.png "Blank district map Northern Cyprus.png")
[Lefkoşa](/wiki/Lefko%C5%9Fa_District "Lefkoşa District")
[Girne](/wiki/Girne_District "Girne District")
[İskele](/wiki/%C4%B0skele_District "İskele District")
[Güzelyurt](/wiki/G%C3%BCzelyurt_District "Güzelyurt District")
[Gazimağusa](/wiki/Gazima%C4%9Fusa_District "Gazimağusa District")
{{colored link\|white\|Lefke District\|Lefke}}
### International status and foreign relations
{{Main\|Foreign relations of Northern Cyprus}}
[thumb\|London office of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, [Bedford Square](/wiki/Bedford_Square "Bedford Square").](/wiki/File:Northern_Cypriot_Office_London_20060615.jpg "Northern Cypriot Office London 20060615.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|[Mustafa Akıncı](/wiki/Mustafa_Ak%C4%B1nc%C4%B1 "Mustafa Akıncı") with U.S. Secretary of State [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry "John Kerry"), 2 October 2015](/wiki/File:Secretary_Kerry_Meets_With_Turkish_Cypriot_Leader_Akinci_in_New_York_City_%2821901946901%29.jpg "Secretary Kerry Meets With Turkish Cypriot Leader Akinci in New York City (21901946901).jpg")
No country other than the [Republic of Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"){{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country\_profiles/1016541\.stm \|title\=Cyprus country profile \|publisher\=BBC News \|date\=23 December 2011 \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728172734/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country\_profiles/1016541\.stm \|archive\-date\=28 July 2011 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all }}{{cite book\|author\=International Chamber of Commerce\|title\=Europe Review 2003/04: The Economic and Business Report\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hwi0s3I5jLEC\&pg\=PA79\|date\=1 November 2003\|publisher\=Kogan Page Publishers\|isbn\=978\-0\-7494\-4067\-1\|page\=79\|quote\=The Turkish Cypriot\-dominated north is the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' which elects its own government and is recognised only by Turkey.\|access\-date\=20 June 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905235258/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hwi0s3I5jLEC\&pg\=PA79\|archive\-date\=5 September 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}}{{cite book\|title\=The CIA World Factbook 2010\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pqanFyF6nI0C\&pg\=PA182\|year\=2009\|publisher\=Skyhorse Publishing Inc.\|isbn\=978\-1\-60239\-727\-9\|page\=182\|quote\=the formation of a "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" ("TRNC"), which is recognized only by Turkey\|access\-date\=20 June 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906002225/https://books.google.com/books?id\=pqanFyF6nI0C\&pg\=PA182\|archive\-date\=6 September 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}} has officially recognised Northern Cyprus as a sovereign state. The [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") considers it a territory of the Republic of Cyprus under Turkish occupation.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.un.int/cyprus/scr550\.htm \|title\=Permanent Mission of the Republic of Cyprus to the United Nations — \|publisher\=Un.int \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506115414/http://www.un.int/cyprus/scr550\.htm \|archive\-date\=6 May 2012 \|df\=dmy\-all }}{{cite book\|author\=Scott Leckie\|title\=Housing and Property Restitution Rights of Refugees and Displaced Persons: Laws, Cases, and Materials\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HyfqzaFBMLoC\&pg\=PA448\|date\=28 May 2007\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-139\-46409\-3\|page\=448\|quote\=The complaints raised in this application arise out of the Turkish military operations in northern Cyprus in July and August ... This development was condemned by the international community. ... of the establishment of the "TRNC" legally invalid and calling upon all States not to recognise any Cypriot State other than the ...\|access\-date\=20 June 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906000604/https://books.google.com/books?id\=HyfqzaFBMLoC\&pg\=PA448\|archive\-date\=6 September 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}}{{cite book\|author\=Quigley\|title\=The Statehood of Palestine\|date\=6 September 2010\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=iTR3BQ0aJ6UC\&pg\=PA164\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-139\-49124\-2\|page\=164\|quote\=The international community found this declaration invalid, on the ground that Turkey had occupied territory belonging to Cyprus and that the putative state was therefore an infringement on Cypriot sovereignty.\|access\-date\=20 June 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906001102/https://books.google.com/books?id\=iTR3BQ0aJ6UC\&pg\=PA164\|archive\-date\=6 September 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}} Pakistan and Bangladesh had initially declared their recognition of Northern Cyprus as a sovereign state shortly after its declaration of independence,[Commentary](http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2014/07/07/is-now-the-time-for-a-cyprus-deal/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724205651/http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2014/07/07/is\-now\-the\-time\-for\-a\-cyprus\-deal/ \|date\=24 July 2014 }} Michael Rubin (7 July 2014\):"Is Now the Time for a Cyprus Deal?" but they withdrew their recognition as a result of US pressure after the UN deemed the declaration illegal.[Inter City Press](http://www.innercitypress.com/undip1trnc102810.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035056/http://www.innercitypress.com/undip1trnc102810\.html \|date\=24 September 2015 }} Matthew Russell Lee: "At UN, Turkish Cypriot Community Has Rare Diplomatic Status, Non State Envy \[sic]" The United Nations considers the declaration of independence by Northern Cyprus as legally invalid, as enunciated in several of its resolutions.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.un.int/cyprus/scr541\.htm \|title\=Permanent Mission of the Republic of Cyprus to the United Nations — \|publisher\=Un.int \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030828074921/http://www.un.int/cyprus/scr541\.htm \|archive\-date\=28 August 2003 \|df\=dmy\-all }}
In the wake of the April 2004 referendum on the United Nations [Annan Plan](/wiki/Annan_Plan_for_Cyprus "Annan Plan for Cyprus"), and in view of the support of the Turkish Cypriot community for the plan, the European Union made pledges towards ending the isolation of Northern Cyprus. These included measures for trade and €259 million in aid.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2012}} A pledge by the EU to lift the embargo on Northern Cyprus in the wake of the Annan Plan referendums has been blocked by the Greek Cypriot government in the [European Council](/wiki/European_Council "European Council").
In 2004, the [Organisation of Islamic Co\-operation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation") upgraded the delegation of the Turkish Cypriot Muslim community from "observer community" (1979\) to that of a constituent state with the designation "[Turkish Cypriot State](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot_State "Turkish Cypriot State")", making Northern Cyprus an observer member of the organisation.{{cite web \|url\=http://islamic\-conference\-news.newslib.com/story/1413\-3215426/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714174140/http://islamic\-conference\-news.newslib.com/story/1413\-3215426/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=14 July 2011 \|title\=Netwebsearch.com \|publisher\=Islamic\-conference\-news.newslib.com \|access\-date\=14 February 2014}} A number of high\-profile formal meetings have also taken place between Turkish Cypriot presidents and various foreign leaders and politicians.
In 2004, the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe") gave observer status to the representatives of Turkish Cypriot community.{{cite web \|url\=http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link\=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta04/ERES1376\.htm \|title\=Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly \|publisher\=Assembly.coe.int \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307155611/http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link\=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta04%2FERES1376\.htm \|archive\-date\=7 March 2014 \|df\=dmy\-all}} Since then, Northern Cyprus's representatives have actively participated in all PACE activities without voting rights.
The European Union considers the area not under effective control of the Republic of Cyprus as EU territory under Turkish military occupation and thus indefinitely exempt from [EU legislation](/wiki/Community_acquis "Community acquis") until a settlement has been found. The status of Northern Cyprus has become a recurrent issue especially during talks in the 2010s for [Turkey's membership of the EU](/wiki/Accession_of_Turkey_to_the_European_Union "Accession of Turkey to the European Union") where the division of the island is seen as a major stumbling block in Turkey's road to membership and general [EU\-Turkey relations](/wiki/Turkey%E2%80%93European_Union_relations "Turkey–European Union relations").{{cite news \|author\=David Gow \|author2\=Helena Smith \|title\=EU puts Turkey on a long road to accession \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/turkey/story/0,12700,1321511,00\.html \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=7 October 2004 \|access\-date\=30 January 2007 \|location\=London \|archive\-date\=13 February 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213063628/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/oct/07/turkey.eu \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news \|title\=EU Sets Deadline for Turkey to Open Up Its Ports \|url\=http://www.dw\-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2243855,00\.html \|publisher\=\[\[Deutsche Welle]] \|date\=21 November 2006 \|access\-date\=30 January 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231182246/http://www.dw\-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2243855,00\.html \|archive\-date\=31 December 2007 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all}}
The [Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic](/wiki/Nakhchivan_Autonomous_Republic "Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic") of [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan") has issued a resolution recognising the independence of Northern Cyprus. As a result of the [Nagorno\-Karabakh](/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh "Nagorno-Karabakh") issue, however, Azerbaijan itself has not recognised North Cyprus.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.regnum.ru/english/708006\.html \|title\=REGNUM news agency press release \|publisher\=Regnum.ru \|access\-date\=17 November 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213022330/http://www.regnum.ru/english/708006\.html \|archive\-date\=13 December 2010 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all}}
Turkish Cypriots have been applying for decades for passports issued by [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus"). When the entry points with the Republic of Cyprus were closed, the applications were made either through middlemen or through consulates and embassies of Cyprus in other countries. A yearly increase in the number of applications for such passports of 10–15% was observed in years prior to 2001, when the rate greatly increased and 817 were issued in the first eight months of 2001 as compared to 448 for the whole of 2000\. After the opening of the borders with the Republic of Cyprus, Turkish Cypriots started line\-ups applying for Cypriot passports by visiting the Republic of Cyprus and showing proof of their Cypriot ancestry.{{cite book \|last\=Navaro\-Yashin \|first\=Yael \|title\=The Make\-Believe Space: Affective Geography in a Postwar Polity \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=x7TcS\_wW11wC\&pg\=PA118 \|url\-status\=live \|publisher\=Duke University Press \|location\=Durham, NC / London \|pages\=118–122 \|date\=12 March 2012 \|access\-date\=20 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017204604/https://books.google.com/books?id\=x7TcS\_wW11wC\&pg\=PA118 \|archive\-date\=17 October 2015 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8223\-5204\-4 \|df\=dmy\-all}}
There are seven border crossings between Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cyprus\-travel\-secrets.com/cyprus\-border\-crossings.html \|title\=Cyprus Border Crossings \|publisher\=Cyprus Travel Secrets \|access\-date\=6 April 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304230512/http://www.cyprus\-travel\-secrets.com/cyprus\-border\-crossings.html \|archive\-date\=4 March 2012 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all}} Since May 2004 some tourists have taken to flying to the Republic of Cyprus directly then crossing the green line to holiday in Northern Cyprus.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/northamerica/usa/732241/On\-the\-case\-non\-existent\-flight\-Northern\-Cyprus\-children\-in\-the\-Algarve\-Cannes.html \|work\=The Daily Telegraph \|location\=London \|title\=On the case: non\-existent flight; Northern Cyprus; children in the Algarve; Cannes \|first\=Gill \|last\=Charlton \|date\=5 February 2005 \|access\-date\=22 August 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023065110/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/northamerica/usa/732241/On\-the\-case\-non\-existent\-flight\-Northern\-Cyprus\-children\-in\-the\-Algarve\-Cannes.html \|archive\-date\=23 October 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all}}{{update inline\|date\=January 2015}}
On 21 September 2011, [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") and Northern Cyprus signed an EEZ border agreement in New York.[Official Gazette](http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/07/20120712-3.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920075416/http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/07/20120712\-3\.htm \|date\=20 September 2013}} 12 July 2012[Official Gazette](http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/10/20121010-3-1.pdf) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023001430/http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/10/20121010\-3\-1\.pdf \|date\=23 October 2013}} EEZ Border (Page 4\)
In October 2012, Northern Cyprus became an observer member of the [Economic Cooperation Organization](/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization "Economic Cooperation Organization") under the name "Turkish Cypriot State". In November 2022, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was admitted to the [Organization of Turkic States](/wiki/Organization_of_Turkic_States "Organization of Turkic States") as observer member.{{cite news \|title\=TRNC admitted to Organisation of Turkic States as observer member \|url\=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/trnc\-admitted\-to\-organisation\-of\-turkic\-states\-as\-observer\-member\-62455 \|access\-date\=11 November 2022 \|date\=11 November 2022}}
### Military
{{main\|Security Forces Command}}
[thumb\|right\|[Turkish Cypriot](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot "Turkish Cypriot") soldiers of the [Security Forces Command](/wiki/Security_Forces_Command "Security Forces Command") perform during a Republic Day parade.](/wiki/File:Northern_Cyprus_Republic_Day_parade_2007_2.JPG "Northern Cyprus Republic Day parade 2007 2.JPG")
The Security Forces Command consists of an 8,000 strong force primarily made up of conscripted Turkish Cypriot males between the ages of 18 and 40\.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2013}} There is also an additional reserve force which consists of about 10,000 first\-line and 16,000 second\-line troops conscripted up to the age of 50\. The [Security Forces Command](/wiki/Security_Forces_Command "Security Forces Command") is lightly armed and heavily dependent on its mainland Turkish allies, from which it draws much of its officer corps.{{cite book\|author1\=Eric Solsten\|author2\=Library of Congress. Federal Research Division\|title\=Cyprus, a country study\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=5UuFAAAAIAAJ\|year\=1993\|publisher\=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress\|isbn\=978\-0\-8444\-0752\-4\|page\=232\|quote\=Although legally separate from the Turkish Army on the island, the Turkish Cypriot Security Force was believed to remain under the de facto operational control of the Turkish forces. It also depended on Turkey for training and equipment. Most of its officers were regular Turkish Army officers on secondment.\|access\-date\=20 June 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234346/https://books.google.com/books?id\=5UuFAAAAIAAJ\|archive\-date\=5 September 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}} It is led by a Brigadier General drawn from the Turkish Army. It acts essentially as a [gendarmerie](/wiki/Gendarmerie "Gendarmerie") charged with protection of the border of Northern Cyprus from Greek Cypriot incursions and maintaining internal security within Northern Cyprus."Cyprus." *Jane's Sentinel: Eastern Mediterranean*, issue 22, 2007\.
In addition, the mainland [Turkish Armed Forces](/wiki/Turkish_Armed_Forces "Turkish Armed Forces") maintains the [Cyprus Turkish Peace Force](/wiki/Cyprus_Turkish_Peace_Force "Cyprus Turkish Peace Force") which consists of around 30,000–40,000 troops drawn from the 9th Turkish Army Corps and comprising two divisions, the 28th and 39th. It is equipped with a substantial number of [US](/wiki/US "US")\-made [M48 Patton](/wiki/M48_Patton%23Turkish_variants "M48 Patton#Turkish variants") [main battle tanks](/wiki/Main_battle_tanks "Main battle tanks") and artillery weapons. The [Turkish Air Force](/wiki/Turkish_Air_Force "Turkish Air Force"), [Turkish Navy](/wiki/Turkish_Navy "Turkish Navy") and [Turkish Coast Guard](/wiki/Turkish_Coast_Guard "Turkish Coast Guard") also have a presence in Northern Cyprus. Although formally part of Turkish 4th Army, headquartered in İzmir, the sensitivities of the Cyprus situation means that the commander of the [Cyprus Turkish Peace Force](/wiki/Cyprus_Turkish_Peace_Force "Cyprus Turkish Peace Force") also reports directly to the Turkish General Staff in [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara "Ankara"). The [Cyprus Turkish Peace Force](/wiki/Cyprus_Turkish_Peace_Force "Cyprus Turkish Peace Force") is deployed principally along the [Green Line](/wiki/Green_Line_%28Cyprus%29 "Green Line (Cyprus)") and in locations where hostile amphibious landings might take place.
The presence of the mainland Turkish military in Cyprus is highly controversial, having been denounced as an occupation force by the Republic of Cyprus and the international community. Several [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council") resolutions have called on the Turkish forces to withdraw.UN Security Council resolutions 353, 357, 358, 359, 360, and 365, all from 1974\.
### Human rights
{{Main\|Human rights in Northern Cyprus}}
[thumb\|left\|The law courts building in [North Nicosia](/wiki/North_Nicosia "North Nicosia")](/wiki/File:Nicosia_01-2017_img33_AtatuerkSquare.jpg "Nicosia 01-2017 img33 AtatuerkSquare.jpg")
In January 2011, *The Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the question of Human Rights in Cyprus* noted that the ongoing division of Cyprus continues to affect human rights throughout the island "including freedom of movement, human rights pertaining to the question of missing persons, discrimination, the right to life, freedom of religion, and economic, social and cultural rights."{{cite web \|url\=http://www2\.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/16session/A\-HRC\-16\-21\.pdf \|title\=Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the question of human rights in Cyprus : 16th Session, Human Rights Council, United Nations \|date\=7 January 2011 \|publisher\=\[\[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731132114/http://www2\.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/16session/A\-HRC\-16\-21\.pdf \|archive\-date\=31 July 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all }}
[Freedom House](/wiki/Freedom_House "Freedom House") has classified the perceived level of democratic and political freedom in Northern Cyprus as "free" since 2000 in its *[Freedom in the World](/wiki/Freedom_in_the_World_%28report%29 "Freedom in the World (report)")* report.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/fiw/FIW%202011%20Booklet\_1\_11\_11\.pdf \|title\=Freedom in the World 2011 Report \|publisher\=\[\[Freedom House]] \|page\=29 \|access\-date\=24 April 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516054243/http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/fiw/FIW%202011%20Booklet\_1\_11\_11\.pdf \|archive\-date\=16 May 2011 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW2014%20Booklet.pdf \|title\=Freedom in the World 2014 \|publisher\=\[\[Freedom House]] \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214141151/http://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW2014%20Booklet.pdf \|archive\-date\=14 February 2014 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all }} The 2016 ranking was "free" with the scores (1: most free, 7: least free) political rights: 2/7, civil liberties: 2/7 and aggregate score: 79/100\.{{cite web \|url\=https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH\_FITW\_Report\_2016\.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[Freedom House]] \|title\=FH\_FITW\_Report\_2016\.pdf \|work\=Freedom in the World in 2016 \|page\=24 \|access\-date\=30 January 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205095411/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH\_FITW\_Report\_2016\.pdf \|archive\-date\=5 February 2016 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all }} [Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders "Reporters Without Borders")' World Press Freedom Index ranked Northern Cyprus 76th among 180 countries in 2015\.[Reporters Without Borders](http://index.rsf.org/#!/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030005204/http://index.rsf.org/\#!/ \|date\=30 October 2015 }} 2015 World Freedom Index
The [Greek Cypriot](/wiki/Enclaved_Greek_Cypriots "Enclaved Greek Cypriots") and [Maronite](/wiki/Maronite_Cypriots "Maronite Cypriots") communities, numbering 343 and 118 respectively as of 2014, are denied the right to vote in presidential, parliamentary and municipal elections or run for office. Maronites do elect [the leader of their village](/wiki/Mukhtar "Mukhtar"), whilst Greek Cypriots have two appointed leaders, one by the Turkish Cypriot government and the other by the Republic of Cyprus.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ktihv.org/Eng/content/view/43/13/ \|title\=Overview of the Human Rights Situation in North Cyprus \|publisher\=Turkish Cypriot Human Rights Foundation \|date\=14 January 2009 \|access\-date\=25 April 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727003221/http://www.ktihv.org/Eng/content/view/43/13/ \|archive\-date\=27 July 2011 }}{{cite web \|title\=Kuzey Kıbrıs'ta Hıristiyanlar yarı vatandaş \|date\=May 2015 \|trans\-title\=Christians in Northern Cyprus \|url\=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/10146/kuzey\-kibrista\-hiristiyanlar\-yari\-vatandas \|publisher\=Agos \|access\-date\=18 May 2015 \|language\=tr \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150628221703/http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/10146/kuzey\-kibrista\-hiristiyanlar\-yari\-vatandas \|archive\-date\=28 June 2015 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all }}
World Happiness Report 2016 of United Nations' Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) ranked Northern Cyprus 62nd among 157 countries.[UN SDSN World Happiness Report 2016](http://5c28efcb768db11c7204-4ffd2ff276d22135df4d1a53ae141422.r82.cf5.rackcdn.com/HR-V1_web.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318091325/http://5c28efcb768db11c7204\-4ffd2ff276d22135df4d1a53ae141422\.r82\.cf5\.rackcdn.com/HR\-V1\_web.pdf \|date\=18 March 2016 }} Figure 2\.2\. Renking of Happiness Gallup Healthways Well\-Being Index of 2014 ranked Northern Cyprus 49th among 145 countries.[Gallup Healthways Well\-Being Index](http://info.healthways.com/hubfs/Well-Being_Index/2014_Data/Gallup-Healthways_State_of_Global_Well-Being_2014_Country_Rankings.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701191916/http://info.healthways.com/hubfs/Well\-Being\_Index/2014\_Data/Gallup\-Healthways\_State\_of\_Global\_Well\-Being\_2014\_Country\_Rankings.pdf \|date\=1 July 2015 }} 2014
Northern Cyprus received 153 asylum applications during 2011–2014 according to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).[UNHCR](http://www.unhcr.org/551128679.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520215021/http://www.unhcr.org/551128679\.html \|date\=20 May 2015 }} UNHCR Asylum Trend 2014, p. 21
|
[
"Government and politics\n-----------------------",
"{{Main\\|Politics of Northern Cyprus}}\n[150px\\|thumb\\|[Ersin Tatar](/wiki/Ersin_Tatar \"Ersin Tatar\"), [President of Northern Cyprus](/wiki/President_of_Northern_Cyprus \"President of Northern Cyprus\")](/wiki/File:Ilham_Aliyev_received_President_of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus_in_Konya_%281%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Ilham Aliyev received President of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in Konya (1) (cropped).jpg\")\nThe politics of Northern Cyprus takes place in a framework of a [semi\\-presidential](/wiki/Semi-presidential_system \"Semi-presidential system\") [representative democratic](/wiki/Representative_democracy \"Representative democracy\") [republic](/wiki/Republic \"Republic\"), whereby the [president](/wiki/President_of_Northern_Cyprus \"President of Northern Cyprus\") is [head of state](/wiki/Head_of_state \"Head of state\") and the [prime minister](/wiki/Prime_minister \"Prime minister\") [head of government](/wiki/Head_of_government \"Head of government\"), and of a [multi\\-party system](/wiki/Multi-party_system \"Multi-party system\"). [Executive power](/wiki/Executive_power \"Executive power\") is exercised by the government. [Legislative power](/wiki/Legislative_power \"Legislative power\") is vested in both the [government](/wiki/Government \"Government\") and the [Assembly of the Republic](/wiki/Assembly_of_the_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus \"Assembly of the Republic of Northern Cyprus\"). The [Judiciary](/wiki/Judiciary_of_Northern_Cyprus \"Judiciary of Northern Cyprus\") is independent of the executive and the legislature.",
"The president is elected for a five\\-year term and is currently [Ersin Tatar](/wiki/Ersin_Tatar \"Ersin Tatar\"). The current prime minister is Ersan Saner. The legislature is the Assembly of the Republic, which has 50 members elected by [proportional representation](/wiki/Proportional_representation \"Proportional representation\") from six electoral districts. In the elections of January 2018, the right\\-wing [National Unity Party](/wiki/National_Unity_Party_%28Northern_Cyprus%29 \"National Unity Party (Northern Cyprus)\") won the most seats in the Assembly, and the current government is a coalition of the National Unity Party and the centrist [People's Party](/wiki/People%27s_Party_%28Northern_Cyprus%29 \"People's Party (Northern Cyprus)\").{{cite web \\|title\\=The new North Cyprus coalition \\|date\\=23 May 2019 \\|url\\=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/yusuf\\-kanli/the\\-new\\-north\\-cyprus\\-coalition\\-143631 \\|publisher\\=Hürriyet \\|access\\-date\\=30 May 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530004925/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/yusuf\\-kanli/the\\-new\\-north\\-cyprus\\-coalition\\-143631 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Due to Northern Cyprus's isolation and heavy reliance on Turkish support, Turkey has a high level of influence over the country's politics. This has led to some experts characterising it as an effective [puppet state](/wiki/Puppet_state \"Puppet state\") of Turkey.{{cite book \\|first\\=Ersun N. \\|last\\=Kurtulus \\|title\\=State Sovereignty: Concept, Phenomenon and Ramifications \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=jeTFAAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA136 \\|date\\=27 November 2005 \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4039\\-7708\\-3 \\|pages\\=136– \\|quote\\=It may be argued that the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which was declared in 1983 and which was only recognized as a state by Turkey and for a short period by Pakistan, is at the moment of writing the only existent puppet state in the world. \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905235953/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=jeTFAAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA136 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}{{cite book \\|first\\=Carlo \\|last\\=Focarelli \\|title\\=International Law as Social Construct: The Struggle for Global Justice \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oTYc6WY0\\_icC\\&pg\\=PA161 \\|date\\=24 May 2012 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-958483\\-3 \\|pages\\=161– \\|quote\\=In the 1995 and 1996 Loizidou Judgments the ECtHR treated the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) as a sort of puppet government whose acts fall within the jurisdiction of (and are attributable to) Turkey as an (unlawful) occupier. \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234814/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oTYc6WY0\\_icC\\&pg\\=PA161 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Carlo \\|last1\\=Panara \\|first2\\=Gary \\|last2\\=Wilson \\|title\\=The Arab Spring: New Patterns for Democracy and International Law \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rWAzAQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA59 \\|date\\=9 January 2013 \\|publisher\\=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-04\\-24341\\-5 \\|pages\\=59– \\|quote\\=The situation with the South African homelands was similar and so was collective non\\-acceptance of the Turkish puppet\\-government in northern Cyprus which has resulted in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus not being recognized as a state. \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906000129/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rWAzAQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA59 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 September 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} Other experts, however, have pointed out to the independent nature of elections and appointments in Northern Cyprus and disputes between the Turkish Cypriot and Turkish governments, concluding that \"puppet state\" is not an accurate description for Northern Cyprus.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bartmann \\|first1\\=Barry \\|editor1\\-last\\=Bahcheli \\|editor1\\-first\\=Tozun \\|editor2\\-last\\=Bartmann \\|editor2\\-first\\=Barry \\|editor3\\-last\\=Srebrnik \\|editor3\\-first\\=Henry \\|title\\=De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty \\|date\\=2004 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-135\\-77121\\-8 \\|page\\=24 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Gk2QAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA24 }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Dodd \\|first1\\=Clement Henry \\|title\\=The political, social and economic development of Northern Cyprus \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Eothen Press \\|isbn\\=9780906719183 \\|page\\=377 \\|quote\\=In short, the electorate of Northern Cyprus votes freely for its political leaders and gives them substantial support. Nor is Northern Cyprus a Turkish puppet state. Mr Denktaş and the Turkish\\-Cypriot case have a powerful following in Turkey...}}",
"### Administrative divisions",
"{{Main\\|Districts of Northern Cyprus}}\nNorthern Cyprus is divided into six districts: [Lefkoşa](/wiki/Lefko%C5%9Fa_District \"Lefkoşa District\"), [Gazimağusa](/wiki/Gazima%C4%9Fusa_District \"Gazimağusa District\"), [Girne](/wiki/Kyrenia_District \"Kyrenia District\"), [Güzelyurt](/wiki/G%C3%BCzelyurt_District \"Güzelyurt District\"), [İskele](/wiki/%C4%B0skele_District \"İskele District\") and [Lefke](/wiki/Lefke_District \"Lefke District\"). Lefke District was established by separation from the Güzelyurt District in 2016\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Lefke 6\\. ilçe oldu! \\|url\\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/lefke\\-6\\-ilce\\-oldu!\\-27122016 \\|publisher\\=Kıbrıs Postası \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2016 \\|date\\=27 December 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228135624/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/lefke\\-6\\-ilce\\-oldu!\\-27122016 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 December 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} In addition, there are further twelve sub\\-districts divided between the five larger districts and twenty\\-eight municipalities.",
"[600px\\|Blank district map of Northern Cyprus](/wiki/File:Blank_district_map_Northern_Cyprus.png \"Blank district map Northern Cyprus.png\")\n[Lefkoşa](/wiki/Lefko%C5%9Fa_District \"Lefkoşa District\")\n[Girne](/wiki/Girne_District \"Girne District\")\n[İskele](/wiki/%C4%B0skele_District \"İskele District\")\n[Güzelyurt](/wiki/G%C3%BCzelyurt_District \"Güzelyurt District\")\n[Gazimağusa](/wiki/Gazima%C4%9Fusa_District \"Gazimağusa District\")\n{{colored link\\|white\\|Lefke District\\|Lefke}}\n### International status and foreign relations",
"{{Main\\|Foreign relations of Northern Cyprus}}\n[thumb\\|London office of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, [Bedford Square](/wiki/Bedford_Square \"Bedford Square\").](/wiki/File:Northern_Cypriot_Office_London_20060615.jpg \"Northern Cypriot Office London 20060615.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|[Mustafa Akıncı](/wiki/Mustafa_Ak%C4%B1nc%C4%B1 \"Mustafa Akıncı\") with U.S. Secretary of State [John Kerry](/wiki/John_Kerry \"John Kerry\"), 2 October 2015](/wiki/File:Secretary_Kerry_Meets_With_Turkish_Cypriot_Leader_Akinci_in_New_York_City_%2821901946901%29.jpg \"Secretary Kerry Meets With Turkish Cypriot Leader Akinci in New York City (21901946901).jpg\")\nNo country other than the [Republic of Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"){{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country\\_profiles/1016541\\.stm \\|title\\=Cyprus country profile \\|publisher\\=BBC News \\|date\\=23 December 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728172734/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country\\_profiles/1016541\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=28 July 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}{{cite book\\|author\\=International Chamber of Commerce\\|title\\=Europe Review 2003/04: The Economic and Business Report\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hwi0s3I5jLEC\\&pg\\=PA79\\|date\\=1 November 2003\\|publisher\\=Kogan Page Publishers\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7494\\-4067\\-1\\|page\\=79\\|quote\\=The Turkish Cypriot\\-dominated north is the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' which elects its own government and is recognised only by Turkey.\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905235258/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hwi0s3I5jLEC\\&pg\\=PA79\\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}{{cite book\\|title\\=The CIA World Factbook 2010\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pqanFyF6nI0C\\&pg\\=PA182\\|year\\=2009\\|publisher\\=Skyhorse Publishing Inc.\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-60239\\-727\\-9\\|page\\=182\\|quote\\=the formation of a \"Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus\" (\"TRNC\"), which is recognized only by Turkey\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906002225/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pqanFyF6nI0C\\&pg\\=PA182\\|archive\\-date\\=6 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} has officially recognised Northern Cyprus as a sovereign state. The [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") considers it a territory of the Republic of Cyprus under Turkish occupation.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.un.int/cyprus/scr550\\.htm \\|title\\=Permanent Mission of the Republic of Cyprus to the United Nations — \\|publisher\\=Un.int \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506115414/http://www.un.int/cyprus/scr550\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2012 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}{{cite book\\|author\\=Scott Leckie\\|title\\=Housing and Property Restitution Rights of Refugees and Displaced Persons: Laws, Cases, and Materials\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HyfqzaFBMLoC\\&pg\\=PA448\\|date\\=28 May 2007\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-139\\-46409\\-3\\|page\\=448\\|quote\\=The complaints raised in this application arise out of the Turkish military operations in northern Cyprus in July and August ... This development was condemned by the international community. ... of the establishment of the \"TRNC\" legally invalid and calling upon all States not to recognise any Cypriot State other than the ...\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906000604/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HyfqzaFBMLoC\\&pg\\=PA448\\|archive\\-date\\=6 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Quigley\\|title\\=The Statehood of Palestine\\|date\\=6 September 2010\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iTR3BQ0aJ6UC\\&pg\\=PA164\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-139\\-49124\\-2\\|page\\=164\\|quote\\=The international community found this declaration invalid, on the ground that Turkey had occupied territory belonging to Cyprus and that the putative state was therefore an infringement on Cypriot sovereignty.\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906001102/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iTR3BQ0aJ6UC\\&pg\\=PA164\\|archive\\-date\\=6 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Pakistan and Bangladesh had initially declared their recognition of Northern Cyprus as a sovereign state shortly after its declaration of independence,[Commentary](http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2014/07/07/is-now-the-time-for-a-cyprus-deal/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724205651/http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2014/07/07/is\\-now\\-the\\-time\\-for\\-a\\-cyprus\\-deal/ \\|date\\=24 July 2014 }} Michael Rubin (7 July 2014\\):\"Is Now the Time for a Cyprus Deal?\" but they withdrew their recognition as a result of US pressure after the UN deemed the declaration illegal.[Inter City Press](http://www.innercitypress.com/undip1trnc102810.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035056/http://www.innercitypress.com/undip1trnc102810\\.html \\|date\\=24 September 2015 }} Matthew Russell Lee: \"At UN, Turkish Cypriot Community Has Rare Diplomatic Status, Non State Envy \\[sic]\" The United Nations considers the declaration of independence by Northern Cyprus as legally invalid, as enunciated in several of its resolutions.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.un.int/cyprus/scr541\\.htm \\|title\\=Permanent Mission of the Republic of Cyprus to the United Nations — \\|publisher\\=Un.int \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030828074921/http://www.un.int/cyprus/scr541\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=28 August 2003 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"In the wake of the April 2004 referendum on the United Nations [Annan Plan](/wiki/Annan_Plan_for_Cyprus \"Annan Plan for Cyprus\"), and in view of the support of the Turkish Cypriot community for the plan, the European Union made pledges towards ending the isolation of Northern Cyprus. These included measures for trade and €259 million in aid.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2012}} A pledge by the EU to lift the embargo on Northern Cyprus in the wake of the Annan Plan referendums has been blocked by the Greek Cypriot government in the [European Council](/wiki/European_Council \"European Council\").",
"In 2004, the [Organisation of Islamic Co\\-operation](/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation \"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\") upgraded the delegation of the Turkish Cypriot Muslim community from \"observer community\" (1979\\) to that of a constituent state with the designation \"[Turkish Cypriot State](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot_State \"Turkish Cypriot State\")\", making Northern Cyprus an observer member of the organisation.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://islamic\\-conference\\-news.newslib.com/story/1413\\-3215426/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714174140/http://islamic\\-conference\\-news.newslib.com/story/1413\\-3215426/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2011 \\|title\\=Netwebsearch.com \\|publisher\\=Islamic\\-conference\\-news.newslib.com \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014}} A number of high\\-profile formal meetings have also taken place between Turkish Cypriot presidents and various foreign leaders and politicians.",
"In 2004, the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe \"Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe\") gave observer status to the representatives of Turkish Cypriot community.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link\\=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta04/ERES1376\\.htm \\|title\\=Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly \\|publisher\\=Assembly.coe.int \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307155611/http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link\\=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta04%2FERES1376\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=7 March 2014 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Since then, Northern Cyprus's representatives have actively participated in all PACE activities without voting rights.",
"The European Union considers the area not under effective control of the Republic of Cyprus as EU territory under Turkish military occupation and thus indefinitely exempt from [EU legislation](/wiki/Community_acquis \"Community acquis\") until a settlement has been found. The status of Northern Cyprus has become a recurrent issue especially during talks in the 2010s for [Turkey's membership of the EU](/wiki/Accession_of_Turkey_to_the_European_Union \"Accession of Turkey to the European Union\") where the division of the island is seen as a major stumbling block in Turkey's road to membership and general [EU\\-Turkey relations](/wiki/Turkey%E2%80%93European_Union_relations \"Turkey–European Union relations\").{{cite news \\|author\\=David Gow \\|author2\\=Helena Smith \\|title\\=EU puts Turkey on a long road to accession \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/turkey/story/0,12700,1321511,00\\.html \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=7 October 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2007 \\|location\\=London \\|archive\\-date\\=13 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213063628/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/oct/07/turkey.eu \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news \\|title\\=EU Sets Deadline for Turkey to Open Up Its Ports \\|url\\=http://www.dw\\-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2243855,00\\.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Deutsche Welle]] \\|date\\=21 November 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231182246/http://www.dw\\-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2243855,00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=31 December 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"The [Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic](/wiki/Nakhchivan_Autonomous_Republic \"Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic\") of [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\") has issued a resolution recognising the independence of Northern Cyprus. As a result of the [Nagorno\\-Karabakh](/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh \"Nagorno-Karabakh\") issue, however, Azerbaijan itself has not recognised North Cyprus.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.regnum.ru/english/708006\\.html \\|title\\=REGNUM news agency press release \\|publisher\\=Regnum.ru \\|access\\-date\\=17 November 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213022330/http://www.regnum.ru/english/708006\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=13 December 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"Turkish Cypriots have been applying for decades for passports issued by [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\"). When the entry points with the Republic of Cyprus were closed, the applications were made either through middlemen or through consulates and embassies of Cyprus in other countries. A yearly increase in the number of applications for such passports of 10–15% was observed in years prior to 2001, when the rate greatly increased and 817 were issued in the first eight months of 2001 as compared to 448 for the whole of 2000\\. After the opening of the borders with the Republic of Cyprus, Turkish Cypriots started line\\-ups applying for Cypriot passports by visiting the Republic of Cyprus and showing proof of their Cypriot ancestry.{{cite book \\|last\\=Navaro\\-Yashin \\|first\\=Yael \\|title\\=The Make\\-Believe Space: Affective Geography in a Postwar Polity \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=x7TcS\\_wW11wC\\&pg\\=PA118 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|publisher\\=Duke University Press \\|location\\=Durham, NC / London \\|pages\\=118–122 \\|date\\=12 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017204604/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=x7TcS\\_wW11wC\\&pg\\=PA118 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 October 2015 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8223\\-5204\\-4 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"There are seven border crossings between Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cyprus\\-travel\\-secrets.com/cyprus\\-border\\-crossings.html \\|title\\=Cyprus Border Crossings \\|publisher\\=Cyprus Travel Secrets \\|access\\-date\\=6 April 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304230512/http://www.cyprus\\-travel\\-secrets.com/cyprus\\-border\\-crossings.html \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Since May 2004 some tourists have taken to flying to the Republic of Cyprus directly then crossing the green line to holiday in Northern Cyprus.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/northamerica/usa/732241/On\\-the\\-case\\-non\\-existent\\-flight\\-Northern\\-Cyprus\\-children\\-in\\-the\\-Algarve\\-Cannes.html \\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph \\|location\\=London \\|title\\=On the case: non\\-existent flight; Northern Cyprus; children in the Algarve; Cannes \\|first\\=Gill \\|last\\=Charlton \\|date\\=5 February 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023065110/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/northamerica/usa/732241/On\\-the\\-case\\-non\\-existent\\-flight\\-Northern\\-Cyprus\\-children\\-in\\-the\\-Algarve\\-Cannes.html \\|archive\\-date\\=23 October 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}{{update inline\\|date\\=January 2015}}",
"On 21 September 2011, [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") and Northern Cyprus signed an EEZ border agreement in New York.[Official Gazette](http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/07/20120712-3.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920075416/http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/07/20120712\\-3\\.htm \\|date\\=20 September 2013}} 12 July 2012[Official Gazette](http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/10/20121010-3-1.pdf) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023001430/http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2012/10/20121010\\-3\\-1\\.pdf \\|date\\=23 October 2013}} EEZ Border (Page 4\\)",
"In October 2012, Northern Cyprus became an observer member of the [Economic Cooperation Organization](/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization \"Economic Cooperation Organization\") under the name \"Turkish Cypriot State\". In November 2022, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was admitted to the [Organization of Turkic States](/wiki/Organization_of_Turkic_States \"Organization of Turkic States\") as observer member.{{cite news \\|title\\=TRNC admitted to Organisation of Turkic States as observer member \\|url\\=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/trnc\\-admitted\\-to\\-organisation\\-of\\-turkic\\-states\\-as\\-observer\\-member\\-62455 \\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2022 \\|date\\=11 November 2022}}",
"### Military",
"{{main\\|Security Forces Command}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Turkish Cypriot](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot \"Turkish Cypriot\") soldiers of the [Security Forces Command](/wiki/Security_Forces_Command \"Security Forces Command\") perform during a Republic Day parade.](/wiki/File:Northern_Cyprus_Republic_Day_parade_2007_2.JPG \"Northern Cyprus Republic Day parade 2007 2.JPG\")\nThe Security Forces Command consists of an 8,000 strong force primarily made up of conscripted Turkish Cypriot males between the ages of 18 and 40\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2013}} There is also an additional reserve force which consists of about 10,000 first\\-line and 16,000 second\\-line troops conscripted up to the age of 50\\. The [Security Forces Command](/wiki/Security_Forces_Command \"Security Forces Command\") is lightly armed and heavily dependent on its mainland Turkish allies, from which it draws much of its officer corps.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Eric Solsten\\|author2\\=Library of Congress. Federal Research Division\\|title\\=Cyprus, a country study\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5UuFAAAAIAAJ\\|year\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8444\\-0752\\-4\\|page\\=232\\|quote\\=Although legally separate from the Turkish Army on the island, the Turkish Cypriot Security Force was believed to remain under the de facto operational control of the Turkish forces. It also depended on Turkey for training and equipment. Most of its officers were regular Turkish Army officers on secondment.\\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234346/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5UuFAAAAIAAJ\\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} It is led by a Brigadier General drawn from the Turkish Army. It acts essentially as a [gendarmerie](/wiki/Gendarmerie \"Gendarmerie\") charged with protection of the border of Northern Cyprus from Greek Cypriot incursions and maintaining internal security within Northern Cyprus.\"Cyprus.\" *Jane's Sentinel: Eastern Mediterranean*, issue 22, 2007\\.",
"In addition, the mainland [Turkish Armed Forces](/wiki/Turkish_Armed_Forces \"Turkish Armed Forces\") maintains the [Cyprus Turkish Peace Force](/wiki/Cyprus_Turkish_Peace_Force \"Cyprus Turkish Peace Force\") which consists of around 30,000–40,000 troops drawn from the 9th Turkish Army Corps and comprising two divisions, the 28th and 39th. It is equipped with a substantial number of [US](/wiki/US \"US\")\\-made [M48 Patton](/wiki/M48_Patton%23Turkish_variants \"M48 Patton#Turkish variants\") [main battle tanks](/wiki/Main_battle_tanks \"Main battle tanks\") and artillery weapons. The [Turkish Air Force](/wiki/Turkish_Air_Force \"Turkish Air Force\"), [Turkish Navy](/wiki/Turkish_Navy \"Turkish Navy\") and [Turkish Coast Guard](/wiki/Turkish_Coast_Guard \"Turkish Coast Guard\") also have a presence in Northern Cyprus. Although formally part of Turkish 4th Army, headquartered in İzmir, the sensitivities of the Cyprus situation means that the commander of the [Cyprus Turkish Peace Force](/wiki/Cyprus_Turkish_Peace_Force \"Cyprus Turkish Peace Force\") also reports directly to the Turkish General Staff in [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara \"Ankara\"). The [Cyprus Turkish Peace Force](/wiki/Cyprus_Turkish_Peace_Force \"Cyprus Turkish Peace Force\") is deployed principally along the [Green Line](/wiki/Green_Line_%28Cyprus%29 \"Green Line (Cyprus)\") and in locations where hostile amphibious landings might take place.",
"The presence of the mainland Turkish military in Cyprus is highly controversial, having been denounced as an occupation force by the Republic of Cyprus and the international community. Several [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council \"United Nations Security Council\") resolutions have called on the Turkish forces to withdraw.UN Security Council resolutions 353, 357, 358, 359, 360, and 365, all from 1974\\.",
"### Human rights",
"{{Main\\|Human rights in Northern Cyprus}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|The law courts building in [North Nicosia](/wiki/North_Nicosia \"North Nicosia\")](/wiki/File:Nicosia_01-2017_img33_AtatuerkSquare.jpg \"Nicosia 01-2017 img33 AtatuerkSquare.jpg\")\nIn January 2011, *The Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the question of Human Rights in Cyprus* noted that the ongoing division of Cyprus continues to affect human rights throughout the island \"including freedom of movement, human rights pertaining to the question of missing persons, discrimination, the right to life, freedom of religion, and economic, social and cultural rights.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www2\\.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/16session/A\\-HRC\\-16\\-21\\.pdf \\|title\\=Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the question of human rights in Cyprus : 16th Session, Human Rights Council, United Nations \\|date\\=7 January 2011 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731132114/http://www2\\.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/16session/A\\-HRC\\-16\\-21\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"[Freedom House](/wiki/Freedom_House \"Freedom House\") has classified the perceived level of democratic and political freedom in Northern Cyprus as \"free\" since 2000 in its *[Freedom in the World](/wiki/Freedom_in_the_World_%28report%29 \"Freedom in the World (report)\")* report.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/fiw/FIW%202011%20Booklet\\_1\\_11\\_11\\.pdf \\|title\\=Freedom in the World 2011 Report \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Freedom House]] \\|page\\=29 \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516054243/http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/fiw/FIW%202011%20Booklet\\_1\\_11\\_11\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=16 May 2011 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW2014%20Booklet.pdf \\|title\\=Freedom in the World 2014 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Freedom House]] \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214141151/http://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW2014%20Booklet.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} The 2016 ranking was \"free\" with the scores (1: most free, 7: least free) political rights: 2/7, civil liberties: 2/7 and aggregate score: 79/100\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH\\_FITW\\_Report\\_2016\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Freedom House]] \\|title\\=FH\\_FITW\\_Report\\_2016\\.pdf \\|work\\=Freedom in the World in 2016 \\|page\\=24 \\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205095411/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH\\_FITW\\_Report\\_2016\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=5 February 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} [Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders \"Reporters Without Borders\")' World Press Freedom Index ranked Northern Cyprus 76th among 180 countries in 2015\\.[Reporters Without Borders](http://index.rsf.org/#!/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030005204/http://index.rsf.org/\\#!/ \\|date\\=30 October 2015 }} 2015 World Freedom Index",
"The [Greek Cypriot](/wiki/Enclaved_Greek_Cypriots \"Enclaved Greek Cypriots\") and [Maronite](/wiki/Maronite_Cypriots \"Maronite Cypriots\") communities, numbering 343 and 118 respectively as of 2014, are denied the right to vote in presidential, parliamentary and municipal elections or run for office. Maronites do elect [the leader of their village](/wiki/Mukhtar \"Mukhtar\"), whilst Greek Cypriots have two appointed leaders, one by the Turkish Cypriot government and the other by the Republic of Cyprus.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ktihv.org/Eng/content/view/43/13/ \\|title\\=Overview of the Human Rights Situation in North Cyprus \\|publisher\\=Turkish Cypriot Human Rights Foundation \\|date\\=14 January 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727003221/http://www.ktihv.org/Eng/content/view/43/13/ \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2011 }}{{cite web \\|title\\=Kuzey Kıbrıs'ta Hıristiyanlar yarı vatandaş \\|date\\=May 2015 \\|trans\\-title\\=Christians in Northern Cyprus \\|url\\=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/10146/kuzey\\-kibrista\\-hiristiyanlar\\-yari\\-vatandas \\|publisher\\=Agos \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015 \\|language\\=tr \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150628221703/http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/10146/kuzey\\-kibrista\\-hiristiyanlar\\-yari\\-vatandas \\|archive\\-date\\=28 June 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }}",
"World Happiness Report 2016 of United Nations' Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) ranked Northern Cyprus 62nd among 157 countries.[UN SDSN World Happiness Report 2016](http://5c28efcb768db11c7204-4ffd2ff276d22135df4d1a53ae141422.r82.cf5.rackcdn.com/HR-V1_web.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318091325/http://5c28efcb768db11c7204\\-4ffd2ff276d22135df4d1a53ae141422\\.r82\\.cf5\\.rackcdn.com/HR\\-V1\\_web.pdf \\|date\\=18 March 2016 }} Figure 2\\.2\\. Renking of Happiness Gallup Healthways Well\\-Being Index of 2014 ranked Northern Cyprus 49th among 145 countries.[Gallup Healthways Well\\-Being Index](http://info.healthways.com/hubfs/Well-Being_Index/2014_Data/Gallup-Healthways_State_of_Global_Well-Being_2014_Country_Rankings.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701191916/http://info.healthways.com/hubfs/Well\\-Being\\_Index/2014\\_Data/Gallup\\-Healthways\\_State\\_of\\_Global\\_Well\\-Being\\_2014\\_Country\\_Rankings.pdf \\|date\\=1 July 2015 }} 2014",
"Northern Cyprus received 153 asylum applications during 2011–2014 according to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).[UNHCR](http://www.unhcr.org/551128679.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520215021/http://www.unhcr.org/551128679\\.html \\|date\\=20 May 2015 }} UNHCR Asylum Trend 2014, p. 21",
""
] |
Culture
-------
{{Main\|Culture of Northern Cyprus}}
### Music and dance
{{See also\|Turkish Cypriot folk dances}}
[thumb\|right\|upright\=0\.8\|[Ziynet Sali](/wiki/Ziynet_Sali "Ziynet Sali") is a [Turkish Cypriot](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot "Turkish Cypriot") pop singer famous in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") and Northern Cyprus.](/wiki/File:Ziynet_Sali.jpg "Ziynet Sali.jpg")
[thumb\|[Turkish Cypriot](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot "Turkish Cypriot") children, dressed in traditional clothing, preparing for a folk\-dance show](/wiki/File:Turkish_Cypriot_folk_dancers.jpg "Turkish Cypriot folk dancers.jpg")
Turkish Cypriot folk music consists of a rich variety of local tunes, influenced by the mainland Turkish music to a limited extent. Historically, it was shaped around the tradition of weddings, the primary social gatherings at the time. Violin, [goblet drum](/wiki/Goblet_drum "Goblet drum"), known locally as "darbuka", [zurna](/wiki/Zurna "Zurna") and other drums were heavily used in these gatherings, and a large number of traditional songs developed based on this legacy.{{cite web\|title\=Kültürel, Sanatsal ve Sosyal Yaşamı, El Sanatları, Gelenek, Görenek ve Adetler\|url\=http://www.neu.edu.tr/node/478\|publisher\=Near East University\|access\-date\=19 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150221/http://www.neu.edu.tr/node/478\|archive\-date\=2 April 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}}{{cite web\|title\=Episodes of Traditional Turkish and Greek Cypriot Weddings\|url\=http://turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/465423302\_%C3%96znur%C5%9Eevket\_S\-2611\-2626\.pdf\|publisher\=turkishstudies.net\|access\-date\=19 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083216/http://turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/465423302\_%C3%96znur%C5%9Eevket\_S\-2611\-2626\.pdf\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}} Turkish Cypriot culture also incorporates a great diversity of folk dances with various influences, including different versions of [karsilamas](/wiki/Karsilamas "Karsilamas"), [çiftetelli](/wiki/%C3%87iftetelli "Çiftetelli") and [zeybek](/wiki/Zeybek_dance "Zeybek dance").
The Northern Cyprus State Symphony Orchestra has been active since 1975\. The [Bellapais Abbey](/wiki/Bellapais_Abbey "Bellapais Abbey") in Kyrenia hosts international festivals of classical music, and is considered in important platform of classical music. North Nicosia has its own Nicosia Municipal Orchestra that performs at open spaces, such as parks and squares, and is also home to the annual Walled City Jazz Festival.{{cite web\|title\=Tarihçemiz\|url\=http://www.lefkosabelediyeorkestrasi.net/?SyfNmb\=2\&pt\=Hakk%C4%B1m%C4%B1zda\|publisher\=Nicosia Municipal Orchestra\|access\-date\=2 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102044507/http://www.lefkosabelediyeorkestrasi.net/?SyfNmb\=2\&pt\=Hakk%C4%B1m%C4%B1zda\|archive\-date\=2 January 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}} [Rüya Taner](/wiki/R%C3%BCya_Taner "Rüya Taner") is a Turkish Cypriot pianist who has achieved international acclaim.
Turkish Cypriot cities and towns regularly organise festivals that include performances of local and international singers and bands. Some Turkish Cypriot singers, such as [Ziynet Sali](/wiki/Ziynet_Sali "Ziynet Sali") and [Işın Karaca](/wiki/I%C5%9F%C4%B1n_Karaca "Işın Karaca"), have achieved fame in Turkey. The Turkish Cypriot band [Sıla 4](/wiki/S%C4%B1la_4 "Sıla 4") produced music that is considered essential for the Turkish Cypriot identity, and also acquired fame in Turkey.{{cite web\|title\=Efsanevi Kıbrıs Türk müzik grubu SILA 4 yepyeni bir CD ile büyük bir sürprize imza atmak üzere\|url\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/print.php?news\=18047\|publisher\=Kıbrıs Postası\|access\-date\=19 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017204605/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/print.php?news\=18047\|archive\-date\=17 October 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}} Rock and pop music are popular with the public in Northern Cyprus, important singers and bands include [SOS](/wiki/SOS_%28band%29 "SOS (band)") and [Fikri Karayel](/wiki/Fikri_Karayel "Fikri Karayel").{{cite web\|title\=SOS\|url\=http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/music/artists/sos/index.html\|publisher\=Cypnet\|access\-date\=19 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923212219/http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/music/artists/sos/index.html\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}}{{cite web\|title\=Fikri Karayel'in ilk albümü çıkıyor\|url\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/40/news/129464/PageName/MAGAZIN\|publisher\=Kıbrıs Postası\|access\-date\=19 January 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402112026/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/40/news/129464/PageName/MAGAZIN\|archive\-date\=2 April 2015\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}}
### Literature
Poetry is the most widely published form of literature in Northern Cyprus. Turkish Cypriot poetry is based on both the effects of Turkish literature and the culture of the island of Cyprus, along with some reflection of the British colonial history.
The first era of Turkish Cypriot poetry after the introduction of the Latin alphabet, characterised by poets such as [Nazif Süleyman Ebeoğlu](/wiki/Nazif_S%C3%BCleyman_Ebeo%C4%9Flu "Nazif Süleyman Ebeoğlu"), [Urkiye Mine Balman](/wiki/Urkiye_Mine_Balman "Urkiye Mine Balman"), [Engin Gönül](/wiki/Engin_G%C3%B6n%C3%BCl "Engin Gönül"), [Necla Salih Suphi](/wiki/Necla_Salih_Suphi "Necla Salih Suphi") and [Pembe Marmara](/wiki/Pembe_Marmara "Pembe Marmara"), had strong nationalistic elements due to the political attitudes of Turkish Cypriots at the time and stylistically reflected the poetry of the Turkish mainland. Meanwhile, other poets, such as [Özker Yaşın](/wiki/%C3%96zker_Ya%C5%9F%C4%B1n "Özker Yaşın"), [Osman Türkay](/wiki/Osman_T%C3%BCrkay "Osman Türkay"), who was nominated for the [Nobel Prize in Literature](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature "Nobel Prize in Literature") twice,["Kozmik şiirin yazarı"](http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/printnews.aspx?DocID=-31947) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017204605/http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/printnews.aspx?DocID\=\-31947 \|date\=17 October 2015}}. *Hürriyet*. Retrieved on 31 December 2014\. and [Nevzat Yalçın](/wiki/Nevzat_Yal%C3%A7%C4%B1n "Nevzat Yalçın") sought to write in more original styles, with the influence of nascent poetic styles in Turkey and those in Britain. This group of poets were very prolific and increased the popularity of poetry in the Turkish Cypriot community, and are seen as key figures in Turkish Cypriot literature.Turan, Metin. ["Çağdaş Kıbrıs Türk Şiirinde Eğilimler/ Yönelimler"](http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/YENI%20TURK%20EDEBIYATI/metin_turan_cagdas_kibris_turk_siiri_egilimler.pdf). {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508113504/http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/YENI%20TURK%20EDEBIYATI/metin\_turan\_cagdas\_kibris\_turk\_siiri\_egilimler.pdf \|date\=8 May 2013}}. Çukurova University. Retrieved on 27 May 2012\.
The nationalism gave way to a notion of Cypriotness in the 1970s, with the influence of Yaşın, Türkay and Yalçın. During this period, the so\-called "1974 generation of poets" arose, led by poets including [Mehmet Yaşın](/wiki/Mehmet_Ya%C5%9F%C4%B1n "Mehmet Yaşın"), [Hakkı Yücel](/wiki/Hakk%C4%B1_Y%C3%BCcel "Hakkı Yücel"), [Nice Denizoğlu](/wiki/Nice_Denizo%C4%9Flu "Nice Denizoğlu"), [Neşe Yaşın](/wiki/Ne%C5%9Fe_Ya%C5%9F%C4%B1n "Neşe Yaşın"), [Ayşen Dağlı](/wiki/Ay%C5%9Fen_Da%C4%9Fl%C4%B1 "Ayşen Dağlı") and [Canan Sümer](/wiki/Canan_S%C3%BCmer "Canan Sümer"). The poetry of this generation was characterised by the appreciation of the Turkish Cypriot identity as distinct from Turkish identity and the identification of Cyprus as the Turkish Cypriot homeland instead of Turkey, in contrast to the previous nationalist poetry. This approach is often called the "Cypriot poetry of rejection" as it resists the influence of Turkey, highlighting the cultural rift between Turkey and Cyprus due to the recent experience of war and therefore the independence of the Turkish Cypriot poetry and identity. This was followed by an increased adoption of the Mediterranean identity in the 1980s, accompanied by the effects of the liberalisation of the Turkish Cypriot society, as reflected in the feminist elements, of which a particular example is [Neriman Cahit](/wiki/Neriman_Cahit "Neriman Cahit").["Boşluğun hasadı kalemledir"](http://kitap.radikal.com.tr/makale/haber/boslugun-hasadi-kalemledir-395812). {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231012801/http://kitap.radikal.com.tr/makale/haber/boslugun\-hasadi\-kalemledir\-395812 \|date\=31 December 2014}} *Radikal*. Retrieved on 31 December 2014\.{{cite book\|last\=Yaşın\|first\=Mehmet\|title\=Kıbrıslıtürk şiiri antolojisi: 18\. yy\-20\. yy : 3 kuşak, 3 kimlik, 3 vatan arasında bir Türk azınlık şiiri\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=JCRkAAAAMAAJ\|year\=1994\|publisher\=Yapı Kredi Yayınları\|isbn\=978\-975\-363\-345\-1\|pages\=58–60}}
### Theatre
[thumb\|left\|[Karagöz and Hacivat](/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat "Karagöz and Hacivat")](/wiki/File:Karagoez-davul-Hacivat-zurna.jpg "Karagoez-davul-Hacivat-zurna.jpg")
[thumb\|An early [Turkish Cypriot](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot "Turkish Cypriot") theatre group, 1880s](/wiki/File:An_early_Turkish-Cypriot_theatre_group.jpg "An early Turkish-Cypriot theatre group.jpg")
Theatre in Northern Cyprus is mostly carried out by the Turkish Cypriot State Theatre, municipal theatres and a number of private theatrical companies. Cyprus Theatre Festival, organised by the [Nicosia Turkish Municipality](/wiki/Nicosia_Turkish_Municipality "Nicosia Turkish Municipality") is a large organisation with institutions from Turkey participating as well. There are no major halls built specifically for theatre in Northern Cyprus, so plays often take place in conference halls.TRNC State Planning Organization. *2008 Yılı Makroekonomik ve Sektörel Gelişmeler*, June 2010, p. 169\.*Kıbrıs Tiyatro Festivali*. Nicosia Turkish Municipality and Nicosia Municipal Theatre.
The origins of Turkish Cypriot theatre lie in [Karagöz and Hacivat](/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat "Karagöz and Hacivat"), a shadow play that was popularised in the island as a form of entertainment during the Ottoman era. This form of theatre has lost its popularity nowadays, but remains to be televised during religious festivals.["Turkish\-Cypriot Theatres"](http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/theatre/index.html). {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923212220/http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/theatre/index.html \|date\=23 September 2015}}, cypnet.co.uk, retrieved on 28 December 2014\. After the 1840s, as the Ottoman Empire started modernising, theatre with greater European elements met with the Turkish Cypriot public. However, the inception of Turkish Cypriot theatre in the modern sense is considered the staging of the play "[Vatan Yahut Silistre](/wiki/Vatan_Yahut_Silistre "Vatan Yahut Silistre")" ("Homeland vs. Silistra") by Turkish playwright [Namık Kemal](/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal "Namık Kemal") in 1908\.Cihangir, Yurdal. ["The Primary Years of Turkish Cypriot Play\-writing and 'Safa Yahut Neti̇ce\-i̇ İbti̇la{{'"}}](http://turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/1037275448_23CihangirYurdal-edb-441-451.pdf). {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228194817/http://turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/1037275448\_23CihangirYurdal\-edb\-441\-451\.pdf \|date\=28 December 2014}}, Turkish Studies, retrieved on 28 December 2014\. This was followed by a proliferation of theatrical activity in the Turkish Cypriot community as local plays were written and staged and theatrical companies from Turkey took the stage in Cyprus by the 1920s, all the major towns in Cyprus had Turkish Cypriot plays that were performed regularly.
In the 1960s, Turkish Cypriot theatre started to be institutionalised. A leading theatre group named "İlk Sahne" (First Stage), founded in 1963, was renamed the Turkish Cypriot State Theatre in 1966, and has since performed more than 85 plays.[Kuzey Kıbrıs’ın Kültürel ve Sosyal Yaşamı](http://kyrenia.edu.tr/kktc-hakkinda/bilgi/kuzey-kibrisin-kulturel-ve-sosyal-yasami/?lang=tr) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228192815/http://kyrenia.edu.tr/kktc\-hakkinda/bilgi/kuzey\-kibrisin\-kulturel\-ve\-sosyal\-yasami/?lang\=tr \|date\=28 December 2014}}, University of Kyrenia, retrieved on 28 December 2014\. Theatre is currently a very popular form of art in Northern Cyprus, with long queues forming for tickets of the plays in the Cyprus Theatre Festival, and the number of theatre\-goers constantly increasing.["Bilet satışı başladı"](http://www.yeniduzen.com/Haberler/kultur-ve-sanat/bilet-satisi-basladi/41607). {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228193330/http://www.yeniduzen.com/Haberler/kultur\-ve\-sanat/bilet\-satisi\-basladi/41607 \|date\=28 December 2014}}, Yeni Düzen, retrieved on 28 December 2014\.
### Cinema
*[Anahtar](/wiki/Anahtar_%28film%29 "Anahtar (film)")* (*Key*), released in 2011, was the first full\-length film entirely produced in Northern Cyprus.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/49/news/63999/PageName/KULTUR\_SANAT \|title\=KKTC'nin ilk uzun metrajlı filmi Anahtar, Altın Portakal'da gösterildi \|publisher\=Kibris Postasi \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731141112/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/49/news/63999/PageName/KULTUR\_SANAT \|archive\-date\=31 July 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy\-all}} Some other co\-productions have also taken place. A co\-production of Northern Cyprus, Turkey, Britain and the Netherlands, {{ill\|Kod Adı Venüs\|tr}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.neu.edu.tr/tr/node/2369\|title\=Kod Adı: VENÜS\|access\-date\=1 October 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006093731/http://www.neu.edu.tr/tr/node/2369\|archive\-date\=6 October 2014\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} (*Code Name Venus*) was shown in the [Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival "Cannes Film Festival") in 2012\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/49/news/80256/PageName/KULTUR\_SANAT \|title\=Yakın Doğu Üniversitesi'nin hazırladığı 'Kod Adı Venüs' filmi Cannes Film Festivali'nde \|publisher\=Kibris Postasi \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528153647/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/49/news/80256/PageName/KULTUR\_SANAT \|archive\-date\=28 May 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy\-all }} The film director and screenwriter [Derviş Zaim](/wiki/Dervi%C5%9F_Zaim "Derviş Zaim") achieved fame with his 2003 film *[Mud (Çamur)](/wiki/Mud_%28%C3%87amur%29 "Mud (Çamur)")* which won the UNESCO award at the [Venice Film Festival](/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival "Venice Film Festival").
The documentary film *Kayıp Otobüs* (*[The Missing Bus](/wiki/The_Missing_Bus "The Missing Bus")*), directed by Turkish Cypriot journalist Fevzi Tașpınar, was aired on the [TRT TV](/wiki/Turkish_Radio_and_Television_Corporation "Turkish Radio and Television Corporation") as well as participating in the [Boston Film Festival](/wiki/Boston_Film_Festival "Boston Film Festival") in 2011\. The film tells the story of eleven Turkish Cypriot workers who left their homes in a bus in 1964 that never came back. Their remains were found in a well in Cyprus in October 2006\.{{cite web \|title\=Haber: 'Kayıp Otobüs' belgesel filmi haberi / Haber, Haberler, Haberi, Haberleri, Haber oku, Gazete, Gazetesi, Gazeteleri, Gazete oku \|url\=http://www.turkmedya.com/V1/Pg/detail/NewID/186802/CatID/4/CityName/Corum/TownID/0/VillageID/0/SchoolID/ \|url\-status\=dead \|publisher\=Turkmedya.com \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222025615/http://www.turkmedya.com/V1/Pg/detail/NewID/186802/CatID/4/CityName/Corum/TownID/0/VillageID/0/SchoolID/ \|archive\-date\=22 February 2014 \|df\=dmy\-all}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.turkishjournal.com/i.php?newsid\=3725 \|title\=Documentary on Turkish Cyprus bus in US festival \|publisher\=Turkish Journal \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221100840/http://www.turkishjournal.com/i.php?newsid\=3725 \|archive\-date\=21 February 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=dmy\-all}}
### Cuisine
Northern Cyprus is also well known for several dishes; among them are kebabs made of skewered lamb (şiş kebab) or ground with herbs and spices and made into a [kofte](/wiki/Kofte "Kofte") or şeftali kebab. Other dishes are based on meat wrapped in flat bread such as [lahmacun](/wiki/Lahmacun "Lahmacun"). Vegetarian cuisine includes stuffed vegetable based dishes "yalancı dolma" or many other dishes made with a bean or pulse such as börülce which consists of Swiss chard cooked with black\-eyed peas. There are also plant based foods such as [molohiya](/wiki/Molohiya "Molohiya") or root based stews such as kolokas.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.cyprusive.com/?CID\=54 \|title\=North Cyprus – Food and Drink (Cuisine) \|publisher\=Cyprusive \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221130944/http://www.cyprusive.com/?CID\=54 \|archive\-date\=21 December 2013 \|url\-status\=live \|df\=dmy\-all}}
### Sports
{{Main\|Sport in Northern Cyprus}}
[thumb\|right\|[Nicosia Atatürk Stadium](/wiki/Nicosia_Atat%C3%BCrk_Stadium "Nicosia Atatürk Stadium") is the largest stadium in Northern Cyprus.](/wiki/File:Nicosia_Ataturk_Stadium.jpg "Nicosia Ataturk Stadium.jpg")
There are five stadiums in Northern Cyprus, with each holding a capacity ranging anywhere from 7,000 to 30,000\. The most popular sport in Northern Cyprus is [football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football"). There are over 29 sport federations in Northern Cyprus with a total registered membership of 13,950 6,054 been registered practitioners for, [taekwondo](/wiki/Taekwondo "Taekwondo")\-[karate](/wiki/Karate "Karate")\-[aikido](/wiki/Aikido "Aikido")\-[kurash](/wiki/Kurash "Kurash"), with [shooting](/wiki/Shooting "Shooting") having 1,150 (registered) and [hunting](/wiki/Hunting "Hunting") having 1,017 (registered) members.TRNC State Planning Organization. *2008 Yılı Makroekonomik ve Sektörel Gelişmeler*, p.176\-179\. Several of sport clubs participate in leagues in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"). These include the Fast Break Sport Club in Turkey's Men's Basketball Regional League; the Beşparmak Sport Club in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey")'s Handball Premier League; and the [Lefke European University](/wiki/Lefke_European_University "Lefke European University") [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") Table\-tennis Super League. Water sports such as windsurfing, jetskiing, waterskiing and sailing are also available at beaches throughout the coastline of Northern Cyprus. Sailing is especially found at Escape Beach Club, near [Kyrenia](/wiki/Kyrenia "Kyrenia").
Northern Cyprus is a member of the [World Pool\-Billiard Association](/wiki/World_Pool-Billiard_Association "World Pool-Billiard Association").{{cite web \| title\=EPBF \| website\=WPA Pool \| date\=2021\-03\-08 \| url\=https://wpapool.com/about\-us/continental\-members/epbf/ \| access\-date\=2023\-08\-27}}
|
[
"Culture\n-------",
"{{Main\\|Culture of Northern Cyprus}}",
"### Music and dance",
"{{See also\\|Turkish Cypriot folk dances}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|[Ziynet Sali](/wiki/Ziynet_Sali \"Ziynet Sali\") is a [Turkish Cypriot](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot \"Turkish Cypriot\") pop singer famous in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") and Northern Cyprus.](/wiki/File:Ziynet_Sali.jpg \"Ziynet Sali.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Turkish Cypriot](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot \"Turkish Cypriot\") children, dressed in traditional clothing, preparing for a folk\\-dance show](/wiki/File:Turkish_Cypriot_folk_dancers.jpg \"Turkish Cypriot folk dancers.jpg\")\nTurkish Cypriot folk music consists of a rich variety of local tunes, influenced by the mainland Turkish music to a limited extent. Historically, it was shaped around the tradition of weddings, the primary social gatherings at the time. Violin, [goblet drum](/wiki/Goblet_drum \"Goblet drum\"), known locally as \"darbuka\", [zurna](/wiki/Zurna \"Zurna\") and other drums were heavily used in these gatherings, and a large number of traditional songs developed based on this legacy.{{cite web\\|title\\=Kültürel, Sanatsal ve Sosyal Yaşamı, El Sanatları, Gelenek, Görenek ve Adetler\\|url\\=http://www.neu.edu.tr/node/478\\|publisher\\=Near East University\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150221/http://www.neu.edu.tr/node/478\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Episodes of Traditional Turkish and Greek Cypriot Weddings\\|url\\=http://turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/465423302\\_%C3%96znur%C5%9Eevket\\_S\\-2611\\-2626\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=turkishstudies.net\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083216/http://turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/465423302\\_%C3%96znur%C5%9Eevket\\_S\\-2611\\-2626\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Turkish Cypriot culture also incorporates a great diversity of folk dances with various influences, including different versions of [karsilamas](/wiki/Karsilamas \"Karsilamas\"), [çiftetelli](/wiki/%C3%87iftetelli \"Çiftetelli\") and [zeybek](/wiki/Zeybek_dance \"Zeybek dance\").",
"The Northern Cyprus State Symphony Orchestra has been active since 1975\\. The [Bellapais Abbey](/wiki/Bellapais_Abbey \"Bellapais Abbey\") in Kyrenia hosts international festivals of classical music, and is considered in important platform of classical music. North Nicosia has its own Nicosia Municipal Orchestra that performs at open spaces, such as parks and squares, and is also home to the annual Walled City Jazz Festival.{{cite web\\|title\\=Tarihçemiz\\|url\\=http://www.lefkosabelediyeorkestrasi.net/?SyfNmb\\=2\\&pt\\=Hakk%C4%B1m%C4%B1zda\\|publisher\\=Nicosia Municipal Orchestra\\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102044507/http://www.lefkosabelediyeorkestrasi.net/?SyfNmb\\=2\\&pt\\=Hakk%C4%B1m%C4%B1zda\\|archive\\-date\\=2 January 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} [Rüya Taner](/wiki/R%C3%BCya_Taner \"Rüya Taner\") is a Turkish Cypriot pianist who has achieved international acclaim.",
"Turkish Cypriot cities and towns regularly organise festivals that include performances of local and international singers and bands. Some Turkish Cypriot singers, such as [Ziynet Sali](/wiki/Ziynet_Sali \"Ziynet Sali\") and [Işın Karaca](/wiki/I%C5%9F%C4%B1n_Karaca \"Işın Karaca\"), have achieved fame in Turkey. The Turkish Cypriot band [Sıla 4](/wiki/S%C4%B1la_4 \"Sıla 4\") produced music that is considered essential for the Turkish Cypriot identity, and also acquired fame in Turkey.{{cite web\\|title\\=Efsanevi Kıbrıs Türk müzik grubu SILA 4 yepyeni bir CD ile büyük bir sürprize imza atmak üzere\\|url\\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/print.php?news\\=18047\\|publisher\\=Kıbrıs Postası\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017204605/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/print.php?news\\=18047\\|archive\\-date\\=17 October 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Rock and pop music are popular with the public in Northern Cyprus, important singers and bands include [SOS](/wiki/SOS_%28band%29 \"SOS (band)\") and [Fikri Karayel](/wiki/Fikri_Karayel \"Fikri Karayel\").{{cite web\\|title\\=SOS\\|url\\=http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/music/artists/sos/index.html\\|publisher\\=Cypnet\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923212219/http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/music/artists/sos/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Fikri Karayel'in ilk albümü çıkıyor\\|url\\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/40/news/129464/PageName/MAGAZIN\\|publisher\\=Kıbrıs Postası\\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402112026/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/40/news/129464/PageName/MAGAZIN\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"### Literature",
"Poetry is the most widely published form of literature in Northern Cyprus. Turkish Cypriot poetry is based on both the effects of Turkish literature and the culture of the island of Cyprus, along with some reflection of the British colonial history.",
"The first era of Turkish Cypriot poetry after the introduction of the Latin alphabet, characterised by poets such as [Nazif Süleyman Ebeoğlu](/wiki/Nazif_S%C3%BCleyman_Ebeo%C4%9Flu \"Nazif Süleyman Ebeoğlu\"), [Urkiye Mine Balman](/wiki/Urkiye_Mine_Balman \"Urkiye Mine Balman\"), [Engin Gönül](/wiki/Engin_G%C3%B6n%C3%BCl \"Engin Gönül\"), [Necla Salih Suphi](/wiki/Necla_Salih_Suphi \"Necla Salih Suphi\") and [Pembe Marmara](/wiki/Pembe_Marmara \"Pembe Marmara\"), had strong nationalistic elements due to the political attitudes of Turkish Cypriots at the time and stylistically reflected the poetry of the Turkish mainland. Meanwhile, other poets, such as [Özker Yaşın](/wiki/%C3%96zker_Ya%C5%9F%C4%B1n \"Özker Yaşın\"), [Osman Türkay](/wiki/Osman_T%C3%BCrkay \"Osman Türkay\"), who was nominated for the [Nobel Prize in Literature](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature \"Nobel Prize in Literature\") twice,[\"Kozmik şiirin yazarı\"](http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/printnews.aspx?DocID=-31947) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017204605/http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/printnews.aspx?DocID\\=\\-31947 \\|date\\=17 October 2015}}. *Hürriyet*. Retrieved on 31 December 2014\\. and [Nevzat Yalçın](/wiki/Nevzat_Yal%C3%A7%C4%B1n \"Nevzat Yalçın\") sought to write in more original styles, with the influence of nascent poetic styles in Turkey and those in Britain. This group of poets were very prolific and increased the popularity of poetry in the Turkish Cypriot community, and are seen as key figures in Turkish Cypriot literature.Turan, Metin. [\"Çağdaş Kıbrıs Türk Şiirinde Eğilimler/ Yönelimler\"](http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/YENI%20TURK%20EDEBIYATI/metin_turan_cagdas_kibris_turk_siiri_egilimler.pdf). {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508113504/http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/YENI%20TURK%20EDEBIYATI/metin\\_turan\\_cagdas\\_kibris\\_turk\\_siiri\\_egilimler.pdf \\|date\\=8 May 2013}}. Çukurova University. Retrieved on 27 May 2012\\.",
"The nationalism gave way to a notion of Cypriotness in the 1970s, with the influence of Yaşın, Türkay and Yalçın. During this period, the so\\-called \"1974 generation of poets\" arose, led by poets including [Mehmet Yaşın](/wiki/Mehmet_Ya%C5%9F%C4%B1n \"Mehmet Yaşın\"), [Hakkı Yücel](/wiki/Hakk%C4%B1_Y%C3%BCcel \"Hakkı Yücel\"), [Nice Denizoğlu](/wiki/Nice_Denizo%C4%9Flu \"Nice Denizoğlu\"), [Neşe Yaşın](/wiki/Ne%C5%9Fe_Ya%C5%9F%C4%B1n \"Neşe Yaşın\"), [Ayşen Dağlı](/wiki/Ay%C5%9Fen_Da%C4%9Fl%C4%B1 \"Ayşen Dağlı\") and [Canan Sümer](/wiki/Canan_S%C3%BCmer \"Canan Sümer\"). The poetry of this generation was characterised by the appreciation of the Turkish Cypriot identity as distinct from Turkish identity and the identification of Cyprus as the Turkish Cypriot homeland instead of Turkey, in contrast to the previous nationalist poetry. This approach is often called the \"Cypriot poetry of rejection\" as it resists the influence of Turkey, highlighting the cultural rift between Turkey and Cyprus due to the recent experience of war and therefore the independence of the Turkish Cypriot poetry and identity. This was followed by an increased adoption of the Mediterranean identity in the 1980s, accompanied by the effects of the liberalisation of the Turkish Cypriot society, as reflected in the feminist elements, of which a particular example is [Neriman Cahit](/wiki/Neriman_Cahit \"Neriman Cahit\").[\"Boşluğun hasadı kalemledir\"](http://kitap.radikal.com.tr/makale/haber/boslugun-hasadi-kalemledir-395812). {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231012801/http://kitap.radikal.com.tr/makale/haber/boslugun\\-hasadi\\-kalemledir\\-395812 \\|date\\=31 December 2014}} *Radikal*. Retrieved on 31 December 2014\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Yaşın\\|first\\=Mehmet\\|title\\=Kıbrıslıtürk şiiri antolojisi: 18\\. yy\\-20\\. yy : 3 kuşak, 3 kimlik, 3 vatan arasında bir Türk azınlık şiiri\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JCRkAAAAMAAJ\\|year\\=1994\\|publisher\\=Yapı Kredi Yayınları\\|isbn\\=978\\-975\\-363\\-345\\-1\\|pages\\=58–60}}",
"### Theatre",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Karagöz and Hacivat](/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat \"Karagöz and Hacivat\")](/wiki/File:Karagoez-davul-Hacivat-zurna.jpg \"Karagoez-davul-Hacivat-zurna.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|An early [Turkish Cypriot](/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot \"Turkish Cypriot\") theatre group, 1880s](/wiki/File:An_early_Turkish-Cypriot_theatre_group.jpg \"An early Turkish-Cypriot theatre group.jpg\")\nTheatre in Northern Cyprus is mostly carried out by the Turkish Cypriot State Theatre, municipal theatres and a number of private theatrical companies. Cyprus Theatre Festival, organised by the [Nicosia Turkish Municipality](/wiki/Nicosia_Turkish_Municipality \"Nicosia Turkish Municipality\") is a large organisation with institutions from Turkey participating as well. There are no major halls built specifically for theatre in Northern Cyprus, so plays often take place in conference halls.TRNC State Planning Organization. *2008 Yılı Makroekonomik ve Sektörel Gelişmeler*, June 2010, p. 169\\.*Kıbrıs Tiyatro Festivali*. Nicosia Turkish Municipality and Nicosia Municipal Theatre.",
"The origins of Turkish Cypriot theatre lie in [Karagöz and Hacivat](/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat \"Karagöz and Hacivat\"), a shadow play that was popularised in the island as a form of entertainment during the Ottoman era. This form of theatre has lost its popularity nowadays, but remains to be televised during religious festivals.[\"Turkish\\-Cypriot Theatres\"](http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/theatre/index.html). {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923212220/http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/culture/theatre/index.html \\|date\\=23 September 2015}}, cypnet.co.uk, retrieved on 28 December 2014\\. After the 1840s, as the Ottoman Empire started modernising, theatre with greater European elements met with the Turkish Cypriot public. However, the inception of Turkish Cypriot theatre in the modern sense is considered the staging of the play \"[Vatan Yahut Silistre](/wiki/Vatan_Yahut_Silistre \"Vatan Yahut Silistre\")\" (\"Homeland vs. Silistra\") by Turkish playwright [Namık Kemal](/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal \"Namık Kemal\") in 1908\\.Cihangir, Yurdal. [\"The Primary Years of Turkish Cypriot Play\\-writing and 'Safa Yahut Neti̇ce\\-i̇ İbti̇la{{'\"}}](http://turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/1037275448_23CihangirYurdal-edb-441-451.pdf). {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228194817/http://turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/1037275448\\_23CihangirYurdal\\-edb\\-441\\-451\\.pdf \\|date\\=28 December 2014}}, Turkish Studies, retrieved on 28 December 2014\\. This was followed by a proliferation of theatrical activity in the Turkish Cypriot community as local plays were written and staged and theatrical companies from Turkey took the stage in Cyprus by the 1920s, all the major towns in Cyprus had Turkish Cypriot plays that were performed regularly.",
"In the 1960s, Turkish Cypriot theatre started to be institutionalised. A leading theatre group named \"İlk Sahne\" (First Stage), founded in 1963, was renamed the Turkish Cypriot State Theatre in 1966, and has since performed more than 85 plays.[Kuzey Kıbrıs’ın Kültürel ve Sosyal Yaşamı](http://kyrenia.edu.tr/kktc-hakkinda/bilgi/kuzey-kibrisin-kulturel-ve-sosyal-yasami/?lang=tr) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228192815/http://kyrenia.edu.tr/kktc\\-hakkinda/bilgi/kuzey\\-kibrisin\\-kulturel\\-ve\\-sosyal\\-yasami/?lang\\=tr \\|date\\=28 December 2014}}, University of Kyrenia, retrieved on 28 December 2014\\. Theatre is currently a very popular form of art in Northern Cyprus, with long queues forming for tickets of the plays in the Cyprus Theatre Festival, and the number of theatre\\-goers constantly increasing.[\"Bilet satışı başladı\"](http://www.yeniduzen.com/Haberler/kultur-ve-sanat/bilet-satisi-basladi/41607). {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228193330/http://www.yeniduzen.com/Haberler/kultur\\-ve\\-sanat/bilet\\-satisi\\-basladi/41607 \\|date\\=28 December 2014}}, Yeni Düzen, retrieved on 28 December 2014\\.",
"### Cinema",
"*[Anahtar](/wiki/Anahtar_%28film%29 \"Anahtar (film)\")* (*Key*), released in 2011, was the first full\\-length film entirely produced in Northern Cyprus.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/49/news/63999/PageName/KULTUR\\_SANAT \\|title\\=KKTC'nin ilk uzun metrajlı filmi Anahtar, Altın Portakal'da gösterildi \\|publisher\\=Kibris Postasi \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731141112/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/49/news/63999/PageName/KULTUR\\_SANAT \\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Some other co\\-productions have also taken place. A co\\-production of Northern Cyprus, Turkey, Britain and the Netherlands, {{ill\\|Kod Adı Venüs\\|tr}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.neu.edu.tr/tr/node/2369\\|title\\=Kod Adı: VENÜS\\|access\\-date\\=1 October 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006093731/http://www.neu.edu.tr/tr/node/2369\\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} (*Code Name Venus*) was shown in the [Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival \"Cannes Film Festival\") in 2012\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/49/news/80256/PageName/KULTUR\\_SANAT \\|title\\=Yakın Doğu Üniversitesi'nin hazırladığı 'Kod Adı Venüs' filmi Cannes Film Festivali'nde \\|publisher\\=Kibris Postasi \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528153647/http://www.kibrispostasi.com/index.php/cat/49/news/80256/PageName/KULTUR\\_SANAT \\|archive\\-date\\=28 May 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} The film director and screenwriter [Derviş Zaim](/wiki/Dervi%C5%9F_Zaim \"Derviş Zaim\") achieved fame with his 2003 film *[Mud (Çamur)](/wiki/Mud_%28%C3%87amur%29 \"Mud (Çamur)\")* which won the UNESCO award at the [Venice Film Festival](/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival \"Venice Film Festival\").",
"The documentary film *Kayıp Otobüs* (*[The Missing Bus](/wiki/The_Missing_Bus \"The Missing Bus\")*), directed by Turkish Cypriot journalist Fevzi Tașpınar, was aired on the [TRT TV](/wiki/Turkish_Radio_and_Television_Corporation \"Turkish Radio and Television Corporation\") as well as participating in the [Boston Film Festival](/wiki/Boston_Film_Festival \"Boston Film Festival\") in 2011\\. The film tells the story of eleven Turkish Cypriot workers who left their homes in a bus in 1964 that never came back. Their remains were found in a well in Cyprus in October 2006\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Haber: 'Kayıp Otobüs' belgesel filmi haberi / Haber, Haberler, Haberi, Haberleri, Haber oku, Gazete, Gazetesi, Gazeteleri, Gazete oku \\|url\\=http://www.turkmedya.com/V1/Pg/detail/NewID/186802/CatID/4/CityName/Corum/TownID/0/VillageID/0/SchoolID/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|publisher\\=Turkmedya.com \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222025615/http://www.turkmedya.com/V1/Pg/detail/NewID/186802/CatID/4/CityName/Corum/TownID/0/VillageID/0/SchoolID/ \\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2014 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.turkishjournal.com/i.php?newsid\\=3725 \\|title\\=Documentary on Turkish Cyprus bus in US festival \\|publisher\\=Turkish Journal \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221100840/http://www.turkishjournal.com/i.php?newsid\\=3725 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 February 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"### Cuisine",
"Northern Cyprus is also well known for several dishes; among them are kebabs made of skewered lamb (şiş kebab) or ground with herbs and spices and made into a [kofte](/wiki/Kofte \"Kofte\") or şeftali kebab. Other dishes are based on meat wrapped in flat bread such as [lahmacun](/wiki/Lahmacun \"Lahmacun\"). Vegetarian cuisine includes stuffed vegetable based dishes \"yalancı dolma\" or many other dishes made with a bean or pulse such as börülce which consists of Swiss chard cooked with black\\-eyed peas. There are also plant based foods such as [molohiya](/wiki/Molohiya \"Molohiya\") or root based stews such as kolokas.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cyprusive.com/?CID\\=54 \\|title\\=North Cyprus – Food and Drink (Cuisine) \\|publisher\\=Cyprusive \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221130944/http://www.cyprusive.com/?CID\\=54 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"### Sports",
"{{Main\\|Sport in Northern Cyprus}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Nicosia Atatürk Stadium](/wiki/Nicosia_Atat%C3%BCrk_Stadium \"Nicosia Atatürk Stadium\") is the largest stadium in Northern Cyprus.](/wiki/File:Nicosia_Ataturk_Stadium.jpg \"Nicosia Ataturk Stadium.jpg\")\nThere are five stadiums in Northern Cyprus, with each holding a capacity ranging anywhere from 7,000 to 30,000\\. The most popular sport in Northern Cyprus is [football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\"). There are over 29 sport federations in Northern Cyprus with a total registered membership of 13,950 6,054 been registered practitioners for, [taekwondo](/wiki/Taekwondo \"Taekwondo\")\\-[karate](/wiki/Karate \"Karate\")\\-[aikido](/wiki/Aikido \"Aikido\")\\-[kurash](/wiki/Kurash \"Kurash\"), with [shooting](/wiki/Shooting \"Shooting\") having 1,150 (registered) and [hunting](/wiki/Hunting \"Hunting\") having 1,017 (registered) members.TRNC State Planning Organization. *2008 Yılı Makroekonomik ve Sektörel Gelişmeler*, p.176\\-179\\. Several of sport clubs participate in leagues in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"). These include the Fast Break Sport Club in Turkey's Men's Basketball Regional League; the Beşparmak Sport Club in [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\")'s Handball Premier League; and the [Lefke European University](/wiki/Lefke_European_University \"Lefke European University\") [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") Table\\-tennis Super League. Water sports such as windsurfing, jetskiing, waterskiing and sailing are also available at beaches throughout the coastline of Northern Cyprus. Sailing is especially found at Escape Beach Club, near [Kyrenia](/wiki/Kyrenia \"Kyrenia\").",
"Northern Cyprus is a member of the [World Pool\\-Billiard Association](/wiki/World_Pool-Billiard_Association \"World Pool-Billiard Association\").{{cite web \\| title\\=EPBF \\| website\\=WPA Pool \\| date\\=2021\\-03\\-08 \\| url\\=https://wpapool.com/about\\-us/continental\\-members/epbf/ \\| access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-27}}",
""
] |
Building
--------
The courthouse occupies half of the block between Columbia, Eagle, Lodge and Pine streets. The building itself takes up the southwestern quadrant; its parking lot, the southeast. The land slopes gently to the east, reflecting the proximity of the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River") one\-half mile (800 m) in that direction.{{cite map \|publisher\=\[\[U.S. Geological Survey]] \|title\=Albany Quadrangle – New York – Albany, Rensselaer Cos.\|url\=http://www.topoquest.com/map.php?lat\=42\.652256\&lon\=\-73\.753886\&datum\=nad83\&zoom\=4 \|scale\=1:24,000 \|series\=USGS 7½\-minute series\|isbn\=\|access\-date\=June 18, 2013 }}
[thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.0\|The building with a fountain of Academy Park in the foreground.](/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_building_showing_dome.jpg "New York Court of Appeals building showing dome.jpg")
In the surrounding neighborhood are many similarly large buildings, most of them governmental or institutional and [contributing properties](/wiki/Contributing_property "Contributing property") to their historic districts. On the northern half of the block is the [Albany County](/wiki/Albany_County%2C_New_York "Albany County, New York") courthouse, an early 20th\-century neoclassical building architecturally sympathetic to the Court of Appeals building. South, across Pine, is Albany's [City Hall](/wiki/Albany_City_Hall "Albany City Hall"), a stone [Romanesque Revival](/wiki/Romanesque_Revival "Romanesque Revival") building by [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson "Henry Hobson Richardson") from the 1880s, also listed on the Register individually. Just to its south, visible from the Court of Appeals building through Corning Park behind City Hall, is [St. Peter's Episcopal Church](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Episcopal_Church_%28Albany%2C_New_York%29 "St. Peter's Episcopal Church (Albany, New York)"),{{cite map \|publisher\=AMCE Laboratories \|title\=Albany, NY \|url\=http://mapper.acme.com/?ll\=42\.65253,\-73\.75529\&z\=18\&t\=H \|scale\= \|cartography\=\[\[Google Maps]]\|access\-date\=June 20, 2013}} a [French Gothic](/wiki/French_Gothic_architecture "French Gothic architecture")\-style edifice by [Richard Upjohn](/wiki/Richard_Upjohn "Richard Upjohn") and [his son](/wiki/Richard_M._Upjohn "Richard M. Upjohn"). It is a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark "National Historic Landmark") (NHL) as well as a contributing property to the [Downtown Albany Historic District](/wiki/Downtown_Albany_Historic_District "Downtown Albany Historic District"), which borders the Lafayette Park Historic District to the east at this point.{{cite web \|last1\=Harwood\|first1\=John F.\|last2\=O'Brien\|first2\=Austin\|title\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Downtown Albany Historic District \|url\=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/75316217 \|publisher\=\[\[U.S. National Archives]]\|date\=September 7, 1979 \|access\-date\=January 5, 2021}}
Across Eagle Street is the two\-acre ({{convert\|2\|acre\|disp\=output only}}) [open space](/wiki/Urban_open_space "Urban open space") of Academy Park. Across it, slightly to the northwest, straddling the boundary between it and the larger Lafayette Park beyond, is the [Old Albany Academy Building](/wiki/Joseph_Henry_Memorial "Joseph Henry Memorial"), an 1815 stone [Federal\-style](/wiki/Federal_architecture "Federal architecture") work by [Philip Hooker](/wiki/Philip_Hooker "Philip Hooker") that now serves as administrative offices of the [City School District of Albany](/wiki/City_School_District_of_Albany "City School District of Albany"). Its modest scale is in contrast to the monumental [New York State Education Department Building](/wiki/New_York_State_Education_Department_Building "New York State Education Department Building"), visible across Lafayette Park. Above it the [Alfred E. Smith Building](/wiki/Alfred_E._Smith_Building "Alfred E. Smith Building")'s 34 stories tower over the [New York State Capitol](/wiki/New_York_State_Capitol "New York State Capitol"), also an NHL, across Washington Avenue ([New York State Route 5](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_5 "New York State Route 5")) to the west. The taller towers of the [modernist](/wiki/Modernist_architecture "Modernist architecture") [Empire State Plaza](/wiki/Empire_State_Plaza "Empire State Plaza") are to the southeast. East of the Court of Appeals building, across Lodge Street, is [St. Mary's Church](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church_%28Albany%2C_New_York%29 "St. Mary's Church (Albany, New York)"), home to the city's oldest [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States "Roman Catholic Church in the United States") congregation and another listed property that contributes to the Downtown Albany Historic District.
### Exterior
[right\|thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|A view from the west with the dome visible.](/wiki/File:Court_of_Appeals%2C_20_Eagle_Street%2C_Albany%2C_New_York.jpg "Court of Appeals, 20 Eagle Street, Albany, New York.jpg")
The building itself is a three\-story, 11\-by\-7\-[bay](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 "Bay (architecture)") structure with a wing on the north, two small wings on the east and a larger addition from the exposed basement on that side. It is faced with [load\-bearing](/wiki/Load-bearing_wall "Load-bearing wall") marble blocks, laid as thick as five feet ({{convert\|5\|ft\|disp\=output only}}) at the basement level, on a concrete [foundation](/wiki/Foundation_%28architecture%29 "Foundation (architecture)").{{cite web\|title\=Renovation and Restoration: 1842–2004\|url\=http://www.nycourts.gov/ctapps/news/1230LB.pdf\|publisher\=New York Court of Appeals\|date\=January 2004\|access\-date\=June 20, 2013}} At the top is a flat roof with a copper\-sheathed dome in the center.
In the middle of the east (front) [facade](/wiki/Facade "Facade") is a five\-bay projecting [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico"). Six round [fluted](/wiki/Fluting_%28architecture%29 "Fluting (architecture)") [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") columns support a [pediment](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment") with plain [entablature](/wiki/Entablature "Entablature"). On the building itself 12 square smooth [Doric](/wiki/Doric_order "Doric order") [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster") divide the bays. Above the main entrance is a relief of the [state seal](/wiki/Seal_of_New_York_%28state%29 "Seal of New York (state)"). Both stories are set with narrow nine\-over\-nine double\-hung [sash windows](/wiki/Sash_window "Sash window").
Above the columns and pilasters is a plain [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") divided by a small [molded](/wiki/Molding_%28decorative%29 "Molding (decorative)") [cornice](/wiki/Cornice "Cornice"). On the portico, the upper portion of the frieze has the legend "Court of Appeals State of New York" engraved in it. Above it is another, broader, overhanging cornice, also found on the pediment. The third story has the same nine\-over\-nine double\-hung sash. Above it is a smaller cornice and [parapet](/wiki/Parapet "Parapet"). In the middle of the roof is the dome, clad in [stainless steel](/wiki/Stainless_steel "Stainless steel"), with an [oculus](/wiki/Oculus_%28architecture%29 "Oculus (architecture)") and [gold leaf](/wiki/Gold_leaf "Gold leaf") [finial](/wiki/Finial "Finial") at the top.
### Interior
Inside the ceilings are supported by [groin\-vaulted](/wiki/Groin_vault "Groin vault") stone arches rather than [timber framing](/wiki/Timber_framing "Timber framing"). Floors and stairs are laid in marble [flagstone](/wiki/Flagstone "Flagstone"). The first floor has a library and lounge for attorneys, and the [John Jay](/wiki/John_Jay "John Jay") Room, for public events and overflow viewing of [oral arguments](/wiki/Oral_argument "Oral argument") via [closed\-circuit television](/wiki/Closed-circuit_television "Closed-circuit television"). It and other public areas of the first floor have [teak](/wiki/Teak "Teak") [paneling](/wiki/Paneling "Paneling") and molding.
All seven judges'{{efn\|In keeping with the inversion of the federal relationship in New York's judicial nomenclature, where the \[\[New York Supreme Court\|Supreme Court]] is below the Court of Appeals, those who sit on the former are called justices and the latter, judges.{{cite web\|title\=New York State Constitution\|url\=https://www.nysenate.gov/new\-york\-state\-constitution\|publisher\=\[\[New York State Senate]]\|access\-date\=May 31, 2021}}}} chambers are on the second floor, along with their library and the conference room where they meet to cast votes on cases after hearing arguments. The chambers are finished in wooden paneling. A modern [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") chandelier lights the conference room. The third floor has some additional library space along with the offices of court and individual judges' clerks.
Under the dome, the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 "Rotunda (architecture)")'s decorative work uses all three [classical orders](/wiki/Classical_order "Classical order"). Plain [Doric](/wiki/Doric_order "Doric order") columns and [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 "Capital (architecture)") on the first floor are topped by [carved](/wiki/Stonecarving "Stonecarving") [Ionic columns](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") on the second story. They support ornate [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order "Corinthian order") columns at the top. In the ceiling is *The Romance of the Skies*, a {{convert\|1000\|sqft\|adj\=on}} painting depicting the three seasons when the court is in session.
[thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|left\|The Court hearing oral arguments in the courtroom\|alt\=A room with ornate brown wooden paneling and oil portraits on the walls. At the left seven people wearing black robes sit behind a similarly decorated wooden bench, elevated slightly from the red\-carpeted floor. On the right are several people in suits sitting at chairs behind tables. In the rear is a large window with red drapes.](/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg "New York Court of Appeals hearing oral arguments.jpg")
In the rear wing is the courtroom, its interior decorated in ornately hand\-[carved](/wiki/Woodcarving "Woodcarving") brown oak, similar to its furniture. Oil portraits of past Court of Appeals judges line the walls up to the {{convert\|22\|ft\|adj\=on}} carved plaster ceiling. A fireplace of bronze, marble and Mexican [onyx](/wiki/Onyx "Onyx") is in one wall. The floor has a red carpet decorated with geometric patterns.
|
[
"Building\n--------",
"The courthouse occupies half of the block between Columbia, Eagle, Lodge and Pine streets. The building itself takes up the southwestern quadrant; its parking lot, the southeast. The land slopes gently to the east, reflecting the proximity of the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\") one\\-half mile (800 m) in that direction.{{cite map \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[U.S. Geological Survey]] \\|title\\=Albany Quadrangle – New York – Albany, Rensselaer Cos.\\|url\\=http://www.topoquest.com/map.php?lat\\=42\\.652256\\&lon\\=\\-73\\.753886\\&datum\\=nad83\\&zoom\\=4 \\|scale\\=1:24,000 \\|series\\=USGS 7½\\-minute series\\|isbn\\=\\|access\\-date\\=June 18, 2013 }}\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|The building with a fountain of Academy Park in the foreground.](/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_building_showing_dome.jpg \"New York Court of Appeals building showing dome.jpg\")\nIn the surrounding neighborhood are many similarly large buildings, most of them governmental or institutional and [contributing properties](/wiki/Contributing_property \"Contributing property\") to their historic districts. On the northern half of the block is the [Albany County](/wiki/Albany_County%2C_New_York \"Albany County, New York\") courthouse, an early 20th\\-century neoclassical building architecturally sympathetic to the Court of Appeals building. South, across Pine, is Albany's [City Hall](/wiki/Albany_City_Hall \"Albany City Hall\"), a stone [Romanesque Revival](/wiki/Romanesque_Revival \"Romanesque Revival\") building by [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson \"Henry Hobson Richardson\") from the 1880s, also listed on the Register individually. Just to its south, visible from the Court of Appeals building through Corning Park behind City Hall, is [St. Peter's Episcopal Church](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Episcopal_Church_%28Albany%2C_New_York%29 \"St. Peter's Episcopal Church (Albany, New York)\"),{{cite map \\|publisher\\=AMCE Laboratories \\|title\\=Albany, NY \\|url\\=http://mapper.acme.com/?ll\\=42\\.65253,\\-73\\.75529\\&z\\=18\\&t\\=H \\|scale\\= \\|cartography\\=\\[\\[Google Maps]]\\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2013}} a [French Gothic](/wiki/French_Gothic_architecture \"French Gothic architecture\")\\-style edifice by [Richard Upjohn](/wiki/Richard_Upjohn \"Richard Upjohn\") and [his son](/wiki/Richard_M._Upjohn \"Richard M. Upjohn\"). It is a [National Historic Landmark](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark \"National Historic Landmark\") (NHL) as well as a contributing property to the [Downtown Albany Historic District](/wiki/Downtown_Albany_Historic_District \"Downtown Albany Historic District\"), which borders the Lafayette Park Historic District to the east at this point.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Harwood\\|first1\\=John F.\\|last2\\=O'Brien\\|first2\\=Austin\\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Downtown Albany Historic District \\|url\\=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/75316217 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[U.S. National Archives]]\\|date\\=September 7, 1979 \\|access\\-date\\=January 5, 2021}}",
"Across Eagle Street is the two\\-acre ({{convert\\|2\\|acre\\|disp\\=output only}}) [open space](/wiki/Urban_open_space \"Urban open space\") of Academy Park. Across it, slightly to the northwest, straddling the boundary between it and the larger Lafayette Park beyond, is the [Old Albany Academy Building](/wiki/Joseph_Henry_Memorial \"Joseph Henry Memorial\"), an 1815 stone [Federal\\-style](/wiki/Federal_architecture \"Federal architecture\") work by [Philip Hooker](/wiki/Philip_Hooker \"Philip Hooker\") that now serves as administrative offices of the [City School District of Albany](/wiki/City_School_District_of_Albany \"City School District of Albany\"). Its modest scale is in contrast to the monumental [New York State Education Department Building](/wiki/New_York_State_Education_Department_Building \"New York State Education Department Building\"), visible across Lafayette Park. Above it the [Alfred E. Smith Building](/wiki/Alfred_E._Smith_Building \"Alfred E. Smith Building\")'s 34 stories tower over the [New York State Capitol](/wiki/New_York_State_Capitol \"New York State Capitol\"), also an NHL, across Washington Avenue ([New York State Route 5](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_5 \"New York State Route 5\")) to the west. The taller towers of the [modernist](/wiki/Modernist_architecture \"Modernist architecture\") [Empire State Plaza](/wiki/Empire_State_Plaza \"Empire State Plaza\") are to the southeast. East of the Court of Appeals building, across Lodge Street, is [St. Mary's Church](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church_%28Albany%2C_New_York%29 \"St. Mary's Church (Albany, New York)\"), home to the city's oldest [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States \"Roman Catholic Church in the United States\") congregation and another listed property that contributes to the Downtown Albany Historic District.",
"### Exterior",
"[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|A view from the west with the dome visible.](/wiki/File:Court_of_Appeals%2C_20_Eagle_Street%2C_Albany%2C_New_York.jpg \"Court of Appeals, 20 Eagle Street, Albany, New York.jpg\")\nThe building itself is a three\\-story, 11\\-by\\-7\\-[bay](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 \"Bay (architecture)\") structure with a wing on the north, two small wings on the east and a larger addition from the exposed basement on that side. It is faced with [load\\-bearing](/wiki/Load-bearing_wall \"Load-bearing wall\") marble blocks, laid as thick as five feet ({{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|disp\\=output only}}) at the basement level, on a concrete [foundation](/wiki/Foundation_%28architecture%29 \"Foundation (architecture)\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Renovation and Restoration: 1842–2004\\|url\\=http://www.nycourts.gov/ctapps/news/1230LB.pdf\\|publisher\\=New York Court of Appeals\\|date\\=January 2004\\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2013}} At the top is a flat roof with a copper\\-sheathed dome in the center.",
"In the middle of the east (front) [facade](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\") is a five\\-bay projecting [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\"). Six round [fluted](/wiki/Fluting_%28architecture%29 \"Fluting (architecture)\") [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") columns support a [pediment](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\") with plain [entablature](/wiki/Entablature \"Entablature\"). On the building itself 12 square smooth [Doric](/wiki/Doric_order \"Doric order\") [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\") divide the bays. Above the main entrance is a relief of the [state seal](/wiki/Seal_of_New_York_%28state%29 \"Seal of New York (state)\"). Both stories are set with narrow nine\\-over\\-nine double\\-hung [sash windows](/wiki/Sash_window \"Sash window\").",
"Above the columns and pilasters is a plain [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") divided by a small [molded](/wiki/Molding_%28decorative%29 \"Molding (decorative)\") [cornice](/wiki/Cornice \"Cornice\"). On the portico, the upper portion of the frieze has the legend \"Court of Appeals State of New York\" engraved in it. Above it is another, broader, overhanging cornice, also found on the pediment. The third story has the same nine\\-over\\-nine double\\-hung sash. Above it is a smaller cornice and [parapet](/wiki/Parapet \"Parapet\"). In the middle of the roof is the dome, clad in [stainless steel](/wiki/Stainless_steel \"Stainless steel\"), with an [oculus](/wiki/Oculus_%28architecture%29 \"Oculus (architecture)\") and [gold leaf](/wiki/Gold_leaf \"Gold leaf\") [finial](/wiki/Finial \"Finial\") at the top.",
"### Interior",
"Inside the ceilings are supported by [groin\\-vaulted](/wiki/Groin_vault \"Groin vault\") stone arches rather than [timber framing](/wiki/Timber_framing \"Timber framing\"). Floors and stairs are laid in marble [flagstone](/wiki/Flagstone \"Flagstone\"). The first floor has a library and lounge for attorneys, and the [John Jay](/wiki/John_Jay \"John Jay\") Room, for public events and overflow viewing of [oral arguments](/wiki/Oral_argument \"Oral argument\") via [closed\\-circuit television](/wiki/Closed-circuit_television \"Closed-circuit television\"). It and other public areas of the first floor have [teak](/wiki/Teak \"Teak\") [paneling](/wiki/Paneling \"Paneling\") and molding.",
"All seven judges'{{efn\\|In keeping with the inversion of the federal relationship in New York's judicial nomenclature, where the \\[\\[New York Supreme Court\\|Supreme Court]] is below the Court of Appeals, those who sit on the former are called justices and the latter, judges.{{cite web\\|title\\=New York State Constitution\\|url\\=https://www.nysenate.gov/new\\-york\\-state\\-constitution\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New York State Senate]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2021}}}} chambers are on the second floor, along with their library and the conference room where they meet to cast votes on cases after hearing arguments. The chambers are finished in wooden paneling. A modern [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") chandelier lights the conference room. The third floor has some additional library space along with the offices of court and individual judges' clerks.",
"Under the dome, the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 \"Rotunda (architecture)\")'s decorative work uses all three [classical orders](/wiki/Classical_order \"Classical order\"). Plain [Doric](/wiki/Doric_order \"Doric order\") columns and [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 \"Capital (architecture)\") on the first floor are topped by [carved](/wiki/Stonecarving \"Stonecarving\") [Ionic columns](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") on the second story. They support ornate [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order \"Corinthian order\") columns at the top. In the ceiling is *The Romance of the Skies*, a {{convert\\|1000\\|sqft\\|adj\\=on}} painting depicting the three seasons when the court is in session.\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|left\\|The Court hearing oral arguments in the courtroom\\|alt\\=A room with ornate brown wooden paneling and oil portraits on the walls. At the left seven people wearing black robes sit behind a similarly decorated wooden bench, elevated slightly from the red\\-carpeted floor. On the right are several people in suits sitting at chairs behind tables. In the rear is a large window with red drapes.](/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_hearing_oral_arguments.jpg \"New York Court of Appeals hearing oral arguments.jpg\")\nIn the rear wing is the courtroom, its interior decorated in ornately hand\\-[carved](/wiki/Woodcarving \"Woodcarving\") brown oak, similar to its furniture. Oil portraits of past Court of Appeals judges line the walls up to the {{convert\\|22\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} carved plaster ceiling. A fireplace of bronze, marble and Mexican [onyx](/wiki/Onyx \"Onyx\") is in one wall. The floor has a red carpet decorated with geometric patterns.",
""
] |
History
-------
Originally, the building housed various state officials rather than the court. Insufficient space at the capitol led to the court's takeover of the building in the 1910s, the first of three major renovations in a century.
### 1842–1917: State Hall
Created in 1777 during the [Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"), the government of the state of New York did not assume full governmental responsibilities for its territory until the end of [the war](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") and [independence](/wiki/American_independence "American independence"). After several other cities had held the title, Albany was formally established as the state capital in the 1790s.{{cite web\|title\=City of Albany History\|url\=https://www.albanyny.gov/775/City\-of\-Albany\-History\|publisher\=\[\[Albany, New York\#Government\|City of Albany]]\|access\-date\=May 31, 2021}} The new state government did not need many buildings. Both houses of the [state legislature](/wiki/New_York_State_Legislature "New York State Legislature") met in Albany's City Hall until the first state capitol was built in 1819; governors rented residences in the city; and the two highest state courts, the [Court of Chancery](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Chancery "New York Court of Chancery") and the [Court for the Trial of Impeachments and the Correction of Errors](/wiki/New_York_Court_for_the_Trial_of_Impeachments "New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments"), heard cases in the county courthouse or the capitol. For those officials who needed a dedicated workspace, the first state office building, Old State Hall, was erected in the early 1800s at what is now the corner of Lodge and State streets.
In 1833, the occupants complained that the building was running out of space and inadequate in other ways—in particular, they said, the many records kept within it could be destroyed in a fire. The legislature directed the capitol's trustees to find land for a new building. The trustees acquired the current land and commissioned local architect Henry Rector to design the building.
[thumb\|right\|upright\=1\.0\|A close\-up view of the [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico")\|alt\=The court building seen more closely, and from an angle slightly to its right.](/wiki/File:NYSCourtofAppeals1.JPG "NYSCourtofAppeals1.JPG")
According to architectural critic Talbot Hamlin, Rector's design "proclaimed the complete triumph of the [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture "Greek Revival architecture") in the [Albany region](/wiki/Capital_District%2C_New_York "Capital District, New York")." The column bases and [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 "Capital (architecture)") on the exterior were copied from the [Temple of Athena Nike](/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike "Temple of Athena Nike") on the [Acropolis](/wiki/Acropolis "Acropolis"). Marble for the building, mandated by the legislature, was quarried by inmates at the new [Sing Sing Prison](/wiki/Sing_Sing_Prison "Sing Sing Prison") near the present\-day village of [Ossining](/wiki/Ossining_%28village%29%2C_New_York "Ossining (village), New York") in [Westchester County](/wiki/Westchester_County%2C_New_York "Westchester County, New York") and shipped up the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River") on barges. It was completed by 1842 at a total cost of $350,000 (${{formatprice\|{{inflation\|US\-GDP\|350000\|1842\|r\=\-3}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|US}} dollars{{Inflation\-fn\|US}}). No other buildings of Rector's survive except for a row of houses on Westerlo Street in Albany's [Pastures Historic District](/wiki/Pastures_Historic_District "Pastures Historic District").
In addition to its architecture, the building would be notable for two aspects of its engineering as well. One was the use of the stone [groin vaults](/wiki/Groin_vault "Groin vault") to support the ceilings instead of the [timber framing](/wiki/Timber_framing "Timber framing") common at the time, an early attempt at [fireproofing](/wiki/Fireproofing "Fireproofing"). The other was the stone staircase in the middle of the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 "Rotunda (architecture)"), which started at the first floor and [cantilevered](/wiki/Cantilever "Cantilever") out up to the third floor with no visible means of support.
After the building's completion, the state chancellor, Register of Chancery, clerk of the Court of Appeals and its [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_York "Supreme Court of New York") moved in. The state's executive branch was represented by the [attorney general](/wiki/Attorney_General "Attorney General"), auditor, canal appraisers and commissioners, [comptroller](/wiki/New_York_State_Comptroller "New York State Comptroller") and [state engineer and surveyor\-general](/wiki/New_York_State_Engineer_and_Surveyor "New York State Engineer and Surveyor"). In 1846, a new state constitution reformed the courts, eliminating the Court of Chancery and relegating the Supreme Court to its current role of both [appellate](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division "New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division") and trial court, supreme in that it has the last word on [findings of fact](/wiki/Question_of_fact "Question of fact") but deferring to the new [Court of Appeals](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals "New York Court of Appeals") on [questions of law](/wiki/Question_of_law "Question of law").
[thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.0\|Contemporary photograph of fireplace in the courtroom when that was in the state capitol\|alt\=A black and white photograph of a fireplace with ornate mantel set in wood\-paneled wall with similarly ornate carvings above it](/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_courtroom_fireplace.jpg "New York Court of Appeals courtroom fireplace.jpg")
However, the tenants of the building remained unchanged. The Court of Appeals sat in the state capitol, both the former building and [the current one](/wiki/New_York_State_Capitol "New York State Capitol"). In the latter, [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson "Henry Hobson Richardson"), supervising a construction process that had become delayed since it began in the early 1870s from [Thomas Fuller](/wiki/Thomas_Fuller_%28architect%29 "Thomas Fuller (architect)")'s original plan, designed an ornate wooden courtroom with [carved](/wiki/Woodcarving "Woodcarving") oak walls and furniture. The judges began hearing [oral arguments](/wiki/Oral_argument "Oral argument") there in 1884\. It was described by a visiting [Lord Coleridge](/wiki/John_Coleridge%2C_1st_Baron_Coleridge "John Coleridge, 1st Baron Coleridge"), [Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales](/wiki/Lord_Chief_Justice_of_England_and_Wales "Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales"), as "the finest courtroom in the world."
As the 19th century became the 20th, the state grew and, with it, its government. By 1909 the judges and lawyers alike were complaining that the court's capitol space was inadequate to its modern legal needs. The following year the legislature directed the court to appoint one of its judges to work with the state architect, then [Franklin B. Ware](/wiki/Franklin_B._Ware "Franklin B. Ware"), to determine whether the old State Hall could be renovated into an adequate facility. The court appointed Judge [William E. Werner](/wiki/William_E._Werner "William E. Werner"). He and Ware commissioned a report from a [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York") architect who concluded that such a renovation was possible.
Even though the fire that ravaged the capitol in 1911 made the need for new court space more pressing, Ware refused to endorse the report, saying the renovation proposed was inadequate. Instead, he proposed redeveloping the entire area around the capitol (today the [Lafayette Park Historic District](/wiki/Lafayette_Park_Historic_District "Lafayette Park Historic District")) similarly to [Capitol Hill](/wiki/Capitol_Hill "Capitol Hill") in [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), including a new courthouse on Swan Street.
Ware's plan was rejected, and [Lewis Pilcher](/wiki/Lewis_Pilcher "Lewis Pilcher") replaced him as state architect. He proceeded with the planned renovation of State Hall. In keeping with the wishes of Chief Judge [Willard Bartlett](/wiki/Willard_Bartlett "Willard Bartlett"), Pilcher's most significant change to the building was a wing on the east to accommodate Richardson's courtroom, which could be moved to State Hall with the exception of its original ceiling.{{efn\|It can still be seen in the capitol's room 315\.}} On the interior of the existing building, the rotunda was faced in dark yellow *[faux](/wiki/wikt:Faux "Faux")* [Caen stone](/wiki/Caen_stone "Caen stone"), and the judges' library, conference room and individual chambers were all painted in shades of cream and lit with pendant drop\-globes.
The court approved the redesign in 1914\. Work began after the contract was signed the next year; it was complete in time for a formal dedication at the beginning of 1917\. The building was at that time officially renamed Court of Appeals Hall, the legend still on its [pediment](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment"). Governor [Charles S. Whitman](/wiki/Charles_S._Whitman "Charles S. Whitman") spoke at the ceremony, saying the building was now dedicated to "the noblest purpose to which a building or a life can be dedicated, the administration of justice."
### 1918–1959: Second renovation
For 30 years the converted State Hall served the needs of judges and lawyers alike. By the late 1940s its age was becoming evident. The state's [Department of Public Works](/wiki/New_York_State_Department_of_Public_Works "New York State Department of Public Works") reported that the [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico") was in danger of collapsing, the interior was looking shabby, and the electrical wiring and heating needed to be replaced. Nothing would be done about this situation until Governor [Averell Harriman](/wiki/Averell_Harriman "Averell Harriman") made a surprise inspection of the building in 1956\. Two years later another renovation began under state architect Carl Larson and Judge [Charles W. Froessel](/wiki/Charles_W._Froessel "Charles W. Froessel").
The work had been delayed while the judges considered, and rejected, building an entirely new courthouse, as their predecessors had in 1917\. They heard cases in the Appellate Division courtroom at the nearby county courthouse, while they received temporary chambers at the capitol. The clerk of courts and his staff took their temporary quarters at an old storage building at Lodge Street and Maiden Lane. The reporter relocated to 6 Elk Street.
Early in the renovation, a [short circuit](/wiki/Short_circuit "Short circuit") in the elevator machine room started a serious fire that destroyed the roof and dome and badly damaged the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 "Rotunda (architecture)"). Work continued, and shortly afterward another serious problem was discovered when excavations around the [foundation](/wiki/Foundation_%28architecture%29 "Foundation (architecture)") disclosed that the eastern corners of the building had each sunk {{convert\|5\|in\|cm}} since 1842, resulting in severe damage to floors, windows, lintels and the interior arches. The original foundations of rubble on clay were replaced with concrete.
[right\|upright\=1\.0\|thumb\|Dome interior with Savage mural at top\|alt\=The inside of a dome viewed from below. The first level's columns are topped with Ionic capitals, while we can see Doric capitals on the second level. At the center of the image is a mural depicting the New York state seal with planets, sun, stars and moon and a yellow ribbons across the sky. In the center is a circular skylight](/wiki/File:Dome_interior_of_New_York_State_Court_of_Appeals_building.jpg "Dome interior of New York State Court of Appeals building.jpg")
A larger new dome, {{convert\|64\|ft}} wide and {{convert\|23\|ft}} high, built of steel beams and light concrete planks, replaced the original. It was sheathed in lead\-coated copper and topped with a wooden [cupola](/wiki/Cupola "Cupola"). Inside the dome a 34\-foot–wide ({{convert\|34\|ft\|disp\=output only}}) mural by [Eugene Savage](/wiki/Eugene_Savage "Eugene Savage"), *The Romance of the Skies*, depicts the three seasons—fall, winter and spring—during which the court sits. Except for the removal of the cantilevered stone staircase, now deemed too structurally unstable to use, the rotunda remained unchanged.
It was the only space inside that did. Many rooms received new coats of paint, and the ceiling arches were hidden from view by new walls. New elevators and stairs were installed to replace the original stone stair. Additional amenities, such as air conditioning, an enamel\-walled kitchen and television in the reception room, were added for the judges. Their [robing room](/wiki/Court_dress%23Judicial_court_dress "Court dress#Judicial court dress") was paneled in birch. Two of the seven judges had chambers on the first floor; the rest were upstairs. The paintings that hung in Robertson's courtroom were cleaned and rehung; a new carpet was installed.
On the outside much of the original marble was removed and replaced with stone quarried in [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont "Vermont"). Six [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") columns and new stairs were built for the reconstructed portico. Above the main entrance, an 8\-ton ({{convert\|8\|ST\|disp\=output only}}) emblem of the [state seal](/wiki/Seal_of_New_York_%28state%29 "Seal of New York (state)") sculpted by [C. Paul Jennewein](/wiki/C._Paul_Jennewein "C. Paul Jennewein") was installed.
Despite the fire and the structural issues, the project was finished ahead of schedule in 1959\. [Nelson Rockefeller](/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller "Nelson Rockefeller"), who had succeeded Harriman, gave the court his full support. At the rededication ceremony that October, Chief Judge [Albert Conway](/wiki/Albert_Conway "Albert Conway") symbolically accepted the keys from him. Conway observed as he did that the new building reflected the "permanence of an ideal".
### 1960–present: Third renovation
As it had following the 1917 work, the courthouse continued to serve its purpose for the next three decades. By 1999, however, it once again seemed inadequate to the needs of its users. The thick walls made it difficult to adapt for modern electrical and telecommunications purposes. The infrastructure within was almost half a century old, making it difficult to heat and cool the building. The space taken up by those walls meant that the courtroom was the only place the judges and all their combined staff could hold meetings. There were also very few spaces for the public within the building, frustrating attempts to make the court and its history [transparent](/wiki/Transparency_%28behavior%29 "Transparency (behavior)") and accessible.
The judges decided that it was necessary to make some small additions to the building along with the infrastructure upgrades. Chief Judge [Judith Kaye](/wiki/Judith_Kaye "Judith Kaye") designated Judge [Richard C. Wesley](/wiki/Richard_C._Wesley "Richard C. Wesley"), later elevated to the federal [Second Circuit Court of Appeals](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit"), as the court's liaison to the project, now managed by the [Dormitory Authority of the State of New York](/wiki/Dormitory_Authority_of_the_State_of_New_York "Dormitory Authority of the State of New York") as the state architect's position had been abolished. After the necessary [appropriations](/wiki/Appropriation_%28law%29 "Appropriation (law)") from the legislature, work began in 2001\. During the 17 months it took, the judges continued to hear arguments in the courtroom but worked out of temporary quarters outside the city. Project architects were DeWolff Partnership Architects LLP of [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York").{{cite web\|title\=Architectural Firms\|url\=https://rbj.net/2001/06/08/architectural\-firms/\|publisher\=Rochester Business Journal\|date\=June 8, 2001\|access\-date\=May 31, 2021}}
As the building had been listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") in 1971, since its last renovation, [preservation](/wiki/Historic_preservation "Historic preservation") and [restoration](/wiki/Building_restoration "Building restoration") were as important as the expansions. The [State Historic Preservation Office](/wiki/New_York_State_Office_of_Parks%2C_Recreation_and_Historic_Preservation "New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation") was closely involved with the process. It mandated that the newly installed wings on the sides of the building be distinguishable from the original [facades](/wiki/Facade "Facade") after the marble was once again replaced with newly quarried Vermont stone, even though they were architecturally sympathetic to Rector's original design. As a result, they have narrower [bays](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 "Bay (architecture)") and [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster"), smooth at the base rather than [fluted](/wiki/Fluting_%28architecture%29 "Fluting (architecture)"), to subtly distinguish them from the original building.
Elsewhere on the exterior, the dome was made over. The lead\-plated copper installed in 1959 was replaced with stainless steel and the [cupola](/wiki/Cupola "Cupola") from that renovation replaced with the current [oculus](/wiki/Oculus_%28architecture%29 "Oculus (architecture)"). Its high\-performance glass keeps out [ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet "Ultraviolet") light and reduces heat inside. The gold\-plated sphere that had topped the cupola remains above the oculus.
[left\|thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|Courtroom in 2015, after renovation\|alt\=The courtroom seen above, empty but from a different angle showing more of it and its ornate walls, chandeliers and red carpet](/wiki/File:Courtroom_of_the_New_York_Court_of_Appeals.jpg "Courtroom of the New York Court of Appeals.jpg")
Inside, the renovations once more made the ceiling [groin vaults](/wiki/Groin_vault "Groin vault") visible. The entire infrastructure was replaced, and the newly created space in the main building, plus the additional space in the wings, brought the building to {{convert\|93000\|sqft}} of total floor space. The Red Room and the Jay Room were created on the first floor to host public functions and exhibits on the history of the court, as well as providing overflow space for those who wished to hear [oral arguments](/wiki/Oral_argument "Oral argument") in cases that attracted significant interest. All the judges' chambers were now located on the second floor, a change that Kaye had particularly sought.
Photographs and other historical records were studied closely for information about interior decoration that matched earlier eras. The [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 "Rotunda (architecture)") was done in shades of beige, cream and yellow, as it had appeared to be originally. On the first floor carpets, blues and reds were used following early 20th\-century practices. The Red Room and all offices similarly have a painted *faux*\-finish on the walls. Since the third floor is now largely new construction, it uses green primarily. Lighting used throughout duplicates the 1959 renovation, except in the courtroom, where reconstructions of the 1884 [chandeliers](/wiki/Chandelier "Chandelier") complement a newly designed carpet.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Originally, the building housed various state officials rather than the court. Insufficient space at the capitol led to the court's takeover of the building in the 1910s, the first of three major renovations in a century.",
"### 1842–1917: State Hall",
"Created in 1777 during the [Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\"), the government of the state of New York did not assume full governmental responsibilities for its territory until the end of [the war](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\") and [independence](/wiki/American_independence \"American independence\"). After several other cities had held the title, Albany was formally established as the state capital in the 1790s.{{cite web\\|title\\=City of Albany History\\|url\\=https://www.albanyny.gov/775/City\\-of\\-Albany\\-History\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Albany, New York\\#Government\\|City of Albany]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2021}} The new state government did not need many buildings. Both houses of the [state legislature](/wiki/New_York_State_Legislature \"New York State Legislature\") met in Albany's City Hall until the first state capitol was built in 1819; governors rented residences in the city; and the two highest state courts, the [Court of Chancery](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Chancery \"New York Court of Chancery\") and the [Court for the Trial of Impeachments and the Correction of Errors](/wiki/New_York_Court_for_the_Trial_of_Impeachments \"New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments\"), heard cases in the county courthouse or the capitol. For those officials who needed a dedicated workspace, the first state office building, Old State Hall, was erected in the early 1800s at what is now the corner of Lodge and State streets.",
"In 1833, the occupants complained that the building was running out of space and inadequate in other ways—in particular, they said, the many records kept within it could be destroyed in a fire. The legislature directed the capitol's trustees to find land for a new building. The trustees acquired the current land and commissioned local architect Henry Rector to design the building.\n[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|A close\\-up view of the [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\")\\|alt\\=The court building seen more closely, and from an angle slightly to its right.](/wiki/File:NYSCourtofAppeals1.JPG \"NYSCourtofAppeals1.JPG\")\nAccording to architectural critic Talbot Hamlin, Rector's design \"proclaimed the complete triumph of the [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture \"Greek Revival architecture\") in the [Albany region](/wiki/Capital_District%2C_New_York \"Capital District, New York\").\" The column bases and [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 \"Capital (architecture)\") on the exterior were copied from the [Temple of Athena Nike](/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike \"Temple of Athena Nike\") on the [Acropolis](/wiki/Acropolis \"Acropolis\"). Marble for the building, mandated by the legislature, was quarried by inmates at the new [Sing Sing Prison](/wiki/Sing_Sing_Prison \"Sing Sing Prison\") near the present\\-day village of [Ossining](/wiki/Ossining_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Ossining (village), New York\") in [Westchester County](/wiki/Westchester_County%2C_New_York \"Westchester County, New York\") and shipped up the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\") on barges. It was completed by 1842 at a total cost of $350,000 (${{formatprice\\|{{inflation\\|US\\-GDP\\|350000\\|1842\\|r\\=\\-3}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US}} dollars{{Inflation\\-fn\\|US}}). No other buildings of Rector's survive except for a row of houses on Westerlo Street in Albany's [Pastures Historic District](/wiki/Pastures_Historic_District \"Pastures Historic District\").",
"In addition to its architecture, the building would be notable for two aspects of its engineering as well. One was the use of the stone [groin vaults](/wiki/Groin_vault \"Groin vault\") to support the ceilings instead of the [timber framing](/wiki/Timber_framing \"Timber framing\") common at the time, an early attempt at [fireproofing](/wiki/Fireproofing \"Fireproofing\"). The other was the stone staircase in the middle of the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 \"Rotunda (architecture)\"), which started at the first floor and [cantilevered](/wiki/Cantilever \"Cantilever\") out up to the third floor with no visible means of support.",
"After the building's completion, the state chancellor, Register of Chancery, clerk of the Court of Appeals and its [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_York \"Supreme Court of New York\") moved in. The state's executive branch was represented by the [attorney general](/wiki/Attorney_General \"Attorney General\"), auditor, canal appraisers and commissioners, [comptroller](/wiki/New_York_State_Comptroller \"New York State Comptroller\") and [state engineer and surveyor\\-general](/wiki/New_York_State_Engineer_and_Surveyor \"New York State Engineer and Surveyor\"). In 1846, a new state constitution reformed the courts, eliminating the Court of Chancery and relegating the Supreme Court to its current role of both [appellate](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division \"New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division\") and trial court, supreme in that it has the last word on [findings of fact](/wiki/Question_of_fact \"Question of fact\") but deferring to the new [Court of Appeals](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals \"New York Court of Appeals\") on [questions of law](/wiki/Question_of_law \"Question of law\").\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|Contemporary photograph of fireplace in the courtroom when that was in the state capitol\\|alt\\=A black and white photograph of a fireplace with ornate mantel set in wood\\-paneled wall with similarly ornate carvings above it](/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_courtroom_fireplace.jpg \"New York Court of Appeals courtroom fireplace.jpg\")\nHowever, the tenants of the building remained unchanged. The Court of Appeals sat in the state capitol, both the former building and [the current one](/wiki/New_York_State_Capitol \"New York State Capitol\"). In the latter, [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson \"Henry Hobson Richardson\"), supervising a construction process that had become delayed since it began in the early 1870s from [Thomas Fuller](/wiki/Thomas_Fuller_%28architect%29 \"Thomas Fuller (architect)\")'s original plan, designed an ornate wooden courtroom with [carved](/wiki/Woodcarving \"Woodcarving\") oak walls and furniture. The judges began hearing [oral arguments](/wiki/Oral_argument \"Oral argument\") there in 1884\\. It was described by a visiting [Lord Coleridge](/wiki/John_Coleridge%2C_1st_Baron_Coleridge \"John Coleridge, 1st Baron Coleridge\"), [Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales](/wiki/Lord_Chief_Justice_of_England_and_Wales \"Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales\"), as \"the finest courtroom in the world.\"",
"As the 19th century became the 20th, the state grew and, with it, its government. By 1909 the judges and lawyers alike were complaining that the court's capitol space was inadequate to its modern legal needs. The following year the legislature directed the court to appoint one of its judges to work with the state architect, then [Franklin B. Ware](/wiki/Franklin_B._Ware \"Franklin B. Ware\"), to determine whether the old State Hall could be renovated into an adequate facility. The court appointed Judge [William E. Werner](/wiki/William_E._Werner \"William E. Werner\"). He and Ware commissioned a report from a [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\") architect who concluded that such a renovation was possible.",
"Even though the fire that ravaged the capitol in 1911 made the need for new court space more pressing, Ware refused to endorse the report, saying the renovation proposed was inadequate. Instead, he proposed redeveloping the entire area around the capitol (today the [Lafayette Park Historic District](/wiki/Lafayette_Park_Historic_District \"Lafayette Park Historic District\")) similarly to [Capitol Hill](/wiki/Capitol_Hill \"Capitol Hill\") in [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), including a new courthouse on Swan Street.",
"Ware's plan was rejected, and [Lewis Pilcher](/wiki/Lewis_Pilcher \"Lewis Pilcher\") replaced him as state architect. He proceeded with the planned renovation of State Hall. In keeping with the wishes of Chief Judge [Willard Bartlett](/wiki/Willard_Bartlett \"Willard Bartlett\"), Pilcher's most significant change to the building was a wing on the east to accommodate Richardson's courtroom, which could be moved to State Hall with the exception of its original ceiling.{{efn\\|It can still be seen in the capitol's room 315\\.}} On the interior of the existing building, the rotunda was faced in dark yellow *[faux](/wiki/wikt:Faux \"Faux\")* [Caen stone](/wiki/Caen_stone \"Caen stone\"), and the judges' library, conference room and individual chambers were all painted in shades of cream and lit with pendant drop\\-globes.",
"The court approved the redesign in 1914\\. Work began after the contract was signed the next year; it was complete in time for a formal dedication at the beginning of 1917\\. The building was at that time officially renamed Court of Appeals Hall, the legend still on its [pediment](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\"). Governor [Charles S. Whitman](/wiki/Charles_S._Whitman \"Charles S. Whitman\") spoke at the ceremony, saying the building was now dedicated to \"the noblest purpose to which a building or a life can be dedicated, the administration of justice.\"",
"### 1918–1959: Second renovation",
"For 30 years the converted State Hall served the needs of judges and lawyers alike. By the late 1940s its age was becoming evident. The state's [Department of Public Works](/wiki/New_York_State_Department_of_Public_Works \"New York State Department of Public Works\") reported that the [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\") was in danger of collapsing, the interior was looking shabby, and the electrical wiring and heating needed to be replaced. Nothing would be done about this situation until Governor [Averell Harriman](/wiki/Averell_Harriman \"Averell Harriman\") made a surprise inspection of the building in 1956\\. Two years later another renovation began under state architect Carl Larson and Judge [Charles W. Froessel](/wiki/Charles_W._Froessel \"Charles W. Froessel\").",
"The work had been delayed while the judges considered, and rejected, building an entirely new courthouse, as their predecessors had in 1917\\. They heard cases in the Appellate Division courtroom at the nearby county courthouse, while they received temporary chambers at the capitol. The clerk of courts and his staff took their temporary quarters at an old storage building at Lodge Street and Maiden Lane. The reporter relocated to 6 Elk Street.",
"Early in the renovation, a [short circuit](/wiki/Short_circuit \"Short circuit\") in the elevator machine room started a serious fire that destroyed the roof and dome and badly damaged the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 \"Rotunda (architecture)\"). Work continued, and shortly afterward another serious problem was discovered when excavations around the [foundation](/wiki/Foundation_%28architecture%29 \"Foundation (architecture)\") disclosed that the eastern corners of the building had each sunk {{convert\\|5\\|in\\|cm}} since 1842, resulting in severe damage to floors, windows, lintels and the interior arches. The original foundations of rubble on clay were replaced with concrete.\n[right\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|thumb\\|Dome interior with Savage mural at top\\|alt\\=The inside of a dome viewed from below. The first level's columns are topped with Ionic capitals, while we can see Doric capitals on the second level. At the center of the image is a mural depicting the New York state seal with planets, sun, stars and moon and a yellow ribbons across the sky. In the center is a circular skylight](/wiki/File:Dome_interior_of_New_York_State_Court_of_Appeals_building.jpg \"Dome interior of New York State Court of Appeals building.jpg\")\nA larger new dome, {{convert\\|64\\|ft}} wide and {{convert\\|23\\|ft}} high, built of steel beams and light concrete planks, replaced the original. It was sheathed in lead\\-coated copper and topped with a wooden [cupola](/wiki/Cupola \"Cupola\"). Inside the dome a 34\\-foot–wide ({{convert\\|34\\|ft\\|disp\\=output only}}) mural by [Eugene Savage](/wiki/Eugene_Savage \"Eugene Savage\"), *The Romance of the Skies*, depicts the three seasons—fall, winter and spring—during which the court sits. Except for the removal of the cantilevered stone staircase, now deemed too structurally unstable to use, the rotunda remained unchanged.",
"It was the only space inside that did. Many rooms received new coats of paint, and the ceiling arches were hidden from view by new walls. New elevators and stairs were installed to replace the original stone stair. Additional amenities, such as air conditioning, an enamel\\-walled kitchen and television in the reception room, were added for the judges. Their [robing room](/wiki/Court_dress%23Judicial_court_dress \"Court dress#Judicial court dress\") was paneled in birch. Two of the seven judges had chambers on the first floor; the rest were upstairs. The paintings that hung in Robertson's courtroom were cleaned and rehung; a new carpet was installed.",
"On the outside much of the original marble was removed and replaced with stone quarried in [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\"). Six [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") columns and new stairs were built for the reconstructed portico. Above the main entrance, an 8\\-ton ({{convert\\|8\\|ST\\|disp\\=output only}}) emblem of the [state seal](/wiki/Seal_of_New_York_%28state%29 \"Seal of New York (state)\") sculpted by [C. Paul Jennewein](/wiki/C._Paul_Jennewein \"C. Paul Jennewein\") was installed.",
"Despite the fire and the structural issues, the project was finished ahead of schedule in 1959\\. [Nelson Rockefeller](/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller \"Nelson Rockefeller\"), who had succeeded Harriman, gave the court his full support. At the rededication ceremony that October, Chief Judge [Albert Conway](/wiki/Albert_Conway \"Albert Conway\") symbolically accepted the keys from him. Conway observed as he did that the new building reflected the \"permanence of an ideal\".",
"### 1960–present: Third renovation",
"As it had following the 1917 work, the courthouse continued to serve its purpose for the next three decades. By 1999, however, it once again seemed inadequate to the needs of its users. The thick walls made it difficult to adapt for modern electrical and telecommunications purposes. The infrastructure within was almost half a century old, making it difficult to heat and cool the building. The space taken up by those walls meant that the courtroom was the only place the judges and all their combined staff could hold meetings. There were also very few spaces for the public within the building, frustrating attempts to make the court and its history [transparent](/wiki/Transparency_%28behavior%29 \"Transparency (behavior)\") and accessible.",
"The judges decided that it was necessary to make some small additions to the building along with the infrastructure upgrades. Chief Judge [Judith Kaye](/wiki/Judith_Kaye \"Judith Kaye\") designated Judge [Richard C. Wesley](/wiki/Richard_C._Wesley \"Richard C. Wesley\"), later elevated to the federal [Second Circuit Court of Appeals](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit\"), as the court's liaison to the project, now managed by the [Dormitory Authority of the State of New York](/wiki/Dormitory_Authority_of_the_State_of_New_York \"Dormitory Authority of the State of New York\") as the state architect's position had been abolished. After the necessary [appropriations](/wiki/Appropriation_%28law%29 \"Appropriation (law)\") from the legislature, work began in 2001\\. During the 17 months it took, the judges continued to hear arguments in the courtroom but worked out of temporary quarters outside the city. Project architects were DeWolff Partnership Architects LLP of [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Architectural Firms\\|url\\=https://rbj.net/2001/06/08/architectural\\-firms/\\|publisher\\=Rochester Business Journal\\|date\\=June 8, 2001\\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2021}}",
"As the building had been listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") in 1971, since its last renovation, [preservation](/wiki/Historic_preservation \"Historic preservation\") and [restoration](/wiki/Building_restoration \"Building restoration\") were as important as the expansions. The [State Historic Preservation Office](/wiki/New_York_State_Office_of_Parks%2C_Recreation_and_Historic_Preservation \"New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation\") was closely involved with the process. It mandated that the newly installed wings on the sides of the building be distinguishable from the original [facades](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\") after the marble was once again replaced with newly quarried Vermont stone, even though they were architecturally sympathetic to Rector's original design. As a result, they have narrower [bays](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 \"Bay (architecture)\") and [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\"), smooth at the base rather than [fluted](/wiki/Fluting_%28architecture%29 \"Fluting (architecture)\"), to subtly distinguish them from the original building.",
"Elsewhere on the exterior, the dome was made over. The lead\\-plated copper installed in 1959 was replaced with stainless steel and the [cupola](/wiki/Cupola \"Cupola\") from that renovation replaced with the current [oculus](/wiki/Oculus_%28architecture%29 \"Oculus (architecture)\"). Its high\\-performance glass keeps out [ultraviolet](/wiki/Ultraviolet \"Ultraviolet\") light and reduces heat inside. The gold\\-plated sphere that had topped the cupola remains above the oculus.\n[left\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|Courtroom in 2015, after renovation\\|alt\\=The courtroom seen above, empty but from a different angle showing more of it and its ornate walls, chandeliers and red carpet](/wiki/File:Courtroom_of_the_New_York_Court_of_Appeals.jpg \"Courtroom of the New York Court of Appeals.jpg\")\nInside, the renovations once more made the ceiling [groin vaults](/wiki/Groin_vault \"Groin vault\") visible. The entire infrastructure was replaced, and the newly created space in the main building, plus the additional space in the wings, brought the building to {{convert\\|93000\\|sqft}} of total floor space. The Red Room and the Jay Room were created on the first floor to host public functions and exhibits on the history of the court, as well as providing overflow space for those who wished to hear [oral arguments](/wiki/Oral_argument \"Oral argument\") in cases that attracted significant interest. All the judges' chambers were now located on the second floor, a change that Kaye had particularly sought.",
"Photographs and other historical records were studied closely for information about interior decoration that matched earlier eras. The [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 \"Rotunda (architecture)\") was done in shades of beige, cream and yellow, as it had appeared to be originally. On the first floor carpets, blues and reds were used following early 20th\\-century practices. The Red Room and all offices similarly have a painted *faux*\\-finish on the walls. Since the third floor is now largely new construction, it uses green primarily. Lighting used throughout duplicates the 1959 renovation, except in the courtroom, where reconstructions of the 1884 [chandeliers](/wiki/Chandelier \"Chandelier\") complement a newly designed carpet.",
""
] |
### 1842–1917: State Hall
Created in 1777 during the [Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"), the government of the state of New York did not assume full governmental responsibilities for its territory until the end of [the war](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") and [independence](/wiki/American_independence "American independence"). After several other cities had held the title, Albany was formally established as the state capital in the 1790s.{{cite web\|title\=City of Albany History\|url\=https://www.albanyny.gov/775/City\-of\-Albany\-History\|publisher\=\[\[Albany, New York\#Government\|City of Albany]]\|access\-date\=May 31, 2021}} The new state government did not need many buildings. Both houses of the [state legislature](/wiki/New_York_State_Legislature "New York State Legislature") met in Albany's City Hall until the first state capitol was built in 1819; governors rented residences in the city; and the two highest state courts, the [Court of Chancery](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Chancery "New York Court of Chancery") and the [Court for the Trial of Impeachments and the Correction of Errors](/wiki/New_York_Court_for_the_Trial_of_Impeachments "New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments"), heard cases in the county courthouse or the capitol. For those officials who needed a dedicated workspace, the first state office building, Old State Hall, was erected in the early 1800s at what is now the corner of Lodge and State streets.
In 1833, the occupants complained that the building was running out of space and inadequate in other ways—in particular, they said, the many records kept within it could be destroyed in a fire. The legislature directed the capitol's trustees to find land for a new building. The trustees acquired the current land and commissioned local architect Henry Rector to design the building.
[thumb\|right\|upright\=1\.0\|A close\-up view of the [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico")\|alt\=The court building seen more closely, and from an angle slightly to its right.](/wiki/File:NYSCourtofAppeals1.JPG "NYSCourtofAppeals1.JPG")
According to architectural critic Talbot Hamlin, Rector's design "proclaimed the complete triumph of the [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture "Greek Revival architecture") in the [Albany region](/wiki/Capital_District%2C_New_York "Capital District, New York")." The column bases and [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 "Capital (architecture)") on the exterior were copied from the [Temple of Athena Nike](/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike "Temple of Athena Nike") on the [Acropolis](/wiki/Acropolis "Acropolis"). Marble for the building, mandated by the legislature, was quarried by inmates at the new [Sing Sing Prison](/wiki/Sing_Sing_Prison "Sing Sing Prison") near the present\-day village of [Ossining](/wiki/Ossining_%28village%29%2C_New_York "Ossining (village), New York") in [Westchester County](/wiki/Westchester_County%2C_New_York "Westchester County, New York") and shipped up the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River") on barges. It was completed by 1842 at a total cost of $350,000 (${{formatprice\|{{inflation\|US\-GDP\|350000\|1842\|r\=\-3}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|US}} dollars{{Inflation\-fn\|US}}). No other buildings of Rector's survive except for a row of houses on Westerlo Street in Albany's [Pastures Historic District](/wiki/Pastures_Historic_District "Pastures Historic District").
In addition to its architecture, the building would be notable for two aspects of its engineering as well. One was the use of the stone [groin vaults](/wiki/Groin_vault "Groin vault") to support the ceilings instead of the [timber framing](/wiki/Timber_framing "Timber framing") common at the time, an early attempt at [fireproofing](/wiki/Fireproofing "Fireproofing"). The other was the stone staircase in the middle of the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 "Rotunda (architecture)"), which started at the first floor and [cantilevered](/wiki/Cantilever "Cantilever") out up to the third floor with no visible means of support.
After the building's completion, the state chancellor, Register of Chancery, clerk of the Court of Appeals and its [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_York "Supreme Court of New York") moved in. The state's executive branch was represented by the [attorney general](/wiki/Attorney_General "Attorney General"), auditor, canal appraisers and commissioners, [comptroller](/wiki/New_York_State_Comptroller "New York State Comptroller") and [state engineer and surveyor\-general](/wiki/New_York_State_Engineer_and_Surveyor "New York State Engineer and Surveyor"). In 1846, a new state constitution reformed the courts, eliminating the Court of Chancery and relegating the Supreme Court to its current role of both [appellate](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division "New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division") and trial court, supreme in that it has the last word on [findings of fact](/wiki/Question_of_fact "Question of fact") but deferring to the new [Court of Appeals](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals "New York Court of Appeals") on [questions of law](/wiki/Question_of_law "Question of law").
[thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.0\|Contemporary photograph of fireplace in the courtroom when that was in the state capitol\|alt\=A black and white photograph of a fireplace with ornate mantel set in wood\-paneled wall with similarly ornate carvings above it](/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_courtroom_fireplace.jpg "New York Court of Appeals courtroom fireplace.jpg")
However, the tenants of the building remained unchanged. The Court of Appeals sat in the state capitol, both the former building and [the current one](/wiki/New_York_State_Capitol "New York State Capitol"). In the latter, [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson "Henry Hobson Richardson"), supervising a construction process that had become delayed since it began in the early 1870s from [Thomas Fuller](/wiki/Thomas_Fuller_%28architect%29 "Thomas Fuller (architect)")'s original plan, designed an ornate wooden courtroom with [carved](/wiki/Woodcarving "Woodcarving") oak walls and furniture. The judges began hearing [oral arguments](/wiki/Oral_argument "Oral argument") there in 1884\. It was described by a visiting [Lord Coleridge](/wiki/John_Coleridge%2C_1st_Baron_Coleridge "John Coleridge, 1st Baron Coleridge"), [Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales](/wiki/Lord_Chief_Justice_of_England_and_Wales "Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales"), as "the finest courtroom in the world."
As the 19th century became the 20th, the state grew and, with it, its government. By 1909 the judges and lawyers alike were complaining that the court's capitol space was inadequate to its modern legal needs. The following year the legislature directed the court to appoint one of its judges to work with the state architect, then [Franklin B. Ware](/wiki/Franklin_B._Ware "Franklin B. Ware"), to determine whether the old State Hall could be renovated into an adequate facility. The court appointed Judge [William E. Werner](/wiki/William_E._Werner "William E. Werner"). He and Ware commissioned a report from a [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York") architect who concluded that such a renovation was possible.
Even though the fire that ravaged the capitol in 1911 made the need for new court space more pressing, Ware refused to endorse the report, saying the renovation proposed was inadequate. Instead, he proposed redeveloping the entire area around the capitol (today the [Lafayette Park Historic District](/wiki/Lafayette_Park_Historic_District "Lafayette Park Historic District")) similarly to [Capitol Hill](/wiki/Capitol_Hill "Capitol Hill") in [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), including a new courthouse on Swan Street.
Ware's plan was rejected, and [Lewis Pilcher](/wiki/Lewis_Pilcher "Lewis Pilcher") replaced him as state architect. He proceeded with the planned renovation of State Hall. In keeping with the wishes of Chief Judge [Willard Bartlett](/wiki/Willard_Bartlett "Willard Bartlett"), Pilcher's most significant change to the building was a wing on the east to accommodate Richardson's courtroom, which could be moved to State Hall with the exception of its original ceiling.{{efn\|It can still be seen in the capitol's room 315\.}} On the interior of the existing building, the rotunda was faced in dark yellow *[faux](/wiki/wikt:Faux "Faux")* [Caen stone](/wiki/Caen_stone "Caen stone"), and the judges' library, conference room and individual chambers were all painted in shades of cream and lit with pendant drop\-globes.
The court approved the redesign in 1914\. Work began after the contract was signed the next year; it was complete in time for a formal dedication at the beginning of 1917\. The building was at that time officially renamed Court of Appeals Hall, the legend still on its [pediment](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment"). Governor [Charles S. Whitman](/wiki/Charles_S._Whitman "Charles S. Whitman") spoke at the ceremony, saying the building was now dedicated to "the noblest purpose to which a building or a life can be dedicated, the administration of justice."
|
[
"### 1842–1917: State Hall",
"Created in 1777 during the [Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\"), the government of the state of New York did not assume full governmental responsibilities for its territory until the end of [the war](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\") and [independence](/wiki/American_independence \"American independence\"). After several other cities had held the title, Albany was formally established as the state capital in the 1790s.{{cite web\\|title\\=City of Albany History\\|url\\=https://www.albanyny.gov/775/City\\-of\\-Albany\\-History\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Albany, New York\\#Government\\|City of Albany]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2021}} The new state government did not need many buildings. Both houses of the [state legislature](/wiki/New_York_State_Legislature \"New York State Legislature\") met in Albany's City Hall until the first state capitol was built in 1819; governors rented residences in the city; and the two highest state courts, the [Court of Chancery](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Chancery \"New York Court of Chancery\") and the [Court for the Trial of Impeachments and the Correction of Errors](/wiki/New_York_Court_for_the_Trial_of_Impeachments \"New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments\"), heard cases in the county courthouse or the capitol. For those officials who needed a dedicated workspace, the first state office building, Old State Hall, was erected in the early 1800s at what is now the corner of Lodge and State streets.",
"In 1833, the occupants complained that the building was running out of space and inadequate in other ways—in particular, they said, the many records kept within it could be destroyed in a fire. The legislature directed the capitol's trustees to find land for a new building. The trustees acquired the current land and commissioned local architect Henry Rector to design the building.\n[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|A close\\-up view of the [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\")\\|alt\\=The court building seen more closely, and from an angle slightly to its right.](/wiki/File:NYSCourtofAppeals1.JPG \"NYSCourtofAppeals1.JPG\")\nAccording to architectural critic Talbot Hamlin, Rector's design \"proclaimed the complete triumph of the [Greek Revival](/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture \"Greek Revival architecture\") in the [Albany region](/wiki/Capital_District%2C_New_York \"Capital District, New York\").\" The column bases and [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 \"Capital (architecture)\") on the exterior were copied from the [Temple of Athena Nike](/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike \"Temple of Athena Nike\") on the [Acropolis](/wiki/Acropolis \"Acropolis\"). Marble for the building, mandated by the legislature, was quarried by inmates at the new [Sing Sing Prison](/wiki/Sing_Sing_Prison \"Sing Sing Prison\") near the present\\-day village of [Ossining](/wiki/Ossining_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Ossining (village), New York\") in [Westchester County](/wiki/Westchester_County%2C_New_York \"Westchester County, New York\") and shipped up the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\") on barges. It was completed by 1842 at a total cost of $350,000 (${{formatprice\\|{{inflation\\|US\\-GDP\\|350000\\|1842\\|r\\=\\-3}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US}} dollars{{Inflation\\-fn\\|US}}). No other buildings of Rector's survive except for a row of houses on Westerlo Street in Albany's [Pastures Historic District](/wiki/Pastures_Historic_District \"Pastures Historic District\").",
"In addition to its architecture, the building would be notable for two aspects of its engineering as well. One was the use of the stone [groin vaults](/wiki/Groin_vault \"Groin vault\") to support the ceilings instead of the [timber framing](/wiki/Timber_framing \"Timber framing\") common at the time, an early attempt at [fireproofing](/wiki/Fireproofing \"Fireproofing\"). The other was the stone staircase in the middle of the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 \"Rotunda (architecture)\"), which started at the first floor and [cantilevered](/wiki/Cantilever \"Cantilever\") out up to the third floor with no visible means of support.",
"After the building's completion, the state chancellor, Register of Chancery, clerk of the Court of Appeals and its [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_York \"Supreme Court of New York\") moved in. The state's executive branch was represented by the [attorney general](/wiki/Attorney_General \"Attorney General\"), auditor, canal appraisers and commissioners, [comptroller](/wiki/New_York_State_Comptroller \"New York State Comptroller\") and [state engineer and surveyor\\-general](/wiki/New_York_State_Engineer_and_Surveyor \"New York State Engineer and Surveyor\"). In 1846, a new state constitution reformed the courts, eliminating the Court of Chancery and relegating the Supreme Court to its current role of both [appellate](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court%2C_Appellate_Division \"New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division\") and trial court, supreme in that it has the last word on [findings of fact](/wiki/Question_of_fact \"Question of fact\") but deferring to the new [Court of Appeals](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals \"New York Court of Appeals\") on [questions of law](/wiki/Question_of_law \"Question of law\").\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|Contemporary photograph of fireplace in the courtroom when that was in the state capitol\\|alt\\=A black and white photograph of a fireplace with ornate mantel set in wood\\-paneled wall with similarly ornate carvings above it](/wiki/File:New_York_Court_of_Appeals_courtroom_fireplace.jpg \"New York Court of Appeals courtroom fireplace.jpg\")\nHowever, the tenants of the building remained unchanged. The Court of Appeals sat in the state capitol, both the former building and [the current one](/wiki/New_York_State_Capitol \"New York State Capitol\"). In the latter, [Henry Hobson Richardson](/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson \"Henry Hobson Richardson\"), supervising a construction process that had become delayed since it began in the early 1870s from [Thomas Fuller](/wiki/Thomas_Fuller_%28architect%29 \"Thomas Fuller (architect)\")'s original plan, designed an ornate wooden courtroom with [carved](/wiki/Woodcarving \"Woodcarving\") oak walls and furniture. The judges began hearing [oral arguments](/wiki/Oral_argument \"Oral argument\") there in 1884\\. It was described by a visiting [Lord Coleridge](/wiki/John_Coleridge%2C_1st_Baron_Coleridge \"John Coleridge, 1st Baron Coleridge\"), [Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales](/wiki/Lord_Chief_Justice_of_England_and_Wales \"Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales\"), as \"the finest courtroom in the world.\"",
"As the 19th century became the 20th, the state grew and, with it, its government. By 1909 the judges and lawyers alike were complaining that the court's capitol space was inadequate to its modern legal needs. The following year the legislature directed the court to appoint one of its judges to work with the state architect, then [Franklin B. Ware](/wiki/Franklin_B._Ware \"Franklin B. Ware\"), to determine whether the old State Hall could be renovated into an adequate facility. The court appointed Judge [William E. Werner](/wiki/William_E._Werner \"William E. Werner\"). He and Ware commissioned a report from a [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\") architect who concluded that such a renovation was possible.",
"Even though the fire that ravaged the capitol in 1911 made the need for new court space more pressing, Ware refused to endorse the report, saying the renovation proposed was inadequate. Instead, he proposed redeveloping the entire area around the capitol (today the [Lafayette Park Historic District](/wiki/Lafayette_Park_Historic_District \"Lafayette Park Historic District\")) similarly to [Capitol Hill](/wiki/Capitol_Hill \"Capitol Hill\") in [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), including a new courthouse on Swan Street.",
"Ware's plan was rejected, and [Lewis Pilcher](/wiki/Lewis_Pilcher \"Lewis Pilcher\") replaced him as state architect. He proceeded with the planned renovation of State Hall. In keeping with the wishes of Chief Judge [Willard Bartlett](/wiki/Willard_Bartlett \"Willard Bartlett\"), Pilcher's most significant change to the building was a wing on the east to accommodate Richardson's courtroom, which could be moved to State Hall with the exception of its original ceiling.{{efn\\|It can still be seen in the capitol's room 315\\.}} On the interior of the existing building, the rotunda was faced in dark yellow *[faux](/wiki/wikt:Faux \"Faux\")* [Caen stone](/wiki/Caen_stone \"Caen stone\"), and the judges' library, conference room and individual chambers were all painted in shades of cream and lit with pendant drop\\-globes.",
"The court approved the redesign in 1914\\. Work began after the contract was signed the next year; it was complete in time for a formal dedication at the beginning of 1917\\. The building was at that time officially renamed Court of Appeals Hall, the legend still on its [pediment](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\"). Governor [Charles S. Whitman](/wiki/Charles_S._Whitman \"Charles S. Whitman\") spoke at the ceremony, saying the building was now dedicated to \"the noblest purpose to which a building or a life can be dedicated, the administration of justice.\"",
""
] |
### 1918–1959: Second renovation
For 30 years the converted State Hall served the needs of judges and lawyers alike. By the late 1940s its age was becoming evident. The state's [Department of Public Works](/wiki/New_York_State_Department_of_Public_Works "New York State Department of Public Works") reported that the [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico") was in danger of collapsing, the interior was looking shabby, and the electrical wiring and heating needed to be replaced. Nothing would be done about this situation until Governor [Averell Harriman](/wiki/Averell_Harriman "Averell Harriman") made a surprise inspection of the building in 1956\. Two years later another renovation began under state architect Carl Larson and Judge [Charles W. Froessel](/wiki/Charles_W._Froessel "Charles W. Froessel").
The work had been delayed while the judges considered, and rejected, building an entirely new courthouse, as their predecessors had in 1917\. They heard cases in the Appellate Division courtroom at the nearby county courthouse, while they received temporary chambers at the capitol. The clerk of courts and his staff took their temporary quarters at an old storage building at Lodge Street and Maiden Lane. The reporter relocated to 6 Elk Street.
Early in the renovation, a [short circuit](/wiki/Short_circuit "Short circuit") in the elevator machine room started a serious fire that destroyed the roof and dome and badly damaged the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 "Rotunda (architecture)"). Work continued, and shortly afterward another serious problem was discovered when excavations around the [foundation](/wiki/Foundation_%28architecture%29 "Foundation (architecture)") disclosed that the eastern corners of the building had each sunk {{convert\|5\|in\|cm}} since 1842, resulting in severe damage to floors, windows, lintels and the interior arches. The original foundations of rubble on clay were replaced with concrete.
[right\|upright\=1\.0\|thumb\|Dome interior with Savage mural at top\|alt\=The inside of a dome viewed from below. The first level's columns are topped with Ionic capitals, while we can see Doric capitals on the second level. At the center of the image is a mural depicting the New York state seal with planets, sun, stars and moon and a yellow ribbons across the sky. In the center is a circular skylight](/wiki/File:Dome_interior_of_New_York_State_Court_of_Appeals_building.jpg "Dome interior of New York State Court of Appeals building.jpg")
A larger new dome, {{convert\|64\|ft}} wide and {{convert\|23\|ft}} high, built of steel beams and light concrete planks, replaced the original. It was sheathed in lead\-coated copper and topped with a wooden [cupola](/wiki/Cupola "Cupola"). Inside the dome a 34\-foot–wide ({{convert\|34\|ft\|disp\=output only}}) mural by [Eugene Savage](/wiki/Eugene_Savage "Eugene Savage"), *The Romance of the Skies*, depicts the three seasons—fall, winter and spring—during which the court sits. Except for the removal of the cantilevered stone staircase, now deemed too structurally unstable to use, the rotunda remained unchanged.
It was the only space inside that did. Many rooms received new coats of paint, and the ceiling arches were hidden from view by new walls. New elevators and stairs were installed to replace the original stone stair. Additional amenities, such as air conditioning, an enamel\-walled kitchen and television in the reception room, were added for the judges. Their [robing room](/wiki/Court_dress%23Judicial_court_dress "Court dress#Judicial court dress") was paneled in birch. Two of the seven judges had chambers on the first floor; the rest were upstairs. The paintings that hung in Robertson's courtroom were cleaned and rehung; a new carpet was installed.
On the outside much of the original marble was removed and replaced with stone quarried in [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont "Vermont"). Six [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") columns and new stairs were built for the reconstructed portico. Above the main entrance, an 8\-ton ({{convert\|8\|ST\|disp\=output only}}) emblem of the [state seal](/wiki/Seal_of_New_York_%28state%29 "Seal of New York (state)") sculpted by [C. Paul Jennewein](/wiki/C._Paul_Jennewein "C. Paul Jennewein") was installed.
Despite the fire and the structural issues, the project was finished ahead of schedule in 1959\. [Nelson Rockefeller](/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller "Nelson Rockefeller"), who had succeeded Harriman, gave the court his full support. At the rededication ceremony that October, Chief Judge [Albert Conway](/wiki/Albert_Conway "Albert Conway") symbolically accepted the keys from him. Conway observed as he did that the new building reflected the "permanence of an ideal".
|
[
"### 1918–1959: Second renovation",
"For 30 years the converted State Hall served the needs of judges and lawyers alike. By the late 1940s its age was becoming evident. The state's [Department of Public Works](/wiki/New_York_State_Department_of_Public_Works \"New York State Department of Public Works\") reported that the [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\") was in danger of collapsing, the interior was looking shabby, and the electrical wiring and heating needed to be replaced. Nothing would be done about this situation until Governor [Averell Harriman](/wiki/Averell_Harriman \"Averell Harriman\") made a surprise inspection of the building in 1956\\. Two years later another renovation began under state architect Carl Larson and Judge [Charles W. Froessel](/wiki/Charles_W._Froessel \"Charles W. Froessel\").",
"The work had been delayed while the judges considered, and rejected, building an entirely new courthouse, as their predecessors had in 1917\\. They heard cases in the Appellate Division courtroom at the nearby county courthouse, while they received temporary chambers at the capitol. The clerk of courts and his staff took their temporary quarters at an old storage building at Lodge Street and Maiden Lane. The reporter relocated to 6 Elk Street.",
"Early in the renovation, a [short circuit](/wiki/Short_circuit \"Short circuit\") in the elevator machine room started a serious fire that destroyed the roof and dome and badly damaged the [rotunda](/wiki/Rotunda_%28architecture%29 \"Rotunda (architecture)\"). Work continued, and shortly afterward another serious problem was discovered when excavations around the [foundation](/wiki/Foundation_%28architecture%29 \"Foundation (architecture)\") disclosed that the eastern corners of the building had each sunk {{convert\\|5\\|in\\|cm}} since 1842, resulting in severe damage to floors, windows, lintels and the interior arches. The original foundations of rubble on clay were replaced with concrete.\n[right\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|thumb\\|Dome interior with Savage mural at top\\|alt\\=The inside of a dome viewed from below. The first level's columns are topped with Ionic capitals, while we can see Doric capitals on the second level. At the center of the image is a mural depicting the New York state seal with planets, sun, stars and moon and a yellow ribbons across the sky. In the center is a circular skylight](/wiki/File:Dome_interior_of_New_York_State_Court_of_Appeals_building.jpg \"Dome interior of New York State Court of Appeals building.jpg\")\nA larger new dome, {{convert\\|64\\|ft}} wide and {{convert\\|23\\|ft}} high, built of steel beams and light concrete planks, replaced the original. It was sheathed in lead\\-coated copper and topped with a wooden [cupola](/wiki/Cupola \"Cupola\"). Inside the dome a 34\\-foot–wide ({{convert\\|34\\|ft\\|disp\\=output only}}) mural by [Eugene Savage](/wiki/Eugene_Savage \"Eugene Savage\"), *The Romance of the Skies*, depicts the three seasons—fall, winter and spring—during which the court sits. Except for the removal of the cantilevered stone staircase, now deemed too structurally unstable to use, the rotunda remained unchanged.",
"It was the only space inside that did. Many rooms received new coats of paint, and the ceiling arches were hidden from view by new walls. New elevators and stairs were installed to replace the original stone stair. Additional amenities, such as air conditioning, an enamel\\-walled kitchen and television in the reception room, were added for the judges. Their [robing room](/wiki/Court_dress%23Judicial_court_dress \"Court dress#Judicial court dress\") was paneled in birch. Two of the seven judges had chambers on the first floor; the rest were upstairs. The paintings that hung in Robertson's courtroom were cleaned and rehung; a new carpet was installed.",
"On the outside much of the original marble was removed and replaced with stone quarried in [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\"). Six [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") columns and new stairs were built for the reconstructed portico. Above the main entrance, an 8\\-ton ({{convert\\|8\\|ST\\|disp\\=output only}}) emblem of the [state seal](/wiki/Seal_of_New_York_%28state%29 \"Seal of New York (state)\") sculpted by [C. Paul Jennewein](/wiki/C._Paul_Jennewein \"C. Paul Jennewein\") was installed.",
"Despite the fire and the structural issues, the project was finished ahead of schedule in 1959\\. [Nelson Rockefeller](/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller \"Nelson Rockefeller\"), who had succeeded Harriman, gave the court his full support. At the rededication ceremony that October, Chief Judge [Albert Conway](/wiki/Albert_Conway \"Albert Conway\") symbolically accepted the keys from him. Conway observed as he did that the new building reflected the \"permanence of an ideal\".",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1960\= 10777
\|1970\= 12715
\|1980\= 13129
\|1990\= 12322
\|2000\= 12418
\|2010\= 11651
\|2020\= 11899
\|footnote\=Sources:{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=March 4, 2012\|title\=Census of Population and Housing: Decennial Censuses}}{{cite web\|title\=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Resident Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012\|url\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\-EST2012\.html\|work\=Population Estimates\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=December 11, 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611010502/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\-EST2012\.html\|archive\-date\=June 11, 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:47\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=October 15, 2022}}
}}
### 2020 census
| \+Red Bank racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US4761960\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 25, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race
Number
Percentage
| --- |
| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic)
9,442 |
79\.35% |
| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic)
789 |
6\.63% |
| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)")
18 |
0\.15% |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)")
138 |
1\.16% |
| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)")
2 |
0\.02% |
| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)")
589 |
4\.95% |
| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)")
921 |
7\.74% |
As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 11,899 people, 5,683 households, and 2,667 families residing in the city.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 12,418 people, 5,897 households, and 3,290 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,927\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 6,443 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,000\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 87\.61% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 8\.24% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.52% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.89% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.06% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 1\.19% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.51% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.83% of the population.
There were 5,897 households, out of which 22\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44\.2% were non\-families. 37\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.10 and the average family size was 2\.77\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 20\.0% under the age of 18, 11\.3% from 18 to 24, 31\.3% from 25 to 44, 22\.0% from 45 to 64, and 15\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 91\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87\.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $33,848, and the median income for a family was $41,696\. Males had a median income of $30,832 versus $24,708 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $18,877\. About 5\.1% of families and 8\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 7\.9% of those under age 18 and 6\.2% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1960\\= 10777\n\\|1970\\= 12715\n\\|1980\\= 13129\n\\|1990\\= 12322\n\\|2000\\= 12418\n\\|2010\\= 11651\n\\|2020\\= 11899\n\\|footnote\\=Sources:{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=March 4, 2012\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing: Decennial Censuses}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Incorporated Places and Minor Civil Divisions Datasets: Subcounty Resident Population Estimates: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\\-EST2012\\.html\\|work\\=Population Estimates\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=December 11, 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611010502/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2012/SUB\\-EST2012\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=June 11, 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:47\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=October 15, 2022}}\n}}",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+Red Bank racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US4761960\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 25, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race",
"Number",
"Percentage",
"| --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)",
"9,442 |\n 79\\.35% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)",
"789 |\n 6\\.63% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\")",
"18 |\n 0\\.15% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\")",
"138 |\n 1\\.16% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\")",
"2 |\n 0\\.02% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\")",
"589 |\n 4\\.95% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\")",
"921 |\n 7\\.74% |",
"As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 11,899 people, 5,683 households, and 2,667 families residing in the city.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 12,418 people, 5,897 households, and 3,290 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,927\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 6,443 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1,000\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 87\\.61% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 8\\.24% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.52% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.89% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.06% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.19% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.51% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.83% of the population.",
"There were 5,897 households, out of which 22\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44\\.2% were non\\-families. 37\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.10 and the average family size was 2\\.77\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 20\\.0% under the age of 18, 11\\.3% from 18 to 24, 31\\.3% from 25 to 44, 22\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 91\\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87\\.3 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $33,848, and the median income for a family was $41,696\\. Males had a median income of $30,832 versus $24,708 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $18,877\\. About 5\\.1% of families and 8\\.0% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 7\\.9% of those under age 18 and 6\\.2% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Life
----
He was born about 1581 at [Hawkshead](/wiki/Hawkshead "Hawkshead") in [Furness, Lancashire](/wiki/Furness%2C_Lancashire "Furness, Lancashire"), and was educated at the [Hawkshead Grammar School](/wiki/Hawkshead_Grammar_School "Hawkshead Grammar School"), founded by his kinsman, Archbishop [Edwin Sandys](/wiki/Edwin_Sandys_%28archbishop%29 "Edwin Sandys (archbishop)"). He was a near relative of [John Walker](/wiki/John_Walker_%28archdeacon%29 "John Walker (archdeacon)"). He went to [St. John's College, Cambridge](/wiki/St._John%27s_College%2C_Cambridge "St. John's College, Cambridge"), where he graduated B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611\.{{acad\|id\=WLKR608G\|name\=Walker, George}} His former tutor, Christopher Foster, who held the rectory of [St. John Evangelist, Watling Street](/wiki/St._John_Evangelist%2C_Watling_Street "St. John Evangelist, Watling Street"), the smallest parish in London, resigned that benefice in favour of Walker, who was inducted on 29 April 1614\. There he continued all his life, refusing preferment.
In 1614 he accused [Anthony Wotton](/wiki/Anthony_Wotton "Anthony Wotton") of [Socinian](/wiki/Socinian "Socinian") heresy and blasphemy. This led to a "conference before eight learned divines", which ended in a vindication of Wotton. On 2 March 1619 he was appointed chaplain to [Nicholas Felton](/wiki/Nicholas_Felton_%28bishop%29 "Nicholas Felton (bishop)"), [Bishop of Ely](/wiki/Bishop_of_Ely "Bishop of Ely"). He was already respected as a logician, Hebraist, and theologian, and engaged in disputes with "heretics" and "papists". On 10 July 1621 he was incorporated B.D. of Oxford.
On 31 May 1623 he had a disputation on the authority of the church with [Sylvester Norris](/wiki/Sylvester_Norris "Sylvester Norris"), who called himself Smith.An account of this was published in the following year under the title of *The Summe of a Disputation between Mr. Walker, ... and a Popish Priest, calling himselfe Mr. Smith*. About the same time Walker was associated with [Daniel Featley](/wiki/Daniel_Featley "Daniel Featley") in a disputation with [Father John Fisher](/wiki/John_Fisher_%28Jesuit%29 "John Fisher (Jesuit)").Afterwards published as *Fisher's Folly Unfolded; or the Vaunting Jesuites Vanity discovered in a Challenge of his ... undertaken and answered by G. W.*, 1624\. His puritanism was displeasing to Laud, who in 1636 mentions him in his yearly report to [Charles I](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England "Charles I of England") as one "who had all his time been but a disorderly and peevish man, and now of late hath very frowardly preached against the Lord Bishop of ElyBy then [Francis White](/wiki/Francis_White_%28bishop%29 "Francis White (bishop)"). his book concerning the Lord's Day, set out by authority; but upon a canonical admonition given him to desist he hath recollected himself, and I hope will be advised".Laud, *Troubles and Tryal*, 1695, p. 536 In 1638 appeared his *Doctrine of the Sabbath*, which bears the imprint of Amsterdam, and contains extreme views of the sanctity of the Lord's day.A second edition, entitled *The Holy Weekly Sabbath*, was printed in 1641\.His main hypothesis was addressed by [Hermann Witsius](/wiki/Hermann_Witsius "Hermann Witsius") in his *De Oeconomia Foederum* (1694\).
Walker was committed to prison on 11 November 1638 for some "things tending to faction and disobedience to authority" found in a sermon delivered by him on the 4th of the same month. His case was introduced into the House of Commons on 20 May 1641, and his imprisonment declared illegal. He was afterwards restored to his parsonage, and received compensation for his losses. At the [trial of Laud](/wiki/Trial_of_Laud "Trial of Laud") in 1643 the imprisonment of Walker was made one of the charges against the archbishop.Laud, *Troubles*, p. 237\. When he was free again he became very busy as a preacher and author. Four of his works are dated 1641: 1\. *God made visible in His Works, or a Treatise on the Eternal Works of God*. 2\. *A Disputation between Master Walker and a Jesuite in the House of one Thomas Bates, in Bishop's Court in the Old Bailey, concerning the Ecclesiastical Function*. 3\. *The Key of Saving Knowledge*. 4\. *Socinianisme in the Fundamentall Point of Justification discovered and confuted*. In the last of these, which was directed against [John Goodwin](/wiki/John_Goodwin_%28preacher%29 "John Goodwin (preacher)"), he revived imputations against Wotton, who found a vindicator in [Thomas Gataker](/wiki/Thomas_Gataker "Thomas Gataker");In his *Mr. Anthony Wotton's Defence against Mr. George Walker's Charge*, Cambridge. 1641\. in the following year Walker replied.In *A True Relation of the Chiefe Passages between Mr. Anthony Wotton and Mr. George Walker.* Goodwin in his *Treatise on Justification*, 1642, deals with the various doctrinal points raised by Walker.
Walker joined the Westminster Assembly of divines in 1643, of which he was an active and influential member. On 29 January 1645 he preached a fast\-day sermon before the House of Commons, which was shortly afterwards published, with an *Epistle* giving some details of his imprisonment. In the same year (1646\) he printed *A Brotherly and Friendly Censure of the Errour of a Dead Friend and Brother in Christian Affection.* This refers to some remarks of [William Prynne](/wiki/William_Prynne "William Prynne"). On 26 September 1645 parliament appointed him a "trier" of elders in the London [classis](/wiki/Classis_%28religion%29 "Classis (religion)").{{cite book \|title\="An Ordinance of the Lords and Commons Assembled in Parliament. Together with Rules and Directions Concerning Suspention from the Sacrament of the Lords Supper in Cases of Ignorance and Scandall. Also the Names of Such Ministers and Others That Are Appointed Triers and Judges of the Ability of Elders in the Twelve Classes Within the Province of London" \|date\=1645 \|publisher\=Printed for I. Wright \|location\=London \|url\=https://openworks.wooster.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=1026\&context\=notestein}}
There is an undated tract by him about providing preachers in Lancashire.*An Exhortation to Dearely beloved countrimen, all the Natives of the Countie of Lancaster, inhabiting in and about the Citie of London, tending to persuade and stirre them up to a yearely contribution for the erection of Lectures, and maintaining of some Godly and Painfull Preachers in such places of that Country as have most neede.* He himself supported the minister of Hawkshead. He was also a benefactor to [Sion College](/wiki/Sion_College "Sion College") library.
He died in his seventieth year in 1651, and was buried in his church in Watling Street, which was destroyed in the [Great Fire of London](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London "Great Fire of London") of 1666\.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"He was born about 1581 at [Hawkshead](/wiki/Hawkshead \"Hawkshead\") in [Furness, Lancashire](/wiki/Furness%2C_Lancashire \"Furness, Lancashire\"), and was educated at the [Hawkshead Grammar School](/wiki/Hawkshead_Grammar_School \"Hawkshead Grammar School\"), founded by his kinsman, Archbishop [Edwin Sandys](/wiki/Edwin_Sandys_%28archbishop%29 \"Edwin Sandys (archbishop)\"). He was a near relative of [John Walker](/wiki/John_Walker_%28archdeacon%29 \"John Walker (archdeacon)\"). He went to [St. John's College, Cambridge](/wiki/St._John%27s_College%2C_Cambridge \"St. John's College, Cambridge\"), where he graduated B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611\\.{{acad\\|id\\=WLKR608G\\|name\\=Walker, George}} His former tutor, Christopher Foster, who held the rectory of [St. John Evangelist, Watling Street](/wiki/St._John_Evangelist%2C_Watling_Street \"St. John Evangelist, Watling Street\"), the smallest parish in London, resigned that benefice in favour of Walker, who was inducted on 29 April 1614\\. There he continued all his life, refusing preferment.",
"In 1614 he accused [Anthony Wotton](/wiki/Anthony_Wotton \"Anthony Wotton\") of [Socinian](/wiki/Socinian \"Socinian\") heresy and blasphemy. This led to a \"conference before eight learned divines\", which ended in a vindication of Wotton. On 2 March 1619 he was appointed chaplain to [Nicholas Felton](/wiki/Nicholas_Felton_%28bishop%29 \"Nicholas Felton (bishop)\"), [Bishop of Ely](/wiki/Bishop_of_Ely \"Bishop of Ely\"). He was already respected as a logician, Hebraist, and theologian, and engaged in disputes with \"heretics\" and \"papists\". On 10 July 1621 he was incorporated B.D. of Oxford.",
"On 31 May 1623 he had a disputation on the authority of the church with [Sylvester Norris](/wiki/Sylvester_Norris \"Sylvester Norris\"), who called himself Smith.An account of this was published in the following year under the title of *The Summe of a Disputation between Mr. Walker, ... and a Popish Priest, calling himselfe Mr. Smith*. About the same time Walker was associated with [Daniel Featley](/wiki/Daniel_Featley \"Daniel Featley\") in a disputation with [Father John Fisher](/wiki/John_Fisher_%28Jesuit%29 \"John Fisher (Jesuit)\").Afterwards published as *Fisher's Folly Unfolded; or the Vaunting Jesuites Vanity discovered in a Challenge of his ... undertaken and answered by G. W.*, 1624\\. His puritanism was displeasing to Laud, who in 1636 mentions him in his yearly report to [Charles I](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England \"Charles I of England\") as one \"who had all his time been but a disorderly and peevish man, and now of late hath very frowardly preached against the Lord Bishop of ElyBy then [Francis White](/wiki/Francis_White_%28bishop%29 \"Francis White (bishop)\"). his book concerning the Lord's Day, set out by authority; but upon a canonical admonition given him to desist he hath recollected himself, and I hope will be advised\".Laud, *Troubles and Tryal*, 1695, p. 536 In 1638 appeared his *Doctrine of the Sabbath*, which bears the imprint of Amsterdam, and contains extreme views of the sanctity of the Lord's day.A second edition, entitled *The Holy Weekly Sabbath*, was printed in 1641\\.His main hypothesis was addressed by [Hermann Witsius](/wiki/Hermann_Witsius \"Hermann Witsius\") in his *De Oeconomia Foederum* (1694\\).",
"Walker was committed to prison on 11 November 1638 for some \"things tending to faction and disobedience to authority\" found in a sermon delivered by him on the 4th of the same month. His case was introduced into the House of Commons on 20 May 1641, and his imprisonment declared illegal. He was afterwards restored to his parsonage, and received compensation for his losses. At the [trial of Laud](/wiki/Trial_of_Laud \"Trial of Laud\") in 1643 the imprisonment of Walker was made one of the charges against the archbishop.Laud, *Troubles*, p. 237\\. When he was free again he became very busy as a preacher and author. Four of his works are dated 1641: 1\\. *God made visible in His Works, or a Treatise on the Eternal Works of God*. 2\\. *A Disputation between Master Walker and a Jesuite in the House of one Thomas Bates, in Bishop's Court in the Old Bailey, concerning the Ecclesiastical Function*. 3\\. *The Key of Saving Knowledge*. 4\\. *Socinianisme in the Fundamentall Point of Justification discovered and confuted*. In the last of these, which was directed against [John Goodwin](/wiki/John_Goodwin_%28preacher%29 \"John Goodwin (preacher)\"), he revived imputations against Wotton, who found a vindicator in [Thomas Gataker](/wiki/Thomas_Gataker \"Thomas Gataker\");In his *Mr. Anthony Wotton's Defence against Mr. George Walker's Charge*, Cambridge. 1641\\. in the following year Walker replied.In *A True Relation of the Chiefe Passages between Mr. Anthony Wotton and Mr. George Walker.* Goodwin in his *Treatise on Justification*, 1642, deals with the various doctrinal points raised by Walker.",
"Walker joined the Westminster Assembly of divines in 1643, of which he was an active and influential member. On 29 January 1645 he preached a fast\\-day sermon before the House of Commons, which was shortly afterwards published, with an *Epistle* giving some details of his imprisonment. In the same year (1646\\) he printed *A Brotherly and Friendly Censure of the Errour of a Dead Friend and Brother in Christian Affection.* This refers to some remarks of [William Prynne](/wiki/William_Prynne \"William Prynne\"). On 26 September 1645 parliament appointed him a \"trier\" of elders in the London [classis](/wiki/Classis_%28religion%29 \"Classis (religion)\").{{cite book \\|title\\=\"An Ordinance of the Lords and Commons Assembled in Parliament. Together with Rules and Directions Concerning Suspention from the Sacrament of the Lords Supper in Cases of Ignorance and Scandall. Also the Names of Such Ministers and Others That Are Appointed Triers and Judges of the Ability of Elders in the Twelve Classes Within the Province of London\" \\|date\\=1645 \\|publisher\\=Printed for I. Wright \\|location\\=London \\|url\\=https://openworks.wooster.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=1026\\&context\\=notestein}}",
"There is an undated tract by him about providing preachers in Lancashire.*An Exhortation to Dearely beloved countrimen, all the Natives of the Countie of Lancaster, inhabiting in and about the Citie of London, tending to persuade and stirre them up to a yearely contribution for the erection of Lectures, and maintaining of some Godly and Painfull Preachers in such places of that Country as have most neede.* He himself supported the minister of Hawkshead. He was also a benefactor to [Sion College](/wiki/Sion_College \"Sion College\") library.",
"He died in his seventieth year in 1651, and was buried in his church in Watling Street, which was destroyed in the [Great Fire of London](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London \"Great Fire of London\") of 1666\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Raising and training, January 1902
Following the [federation of the Australian](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia "Federation of Australia") colonies into the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, the new Federal government alone had the power to raise military forces and dispatch them overseas. As such it now took over the [military establishments of the States](/wiki/Colonial_forces_of_Australia "Colonial forces of Australia") and as a consequence, following an approach by the British government, the Australian Prime Minister [Edmund Barton](/wiki/Edmund_Barton "Edmund Barton") agreed to provide a contingent of 1,000 mounted infantry to the continuing conflict in South Africa. This commitment was endorsed in the House of Representatives on 14 January 1902 and the size of the contingent grew over the coming months as more volunteers rushed to join the new force, to be known as the Australian Commonwealth Horse. The formation of the ACH was overseen by the newly appointed [General Officer Commanding, Australian Military Forces](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_%28Australia%29 "Chief of Army (Australia)"), [Major General](/wiki/Major_General "Major General") [Edward Hutton](/wiki/Edward_Hutton_%28British_Army_officer%29 "Edward Hutton (British Army officer)"), and was Australia's first expeditionary force. More than 4,400 men ultimately enrolled, and they were formed into troops and squadrons based on their state of origin, before being combined into battalions. Eight battalions were raised in three separate contingents, while a medical team from the [Australian Army Medical Corps](/wiki/Australian_Army_Medical_Corps "Australian Army Medical Corps") (AAMC) was also raised. Artillery was not required.Wallace 1976, p. 387\.
Recruits had to pass tests of elementary riding and shooting, as well as medical tests, amid considerable competition for limited places. Most volunteers were young, single and worked with their hands. Motivations for joining varied, with many seeking to escape from a worsening drought, high unemployment and a heat wave which was gripping Australia at the time. Men from the colonial contingents already in South Africa were also encouraged to join.Wilcox 2002, p. 337\. Competition for commissions and battalion commands was also fierce and the decision was made to appoint all officers in Australia in order to avoid some of the previous problems of 'importing officers' to positions of command. Hutton was also keen to reserve positions for senior permanent force officers so that they may get experience in leadership and staff work, and five of the eight battalion commands were initially allocated to permanent force officers. This had its own draw backs with a number of appointments later disputed, and one—Wallack—was later dismissed amid claims of inefficiency and ill discipline. Training commenced at a high tempo, with Hutton keen to instil professionalism and a high level of discipline in the new force.Wilcox 2002, pp. 329–330\.
The first contingent of 1,300 men sailed between 12 and 26 February 1902, with the second of 1,100 departing between 26 March – 8 April and the third contingent of 2,000 men leaving between 16 May – 2 June.Wilcox 2002, p. 331\. Included among them were [Brudenell White](/wiki/Brudenell_White "Brudenell White") and [Julius Bruche](/wiki/Julius_Bruche "Julius Bruche"), both of whom would later rise to become [Chief of the General Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_%28Australia%29 "Chief of Army (Australia)"). They were the first Australian troops to wear the [Rising Sun badge](/wiki/Rising_Sun_%28badge%29 "Rising Sun (badge)"), a design chosen for the unit by Hutton.Dennis et al 2008, p. 59\.
### Active service in South Africa, March – April 1902
The 1st and 2nd Battalions, Australian Commonwealth Horse arrived in Durban in March 1902 and together with the AAMC were formed into an Australian Brigade. From Durban the Australians were sent north by train via [Ladysmith](/wiki/Ladysmith%2C_KwaZulu-Natal "Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal"), Elandslaagte and [Dundee](/wiki/Dundee%2C_South_Africa "Dundee, South Africa") to [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle%2C_KwaZulu-Natal "Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal"). By 22 March over 1,000 Australians moved into camp with another 1,000 New Zealanders in the vicinity of Mount Majuba. The brigade subsequently took part in the great Eastern Drive which aimed to encircle [de Wet](/wiki/De_Wet "De Wet") and [Louis Botha](/wiki/Louis_Botha "Louis Botha") in northern [Natal](/wiki/Colony_of_Natal "Colony of Natal"), however severe weather allowed the Boers to escape.Field 1979, pp. 165–166 At any rate the ACH played only a secondary role in the drive, consigned mainly to holding the [Drakensberg ranges](/wiki/Drakensberg "Drakensberg"). During late March and early April the ACH were deployed to outposts to block the mountain passes, while a large column drove the Boers towards a line of blockhouses. Apart from minor skirmishes with unseen Boer snipers the Australians saw little action.
The Australians were subsequently sent to western [Transvaal](/wiki/South_African_Republic "South African Republic"), joining Colonel Thornycroft's Field Force at Klerksdorp. The column—which was predominantly Australian and included the Third New South Wales Bushmen, Haslee's Scouts (an irregular unit composed of Australians), the AAMC, the Eighth New Zealand Brigade and Thornycroft's own regular mounted infantry—advanced as part of [General](/wiki/General "General") [Ian Hamilton's](/wiki/Ian_Standish_Monteith_Hamilton "Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton") force numbering 20,000 men in the great Western Drive. The advance aimed to drive [de la Rey](/wiki/Koos_de_la_Rey "Koos de la Rey") back against a chain of blockhouses between [Klerksdorp](/wiki/Klerksdorp "Klerksdorp")–[Ventersdorp](/wiki/Ventersdorp "Ventersdorp") and proved to be the last of the war. The drive began on 19 April, but halted soon after, following news that peace negotiations were progressing.Wilcox 2002, p. 339\. On 21 April the ACH moved out of camp and turned away from the blockhouse line towards the western railway, with orders to destroy crops and mealie fields and to push the Boers back towards the railway barrier.Wallace 1976, p. 388\.
On 7 May the Australians again advanced, driving forward over four successive days across dry and open country over a large front. Ultimately the drive succeeded with few incidents, significantly diminished the Boer supplies in the area, and leading to the capture of thousands of head of livestock, nearly 200 wagons and 7,000 rounds of ammunition. Although hundreds escaped, 367 Boers were captured after becoming trapped, although only one was killed. There were no Australian casualties.Wilcox 2002, p. 340\.
The continued success of the blockhouse system, coupled with the approaching winter and shortages of food and clothing forced the Boer leaders to re\-open peace negotiations. As such with the war all but over the ACH set up camp along the Klerksdorp–Ventersdorp blockhouse line, and although they continued to send out patrols they had little to do but await the inevitable peace.Field 1979, p. 166\. Despite seeing limited combat, Australian conduct in the field was considered to have been of a high standard, both in terms of military efficiency and discipline. Indeed, the ACH showed a level of professionalism perhaps unseen in previous Australian contingents.
Negotiations continued, with the Boer leaders again meeting their British counterparts at [Vereeniging](/wiki/Vereeniging "Vereeniging"), between [Pretoria](/wiki/Pretoria "Pretoria") and [Kroonstad](/wiki/Kroonstad "Kroonstad"). Meanwhile, at Elandsfontein the second contingent of the ACH was concentrating after having landed at Durban in late April. Elements of the third contingent sailed aboard the transport *Manhattan*, departing Australia in late April, and arriving early the following month,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.angloboerwar.com/other\-information/86\-shipping\-records/1800\-shipping\-records\-april\-1900 \|title\=Shipping records – April 1900 \|work\=Anglo Boer War \|access\-date\=10 January 2017}} while others followed later in May aboard the *Manchester Merchant*, *Custodian*, *Columbian* and *St Andrew*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.angloboerwar.com/other\-information/86\-shipping\-records/1824\-shipping\-records\-may\-1902 \|title\=Shipping records – May 1900 \|work\=Anglo Boer War \|access\-date\=10 January 2017}} They would arrive too late to see combat,Staunton 2005, p. 14\. though, as on 31 May the [Treaty of Vereeniging](/wiki/Treaty_of_Vereeniging "Treaty of Vereeniging") was signed and the war came to an end, even while elements of the third contingent of the ACH remained at sea, bound for South Africa.
### Return to Australia, August 1902
Although many men remained in South Africa to start a new life after discharge, the bulk of the contingents began to return to Australia by ship between July and August 1902\.Wilcox 2002, pp. 411–413\. Misfortune followed them however, and when the SS *Drayton Grange* arrived in [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne") on 7 August with 2,043 troops aboard, five men were already dead from [measles](/wiki/Measles "Measles") and [influenza](/wiki/Influenza "Influenza"), while another 12 died within weeks. Neglect and unsanitary living conditions aboard the vessel were found to be to blame for the deaths, following a [Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission "Royal Commission") into the matter.Field 1979, pp. 166–167\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Raising and training, January 1902",
"Following the [federation of the Australian](/wiki/Federation_of_Australia \"Federation of Australia\") colonies into the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, the new Federal government alone had the power to raise military forces and dispatch them overseas. As such it now took over the [military establishments of the States](/wiki/Colonial_forces_of_Australia \"Colonial forces of Australia\") and as a consequence, following an approach by the British government, the Australian Prime Minister [Edmund Barton](/wiki/Edmund_Barton \"Edmund Barton\") agreed to provide a contingent of 1,000 mounted infantry to the continuing conflict in South Africa. This commitment was endorsed in the House of Representatives on 14 January 1902 and the size of the contingent grew over the coming months as more volunteers rushed to join the new force, to be known as the Australian Commonwealth Horse. The formation of the ACH was overseen by the newly appointed [General Officer Commanding, Australian Military Forces](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_%28Australia%29 \"Chief of Army (Australia)\"), [Major General](/wiki/Major_General \"Major General\") [Edward Hutton](/wiki/Edward_Hutton_%28British_Army_officer%29 \"Edward Hutton (British Army officer)\"), and was Australia's first expeditionary force. More than 4,400 men ultimately enrolled, and they were formed into troops and squadrons based on their state of origin, before being combined into battalions. Eight battalions were raised in three separate contingents, while a medical team from the [Australian Army Medical Corps](/wiki/Australian_Army_Medical_Corps \"Australian Army Medical Corps\") (AAMC) was also raised. Artillery was not required.Wallace 1976, p. 387\\.",
"Recruits had to pass tests of elementary riding and shooting, as well as medical tests, amid considerable competition for limited places. Most volunteers were young, single and worked with their hands. Motivations for joining varied, with many seeking to escape from a worsening drought, high unemployment and a heat wave which was gripping Australia at the time. Men from the colonial contingents already in South Africa were also encouraged to join.Wilcox 2002, p. 337\\. Competition for commissions and battalion commands was also fierce and the decision was made to appoint all officers in Australia in order to avoid some of the previous problems of 'importing officers' to positions of command. Hutton was also keen to reserve positions for senior permanent force officers so that they may get experience in leadership and staff work, and five of the eight battalion commands were initially allocated to permanent force officers. This had its own draw backs with a number of appointments later disputed, and one—Wallack—was later dismissed amid claims of inefficiency and ill discipline. Training commenced at a high tempo, with Hutton keen to instil professionalism and a high level of discipline in the new force.Wilcox 2002, pp. 329–330\\.",
"The first contingent of 1,300 men sailed between 12 and 26 February 1902, with the second of 1,100 departing between 26 March – 8 April and the third contingent of 2,000 men leaving between 16 May – 2 June.Wilcox 2002, p. 331\\. Included among them were [Brudenell White](/wiki/Brudenell_White \"Brudenell White\") and [Julius Bruche](/wiki/Julius_Bruche \"Julius Bruche\"), both of whom would later rise to become [Chief of the General Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_Army_%28Australia%29 \"Chief of Army (Australia)\"). They were the first Australian troops to wear the [Rising Sun badge](/wiki/Rising_Sun_%28badge%29 \"Rising Sun (badge)\"), a design chosen for the unit by Hutton.Dennis et al 2008, p. 59\\.",
"### Active service in South Africa, March – April 1902",
"The 1st and 2nd Battalions, Australian Commonwealth Horse arrived in Durban in March 1902 and together with the AAMC were formed into an Australian Brigade. From Durban the Australians were sent north by train via [Ladysmith](/wiki/Ladysmith%2C_KwaZulu-Natal \"Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal\"), Elandslaagte and [Dundee](/wiki/Dundee%2C_South_Africa \"Dundee, South Africa\") to [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle%2C_KwaZulu-Natal \"Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal\"). By 22 March over 1,000 Australians moved into camp with another 1,000 New Zealanders in the vicinity of Mount Majuba. The brigade subsequently took part in the great Eastern Drive which aimed to encircle [de Wet](/wiki/De_Wet \"De Wet\") and [Louis Botha](/wiki/Louis_Botha \"Louis Botha\") in northern [Natal](/wiki/Colony_of_Natal \"Colony of Natal\"), however severe weather allowed the Boers to escape.Field 1979, pp. 165–166 At any rate the ACH played only a secondary role in the drive, consigned mainly to holding the [Drakensberg ranges](/wiki/Drakensberg \"Drakensberg\"). During late March and early April the ACH were deployed to outposts to block the mountain passes, while a large column drove the Boers towards a line of blockhouses. Apart from minor skirmishes with unseen Boer snipers the Australians saw little action.",
"The Australians were subsequently sent to western [Transvaal](/wiki/South_African_Republic \"South African Republic\"), joining Colonel Thornycroft's Field Force at Klerksdorp. The column—which was predominantly Australian and included the Third New South Wales Bushmen, Haslee's Scouts (an irregular unit composed of Australians), the AAMC, the Eighth New Zealand Brigade and Thornycroft's own regular mounted infantry—advanced as part of [General](/wiki/General \"General\") [Ian Hamilton's](/wiki/Ian_Standish_Monteith_Hamilton \"Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton\") force numbering 20,000 men in the great Western Drive. The advance aimed to drive [de la Rey](/wiki/Koos_de_la_Rey \"Koos de la Rey\") back against a chain of blockhouses between [Klerksdorp](/wiki/Klerksdorp \"Klerksdorp\")–[Ventersdorp](/wiki/Ventersdorp \"Ventersdorp\") and proved to be the last of the war. The drive began on 19 April, but halted soon after, following news that peace negotiations were progressing.Wilcox 2002, p. 339\\. On 21 April the ACH moved out of camp and turned away from the blockhouse line towards the western railway, with orders to destroy crops and mealie fields and to push the Boers back towards the railway barrier.Wallace 1976, p. 388\\.",
"On 7 May the Australians again advanced, driving forward over four successive days across dry and open country over a large front. Ultimately the drive succeeded with few incidents, significantly diminished the Boer supplies in the area, and leading to the capture of thousands of head of livestock, nearly 200 wagons and 7,000 rounds of ammunition. Although hundreds escaped, 367 Boers were captured after becoming trapped, although only one was killed. There were no Australian casualties.Wilcox 2002, p. 340\\.",
"The continued success of the blockhouse system, coupled with the approaching winter and shortages of food and clothing forced the Boer leaders to re\\-open peace negotiations. As such with the war all but over the ACH set up camp along the Klerksdorp–Ventersdorp blockhouse line, and although they continued to send out patrols they had little to do but await the inevitable peace.Field 1979, p. 166\\. Despite seeing limited combat, Australian conduct in the field was considered to have been of a high standard, both in terms of military efficiency and discipline. Indeed, the ACH showed a level of professionalism perhaps unseen in previous Australian contingents.",
"Negotiations continued, with the Boer leaders again meeting their British counterparts at [Vereeniging](/wiki/Vereeniging \"Vereeniging\"), between [Pretoria](/wiki/Pretoria \"Pretoria\") and [Kroonstad](/wiki/Kroonstad \"Kroonstad\"). Meanwhile, at Elandsfontein the second contingent of the ACH was concentrating after having landed at Durban in late April. Elements of the third contingent sailed aboard the transport *Manhattan*, departing Australia in late April, and arriving early the following month,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.angloboerwar.com/other\\-information/86\\-shipping\\-records/1800\\-shipping\\-records\\-april\\-1900 \\|title\\=Shipping records – April 1900 \\|work\\=Anglo Boer War \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2017}} while others followed later in May aboard the *Manchester Merchant*, *Custodian*, *Columbian* and *St Andrew*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.angloboerwar.com/other\\-information/86\\-shipping\\-records/1824\\-shipping\\-records\\-may\\-1902 \\|title\\=Shipping records – May 1900 \\|work\\=Anglo Boer War \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2017}} They would arrive too late to see combat,Staunton 2005, p. 14\\. though, as on 31 May the [Treaty of Vereeniging](/wiki/Treaty_of_Vereeniging \"Treaty of Vereeniging\") was signed and the war came to an end, even while elements of the third contingent of the ACH remained at sea, bound for South Africa.",
"### Return to Australia, August 1902",
"Although many men remained in South Africa to start a new life after discharge, the bulk of the contingents began to return to Australia by ship between July and August 1902\\.Wilcox 2002, pp. 411–413\\. Misfortune followed them however, and when the SS *Drayton Grange* arrived in [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\") on 7 August with 2,043 troops aboard, five men were already dead from [measles](/wiki/Measles \"Measles\") and [influenza](/wiki/Influenza \"Influenza\"), while another 12 died within weeks. Neglect and unsanitary living conditions aboard the vessel were found to be to blame for the deaths, following a [Royal Commission](/wiki/Royal_Commission \"Royal Commission\") into the matter.Field 1979, pp. 166–167\\.",
""
] |
### Active service in South Africa, March – April 1902
The 1st and 2nd Battalions, Australian Commonwealth Horse arrived in Durban in March 1902 and together with the AAMC were formed into an Australian Brigade. From Durban the Australians were sent north by train via [Ladysmith](/wiki/Ladysmith%2C_KwaZulu-Natal "Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal"), Elandslaagte and [Dundee](/wiki/Dundee%2C_South_Africa "Dundee, South Africa") to [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle%2C_KwaZulu-Natal "Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal"). By 22 March over 1,000 Australians moved into camp with another 1,000 New Zealanders in the vicinity of Mount Majuba. The brigade subsequently took part in the great Eastern Drive which aimed to encircle [de Wet](/wiki/De_Wet "De Wet") and [Louis Botha](/wiki/Louis_Botha "Louis Botha") in northern [Natal](/wiki/Colony_of_Natal "Colony of Natal"), however severe weather allowed the Boers to escape.Field 1979, pp. 165–166 At any rate the ACH played only a secondary role in the drive, consigned mainly to holding the [Drakensberg ranges](/wiki/Drakensberg "Drakensberg"). During late March and early April the ACH were deployed to outposts to block the mountain passes, while a large column drove the Boers towards a line of blockhouses. Apart from minor skirmishes with unseen Boer snipers the Australians saw little action.
The Australians were subsequently sent to western [Transvaal](/wiki/South_African_Republic "South African Republic"), joining Colonel Thornycroft's Field Force at Klerksdorp. The column—which was predominantly Australian and included the Third New South Wales Bushmen, Haslee's Scouts (an irregular unit composed of Australians), the AAMC, the Eighth New Zealand Brigade and Thornycroft's own regular mounted infantry—advanced as part of [General](/wiki/General "General") [Ian Hamilton's](/wiki/Ian_Standish_Monteith_Hamilton "Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton") force numbering 20,000 men in the great Western Drive. The advance aimed to drive [de la Rey](/wiki/Koos_de_la_Rey "Koos de la Rey") back against a chain of blockhouses between [Klerksdorp](/wiki/Klerksdorp "Klerksdorp")–[Ventersdorp](/wiki/Ventersdorp "Ventersdorp") and proved to be the last of the war. The drive began on 19 April, but halted soon after, following news that peace negotiations were progressing.Wilcox 2002, p. 339\. On 21 April the ACH moved out of camp and turned away from the blockhouse line towards the western railway, with orders to destroy crops and mealie fields and to push the Boers back towards the railway barrier.Wallace 1976, p. 388\.
On 7 May the Australians again advanced, driving forward over four successive days across dry and open country over a large front. Ultimately the drive succeeded with few incidents, significantly diminished the Boer supplies in the area, and leading to the capture of thousands of head of livestock, nearly 200 wagons and 7,000 rounds of ammunition. Although hundreds escaped, 367 Boers were captured after becoming trapped, although only one was killed. There were no Australian casualties.Wilcox 2002, p. 340\.
The continued success of the blockhouse system, coupled with the approaching winter and shortages of food and clothing forced the Boer leaders to re\-open peace negotiations. As such with the war all but over the ACH set up camp along the Klerksdorp–Ventersdorp blockhouse line, and although they continued to send out patrols they had little to do but await the inevitable peace.Field 1979, p. 166\. Despite seeing limited combat, Australian conduct in the field was considered to have been of a high standard, both in terms of military efficiency and discipline. Indeed, the ACH showed a level of professionalism perhaps unseen in previous Australian contingents.
Negotiations continued, with the Boer leaders again meeting their British counterparts at [Vereeniging](/wiki/Vereeniging "Vereeniging"), between [Pretoria](/wiki/Pretoria "Pretoria") and [Kroonstad](/wiki/Kroonstad "Kroonstad"). Meanwhile, at Elandsfontein the second contingent of the ACH was concentrating after having landed at Durban in late April. Elements of the third contingent sailed aboard the transport *Manhattan*, departing Australia in late April, and arriving early the following month,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.angloboerwar.com/other\-information/86\-shipping\-records/1800\-shipping\-records\-april\-1900 \|title\=Shipping records – April 1900 \|work\=Anglo Boer War \|access\-date\=10 January 2017}} while others followed later in May aboard the *Manchester Merchant*, *Custodian*, *Columbian* and *St Andrew*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.angloboerwar.com/other\-information/86\-shipping\-records/1824\-shipping\-records\-may\-1902 \|title\=Shipping records – May 1900 \|work\=Anglo Boer War \|access\-date\=10 January 2017}} They would arrive too late to see combat,Staunton 2005, p. 14\. though, as on 31 May the [Treaty of Vereeniging](/wiki/Treaty_of_Vereeniging "Treaty of Vereeniging") was signed and the war came to an end, even while elements of the third contingent of the ACH remained at sea, bound for South Africa.
|
[
"### Active service in South Africa, March – April 1902",
"The 1st and 2nd Battalions, Australian Commonwealth Horse arrived in Durban in March 1902 and together with the AAMC were formed into an Australian Brigade. From Durban the Australians were sent north by train via [Ladysmith](/wiki/Ladysmith%2C_KwaZulu-Natal \"Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal\"), Elandslaagte and [Dundee](/wiki/Dundee%2C_South_Africa \"Dundee, South Africa\") to [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle%2C_KwaZulu-Natal \"Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal\"). By 22 March over 1,000 Australians moved into camp with another 1,000 New Zealanders in the vicinity of Mount Majuba. The brigade subsequently took part in the great Eastern Drive which aimed to encircle [de Wet](/wiki/De_Wet \"De Wet\") and [Louis Botha](/wiki/Louis_Botha \"Louis Botha\") in northern [Natal](/wiki/Colony_of_Natal \"Colony of Natal\"), however severe weather allowed the Boers to escape.Field 1979, pp. 165–166 At any rate the ACH played only a secondary role in the drive, consigned mainly to holding the [Drakensberg ranges](/wiki/Drakensberg \"Drakensberg\"). During late March and early April the ACH were deployed to outposts to block the mountain passes, while a large column drove the Boers towards a line of blockhouses. Apart from minor skirmishes with unseen Boer snipers the Australians saw little action.",
"The Australians were subsequently sent to western [Transvaal](/wiki/South_African_Republic \"South African Republic\"), joining Colonel Thornycroft's Field Force at Klerksdorp. The column—which was predominantly Australian and included the Third New South Wales Bushmen, Haslee's Scouts (an irregular unit composed of Australians), the AAMC, the Eighth New Zealand Brigade and Thornycroft's own regular mounted infantry—advanced as part of [General](/wiki/General \"General\") [Ian Hamilton's](/wiki/Ian_Standish_Monteith_Hamilton \"Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton\") force numbering 20,000 men in the great Western Drive. The advance aimed to drive [de la Rey](/wiki/Koos_de_la_Rey \"Koos de la Rey\") back against a chain of blockhouses between [Klerksdorp](/wiki/Klerksdorp \"Klerksdorp\")–[Ventersdorp](/wiki/Ventersdorp \"Ventersdorp\") and proved to be the last of the war. The drive began on 19 April, but halted soon after, following news that peace negotiations were progressing.Wilcox 2002, p. 339\\. On 21 April the ACH moved out of camp and turned away from the blockhouse line towards the western railway, with orders to destroy crops and mealie fields and to push the Boers back towards the railway barrier.Wallace 1976, p. 388\\.",
"On 7 May the Australians again advanced, driving forward over four successive days across dry and open country over a large front. Ultimately the drive succeeded with few incidents, significantly diminished the Boer supplies in the area, and leading to the capture of thousands of head of livestock, nearly 200 wagons and 7,000 rounds of ammunition. Although hundreds escaped, 367 Boers were captured after becoming trapped, although only one was killed. There were no Australian casualties.Wilcox 2002, p. 340\\.",
"The continued success of the blockhouse system, coupled with the approaching winter and shortages of food and clothing forced the Boer leaders to re\\-open peace negotiations. As such with the war all but over the ACH set up camp along the Klerksdorp–Ventersdorp blockhouse line, and although they continued to send out patrols they had little to do but await the inevitable peace.Field 1979, p. 166\\. Despite seeing limited combat, Australian conduct in the field was considered to have been of a high standard, both in terms of military efficiency and discipline. Indeed, the ACH showed a level of professionalism perhaps unseen in previous Australian contingents.",
"Negotiations continued, with the Boer leaders again meeting their British counterparts at [Vereeniging](/wiki/Vereeniging \"Vereeniging\"), between [Pretoria](/wiki/Pretoria \"Pretoria\") and [Kroonstad](/wiki/Kroonstad \"Kroonstad\"). Meanwhile, at Elandsfontein the second contingent of the ACH was concentrating after having landed at Durban in late April. Elements of the third contingent sailed aboard the transport *Manhattan*, departing Australia in late April, and arriving early the following month,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.angloboerwar.com/other\\-information/86\\-shipping\\-records/1800\\-shipping\\-records\\-april\\-1900 \\|title\\=Shipping records – April 1900 \\|work\\=Anglo Boer War \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2017}} while others followed later in May aboard the *Manchester Merchant*, *Custodian*, *Columbian* and *St Andrew*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.angloboerwar.com/other\\-information/86\\-shipping\\-records/1824\\-shipping\\-records\\-may\\-1902 \\|title\\=Shipping records – May 1900 \\|work\\=Anglo Boer War \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2017}} They would arrive too late to see combat,Staunton 2005, p. 14\\. though, as on 31 May the [Treaty of Vereeniging](/wiki/Treaty_of_Vereeniging \"Treaty of Vereeniging\") was signed and the war came to an end, even while elements of the third contingent of the ACH remained at sea, bound for South Africa.",
""
] |
Service history
---------------
### First World War
During the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War"), *Erebus* bombarded German naval forces based at the Belgian ports of [Ostend](/wiki/Ostend "Ostend") and [Zeebrugge](/wiki/Zeebrugge "Zeebrugge").
On 28 October 1917, she was damaged by a remote controlled German [FL\-boat](/wiki/FL-boat "FL-boat"), and suffered the loss of {{cvt\|50\|ft\|m\|0}} of [anti\-torpedo bulge](/wiki/Anti-torpedo_bulge "Anti-torpedo bulge").
### Inter\-war period
In 1919, *Erebus* took part in the [British Invasion of Russia](/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War "Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War") providing gunfire support in the [White Sea](/wiki/White_Sea "White Sea") and in the [Baltic Sea](/wiki/Baltic_Sea "Baltic Sea").
In 1921, she took part in gunnery trials against the surrendered German battleship {{SMS\|Baden}}. She then served as a gunnery training ship between the two world wars. After a refit completed in August 1939, she was earmarked as guardship at [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town "Cape Town"), but due to the outbreak of World War II this did not occur.
### Second World War
In the early war years, *Erebus* served with the [Eastern Fleet](/wiki/Eastern_Fleet "Eastern Fleet") and the [Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Mediterranean Fleet (United Kingdom)"), where she was used to run supplies to besieged [Tobruk](/wiki/Tobruk "Tobruk") and bombard enemy concentrations. She was present at [Trincomalee](/wiki/Trincomalee "Trincomalee") during the [Japanese attack](/wiki/Easter_Sunday_Raid%23The_attack_on_Trincomalee_Harbour "Easter Sunday Raid#The attack on Trincomalee Harbour") on the [harbour there](/wiki/Trincomalee_Harbour "Trincomalee Harbour"), receiving a near\-miss hit from Japanese aircraft, suffering casualties.{{cite book \|title\=BR 1736(9\) Battle Summaries \|date\=1943 \|publisher\=British Admiralty \|pages\=14, 23 \|url\=https://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/Battle\_Summary\_No\_15\_and\_16\.pdf \|access\-date\=14 December 2020}} In 1943, she was damaged while bombarding [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily") during the [Allied invasion of Sicily](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily "Allied invasion of Sicily").
*Erebus* was used for coastal bombardment during the [Normandy Landings](/wiki/Normandy_Landings "Normandy Landings") on 6 June 1944, firing at the batteries at [Barfleur](/wiki/Barfleur "Barfleur") and [La Pernelle](/wiki/La_Pernelle "La Pernelle"). She suffered one 15\-inch gun destroyed due to a premature explosion of a high explosive round in the bore.[navweaps.com Accessed 14 January 2008\. HMS *Roberts* suffered in the same way. The fault was traced to defective fuses in some US\-built shells](http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNBR_15-42_mk1.htm)
On 10 August 1944, she was used against the defenders of the harbour at [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre "Le Havre"). She was damaged by the battery at [Clos des Ronces](/wiki/Clos_des_Ronces "Clos des Ronces") and was out of action for some time. In November 1944, she supported [Operation Infatuate](/wiki/Operation_Infatuate "Operation Infatuate"), the amphibious assault on [Walcheren](/wiki/Walcheren "Walcheren"), [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands").
She was scrapped in July 1946\. It is believed that one of *Erebus*{{'}} 15\-inch guns was used to equip {{HMS\|Vanguard\|23\|2}}, the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy")'s last battleship.[The 15 inch Guns of HMS Vanguard](http://battleshiphmsvanguard.homestead.com/15inch.html)
|
[
"Service history\n---------------",
"### First World War",
"During the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\"), *Erebus* bombarded German naval forces based at the Belgian ports of [Ostend](/wiki/Ostend \"Ostend\") and [Zeebrugge](/wiki/Zeebrugge \"Zeebrugge\").",
"On 28 October 1917, she was damaged by a remote controlled German [FL\\-boat](/wiki/FL-boat \"FL-boat\"), and suffered the loss of {{cvt\\|50\\|ft\\|m\\|0}} of [anti\\-torpedo bulge](/wiki/Anti-torpedo_bulge \"Anti-torpedo bulge\").",
"### Inter\\-war period",
"In 1919, *Erebus* took part in the [British Invasion of Russia](/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War \"Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War\") providing gunfire support in the [White Sea](/wiki/White_Sea \"White Sea\") and in the [Baltic Sea](/wiki/Baltic_Sea \"Baltic Sea\").",
"In 1921, she took part in gunnery trials against the surrendered German battleship {{SMS\\|Baden}}. She then served as a gunnery training ship between the two world wars. After a refit completed in August 1939, she was earmarked as guardship at [Cape Town](/wiki/Cape_Town \"Cape Town\"), but due to the outbreak of World War II this did not occur.",
"### Second World War",
"In the early war years, *Erebus* served with the [Eastern Fleet](/wiki/Eastern_Fleet \"Eastern Fleet\") and the [Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Mediterranean Fleet (United Kingdom)\"), where she was used to run supplies to besieged [Tobruk](/wiki/Tobruk \"Tobruk\") and bombard enemy concentrations. She was present at [Trincomalee](/wiki/Trincomalee \"Trincomalee\") during the [Japanese attack](/wiki/Easter_Sunday_Raid%23The_attack_on_Trincomalee_Harbour \"Easter Sunday Raid#The attack on Trincomalee Harbour\") on the [harbour there](/wiki/Trincomalee_Harbour \"Trincomalee Harbour\"), receiving a near\\-miss hit from Japanese aircraft, suffering casualties.{{cite book \\|title\\=BR 1736(9\\) Battle Summaries \\|date\\=1943 \\|publisher\\=British Admiralty \\|pages\\=14, 23 \\|url\\=https://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/Battle\\_Summary\\_No\\_15\\_and\\_16\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020}} In 1943, she was damaged while bombarding [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") during the [Allied invasion of Sicily](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily \"Allied invasion of Sicily\").",
"*Erebus* was used for coastal bombardment during the [Normandy Landings](/wiki/Normandy_Landings \"Normandy Landings\") on 6 June 1944, firing at the batteries at [Barfleur](/wiki/Barfleur \"Barfleur\") and [La Pernelle](/wiki/La_Pernelle \"La Pernelle\"). She suffered one 15\\-inch gun destroyed due to a premature explosion of a high explosive round in the bore.[navweaps.com Accessed 14 January 2008\\. HMS *Roberts* suffered in the same way. The fault was traced to defective fuses in some US\\-built shells](http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNBR_15-42_mk1.htm)",
"On 10 August 1944, she was used against the defenders of the harbour at [Le Havre](/wiki/Le_Havre \"Le Havre\"). She was damaged by the battery at [Clos des Ronces](/wiki/Clos_des_Ronces \"Clos des Ronces\") and was out of action for some time. In November 1944, she supported [Operation Infatuate](/wiki/Operation_Infatuate \"Operation Infatuate\"), the amphibious assault on [Walcheren](/wiki/Walcheren \"Walcheren\"), [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\").",
"She was scrapped in July 1946\\. It is believed that one of *Erebus*{{'}} 15\\-inch guns was used to equip {{HMS\\|Vanguard\\|23\\|2}}, the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\")'s last battleship.[The 15 inch Guns of HMS Vanguard](http://battleshiphmsvanguard.homestead.com/15inch.html)",
""
] |
Plot
----
Two months after Bigfoot returns home,{{Efn\|As depicted in ''\[\[The Son of Bigfoot]]'' (2017\)}} Adam becomes overwhelmed with the attention his father's newfound fame has brought to the family. He is also struggling to confess his feelings to his crush, Emma.
Bigfoot wants to use his fame for a good cause. After some protesters send him a letter about trying to stop Xtract, an [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska") oil company that claims to have zero environmental impact on wildlife, Bigfoot decides to travel to Alaska to help them. Adam helps his father by uploading a promotional video to social media. Swathes of protesters arrive to support Bigfoot. One night, while trying to get a closer look at the company after hearing a loud rumble, Bigfoot mysteriously disappears. Adam and his mother Shelly journey with Wilbur and Trapper to Alaska in their [van](/wiki/Van "Van") to find and rescue him.
Arriving in Alaska, Adam and Shelly meet with Arlo Woodstock, the protester who last saw Bigfoot. Shelly follows Woodstock while Adam, Wilbur, and Trapper wait in the van. They are ambushed by Xtract guards who tranquilize Wilbur and Trapper, but Adam escapes. Adam encounters a [wolf](/wiki/Wolf "Wolf") who threatens to hurt him, but he strikes a deal with Adam to help him.
The wolf guides Adam to Xtract's worksite before departing. Xtract is revealed to be destroying wildlife by using small explosions to excavate oil. Adam explores the inside of the company and finds Xtract CEO Connor Mandrake planning to set up a [massive bomb so that he can excavate the oil easier](/wiki/Project_Oilsand "Project Oilsand"), but this will destroy the valley. Adam records Mandrake on his phone to expose him. Afterwards, Adam is found by Woodstock, but Adam finds out that Woodstock actually works for Xtract and is responsible for taking Bigfoot and Shelly. Woodstock captures Adam and pushes him into the underground mines.
Mandrake prepares the bomb. After finding Shelly and freeing Bigfoot, Adam escapes with them through the mines. Xtract drones are sent to stop them, but Bigfoot destroys them. While they escape, Adam manages to upload the videos, exposing Xtract online, before losing his phone. Adam turns back and defuses the bomb, but Mandrake gets a backup bomb that cannot be turned off to trigger the explosion. With help from Wilbur and Trapper, Bigfoot takes hold of it and throws it in the air, creating a signal explosion. Mandrake confronts them, but the news shows up in a helicopter, as does the police. Mandrake attempts to escape but is interrupted by a [moose](/wiki/Moose "Moose") and thrown into an oil puddle alongside Woodstock.
Some time later, Adam meets with Emma, who reveals that one of the videos he accidentally uploaded was the one exposing his feelings to her. He asks Emma out, and she accepts. Emma kisses Adam while his eavesdropping family congratulates him.
The movie ends as Trapper asks for another [pancake](/wiki/Pancake "Pancake"), and it goes on his face, much to his dismay.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Two months after Bigfoot returns home,{{Efn\\|As depicted in ''\\[\\[The Son of Bigfoot]]'' (2017\\)}} Adam becomes overwhelmed with the attention his father's newfound fame has brought to the family. He is also struggling to confess his feelings to his crush, Emma.",
"Bigfoot wants to use his fame for a good cause. After some protesters send him a letter about trying to stop Xtract, an [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\") oil company that claims to have zero environmental impact on wildlife, Bigfoot decides to travel to Alaska to help them. Adam helps his father by uploading a promotional video to social media. Swathes of protesters arrive to support Bigfoot. One night, while trying to get a closer look at the company after hearing a loud rumble, Bigfoot mysteriously disappears. Adam and his mother Shelly journey with Wilbur and Trapper to Alaska in their [van](/wiki/Van \"Van\") to find and rescue him.",
"Arriving in Alaska, Adam and Shelly meet with Arlo Woodstock, the protester who last saw Bigfoot. Shelly follows Woodstock while Adam, Wilbur, and Trapper wait in the van. They are ambushed by Xtract guards who tranquilize Wilbur and Trapper, but Adam escapes. Adam encounters a [wolf](/wiki/Wolf \"Wolf\") who threatens to hurt him, but he strikes a deal with Adam to help him.",
"The wolf guides Adam to Xtract's worksite before departing. Xtract is revealed to be destroying wildlife by using small explosions to excavate oil. Adam explores the inside of the company and finds Xtract CEO Connor Mandrake planning to set up a [massive bomb so that he can excavate the oil easier](/wiki/Project_Oilsand \"Project Oilsand\"), but this will destroy the valley. Adam records Mandrake on his phone to expose him. Afterwards, Adam is found by Woodstock, but Adam finds out that Woodstock actually works for Xtract and is responsible for taking Bigfoot and Shelly. Woodstock captures Adam and pushes him into the underground mines.",
"Mandrake prepares the bomb. After finding Shelly and freeing Bigfoot, Adam escapes with them through the mines. Xtract drones are sent to stop them, but Bigfoot destroys them. While they escape, Adam manages to upload the videos, exposing Xtract online, before losing his phone. Adam turns back and defuses the bomb, but Mandrake gets a backup bomb that cannot be turned off to trigger the explosion. With help from Wilbur and Trapper, Bigfoot takes hold of it and throws it in the air, creating a signal explosion. Mandrake confronts them, but the news shows up in a helicopter, as does the police. Mandrake attempts to escape but is interrupted by a [moose](/wiki/Moose \"Moose\") and thrown into an oil puddle alongside Woodstock.",
"Some time later, Adam meets with Emma, who reveals that one of the videos he accidentally uploaded was the one exposing his feelings to her. He asks Emma out, and she accepts. Emma kisses Adam while his eavesdropping family congratulates him.",
"The movie ends as Trapper asks for another [pancake](/wiki/Pancake \"Pancake\"), and it goes on his face, much to his dismay.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The telefilm revolves around three friends who are different from each other but are misfit in their respective places. Amber, a divorcee who lives with her mother and tries to earn some money to go abroad. She keeps working on different plans again and again but gets nothing. Natasha, lives in Amber house as her family is settled in [London](/wiki/London "London") and works in an office. She loves Ali (who is already married) since her college days, who was his class\-fellow then, and now his colleague. Tania, lives with her parents and often wants escape from her house as her parents are not happy with her artistic nature. She is fond of music and learns [Kathak](/wiki/Kathak "Kathak").
In her Kathak class, Tania gets impressed by Asad, a new guy in the class who is not shy about his hobbies. After days, they become familiar to each other and share a great bond as they are similar in nature. Tania decides to marry him but her parents are not willing for it just because of his love of dance.
Amber, who wants escape from her city due to her unpleasant memories for which she requires money, tries different businesses including carpet selling and [real estate](/wiki/Real_estate "Real estate") but gets deceived every time.
She along with Tania tries to explain Natasha that she is being used by Ali just for time pass but she doesn't care it due to fear of losing him. Ali too spends time with her and leads her on but didn't do any commitment about their relationship. Due to the pressure of her friends, Natasha one day questions him about her position in his life upon which he tries to satisfy her. She then realises herself after noticing him with his wife in a restaurant on the occasion of his marriage anniversary.
Tania's parents want Asad to give up his passion of Kathak to marry their daughter but she denies him to do so because she wants him to continue his passion.
Natasha decides to go London to her family, and her friends go to drop her at airport where Tania says her to comeback in Pakistan at her wedding and Amber tells them about her next plan of [animal farming](/wiki/Animal_farming "Animal farming").
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The telefilm revolves around three friends who are different from each other but are misfit in their respective places. Amber, a divorcee who lives with her mother and tries to earn some money to go abroad. She keeps working on different plans again and again but gets nothing. Natasha, lives in Amber house as her family is settled in [London](/wiki/London \"London\") and works in an office. She loves Ali (who is already married) since her college days, who was his class\\-fellow then, and now his colleague. Tania, lives with her parents and often wants escape from her house as her parents are not happy with her artistic nature. She is fond of music and learns [Kathak](/wiki/Kathak \"Kathak\").",
"In her Kathak class, Tania gets impressed by Asad, a new guy in the class who is not shy about his hobbies. After days, they become familiar to each other and share a great bond as they are similar in nature. Tania decides to marry him but her parents are not willing for it just because of his love of dance.",
"Amber, who wants escape from her city due to her unpleasant memories for which she requires money, tries different businesses including carpet selling and [real estate](/wiki/Real_estate \"Real estate\") but gets deceived every time.",
"She along with Tania tries to explain Natasha that she is being used by Ali just for time pass but she doesn't care it due to fear of losing him. Ali too spends time with her and leads her on but didn't do any commitment about their relationship. Due to the pressure of her friends, Natasha one day questions him about her position in his life upon which he tries to satisfy her. She then realises herself after noticing him with his wife in a restaurant on the occasion of his marriage anniversary.",
"Tania's parents want Asad to give up his passion of Kathak to marry their daughter but she denies him to do so because she wants him to continue his passion.",
"Natasha decides to go London to her family, and her friends go to drop her at airport where Tania says her to comeback in Pakistan at her wedding and Amber tells them about her next plan of [animal farming](/wiki/Animal_farming \"Animal farming\").",
""
] |
History
-------
The D Triplexes were purchased by the [Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation](/wiki/Brooklyn%E2%80%93Manhattan_Transit_Corporation "Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation") specifically to augment the service provided by the BMT/BRT [A/B Standards](/wiki/AB_Standard_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "AB Standard (New York City Subway car)"). They were used over the years in Southern Division lines based at Coney Island. This permitted several of the A/B units used in these services to be transferred to East New York, and in turn, permitted the removal of the last [BU](/wiki/BU_cars_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "BU cars (New York City Subway car)") wooden el cars from service in the [BMT Centre Street Line](/wiki/BMT_Nassau_Street_Line "BMT Nassau Street Line") in 1927\. Other service improvements included the extension of various lines — the [BMT Fourth Avenue Line](/wiki/BMT_Fourth_Avenue_Line "BMT Fourth Avenue Line") one station from [86th Street](/wiki/86th_Street_station_%28BMT_Fourth_Avenue_Line%29 "86th Street station (BMT Fourth Avenue Line)") to [Bay Ridge–95th Street](/wiki/Bay_Ridge%E2%80%9395th_Street_station "Bay Ridge–95th Street station") and the [BMT 14th St.–Canarsie Line](/wiki/BMT_Canarsie_Line "BMT Canarsie Line") from [Montrose Avenue](/wiki/Montrose_Avenue_station "Montrose Avenue station") to a connection at [East New York](/wiki/Broadway_Junction_%28New_York_City_Subway%29 "Broadway Junction (New York City Subway)") with the other lines operating out of that point. In addition, most stations along the Southern Division lines were being extended to permit operation of maximum length trains – 8 car "A/B"s or 4 unit "D"s.
They were originally placed in service on the Fourth Avenue Local running from 95th Street to [Queensboro Plaza](/wiki/Queensboro_Plaza_%28New_York_City_Subway%29 "Queensboro Plaza (New York City Subway)"), with some additional units used on the [Brighton](/wiki/BMT_Brighton_Line "BMT Brighton Line") Local. This was undoubtedly done to provide maximum exposure for these cars; however, in September 1928, before the entire fleet of 121 units had been delivered, the units serving in Fourth Avenue Local service were transferred to the [Sea Beach](/wiki/BMT_Sea_Beach_Line "BMT Sea Beach Line") Express, where, as heavyweight cars with a slow acceleration but very fast overall speed, it was felt that they could provide better service. In 1932, full length trains of these units began operating with only one conductor aside from the motorman.
The next major change of assignment for these cars came on April 27, 1950, when the units on the Brighton Local were transferred to Brighton Express service. The [BMT Astoria Line](/wiki/BMT_Astoria_Line "BMT Astoria Line")'s platforms were still under construction, and parts of the platforms were still closed to passengers, requiring trains to use two conductors when traveling on that line. As the A/B Standards trains still used two conductors until September 1958, this move served to save on crews, although D Triplexes continued to be used on certain fixed intervals on the Brighton Local until December 1, 1955, and sporadically after that date.
On May 27–28, 1959, the Brighton Express now became virtually all D Triplexes (except once again for certain fixed intervals which used A/B Standards), with the Sea Beach Express for the first time in nearly 31 years seeing the usage of A/B\-Standards along with the D Triplexes that were still used. With the drastic reduction in [West End](/wiki/BMT_West_End_Line "BMT West End Line") service that took place at this time, it was decided to run all Sea Beach trains at maximum length 8 cars. The Brighton Express, in the meantime, continued to run a fluctuating 6 or 8 car service during the course of the day, which required much coupling and cutting of trains. As the D Triplexes were better suited for this purpose, having a much more advanced type of coupler, it was decided to keep these cars for that purpose on the Brighton Express, where they served virtually until the end of their lives.
A further change came over the days April 13–15, 1963, when the units used on the Sea Beach Express were transferred to the West End Express as well as the various Nassau Street services as needed. As these cars were approaching their last days and were now seen as oddball types, it was decided to cut their mileage as much as possible to simplify maintenance procedures; moreover, by June of that year, they began to reappear on the Sea Beach Express once again along with the above. This was undoubtedly to dissipate the mileage on them even further. The oft\-stated concern of their weight being too heavy for the Manhattan Bridge was apparently not a factor, as they could be seen in service on the Bridge to the very end of their lives.
Over their entire lifetime, they had appeared on all four routes serving Coney Island by the Brighton, West End, Sea Beach, and Culver Lines, as well as the 4th Ave. Line to Bay Ridge–95th St. at one time or other, as well as all Nassau Street services, weekend [Franklin Avenue](/wiki/BMT_Franklin_Avenue_Line "BMT Franklin Avenue Line") Local service to Brighton Beach, [Culver Shuttle](/wiki/Culver_Shuttle "Culver Shuttle"), and also to [Astoria](/wiki/Astoria%C2%A0%E2%80%93_Ditmars_Boulevard_%28BMT_Astoria_Line%29 "Astoria – Ditmars Boulevard (BMT Astoria Line)") and via the [60th Street Tunnel Connection](/wiki/60th_Street_Tunnel_Connection "60th Street Tunnel Connection") and over the [IND Queens Boulevard Line](/wiki/IND_Queens_Boulevard_Line "IND Queens Boulevard Line") to [Forest Hills](/wiki/Forest_Hills%C2%A0%E2%80%93_71st_Avenue_%28IND_Queens_Boulevard_Line%29 "Forest Hills – 71st Avenue (IND Queens Boulevard Line)") (during the 1957 motormen's strike, some units ran over this line to [179th Street](/wiki/179th_Street_%28IND_Queens_Boulevard_Line%29 "179th Street (IND Queens Boulevard Line)")).
The units had a reputation with the BMT and subsequent operating agencies for being especially reliable, requiring minimal maintaining and experiencing fewer breakdowns than other New York subway equipment.
### Retirement
These cars were replaced by the [R27s](/wiki/R27_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "R27 (New York City Subway car)"), [R30s](/wiki/R30_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "R30 (New York City Subway car)"), and [R32s](/wiki/R32_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "R32 (New York City Subway car)"). The last units were retired from service on July 23, 1965, with the last train in service having operated as a West End Local in the A.M. rush on that date.
D\-type sets 6019, 6095, and 6112 are preserved by the [New York Transit Museum](/wiki/New_York_Transit_Museum "New York Transit Museum"). These cars operated on various fan trips until 2004, when, in the 2004 "Parade of Trains", wheelslip heavily damaged the motors of one set. Unable to operate on its own power, the train was towed to [Coney Island Yard](/wiki/Coney_Island_Yard "Coney Island Yard"). Set 6095 resided in the New York Transit Museum, while sets 6019 and 6112 were stored at Coney Island Yard. These sets were transferred to [Pitkin Yard](/wiki/Pitkin_Yard "Pitkin Yard") when it was discovered that the cars had severe corrosion damage. In 2015, sets 6095 and 6112 received mechanical and cosmetic work at the [207th Street Yard](/wiki/207th_Street_Yard "207th Street Yard") and have been operational on fan trips since late June 2015\. Set 6019 remains out of service and is currently stored at Pitkin Yard.
The "B" section of unit 6119 survives on a farm in [Catskill, New York](/wiki/Catskill%2C_New_York "Catskill, New York"). It was repainted into a red scheme, was modified for storage, and is truckless.<https://www.facebook.com/groups/1576908292628997/permalink/2885333698453110/> {{User\-generated source\|certain\=yes\|date\=March 2022}}{{Better source needed\|date\=March 2021}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The D Triplexes were purchased by the [Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation](/wiki/Brooklyn%E2%80%93Manhattan_Transit_Corporation \"Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation\") specifically to augment the service provided by the BMT/BRT [A/B Standards](/wiki/AB_Standard_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"AB Standard (New York City Subway car)\"). They were used over the years in Southern Division lines based at Coney Island. This permitted several of the A/B units used in these services to be transferred to East New York, and in turn, permitted the removal of the last [BU](/wiki/BU_cars_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"BU cars (New York City Subway car)\") wooden el cars from service in the [BMT Centre Street Line](/wiki/BMT_Nassau_Street_Line \"BMT Nassau Street Line\") in 1927\\. Other service improvements included the extension of various lines — the [BMT Fourth Avenue Line](/wiki/BMT_Fourth_Avenue_Line \"BMT Fourth Avenue Line\") one station from [86th Street](/wiki/86th_Street_station_%28BMT_Fourth_Avenue_Line%29 \"86th Street station (BMT Fourth Avenue Line)\") to [Bay Ridge–95th Street](/wiki/Bay_Ridge%E2%80%9395th_Street_station \"Bay Ridge–95th Street station\") and the [BMT 14th St.–Canarsie Line](/wiki/BMT_Canarsie_Line \"BMT Canarsie Line\") from [Montrose Avenue](/wiki/Montrose_Avenue_station \"Montrose Avenue station\") to a connection at [East New York](/wiki/Broadway_Junction_%28New_York_City_Subway%29 \"Broadway Junction (New York City Subway)\") with the other lines operating out of that point. In addition, most stations along the Southern Division lines were being extended to permit operation of maximum length trains – 8 car \"A/B\"s or 4 unit \"D\"s.",
"They were originally placed in service on the Fourth Avenue Local running from 95th Street to [Queensboro Plaza](/wiki/Queensboro_Plaza_%28New_York_City_Subway%29 \"Queensboro Plaza (New York City Subway)\"), with some additional units used on the [Brighton](/wiki/BMT_Brighton_Line \"BMT Brighton Line\") Local. This was undoubtedly done to provide maximum exposure for these cars; however, in September 1928, before the entire fleet of 121 units had been delivered, the units serving in Fourth Avenue Local service were transferred to the [Sea Beach](/wiki/BMT_Sea_Beach_Line \"BMT Sea Beach Line\") Express, where, as heavyweight cars with a slow acceleration but very fast overall speed, it was felt that they could provide better service. In 1932, full length trains of these units began operating with only one conductor aside from the motorman.",
"The next major change of assignment for these cars came on April 27, 1950, when the units on the Brighton Local were transferred to Brighton Express service. The [BMT Astoria Line](/wiki/BMT_Astoria_Line \"BMT Astoria Line\")'s platforms were still under construction, and parts of the platforms were still closed to passengers, requiring trains to use two conductors when traveling on that line. As the A/B Standards trains still used two conductors until September 1958, this move served to save on crews, although D Triplexes continued to be used on certain fixed intervals on the Brighton Local until December 1, 1955, and sporadically after that date.",
"On May 27–28, 1959, the Brighton Express now became virtually all D Triplexes (except once again for certain fixed intervals which used A/B Standards), with the Sea Beach Express for the first time in nearly 31 years seeing the usage of A/B\\-Standards along with the D Triplexes that were still used. With the drastic reduction in [West End](/wiki/BMT_West_End_Line \"BMT West End Line\") service that took place at this time, it was decided to run all Sea Beach trains at maximum length 8 cars. The Brighton Express, in the meantime, continued to run a fluctuating 6 or 8 car service during the course of the day, which required much coupling and cutting of trains. As the D Triplexes were better suited for this purpose, having a much more advanced type of coupler, it was decided to keep these cars for that purpose on the Brighton Express, where they served virtually until the end of their lives.",
"A further change came over the days April 13–15, 1963, when the units used on the Sea Beach Express were transferred to the West End Express as well as the various Nassau Street services as needed. As these cars were approaching their last days and were now seen as oddball types, it was decided to cut their mileage as much as possible to simplify maintenance procedures; moreover, by June of that year, they began to reappear on the Sea Beach Express once again along with the above. This was undoubtedly to dissipate the mileage on them even further. The oft\\-stated concern of their weight being too heavy for the Manhattan Bridge was apparently not a factor, as they could be seen in service on the Bridge to the very end of their lives.",
"Over their entire lifetime, they had appeared on all four routes serving Coney Island by the Brighton, West End, Sea Beach, and Culver Lines, as well as the 4th Ave. Line to Bay Ridge–95th St. at one time or other, as well as all Nassau Street services, weekend [Franklin Avenue](/wiki/BMT_Franklin_Avenue_Line \"BMT Franklin Avenue Line\") Local service to Brighton Beach, [Culver Shuttle](/wiki/Culver_Shuttle \"Culver Shuttle\"), and also to [Astoria](/wiki/Astoria%C2%A0%E2%80%93_Ditmars_Boulevard_%28BMT_Astoria_Line%29 \"Astoria – Ditmars Boulevard (BMT Astoria Line)\") and via the [60th Street Tunnel Connection](/wiki/60th_Street_Tunnel_Connection \"60th Street Tunnel Connection\") and over the [IND Queens Boulevard Line](/wiki/IND_Queens_Boulevard_Line \"IND Queens Boulevard Line\") to [Forest Hills](/wiki/Forest_Hills%C2%A0%E2%80%93_71st_Avenue_%28IND_Queens_Boulevard_Line%29 \"Forest Hills – 71st Avenue (IND Queens Boulevard Line)\") (during the 1957 motormen's strike, some units ran over this line to [179th Street](/wiki/179th_Street_%28IND_Queens_Boulevard_Line%29 \"179th Street (IND Queens Boulevard Line)\")).",
"The units had a reputation with the BMT and subsequent operating agencies for being especially reliable, requiring minimal maintaining and experiencing fewer breakdowns than other New York subway equipment.",
"### Retirement",
"These cars were replaced by the [R27s](/wiki/R27_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"R27 (New York City Subway car)\"), [R30s](/wiki/R30_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"R30 (New York City Subway car)\"), and [R32s](/wiki/R32_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"R32 (New York City Subway car)\"). The last units were retired from service on July 23, 1965, with the last train in service having operated as a West End Local in the A.M. rush on that date.",
"D\\-type sets 6019, 6095, and 6112 are preserved by the [New York Transit Museum](/wiki/New_York_Transit_Museum \"New York Transit Museum\"). These cars operated on various fan trips until 2004, when, in the 2004 \"Parade of Trains\", wheelslip heavily damaged the motors of one set. Unable to operate on its own power, the train was towed to [Coney Island Yard](/wiki/Coney_Island_Yard \"Coney Island Yard\"). Set 6095 resided in the New York Transit Museum, while sets 6019 and 6112 were stored at Coney Island Yard. These sets were transferred to [Pitkin Yard](/wiki/Pitkin_Yard \"Pitkin Yard\") when it was discovered that the cars had severe corrosion damage. In 2015, sets 6095 and 6112 received mechanical and cosmetic work at the [207th Street Yard](/wiki/207th_Street_Yard \"207th Street Yard\") and have been operational on fan trips since late June 2015\\. Set 6019 remains out of service and is currently stored at Pitkin Yard.",
"The \"B\" section of unit 6119 survives on a farm in [Catskill, New York](/wiki/Catskill%2C_New_York \"Catskill, New York\"). It was repainted into a red scheme, was modified for storage, and is truckless.<https://www.facebook.com/groups/1576908292628997/permalink/2885333698453110/> {{User\\-generated source\\|certain\\=yes\\|date\\=March 2022}}{{Better source needed\\|date\\=March 2021}}",
""
] |
Technical notes
---------------
The D Triplexes were the first New York rolling stock to include front destination signs with a route designation. These signs introduced the [route numbering](/wiki/New_York_City_Subway_nomenclature%23BMT "New York City Subway nomenclature#BMT") to the BMT system. The numbers started to be replaced in 1960 with the current letters on all subsequent equipment to be delivered. They also featured inside the cars a sign box, which included large dual destination signs that could be keyed by the train operator to light up in the direction the train was traveling. There were also lighted signs to indicate whether a train was traveling via the [Montague Street Tunnel](/wiki/Montague_Street_Tunnel "Montague Street Tunnel") or the [Manhattan Bridge](/wiki/Manhattan_Bridge "Manhattan Bridge") in white or green, respectively.
The D Triplex is [articulated](/wiki/Articulated_car "Articulated car"), consisting of three car body sections, sequentially labeled A, B, and C carried on four [trucks](/wiki/Bogies "Bogies").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nycsubway.org/cars/bmt\-d.html \|title\=BMT D\-Type Triplex \|access\-date\=August 31, 2009}} All four trucks are powered by one {{convert\|200\|hp}} motor each. Two trucks are placed on [kingpins](/wiki/Kingpin_%28automotive_part%29 "Kingpin (automotive part)") near the ends of the A and C sections and don't have contact shoes. The other two trucks are placed beneath each of the articulation drums that attach the center B section to the A and C sections. These trucks have [contact shoes](/wiki/Current_collector "Current collector"). The wheel diameter varies with the type of axle: those with contact shoes have axle wheels that are {{convert\|34\|in\|mm}} in diameter, while those without contact shoes have axle wheels that are just {{convert\|31\|in\|mm}} in diameter. All are equipped with motors, however.
The D\-type Triplexes were the first articulated rapid transit rolling stock used in the United States, with all subsequent rapid transit equipment ordered by the BMT \- both production and experimental \- being articulated units. All BMT articulated equipment deployed [open gangways](/wiki/Open_gangway "Open gangway"). After the [City of New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") acquired the BMT in June 1940, no more cars with open gangways were purchased for the New York City Subway until the [R211](/wiki/R211_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "R211 (New York City Subway car)") order in 2018, which includes 20 open gangway prototype cars designated as R211T. Unlike BMT rapid transit equipment, the R211T cars are not true articulated railcars as cars do not share trucks with each other.
The 121 units built were delivered under three separate orders: the 4 pilot units, 6000–6003, in 1925\. The regular units followed afterward with 67 units, 6004–6070, in 1927, and the remaining 50 units, 6071–6120, in 1928\.
The original pilot units, 6000–6003, were delivered with roller bearing trucks and were intended to run in a separate consist. The last of the regular units, 6120, was similarly equipped to serve as a spare unit. However, at a later date, 6003 was modified to run with the regular D Triplex units. After May 1959, all units were freely mixed together in consists. It appears that, from photograph evidence, the pilot units as delivered lacked the MUDC feature, which was added after delivery. All units of the regular fleet came equipped with MUDC as delivered.
After 1945, the train with roller bearing trucks (6000, 6001, 6002, 6120\) was restricted to Sea Beach Express service due to noise complaints from residents along the Brighton Line; however, concurrent with the service changes and equipment shifts in May 1959, the train was transferred to Brighton Express service. Shortly afterward, the train was broken up, and the units henceforth ran in consists mixed with regular D Triplex units.
General operating features were a considerable improvement over those of the A/B Standards. The D Triplex units, being much heavier, had a much slower acceleration rate but was capable of considerably higher speeds. They used a pneumatic controller similar to that in the IRT Flivvers and the last series of Standard Low\-Vs from 1925\.
Braking was a lot smoother and more positive in effect than on the A/B Standards. A variable load valve used on these cars, not contingent on the electric brake plug being engaged but completely automatic in operation, was another improvement.
The door operation, which once again required a conductor to operate outside between the cars, was also far more reliable, with a handle system that worked far better than the buttons on the center control board that the A/B Standards had. This new system was also used on all the BMT's el cars that were converted to MUDC operation; the C\-types of 1923–1925 and the Q\-types of 1938–1939\. As with the A/B Standards, it required the insertion of a key to activate the system. A conductor's indication light was located directly above the door operating device. Additionally, there was a double interlock system, by which a train standing with its doors open could not take power. Conversely, on a train running at a speed 4 mph or faster, the doors could not be opened, provided that the train was taking power at the time.
### Individual car notes
Brass window sashes were used on all units except for 6002 and 6003, which still had the older variety of wooden sashes.
Car heating equipment was as follows: 1927 series – 6004–6038AB had P. Smith heaters, and 6038C–6070 had Gold Car Heating Co. heaters. 1928 series – 6071–6095 had Gold Car Heating Co. heaters, and 6096–6120 had P. Smith heaters.
Some features mentioned regarding the A/B Standards appeared in a few of these cars as well:
During the 30s, 6107 was equipped with gum dispensing machines. Around the same time, 6017 had been involved in a major accident and was repaired, displaying brass strips across the floor typical of later cars acquired by the city.
Following the experimental paint schemes being tested during the late 40s on a few A/B Standards, 6028 as well had a dark green and gray interior.
Beginning in 1956, the painted on numbers on most cars were supplanted by number plates.
Under the TA, 6044 was modified to have only one running light fixture, but headlights were never installed on this unit.
In 1964, a few cars from different series were tested with paper numbers for better visibility from track level for yard personnel. Four of these units, 6023, 6076, 6077, 6097, received these, one in the center of each section below a window.
|
[
"Technical notes\n---------------",
"The D Triplexes were the first New York rolling stock to include front destination signs with a route designation. These signs introduced the [route numbering](/wiki/New_York_City_Subway_nomenclature%23BMT \"New York City Subway nomenclature#BMT\") to the BMT system. The numbers started to be replaced in 1960 with the current letters on all subsequent equipment to be delivered. They also featured inside the cars a sign box, which included large dual destination signs that could be keyed by the train operator to light up in the direction the train was traveling. There were also lighted signs to indicate whether a train was traveling via the [Montague Street Tunnel](/wiki/Montague_Street_Tunnel \"Montague Street Tunnel\") or the [Manhattan Bridge](/wiki/Manhattan_Bridge \"Manhattan Bridge\") in white or green, respectively.",
"The D Triplex is [articulated](/wiki/Articulated_car \"Articulated car\"), consisting of three car body sections, sequentially labeled A, B, and C carried on four [trucks](/wiki/Bogies \"Bogies\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nycsubway.org/cars/bmt\\-d.html \\|title\\=BMT D\\-Type Triplex \\|access\\-date\\=August 31, 2009}} All four trucks are powered by one {{convert\\|200\\|hp}} motor each. Two trucks are placed on [kingpins](/wiki/Kingpin_%28automotive_part%29 \"Kingpin (automotive part)\") near the ends of the A and C sections and don't have contact shoes. The other two trucks are placed beneath each of the articulation drums that attach the center B section to the A and C sections. These trucks have [contact shoes](/wiki/Current_collector \"Current collector\"). The wheel diameter varies with the type of axle: those with contact shoes have axle wheels that are {{convert\\|34\\|in\\|mm}} in diameter, while those without contact shoes have axle wheels that are just {{convert\\|31\\|in\\|mm}} in diameter. All are equipped with motors, however.",
"The D\\-type Triplexes were the first articulated rapid transit rolling stock used in the United States, with all subsequent rapid transit equipment ordered by the BMT \\- both production and experimental \\- being articulated units. All BMT articulated equipment deployed [open gangways](/wiki/Open_gangway \"Open gangway\"). After the [City of New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") acquired the BMT in June 1940, no more cars with open gangways were purchased for the New York City Subway until the [R211](/wiki/R211_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"R211 (New York City Subway car)\") order in 2018, which includes 20 open gangway prototype cars designated as R211T. Unlike BMT rapid transit equipment, the R211T cars are not true articulated railcars as cars do not share trucks with each other.",
"The 121 units built were delivered under three separate orders: the 4 pilot units, 6000–6003, in 1925\\. The regular units followed afterward with 67 units, 6004–6070, in 1927, and the remaining 50 units, 6071–6120, in 1928\\.",
"The original pilot units, 6000–6003, were delivered with roller bearing trucks and were intended to run in a separate consist. The last of the regular units, 6120, was similarly equipped to serve as a spare unit. However, at a later date, 6003 was modified to run with the regular D Triplex units. After May 1959, all units were freely mixed together in consists. It appears that, from photograph evidence, the pilot units as delivered lacked the MUDC feature, which was added after delivery. All units of the regular fleet came equipped with MUDC as delivered.",
"After 1945, the train with roller bearing trucks (6000, 6001, 6002, 6120\\) was restricted to Sea Beach Express service due to noise complaints from residents along the Brighton Line; however, concurrent with the service changes and equipment shifts in May 1959, the train was transferred to Brighton Express service. Shortly afterward, the train was broken up, and the units henceforth ran in consists mixed with regular D Triplex units.",
"General operating features were a considerable improvement over those of the A/B Standards. The D Triplex units, being much heavier, had a much slower acceleration rate but was capable of considerably higher speeds. They used a pneumatic controller similar to that in the IRT Flivvers and the last series of Standard Low\\-Vs from 1925\\.",
"Braking was a lot smoother and more positive in effect than on the A/B Standards. A variable load valve used on these cars, not contingent on the electric brake plug being engaged but completely automatic in operation, was another improvement.",
"The door operation, which once again required a conductor to operate outside between the cars, was also far more reliable, with a handle system that worked far better than the buttons on the center control board that the A/B Standards had. This new system was also used on all the BMT's el cars that were converted to MUDC operation; the C\\-types of 1923–1925 and the Q\\-types of 1938–1939\\. As with the A/B Standards, it required the insertion of a key to activate the system. A conductor's indication light was located directly above the door operating device. Additionally, there was a double interlock system, by which a train standing with its doors open could not take power. Conversely, on a train running at a speed 4 mph or faster, the doors could not be opened, provided that the train was taking power at the time.",
"### Individual car notes",
"Brass window sashes were used on all units except for 6002 and 6003, which still had the older variety of wooden sashes.",
"Car heating equipment was as follows: 1927 series – 6004–6038AB had P. Smith heaters, and 6038C–6070 had Gold Car Heating Co. heaters. 1928 series – 6071–6095 had Gold Car Heating Co. heaters, and 6096–6120 had P. Smith heaters.",
"Some features mentioned regarding the A/B Standards appeared in a few of these cars as well:",
"During the 30s, 6107 was equipped with gum dispensing machines. Around the same time, 6017 had been involved in a major accident and was repaired, displaying brass strips across the floor typical of later cars acquired by the city.",
"Following the experimental paint schemes being tested during the late 40s on a few A/B Standards, 6028 as well had a dark green and gray interior.",
"Beginning in 1956, the painted on numbers on most cars were supplanted by number plates.",
"Under the TA, 6044 was modified to have only one running light fixture, but headlights were never installed on this unit.",
"In 1964, a few cars from different series were tested with paper numbers for better visibility from track level for yard personnel. Four of these units, 6023, 6076, 6077, 6097, received these, one in the center of each section below a window.",
""
] |
### Individual car notes
Brass window sashes were used on all units except for 6002 and 6003, which still had the older variety of wooden sashes.
Car heating equipment was as follows: 1927 series – 6004–6038AB had P. Smith heaters, and 6038C–6070 had Gold Car Heating Co. heaters. 1928 series – 6071–6095 had Gold Car Heating Co. heaters, and 6096–6120 had P. Smith heaters.
Some features mentioned regarding the A/B Standards appeared in a few of these cars as well:
During the 30s, 6107 was equipped with gum dispensing machines. Around the same time, 6017 had been involved in a major accident and was repaired, displaying brass strips across the floor typical of later cars acquired by the city.
Following the experimental paint schemes being tested during the late 40s on a few A/B Standards, 6028 as well had a dark green and gray interior.
Beginning in 1956, the painted on numbers on most cars were supplanted by number plates.
Under the TA, 6044 was modified to have only one running light fixture, but headlights were never installed on this unit.
In 1964, a few cars from different series were tested with paper numbers for better visibility from track level for yard personnel. Four of these units, 6023, 6076, 6077, 6097, received these, one in the center of each section below a window.
|
[
"### Individual car notes",
"Brass window sashes were used on all units except for 6002 and 6003, which still had the older variety of wooden sashes.",
"Car heating equipment was as follows: 1927 series – 6004–6038AB had P. Smith heaters, and 6038C–6070 had Gold Car Heating Co. heaters. 1928 series – 6071–6095 had Gold Car Heating Co. heaters, and 6096–6120 had P. Smith heaters.",
"Some features mentioned regarding the A/B Standards appeared in a few of these cars as well:",
"During the 30s, 6107 was equipped with gum dispensing machines. Around the same time, 6017 had been involved in a major accident and was repaired, displaying brass strips across the floor typical of later cars acquired by the city.",
"Following the experimental paint schemes being tested during the late 40s on a few A/B Standards, 6028 as well had a dark green and gray interior.",
"Beginning in 1956, the painted on numbers on most cars were supplanted by number plates.",
"Under the TA, 6044 was modified to have only one running light fixture, but headlights were never installed on this unit.",
"In 1964, a few cars from different series were tested with paper numbers for better visibility from track level for yard personnel. Four of these units, 6023, 6076, 6077, 6097, received these, one in the center of each section below a window.",
""
] |
History
-------
*Neunzer* was laid down by the [Consolidated Steel](/wiki/Consolidated_Steel "Consolidated Steel") Corp., [Orange, Texas](/wiki/Orange%2C_Texas "Orange, Texas"), 29 January 1943; launched 1 June 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Weimar E. Neunzer, widow of the ship's namesake; and commissioned 27 September 1943\.
### North Atlantic operations
*Neunzer* steamed to [Galveston, Texas](/wiki/Galveston%2C_Texas "Galveston, Texas"), and then to [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), Louisiana, for fitting out. During October and November 1943 she went through shakedown off [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda"). The new destroyer escort next visited [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina "Charleston, South Carolina"), en route [Quonset Point, Rhode Island](/wiki/Quonset_Point%2C_Rhode_Island "Quonset Point, Rhode Island"). For 4 weeks she operated with an Atlantic Fleet research group, developing new equipment for antisubmarine warfare.
After escorting a group of troop transports from [Boston, Massachusetts](/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts "Boston, Massachusetts"), to join a large convoy bound for [England](/wiki/England "England") from [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") *Neunzer* proceeded to [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"), joining TF 62 on 1 January 1944\. With this group she escorted a large convoy to the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean"), spending 8 days at [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") before sailing for home.
### Escorting Italian submarines
On her homeward voyage, she shepherded five [Italian](/wiki/Italy "Italy") submarines to [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda") for training purposes. During this trip, *Neunzer* carried out an operation which is believed to be unique for a destroyer escort. She refueled two Italian subs at sea, pumping 12,000 gallons of fuel through a fire plug and 200 feet of fire hose to the submarine.
In May 1944 Lt. Commander Virgil E. Gex became the skipper of the *Neunzer*.
After two more voyages escorting convoys to the Mediterranean, *Neunzer* was detached from TF 62 to join escort aircraft carrier {{USS\|Guadalcanal\|CVE\-60}} in a [hunter\-killer](/wiki/Hunter-killer_Group "Hunter-killer Group") group. Following training at [Casco Bay](/wiki/Casco_Bay "Casco Bay"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine "Maine"), and Bermuda, the task group made two search patrols for submarines in the Middle Atlantic, refueling in Bermuda. Neither of these patrols uncovered any submarines, and *Neunzer* returned to New York in late August.
During October the group put to sea again, this time searching for submarines in the North Atlantic. Although no submarines were discovered, the force ran through a very severe storm which damaged some of the ships. The patrol was finally broken off; the task group refueled at [Ponta Delgada](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada "Ponta Delgada"), [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores"), before returning home early in November.
The antisubmarine group sailed from Norfolk 1 December for brief training in Bermuda en route [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida "Jacksonville, Florida"), where for 5 weeks the carrier trained student pilots. The group proceeded to [Guantanamo Bay, Cuba](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay%2C_Cuba "Guantanamo Bay, Cuba"), late in January 1945 for 2 weeks of exercises; then *Neunzer* returned to New York for a brief overhaul.
After returning to [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") for exercises in early March, the destroyer escort went to [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami"), Florida, for 3 weeks as training ship for student officers of the Naval Training Center there.
But now the Germans were ready for their final push, sending their new [snorkel](/wiki/Submarine_snorkel "Submarine snorkel")\-equipped subs across the Atlantic to attack the east coast. *Neunzer* suddenly received a message at midnight 8 April to get underway 6 hours later for [Newfoundland](/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland "Dominion of Newfoundland"). After refueling and provisioning in [Argentia](/wiki/Argentia "Argentia"), she left on the 19th and rendezvoused in mid\-ocean with one of several carrier task groups strung out across the Atlantic between [St. John’s, Newfoundland](/wiki/St._John%E2%80%99s%2C_Newfoundland "St. John’s, Newfoundland"), and [Fayal](/wiki/Fayal "Fayal") in the [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores") as a net to trap the snorkels.
### Battling German submarine *U\-546*
{{USS\|Frederick C. Davis\|DE\-136}} made contact with {{GS\|U\-546\|\|2}} on 24 April and was proceeding to attack when the submarine fired a stern shot which tore the DE apart and sent her down with heavy loss of life.
Eight destroyer escorts immediately joined the action. *Neunzer* and {{USS\|Hayter\|DE\-212}} conducted a search while {{USS\|Pillsbury\|DE\-133}} circled the area and {{USS\|Flaherty\|DE\-135}} picked up survivors. *Flaherty* made contact in less than an hour and with *Pillsbury* proceeded to attack. The U\-boat went to 600 feet. Contact was lost from 1045 until 1201 when {{USS\|Varian\|DE\-798}}, {{USS\|Janssen\|DE\-396}}, and {{USS\|Hubbard\|DE\-211}} began another attack.
*Neunzer* got into the fight after several attacks by the other DE’s, delivering a creeping attack with *Varian* and *Hubbard* while {{USS\|Chatelain\|DE\-149}} directed. Contact was lost once more at about 1600, and *Chatelain* and *Neunzer* were ordered to return to the scouting line.
The line was expanded, and the ships began a sweep through the area, determined to prevent the submarine’s escape. *Varian* made contact once more at 1731 and *Flaherty* was ordered to attack. She fired at 1810\. Four minutes later a small oil slick began coming to the surface. *Flaherty* made another [hedgehog](/wiki/Hedgehog_%28weapon%29 "Hedgehog (weapon)") attack at 1828, and at 1838 the U\-boat broke surface.
Every ship in the line within range began firing. At 1844, after more than ten and a half hours of attacks, {{GS\|U\-546\|\|2}} rolled under for her last dive. Thirty\-three of her crew, including the captain, were taken prisoner.
### V\-E Day
After [V\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day "V-E Day"), *Neunzer* returned to New York for 2 weeks and left on 25 May to escort the last Atlantic convoy of World War II from New York to [Southampton, England](/wiki/Southampton%2C_England "Southampton, England"). She returned without a convoy, and remained in New York harbor from 15 June until 6 July.
In July the ship trained at [Casco Bay](/wiki/Casco_Bay "Casco Bay"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine "Maine"), and served as target for the Motor Torpedo Boat Training Center, [Melville, Rhode Island](/wiki/Melville%2C_Rhode_Island "Melville, Rhode Island"). On 1 August she sailed to [New London, Connecticut](/wiki/New_London%2C_Connecticut "New London, Connecticut"), to escort {{GS\|U\-505\|\|2}}, captured by Guadalcanal’s task group in June 1944\. The sub was exhibited along the east coast and the [Gulf Coast](/wiki/Gulf_Coast "Gulf Coast") throughout the end of 1945 in a drive to sell [War Bonds](/wiki/War_Bonds "War Bonds").
### Post\-War decommissioning
After operations along the Atlantic coast, *Neunzer* decommissioned in January 1947 and entered the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet "Atlantic Reserve Fleet"). Into 1970 she remained berthed at [Philadelphia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania"). On 1 July 1972 she was struck from the [Navy list](/wiki/Navy_list "Navy list"), and she was sold 1 November 1973, and scrapped.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"*Neunzer* was laid down by the [Consolidated Steel](/wiki/Consolidated_Steel \"Consolidated Steel\") Corp., [Orange, Texas](/wiki/Orange%2C_Texas \"Orange, Texas\"), 29 January 1943; launched 1 June 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Weimar E. Neunzer, widow of the ship's namesake; and commissioned 27 September 1943\\.",
"### North Atlantic operations",
"*Neunzer* steamed to [Galveston, Texas](/wiki/Galveston%2C_Texas \"Galveston, Texas\"), and then to [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), Louisiana, for fitting out. During October and November 1943 she went through shakedown off [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda \"Bermuda\"). The new destroyer escort next visited [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston, South Carolina\"), en route [Quonset Point, Rhode Island](/wiki/Quonset_Point%2C_Rhode_Island \"Quonset Point, Rhode Island\"). For 4 weeks she operated with an Atlantic Fleet research group, developing new equipment for antisubmarine warfare.",
"After escorting a group of troop transports from [Boston, Massachusetts](/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts \"Boston, Massachusetts\"), to join a large convoy bound for [England](/wiki/England \"England\") from [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") *Neunzer* proceeded to [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"), joining TF 62 on 1 January 1944\\. With this group she escorted a large convoy to the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\"), spending 8 days at [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\") before sailing for home.",
"### Escorting Italian submarines",
"On her homeward voyage, she shepherded five [Italian](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") submarines to [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda \"Bermuda\") for training purposes. During this trip, *Neunzer* carried out an operation which is believed to be unique for a destroyer escort. She refueled two Italian subs at sea, pumping 12,000 gallons of fuel through a fire plug and 200 feet of fire hose to the submarine.",
"In May 1944 Lt. Commander Virgil E. Gex became the skipper of the *Neunzer*.\nAfter two more voyages escorting convoys to the Mediterranean, *Neunzer* was detached from TF 62 to join escort aircraft carrier {{USS\\|Guadalcanal\\|CVE\\-60}} in a [hunter\\-killer](/wiki/Hunter-killer_Group \"Hunter-killer Group\") group. Following training at [Casco Bay](/wiki/Casco_Bay \"Casco Bay\"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\"), and Bermuda, the task group made two search patrols for submarines in the Middle Atlantic, refueling in Bermuda. Neither of these patrols uncovered any submarines, and *Neunzer* returned to New York in late August.",
"During October the group put to sea again, this time searching for submarines in the North Atlantic. Although no submarines were discovered, the force ran through a very severe storm which damaged some of the ships. The patrol was finally broken off; the task group refueled at [Ponta Delgada](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada \"Ponta Delgada\"), [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\"), before returning home early in November.",
"The antisubmarine group sailed from Norfolk 1 December for brief training in Bermuda en route [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida \"Jacksonville, Florida\"), where for 5 weeks the carrier trained student pilots. The group proceeded to [Guantanamo Bay, Cuba](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay%2C_Cuba \"Guantanamo Bay, Cuba\"), late in January 1945 for 2 weeks of exercises; then *Neunzer* returned to New York for a brief overhaul.",
"After returning to [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") for exercises in early March, the destroyer escort went to [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\"), Florida, for 3 weeks as training ship for student officers of the Naval Training Center there.",
"But now the Germans were ready for their final push, sending their new [snorkel](/wiki/Submarine_snorkel \"Submarine snorkel\")\\-equipped subs across the Atlantic to attack the east coast. *Neunzer* suddenly received a message at midnight 8 April to get underway 6 hours later for [Newfoundland](/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland \"Dominion of Newfoundland\"). After refueling and provisioning in [Argentia](/wiki/Argentia \"Argentia\"), she left on the 19th and rendezvoused in mid\\-ocean with one of several carrier task groups strung out across the Atlantic between [St. John’s, Newfoundland](/wiki/St._John%E2%80%99s%2C_Newfoundland \"St. John’s, Newfoundland\"), and [Fayal](/wiki/Fayal \"Fayal\") in the [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\") as a net to trap the snorkels.",
"### Battling German submarine *U\\-546*",
"{{USS\\|Frederick C. Davis\\|DE\\-136}} made contact with {{GS\\|U\\-546\\|\\|2}} on 24 April and was proceeding to attack when the submarine fired a stern shot which tore the DE apart and sent her down with heavy loss of life.",
"Eight destroyer escorts immediately joined the action. *Neunzer* and {{USS\\|Hayter\\|DE\\-212}} conducted a search while {{USS\\|Pillsbury\\|DE\\-133}} circled the area and {{USS\\|Flaherty\\|DE\\-135}} picked up survivors. *Flaherty* made contact in less than an hour and with *Pillsbury* proceeded to attack. The U\\-boat went to 600 feet. Contact was lost from 1045 until 1201 when {{USS\\|Varian\\|DE\\-798}}, {{USS\\|Janssen\\|DE\\-396}}, and {{USS\\|Hubbard\\|DE\\-211}} began another attack.",
"*Neunzer* got into the fight after several attacks by the other DE’s, delivering a creeping attack with *Varian* and *Hubbard* while {{USS\\|Chatelain\\|DE\\-149}} directed. Contact was lost once more at about 1600, and *Chatelain* and *Neunzer* were ordered to return to the scouting line.",
"The line was expanded, and the ships began a sweep through the area, determined to prevent the submarine’s escape. *Varian* made contact once more at 1731 and *Flaherty* was ordered to attack. She fired at 1810\\. Four minutes later a small oil slick began coming to the surface. *Flaherty* made another [hedgehog](/wiki/Hedgehog_%28weapon%29 \"Hedgehog (weapon)\") attack at 1828, and at 1838 the U\\-boat broke surface.",
"Every ship in the line within range began firing. At 1844, after more than ten and a half hours of attacks, {{GS\\|U\\-546\\|\\|2}} rolled under for her last dive. Thirty\\-three of her crew, including the captain, were taken prisoner.",
"### V\\-E Day",
"After [V\\-E Day](/wiki/V-E_Day \"V-E Day\"), *Neunzer* returned to New York for 2 weeks and left on 25 May to escort the last Atlantic convoy of World War II from New York to [Southampton, England](/wiki/Southampton%2C_England \"Southampton, England\"). She returned without a convoy, and remained in New York harbor from 15 June until 6 July.",
"In July the ship trained at [Casco Bay](/wiki/Casco_Bay \"Casco Bay\"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\"), and served as target for the Motor Torpedo Boat Training Center, [Melville, Rhode Island](/wiki/Melville%2C_Rhode_Island \"Melville, Rhode Island\"). On 1 August she sailed to [New London, Connecticut](/wiki/New_London%2C_Connecticut \"New London, Connecticut\"), to escort {{GS\\|U\\-505\\|\\|2}}, captured by Guadalcanal’s task group in June 1944\\. The sub was exhibited along the east coast and the [Gulf Coast](/wiki/Gulf_Coast \"Gulf Coast\") throughout the end of 1945 in a drive to sell [War Bonds](/wiki/War_Bonds \"War Bonds\").",
"### Post\\-War decommissioning",
"After operations along the Atlantic coast, *Neunzer* decommissioned in January 1947 and entered the [Atlantic Reserve Fleet](/wiki/Atlantic_Reserve_Fleet \"Atlantic Reserve Fleet\"). Into 1970 she remained berthed at [Philadelphia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Philadelphia%2C_Pennsylvania \"Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\"). On 1 July 1972 she was struck from the [Navy list](/wiki/Navy_list \"Navy list\"), and she was sold 1 November 1973, and scrapped.",
""
] |
### Escorting Italian submarines
On her homeward voyage, she shepherded five [Italian](/wiki/Italy "Italy") submarines to [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda") for training purposes. During this trip, *Neunzer* carried out an operation which is believed to be unique for a destroyer escort. She refueled two Italian subs at sea, pumping 12,000 gallons of fuel through a fire plug and 200 feet of fire hose to the submarine.
In May 1944 Lt. Commander Virgil E. Gex became the skipper of the *Neunzer*.
After two more voyages escorting convoys to the Mediterranean, *Neunzer* was detached from TF 62 to join escort aircraft carrier {{USS\|Guadalcanal\|CVE\-60}} in a [hunter\-killer](/wiki/Hunter-killer_Group "Hunter-killer Group") group. Following training at [Casco Bay](/wiki/Casco_Bay "Casco Bay"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine "Maine"), and Bermuda, the task group made two search patrols for submarines in the Middle Atlantic, refueling in Bermuda. Neither of these patrols uncovered any submarines, and *Neunzer* returned to New York in late August.
During October the group put to sea again, this time searching for submarines in the North Atlantic. Although no submarines were discovered, the force ran through a very severe storm which damaged some of the ships. The patrol was finally broken off; the task group refueled at [Ponta Delgada](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada "Ponta Delgada"), [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores"), before returning home early in November.
The antisubmarine group sailed from Norfolk 1 December for brief training in Bermuda en route [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida "Jacksonville, Florida"), where for 5 weeks the carrier trained student pilots. The group proceeded to [Guantanamo Bay, Cuba](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay%2C_Cuba "Guantanamo Bay, Cuba"), late in January 1945 for 2 weeks of exercises; then *Neunzer* returned to New York for a brief overhaul.
After returning to [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") for exercises in early March, the destroyer escort went to [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami"), Florida, for 3 weeks as training ship for student officers of the Naval Training Center there.
But now the Germans were ready for their final push, sending their new [snorkel](/wiki/Submarine_snorkel "Submarine snorkel")\-equipped subs across the Atlantic to attack the east coast. *Neunzer* suddenly received a message at midnight 8 April to get underway 6 hours later for [Newfoundland](/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland "Dominion of Newfoundland"). After refueling and provisioning in [Argentia](/wiki/Argentia "Argentia"), she left on the 19th and rendezvoused in mid\-ocean with one of several carrier task groups strung out across the Atlantic between [St. John’s, Newfoundland](/wiki/St._John%E2%80%99s%2C_Newfoundland "St. John’s, Newfoundland"), and [Fayal](/wiki/Fayal "Fayal") in the [Azores](/wiki/Azores "Azores") as a net to trap the snorkels.
|
[
"### Escorting Italian submarines",
"On her homeward voyage, she shepherded five [Italian](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") submarines to [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda \"Bermuda\") for training purposes. During this trip, *Neunzer* carried out an operation which is believed to be unique for a destroyer escort. She refueled two Italian subs at sea, pumping 12,000 gallons of fuel through a fire plug and 200 feet of fire hose to the submarine.",
"In May 1944 Lt. Commander Virgil E. Gex became the skipper of the *Neunzer*.\nAfter two more voyages escorting convoys to the Mediterranean, *Neunzer* was detached from TF 62 to join escort aircraft carrier {{USS\\|Guadalcanal\\|CVE\\-60}} in a [hunter\\-killer](/wiki/Hunter-killer_Group \"Hunter-killer Group\") group. Following training at [Casco Bay](/wiki/Casco_Bay \"Casco Bay\"), [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\"), and Bermuda, the task group made two search patrols for submarines in the Middle Atlantic, refueling in Bermuda. Neither of these patrols uncovered any submarines, and *Neunzer* returned to New York in late August.",
"During October the group put to sea again, this time searching for submarines in the North Atlantic. Although no submarines were discovered, the force ran through a very severe storm which damaged some of the ships. The patrol was finally broken off; the task group refueled at [Ponta Delgada](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada \"Ponta Delgada\"), [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\"), before returning home early in November.",
"The antisubmarine group sailed from Norfolk 1 December for brief training in Bermuda en route [Jacksonville, Florida](/wiki/Jacksonville%2C_Florida \"Jacksonville, Florida\"), where for 5 weeks the carrier trained student pilots. The group proceeded to [Guantanamo Bay, Cuba](/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay%2C_Cuba \"Guantanamo Bay, Cuba\"), late in January 1945 for 2 weeks of exercises; then *Neunzer* returned to New York for a brief overhaul.",
"After returning to [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") for exercises in early March, the destroyer escort went to [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\"), Florida, for 3 weeks as training ship for student officers of the Naval Training Center there.",
"But now the Germans were ready for their final push, sending their new [snorkel](/wiki/Submarine_snorkel \"Submarine snorkel\")\\-equipped subs across the Atlantic to attack the east coast. *Neunzer* suddenly received a message at midnight 8 April to get underway 6 hours later for [Newfoundland](/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland \"Dominion of Newfoundland\"). After refueling and provisioning in [Argentia](/wiki/Argentia \"Argentia\"), she left on the 19th and rendezvoused in mid\\-ocean with one of several carrier task groups strung out across the Atlantic between [St. John’s, Newfoundland](/wiki/St._John%E2%80%99s%2C_Newfoundland \"St. John’s, Newfoundland\"), and [Fayal](/wiki/Fayal \"Fayal\") in the [Azores](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\") as a net to trap the snorkels.",
""
] |
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