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Professional career
-------------------
### Seattle Mariners
Franklin was drafted by the Seattle Mariners in the first round of the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft.{{cite web \|url\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20090609\&content\_id\=5227984\&vkey\=news\_sea\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=sea \|title\=Mariners add offense in first round \|author\=Jim Street \|date\=June 10, 2009 \|work\=MLB.com \|publisher\=Major League Baseball \|access\-date\=June 2, 2010}} Before being drafted, Franklin committed to play baseball at [Auburn University](/wiki/Auburn_University "Auburn University"). On August 16, 2009, the Mariners signed Franklin to a contract with a $1\.28 million [signing bonus](/wiki/Signing_bonus "Signing bonus").{{cite web \|url\=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/marinersblog/2009673917\_franklin\_signing\_official\_stil.html?syndication\=rss \|title\=Franklin signing official; still no word on top pick Ackley \|author\=Tom Wyrwich \|date\=August 16, 2009 \|work\=The Seattle Times \|publisher\=The Seattle Times Company \|access\-date\=June 2, 2010}} Franklin began his professional career in 2009, splitting the season between the rookie\-league [AZL Mariners](/wiki/AZL_Mariners "AZL Mariners") of the [Arizona League](/wiki/Arizona_League "Arizona League"), and the Class\-A Short\-Season [Everett AquaSox](/wiki/Everett_AquaSox "Everett AquaSox") of the [Northwest League](/wiki/Northwest_League "Northwest League"). In the Arizona league, Franklin batted .302 with six [runs](/wiki/Run_%28baseball%29 "Run (baseball)"), 13 [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 "Hit (baseball)"), two [doubles](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 "Double (baseball)"), one home run, and four [runs batted in](/wiki/Runs_batted_in "Runs batted in") (RBIs) in 10 games. With the AquaSox, Franklin batted .400 with four runs, eight hits, two doubles, one [triple](/wiki/Triple_%28baseball%29 "Triple (baseball)"), and two RBIs in six games.
Before the 2010 season, *[Baseball America](/wiki/Baseball_America "Baseball America")* named Franklin the seventh\-best prospect in the Mariners' organization.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/prospects/rankings/organization\-top\-10\-prospects/2010/269393\.html \|title\=Top 10 Prospects: Seattle Mariners \|author\=Matt Eddy \|date\=January 22, 2010 \|work\=Baseball America \|access\-date\=June 2, 2010}} Franklin began the 2010 season with the Class\-A [Clinton LumberKings](/wiki/Clinton_LumberKings "Clinton LumberKings") of the [Midwest League](/wiki/Midwest_League "Midwest League").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3985525 \|title\=LumberKings Announce 2010 Opening Day Roster \|date\=April 5, 2010 \|publisher\=OurSports Central \|access\-date\=June 2, 2010}} On April 11, Franklin hit two home runs in the same game.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3989138 \|title\=Franklin Homers Twice, Falls Just Short of Cycle \|date\=April 11, 2010 \|publisher\=OurSports Central \|access\-date\=June 2, 2010}} Also in that game, Franklin was a [single](/wiki/Single_%28baseball%29 "Single (baseball)") shy of [hitting for the cycle](/wiki/Hitting_for_the_cycle "Hitting for the cycle"). With the LumberKings that year, Franklin has batted .281 with 89 runs, 144 hits, 22 doubles, seven triples, 23 home runs, 65 RBIs, and 25 [stolen bases](/wiki/Stolen_bases "Stolen bases"). He also played one game with the Double\-A [West Tenn Diamond Jaxx](/wiki/West_Tenn_Diamond_Jaxx "West Tenn Diamond Jaxx") in 2010, getting two hits in three [at\-bats](/wiki/At-bat "At-bat"). His 2010 season with the LumberKings features prominently in the book *Class A: Baseball in the Middle of Everywhere*, by Lucas Mann.{{cite news\|last\=McAlpin\|first\=Heller\|title\=Farm Team Saga 'Class A' Hits It Out Of The Park\|url\=https://www.npr.org/2013/05/09/180279940/farm\-team\-saga\-class\-a\-hits\-it\-out\-of\-the\-park\|access\-date\=29 January 2014\|newspaper\=NPR\|date\=May 9, 2013}} At the end of the season, *Baseball American* named him as the sixth best prospect in the Midwest League.{{cite web\|last\=Callis\|first\=Jim\|title\=Midwest League Top 20 Prospects\|url\=http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/prospects/rankings/league\-top\-20\-prospects/2010/2610732\.html\|work\=Baseball American\|access\-date\=2 October 2010\|date\=1 October 2010}}
Franklin made his major league debut for the Seattle Mariners on May 27, 2013\. He recorded his first career hit on May 29, 2013\. On May 30, 2013, Franklin hit his first two career home runs. He set a club record, being the quickest player to have a two\-homer game in just his fourth game. The previous record was held by former Mariner [Jose Cruz Jr.](/wiki/Jose_Cruz_Jr. "Jose Cruz Jr.") who had a two\-homer game in his sixth game as a rookie in 1997\.
Franklin hit his first major\-league grand slam on July 21, 2013, in the second inning versus [Houston Astros](/wiki/Houston_Astros "Houston Astros") pitcher [Jordan Lyles](/wiki/Jordan_Lyles "Jordan Lyles").
### Tampa Bay Rays
On July 31, 2014, Franklin was traded, along with left\-hander [Drew Smyly](/wiki/Drew_Smyly "Drew Smyly") to the [Tampa Bay Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays "Tampa Bay Rays") in a three team deal that sent [David Price](/wiki/David_Price_%28baseball%29 "David Price (baseball)") to the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers "Detroit Tigers") and [Austin Jackson](/wiki/Austin_Jackson_%28baseball%29 "Austin Jackson (baseball)") to the [Seattle Mariners](/wiki/Seattle_Mariners "Seattle Mariners"). Franklin finished the 2016 season with a .270 batting average. He was designated for assignment on April 1, 2017\.
### Milwaukee Brewers
Franklin was claimed off waivers by the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers "Milwaukee Brewers") on April 5, 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.jsonline.com/story/sports/mlb/brewers/2017/04/05/brewers\-claim\-nick\-franklin\-designate\-michael\-blazek/100047160/\|title\=Notes: Brewers claim Franklin, designate Blazek}} On June 27, he was designated for assignment by the Brewers.
### Los Angeles Angels
On June 30, 2017, Franklin was traded to the [Los Angeles Angels](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Angels "Los Angeles Angels") in exchange for cash considerations or a [player to be named later](/wiki/Player_to_be_named_later "Player to be named later").{{Cite web\|title\=Angels Acquire Nick Franklin\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2017/06/angels\-acquire\-nick\-franklin.html\|access\-date\=March 23, 2024\|website\=mlbtraderumors.com\|language\=en}} In 13 games for the Angels, he went 3–for–24 (.125\) with two RBI and five walks. On July 29, Franklin was designated for assignment following the promotion of [Troy Scribner](/wiki/Troy_Scribner "Troy Scribner").{{Cite web\|title\=Angels Designate Nick Franklin For Assignment\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2017/07/angels\-designate\-nick\-franklin\-for\-assignment.html\|access\-date\=March 23, 2024\|website\=mlbtraderumors.com\|language\=en}} He cleared waivers and was sent outright to the Triple–A [Salt Lake Bees](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Bees "Salt Lake Bees") on July 31\.{{Cite web\|title\=Minor MLB Transactions: 7/31/17\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2017/07/minor\-mlb\-transactions\-73117\.html\|access\-date\=March 23, 2024\|website\=mlbtraderumors.com\|language\=en}} Franklin played in only three games for Salt Lake, and elected free agency following the season on November 6\.{{Cite web\|title\=Minor League Free Agents 2017\|url\=https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/minor\-league\-free\-agents\-2017/?amphtml\|access\-date\=March 23, 2024\|website\=baseballamerica.com\|language\=en}}
### Milwaukee Brewers (second stint)
On February 15, 2018, Franklin signed a minor league contract with the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers "Milwaukee Brewers").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2018/02/brewers\-sign\-nick\-franklin\-to\-minor\-league\-deal.html\|title\=Brewers Sign Nick Franklin To Minor League Deal\|last\=Adams\|first\=Steve\|work\=mlbtraderumors.com\|date\=February 15, 2018\|access\-date\=February 15, 2018}} Franklin was called up in early May but after two at bats, he missed the entire season with a quad injury. He elected free agency on October 23, 2018\.
### Pittsburgh Pirates
On February 6, 2019, Franklin signed a minor league contract with the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates "Pittsburgh Pirates").{{Cite web\|title\=Pirates Sign Nick Franklin\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2019/02/pirates\-sign\-nick\-franklin.html\|access\-date\=March 23, 2024\|website\=mlbtraderumors.com\|language\=en}} After beginning the season on the injured list due to hamstring tightness, he played in 44 games for the Triple–A [Indianapolis Indians](/wiki/Indianapolis_Indians "Indianapolis Indians"), hitting .193/.289/.316 with three home runs and 12 RBI. Franklin was released by the Pirates organization on June 28\.{{Cite web\|title\=Pirates Release Nick Franklin\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2019/06/pirates\-release\-nick\-franklin.html\|access\-date\=March 23, 2024\|website\=mlbtraderumors.com\|language\=en}}
### Los Angeles Angels (second stint)
On July 5, 2019, Franklin signed a minor league deal with the [Los Angeles Angels](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Angels "Los Angeles Angels") and was assigned to the [Triple\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 "Triple-A (baseball)") [Salt Lake Bees](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Bees "Salt Lake Bees"). In 41 games for the Bees, he batted .281/.380/.459 with three home runs and 24 RBI. Franklin became a free agent on November 4\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/minor\-league\-free\-agents\-2019/\|title\=Minor League Free Agents 2019\|author\=Matt Eddy\|website\=\[\[Baseball America]]\|date\=November 7, 2019\|access\-date\=November 7, 2019}}
### Kansas City Monarchs
On April 27, 2021, Frankin signed with the [Kansas City Monarchs](/wiki/Kansas_City_Monarchs_%282021%E2%80%93present%29 "Kansas City Monarchs (2021–present)") of the [American Association of Professional Baseball](/wiki/American_Association_of_Professional_Baseball "American Association of Professional Baseball"). He appeared in just 4 games, going 4\-for\-14, before being placed on the inactive list.
### Sioux City Explorers
On August 28, 2021, Franklin was traded to the [Sioux City Explorers](/wiki/Sioux_City_Explorers "Sioux City Explorers") of the [American Association of Professional Baseball](/wiki/American_Association_of_Professional_Baseball "American Association of Professional Baseball") for the reversionary rights to RHP Nick Belzer and future considerations.[American Association Transactions](https://aabaseball.com/transactions/)
### Kane County Cougars
On August 5, 2022, Franklin was traded to the [Kane County Cougars](/wiki/Kane_County_Cougars "Kane County Cougars") of the [American Association of Professional Baseball](/wiki/American_Association_of_Professional_Baseball "American Association of Professional Baseball") for 2 players to be named later and cash.{{Cite web\|url\=https://aabaseball.com/transactions/\|title \= American Association of Professional Baseball \- 2022 Transactions}} In 21 games for the Cougars, he hit .260/.370/.533 with 5 home runs and 19 RBI. On October 31, Franklin was released by the team.{{Cite web\|title\=2022 Transactions\|url\=https://aabaseball.com/transactions/2022\-transactions/\|access\-date\=June 29, 2023\|website\=aabaseball.com\|language\=en}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Seattle Mariners",
"Franklin was drafted by the Seattle Mariners in the first round of the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20090609\\&content\\_id\\=5227984\\&vkey\\=news\\_sea\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=sea \\|title\\=Mariners add offense in first round \\|author\\=Jim Street \\|date\\=June 10, 2009 \\|work\\=MLB.com \\|publisher\\=Major League Baseball \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2010}} Before being drafted, Franklin committed to play baseball at [Auburn University](/wiki/Auburn_University \"Auburn University\"). On August 16, 2009, the Mariners signed Franklin to a contract with a $1\\.28 million [signing bonus](/wiki/Signing_bonus \"Signing bonus\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/marinersblog/2009673917\\_franklin\\_signing\\_official\\_stil.html?syndication\\=rss \\|title\\=Franklin signing official; still no word on top pick Ackley \\|author\\=Tom Wyrwich \\|date\\=August 16, 2009 \\|work\\=The Seattle Times \\|publisher\\=The Seattle Times Company \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2010}} Franklin began his professional career in 2009, splitting the season between the rookie\\-league [AZL Mariners](/wiki/AZL_Mariners \"AZL Mariners\") of the [Arizona League](/wiki/Arizona_League \"Arizona League\"), and the Class\\-A Short\\-Season [Everett AquaSox](/wiki/Everett_AquaSox \"Everett AquaSox\") of the [Northwest League](/wiki/Northwest_League \"Northwest League\"). In the Arizona league, Franklin batted .302 with six [runs](/wiki/Run_%28baseball%29 \"Run (baseball)\"), 13 [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 \"Hit (baseball)\"), two [doubles](/wiki/Double_%28baseball%29 \"Double (baseball)\"), one home run, and four [runs batted in](/wiki/Runs_batted_in \"Runs batted in\") (RBIs) in 10 games. With the AquaSox, Franklin batted .400 with four runs, eight hits, two doubles, one [triple](/wiki/Triple_%28baseball%29 \"Triple (baseball)\"), and two RBIs in six games.",
"Before the 2010 season, *[Baseball America](/wiki/Baseball_America \"Baseball America\")* named Franklin the seventh\\-best prospect in the Mariners' organization.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/prospects/rankings/organization\\-top\\-10\\-prospects/2010/269393\\.html \\|title\\=Top 10 Prospects: Seattle Mariners \\|author\\=Matt Eddy \\|date\\=January 22, 2010 \\|work\\=Baseball America \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2010}} Franklin began the 2010 season with the Class\\-A [Clinton LumberKings](/wiki/Clinton_LumberKings \"Clinton LumberKings\") of the [Midwest League](/wiki/Midwest_League \"Midwest League\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3985525 \\|title\\=LumberKings Announce 2010 Opening Day Roster \\|date\\=April 5, 2010 \\|publisher\\=OurSports Central \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2010}} On April 11, Franklin hit two home runs in the same game.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3989138 \\|title\\=Franklin Homers Twice, Falls Just Short of Cycle \\|date\\=April 11, 2010 \\|publisher\\=OurSports Central \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2010}} Also in that game, Franklin was a [single](/wiki/Single_%28baseball%29 \"Single (baseball)\") shy of [hitting for the cycle](/wiki/Hitting_for_the_cycle \"Hitting for the cycle\"). With the LumberKings that year, Franklin has batted .281 with 89 runs, 144 hits, 22 doubles, seven triples, 23 home runs, 65 RBIs, and 25 [stolen bases](/wiki/Stolen_bases \"Stolen bases\"). He also played one game with the Double\\-A [West Tenn Diamond Jaxx](/wiki/West_Tenn_Diamond_Jaxx \"West Tenn Diamond Jaxx\") in 2010, getting two hits in three [at\\-bats](/wiki/At-bat \"At-bat\"). His 2010 season with the LumberKings features prominently in the book *Class A: Baseball in the Middle of Everywhere*, by Lucas Mann.{{cite news\\|last\\=McAlpin\\|first\\=Heller\\|title\\=Farm Team Saga 'Class A' Hits It Out Of The Park\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2013/05/09/180279940/farm\\-team\\-saga\\-class\\-a\\-hits\\-it\\-out\\-of\\-the\\-park\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2014\\|newspaper\\=NPR\\|date\\=May 9, 2013}} At the end of the season, *Baseball American* named him as the sixth best prospect in the Midwest League.{{cite web\\|last\\=Callis\\|first\\=Jim\\|title\\=Midwest League Top 20 Prospects\\|url\\=http://www.baseballamerica.com/today/prospects/rankings/league\\-top\\-20\\-prospects/2010/2610732\\.html\\|work\\=Baseball American\\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2010\\|date\\=1 October 2010}}",
"Franklin made his major league debut for the Seattle Mariners on May 27, 2013\\. He recorded his first career hit on May 29, 2013\\. On May 30, 2013, Franklin hit his first two career home runs. He set a club record, being the quickest player to have a two\\-homer game in just his fourth game. The previous record was held by former Mariner [Jose Cruz Jr.](/wiki/Jose_Cruz_Jr. \"Jose Cruz Jr.\") who had a two\\-homer game in his sixth game as a rookie in 1997\\.",
"Franklin hit his first major\\-league grand slam on July 21, 2013, in the second inning versus [Houston Astros](/wiki/Houston_Astros \"Houston Astros\") pitcher [Jordan Lyles](/wiki/Jordan_Lyles \"Jordan Lyles\").",
"### Tampa Bay Rays",
"On July 31, 2014, Franklin was traded, along with left\\-hander [Drew Smyly](/wiki/Drew_Smyly \"Drew Smyly\") to the [Tampa Bay Rays](/wiki/Tampa_Bay_Rays \"Tampa Bay Rays\") in a three team deal that sent [David Price](/wiki/David_Price_%28baseball%29 \"David Price (baseball)\") to the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/Detroit_Tigers \"Detroit Tigers\") and [Austin Jackson](/wiki/Austin_Jackson_%28baseball%29 \"Austin Jackson (baseball)\") to the [Seattle Mariners](/wiki/Seattle_Mariners \"Seattle Mariners\"). Franklin finished the 2016 season with a .270 batting average. He was designated for assignment on April 1, 2017\\.",
"### Milwaukee Brewers",
"Franklin was claimed off waivers by the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers \"Milwaukee Brewers\") on April 5, 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jsonline.com/story/sports/mlb/brewers/2017/04/05/brewers\\-claim\\-nick\\-franklin\\-designate\\-michael\\-blazek/100047160/\\|title\\=Notes: Brewers claim Franklin, designate Blazek}} On June 27, he was designated for assignment by the Brewers.",
"### Los Angeles Angels",
"On June 30, 2017, Franklin was traded to the [Los Angeles Angels](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Angels \"Los Angeles Angels\") in exchange for cash considerations or a [player to be named later](/wiki/Player_to_be_named_later \"Player to be named later\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Angels Acquire Nick Franklin\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2017/06/angels\\-acquire\\-nick\\-franklin.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2024\\|website\\=mlbtraderumors.com\\|language\\=en}} In 13 games for the Angels, he went 3–for–24 (.125\\) with two RBI and five walks. On July 29, Franklin was designated for assignment following the promotion of [Troy Scribner](/wiki/Troy_Scribner \"Troy Scribner\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Angels Designate Nick Franklin For Assignment\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2017/07/angels\\-designate\\-nick\\-franklin\\-for\\-assignment.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2024\\|website\\=mlbtraderumors.com\\|language\\=en}} He cleared waivers and was sent outright to the Triple–A [Salt Lake Bees](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Bees \"Salt Lake Bees\") on July 31\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Minor MLB Transactions: 7/31/17\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2017/07/minor\\-mlb\\-transactions\\-73117\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2024\\|website\\=mlbtraderumors.com\\|language\\=en}} Franklin played in only three games for Salt Lake, and elected free agency following the season on November 6\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Minor League Free Agents 2017\\|url\\=https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/minor\\-league\\-free\\-agents\\-2017/?amphtml\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2024\\|website\\=baseballamerica.com\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Milwaukee Brewers (second stint)",
"On February 15, 2018, Franklin signed a minor league contract with the [Milwaukee Brewers](/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers \"Milwaukee Brewers\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2018/02/brewers\\-sign\\-nick\\-franklin\\-to\\-minor\\-league\\-deal.html\\|title\\=Brewers Sign Nick Franklin To Minor League Deal\\|last\\=Adams\\|first\\=Steve\\|work\\=mlbtraderumors.com\\|date\\=February 15, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2018}} Franklin was called up in early May but after two at bats, he missed the entire season with a quad injury. He elected free agency on October 23, 2018\\.",
"### Pittsburgh Pirates",
"On February 6, 2019, Franklin signed a minor league contract with the [Pittsburgh Pirates](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates \"Pittsburgh Pirates\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Pirates Sign Nick Franklin\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2019/02/pirates\\-sign\\-nick\\-franklin.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2024\\|website\\=mlbtraderumors.com\\|language\\=en}} After beginning the season on the injured list due to hamstring tightness, he played in 44 games for the Triple–A [Indianapolis Indians](/wiki/Indianapolis_Indians \"Indianapolis Indians\"), hitting .193/.289/.316 with three home runs and 12 RBI. Franklin was released by the Pirates organization on June 28\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Pirates Release Nick Franklin\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2019/06/pirates\\-release\\-nick\\-franklin.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2024\\|website\\=mlbtraderumors.com\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Los Angeles Angels (second stint)",
"On July 5, 2019, Franklin signed a minor league deal with the [Los Angeles Angels](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Angels \"Los Angeles Angels\") and was assigned to the [Triple\\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 \"Triple-A (baseball)\") [Salt Lake Bees](/wiki/Salt_Lake_Bees \"Salt Lake Bees\"). In 41 games for the Bees, he batted .281/.380/.459 with three home runs and 24 RBI. Franklin became a free agent on November 4\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/minor\\-league\\-free\\-agents\\-2019/\\|title\\=Minor League Free Agents 2019\\|author\\=Matt Eddy\\|website\\=\\[\\[Baseball America]]\\|date\\=November 7, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=November 7, 2019}}",
"### Kansas City Monarchs",
"On April 27, 2021, Frankin signed with the [Kansas City Monarchs](/wiki/Kansas_City_Monarchs_%282021%E2%80%93present%29 \"Kansas City Monarchs (2021–present)\") of the [American Association of Professional Baseball](/wiki/American_Association_of_Professional_Baseball \"American Association of Professional Baseball\"). He appeared in just 4 games, going 4\\-for\\-14, before being placed on the inactive list.",
"### Sioux City Explorers",
"On August 28, 2021, Franklin was traded to the [Sioux City Explorers](/wiki/Sioux_City_Explorers \"Sioux City Explorers\") of the [American Association of Professional Baseball](/wiki/American_Association_of_Professional_Baseball \"American Association of Professional Baseball\") for the reversionary rights to RHP Nick Belzer and future considerations.[American Association Transactions](https://aabaseball.com/transactions/)",
"### Kane County Cougars",
"On August 5, 2022, Franklin was traded to the [Kane County Cougars](/wiki/Kane_County_Cougars \"Kane County Cougars\") of the [American Association of Professional Baseball](/wiki/American_Association_of_Professional_Baseball \"American Association of Professional Baseball\") for 2 players to be named later and cash.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://aabaseball.com/transactions/\\|title \\= American Association of Professional Baseball \\- 2022 Transactions}} In 21 games for the Cougars, he hit .260/.370/.533 with 5 home runs and 19 RBI. On October 31, Franklin was released by the team.{{Cite web\\|title\\=2022 Transactions\\|url\\=https://aabaseball.com/transactions/2022\\-transactions/\\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2023\\|website\\=aabaseball.com\\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years and career
Kuznetsov was born in a peasant family in the village of [Medvedki](/wiki/Medvedki "Medvedki"), [Velikoustyuzhsky Uyezd](/wiki/Velikoustyuzhsky_Uyezd "Velikoustyuzhsky Uyezd"), [Vologda Governorate](/wiki/Vologda_Governorate "Vologda Governorate"), [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") (now in [Kotlassky District](/wiki/Kotlassky_District "Kotlassky District") of [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast "Arkhangelsk Oblast"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia")).
In 1919, Kuznetsov joined the Northern Dvina Naval Flotilla, having added two years to his age to make himself eligible to serve. In 1920, he was stationed at [Petrograd](/wiki/Petrograd "Petrograd") and in 1924, as a member of a naval unit, he attended the funeral ceremony of [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin").{{Cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=hMUPDgAAQBAJ\&q\=nikolay\+kuznetsov%3A\+serb\&pg\=PA702 \|title \= Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929\-1941\|isbn \= 9780735224483\|last1 \= Kotkin\|first1 \= Stephen\|date \= 2017\-10\-31\| publisher\=Penguin }}
That same year, he joined the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Communist Party of the Soviet Union").
Upon graduation from the [Frunze Higher Naval School](/wiki/Frunze_Higher_Naval_School "Frunze Higher Naval School") in 1926, Kuznetsov served on the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") {{ship\|Soviet cruiser\| Chervona Ukraina\|\|2}}, first as watch officer and then as First Lieutenant. In 1932, he graduated from the Naval College after studying operational tactics. Upon graduation, he was offered two options – a desk job with the general staff or a command post on a ship.
Kuznetsov successfully applied for the post of [executive officer](/wiki/Executive_officer "Executive officer") on the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") {{ship\|Soviet cruiser\| Krasnyi Kavkaz\|\|2}}. Within a year, the young officer earned his next promotion. In 1934, he returned to the *Chervona Ukraina*, this time as her commander. Under Kuznetsov, the ship became an outstanding example of discipline and organization, quickly drawing attention to her young captain.
From 5 September 1936 to 15 August 1937, Kuznetsov served as the Soviet naval attaché and chief naval advisor to [Republican Spain](/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic "Second Spanish Republic").{{Cite journal\|last\=MCCANNON\|first\=JOHN\|date\=1995\|journal\=Russian History\|volume\=22\|issue\=2\|pages\=154–180\|issn\=0094\-288X\|jstor\=24657802\|title\=Soviet Intervention in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–39: A Reexamination\|doi\=10\.1163/187633195X00070}}{{Rp\|165}} During the early stages of the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War") of 1936\-1939 he developed a strong dislike of [fascism](/wiki/Fascism "Fascism").{{Cite book\|title\=Memoirs of wartime Minister of the Navy\|last\=Kuznet︠s︡ov\|first\=Nikolaĭ Gerasimovich\|publisher\=Progress Publishers\|location\=Moscow\|date\=1990}}
On returning home, on January 10, 1938, he was promoted to the rank of [flag officer](/wiki/Flag_officer "Flag officer"), 2nd rank, and given command of the [Pacific Fleet](/wiki/Pacific_Fleet_%28Russia%29 "Pacific Fleet (Russia)"). While in this position, he came face to face with [Stalin's purge of the military](/wiki/Great_Purge%23Purge_of_the_army "Great Purge#Purge of the army"). Kuznetsov himself was never implicated, but many of the officers under his command were. Kuznetsov resisted the purges at every step, and his intervention saved the lives of many Soviet officers.
On 28 April 1939, Kuznetsov, still only thirty\-four, was appointed the [People's Commissar (Minister) of the Navy](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28Soviet_Union%29 "Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)"), a post he would hold throughout the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") until 1946\. In 1939, despite Stalin's negative attitude to the [Nikolaevsky Engineering Academy](/wiki/Military_Engineering-Technical_University "Military Engineering-Technical University"), Nikolay Gerasimovich Kuznetsov ordered the return of the Naval Engineering faculty from Moscow to Leningrad, and set up the Military Engineering\-Technical University to educate engineers for the construction of naval bases.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.sovinformburo.com/organization/detail/?item\_id\=1478\&type\=0\|title\= Текст приказа Н. Г. Кузнецова\|website\= sovinformburo.com}}
{{cite web
\|url\= http://www.online812\.ru/2009/03/24/002/pda.html
\|script\-title\= ru:Кто и как ошибался в надписях на петербургских памятниках?
\|trans\-title\= Who made mistakes and how in the inscriptions on Petersburg monuments?
\|website\= online812\.ru
\|date\= 24 March 2009
\|access\-date\= 4 April 2018
\|archive\-date\= 4 April 2018
\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180404073816/http://www.online812\.ru/2009/03/24/002/pda.html
\|url\-status\= dead
}}
### The Second World War
Kuznetsov played a crucial role during the first hours of the war – at this pivotal moment, his resolve and blatant disregard for orders averted the destruction of the [Soviet Navy](/wiki/Soviet_Navy "Soviet Navy"). By June 21, 1941, Kuznetzov was convinced of the inevitability of war with Nazi Germany. On the same day [Semyon Timoshenko](/wiki/Semyon_Timoshenko "Semyon Timoshenko") and [Georgy Zhukov](/wiki/Georgy_Zhukov "Georgy Zhukov") issued a directive prohibiting Soviet commanders from responding to "German provocations". The Navy, however, constituted a distinct ministry ([narkomat](/wiki/Narkomat "Narkomat")), and thus Kuznetsov held a position which was technically outside the direct chain of command. He utilized this fact in a very bold move.
Shortly after midnight on the morning of June 22, Kuznetsov ordered all Soviet fleets to battle readiness. At 3:15 am that same morning, the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") began [Operation Barbarossa](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa "Operation Barbarossa").{{sfn\|Kirchubel\|2007\|pp\=33–34}} The Soviet Navy was the only branch of the military in the highest state of combat readiness at the start of the initial German push.
In the following two years, Kuznetsov's primary concern was the protection of the Caucasus from a German invasion. Throughout the war, the [Black Sea remained the primary theater of operations for the Soviet Navy](/wiki/Black_Sea_campaigns_%281941%E2%80%9344%29 "Black Sea campaigns (1941–44)"). During the war years Kuznetsov honed Soviet methods of [amphibious assault](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare "Amphibious warfare"). A notable subordinate in the Black Sea and in command of the Azov Flotilla was [S.G. Gorshkov](/wiki/Sergey_Gorshkov "Sergey Gorshkov") who would later succeed him as Commander\-in\-Chief of the Navy. In May 1944 he was given the rank of Admiral of the Fleet – a newly created position initially equated to that of a four\-star general. In the same year, Kuznetsov was given the title of [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union "Hero of the Soviet Union"). On May 31, 1945, his rank was equated to the rank of [Marshal of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union "Marshal of the Soviet Union") with a similar insignia. In August 1945, he took part in [Operation August Storm](/wiki/Operation_August_Storm "Operation August Storm") in the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East"), helping to provide functions for the Soviet Navy fleet for Commander\-in\-Chief of USSR Forces in the Far East [Marshal](/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union "Marshal of the Soviet Union") [Aleksandr Vasilevsky](/wiki/Aleksandr_Vasilevsky "Aleksandr Vasilevsky").
### The first fall
From 1946 to 1947 he was the Deputy Minister of the USSR Armed Forces and [Commander\-in\-Chief](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief "Commander-in-Chief") of the Naval Forces.
In 1947 he was removed from his post on Stalin's orders and in 1948 he, as well as several other admirals were put on trial by the Naval Tribunal. Kuznetsov was demoted to [vice\-admiral](/wiki/Vice-admiral "Vice-admiral"), while the other admirals received prison sentences of varying length.
In 1951 Stalin ended Kuznetsov's pariah status, once again placing him in command of the Navy (as the Minister of the Navy of the USSR), but without restoring his military rank, which was returned to him upon Stalin's death in 1953\. In the same year, he became the First Deputy Minister of Defense of the USSR. In 1955, Kuznetsov was made Commander\-in\-Chief of the Naval Forces. His rank was raised to [Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_of_the_Soviet_Union "Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union") and he was awarded the [Marshal's Star](/wiki/Marshal%27s_Star "Marshal's Star").
### The second fall and retirement
His newfound prominence brought him into direct conflict with now Defense Minister Marshal Zhukov, with whom he had clashed during the war years. On December 8, 1955, using the loss of the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship") {{ship\|Soviet battleship\|Novorossiysk\|\|2}} as a pretext, Zhukov removed the Admiral from his post. The commission that inspected the ship's loss was headed by [Vyacheslav Malyshev](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Malyshev "Vyacheslav Malyshev") and its findings were used by Zhukov to blame Kuznetsov. In February 1956 he was again demoted to the rank of vice\-admiral, retired and expressly forbidden "any and all work connected with the navy."
During his retirement he wrote and published many essays and articles, as well as several longer works, including his memoirs and an officially sanctioned book, "With a Course for Victory", which dealt with the Patriotic War. His memoirs, unlike those of many other prominent leaders, were written by him personally and are noted for their style.
Kuznetsov also authored several books on the war, on Stalin's repressions, and on the navy which were published [posthumously](/wiki/Posthumous_work "Posthumous work"). In these he was highly critical of the Party's interference in the internal affairs of the military, and insisted that "the state must be ruled by law."
### Rehabilitation and legacy
After the retirement of Zhukov in 1957, and of Khrushchev in 1964, a group of naval veterans began a campaign addressed to the Soviet leadership to restore Kuznetsov's rank, with all benefits, and to make him one of the General Inspectors of the Ministry of Defence. Invariably, these requests fell on deaf ears. Not until July 26, 1988, under [Andrey Gromyko](/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko "Andrei Gromyko") did the [Presidium of the Supreme Soviet](/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet "Presidium of the Supreme Soviet") of the USSR reinstate Kuznetsov to his former rank of [Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_of_the_Soviet_Union "Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union"). Kuznetsov is now recognized as one of the most prominent men in the history of the Soviet and, today, of the [Russian Navy](/wiki/Russian_Navy "Russian Navy"). In recognition, the Russian Navy's largest surface warship, its only remaining [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Russian_aircraft_carrier_Admiral_Kuznetsov "Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov"), is named in his honor.
### Death
Kuznetsov died on 6 December 1974 in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), at aged 70 and was buried with full [military honors](/wiki/Military_honors "Military honors") at the [Novodevichy Cemetery](/wiki/Novodevichy_Cemetery "Novodevichy Cemetery").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years and career",
"Kuznetsov was born in a peasant family in the village of [Medvedki](/wiki/Medvedki \"Medvedki\"), [Velikoustyuzhsky Uyezd](/wiki/Velikoustyuzhsky_Uyezd \"Velikoustyuzhsky Uyezd\"), [Vologda Governorate](/wiki/Vologda_Governorate \"Vologda Governorate\"), [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") (now in [Kotlassky District](/wiki/Kotlassky_District \"Kotlassky District\") of [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast \"Arkhangelsk Oblast\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\")).",
"In 1919, Kuznetsov joined the Northern Dvina Naval Flotilla, having added two years to his age to make himself eligible to serve. In 1920, he was stationed at [Petrograd](/wiki/Petrograd \"Petrograd\") and in 1924, as a member of a naval unit, he attended the funeral ceremony of [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\").{{Cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hMUPDgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=nikolay\\+kuznetsov%3A\\+serb\\&pg\\=PA702 \\|title \\= Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929\\-1941\\|isbn \\= 9780735224483\\|last1 \\= Kotkin\\|first1 \\= Stephen\\|date \\= 2017\\-10\\-31\\| publisher\\=Penguin }}",
"That same year, he joined the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Communist Party of the Soviet Union\").",
"Upon graduation from the [Frunze Higher Naval School](/wiki/Frunze_Higher_Naval_School \"Frunze Higher Naval School\") in 1926, Kuznetsov served on the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") {{ship\\|Soviet cruiser\\| Chervona Ukraina\\|\\|2}}, first as watch officer and then as First Lieutenant. In 1932, he graduated from the Naval College after studying operational tactics. Upon graduation, he was offered two options – a desk job with the general staff or a command post on a ship.",
"Kuznetsov successfully applied for the post of [executive officer](/wiki/Executive_officer \"Executive officer\") on the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") {{ship\\|Soviet cruiser\\| Krasnyi Kavkaz\\|\\|2}}. Within a year, the young officer earned his next promotion. In 1934, he returned to the *Chervona Ukraina*, this time as her commander. Under Kuznetsov, the ship became an outstanding example of discipline and organization, quickly drawing attention to her young captain.",
"From 5 September 1936 to 15 August 1937, Kuznetsov served as the Soviet naval attaché and chief naval advisor to [Republican Spain](/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic \"Second Spanish Republic\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=MCCANNON\\|first\\=JOHN\\|date\\=1995\\|journal\\=Russian History\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=154–180\\|issn\\=0094\\-288X\\|jstor\\=24657802\\|title\\=Soviet Intervention in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–39: A Reexamination\\|doi\\=10\\.1163/187633195X00070}}{{Rp\\|165}} During the early stages of the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") of 1936\\-1939 he developed a strong dislike of [fascism](/wiki/Fascism \"Fascism\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Memoirs of wartime Minister of the Navy\\|last\\=Kuznet︠s︡ov\\|first\\=Nikolaĭ Gerasimovich\\|publisher\\=Progress Publishers\\|location\\=Moscow\\|date\\=1990}}",
"On returning home, on January 10, 1938, he was promoted to the rank of [flag officer](/wiki/Flag_officer \"Flag officer\"), 2nd rank, and given command of the [Pacific Fleet](/wiki/Pacific_Fleet_%28Russia%29 \"Pacific Fleet (Russia)\"). While in this position, he came face to face with [Stalin's purge of the military](/wiki/Great_Purge%23Purge_of_the_army \"Great Purge#Purge of the army\"). Kuznetsov himself was never implicated, but many of the officers under his command were. Kuznetsov resisted the purges at every step, and his intervention saved the lives of many Soviet officers.",
"On 28 April 1939, Kuznetsov, still only thirty\\-four, was appointed the [People's Commissar (Minister) of the Navy](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)\"), a post he would hold throughout the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") until 1946\\. In 1939, despite Stalin's negative attitude to the [Nikolaevsky Engineering Academy](/wiki/Military_Engineering-Technical_University \"Military Engineering-Technical University\"), Nikolay Gerasimovich Kuznetsov ordered the return of the Naval Engineering faculty from Moscow to Leningrad, and set up the Military Engineering\\-Technical University to educate engineers for the construction of naval bases.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.sovinformburo.com/organization/detail/?item\\_id\\=1478\\&type\\=0\\|title\\= Текст приказа Н. Г. Кузнецова\\|website\\= sovinformburo.com}}\n{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.online812\\.ru/2009/03/24/002/pda.html\n\\|script\\-title\\= ru:Кто и как ошибался в надписях на петербургских памятниках?\n\\|trans\\-title\\= Who made mistakes and how in the inscriptions on Petersburg monuments?\n\\|website\\= online812\\.ru\n\\|date\\= 24 March 2009\n\\|access\\-date\\= 4 April 2018\n\\|archive\\-date\\= 4 April 2018\n\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180404073816/http://www.online812\\.ru/2009/03/24/002/pda.html\n\\|url\\-status\\= dead\n}}",
"### The Second World War",
"Kuznetsov played a crucial role during the first hours of the war – at this pivotal moment, his resolve and blatant disregard for orders averted the destruction of the [Soviet Navy](/wiki/Soviet_Navy \"Soviet Navy\"). By June 21, 1941, Kuznetzov was convinced of the inevitability of war with Nazi Germany. On the same day [Semyon Timoshenko](/wiki/Semyon_Timoshenko \"Semyon Timoshenko\") and [Georgy Zhukov](/wiki/Georgy_Zhukov \"Georgy Zhukov\") issued a directive prohibiting Soviet commanders from responding to \"German provocations\". The Navy, however, constituted a distinct ministry ([narkomat](/wiki/Narkomat \"Narkomat\")), and thus Kuznetsov held a position which was technically outside the direct chain of command. He utilized this fact in a very bold move.",
"Shortly after midnight on the morning of June 22, Kuznetsov ordered all Soviet fleets to battle readiness. At 3:15 am that same morning, the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") began [Operation Barbarossa](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa \"Operation Barbarossa\").{{sfn\\|Kirchubel\\|2007\\|pp\\=33–34}} The Soviet Navy was the only branch of the military in the highest state of combat readiness at the start of the initial German push.",
"In the following two years, Kuznetsov's primary concern was the protection of the Caucasus from a German invasion. Throughout the war, the [Black Sea remained the primary theater of operations for the Soviet Navy](/wiki/Black_Sea_campaigns_%281941%E2%80%9344%29 \"Black Sea campaigns (1941–44)\"). During the war years Kuznetsov honed Soviet methods of [amphibious assault](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare \"Amphibious warfare\"). A notable subordinate in the Black Sea and in command of the Azov Flotilla was [S.G. Gorshkov](/wiki/Sergey_Gorshkov \"Sergey Gorshkov\") who would later succeed him as Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the Navy. In May 1944 he was given the rank of Admiral of the Fleet – a newly created position initially equated to that of a four\\-star general. In the same year, Kuznetsov was given the title of [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Hero of the Soviet Union\"). On May 31, 1945, his rank was equated to the rank of [Marshal of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Marshal of the Soviet Union\") with a similar insignia. In August 1945, he took part in [Operation August Storm](/wiki/Operation_August_Storm \"Operation August Storm\") in the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\"), helping to provide functions for the Soviet Navy fleet for Commander\\-in\\-Chief of USSR Forces in the Far East [Marshal](/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Marshal of the Soviet Union\") [Aleksandr Vasilevsky](/wiki/Aleksandr_Vasilevsky \"Aleksandr Vasilevsky\").",
"### The first fall",
"From 1946 to 1947 he was the Deputy Minister of the USSR Armed Forces and [Commander\\-in\\-Chief](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief \"Commander-in-Chief\") of the Naval Forces.",
"In 1947 he was removed from his post on Stalin's orders and in 1948 he, as well as several other admirals were put on trial by the Naval Tribunal. Kuznetsov was demoted to [vice\\-admiral](/wiki/Vice-admiral \"Vice-admiral\"), while the other admirals received prison sentences of varying length.",
"In 1951 Stalin ended Kuznetsov's pariah status, once again placing him in command of the Navy (as the Minister of the Navy of the USSR), but without restoring his military rank, which was returned to him upon Stalin's death in 1953\\. In the same year, he became the First Deputy Minister of Defense of the USSR. In 1955, Kuznetsov was made Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the Naval Forces. His rank was raised to [Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union\") and he was awarded the [Marshal's Star](/wiki/Marshal%27s_Star \"Marshal's Star\").",
"### The second fall and retirement",
"His newfound prominence brought him into direct conflict with now Defense Minister Marshal Zhukov, with whom he had clashed during the war years. On December 8, 1955, using the loss of the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\") {{ship\\|Soviet battleship\\|Novorossiysk\\|\\|2}} as a pretext, Zhukov removed the Admiral from his post. The commission that inspected the ship's loss was headed by [Vyacheslav Malyshev](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Malyshev \"Vyacheslav Malyshev\") and its findings were used by Zhukov to blame Kuznetsov. In February 1956 he was again demoted to the rank of vice\\-admiral, retired and expressly forbidden \"any and all work connected with the navy.\"",
"During his retirement he wrote and published many essays and articles, as well as several longer works, including his memoirs and an officially sanctioned book, \"With a Course for Victory\", which dealt with the Patriotic War. His memoirs, unlike those of many other prominent leaders, were written by him personally and are noted for their style.",
"Kuznetsov also authored several books on the war, on Stalin's repressions, and on the navy which were published [posthumously](/wiki/Posthumous_work \"Posthumous work\"). In these he was highly critical of the Party's interference in the internal affairs of the military, and insisted that \"the state must be ruled by law.\"",
"### Rehabilitation and legacy",
"After the retirement of Zhukov in 1957, and of Khrushchev in 1964, a group of naval veterans began a campaign addressed to the Soviet leadership to restore Kuznetsov's rank, with all benefits, and to make him one of the General Inspectors of the Ministry of Defence. Invariably, these requests fell on deaf ears. Not until July 26, 1988, under [Andrey Gromyko](/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko \"Andrei Gromyko\") did the [Presidium of the Supreme Soviet](/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet \"Presidium of the Supreme Soviet\") of the USSR reinstate Kuznetsov to his former rank of [Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union\"). Kuznetsov is now recognized as one of the most prominent men in the history of the Soviet and, today, of the [Russian Navy](/wiki/Russian_Navy \"Russian Navy\"). In recognition, the Russian Navy's largest surface warship, its only remaining [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Russian_aircraft_carrier_Admiral_Kuznetsov \"Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov\"), is named in his honor.",
"### Death",
"Kuznetsov died on 6 December 1974 in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), at aged 70 and was buried with full [military honors](/wiki/Military_honors \"Military honors\") at the [Novodevichy Cemetery](/wiki/Novodevichy_Cemetery \"Novodevichy Cemetery\").",
""
] |
### Early years and career
Kuznetsov was born in a peasant family in the village of [Medvedki](/wiki/Medvedki "Medvedki"), [Velikoustyuzhsky Uyezd](/wiki/Velikoustyuzhsky_Uyezd "Velikoustyuzhsky Uyezd"), [Vologda Governorate](/wiki/Vologda_Governorate "Vologda Governorate"), [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") (now in [Kotlassky District](/wiki/Kotlassky_District "Kotlassky District") of [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast "Arkhangelsk Oblast"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia")).
In 1919, Kuznetsov joined the Northern Dvina Naval Flotilla, having added two years to his age to make himself eligible to serve. In 1920, he was stationed at [Petrograd](/wiki/Petrograd "Petrograd") and in 1924, as a member of a naval unit, he attended the funeral ceremony of [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin").{{Cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=hMUPDgAAQBAJ\&q\=nikolay\+kuznetsov%3A\+serb\&pg\=PA702 \|title \= Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929\-1941\|isbn \= 9780735224483\|last1 \= Kotkin\|first1 \= Stephen\|date \= 2017\-10\-31\| publisher\=Penguin }}
That same year, he joined the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Communist Party of the Soviet Union").
Upon graduation from the [Frunze Higher Naval School](/wiki/Frunze_Higher_Naval_School "Frunze Higher Naval School") in 1926, Kuznetsov served on the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") {{ship\|Soviet cruiser\| Chervona Ukraina\|\|2}}, first as watch officer and then as First Lieutenant. In 1932, he graduated from the Naval College after studying operational tactics. Upon graduation, he was offered two options – a desk job with the general staff or a command post on a ship.
Kuznetsov successfully applied for the post of [executive officer](/wiki/Executive_officer "Executive officer") on the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") {{ship\|Soviet cruiser\| Krasnyi Kavkaz\|\|2}}. Within a year, the young officer earned his next promotion. In 1934, he returned to the *Chervona Ukraina*, this time as her commander. Under Kuznetsov, the ship became an outstanding example of discipline and organization, quickly drawing attention to her young captain.
From 5 September 1936 to 15 August 1937, Kuznetsov served as the Soviet naval attaché and chief naval advisor to [Republican Spain](/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic "Second Spanish Republic").{{Cite journal\|last\=MCCANNON\|first\=JOHN\|date\=1995\|journal\=Russian History\|volume\=22\|issue\=2\|pages\=154–180\|issn\=0094\-288X\|jstor\=24657802\|title\=Soviet Intervention in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–39: A Reexamination\|doi\=10\.1163/187633195X00070}}{{Rp\|165}} During the early stages of the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War") of 1936\-1939 he developed a strong dislike of [fascism](/wiki/Fascism "Fascism").{{Cite book\|title\=Memoirs of wartime Minister of the Navy\|last\=Kuznet︠s︡ov\|first\=Nikolaĭ Gerasimovich\|publisher\=Progress Publishers\|location\=Moscow\|date\=1990}}
On returning home, on January 10, 1938, he was promoted to the rank of [flag officer](/wiki/Flag_officer "Flag officer"), 2nd rank, and given command of the [Pacific Fleet](/wiki/Pacific_Fleet_%28Russia%29 "Pacific Fleet (Russia)"). While in this position, he came face to face with [Stalin's purge of the military](/wiki/Great_Purge%23Purge_of_the_army "Great Purge#Purge of the army"). Kuznetsov himself was never implicated, but many of the officers under his command were. Kuznetsov resisted the purges at every step, and his intervention saved the lives of many Soviet officers.
On 28 April 1939, Kuznetsov, still only thirty\-four, was appointed the [People's Commissar (Minister) of the Navy](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28Soviet_Union%29 "Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)"), a post he would hold throughout the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") until 1946\. In 1939, despite Stalin's negative attitude to the [Nikolaevsky Engineering Academy](/wiki/Military_Engineering-Technical_University "Military Engineering-Technical University"), Nikolay Gerasimovich Kuznetsov ordered the return of the Naval Engineering faculty from Moscow to Leningrad, and set up the Military Engineering\-Technical University to educate engineers for the construction of naval bases.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.sovinformburo.com/organization/detail/?item\_id\=1478\&type\=0\|title\= Текст приказа Н. Г. Кузнецова\|website\= sovinformburo.com}}
{{cite web
\|url\= http://www.online812\.ru/2009/03/24/002/pda.html
\|script\-title\= ru:Кто и как ошибался в надписях на петербургских памятниках?
\|trans\-title\= Who made mistakes and how in the inscriptions on Petersburg monuments?
\|website\= online812\.ru
\|date\= 24 March 2009
\|access\-date\= 4 April 2018
\|archive\-date\= 4 April 2018
\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180404073816/http://www.online812\.ru/2009/03/24/002/pda.html
\|url\-status\= dead
}}
|
[
"### Early years and career",
"Kuznetsov was born in a peasant family in the village of [Medvedki](/wiki/Medvedki \"Medvedki\"), [Velikoustyuzhsky Uyezd](/wiki/Velikoustyuzhsky_Uyezd \"Velikoustyuzhsky Uyezd\"), [Vologda Governorate](/wiki/Vologda_Governorate \"Vologda Governorate\"), [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") (now in [Kotlassky District](/wiki/Kotlassky_District \"Kotlassky District\") of [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast \"Arkhangelsk Oblast\"), [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\")).",
"In 1919, Kuznetsov joined the Northern Dvina Naval Flotilla, having added two years to his age to make himself eligible to serve. In 1920, he was stationed at [Petrograd](/wiki/Petrograd \"Petrograd\") and in 1924, as a member of a naval unit, he attended the funeral ceremony of [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\").{{Cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hMUPDgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=nikolay\\+kuznetsov%3A\\+serb\\&pg\\=PA702 \\|title \\= Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929\\-1941\\|isbn \\= 9780735224483\\|last1 \\= Kotkin\\|first1 \\= Stephen\\|date \\= 2017\\-10\\-31\\| publisher\\=Penguin }}",
"That same year, he joined the [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Communist Party of the Soviet Union\").",
"Upon graduation from the [Frunze Higher Naval School](/wiki/Frunze_Higher_Naval_School \"Frunze Higher Naval School\") in 1926, Kuznetsov served on the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") {{ship\\|Soviet cruiser\\| Chervona Ukraina\\|\\|2}}, first as watch officer and then as First Lieutenant. In 1932, he graduated from the Naval College after studying operational tactics. Upon graduation, he was offered two options – a desk job with the general staff or a command post on a ship.",
"Kuznetsov successfully applied for the post of [executive officer](/wiki/Executive_officer \"Executive officer\") on the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") {{ship\\|Soviet cruiser\\| Krasnyi Kavkaz\\|\\|2}}. Within a year, the young officer earned his next promotion. In 1934, he returned to the *Chervona Ukraina*, this time as her commander. Under Kuznetsov, the ship became an outstanding example of discipline and organization, quickly drawing attention to her young captain.",
"From 5 September 1936 to 15 August 1937, Kuznetsov served as the Soviet naval attaché and chief naval advisor to [Republican Spain](/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic \"Second Spanish Republic\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=MCCANNON\\|first\\=JOHN\\|date\\=1995\\|journal\\=Russian History\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=154–180\\|issn\\=0094\\-288X\\|jstor\\=24657802\\|title\\=Soviet Intervention in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–39: A Reexamination\\|doi\\=10\\.1163/187633195X00070}}{{Rp\\|165}} During the early stages of the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") of 1936\\-1939 he developed a strong dislike of [fascism](/wiki/Fascism \"Fascism\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Memoirs of wartime Minister of the Navy\\|last\\=Kuznet︠s︡ov\\|first\\=Nikolaĭ Gerasimovich\\|publisher\\=Progress Publishers\\|location\\=Moscow\\|date\\=1990}}",
"On returning home, on January 10, 1938, he was promoted to the rank of [flag officer](/wiki/Flag_officer \"Flag officer\"), 2nd rank, and given command of the [Pacific Fleet](/wiki/Pacific_Fleet_%28Russia%29 \"Pacific Fleet (Russia)\"). While in this position, he came face to face with [Stalin's purge of the military](/wiki/Great_Purge%23Purge_of_the_army \"Great Purge#Purge of the army\"). Kuznetsov himself was never implicated, but many of the officers under his command were. Kuznetsov resisted the purges at every step, and his intervention saved the lives of many Soviet officers.",
"On 28 April 1939, Kuznetsov, still only thirty\\-four, was appointed the [People's Commissar (Minister) of the Navy](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"Minister of Defence (Soviet Union)\"), a post he would hold throughout the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") until 1946\\. In 1939, despite Stalin's negative attitude to the [Nikolaevsky Engineering Academy](/wiki/Military_Engineering-Technical_University \"Military Engineering-Technical University\"), Nikolay Gerasimovich Kuznetsov ordered the return of the Naval Engineering faculty from Moscow to Leningrad, and set up the Military Engineering\\-Technical University to educate engineers for the construction of naval bases.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.sovinformburo.com/organization/detail/?item\\_id\\=1478\\&type\\=0\\|title\\= Текст приказа Н. Г. Кузнецова\\|website\\= sovinformburo.com}}\n{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.online812\\.ru/2009/03/24/002/pda.html\n\\|script\\-title\\= ru:Кто и как ошибался в надписях на петербургских памятниках?\n\\|trans\\-title\\= Who made mistakes and how in the inscriptions on Petersburg monuments?\n\\|website\\= online812\\.ru\n\\|date\\= 24 March 2009\n\\|access\\-date\\= 4 April 2018\n\\|archive\\-date\\= 4 April 2018\n\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180404073816/http://www.online812\\.ru/2009/03/24/002/pda.html\n\\|url\\-status\\= dead\n}}",
""
] |
Siege
-----
[thumb\|225px\|The Spanish fort El Léon at Crozon in a field sketch by English officer John Norreys in 1594\.](/wiki/File:Crozon1594.jpg "Crozon1594.jpg")
On 1 October the siege began when Frobisher's ships arrived and blockaded the fort (which was still not finished) and fired off a desultory bombardment before the land force arrived. The besieging army arrived soon after and began to open trenches on 11 October, supported by cannon fire from the sea by English ships. The besiegers however suffered from the Spanish artillery fire during the installation of [wicker](/wiki/Wicker "Wicker") filled [gabions](/wiki/Gabion "Gabion"), trenches, and artillery emplacements.Wernham pp 547\-52 They also had to cope with [sorties](/wiki/Sortie_%28siege_warfare%29 "Sortie (siege warfare)") from the Spanish bastions, day and night, so that the siege positions were not permanently positioned.
[thumbnail\|155px\|left\|Sir John Norreys \- commander of English forces in France](/wiki/File:John_Norreys.png "John Norreys.png")
Once the heavy artillery (twelve guns) were in place however continuous fire from these began to take their effect on the besieged. Soon after the French launched an assault on a bastion on the right side and the English on the left. The battle lasted three hours, but in the confusion a tremendous explosion appeared behind the attacking French causing the attackers to retreat in panic fearing a Spanish attack in the rear. It had turned out several huge barrels of gunpowder blew up in one of the main French siege batteries (either ignited by accident or by a stray Spanish shot) killing or wounding many.
A lull in the siege took place as the English and French needed rearming with new powder which had to come from Brest and the English ships. The advantage of this time taken by the Spanish was to finish off the walls and repair the bastions. At the same Cornish pioneers had been trying to mine the fort.
On 1 November the Spanish then launched a major [sally](/wiki/Sortie "Sortie") against the siege batteries \- they surprised the defenders, continued all the way until they reached a large French battery. Here they spiked three siege guns, and returned to the fort before Baron de Molac's troops could react. The Spanish had inflicted heavy losses having lost only eleven men in their attack.
The besiegers' battery fire dwindled slightly but the powder and ammunition began to run low in the fort. Paredes then sent for reinforcements to Juan Aguila. Despite the protests of Mercœur, Águila decided to send a relief force in order to avoid a defeat.Nolan pp 215\-17 Águila's relief force started off having been delayed because he did not have cavalry, but continued on with 4,000 infantry and two pieces of artillery. The French cavalry force armed with [arquebusiers](/wiki/Arquebus "Arquebus") numbering 300 made frequent attacks delaying Águila further. Aumont received news of Águila's relief force and ordered the besiegers to double their efforts, in particular putting pressure on the miners to complete the mining for detonation and to launch an immediate assault.
[155px\|thumb\|Juan del Águila](/wiki/File:Juan_del_Aguila_y_Arellano.jpg "Juan del Aguila y Arellano.jpg")
On 17 November the mine was complete and promptly blown, causing huge damage to the fort's wall and killing and injuring around fifty of the garrison. French and English artillery completed the destruction and a full breach was made. The assault was ready for the following evening, the columns of attack were prepared \- the English were on the right and the French were on the left. One of the English columns was formed by sailors and marines commanded by Martin Frobisher. Three large assaults were made by the columns and there was desperate fighting in the breach; a cannonball killed Paredes whilst leading his troops in defence. After bitter fighting the attacks were called off as there were fears and rumours that Águila had arrived with his relief force \- among the many casualties from the breach was Frobisher, who was carried away.
The rumours were false about Águila \- he was only four miles from the fort, hoping to relieve the defenders the next day and take the besiegers by surprise. During the evening word got through to the garrison of Águila's approach and there was much hope for victory particularly after the repulse of the attack but the Spanish had very little ammunition and only one officer was left alive unwounded.
For the besiegers desperate measures were to be made; at nightfall an English officer approached the bastion with a [flag of truce](/wiki/White_flag "White flag"). This was a ruse \- behind him in the dark Norrey's English soldiers quietly approached hoping to take advantage of the situation.Garrido, Arsenal \& Prado pp.272\-73 The ruse was successful \- they then threw themselves at the breach and this time swept in, overwhelming the Spanish in desperate hand\-to\-hand fighting. The Spanish fought bravely but were all eventually put to the sword; no quarter was given even if there were women and children inside.
When news of the fort's fall reached him, Águila, who was only a few miles away, led a hasty retreat, leaving behind his heavy baggage and artillery in order to escape a feared trap.
|
[
"Siege\n-----",
"[thumb\\|225px\\|The Spanish fort El Léon at Crozon in a field sketch by English officer John Norreys in 1594\\.](/wiki/File:Crozon1594.jpg \"Crozon1594.jpg\")\nOn 1 October the siege began when Frobisher's ships arrived and blockaded the fort (which was still not finished) and fired off a desultory bombardment before the land force arrived. The besieging army arrived soon after and began to open trenches on 11 October, supported by cannon fire from the sea by English ships. The besiegers however suffered from the Spanish artillery fire during the installation of [wicker](/wiki/Wicker \"Wicker\") filled [gabions](/wiki/Gabion \"Gabion\"), trenches, and artillery emplacements.Wernham pp 547\\-52 They also had to cope with [sorties](/wiki/Sortie_%28siege_warfare%29 \"Sortie (siege warfare)\") from the Spanish bastions, day and night, so that the siege positions were not permanently positioned.\n[thumbnail\\|155px\\|left\\|Sir John Norreys \\- commander of English forces in France](/wiki/File:John_Norreys.png \"John Norreys.png\")",
"Once the heavy artillery (twelve guns) were in place however continuous fire from these began to take their effect on the besieged. Soon after the French launched an assault on a bastion on the right side and the English on the left. The battle lasted three hours, but in the confusion a tremendous explosion appeared behind the attacking French causing the attackers to retreat in panic fearing a Spanish attack in the rear. It had turned out several huge barrels of gunpowder blew up in one of the main French siege batteries (either ignited by accident or by a stray Spanish shot) killing or wounding many.",
"A lull in the siege took place as the English and French needed rearming with new powder which had to come from Brest and the English ships. The advantage of this time taken by the Spanish was to finish off the walls and repair the bastions. At the same Cornish pioneers had been trying to mine the fort.",
"On 1 November the Spanish then launched a major [sally](/wiki/Sortie \"Sortie\") against the siege batteries \\- they surprised the defenders, continued all the way until they reached a large French battery. Here they spiked three siege guns, and returned to the fort before Baron de Molac's troops could react. The Spanish had inflicted heavy losses having lost only eleven men in their attack.",
"The besiegers' battery fire dwindled slightly but the powder and ammunition began to run low in the fort. Paredes then sent for reinforcements to Juan Aguila. Despite the protests of Mercœur, Águila decided to send a relief force in order to avoid a defeat.Nolan pp 215\\-17 Águila's relief force started off having been delayed because he did not have cavalry, but continued on with 4,000 infantry and two pieces of artillery. The French cavalry force armed with [arquebusiers](/wiki/Arquebus \"Arquebus\") numbering 300 made frequent attacks delaying Águila further. Aumont received news of Águila's relief force and ordered the besiegers to double their efforts, in particular putting pressure on the miners to complete the mining for detonation and to launch an immediate assault.\n[155px\\|thumb\\|Juan del Águila](/wiki/File:Juan_del_Aguila_y_Arellano.jpg \"Juan del Aguila y Arellano.jpg\")",
"On 17 November the mine was complete and promptly blown, causing huge damage to the fort's wall and killing and injuring around fifty of the garrison. French and English artillery completed the destruction and a full breach was made. The assault was ready for the following evening, the columns of attack were prepared \\- the English were on the right and the French were on the left. One of the English columns was formed by sailors and marines commanded by Martin Frobisher. Three large assaults were made by the columns and there was desperate fighting in the breach; a cannonball killed Paredes whilst leading his troops in defence. After bitter fighting the attacks were called off as there were fears and rumours that Águila had arrived with his relief force \\- among the many casualties from the breach was Frobisher, who was carried away.",
"The rumours were false about Águila \\- he was only four miles from the fort, hoping to relieve the defenders the next day and take the besiegers by surprise. During the evening word got through to the garrison of Águila's approach and there was much hope for victory particularly after the repulse of the attack but the Spanish had very little ammunition and only one officer was left alive unwounded.",
"For the besiegers desperate measures were to be made; at nightfall an English officer approached the bastion with a [flag of truce](/wiki/White_flag \"White flag\"). This was a ruse \\- behind him in the dark Norrey's English soldiers quietly approached hoping to take advantage of the situation.Garrido, Arsenal \\& Prado pp.272\\-73 The ruse was successful \\- they then threw themselves at the breach and this time swept in, overwhelming the Spanish in desperate hand\\-to\\-hand fighting. The Spanish fought bravely but were all eventually put to the sword; no quarter was given even if there were women and children inside.",
"When news of the fort's fall reached him, Águila, who was only a few miles away, led a hasty retreat, leaving behind his heavy baggage and artillery in order to escape a feared trap.",
""
] |
Architecture
------------
Windows Azure Caching allows a cloud service to host Caching on a Windows Azure role.{{cite web \|title\=Caching in Windows Azure \|url\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\-us/library/gg278356\.aspx \|accessdate\=12 February 2013 \|work\=MSDN Library \|publisher\=Microsoft}} The cache is distributed across all running instances of that role. Therefore, the amount of available memory in the cache is determined by the number of running instances of the role that hosts Caching and the amount of physical memory reserved for Caching on each instance.{{cite web\|title\=Capacity Planning Considerations for Windows Azure Caching\|url\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\-us/library/hh914129\.aspx\|work\=MSDN Library\|publisher\=Microsoft\|accessdate\=13 February 2013}}
There are two deployment topologies for Caching:
* *Dedicated*{{cite web\|title\=Windows Azure Caching on Dedicated Roles\|url\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\-us/library/hh914140\.aspx\|work\=MSDN Library\|publisher\=Microsoft\|accessdate\=13 February 2013}}
* *Co\-located*{{cite web\|title\=Windows Azure Caching on Existing Roles\|url\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\-us/library/hh914128\.aspx\|work\=MSDN Library\|publisher\=Microsoft\|accessdate\=13 February 2013}}
### Dedicated topology
In the dedicated topology, you define a worker role that is dedicated to Caching. This means that all of the worker role's available memory is used for the Caching and operating overhead.
The following diagram shows Caching in a dedicated topology. The cloud service shown has three roles: Web1, Worker1, and Cache1\. There are two running instances of each role. In this example, the cache is distributed across all instances of the dedicated Cache1 role.
[300px\|Represents a running Windows Azure cloud service that uses Caching with a dedicated topology.](/wiki/File:Windows_Azure_Caching_%28Dedicated%29.jpg "Windows Azure Caching (Dedicated).jpg")
A dedicated topology has the advantage of scaling the caching tier independently of any other role in the cloud service.{{cite web\|title\=About Windows Azure Caching, Cache Cluster\|url\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\-us/library/hh914161\.aspx\#Concept\_CacheClusters\|work\=MSDN Library\|publisher\=Microsoft\|accessdate\=13 February 2013}} For the best Caching performance, a dedicated topology is recommended because the role instances do not share their resources with other application code and services.
### Co\-located topology
In a co\-located topology, you use a percentage of available memory on existing web or worker roles for Caching.
The following diagram shows Caching in a co\-located topology. The cloud service has two roles: Web1 and Worker1\. There are two running instances of each role. In this example, the cache is distributed across all instances of the Web1 role. Because this role also hosts the web front\-end for the cloud service, the cache is configured to use only a percentage of the physical memory on each instance of the Web1 role.
[250px\|Represents a running Windows Azure cloud service that uses Caching with a co\-located topology.](/wiki/File:Windows_Azure_Caching_%28Co-located%29.jpg "Windows Azure Caching (Co-located).jpg")
A co\-located cache is a cost\-effective way to make use of existing memory on a role within a cloud service.
|
[
"Architecture\n------------",
"Windows Azure Caching allows a cloud service to host Caching on a Windows Azure role.{{cite web \\|title\\=Caching in Windows Azure \\|url\\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\\-us/library/gg278356\\.aspx \\|accessdate\\=12 February 2013 \\|work\\=MSDN Library \\|publisher\\=Microsoft}} The cache is distributed across all running instances of that role. Therefore, the amount of available memory in the cache is determined by the number of running instances of the role that hosts Caching and the amount of physical memory reserved for Caching on each instance.{{cite web\\|title\\=Capacity Planning Considerations for Windows Azure Caching\\|url\\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\\-us/library/hh914129\\.aspx\\|work\\=MSDN Library\\|publisher\\=Microsoft\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2013}}",
"There are two deployment topologies for Caching:\n* *Dedicated*{{cite web\\|title\\=Windows Azure Caching on Dedicated Roles\\|url\\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\\-us/library/hh914140\\.aspx\\|work\\=MSDN Library\\|publisher\\=Microsoft\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2013}}\n* *Co\\-located*{{cite web\\|title\\=Windows Azure Caching on Existing Roles\\|url\\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\\-us/library/hh914128\\.aspx\\|work\\=MSDN Library\\|publisher\\=Microsoft\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2013}}",
"### Dedicated topology",
"In the dedicated topology, you define a worker role that is dedicated to Caching. This means that all of the worker role's available memory is used for the Caching and operating overhead.",
"The following diagram shows Caching in a dedicated topology. The cloud service shown has three roles: Web1, Worker1, and Cache1\\. There are two running instances of each role. In this example, the cache is distributed across all instances of the dedicated Cache1 role.",
"[300px\\|Represents a running Windows Azure cloud service that uses Caching with a dedicated topology.](/wiki/File:Windows_Azure_Caching_%28Dedicated%29.jpg \"Windows Azure Caching (Dedicated).jpg\")",
"A dedicated topology has the advantage of scaling the caching tier independently of any other role in the cloud service.{{cite web\\|title\\=About Windows Azure Caching, Cache Cluster\\|url\\=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en\\-us/library/hh914161\\.aspx\\#Concept\\_CacheClusters\\|work\\=MSDN Library\\|publisher\\=Microsoft\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2013}} For the best Caching performance, a dedicated topology is recommended because the role instances do not share their resources with other application code and services.",
"### Co\\-located topology",
"In a co\\-located topology, you use a percentage of available memory on existing web or worker roles for Caching.",
"The following diagram shows Caching in a co\\-located topology. The cloud service has two roles: Web1 and Worker1\\. There are two running instances of each role. In this example, the cache is distributed across all instances of the Web1 role. Because this role also hosts the web front\\-end for the cloud service, the cache is configured to use only a percentage of the physical memory on each instance of the Web1 role.",
"[250px\\|Represents a running Windows Azure cloud service that uses Caching with a co\\-located topology.](/wiki/File:Windows_Azure_Caching_%28Co-located%29.jpg \"Windows Azure Caching (Co-located).jpg\")",
"A co\\-located cache is a cost\\-effective way to make use of existing memory on a role within a cloud service.",
""
] |
Location
--------
There are numerous settlements in the Bille territory, which combine with the Bille town to form the Bille kingdom. These are situated in various locations around the area that used to be under the control of the Bille people in the [pre\-colonial](/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism") days. The Bille town is the major settlement in the kingdom, which served as the headquarters of the ancient Bille Empire.{{Cite web\|title\=About Bille\|url\=https://www.billedevelopment.com/about\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-12\|website\=www.billedevelopment.com}}
Bille town, like other [coastal towns](/wiki/Coast "Coast"), is a low\-lying land in the vast [mangrove forest](/wiki/Mangrove "Mangrove") region of the [Niger Delta](/wiki/Niger_Delta "Niger Delta") and is only a few feet above the sea level. It is situated in the south\-eastern part of the present [Degema Local Government Area](/wiki/Degema%2C_Rivers "Degema, Rivers") of the [Rivers State](/wiki/Rivers_State "Rivers State"). It is an island on the bank of the Bille Creek, a tributary of the [Sombrero River](/wiki/Sombrero_River%E2%80%93Navarro_River_Protected_Zone "Sombrero River–Navarro River Protected Zone") (Akuku Toru).[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/port\_harcourt\_jog\_1973\.jpg](http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/port_harcourt_jog_1973.jpg) " Perry–Castañeda Map Library, University of Texas at Austin \- Portion of Defense Mapping Agency Series 1501 AIR, Sheet NB 32\-13, Edition" As an island, it was surrounded by water with a channel dividing it into two; hence, *kala anga* and *opu anga*, and thus one can drive round the town until in the late seventies when the southern axis \- the Angula and Osia sections \- was sand filled for expansion. The main land is now joined with the sand\-filled area and extends into the mangrove forest, which is still being reclaimed.
Someone coming from [Degema](/wiki/Degema%2C_Rivers "Degema, Rivers") will sail along the [Sombrero River](https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/media-44958450) southwards into the Opu Bille kubu creek and further southwards into the *Kala Bille kubu* opposite the Ibi Iriawo Anga settlement. After about 4 turns from the entrance of the *Kala Bille kubu*, the town is immediately sighted, welcoming you into its warm embrace.
A visitor from [Port Harcourt](/wiki/Port_Harcourt "Port Harcourt") can board a [speedboat](/wiki/Motorboat "Motorboat") or any sea vessel at the various [jetties](/wiki/Jetty "Jetty") but usually at the Bille waterside along the Creek Road, Port Harcourt. From there, the boat will sail southwards along numerous routes and later cross the [New Calabar River](/wiki/New_Calabar_River "New Calabar River") within fifteen minutes from take\-off and pass through the Awun Toru unto the Touma creek before entering the Oro kubu that runs to the shore of Bille. The new site (Iwo\-ama) \- a newly reclaimed mass of land \- adjacent the town with school structures and playing fields is the first port of call. Thereafter, the boat will sail past the Green poku, Asuka poku, Abekereme poku and finally berth at the Sira poku where the first jetty is sited.
The Bille town has five basic entry points (all creeks), viz.; the *Kala Bille kubu, the Besi kubu*, which terminates at the Teinma (besi) boko or meinma anga opposite the Ibilan poku, the Oliyama anga, the Oro kubu and the Oruama boko. The Oliyama anga is the lower stream that starts from the Bille creek and leads to such southern places and towns as the Bille 1 Flow Station, Krikama, Gogoboama, Ekema, Ke, Kula, [Abissa](/wiki/Abissa "Abissa"), etc.
Among the other major communities in the Bille kingdom where Bille people as well as fishermen and traders of various tribes reside include; Jikeama, Touma, Krikama, Ekema, Oruama, Oboma, Dikama Boko, Opu Bille Boko etc. although there are also numerous smaller villages used for plantations. Some of these include: **Makiridikianga, Sekiyabo\-kurowa, Ele, Emannuel\-kiri, Enesirama, Imopeleye ama, Ikpabiraba\-daba, Dikama, Duroko, Ninama, Owu poku\-obu, Feni\-paan, Borma, Ibi\-iriawo anga, Nonjuama, Madu\-kiri, Amabiofiyema, Kari\-ama, Epeka, Singi\-kiri**, etc. All these locations surround the Bille town, which is at the centre of the Bille kingdom.
In the 1935 an Intelligence Report on the Bille Clan in the Degema Division of the [Owerri](/wiki/Owerri "Owerri") Province, Captain Kelsey, the District Officer at the time said, "the inhabitants of Bille share rights of the rivers boundaries with [Bonny](/wiki/Bonny%2C_Nigeria "Bonny, Nigeria") only, commencing from the left side of Anwokiri\-toru now known as [New Calabar river](/wiki/New_Calabar_River "New Calabar River") which has its start (sic) from Anya creek."
In the same Report, Bille's fishing ports along the Anwokiri\-toru and Bille Obu\-toru were recorded to include "Tunduro bokobe kiri, Emmanuel kiri, Greenkiri or Feni\-paan, Wosaba, Touma, Ekulekule\-tombi and Dabira". Others were "Ibi iriawo angabe kiri, Kala\-Bille bokobe kiri, Minji du kiri all in the Bille Kubu creek while along the Opu Bille boko there are the Opu Bille bokobe kiri and the Oruama bokobe kiri, Oruama kiri, Imopeleye bokobe kiri, Imopeleye, Eli kiri, Dokubo kiri, Dikama, Ogbodo piri, Ekema kiri, Balo bokobe kiri, and Torusira bokobe kiri."
The Report further identified rivers owned and controlled by Bille as [Akuku Toru](/wiki/Akuku-Toru "Akuku-Toru") (Sombrero River) up to Ndele Toru, Obu Toru and the river stretching from Anwu Toru to the Anya creek.
The limit of the boundaries of the old kingdoms of Kalabari and Bille is described in paragraphs 117 and 118 of the 1949/50 Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Okrika \- Kalabari Dispute by Mr. Justice G. G. Robinson. The case for Bille is however very plain as in paragraph 118 where the Robinson Report described the boundaries of [New Calabar](/wiki/Kalabari_Kingdom "Kalabari Kingdom") (Kalabari) by adopting the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_court "Supreme court") of Nigeria decision on the issue. The facts are reproduced below:
118 So it is interesting to see what territory was given to the [Kalabaris](/wiki/Kalabari_tribe "Kalabari tribe") by the judgement (of the Supreme Court). It is as follows:
'I regard therefore all that territory from the Old Shipping extending to [Bakana](/wiki/Bakana "Bakana"), [Buguma](/wiki/Buguma "Buguma") and [Abonnema](/wiki/Abonnema "Abonnema") (including Degema) and as far west as the Kula country occupied by the [New Calabar people](/wiki/Kalabari_people "Kalabari people") over which they have exercised ownership for at least forty (40\) years and which is now the territorial property of the chiefs and people of New Calabar as representing the people of New Calabar and this property includes all lands, banks of rivers, ponds and creeks and swamps and includes the New Calabar River and the Ekwe River and all its tributaries in the territory of which Old Shipping, [Bakana](/wiki/Bakana "Bakana"), [Buguma](/wiki/Buguma "Buguma"), [Abonnema](/wiki/Abonnema "Abonnema"), [Degema](/wiki/Degema%2C_Rivers "Degema, Rivers") and Kula may be regarded as boundaries but excluding the country of the Billes who appear to have never lost their independence' (Emphasis mine)
This much was repeated in a memorandum submitted to the [Rivers State](/wiki/Rivers_State "Rivers State") Sub\-Committee on Boundary Changes by Chief (Dr.) Harold J. Dappa\-Biriye on October 10, 1997\. In the memo, he further asserted that,
"The Billes who released Old Shipping to the [Kalabari](/wiki/Kalabari_tribe "Kalabari tribe") know that the middle of the [New Calabar River](/wiki/New_Calabar_River "New Calabar River") is our ([Bonny](/wiki/Ibani_tribe "Ibani tribe")/Bille) boundary. This is evident in the map of Bille boundary tendered to the Mbanefo Inquiry Panel and forwarded here as well."
The people of Bille have maintained these locations and boundaries even in the colonial period in spite of the expansionist threats from her immediate neighbours and benefactors. The Bille territory is the area that has more [oil](/wiki/Oil "Oil") and [mineral deposits](/wiki/Mineral "Mineral") in the present Degema Local Government Area.
|
[
"Location\n--------",
"There are numerous settlements in the Bille territory, which combine with the Bille town to form the Bille kingdom. These are situated in various locations around the area that used to be under the control of the Bille people in the [pre\\-colonial](/wiki/Colonialism \"Colonialism\") days. The Bille town is the major settlement in the kingdom, which served as the headquarters of the ancient Bille Empire.{{Cite web\\|title\\=About Bille\\|url\\=https://www.billedevelopment.com/about\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-12\\|website\\=www.billedevelopment.com}}",
"Bille town, like other [coastal towns](/wiki/Coast \"Coast\"), is a low\\-lying land in the vast [mangrove forest](/wiki/Mangrove \"Mangrove\") region of the [Niger Delta](/wiki/Niger_Delta \"Niger Delta\") and is only a few feet above the sea level. It is situated in the south\\-eastern part of the present [Degema Local Government Area](/wiki/Degema%2C_Rivers \"Degema, Rivers\") of the [Rivers State](/wiki/Rivers_State \"Rivers State\"). It is an island on the bank of the Bille Creek, a tributary of the [Sombrero River](/wiki/Sombrero_River%E2%80%93Navarro_River_Protected_Zone \"Sombrero River–Navarro River Protected Zone\") (Akuku Toru).[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/port\\_harcourt\\_jog\\_1973\\.jpg](http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/port_harcourt_jog_1973.jpg) \" Perry–Castañeda Map Library, University of Texas at Austin \\- Portion of Defense Mapping Agency Series 1501 AIR, Sheet NB 32\\-13, Edition\" As an island, it was surrounded by water with a channel dividing it into two; hence, *kala anga* and *opu anga*, and thus one can drive round the town until in the late seventies when the southern axis \\- the Angula and Osia sections \\- was sand filled for expansion. The main land is now joined with the sand\\-filled area and extends into the mangrove forest, which is still being reclaimed.",
"Someone coming from [Degema](/wiki/Degema%2C_Rivers \"Degema, Rivers\") will sail along the [Sombrero River](https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/media-44958450) southwards into the Opu Bille kubu creek and further southwards into the *Kala Bille kubu* opposite the Ibi Iriawo Anga settlement. After about 4 turns from the entrance of the *Kala Bille kubu*, the town is immediately sighted, welcoming you into its warm embrace.",
"A visitor from [Port Harcourt](/wiki/Port_Harcourt \"Port Harcourt\") can board a [speedboat](/wiki/Motorboat \"Motorboat\") or any sea vessel at the various [jetties](/wiki/Jetty \"Jetty\") but usually at the Bille waterside along the Creek Road, Port Harcourt. From there, the boat will sail southwards along numerous routes and later cross the [New Calabar River](/wiki/New_Calabar_River \"New Calabar River\") within fifteen minutes from take\\-off and pass through the Awun Toru unto the Touma creek before entering the Oro kubu that runs to the shore of Bille. The new site (Iwo\\-ama) \\- a newly reclaimed mass of land \\- adjacent the town with school structures and playing fields is the first port of call. Thereafter, the boat will sail past the Green poku, Asuka poku, Abekereme poku and finally berth at the Sira poku where the first jetty is sited.",
"The Bille town has five basic entry points (all creeks), viz.; the *Kala Bille kubu, the Besi kubu*, which terminates at the Teinma (besi) boko or meinma anga opposite the Ibilan poku, the Oliyama anga, the Oro kubu and the Oruama boko. The Oliyama anga is the lower stream that starts from the Bille creek and leads to such southern places and towns as the Bille 1 Flow Station, Krikama, Gogoboama, Ekema, Ke, Kula, [Abissa](/wiki/Abissa \"Abissa\"), etc.",
"Among the other major communities in the Bille kingdom where Bille people as well as fishermen and traders of various tribes reside include; Jikeama, Touma, Krikama, Ekema, Oruama, Oboma, Dikama Boko, Opu Bille Boko etc. although there are also numerous smaller villages used for plantations. Some of these include: **Makiridikianga, Sekiyabo\\-kurowa, Ele, Emannuel\\-kiri, Enesirama, Imopeleye ama, Ikpabiraba\\-daba, Dikama, Duroko, Ninama, Owu poku\\-obu, Feni\\-paan, Borma, Ibi\\-iriawo anga, Nonjuama, Madu\\-kiri, Amabiofiyema, Kari\\-ama, Epeka, Singi\\-kiri**, etc. All these locations surround the Bille town, which is at the centre of the Bille kingdom.",
"In the 1935 an Intelligence Report on the Bille Clan in the Degema Division of the [Owerri](/wiki/Owerri \"Owerri\") Province, Captain Kelsey, the District Officer at the time said, \"the inhabitants of Bille share rights of the rivers boundaries with [Bonny](/wiki/Bonny%2C_Nigeria \"Bonny, Nigeria\") only, commencing from the left side of Anwokiri\\-toru now known as [New Calabar river](/wiki/New_Calabar_River \"New Calabar River\") which has its start (sic) from Anya creek.\"",
"In the same Report, Bille's fishing ports along the Anwokiri\\-toru and Bille Obu\\-toru were recorded to include \"Tunduro bokobe kiri, Emmanuel kiri, Greenkiri or Feni\\-paan, Wosaba, Touma, Ekulekule\\-tombi and Dabira\". Others were \"Ibi iriawo angabe kiri, Kala\\-Bille bokobe kiri, Minji du kiri all in the Bille Kubu creek while along the Opu Bille boko there are the Opu Bille bokobe kiri and the Oruama bokobe kiri, Oruama kiri, Imopeleye bokobe kiri, Imopeleye, Eli kiri, Dokubo kiri, Dikama, Ogbodo piri, Ekema kiri, Balo bokobe kiri, and Torusira bokobe kiri.\"",
"The Report further identified rivers owned and controlled by Bille as [Akuku Toru](/wiki/Akuku-Toru \"Akuku-Toru\") (Sombrero River) up to Ndele Toru, Obu Toru and the river stretching from Anwu Toru to the Anya creek.",
"The limit of the boundaries of the old kingdoms of Kalabari and Bille is described in paragraphs 117 and 118 of the 1949/50 Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Okrika \\- Kalabari Dispute by Mr. Justice G. G. Robinson. The case for Bille is however very plain as in paragraph 118 where the Robinson Report described the boundaries of [New Calabar](/wiki/Kalabari_Kingdom \"Kalabari Kingdom\") (Kalabari) by adopting the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_court \"Supreme court\") of Nigeria decision on the issue. The facts are reproduced below:",
"118 So it is interesting to see what territory was given to the [Kalabaris](/wiki/Kalabari_tribe \"Kalabari tribe\") by the judgement (of the Supreme Court). It is as follows:",
"'I regard therefore all that territory from the Old Shipping extending to [Bakana](/wiki/Bakana \"Bakana\"), [Buguma](/wiki/Buguma \"Buguma\") and [Abonnema](/wiki/Abonnema \"Abonnema\") (including Degema) and as far west as the Kula country occupied by the [New Calabar people](/wiki/Kalabari_people \"Kalabari people\") over which they have exercised ownership for at least forty (40\\) years and which is now the territorial property of the chiefs and people of New Calabar as representing the people of New Calabar and this property includes all lands, banks of rivers, ponds and creeks and swamps and includes the New Calabar River and the Ekwe River and all its tributaries in the territory of which Old Shipping, [Bakana](/wiki/Bakana \"Bakana\"), [Buguma](/wiki/Buguma \"Buguma\"), [Abonnema](/wiki/Abonnema \"Abonnema\"), [Degema](/wiki/Degema%2C_Rivers \"Degema, Rivers\") and Kula may be regarded as boundaries but excluding the country of the Billes who appear to have never lost their independence' (Emphasis mine)",
"This much was repeated in a memorandum submitted to the [Rivers State](/wiki/Rivers_State \"Rivers State\") Sub\\-Committee on Boundary Changes by Chief (Dr.) Harold J. Dappa\\-Biriye on October 10, 1997\\. In the memo, he further asserted that,",
"\"The Billes who released Old Shipping to the [Kalabari](/wiki/Kalabari_tribe \"Kalabari tribe\") know that the middle of the [New Calabar River](/wiki/New_Calabar_River \"New Calabar River\") is our ([Bonny](/wiki/Ibani_tribe \"Ibani tribe\")/Bille) boundary. This is evident in the map of Bille boundary tendered to the Mbanefo Inquiry Panel and forwarded here as well.\"",
"The people of Bille have maintained these locations and boundaries even in the colonial period in spite of the expansionist threats from her immediate neighbours and benefactors. The Bille territory is the area that has more [oil](/wiki/Oil \"Oil\") and [mineral deposits](/wiki/Mineral \"Mineral\") in the present Degema Local Government Area.",
""
] |
History
-------
Most writers from Bille{{Who\|date\=March 2022}} place the founding of Bille in about the 9th century on the basis of tradition and linguistic research of other sister clans like Bonny.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2022}} Others are more inclined to accept a date prior to the fourteenth century for which one can reliably adopt the 9th century as the authentic period when the actual movement from the [Benin Empire](/wiki/Benin_Empire "Benin Empire") began.
Queen Ikpakiaba founded ancient Bille many centuries ago with several colleagues who fled their original settlement because of an internal conflict amongst the inhabitants.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2022}} The people of Bille were said to have emigrated from the old Benin Empire.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2022}} It is difficult to ascertain the accurate date from [Oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition "Oral tradition") even as dates cannot be easily proven because of the difficulty in arriving at accurate data due to the level of knowledge about the calendar in those days.
Nonetheless, one will not equally be wrong to assert that a thriving and long established Bille community existed with its kings by the 15th century as recorded by early writers. According to [Pacheco Pereira](/wiki/Duarte_Pacheco_Pereira "Duarte Pacheco Pereira") in the [Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis](/wiki/Esmeraldo_de_Situ_Orbis "Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis") (1505–1520\), the [Ijo](/wiki/Ijaw_people "Ijaw people") people of Bille were already [trading on slaves](/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade "Atlantic slave trade"). Thus if by 1520 someone from Europe had written about a Bille community which was in slave trade, then one can conveniently proclaim that our Bille may have been established long ago before being strong enough to partake in such a serious and dangerous trade.
In addition, [Jones](/wiki/Gwilliam_Iwan_Jones "Gwilliam Iwan Jones") (1963\) refers to a raid in neighbouring Kalabari towns of slaves by Bille under King Agbaniye Jike. He equally referred to a Bonny tradition concerning the development of the slave trade under King Asimini, and the development of the [Kalabari](/wiki/Kalabari_tribe "Kalabari tribe") slave trade under the contemporary King Owerri Daba (Owereya Dappa). See Alagoa \& Fombo 1972\.
According to Smith, Robinson \& K. Williamson in the 'Ijo Elements in Berbice Dutch', Owerri Daba is to be dated to roughly 1600\. As indicated by Jones (1963\), tradition assigns Agbaniye Jike of Bille to the same generation as Owerri Daba. On the basis of the above reference to Agbaniye Jike as a 17th\-century warlord, we can draw inferences to the time of settlement of the first Bille people by adopting the age of Jike who is locally regarded as a 3rd generation Bille man. Jike was born to an already established kingdom with several past rulers before him. In fact, he belongs to the Opu Sira community and from the local permutations, he may have become great after several years under the tutelage of some great fighters even though he was said to have given signs of greatness at his birth.
We will therefore rely on the dates given by the early writers and put pressure on archaeologists to determine the possible period of the first settlement at Bille which will not only be acceptable to historians but will also agree with several artefacts in the community. In the meantime, we may have to rely only on the dates quoted by early local writers and the official position of Bille spokespersons at [Tribunals](/wiki/Tribunal "Tribunal") and other public hearings.
We were told that they left the old Benin Empire and moved southwards to the Niger Delta region and first settled around the Tarakiri clan in Central Ijaw before finally settling at a place called Okolo Bille in the present Abua territory situated on the north of Degema on the bank of the Sombrero River. It was at this point that a severe dispute occurred amongst the inhabitants. Oral Tradition relates it to a dispute over the sharing of the head of a special fish called tilapia (atabila) by the rulers during a festival. This resulted in a civil war that caused most of them to emigrate to the south where they founded various towns and settlements.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Most writers from Bille{{Who\\|date\\=March 2022}} place the founding of Bille in about the 9th century on the basis of tradition and linguistic research of other sister clans like Bonny.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2022}} Others are more inclined to accept a date prior to the fourteenth century for which one can reliably adopt the 9th century as the authentic period when the actual movement from the [Benin Empire](/wiki/Benin_Empire \"Benin Empire\") began.",
"Queen Ikpakiaba founded ancient Bille many centuries ago with several colleagues who fled their original settlement because of an internal conflict amongst the inhabitants.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2022}} The people of Bille were said to have emigrated from the old Benin Empire.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2022}} It is difficult to ascertain the accurate date from [Oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition \"Oral tradition\") even as dates cannot be easily proven because of the difficulty in arriving at accurate data due to the level of knowledge about the calendar in those days.",
"Nonetheless, one will not equally be wrong to assert that a thriving and long established Bille community existed with its kings by the 15th century as recorded by early writers. According to [Pacheco Pereira](/wiki/Duarte_Pacheco_Pereira \"Duarte Pacheco Pereira\") in the [Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis](/wiki/Esmeraldo_de_Situ_Orbis \"Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis\") (1505–1520\\), the [Ijo](/wiki/Ijaw_people \"Ijaw people\") people of Bille were already [trading on slaves](/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade \"Atlantic slave trade\"). Thus if by 1520 someone from Europe had written about a Bille community which was in slave trade, then one can conveniently proclaim that our Bille may have been established long ago before being strong enough to partake in such a serious and dangerous trade.",
"In addition, [Jones](/wiki/Gwilliam_Iwan_Jones \"Gwilliam Iwan Jones\") (1963\\) refers to a raid in neighbouring Kalabari towns of slaves by Bille under King Agbaniye Jike. He equally referred to a Bonny tradition concerning the development of the slave trade under King Asimini, and the development of the [Kalabari](/wiki/Kalabari_tribe \"Kalabari tribe\") slave trade under the contemporary King Owerri Daba (Owereya Dappa). See Alagoa \\& Fombo 1972\\.",
"According to Smith, Robinson \\& K. Williamson in the 'Ijo Elements in Berbice Dutch', Owerri Daba is to be dated to roughly 1600\\. As indicated by Jones (1963\\), tradition assigns Agbaniye Jike of Bille to the same generation as Owerri Daba. On the basis of the above reference to Agbaniye Jike as a 17th\\-century warlord, we can draw inferences to the time of settlement of the first Bille people by adopting the age of Jike who is locally regarded as a 3rd generation Bille man. Jike was born to an already established kingdom with several past rulers before him. In fact, he belongs to the Opu Sira community and from the local permutations, he may have become great after several years under the tutelage of some great fighters even though he was said to have given signs of greatness at his birth.",
"We will therefore rely on the dates given by the early writers and put pressure on archaeologists to determine the possible period of the first settlement at Bille which will not only be acceptable to historians but will also agree with several artefacts in the community. In the meantime, we may have to rely only on the dates quoted by early local writers and the official position of Bille spokespersons at [Tribunals](/wiki/Tribunal \"Tribunal\") and other public hearings.",
"We were told that they left the old Benin Empire and moved southwards to the Niger Delta region and first settled around the Tarakiri clan in Central Ijaw before finally settling at a place called Okolo Bille in the present Abua territory situated on the north of Degema on the bank of the Sombrero River. It was at this point that a severe dispute occurred amongst the inhabitants. Oral Tradition relates it to a dispute over the sharing of the head of a special fish called tilapia (atabila) by the rulers during a festival. This resulted in a civil war that caused most of them to emigrate to the south where they founded various towns and settlements.",
""
] |
Origin of Bille
---------------
According to Oral tradition, when Queen Ikpakiaba the Amabinbo of Bille and her peers left Okolo Bille they first drove past an empty piece of land, which at that time was called Ogonobe Ingbetokuru. This is the present day Obuama in the Degema local Government Area. On the same route, they also sighted and passed a big forest (the present site of the Degema consulate) then known as Sukube Ingbetokuru. We are not so sure if there were people already settled at these settlements (they were regarded as barren lands not inhabited by people) as no mention was made of people they had met during their movements. Had they found any one then, the Bille people would have eliminated them on their route to the south of the area.
They later crossed the sea, passed by another big forest (present day Abonnema but then known as Mene), sailed downwards along the Sombrero River up to the entrance of the tributary called Oruama kubu, and sailed thereon. They later stopped at a small forest called Ikpabiraba Daba and stayed there for some days. The barren land is still there till today.
Considering that the place was too small and quite isolated, they left there and moved further along the route until they came to the Besi kubu creek through which they reached the present Bille town. It was then an island divided into two parts by a small channel with openings at two ends (the Opu Osia polo through the Opu Asa/Opu Okira axis). The channel \- kroro \- is no longer dividing the town into two having been closed for over a century but there are marks of such a channel at the centre of the town and can be traced at the specific places where it transverse.
They entered the channel through the Opu Osia polo axis and moved into the centre of the town where they stopped to observe that some strange creatures were playing masquerades. These creatures later dived into a huge tunnel close to the centre of the town and disappeared. The creatures were later identified as water spirits, owama be apu. This puzzled Queen Ikpakiaba and peers so they left to disclose their new discovery to their people.
When they came the next time, they also saw the mermaids performing their rituals. They later disappeared into the well as they had earlier described to their people. The Bille people found out much later that the tunnel at the centre of the town was actually an under ground channel that ran from the centre of the town to the mouth of the Opu Bille kubu creek along the Sombrero River several kilometres from the town. This was confirmed by the appearance of persons who surfaced at the said place several days after they were drowned in the tunnel at the centre of Bille. That spot is where the present Bolo tree stands at the centre of the town.
On one of the occasional appearances of the mermaids, the early people of Bille negotiated with them to allow them (Bille people) to stay for seven years before they leave to settle elsewhere and they were permitted. Meanwhile, during this period the mermaids occasionally came out of the tunnel to display as they had done on that first day when the Queen first saw them.
When it was time for the Bille people to leave as earlier agreed, they kept on postponing their departure until the mermaids were tired of driving them. They had to leave the Bille people to stay there permanently. The mermaids then gradually reduced their periodic appearances for their regular masquerade displays until they finally stopped coming although they later came in the form of human beings as could be confirmed by the 'carrying' (or possession) of mermaid spirits by some women and the physical appearance of certain persons in the town. The queen and her colleagues were said to have made sacrifices to drive away the creatures before finally settling on the land.
The Bille people copied these displays and performed them regularly and these have become the bedrock of Bille's traditional heritage and a prominent feature of the Bille culture and tradition. The agiri festival has its origin from this discovery. It has, however, undergone numerous changes and innovations with time. The existence of such mermaids turned humans was confirmed by one of them \- late Sibisonio Feniobu \- who freely educated natives on their mode of operations when requested. He had named many of his peers who had come from their 'water' world because of the agiri festival. Unfortunately, most of them have died before the publication of this book.
Queen Ikpakiaba and her adherents thus settled on the land thereby ignoring the more spacious alternatives at the barren lands of the present day Obuama, Degema, and Abonnema, which she had seen but passed while on her route to Bille. She was indeed divinely led to the present land of Bille.
|
[
"Origin of Bille\n---------------",
"According to Oral tradition, when Queen Ikpakiaba the Amabinbo of Bille and her peers left Okolo Bille they first drove past an empty piece of land, which at that time was called Ogonobe Ingbetokuru. This is the present day Obuama in the Degema local Government Area. On the same route, they also sighted and passed a big forest (the present site of the Degema consulate) then known as Sukube Ingbetokuru. We are not so sure if there were people already settled at these settlements (they were regarded as barren lands not inhabited by people) as no mention was made of people they had met during their movements. Had they found any one then, the Bille people would have eliminated them on their route to the south of the area.",
"They later crossed the sea, passed by another big forest (present day Abonnema but then known as Mene), sailed downwards along the Sombrero River up to the entrance of the tributary called Oruama kubu, and sailed thereon. They later stopped at a small forest called Ikpabiraba Daba and stayed there for some days. The barren land is still there till today.",
"Considering that the place was too small and quite isolated, they left there and moved further along the route until they came to the Besi kubu creek through which they reached the present Bille town. It was then an island divided into two parts by a small channel with openings at two ends (the Opu Osia polo through the Opu Asa/Opu Okira axis). The channel \\- kroro \\- is no longer dividing the town into two having been closed for over a century but there are marks of such a channel at the centre of the town and can be traced at the specific places where it transverse.",
"They entered the channel through the Opu Osia polo axis and moved into the centre of the town where they stopped to observe that some strange creatures were playing masquerades. These creatures later dived into a huge tunnel close to the centre of the town and disappeared. The creatures were later identified as water spirits, owama be apu. This puzzled Queen Ikpakiaba and peers so they left to disclose their new discovery to their people.",
"When they came the next time, they also saw the mermaids performing their rituals. They later disappeared into the well as they had earlier described to their people. The Bille people found out much later that the tunnel at the centre of the town was actually an under ground channel that ran from the centre of the town to the mouth of the Opu Bille kubu creek along the Sombrero River several kilometres from the town. This was confirmed by the appearance of persons who surfaced at the said place several days after they were drowned in the tunnel at the centre of Bille. That spot is where the present Bolo tree stands at the centre of the town.",
"On one of the occasional appearances of the mermaids, the early people of Bille negotiated with them to allow them (Bille people) to stay for seven years before they leave to settle elsewhere and they were permitted. Meanwhile, during this period the mermaids occasionally came out of the tunnel to display as they had done on that first day when the Queen first saw them.",
"When it was time for the Bille people to leave as earlier agreed, they kept on postponing their departure until the mermaids were tired of driving them. They had to leave the Bille people to stay there permanently. The mermaids then gradually reduced their periodic appearances for their regular masquerade displays until they finally stopped coming although they later came in the form of human beings as could be confirmed by the 'carrying' (or possession) of mermaid spirits by some women and the physical appearance of certain persons in the town. The queen and her colleagues were said to have made sacrifices to drive away the creatures before finally settling on the land.",
"The Bille people copied these displays and performed them regularly and these have become the bedrock of Bille's traditional heritage and a prominent feature of the Bille culture and tradition. The agiri festival has its origin from this discovery. It has, however, undergone numerous changes and innovations with time. The existence of such mermaids turned humans was confirmed by one of them \\- late Sibisonio Feniobu \\- who freely educated natives on their mode of operations when requested. He had named many of his peers who had come from their 'water' world because of the agiri festival. Unfortunately, most of them have died before the publication of this book.",
"Queen Ikpakiaba and her adherents thus settled on the land thereby ignoring the more spacious alternatives at the barren lands of the present day Obuama, Degema, and Abonnema, which she had seen but passed while on her route to Bille. She was indeed divinely led to the present land of Bille.",
""
] |
Emigration
----------
Opu Ogulaya and Opu Suma also emigrated from Akpata Bille and settled on a land now known as Ogoloma. After their settlement, Opu Otubeya, their kinsman, also settled on the other side of the same land. When at a later date both of them met in the bush they identified themselves as persons from the same root and thus proclaimed 'wakiri ke' meaning 'we are not different'. Thus, the place is known even until today as Wakirike although it has been anglicised to the word [Okrika](/wiki/Okrika "Okrika").
Some of those who also fled from the old settlement of the Bille people included Opu Okurukuru who founded the present day Kugbo while Opu Ikiya found Ikiakiama. Opu Ogini also left and settled on the land now called Oginiama while Opu Krobo also emigrated and settled on a land which is the present day Nkoro town in the [Andoni](/wiki/Andoni "Andoni") [Local Government Area](/wiki/Local_Government_Area "Local Government Area"). It has been confirmed that the people of Nkoro regard the eating of the tilapia fish as a taboo because of the historical significance.
According to recorded history, Bille was the sole power in the old Degema Division sharing boundaries then with other eastern Ijaw clans like Nembe, Bonny, and Okrika with whom she fought several wars. So great was her one time ruler, Agbani ye Jike, that the entire territory was under his influence although he conquered settlements without settling anybody for security reasons. It was the policy of the ancient people of Bille during Jike's era to eliminate all persons in the conquered territories and settlements leaving a barren land, which, unfortunately, had left Bille as a one\-city kingdom. Gladly, life has begun in most of the other settlements especially at Jikeama, Touma etc. as we look forward to an ideal Bille kingdom.
Other towns that also claim an early existence including Ke, Idama and Kula were founded according to Oral Tradition by persons of Bille origin some of whom rebelled against the king and emigrated there and by Bille people dropped on such lands because of their abominable ailment. Kula was established by Opu Ada ye Sira of Sira Community in Bille. Agbaniye Kio, a brother of King Jike also left Bille when he had a dispute with his brother and settled on the land that is now known as Idama. In the Captain Kelsey Report of 1935, the claim of Bille over the town of Ke was recorded although because of the time lapse the Ke people now deny this claim, as the Bille people did not exercise authority over it for the obvious reasons that they were actually a neglected people cast out of Bille and were thus not prone to attacks from Bille or other aggressors.
They were all regarded as sister settlements and were thus never attacked by the Bille people. They were semi\-autonomous in the period until in the later part of the last century when they sought and got the protection of the Kalabari king thus becoming a part of the Kalabari kingdom. This was a period of trading and European influence predating the colonial era when inter\-tribal wars were on the decline and kings were not renowned for conquering territories but for their resistance against the European powers.
|
[
"Emigration\n----------",
"Opu Ogulaya and Opu Suma also emigrated from Akpata Bille and settled on a land now known as Ogoloma. After their settlement, Opu Otubeya, their kinsman, also settled on the other side of the same land. When at a later date both of them met in the bush they identified themselves as persons from the same root and thus proclaimed 'wakiri ke' meaning 'we are not different'. Thus, the place is known even until today as Wakirike although it has been anglicised to the word [Okrika](/wiki/Okrika \"Okrika\").",
"Some of those who also fled from the old settlement of the Bille people included Opu Okurukuru who founded the present day Kugbo while Opu Ikiya found Ikiakiama. Opu Ogini also left and settled on the land now called Oginiama while Opu Krobo also emigrated and settled on a land which is the present day Nkoro town in the [Andoni](/wiki/Andoni \"Andoni\") [Local Government Area](/wiki/Local_Government_Area \"Local Government Area\"). It has been confirmed that the people of Nkoro regard the eating of the tilapia fish as a taboo because of the historical significance.",
"According to recorded history, Bille was the sole power in the old Degema Division sharing boundaries then with other eastern Ijaw clans like Nembe, Bonny, and Okrika with whom she fought several wars. So great was her one time ruler, Agbani ye Jike, that the entire territory was under his influence although he conquered settlements without settling anybody for security reasons. It was the policy of the ancient people of Bille during Jike's era to eliminate all persons in the conquered territories and settlements leaving a barren land, which, unfortunately, had left Bille as a one\\-city kingdom. Gladly, life has begun in most of the other settlements especially at Jikeama, Touma etc. as we look forward to an ideal Bille kingdom.",
"Other towns that also claim an early existence including Ke, Idama and Kula were founded according to Oral Tradition by persons of Bille origin some of whom rebelled against the king and emigrated there and by Bille people dropped on such lands because of their abominable ailment. Kula was established by Opu Ada ye Sira of Sira Community in Bille. Agbaniye Kio, a brother of King Jike also left Bille when he had a dispute with his brother and settled on the land that is now known as Idama. In the Captain Kelsey Report of 1935, the claim of Bille over the town of Ke was recorded although because of the time lapse the Ke people now deny this claim, as the Bille people did not exercise authority over it for the obvious reasons that they were actually a neglected people cast out of Bille and were thus not prone to attacks from Bille or other aggressors.",
"They were all regarded as sister settlements and were thus never attacked by the Bille people. They were semi\\-autonomous in the period until in the later part of the last century when they sought and got the protection of the Kalabari king thus becoming a part of the Kalabari kingdom. This was a period of trading and European influence predating the colonial era when inter\\-tribal wars were on the decline and kings were not renowned for conquering territories but for their resistance against the European powers.",
""
] |
Relationship with other clans
-----------------------------
Several reasons have been adduced to explain why it was not possible for the people of Bille to move out of the present location to found new lands like her sister kingdoms. The chief reason is security, as the numerous wars and attacks from aggressors prevented persons from moving to settle on isolated islands and locations where they would be prone to severe attacks. They were only content with going out on fishing expeditions and coming back safe to Bille. Being a warring era, it was safer to stay in the hinterland where Bille town is situated as it took enemies much difficulty to drive through the creeks before reaching the town. In fact, before anybody could attempt such an attack on Bille he would have been subdued on his way by the ever\-ready warriors who patrolled the creeks on a regular basis.
In addition, the ancient Bille people never trusted strangers as to settle natives amongst them on such conquered settlements for fear of uprisings and further enemy attacks. Therefore, Bille remained a safe haven for the great warriors of Bille in the [Niger Delta](/wiki/Niger_Delta "Niger Delta") region from the reign of King Agbani ye Jike until the advent of [colonialism](/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism"). To this day, because of his prowess and his sustenance of the Bille Empire in that period, the title of the Amanyanabo (king) of Bille is named after him.
One can also add that the near perfect living style of the Bille people whereby the extended family system allowed members of one family to share a single building equally contributed to the inability of people to move and settle elsewhere. In Bille, it is still possible for two brothers to share one building inherited from their father and both would always live together happily without molestation. This is absent in so many other communities as elder brothers have been reported to have chased away their younger ones and other relations from their inherited homes. This ordinarily would push one to seek elsewhere to find accommodation and had, in most cases, led people to develop barren lands to settle.
However, the most appropriate reason why the other clans have a relatively superior numerical strength is the large number of slaves bought and allowed to be members of those clans. In those days, noble men in places like [Bonny](/wiki/Ibani_tribe "Ibani tribe") and [Kalabari](/wiki/Kalabari_tribe "Kalabari tribe") were recognised by the number of slaves they kept. The slaves were later given freedom and made to belong to the families of their masters hence the growth in population of these clans. This much was confirmed by Ebiegberi J. Alagoa and Adadonye Fombo in their book, "A Chronicle of Grand Bonny", Ibadan University Press, published in 1972\. Quoting [Robin Horton's](/wiki/Robin_W.G._Horton "Robin W.G. Horton") "From Fishing Village to City\-state", the authors believed that 'whereas Elem Kalabari insisted on the complete [acculturation](/wiki/Acculturation "Acculturation") of slaves to be integrated into the House System, Bonny does not seem to have full acculturation. Thus, although both states took part in the slave trade and absorbed large numbers of Ibo slaves into their communities, the Kalabari have preserved their language and culture, while Bonny has become bilingual in Igbo and Ibani. Thus, although the system of integration into the lineage or House System worked faultlessly in Bonny, the same policy was not pursued in the cultural field.'
Much of this though had to do with early exposure to persons from other tribes particularly the [Europeans](/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe "Ethnic groups in Europe"). Therefore, it was easy for noble men and chiefs from the neighbouring places to purchase slaves and give them freedom so that they help them in their new hinterland trade with the whites after slave trade was abolished. This was not the case in Bille even as [intermarriage](/wiki/Interethnic_marriage "Interethnic marriage") was relatively less between the Bille people and other clans. As a result, a proper census of the true natives in all the clans under reference will reveal that Bille has more genuine natives than all the other clans where people of mixed blood abound.
The need to expand the Bille Kingdom beyond the one\-city status had in the past ten years invigorated the clamour for the development and transformation of the fishing settlements to the status of villages. This had resulted in the request for and approval of many such villages by the Bille Council of Chiefs. These new villages have also been recommended to the management of the SPDC for the purpose of establishing Community Development Committees and for membership of the Bille Youth Federation.
|
[
"Relationship with other clans\n-----------------------------",
"Several reasons have been adduced to explain why it was not possible for the people of Bille to move out of the present location to found new lands like her sister kingdoms. The chief reason is security, as the numerous wars and attacks from aggressors prevented persons from moving to settle on isolated islands and locations where they would be prone to severe attacks. They were only content with going out on fishing expeditions and coming back safe to Bille. Being a warring era, it was safer to stay in the hinterland where Bille town is situated as it took enemies much difficulty to drive through the creeks before reaching the town. In fact, before anybody could attempt such an attack on Bille he would have been subdued on his way by the ever\\-ready warriors who patrolled the creeks on a regular basis.",
"In addition, the ancient Bille people never trusted strangers as to settle natives amongst them on such conquered settlements for fear of uprisings and further enemy attacks. Therefore, Bille remained a safe haven for the great warriors of Bille in the [Niger Delta](/wiki/Niger_Delta \"Niger Delta\") region from the reign of King Agbani ye Jike until the advent of [colonialism](/wiki/Colonialism \"Colonialism\"). To this day, because of his prowess and his sustenance of the Bille Empire in that period, the title of the Amanyanabo (king) of Bille is named after him.",
"One can also add that the near perfect living style of the Bille people whereby the extended family system allowed members of one family to share a single building equally contributed to the inability of people to move and settle elsewhere. In Bille, it is still possible for two brothers to share one building inherited from their father and both would always live together happily without molestation. This is absent in so many other communities as elder brothers have been reported to have chased away their younger ones and other relations from their inherited homes. This ordinarily would push one to seek elsewhere to find accommodation and had, in most cases, led people to develop barren lands to settle.",
"However, the most appropriate reason why the other clans have a relatively superior numerical strength is the large number of slaves bought and allowed to be members of those clans. In those days, noble men in places like [Bonny](/wiki/Ibani_tribe \"Ibani tribe\") and [Kalabari](/wiki/Kalabari_tribe \"Kalabari tribe\") were recognised by the number of slaves they kept. The slaves were later given freedom and made to belong to the families of their masters hence the growth in population of these clans. This much was confirmed by Ebiegberi J. Alagoa and Adadonye Fombo in their book, \"A Chronicle of Grand Bonny\", Ibadan University Press, published in 1972\\. Quoting [Robin Horton's](/wiki/Robin_W.G._Horton \"Robin W.G. Horton\") \"From Fishing Village to City\\-state\", the authors believed that 'whereas Elem Kalabari insisted on the complete [acculturation](/wiki/Acculturation \"Acculturation\") of slaves to be integrated into the House System, Bonny does not seem to have full acculturation. Thus, although both states took part in the slave trade and absorbed large numbers of Ibo slaves into their communities, the Kalabari have preserved their language and culture, while Bonny has become bilingual in Igbo and Ibani. Thus, although the system of integration into the lineage or House System worked faultlessly in Bonny, the same policy was not pursued in the cultural field.'",
"Much of this though had to do with early exposure to persons from other tribes particularly the [Europeans](/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe \"Ethnic groups in Europe\"). Therefore, it was easy for noble men and chiefs from the neighbouring places to purchase slaves and give them freedom so that they help them in their new hinterland trade with the whites after slave trade was abolished. This was not the case in Bille even as [intermarriage](/wiki/Interethnic_marriage \"Interethnic marriage\") was relatively less between the Bille people and other clans. As a result, a proper census of the true natives in all the clans under reference will reveal that Bille has more genuine natives than all the other clans where people of mixed blood abound.",
"The need to expand the Bille Kingdom beyond the one\\-city status had in the past ten years invigorated the clamour for the development and transformation of the fishing settlements to the status of villages. This had resulted in the request for and approval of many such villages by the Bille Council of Chiefs. These new villages have also been recommended to the management of the SPDC for the purpose of establishing Community Development Committees and for membership of the Bille Youth Federation.",
""
] |
Settlement of Kalabari
----------------------
Originally settled at Elem Kalabari by the Bille people when they came from Duke Town in the present Akwa Ibom state, the Kalabari people have moved totally from there to found great cities, towns and villages with Buguma as the seat of their king.
Kalabari is a kingdom and not a single community . Prior to the founding of the kingdom some Ijaw settlers who were settled at the river bank of Ikwerre Emuoha region were nicknamed Kalabari people by the Ikwerres because the Ijaws were fond of begging for help or assistance which in the Ijaw dialect is KALA AYI KE IBARI . In those olden days , few of them strayed away to the East deep in Ibibio, Efik region and settled there as Fishermen. This group took with them the identity Kalabari the Ikwerre dubbed them and so were known as KALABARI people. Much later they abandoned the place due to colonial activities by the Dutch at the time. They arrived where other Ijaws were also settled known as Torusaramapiri which was a Ke anga ama . Ke Anga ama means a settlement owned by Ke people . It seems like this settlement was actually claimed by Bille also but the settlers somehow recognized Ke as the owners of the place . This was the place Bille claimed to have settled some new Efik migrants they called Kalabari people .
The old single towns have greatly evolved to become clans. Oral tradition and recorded history has it that one Mfon Manuel and a group of his people left Duke's Town and sailed down to Bonny where they met the king of Bonny. On hearing that they had fled from their former domain and are in search of a new settlement the Bonny monarch took them to his brother king at Bille and requested him to give him a portion of his vast territory for his guests. His exact words as recorded for posterity were, "kele pa imbari" literally meaning, 'please, give them some land' to settle. It is this initial expression that the Bille people later used in identifying their Duke Town strangers that had metamorphosed, over time, to become the name 'kalabari'.{{Cite web\|title\=Mindat.org\|url\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\-2335444\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-14\|website\=www.mindat.org}}
This is the authentic history of the Kalabaris and any other version given and which does not tally with the Bille position is a fallacy because the people of Kalabari had referred all cases concerning the correct version of their history to the Bille people even in the early thirties. According to palace sources in Bille, made available to the Press team during the drafting of the memorandum submitted to the State Commission on the Kalabari / Bille Conflict, there are records of visits to Bille by some Kalabari chiefs to request the people of Bille to speak the truth concerning the rightful owners of the kingship of the Kalabari kingdom. Their visits were recorded in a minute\-book kept by the Bille king for visitors. As a rule, the Secretary of the Council of Chiefs, usually a non\-chief who was however literate, wrote the minutes for the chiefs in those days.
In one of the minutes of such meetings between the Kalabari visitors and the chiefs of Bille recorded on April 28, 1933 and written by the Secretary, late Mr A. O. Sibi (he later became a chief), a group of chiefs and people of Kalabari namely Chiefs Samuel Berriboyle, Ebenezer Don Pedro, Messrs. Obu Berriboyle, Tom Braide and Johnbull Yellowe came from Abonnema as representatives of the KALAGBEA House to inform the Amanyanabo and the chiefs of Bille about the dispute between the Kalagbea House and the Amachree House in Kalabari.
The Bille people present were Amanyanabo Igolima Dappa, Chiefs Abel Uriah, Efrenbo Nangi, Irionu, Joel Siala, Bruce Mgbe, Charles Sibi, Edward Bibi, Walter Bibi, Isaiah, etc.
Chief Ebenezer Don Pedro was the spokesman of the visiting Kalabari team. He explained to the Bille chiefs that they had come to inform them that the Kalabari nation had been split into two over the claim to the throne and kingship. He disclosed that the Amachree House had claimed to be the "supreme owners of the Kalabari land and that Amachree was the owner of the land as he was the first of all the kings". He went on to state the position of the Kalagbea House who insist that there had been others who ruled the nation (Kalabari) in succession before the advent of Amachree. According to the Kalagbea House, Amachree was a slave and there were about 14 to 15 kings before his arrival.
Their aim of coming to Bille, he further stated, was to inform the Bille people that they (the Kalagbea House) had told the District Officer (D.O.) that "there had been a people – Bille – who are the original owners of all this part – Delta Section – and that they are the only people in this part when they (the Kalabari people) came. And that these said people can identify the way and manner late Amachree came to the Kalabari land, and of the fact of the suzerainty of the predecessors who ruled the nation."
"That they should be consulted as to the fact of this. Besides the Bille, Bonny and Brass could corroborate too, but the Bille people are core of the facts" (sic).
He then disclosed that the D. O. had promised to come and interview the Bille people, and so they had come to intimate the chiefs of Bille of such an intended visit by the D. O. As recorded by Mr Sibi (as he was then), the chiefs through late Bruce Mgbe thanked them for the visit and the kind sentiments expressed in owning up that the Bille people are the original owners or settlers of all these parts. He promised that the Bille people were ready to explain the truth to the D. O. whenever he comes.
On April 6, 1935, the Kalagbea House members came again to Bille to remind the Bille of their last visit. Only two persons came. They were Chief Stanley Don Pedro and Michael Romeo Georgewill both of Abonnema. At that time, the Secretary was late Mr (later Rev.) W. B. Herbert. They were received by King Igolima Dappa, Chief Isaiah Osinbo, Chief Abel Uriah, and Chief Joel Siala. Others were Messrs. Ebenezer Kari, Joseph Williams, Olu Jacob and Gilbert Bibi.
|
[
"Settlement of Kalabari\n----------------------",
"Originally settled at Elem Kalabari by the Bille people when they came from Duke Town in the present Akwa Ibom state, the Kalabari people have moved totally from there to found great cities, towns and villages with Buguma as the seat of their king.",
"Kalabari is a kingdom and not a single community . Prior to the founding of the kingdom some Ijaw settlers who were settled at the river bank of Ikwerre Emuoha region were nicknamed Kalabari people by the Ikwerres because the Ijaws were fond of begging for help or assistance which in the Ijaw dialect is KALA AYI KE IBARI . In those olden days , few of them strayed away to the East deep in Ibibio, Efik region and settled there as Fishermen. This group took with them the identity Kalabari the Ikwerre dubbed them and so were known as KALABARI people. Much later they abandoned the place due to colonial activities by the Dutch at the time. They arrived where other Ijaws were also settled known as Torusaramapiri which was a Ke anga ama . Ke Anga ama means a settlement owned by Ke people . It seems like this settlement was actually claimed by Bille also but the settlers somehow recognized Ke as the owners of the place . This was the place Bille claimed to have settled some new Efik migrants they called Kalabari people .",
"The old single towns have greatly evolved to become clans. Oral tradition and recorded history has it that one Mfon Manuel and a group of his people left Duke's Town and sailed down to Bonny where they met the king of Bonny. On hearing that they had fled from their former domain and are in search of a new settlement the Bonny monarch took them to his brother king at Bille and requested him to give him a portion of his vast territory for his guests. His exact words as recorded for posterity were, \"kele pa imbari\" literally meaning, 'please, give them some land' to settle. It is this initial expression that the Bille people later used in identifying their Duke Town strangers that had metamorphosed, over time, to become the name 'kalabari'.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Mindat.org\\|url\\=https://www.mindat.org/feature\\-2335444\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-14\\|website\\=www.mindat.org}}",
"This is the authentic history of the Kalabaris and any other version given and which does not tally with the Bille position is a fallacy because the people of Kalabari had referred all cases concerning the correct version of their history to the Bille people even in the early thirties. According to palace sources in Bille, made available to the Press team during the drafting of the memorandum submitted to the State Commission on the Kalabari / Bille Conflict, there are records of visits to Bille by some Kalabari chiefs to request the people of Bille to speak the truth concerning the rightful owners of the kingship of the Kalabari kingdom. Their visits were recorded in a minute\\-book kept by the Bille king for visitors. As a rule, the Secretary of the Council of Chiefs, usually a non\\-chief who was however literate, wrote the minutes for the chiefs in those days.\nIn one of the minutes of such meetings between the Kalabari visitors and the chiefs of Bille recorded on April 28, 1933 and written by the Secretary, late Mr A. O. Sibi (he later became a chief), a group of chiefs and people of Kalabari namely Chiefs Samuel Berriboyle, Ebenezer Don Pedro, Messrs. Obu Berriboyle, Tom Braide and Johnbull Yellowe came from Abonnema as representatives of the KALAGBEA House to inform the Amanyanabo and the chiefs of Bille about the dispute between the Kalagbea House and the Amachree House in Kalabari.",
"The Bille people present were Amanyanabo Igolima Dappa, Chiefs Abel Uriah, Efrenbo Nangi, Irionu, Joel Siala, Bruce Mgbe, Charles Sibi, Edward Bibi, Walter Bibi, Isaiah, etc.",
"Chief Ebenezer Don Pedro was the spokesman of the visiting Kalabari team. He explained to the Bille chiefs that they had come to inform them that the Kalabari nation had been split into two over the claim to the throne and kingship. He disclosed that the Amachree House had claimed to be the \"supreme owners of the Kalabari land and that Amachree was the owner of the land as he was the first of all the kings\". He went on to state the position of the Kalagbea House who insist that there had been others who ruled the nation (Kalabari) in succession before the advent of Amachree. According to the Kalagbea House, Amachree was a slave and there were about 14 to 15 kings before his arrival.",
"Their aim of coming to Bille, he further stated, was to inform the Bille people that they (the Kalagbea House) had told the District Officer (D.O.) that \"there had been a people – Bille – who are the original owners of all this part – Delta Section – and that they are the only people in this part when they (the Kalabari people) came. And that these said people can identify the way and manner late Amachree came to the Kalabari land, and of the fact of the suzerainty of the predecessors who ruled the nation.\"",
"\"That they should be consulted as to the fact of this. Besides the Bille, Bonny and Brass could corroborate too, but the Bille people are core of the facts\" (sic).",
"He then disclosed that the D. O. had promised to come and interview the Bille people, and so they had come to intimate the chiefs of Bille of such an intended visit by the D. O. As recorded by Mr Sibi (as he was then), the chiefs through late Bruce Mgbe thanked them for the visit and the kind sentiments expressed in owning up that the Bille people are the original owners or settlers of all these parts. He promised that the Bille people were ready to explain the truth to the D. O. whenever he comes.",
"On April 6, 1935, the Kalagbea House members came again to Bille to remind the Bille of their last visit. Only two persons came. They were Chief Stanley Don Pedro and Michael Romeo Georgewill both of Abonnema. At that time, the Secretary was late Mr (later Rev.) W. B. Herbert. They were received by King Igolima Dappa, Chief Isaiah Osinbo, Chief Abel Uriah, and Chief Joel Siala. Others were Messrs. Ebenezer Kari, Joseph Williams, Olu Jacob and Gilbert Bibi.",
""
] |
Career
------
Goreleigh attended exhibitions at the [Harmon Foundation](/wiki/William_E._Harmon_Foundation "William E. Harmon Foundation"), which inspired him to take up drawing and painting.
He met [Diego Rivera](/wiki/Diego_Rivera "Diego Rivera") while working in a restaurant. Rivera invited to Goreleigh to watch him work on murals he was creating for the [Rockefeller family](/wiki/Rockefeller_family "Rockefeller family").{{Cite web \|title\=Rex Goreleigh \|url\=https://pffcollection.com/artists/rex\-goreleigh/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-15 \|website\=Petrucci Family Foundation Collection of African American Art \|language\=en\-US}} Goreleigh also became acquainted with artists of the [Harlem Renaissance](/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance "Harlem Renaissance") including [Jacob Lawrence](/wiki/Jacob_Lawrence "Jacob Lawrence") and [Romare Bearden](/wiki/Romare_Bearden "Romare Bearden").
Goreleigh worked for the [Federal Art Project](/wiki/Federal_Art_Project "Federal Art Project"), a project for the Works Progress Administration, through which he taught art to children at the Utopia Neighborhood House in New York.
In 1934, Goreleigh traveled to Europe to further his art studies in Paris and Germany.{{Cite web \|title\=Rex Goreleigh \|url\=https://thejohnsoncollection.org/rex\-goreleigh/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-15 \|website\=The Johnson Collection, LLC \|language\=en}} He returned to Harlem and taught art at the YMCA. He then moved to [Greensboro, North Carolina](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina "Greensboro, North Carolina") in 1938\. While there, he taught art at the Agricultural and Technical State University of North Carolina and [Bennett College for Women](/wiki/Bennett_College "Bennett College") and opened an arts center with artist [Norman Lewis](/wiki/Norman_Lewis_%28artist%29 "Norman Lewis (artist)"). The center was based in the Carnegie Negro Library.
In 1939, his watercolors were featured in the [Baltimore Museum of Art’s](/wiki/Baltimore_Museum_of_Art "Baltimore Museum of Art") *Contemporary Negro Art* exhibition.
Goreleigh moved to Chicago in 1940 and managed the Works Progress Administration's [South Side Community Art Center](/wiki/South_Side_Community_Art_Center "South Side Community Art Center"). He also produced artwork for a local advertising agency. His work was featured in the 1940 *Exhibition of the Art of the American Negro* at Chicago's Tanner Art Galleries.
Goreleigh moved to Princeton, New Jersey in 1947 to serve as the first director of Princeton Group Arts. The organization was founded by the local [Jewish](/wiki/Jews "Jews") and [Quaker](/wiki/Quakers "Quakers") communities to promote racial and religious integration through the arts. The center closed in 1954 due to a lack of funding.{{Cite magazine \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=1952\-03\-13 \|title\=Princeton Art Group Shows 88 Works \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LkMDAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA66 \|magazine\=\[\[Jet (magazine)\|Jet]] \|publisher\=Johnson Publishing Company \|pages\=66 \|language\=en \|via\=\[\[Google Books]]}}
Goreleigh established the Studio\-on\-the\-Canal, a Princeton\-based arts center with workshops in painting, printmaking, and ceramics. Painter [Hughie Lee\-Smith](/wiki/Hughie_Lee-Smith "Hughie Lee-Smith") attended classes at the studio.
He was the head of the Roosevelt Public School art program and taught at the Princeton Adult School, the Neuropsychiatric Institute, and the Trenton school district. He served on the Princeton Arts Council’s Board of Trustees from 1969 to 1972\.{{Cite web \|last\=estephens \|date\=2022\-08\-31 \|title\=The Campaign to Recognize the Life and Art of Rex Goreleigh \|url\=https://artscouncilofprinceton.org/the\-campaign\-to\-recognize\-the\-life\-and\-art\-of\-rex\-goreleigh/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-15 \|website\=Arts Council of Princeton \|language\=en\-US}}
He died on October 28, 1986, at the age of 84\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Goreleigh attended exhibitions at the [Harmon Foundation](/wiki/William_E._Harmon_Foundation \"William E. Harmon Foundation\"), which inspired him to take up drawing and painting.",
"He met [Diego Rivera](/wiki/Diego_Rivera \"Diego Rivera\") while working in a restaurant. Rivera invited to Goreleigh to watch him work on murals he was creating for the [Rockefeller family](/wiki/Rockefeller_family \"Rockefeller family\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Rex Goreleigh \\|url\\=https://pffcollection.com/artists/rex\\-goreleigh/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-15 \\|website\\=Petrucci Family Foundation Collection of African American Art \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Goreleigh also became acquainted with artists of the [Harlem Renaissance](/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance \"Harlem Renaissance\") including [Jacob Lawrence](/wiki/Jacob_Lawrence \"Jacob Lawrence\") and [Romare Bearden](/wiki/Romare_Bearden \"Romare Bearden\").",
"Goreleigh worked for the [Federal Art Project](/wiki/Federal_Art_Project \"Federal Art Project\"), a project for the Works Progress Administration, through which he taught art to children at the Utopia Neighborhood House in New York.",
"In 1934, Goreleigh traveled to Europe to further his art studies in Paris and Germany.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Rex Goreleigh \\|url\\=https://thejohnsoncollection.org/rex\\-goreleigh/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-15 \\|website\\=The Johnson Collection, LLC \\|language\\=en}} He returned to Harlem and taught art at the YMCA. He then moved to [Greensboro, North Carolina](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina \"Greensboro, North Carolina\") in 1938\\. While there, he taught art at the Agricultural and Technical State University of North Carolina and [Bennett College for Women](/wiki/Bennett_College \"Bennett College\") and opened an arts center with artist [Norman Lewis](/wiki/Norman_Lewis_%28artist%29 \"Norman Lewis (artist)\"). The center was based in the Carnegie Negro Library.",
"In 1939, his watercolors were featured in the [Baltimore Museum of Art’s](/wiki/Baltimore_Museum_of_Art \"Baltimore Museum of Art\") *Contemporary Negro Art* exhibition.",
"Goreleigh moved to Chicago in 1940 and managed the Works Progress Administration's [South Side Community Art Center](/wiki/South_Side_Community_Art_Center \"South Side Community Art Center\"). He also produced artwork for a local advertising agency. His work was featured in the 1940 *Exhibition of the Art of the American Negro* at Chicago's Tanner Art Galleries.",
"Goreleigh moved to Princeton, New Jersey in 1947 to serve as the first director of Princeton Group Arts. The organization was founded by the local [Jewish](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") and [Quaker](/wiki/Quakers \"Quakers\") communities to promote racial and religious integration through the arts. The center closed in 1954 due to a lack of funding.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=1952\\-03\\-13 \\|title\\=Princeton Art Group Shows 88 Works \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LkMDAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA66 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Jet (magazine)\\|Jet]] \\|publisher\\=Johnson Publishing Company \\|pages\\=66 \\|language\\=en \\|via\\=\\[\\[Google Books]]}}",
"Goreleigh established the Studio\\-on\\-the\\-Canal, a Princeton\\-based arts center with workshops in painting, printmaking, and ceramics. Painter [Hughie Lee\\-Smith](/wiki/Hughie_Lee-Smith \"Hughie Lee-Smith\") attended classes at the studio.",
"He was the head of the Roosevelt Public School art program and taught at the Princeton Adult School, the Neuropsychiatric Institute, and the Trenton school district. He served on the Princeton Arts Council’s Board of Trustees from 1969 to 1972\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=estephens \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-31 \\|title\\=The Campaign to Recognize the Life and Art of Rex Goreleigh \\|url\\=https://artscouncilofprinceton.org/the\\-campaign\\-to\\-recognize\\-the\\-life\\-and\\-art\\-of\\-rex\\-goreleigh/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-15 \\|website\\=Arts Council of Princeton \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"He died on October 28, 1986, at the age of 84\\.",
""
] |
History in the United States
----------------------------
[thumb\|left\|Blacksmith at [Scarborough Faire](/wiki/Scarborough_Faire "Scarborough Faire"), Texas](/wiki/File:Scarborough-Faire-TX-2390e.jpg "Scarborough-Faire-TX-2390e.jpg")
In post\-World War II America, there was a resurgence of interest in [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") and [Renaissance culture](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance"). Folk musician and traditionalist [John Langstaff](/wiki/John_Langstaff "John Langstaff") gained popularity in the 1950s as part of an [early music revival](/wiki/Early_music_revival "Early music revival") trend. In 1957, Langstaff hosted "A Christmas Masque of Traditional Revels" in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), and another the following year in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") A televised version was broadcast on the *[Hallmark Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame "Hallmark Hall of Fame")* in 1966 which included [Dustin Hoffman](/wiki/Dustin_Hoffman "Dustin Hoffman") playing the part of the dragon slain by [Saint George](/wiki/Saint_George "Saint George"). In 1971, Langstaff established a permanent [Christmas Revels](/wiki/Revels "Revels") in [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts "Cambridge, Massachusetts"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts").{{Citation \| url \=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/dec/24/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries\| title \= Obituary: Jack Langstaff \| author \= Derek Schofield \| newspaper \= The Guardian \| place \= UK\| date\=2006\-03\-10}}.
In 1963, Los Angeles schoolteacher Phyllis Patterson held a small Renaissance fair as a class activity, using the backyard of her Laurel Canyon home in the Hollywood Hills as the fairgrounds. On May 11 and 12 in the same year, Patterson and her husband, [Ron Patterson](/wiki/Ron_Patterson "Ron Patterson"), presented the first "[Renaissance Pleasure Faire](/wiki/Renaissance_Pleasure_Faire_of_Southern_California "Renaissance Pleasure Faire of Southern California")" as a one\-weekend fundraiser for a radio station [KPFK](/wiki/KPFK "KPFK"), drawing some eight thousand people. The Living History Center designed the fair to resemble a springtime market fair of the period.{{Citation \| first1 \= Peter \| last1 \= Thomas \| first2 \= Michael \| last2 \= Kember \| first3 \= Richard J \| last3 \= Sneed \| title \= The Faire: Photographs and History of the Renaissance Pleasure Faire from 1963 onwards \| publisher \= \[\[The Good Book Press]] \| year \= 1987}}.
Many original booths were free\-of\-charge reenactments of historical activities, including printing presses and blacksmiths. The first commercial vendors were artisans and food merchants, and had to demonstrate historical accuracy or plausibility for their wares. Volunteers were organized into "guilds" to focus on specific reenactment roles (musicians, military, Celtic clans, peasants, etc.). Both actors and vendors were required to stay "in character" while working by speaking with period language, accents, and mannerisms.{{cite news\|last1\=Fox\|first1\=Margalit\|title\=Ron Patterson, Renaissance (Fair) Man, Dies at 80\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/31/us/31patterson.html \|access\-date\=18 January 2016\|work\=The New York Times\|date\=January 30, 2011}}
[thumb\|200px\|[Morris dancers](/wiki/Morris_dance "Morris dance") entertain [Queen Elizabeth](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England"), Renaissance Pleasure Faire, [Agoura](/wiki/Agoura "Agoura"), circa 1986](/wiki/Image:Rpfs_1986.jpg "Rpfs 1986.jpg")
The original [Renaissance Pleasure Faire of Southern California](/wiki/Renaissance_Pleasure_Faire_of_Southern_California "Renaissance Pleasure Faire of Southern California") (RPFS) was held in the spring of 1966 at the [Paramount Ranch](/wiki/Paramount_Ranch "Paramount Ranch") located in Agoura, California, focusing on the practices of old English springtime markets and "Maying" customs. In 1967, the Pattersons created a fall Renaissance fair with a harvest festival theme at what is now [China Camp State Park](/wiki/China_Camp_State_Park "China Camp State Park") in San Rafael, California. The fall fair was moved in 1971 to the [Black Point](/wiki/Black_Point%2C_California "Black Point, California") Forest in [Novato, California](/wiki/Novato%2C_California "Novato, California"). Both fairs developed into local traditions and began a movement that spread across the country.Rubin, Rachel (2012\). *Well Met: Renaissance Faires and the American Counterculture*. New York: New York University Press. {{ISBN\|9780814771389}}.
[thumb\|200px\|Booths at the [Medieval Market of Turku](/wiki/Medieval_Market_of_Turku "Medieval Market of Turku") in [Turku](/wiki/Turku "Turku"), Finland](/wiki/File:Turku_Medieval_Market%2C_market_booths.jpg "Turku Medieval Market, market booths.jpg")
Although [historical reenactments](/wiki/Historical_reenactment "Historical reenactment") are not exclusive to the United States, Renaissance fairs are largely an American variation on the idea of reenactments. European historical fairs, such as those held at [Kentwell Hall](/wiki/Kentwell_Hall "Kentwell Hall") in [Suffolk](/wiki/Suffolk "Suffolk"), England, operate more on the [living history museum](/wiki/Living_history_museum "Living history museum") model, in which an actual historic site is staffed by reenactors who explain historical life to modern visitors, rather than acting in a role.{{Citation \| first \= Val \| last \= Horsler \| title \= Living the Past \| publisher \= Weidenfeld \& Nicolson, in association with English Heritage \| place \= London, \[\[England\|ENG]], UK \| year \= 2003 \| isbn \= 0\-297\-84312\-5}}.
In recent years, American\-style Renaissance fairs have made inroads in other countries. Germany has seen a [very similar phenomenon](/wiki/Mittelaltermarkt "Mittelaltermarkt") since the 1980s, and fairs have grown increasingly popular in Canada and Australia since the mid\-1990s.
Spinoffs of Renaissance fairs also include fairs set in other time periods, such as [Christmas fairs](/wiki/Dickens_fair "Dickens fair") set in [Charles Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens "Charles Dickens")' London.{{cite web\|last1\=Zavoral\|first1\=Linda\|title\=Annual Dickens Fair chases the Scrooge away\|url\=https://www.mercurynews.com/2017/11/24/annual\-dickens\-fair\-chases\-the\-scrooge\-away/\|website\=The Mercury News\|date\=24 November 2017\|publisher\=Bay Area News Group\|access\-date\=20 December 2017}}
|
[
"History in the United States\n----------------------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Blacksmith at [Scarborough Faire](/wiki/Scarborough_Faire \"Scarborough Faire\"), Texas](/wiki/File:Scarborough-Faire-TX-2390e.jpg \"Scarborough-Faire-TX-2390e.jpg\")",
"In post\\-World War II America, there was a resurgence of interest in [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") and [Renaissance culture](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\"). Folk musician and traditionalist [John Langstaff](/wiki/John_Langstaff \"John Langstaff\") gained popularity in the 1950s as part of an [early music revival](/wiki/Early_music_revival \"Early music revival\") trend. In 1957, Langstaff hosted \"A Christmas Masque of Traditional Revels\" in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), and another the following year in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") A televised version was broadcast on the *[Hallmark Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame \"Hallmark Hall of Fame\")* in 1966 which included [Dustin Hoffman](/wiki/Dustin_Hoffman \"Dustin Hoffman\") playing the part of the dragon slain by [Saint George](/wiki/Saint_George \"Saint George\"). In 1971, Langstaff established a permanent [Christmas Revels](/wiki/Revels \"Revels\") in [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts \"Cambridge, Massachusetts\"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\").{{Citation \\| url \\=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/dec/24/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries\\| title \\= Obituary: Jack Langstaff \\| author \\= Derek Schofield \\| newspaper \\= The Guardian \\| place \\= UK\\| date\\=2006\\-03\\-10}}.",
"In 1963, Los Angeles schoolteacher Phyllis Patterson held a small Renaissance fair as a class activity, using the backyard of her Laurel Canyon home in the Hollywood Hills as the fairgrounds. On May 11 and 12 in the same year, Patterson and her husband, [Ron Patterson](/wiki/Ron_Patterson \"Ron Patterson\"), presented the first \"[Renaissance Pleasure Faire](/wiki/Renaissance_Pleasure_Faire_of_Southern_California \"Renaissance Pleasure Faire of Southern California\")\" as a one\\-weekend fundraiser for a radio station [KPFK](/wiki/KPFK \"KPFK\"), drawing some eight thousand people. The Living History Center designed the fair to resemble a springtime market fair of the period.{{Citation \\| first1 \\= Peter \\| last1 \\= Thomas \\| first2 \\= Michael \\| last2 \\= Kember \\| first3 \\= Richard J \\| last3 \\= Sneed \\| title \\= The Faire: Photographs and History of the Renaissance Pleasure Faire from 1963 onwards \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[The Good Book Press]] \\| year \\= 1987}}.",
"Many original booths were free\\-of\\-charge reenactments of historical activities, including printing presses and blacksmiths. The first commercial vendors were artisans and food merchants, and had to demonstrate historical accuracy or plausibility for their wares. Volunteers were organized into \"guilds\" to focus on specific reenactment roles (musicians, military, Celtic clans, peasants, etc.). Both actors and vendors were required to stay \"in character\" while working by speaking with period language, accents, and mannerisms.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Fox\\|first1\\=Margalit\\|title\\=Ron Patterson, Renaissance (Fair) Man, Dies at 80\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/31/us/31patterson.html \\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2016\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=January 30, 2011}}",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|[Morris dancers](/wiki/Morris_dance \"Morris dance\") entertain [Queen Elizabeth](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\"), Renaissance Pleasure Faire, [Agoura](/wiki/Agoura \"Agoura\"), circa 1986](/wiki/Image:Rpfs_1986.jpg \"Rpfs 1986.jpg\")",
"The original [Renaissance Pleasure Faire of Southern California](/wiki/Renaissance_Pleasure_Faire_of_Southern_California \"Renaissance Pleasure Faire of Southern California\") (RPFS) was held in the spring of 1966 at the [Paramount Ranch](/wiki/Paramount_Ranch \"Paramount Ranch\") located in Agoura, California, focusing on the practices of old English springtime markets and \"Maying\" customs. In 1967, the Pattersons created a fall Renaissance fair with a harvest festival theme at what is now [China Camp State Park](/wiki/China_Camp_State_Park \"China Camp State Park\") in San Rafael, California. The fall fair was moved in 1971 to the [Black Point](/wiki/Black_Point%2C_California \"Black Point, California\") Forest in [Novato, California](/wiki/Novato%2C_California \"Novato, California\"). Both fairs developed into local traditions and began a movement that spread across the country.Rubin, Rachel (2012\\). *Well Met: Renaissance Faires and the American Counterculture*. New York: New York University Press. {{ISBN\\|9780814771389}}.",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Booths at the [Medieval Market of Turku](/wiki/Medieval_Market_of_Turku \"Medieval Market of Turku\") in [Turku](/wiki/Turku \"Turku\"), Finland](/wiki/File:Turku_Medieval_Market%2C_market_booths.jpg \"Turku Medieval Market, market booths.jpg\")",
"Although [historical reenactments](/wiki/Historical_reenactment \"Historical reenactment\") are not exclusive to the United States, Renaissance fairs are largely an American variation on the idea of reenactments. European historical fairs, such as those held at [Kentwell Hall](/wiki/Kentwell_Hall \"Kentwell Hall\") in [Suffolk](/wiki/Suffolk \"Suffolk\"), England, operate more on the [living history museum](/wiki/Living_history_museum \"Living history museum\") model, in which an actual historic site is staffed by reenactors who explain historical life to modern visitors, rather than acting in a role.{{Citation \\| first \\= Val \\| last \\= Horsler \\| title \\= Living the Past \\| publisher \\= Weidenfeld \\& Nicolson, in association with English Heritage \\| place \\= London, \\[\\[England\\|ENG]], UK \\| year \\= 2003 \\| isbn \\= 0\\-297\\-84312\\-5}}.",
"In recent years, American\\-style Renaissance fairs have made inroads in other countries. Germany has seen a [very similar phenomenon](/wiki/Mittelaltermarkt \"Mittelaltermarkt\") since the 1980s, and fairs have grown increasingly popular in Canada and Australia since the mid\\-1990s.",
"Spinoffs of Renaissance fairs also include fairs set in other time periods, such as [Christmas fairs](/wiki/Dickens_fair \"Dickens fair\") set in [Charles Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens \"Charles Dickens\")' London.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Zavoral\\|first1\\=Linda\\|title\\=Annual Dickens Fair chases the Scrooge away\\|url\\=https://www.mercurynews.com/2017/11/24/annual\\-dickens\\-fair\\-chases\\-the\\-scrooge\\-away/\\|website\\=The Mercury News\\|date\\=24 November 2017\\|publisher\\=Bay Area News Group\\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2017}}",
""
] |
20th century
------------
In the First World War the yard built 14 barges for the [Admiralty](/wiki/British_Admiralty "British Admiralty"), plus merchant ships including four [cargo ships](/wiki/Cargo_ships "Cargo ships") to the War Shipping Controller's standard B type design. After the war Short's built its first two [turbine steamers](/wiki/Steam_turbine%23Marine_propulsion "Steam turbine#Marine propulsion"); the 7,607 [GRT](/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage "Gross register tonnage") [sister ships](/wiki/Sister_ship "Sister ship") {{ship\|TS\|Sandown Castle}} (1921\) and {{ship\|TS\|Sandgate Castle}} (1922\) for [Union\-Castle Line](/wiki/Union-Castle_Line "Union-Castle Line").
During the 1920s shipbuilding declined. Short's workforce struck in 1923 and 1926 and the yard closed in June 1930\.
[thumb\|238px\|{{SS\|Arcwear}} on [sea trial](/wiki/Sea_trial "Sea trial") in 1934](/wiki/File:Arcwear.jpg "Arcwear.jpg")
In 1933 Short's reopened to build {{SS\|Arcwear}}, a [tramp](/wiki/Tramp_trade "Tramp trade") steamer designed by [Joseph Isherwood](/wiki/Joseph_Isherwood "Joseph Isherwood"). She was the first of Isherwood's new "arcform" design, which increased cargo capacity by 10% and increased speed, but also reduced fuel consumption. *Arcwear* was launched in November 1933 and made her maiden voyage in 1934\. Her fuel economy and speed exceeded expectations but she rolled badly in heavy weather and did not even move smoothly in calm weather. Only a few further arcform cargo ships and [tankers](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 "Tanker (ship)") were built. In 1938 Short's closed again, despite having a tramp ship still under construction.
In the summer of 1939 Short's reopened again. During the Second World War it built mostly tramp steamers, plus two tankers and one [LCT](/wiki/Landing_Craft_Tank "Landing Craft Tank"). Under the direction of the [Ministry of War Transport](/wiki/Ministry_of_War_Transport "Ministry of War Transport") by the end of 1944 Short's switched from building ships to its own design to assembling partly prefabricated government standard C\-type cargo ships. By the end of the war Short's was employing about 900 people.
In 1946 John H Short was company chairman and H.S. Short, great\-grandson of the founder, joined the board of directors.
In the early 1960s the Short family did not want to invest in lengthening the yard's berths to build bigger ships. Therefore, after Short's launched the universal [bulk carrier](/wiki/Bulk_carrier "Bulk carrier") {{MV\|Carlton}} on 17 October 1963 and completed her in January 1964, they closed the business with the loss of 300 jobs.
[thumb\|238px\|{{SS\|Cacique}}, built by Short Brothers in 1910](/wiki/File:USS_Cacique_World_War_I.jpg "USS Cacique World War I.jpg")
* 1889 – [SS *Magnus Mail*](/wiki/SS_Lanthorn "SS Lanthorn") – hull 184
* 1892 – {{SS\|Hindustan}}
* 1910 – {{SS\|Cacique}}
* 1918 – {{SS\|Clan Macvicar}}
* 1927 – {{SS\|Laristan}} – hull 425
* 1940 – {{SS\|Empire Summer}}
* 1941 – {{SS\|Empire Sun}}
* 1941 – {{SS\|Empire Burton}} – hull 466
* 1941 – {{SS\|Empire Lightning}}
* 1941 – {{SS\|Empire Wycliff}}
* 1941 – {{SS\|Empire Story}}
* 1942 – {{SS\|Empire Bardolph}} – hull 474
* 1942 – {{SS\|Empire Southey}}
* 1942 – {{SS\|Empire Keats}}
* 1942 – {{SS\|Empire Webster}}
* 1942 – {{SS\|Empire Envoy}}
* 1943 – {{SS\|Empire Friendship}}
* 1943 – {{SS\|Empire Camp}}
* 1943 – {{SS\|Empire Stuart}}
* 1943 – {{SS\|Empire Duchess}}
* 1943 – {{SS\|Empire Cromer}} – hull 480
* 1944 – {{SS\|Empire Lagos}}
* 1945 – {{SS\|Empire Nairobi}}
* 1945 – {{SS\|Empire Honduras}}
* 1945 – {{SS\|Empire Dominica}}
* 1946 – {{MV\|Empire Tedburgh}}
* 1952 – {{MV\|Burutu Palm}}
|
[
"20th century\n------------",
"In the First World War the yard built 14 barges for the [Admiralty](/wiki/British_Admiralty \"British Admiralty\"), plus merchant ships including four [cargo ships](/wiki/Cargo_ships \"Cargo ships\") to the War Shipping Controller's standard B type design. After the war Short's built its first two [turbine steamers](/wiki/Steam_turbine%23Marine_propulsion \"Steam turbine#Marine propulsion\"); the 7,607 [GRT](/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage \"Gross register tonnage\") [sister ships](/wiki/Sister_ship \"Sister ship\") {{ship\\|TS\\|Sandown Castle}} (1921\\) and {{ship\\|TS\\|Sandgate Castle}} (1922\\) for [Union\\-Castle Line](/wiki/Union-Castle_Line \"Union-Castle Line\").",
"During the 1920s shipbuilding declined. Short's workforce struck in 1923 and 1926 and the yard closed in June 1930\\.",
"[thumb\\|238px\\|{{SS\\|Arcwear}} on [sea trial](/wiki/Sea_trial \"Sea trial\") in 1934](/wiki/File:Arcwear.jpg \"Arcwear.jpg\")\nIn 1933 Short's reopened to build {{SS\\|Arcwear}}, a [tramp](/wiki/Tramp_trade \"Tramp trade\") steamer designed by [Joseph Isherwood](/wiki/Joseph_Isherwood \"Joseph Isherwood\"). She was the first of Isherwood's new \"arcform\" design, which increased cargo capacity by 10% and increased speed, but also reduced fuel consumption. *Arcwear* was launched in November 1933 and made her maiden voyage in 1934\\. Her fuel economy and speed exceeded expectations but she rolled badly in heavy weather and did not even move smoothly in calm weather. Only a few further arcform cargo ships and [tankers](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 \"Tanker (ship)\") were built. In 1938 Short's closed again, despite having a tramp ship still under construction.",
"In the summer of 1939 Short's reopened again. During the Second World War it built mostly tramp steamers, plus two tankers and one [LCT](/wiki/Landing_Craft_Tank \"Landing Craft Tank\"). Under the direction of the [Ministry of War Transport](/wiki/Ministry_of_War_Transport \"Ministry of War Transport\") by the end of 1944 Short's switched from building ships to its own design to assembling partly prefabricated government standard C\\-type cargo ships. By the end of the war Short's was employing about 900 people.",
"In 1946 John H Short was company chairman and H.S. Short, great\\-grandson of the founder, joined the board of directors.",
"In the early 1960s the Short family did not want to invest in lengthening the yard's berths to build bigger ships. Therefore, after Short's launched the universal [bulk carrier](/wiki/Bulk_carrier \"Bulk carrier\") {{MV\\|Carlton}} on 17 October 1963 and completed her in January 1964, they closed the business with the loss of 300 jobs.",
"[thumb\\|238px\\|{{SS\\|Cacique}}, built by Short Brothers in 1910](/wiki/File:USS_Cacique_World_War_I.jpg \"USS Cacique World War I.jpg\")\n* 1889 – [SS *Magnus Mail*](/wiki/SS_Lanthorn \"SS Lanthorn\") – hull 184\n* 1892 – {{SS\\|Hindustan}}\n* 1910 – {{SS\\|Cacique}}\n* 1918 – {{SS\\|Clan Macvicar}}\n* 1927 – {{SS\\|Laristan}} – hull 425\n* 1940 – {{SS\\|Empire Summer}}\n* 1941 – {{SS\\|Empire Sun}}\n* 1941 – {{SS\\|Empire Burton}} – hull 466\n* 1941 – {{SS\\|Empire Lightning}}\n* 1941 – {{SS\\|Empire Wycliff}}\n* 1941 – {{SS\\|Empire Story}}\n* 1942 – {{SS\\|Empire Bardolph}} – hull 474\n* 1942 – {{SS\\|Empire Southey}}\n* 1942 – {{SS\\|Empire Keats}}\n* 1942 – {{SS\\|Empire Webster}}\n* 1942 – {{SS\\|Empire Envoy}}\n* 1943 – {{SS\\|Empire Friendship}}\n* 1943 – {{SS\\|Empire Camp}}\n* 1943 – {{SS\\|Empire Stuart}}\n* 1943 – {{SS\\|Empire Duchess}}\n* 1943 – {{SS\\|Empire Cromer}} – hull 480\n* 1944 – {{SS\\|Empire Lagos}}\n* 1945 – {{SS\\|Empire Nairobi}}\n* 1945 – {{SS\\|Empire Honduras}}\n* 1945 – {{SS\\|Empire Dominica}}\n* 1946 – {{MV\\|Empire Tedburgh}}\n* 1952 – {{MV\\|Burutu Palm}}",
""
] |
Painting
--------
According to Hogarth's autobiographical notes, he started on the painting as soon as he arrived home from Calais. The painting was completed in short order, followed by an engraving early the next year.
The painting takes a viewpoint under an archway in the main outer wall of Calais. The scene within centres around a [sirloin](/wiki/Sirloin "Sirloin") of beef destined for the English tavern, the *Lion d'Argent*, carried by a chef who stands out in his bright white apron and cap. The French soldiers, dressed in rags and forced to eat their watery [soupe maigre](/wiki/wikt:Soupe_maigre "Soupe maigre"), gather round licking their lips. Two soldiers in [sabots](/wiki/Clog_%28shoe%29 "Clog (shoe)") can be seen carrying a cauldron of the grey unappetising soup. The [Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscan "Franciscan") friar who greedily rubs his finger in the fat of the beef joint, is thought to be based on Hogarth's friend John Pine.{{cite web\|title\=The 'Tapestry Hangings of the House of Lords'\|url\=http://www.rmg.co.uk/researchers/collections/by\-type/archive\-and\-library/item\-of\-the\-month/previous/the\-%27tapestry\-hangings\-of\-the\-house\-of\-lords%27\|publisher\=The National Maritime Museum\|accessdate\=8 December 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821013006/http://www.rmg.co.uk/researchers/collections/by\-type/archive\-and\-library/item\-of\-the\-month/previous/the\-'tapestry\-hangings\-of\-the\-house\-of\-lords'\|archivedate\=21 August 2013\|df\=dmy\-all}} In the foreground, a [Highlander](/wiki/G%C3%A0idhealtachd "Gàidhealtachd"), an exile from the [Jacobite rising of 1745](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 "Jacobite rising of 1745"), sits slumped against the wall, his strength sapped by the poor French fare – a raw onion and a crust of bread. Hogarth is seen sketching to the left in the background, but the tip of the [halberd](/wiki/Halberd "Halberd") and hand of the soldier who will arrest him are just appearing round the corner behind him.
There are strong references to the celebration of [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist "Eucharist") in the picture. Through the gates, under the sign of a [dove](/wiki/Dove "Dove") (that of an inn) a [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") [mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)") is being celebrated. In the foreground, but still aligned with those in the background under the cross of the gate, the principal characters worship the beef. The man carrying it bows under the weight appearing to offer it up to the friar on partially bended knee. Above the scene in front of the gate, the dove of peace is replaced by a [carrion](/wiki/Carrion "Carrion") bird, the [crow](/wiki/Crow "Crow"). In the foreground fishwives superstitiously [worship the face of a ray](/wiki/Jenny_Haniver "Jenny Haniver"), and the Jacobite also clasps his hand together in prayer.
Hogarth's antipathy to the French had been apparent in his art since *Noon* in his *[Four Times of the Day](/wiki/Four_Times_of_the_Day "Four Times of the Day")* series, painted in 1736\. *[The March to Finchley](/wiki/The_March_to_Finchley "The March to Finchley")*, which he painted in 1749/50, provides a companion theme to *The Gate of Calais*: it depicts a fictional gathering of robust English guardsman who are to march north to defend London against the invasion of [Bonnie Prince Charlie](/wiki/Charles_Edward_Stuart "Charles Edward Stuart")'s Jacobites in 1745\. Further anti\-French sentiment is apparent in his two *Invasion* engravings, published in 1756, and in *Beer Street*, where Rev. [James Townley](/wiki/James_Townley "James Townley")'s accompanying verses stress the superiority of the English. *The Gate of Calais*{{'}} secondary title, *O, the Roast Beef of Old England*, is a reference to the popular patriotic ballad '[The Roast Beef of Old England](/wiki/The_Roast_Beef_of_Old_England "The Roast Beef of Old England")' from [Henry Fielding](/wiki/Henry_Fielding "Henry Fielding")'s *[The Grub\-Street Opera](/wiki/The_Grub-Street_Opera "The Grub-Street Opera")* (1731\), which told of how the food "ennobled our brains and enriched our blood" and laughed at "all\-vapouring France"".
The painting was bought by the [1st Earl of Charlemont](/wiki/James_Caulfeild%2C_1st_Earl_of_Charlemont "James Caulfeild, 1st Earl of Charlemont") sometime after the 1761 Society of Artists' Exhibition at which it was displayed, by which time England had been [at war](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War "Seven Years' War") with France again for 5 years. Ian Pears believes that by showing *The Gates of Calais* at the exhibition (one of only three comic histories that he displayed), Hogarth was challenging the patriotic spirit of the British by asking them to pay as much for a work by an Englishman as they would for a work by a continental painter. The painting was sold in 1874 to Mr. [Bolckow](/wiki/Henry_Bolckow "Henry Bolckow") for £945\.{{Cite journal \|last\=Fitzgerald \|first\=Percy \|date\=13 July 1895 \|title\=Hogarth's Gate at Calais \|url\=https://archive.org \|journal\=The Illustrated London News \|issue\=107\-2 \|pages\=47 \|via\=Internet Archive}} It was subsequently acquired by the [1st Duke of Westminster](/wiki/Hugh_Grosvenor%2C_1st_Duke_of_Westminster "Hugh Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster") at an auction at [Christie's](/wiki/Christie%27s "Christie's") in 1891 for £2572; he donated it to the [National Gallery](/wiki/National_Gallery_%28London%29 "National Gallery (London)") in 1895, and it was transferred to the [Tate Gallery](/wiki/Tate_Gallery "Tate Gallery") in 1951\.
The gate itself was levelled in 1895, the landing at the port followed by crossing over an ancient drawbridge and entering through the old gateway into a "dark narrow" street, then emerging into a spacious Place with its town hall now lost.
[thumb\|The Gate of Calais before demolition](/wiki/File:The-Gate-of-Calais.png "The-Gate-of-Calais.png")
|
[
"Painting\n--------",
"According to Hogarth's autobiographical notes, he started on the painting as soon as he arrived home from Calais. The painting was completed in short order, followed by an engraving early the next year.",
"The painting takes a viewpoint under an archway in the main outer wall of Calais. The scene within centres around a [sirloin](/wiki/Sirloin \"Sirloin\") of beef destined for the English tavern, the *Lion d'Argent*, carried by a chef who stands out in his bright white apron and cap. The French soldiers, dressed in rags and forced to eat their watery [soupe maigre](/wiki/wikt:Soupe_maigre \"Soupe maigre\"), gather round licking their lips. Two soldiers in [sabots](/wiki/Clog_%28shoe%29 \"Clog (shoe)\") can be seen carrying a cauldron of the grey unappetising soup. The [Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscan \"Franciscan\") friar who greedily rubs his finger in the fat of the beef joint, is thought to be based on Hogarth's friend John Pine.{{cite web\\|title\\=The 'Tapestry Hangings of the House of Lords'\\|url\\=http://www.rmg.co.uk/researchers/collections/by\\-type/archive\\-and\\-library/item\\-of\\-the\\-month/previous/the\\-%27tapestry\\-hangings\\-of\\-the\\-house\\-of\\-lords%27\\|publisher\\=The National Maritime Museum\\|accessdate\\=8 December 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821013006/http://www.rmg.co.uk/researchers/collections/by\\-type/archive\\-and\\-library/item\\-of\\-the\\-month/previous/the\\-'tapestry\\-hangings\\-of\\-the\\-house\\-of\\-lords'\\|archivedate\\=21 August 2013\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} In the foreground, a [Highlander](/wiki/G%C3%A0idhealtachd \"Gàidhealtachd\"), an exile from the [Jacobite rising of 1745](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 \"Jacobite rising of 1745\"), sits slumped against the wall, his strength sapped by the poor French fare – a raw onion and a crust of bread. Hogarth is seen sketching to the left in the background, but the tip of the [halberd](/wiki/Halberd \"Halberd\") and hand of the soldier who will arrest him are just appearing round the corner behind him.",
"There are strong references to the celebration of [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist \"Eucharist\") in the picture. Through the gates, under the sign of a [dove](/wiki/Dove \"Dove\") (that of an inn) a [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") [mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\") is being celebrated. In the foreground, but still aligned with those in the background under the cross of the gate, the principal characters worship the beef. The man carrying it bows under the weight appearing to offer it up to the friar on partially bended knee. Above the scene in front of the gate, the dove of peace is replaced by a [carrion](/wiki/Carrion \"Carrion\") bird, the [crow](/wiki/Crow \"Crow\"). In the foreground fishwives superstitiously [worship the face of a ray](/wiki/Jenny_Haniver \"Jenny Haniver\"), and the Jacobite also clasps his hand together in prayer.",
"Hogarth's antipathy to the French had been apparent in his art since *Noon* in his *[Four Times of the Day](/wiki/Four_Times_of_the_Day \"Four Times of the Day\")* series, painted in 1736\\. *[The March to Finchley](/wiki/The_March_to_Finchley \"The March to Finchley\")*, which he painted in 1749/50, provides a companion theme to *The Gate of Calais*: it depicts a fictional gathering of robust English guardsman who are to march north to defend London against the invasion of [Bonnie Prince Charlie](/wiki/Charles_Edward_Stuart \"Charles Edward Stuart\")'s Jacobites in 1745\\. Further anti\\-French sentiment is apparent in his two *Invasion* engravings, published in 1756, and in *Beer Street*, where Rev. [James Townley](/wiki/James_Townley \"James Townley\")'s accompanying verses stress the superiority of the English. *The Gate of Calais*{{'}} secondary title, *O, the Roast Beef of Old England*, is a reference to the popular patriotic ballad '[The Roast Beef of Old England](/wiki/The_Roast_Beef_of_Old_England \"The Roast Beef of Old England\")' from [Henry Fielding](/wiki/Henry_Fielding \"Henry Fielding\")'s *[The Grub\\-Street Opera](/wiki/The_Grub-Street_Opera \"The Grub-Street Opera\")* (1731\\), which told of how the food \"ennobled our brains and enriched our blood\" and laughed at \"all\\-vapouring France\"\".",
"The painting was bought by the [1st Earl of Charlemont](/wiki/James_Caulfeild%2C_1st_Earl_of_Charlemont \"James Caulfeild, 1st Earl of Charlemont\") sometime after the 1761 Society of Artists' Exhibition at which it was displayed, by which time England had been [at war](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War \"Seven Years' War\") with France again for 5 years. Ian Pears believes that by showing *The Gates of Calais* at the exhibition (one of only three comic histories that he displayed), Hogarth was challenging the patriotic spirit of the British by asking them to pay as much for a work by an Englishman as they would for a work by a continental painter. The painting was sold in 1874 to Mr. [Bolckow](/wiki/Henry_Bolckow \"Henry Bolckow\") for £945\\.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Fitzgerald \\|first\\=Percy \\|date\\=13 July 1895 \\|title\\=Hogarth's Gate at Calais \\|url\\=https://archive.org \\|journal\\=The Illustrated London News \\|issue\\=107\\-2 \\|pages\\=47 \\|via\\=Internet Archive}} It was subsequently acquired by the [1st Duke of Westminster](/wiki/Hugh_Grosvenor%2C_1st_Duke_of_Westminster \"Hugh Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster\") at an auction at [Christie's](/wiki/Christie%27s \"Christie's\") in 1891 for £2572; he donated it to the [National Gallery](/wiki/National_Gallery_%28London%29 \"National Gallery (London)\") in 1895, and it was transferred to the [Tate Gallery](/wiki/Tate_Gallery \"Tate Gallery\") in 1951\\.",
"The gate itself was levelled in 1895, the landing at the port followed by crossing over an ancient drawbridge and entering through the old gateway into a \"dark narrow\" street, then emerging into a spacious Place with its town hall now lost.\n[thumb\\|The Gate of Calais before demolition](/wiki/File:The-Gate-of-Calais.png \"The-Gate-of-Calais.png\")",
""
] |
Mismanagement
-------------
In 1949 [Newfoundland joined Canada as a province](/wiki/Newfoundland_Act "Newfoundland Act"), and thus Newfoundland's fishery fell under the management of the [Department of Fisheries and Oceans](/wiki/Department_of_Fisheries_and_Oceans "Department of Fisheries and Oceans") (DFO). The department mismanaged the resource and allowed [overfishing](/wiki/Overfishing "Overfishing").{{cite journal \|last1\=Mason \|first1\=Fred \|title\=The Newfoundland Cod Stock Collapse: A Review and Analysis of Social Factors \|journal\=Electronic Green Journal \|date\=2002 \|issue\=17 \|publisher\=UCLA Library \|s2cid\=152403457 \|doi\=10\.5070/G311710480 \|url\=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/19p7z78s \|access\-date\=16 June 2021\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite book \|last\=MacDowell \|first\=L. \|year\=2012 \|chapter\=12: Coastal Fisheries \|title\=An Environmental History of Canada \|place\=Vancouver \|publisher\=UBC Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-7748\-2103\-2 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=j7\-803ot3DIC}}
In 1969 the number of [fishing trawlers](/wiki/Fishing_trawlers "Fishing trawlers") increased, and coastal fishermen complained to the government.Taking Stock \[Motion picture]. (1994\). Canada. This resulted in the government redefining the offshore fishery boundaries several times and eventually extended its limits from {{convert\|3\|to\|200\|nmi\|km mi\|0}} offshore, as part of its claim for an [exclusive economic zone](/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone "Exclusive economic zone") under the [UNCLOS](/wiki/UNCLOS "UNCLOS").
In 1968 the cod catch peaked at 810,000 tons, approximately three times more than the maximum yearly catch achieved before the super\-trawlers. Around eight million tons of cod were caught between 1647 and 1750 (103 years), encompassing 25 to 40 cod generations. The factory trawlers took the same amount in 15 years.{{cite journal \|author1\=Ransom A. Myers \|author2\=Jeffrey A. Hutchings \|author3\=Nicholas J. Barrowman \|year\=1997 \|title\=Why do fish stocks collapse? The example of cod in Atlantic Canada \|journal\=\[\[Ecological Applications]] \|volume\=7 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=91–106 \|jstor\=2269409 \|doi\=10\.1890/1051\-0761(1997\)007\[0091:WDFSCT]2\.0\.CO;2 \|url\=http://www.fmap.ca/ramweb/papers\-total/why\_do\_fish.pdf \|access\-date\=2019\-02\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713004621/http://www.fmap.ca/ramweb/papers\-total/why\_do\_fish.pdf \|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-13 }}
In 1976, the Canadian government declared the right to manage the fisheries in an exclusive economic zone that extended to {{convert\|200\|nmi\|km mi}} offshore. The government wanted to reverse declining fish stocks by removing foreign fishing within the new inshore fishery boundaries. Fish mortality decreased immediately. This was not due to a rise in cod stocks but because foreign trawlers could no longer fish the waters. Therefore, when Fisheries and Oceans set quotas, they overestimated the total supply and increased the [total allowable catch](/wiki/Total_allowable_catch "Total allowable catch").{{cite journal \|author1\=Ransom A. Myers \|author2\=Jeffrey A. Hutchings \|author3\=Nicholas J. Barrowman \|year\=1997 \|title\=Why do fish stocks collapse? The example of cod in Atlantic Canada \|journal\=\[\[Ecological Applications]] \|volume\=7 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=91–106 \|jstor\=2269409 \|doi\=10\.1890/1051\-0761(1997\)007\[0091:WDFSCT]2\.0\.CO;2 \|url\=http://www.fmap.ca/ramweb/papers\-total/why\_do\_fish.pdf \|access\-date\=2019\-02\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713004621/http://www.fmap.ca/ramweb/papers\-total/why\_do\_fish.pdf \|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-13 }} With the absence of foreign fishing, many Canadian and U.S fishing trawlers took their place, and the number of cod kept diminishing past a point of recovery.
Many local fishers noticed the drastic decrease of cod and tried to inform local government officials.{{Cn\|date\=October 2024}}
In a 1978 white paper, the Newfoundland government stated:Government of Newfoundland and Labrador: *White Paper on Strategies and Programs for Fisheries Development to 1985* (St. John's, 1978\), p. 2\.
{{cquote\|It must be recognised that both the Federal and Provincial Governments, plant workers, and the private sector, which includes fishermen, all have a role to play at influencing and directing the course of development within the fisheries sector. It is essential, therefore, that various interest group conflicts be minimized and that the appropriate measures be taken to ensure that benefits accruing from the exploitation of fish stocks are consistent with rational resource management objectives and desirable socio\-economic considerations.}}
In 1986, scientists reviewed calculations and data, after which they determined, to conserve cod fishing, the [total allowable catch](/wiki/Total_allowable_catch "Total allowable catch") rate had to be cut in half. However, even with these new statistics brought to light, no changes were made in the allotted yearly catch of cod. With only a limited knowledge of cod biology, scientists predicted that the population of the species would rebound from its low point in 1975\.
In the early\-1990s, the industry collapsed entirely.
In 1992, [John Crosbie](/wiki/John_Crosbie "John Crosbie"), the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans, set the quota for cod at 187,969 tonnes, even though only 129,033 tonnes had been caught the previous year.
In 1992 the government announced a [moratorium](/wiki/Moratorium_%28law%29 "Moratorium (law)") on cod fishing. The moratorium was at first meant to last two years, hoping that the northern cod population would recover and the fishery. However, catches were still low, and thus the cod fishery remained closed.
By 1993 six cod populations had collapsed, forcing a belated moratorium on fishing. Spawning biomass had decreased by at least 75% in all stocks, by 90% in three of the six stocks, and by 99% in the case of "northern" cod, previously the largest cod fishery in the world. The previous increases in catches were wrongly thought to be due to "the stock growing" but were caused by new technologies such as trawlers.
Intense fishing pressure also contributed to fisheries\-induced evolution in Northern cod. Prior to the collapse of the population, maturation reaction norms of Northern cod shifted towards younger ages and smaller sizes in the decade leading up to the collapse.{{cite journal \|pmid\=15118724 \|year\=2004 \|last1\=Olsen \|first1\=E. M. \|last2\=Heino \|first2\=M. \|last3\=Lilly \|first3\=G. R. \|last4\=Morgan \|first4\=M. J. \|last5\=Brattey \|first5\=J. \|last6\=Ernande \|first6\=B. \|last7\=Dieckmann \|first7\=U. \|title\=Maturation trends indicative of rapid evolution preceded the collapse of northern cod \|journal\=Nature \|volume\=428 \|issue\=6986 \|pages\=932–935 \|doi\=10\.1038/nature02430 \|bibcode\=2004Natur.428\..932O \|s2cid\=315815 }} Small size at maturity has continued into the mid 2000s, despite stricter fishing regulations, which supports the theory that there have been genetic changes in growth in Northern cod populations in response to size\-selective fishing.{{cite journal \|pmid\=17264058 \|year\=2007 \|last1\=Swain \|first1\=D. P. \|last2\=Sinclair \|first2\=A. F. \|last3\=Mark Hanson \|first3\=J. \|title\=Evolutionary response to size\-selective mortality in an exploited fish population \|journal\=Proceedings. Biological Sciences \|volume\=274 \|issue\=1613 \|pages\=1015–1022 \|doi\=10\.1098/rspb.2006\.0275 \|pmc\=2124474 }} In addition, this trend has been attributed to a hypothesis suggesting that selection differentials from the environment are not as strong as the artificial selection differentials imposed by heavy fishing.{{cite journal \|pmid\=17784924 \|year\=2008 \|last1\=Hutchings \|first1\=J. A. \|last2\=Fraser \|first2\=D. J. \|title\=The nature of fisheries\- and farming\-induced evolution \|journal\=Molecular Ecology \|volume\=17 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=294–313 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1365\-294X.2007\.03485\.x \|bibcode\=2008MolEc..17\..294H \|s2cid\=24481902 }} Other factors for the slow recovery of the original life\-history characteristics of cod include lower genetic heritable variation due to overexploitation. It has been estimated that such a full recovery of life\-history characteristics in a population of cod may take up to 84 years.{{cite journal \|pmc\=2924707 \|year\=2009 \|last1\=Pandolfi \|first1\=J. M. \|title\=Evolutionary impacts of fishing: Overfishing's 'Darwinian debt' \|journal\=F1000 Biology Reports \|volume\=1 \|page\=43 \|doi\=10\.3410/B1\-43 \|pmid\=20948642 \|doi\-access\=free }}
|
[
"Mismanagement\n-------------",
"In 1949 [Newfoundland joined Canada as a province](/wiki/Newfoundland_Act \"Newfoundland Act\"), and thus Newfoundland's fishery fell under the management of the [Department of Fisheries and Oceans](/wiki/Department_of_Fisheries_and_Oceans \"Department of Fisheries and Oceans\") (DFO). The department mismanaged the resource and allowed [overfishing](/wiki/Overfishing \"Overfishing\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Mason \\|first1\\=Fred \\|title\\=The Newfoundland Cod Stock Collapse: A Review and Analysis of Social Factors \\|journal\\=Electronic Green Journal \\|date\\=2002 \\|issue\\=17 \\|publisher\\=UCLA Library \\|s2cid\\=152403457 \\|doi\\=10\\.5070/G311710480 \\|url\\=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/19p7z78s \\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2021\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite book \\|last\\=MacDowell \\|first\\=L. \\|year\\=2012 \\|chapter\\=12: Coastal Fisheries \\|title\\=An Environmental History of Canada \\|place\\=Vancouver \\|publisher\\=UBC Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7748\\-2103\\-2 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=j7\\-803ot3DIC}}",
"In 1969 the number of [fishing trawlers](/wiki/Fishing_trawlers \"Fishing trawlers\") increased, and coastal fishermen complained to the government.Taking Stock \\[Motion picture]. (1994\\). Canada. This resulted in the government redefining the offshore fishery boundaries several times and eventually extended its limits from {{convert\\|3\\|to\\|200\\|nmi\\|km mi\\|0}} offshore, as part of its claim for an [exclusive economic zone](/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone \"Exclusive economic zone\") under the [UNCLOS](/wiki/UNCLOS \"UNCLOS\").",
"In 1968 the cod catch peaked at 810,000 tons, approximately three times more than the maximum yearly catch achieved before the super\\-trawlers. Around eight million tons of cod were caught between 1647 and 1750 (103 years), encompassing 25 to 40 cod generations. The factory trawlers took the same amount in 15 years.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Ransom A. Myers \\|author2\\=Jeffrey A. Hutchings \\|author3\\=Nicholas J. Barrowman \\|year\\=1997 \\|title\\=Why do fish stocks collapse? The example of cod in Atlantic Canada \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Ecological Applications]] \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=91–106 \\|jstor\\=2269409 \\|doi\\=10\\.1890/1051\\-0761(1997\\)007\\[0091:WDFSCT]2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|url\\=http://www.fmap.ca/ramweb/papers\\-total/why\\_do\\_fish.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713004621/http://www.fmap.ca/ramweb/papers\\-total/why\\_do\\_fish.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-13 }}",
"In 1976, the Canadian government declared the right to manage the fisheries in an exclusive economic zone that extended to {{convert\\|200\\|nmi\\|km mi}} offshore. The government wanted to reverse declining fish stocks by removing foreign fishing within the new inshore fishery boundaries. Fish mortality decreased immediately. This was not due to a rise in cod stocks but because foreign trawlers could no longer fish the waters. Therefore, when Fisheries and Oceans set quotas, they overestimated the total supply and increased the [total allowable catch](/wiki/Total_allowable_catch \"Total allowable catch\").{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Ransom A. Myers \\|author2\\=Jeffrey A. Hutchings \\|author3\\=Nicholas J. Barrowman \\|year\\=1997 \\|title\\=Why do fish stocks collapse? The example of cod in Atlantic Canada \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Ecological Applications]] \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=91–106 \\|jstor\\=2269409 \\|doi\\=10\\.1890/1051\\-0761(1997\\)007\\[0091:WDFSCT]2\\.0\\.CO;2 \\|url\\=http://www.fmap.ca/ramweb/papers\\-total/why\\_do\\_fish.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713004621/http://www.fmap.ca/ramweb/papers\\-total/why\\_do\\_fish.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-13 }} With the absence of foreign fishing, many Canadian and U.S fishing trawlers took their place, and the number of cod kept diminishing past a point of recovery.",
"Many local fishers noticed the drastic decrease of cod and tried to inform local government officials.{{Cn\\|date\\=October 2024}}",
"In a 1978 white paper, the Newfoundland government stated:Government of Newfoundland and Labrador: *White Paper on Strategies and Programs for Fisheries Development to 1985* (St. John's, 1978\\), p. 2\\.",
"{{cquote\\|It must be recognised that both the Federal and Provincial Governments, plant workers, and the private sector, which includes fishermen, all have a role to play at influencing and directing the course of development within the fisheries sector. It is essential, therefore, that various interest group conflicts be minimized and that the appropriate measures be taken to ensure that benefits accruing from the exploitation of fish stocks are consistent with rational resource management objectives and desirable socio\\-economic considerations.}}",
"In 1986, scientists reviewed calculations and data, after which they determined, to conserve cod fishing, the [total allowable catch](/wiki/Total_allowable_catch \"Total allowable catch\") rate had to be cut in half. However, even with these new statistics brought to light, no changes were made in the allotted yearly catch of cod. With only a limited knowledge of cod biology, scientists predicted that the population of the species would rebound from its low point in 1975\\.",
"In the early\\-1990s, the industry collapsed entirely.",
"In 1992, [John Crosbie](/wiki/John_Crosbie \"John Crosbie\"), the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans, set the quota for cod at 187,969 tonnes, even though only 129,033 tonnes had been caught the previous year.",
"In 1992 the government announced a [moratorium](/wiki/Moratorium_%28law%29 \"Moratorium (law)\") on cod fishing. The moratorium was at first meant to last two years, hoping that the northern cod population would recover and the fishery. However, catches were still low, and thus the cod fishery remained closed.",
"By 1993 six cod populations had collapsed, forcing a belated moratorium on fishing. Spawning biomass had decreased by at least 75% in all stocks, by 90% in three of the six stocks, and by 99% in the case of \"northern\" cod, previously the largest cod fishery in the world. The previous increases in catches were wrongly thought to be due to \"the stock growing\" but were caused by new technologies such as trawlers.",
"Intense fishing pressure also contributed to fisheries\\-induced evolution in Northern cod. Prior to the collapse of the population, maturation reaction norms of Northern cod shifted towards younger ages and smaller sizes in the decade leading up to the collapse.{{cite journal \\|pmid\\=15118724 \\|year\\=2004 \\|last1\\=Olsen \\|first1\\=E. M. \\|last2\\=Heino \\|first2\\=M. \\|last3\\=Lilly \\|first3\\=G. R. \\|last4\\=Morgan \\|first4\\=M. J. \\|last5\\=Brattey \\|first5\\=J. \\|last6\\=Ernande \\|first6\\=B. \\|last7\\=Dieckmann \\|first7\\=U. \\|title\\=Maturation trends indicative of rapid evolution preceded the collapse of northern cod \\|journal\\=Nature \\|volume\\=428 \\|issue\\=6986 \\|pages\\=932–935 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nature02430 \\|bibcode\\=2004Natur.428\\..932O \\|s2cid\\=315815 }} Small size at maturity has continued into the mid 2000s, despite stricter fishing regulations, which supports the theory that there have been genetic changes in growth in Northern cod populations in response to size\\-selective fishing.{{cite journal \\|pmid\\=17264058 \\|year\\=2007 \\|last1\\=Swain \\|first1\\=D. P. \\|last2\\=Sinclair \\|first2\\=A. F. \\|last3\\=Mark Hanson \\|first3\\=J. \\|title\\=Evolutionary response to size\\-selective mortality in an exploited fish population \\|journal\\=Proceedings. Biological Sciences \\|volume\\=274 \\|issue\\=1613 \\|pages\\=1015–1022 \\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rspb.2006\\.0275 \\|pmc\\=2124474 }} In addition, this trend has been attributed to a hypothesis suggesting that selection differentials from the environment are not as strong as the artificial selection differentials imposed by heavy fishing.{{cite journal \\|pmid\\=17784924 \\|year\\=2008 \\|last1\\=Hutchings \\|first1\\=J. A. \\|last2\\=Fraser \\|first2\\=D. J. \\|title\\=The nature of fisheries\\- and farming\\-induced evolution \\|journal\\=Molecular Ecology \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=294–313 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1365\\-294X.2007\\.03485\\.x \\|bibcode\\=2008MolEc..17\\..294H \\|s2cid\\=24481902 }} Other factors for the slow recovery of the original life\\-history characteristics of cod include lower genetic heritable variation due to overexploitation. It has been estimated that such a full recovery of life\\-history characteristics in a population of cod may take up to 84 years.{{cite journal \\|pmc\\=2924707 \\|year\\=2009 \\|last1\\=Pandolfi \\|first1\\=J. M. \\|title\\=Evolutionary impacts of fishing: Overfishing's 'Darwinian debt' \\|journal\\=F1000 Biology Reports \\|volume\\=1 \\|page\\=43 \\|doi\\=10\\.3410/B1\\-43 \\|pmid\\=20948642 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
""
] |
Later developments
------------------
{{Ambox
\| name \= reltime
\| subst \= {{subst:substcheck}}
\| small \= {{{small\|}}}
\| type \= notice
\| image \=
\| sect \= section
\| issue \= suffers in several places from being written \[\[WP:RELTIME\|as if the events were recent]].
\| talk \=
\| fix \= Please check for tenses, especially with expresssions with "have (past participle)" or "has (past participle)" such as "may have recovered", which imply that something happened "recently". The text should be written so that if it is not further edited, it will still make sense in 10 or 20 years' time.
\| date \= August 2024
\| cat \=
\| all \=
\|removalnotice\=yes
}}
In 2000, [WWF](/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature "World Wide Fund for Nature") placed cod on the endangered species list. The WWF issued a report stating that the global cod catch had dropped by 70% over the last 30 years and that if this trend continued, the world's cod stocks would disappear in 15 years.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.worldwildlife.org/who/media/press/2004/WWFPresitem711\.html \|title\=WWF – No more cod in 15 years, WWF report warns \|publisher\=Worldwildlife.org \|date\=13 May 2004 \|access\-date\=22 September 2010 \|archive\-date\=10 August 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100810145832/http://www.worldwildlife.org/who/media/press/2004/WWFPresitem711\.html }} Åsmund Bjordal, director of the [Norwegian Institute of Marine Research](/wiki/Norwegian_Institute_of_Marine_Research "Norwegian Institute of Marine Research"), disputed the WWF's claim, noting the healthy [Barents Sea](/wiki/Barents_Sea "Barents Sea") cod population.{{cite web\|author\=Tisdall, Jonathan \|url\=http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article319556\.ece \|title\=Cod not endangered species \|publisher\=Aftenposten.no \|date\=25 April 2002 \|access\-date\=22 September 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629194826/http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article319556\.ece \|archive\-date\=29 June 2008 }} Cod (known in Norway as skrei or torsk) is among Norway's most important fishery exports, and the [Barents Sea](/wiki/Barents_Sea "Barents Sea") is Norway's most important cod fishery. In 2015, the [Norwegian Seafood Council](/wiki/Norwegian_Seafood_Council "Norwegian Seafood Council") invited [Crown Prince Haakon](/wiki/Crown_Prince_Haakon "Crown Prince Haakon") to take part in opening the year's cod fishing season on the [island of Senja](/wiki/Senja_%28island%29 "Senja (island)").{{cite web\|title\=Good fishing off Senja\|url\=http://www.royalcourt.no/nyhet.html?tid\=124769\&sek\=27262\|website\=The Royal House of Norway\|date\=15 January 2015}}
By 2002, after a 10\-year moratorium on fishing, the cod had still not returned. The local ecosystem seemed to have changed, with [forage fish](/wiki/Forage_fish "Forage fish"), such as [capelin](/wiki/Capelin "Capelin"), which used to provide food for the cod, increase in numbers, and eat the juvenile cod. The waters appeared to be dominated by crab and shrimp rather than fish.{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2580733\.stm \|title\=Cod's warning from Newfoundland \|last\=Hirsch \|first\=Tim \|date\=December 16, 2002 \|work\=\[\[BBC News]] \|access\-date\=January 13, 2009}} Local inshore fishermen blamed hundreds of [factory trawlers](/wiki/Factory_trawler "Factory trawler"), mainly from Eastern Europe, which started arriving soon after [WWII](/wiki/WWII "WWII"), catching all the breeding cod.
In 2003, COSEWIC in an update designated the [Newfoundland and Labrador](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador "Newfoundland and Labrador") population of Atlantic cod as endangered, and Fisheries Minister [Robert Thibault](/wiki/Robert_Thibault "Robert Thibault") announced an indefinite closure of the cod fishery in the [Gulf of St. Lawrence](/wiki/Gulf_of_St._Lawrence "Gulf of St. Lawrence") and off the northeast coast of Newfoundland, thus closing the last remaining cod fishery in Atlantic Canada. In the Canadian system, however, under the 2002 Species at Risk Act (SARA){{cite web \|url\=http://sararegistry.gc.ca/approach/act/default\_e.cfm \|title\=The Species at Risk Act \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606155109/http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/approach/act/default\_e.cfm \|archive\-date\=2013\-06\-06 }} the ultimate determination of conservation status (e.g., endangered) is a political, cabinet\-level decision; Cabinet decided not to accept COSEWIC's 2003 recommendations. Bell has explained how both COSEWIC and public perceptions were manipulated, and the governing law broken, to favor that decision.
In 2004, the WWF in a report agreed that the [Barents Sea](/wiki/Barents_Sea "Barents Sea") cod fishery appeared to be healthy, but that the situation may not last due to [illegal fishing](/wiki/Illegal_fishing "Illegal fishing"), industrial development, and high quotas.{{cite web \|url\=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf\_news/?12982/The\-Barents\-Sea\-Cod\-the\-last\-of\-the\-large\-cod\-stocks \|title\=WWF – The Barents Sea Cod – the last of the large cod stocks \|publisher\=Panda.org \|date\=10 May 2004 \|access\-date\=22 September 2010}}
In *[The End of the Line: How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat](/wiki/The_End_of_the_Line:How_Overfishing_Is_Changing_the_World_and_What_We_Eat "How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat")*, author Charles Clover claims that cod is only one example of how the modern unsustainable fishing industry is destroying ocean ecosystems.{{cite book\|last\=Clover\|first\=Charles\|title\=The End of the Line: How Overfishing is Changing the World and what We Eat\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GWhtPwAACAAJ\|access\-date\=17 June 2021\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Ebury Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-09\-189780\-2}}
In 2005, the [WWF](/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature "World Wide Fund for Nature")—Canada accused foreign and Canadian fishing vessels of deliberate large\-scale violations of the restrictions on the [Grand Banks](/wiki/Grand_Banks "Grand Banks"), in the form of [bycatch](/wiki/Bycatch "Bycatch"). WWF also claimed poor enforcement by [NAFO](/wiki/Northwest_Atlantic_Fisheries_Organization "Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization"), an intergovernmental organization with a mandate to provide scientific fishery advice and management in the northwestern [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.wwf.ca/NewsAndFacts/NewsRoom/default.asp?section\=archive\&page\=display\&ID\=1407⟨\=EN \|title\=Fisheries laying waste to endangered fish stocks \|publisher\=\[\[World Wide Fund for Nature\|WWF]] Canada \|date\=20 September 2005 \|access\-date\=5 July 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309012551/http://www.wwf.ca/NewsAndFacts/NewsRoom/default.asp?section\=archive\&page\=display\&ID\=1407⟨\=EN \|archive\-date\=9 March 2007 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.panda.org/wwf\_news/?uNewsID\=23370 \|title\=WWF – Cod overfished in the North\-West Atlantic despite ban \|publisher\=Panda.org \|date\=27 May 2008 \|access\-date\=22 September 2010}}
In 2006, the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research considered coastal cod (but not the North East Arctic cod) endangered, but has since reversed this assessment.{{cite web \|last\=Hauge \|first\=Marie \|date\=9 November 2010 \|url\=http://www.imr.no/nyhetsarkiv/2010/november/raudlista\_friskmelder\_15\_artar\_kritisk\_for\_al\_og\_piggha/nb\-no \|work\=Havforskningsinstituttet: Institute of Marine Research \|title\=Raudlista: Friskmelder 15 artar, kritisk for ål og pigghå \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724180636/http://www.imr.no/nyhetsarkiv/2010/november/raudlista\_friskmelder\_15\_artar\_kritisk\_for\_al\_og\_piggha/nb\-no \|access\-date\=4 May 2013 \|archive\-date\=24 July 2011 \|lang\=no \|trans\-title\=Red List: Announcement for 15 Species, Critical for European Eel and Spiny Dogfish }}
In November 2006, [Fisheries and Oceans Canada](/wiki/Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada "Fisheries and Oceans Canada") released an article suggesting that the unexpectedly slow recovery of the cod stock was due to inadequate food supplies, cooling of the [North Atlantic](/wiki/North_Atlantic "North Atlantic"), and a poor genetic stock due to the overfishing of larger cod.{{cite news \|title\=What's Holding Back the Cod Recovery? \|url\=http://www.dfo\-mpo.gc.ca/science/Publications/article/2006/01\-11\-2006\-eng.htm \|website\=\[\[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]] \|orig\-date\=November 1, 2006 \|date\=January 30, 2013 \|access\-date\=February 6, 2013 \|archive\-date\=June 24, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624012826/http://www.dfo\-mpo.gc.ca/science/Publications/article/2006/01\-11\-2006\-eng.htm }}
In 2010 a study by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization found that stocks in the [Grand Banks](/wiki/Grand_Banks "Grand Banks") near Newfoundland and Labrador had recovered by 69% since 2007, though that number only equated to 10% of the original stock.
In 2010, [Greenpeace International](/wiki/Greenpeace_International "Greenpeace International") added the Atlantic cod to its seafood red list, "a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets worldwide, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/seafood/red\-list\-of\-species \|title\=Greenpeace International Seafood Red list \|publisher\=Greenpeace.org \|date\=17 March 2003 \|access\-date\=22 September 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703151825/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/seafood/red\-list\-of\-species \|archive\-date\=3 July 2008 }} According to [Seafood Watch](/wiki/Seafood_Watch "Seafood Watch"), cod is currently on the list of fish consumers should avoid.
In summer 2011, a study was announced that showing East Coast cod stocks around Nova Scotia showed promises of recovery starting in 2005, despite earlier thoughts of complete collapse.{{cite news\|title\=East Coast cod found to be recovering \|url\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/east\-coast\-cod\-found\-to\-be\-recovering\-1\.989343?ref\=rss \|publisher\=\[\[CBC News]] \|date\=June 27, 2011}} It said that on the Scotian Shelf after the cod were gone, the small plankton\-eating fish ([capelin](/wiki/Capelin "Capelin") etc.) that the cod ate multiplied to many times their old numbers and ate cod eggs and cod hatchlings, but in the early 2000s collapsed, giving in 2005 a window of opportunity for the cod to start to recover; but more time and studies were needed to study the long\-term stability of the stock increase.
In 2011 in a letter to *Nature*, a team of Canadian scientists reported that cod in the [Scotian Shelf](/wiki/Scotian_Shelf "Scotian Shelf") ecosystem off Canada showed signs of recovery.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Frank \| first1 \= KT \| last2 \= Petrie \| first2 \= B \| last3 \= Fisher \| first3 \= JA \| last4 \= Leggett \| first4 \= WC \| year \= 2011 \| title \= Transient dynamics of an altered large marine ecosystem \| url \= https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10285\| journal \= Nature \| volume \= 477 \| issue \= 7362\| pages \= 86–89 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nature10285 \| pmid \= 21796120 \| bibcode \= 2011Natur.477\...86F \| s2cid \= 3116043 }} Brian Petrie, a team member said, "Cod is about a third of the way to full recovery, and haddock is already back to historical biomass levels."{{cite magazine\|url\=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20735\-canadian\-cod\-make\-a\-comeback.html\#.Uq7QzOXQRvE\|title\=Canadian cod make a comeback\|last\=Coghlan\|first\=Andy\|date\=2011\-07\-28\|magazine\=New Scientist\|access\-date\=2011\-07\-28}} Despite such positive reports, cod landings continued to decline since 2009, according to Fisheries and Oceans Canada statistics through 2012\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dfo\-mpo.gc.ca/stats/commercial/land\-debarq/sea\-maritimes/s2012aq\-eng.htm \|title\=2012 Volume Atlantic Coast Commercial Landings, by Region \| Fisheries and Oceans Canada \|access\-date\=2013\-12\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220042500/http://www.dfo\-mpo.gc.ca/stats/commercial/land\-debarq/sea\-maritimes/s2012aq\-eng.htm \|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-20 }}
In 2015, two reports on cod fishery recovery suggested stocks had recovered somewhat.{{cite press release \|work\=Canadian Science Publishing (NRC Research Press) \|title\=The great northern cod comeback \|url\=https://phys.org/news/2015\-10\-great\-northern\-cod\-comeback.html \|via\=phys.org \|date\=27 October 2015}}{{cite news \|title\=Cod recovery 'quite spectacular,' but George Rose calls for caution \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland\-labrador/cod\-fish\-comeback\-moratorium\-1\.3291994 \|work\=CBC News \|date\=28 October 2015 \|access\-date\=2 January 2023 }}
* A Canadian scientist reported that, cod were increasing in numbers, health, normalizing in maturity and behavior, and offered a promising estimate of increased biomass in particular areas.
* A US report suggested that a failure to consider reduced resilience of cod populations due to increased mortality in warming surface water of the [Gulf of Maine](/wiki/Gulf_of_Maine "Gulf of Maine") had led to overfishing despite regulation. Thus, overestimates of stock biomass due to generalization of local estimates and ignorance of environmental factors in the growth or recovery potential of a cod fishery would lead to mismanagement and further collapse of stocks, through further unsustainable quotas, as in the past.{{cite news \|last1\=Goode \|first1\=Erica \|title\=Cod's Continuing Decline Linked to Warming Gulf of Maine Waters \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/30/science/cods\-continuing\-decline\-traced\-to\-warming\-gulf\-of\-maine\-waters.html \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=29 October 2015}}{{cite journal \|display\-authors\=1 \|last1\=Pershing \|first1\=Andrew J. \|last2\=Alexander \|first2\=Michael A. \|last3\=Hernandez \|first3\=Christina M. \|last4\=Kerr \|first4\=Lisa A. \|last5\=Le Bris \|first5\=Arnault \|last6\=Mills \|first6\=Katherine E. \|last7\=Nye \|first7\=Janet A. \|last8\=Record \|first8\=Nicholas R. \|last9\=Scannell \|first9\=Hillary A. \|last10\=Scott \|first10\=James D. \|last11\=Sherwood \|first11\=Graham D. \|last12\=Thomas \|first12\=Andrew C. \|title\=Slow adaptation in the face of rapid warming leads to collapse of the Gulf of Maine cod fishery \|journal\=Science \|date\=13 November 2015 \|volume\=350 \|issue\=6262 \|pages\=809–812 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.aac9819 \|pmid\=26516197\|bibcode\=2015Sci...350\..809P \|doi\-access\=free }}
In June 2018, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans reduced the cod quota to 9500 tons, finding that the cod stocks had fallen again after just two years of fair catches.{{Cite web \|date\=June 15, 2015 \|title\=Newfoundland's cod comeback faces a setback — is fishing to blame? \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/quirks/june\-16\-2018\-animals\-becoming\-nocturnal\-cod\-comeback\-stumbles\-and\-more\-1\.4705655/newfoundland\-s\-cod\-comeback\-faces\-a\-setback\-is\-fishing\-to\-blame\-1\.4705669 \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=October 9, 2024 \|website\=CBC}}
|
[
"Later developments\n------------------",
"{{Ambox\n\\| name \\= reltime\n\\| subst \\= {{subst:substcheck}}\n\\| small \\= {{{small\\|}}}\n\\| type \\= notice\n\\| image \\= \n\\| sect \\= section\n\\| issue \\= suffers in several places from being written \\[\\[WP:RELTIME\\|as if the events were recent]].\n\\| talk \\= \n\\| fix \\= Please check for tenses, especially with expresssions with \"have (past participle)\" or \"has (past participle)\" such as \"may have recovered\", which imply that something happened \"recently\". The text should be written so that if it is not further edited, it will still make sense in 10 or 20 years' time.\n\\| date \\= August 2024\n\\| cat \\= \n\\| all \\= \n\\|removalnotice\\=yes\n}}\nIn 2000, [WWF](/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature \"World Wide Fund for Nature\") placed cod on the endangered species list. The WWF issued a report stating that the global cod catch had dropped by 70% over the last 30 years and that if this trend continued, the world's cod stocks would disappear in 15 years.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.worldwildlife.org/who/media/press/2004/WWFPresitem711\\.html \\|title\\=WWF – No more cod in 15 years, WWF report warns \\|publisher\\=Worldwildlife.org \\|date\\=13 May 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 August 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100810145832/http://www.worldwildlife.org/who/media/press/2004/WWFPresitem711\\.html }} Åsmund Bjordal, director of the [Norwegian Institute of Marine Research](/wiki/Norwegian_Institute_of_Marine_Research \"Norwegian Institute of Marine Research\"), disputed the WWF's claim, noting the healthy [Barents Sea](/wiki/Barents_Sea \"Barents Sea\") cod population.{{cite web\\|author\\=Tisdall, Jonathan \\|url\\=http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article319556\\.ece \\|title\\=Cod not endangered species \\|publisher\\=Aftenposten.no \\|date\\=25 April 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629194826/http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article319556\\.ece \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2008 }} Cod (known in Norway as skrei or torsk) is among Norway's most important fishery exports, and the [Barents Sea](/wiki/Barents_Sea \"Barents Sea\") is Norway's most important cod fishery. In 2015, the [Norwegian Seafood Council](/wiki/Norwegian_Seafood_Council \"Norwegian Seafood Council\") invited [Crown Prince Haakon](/wiki/Crown_Prince_Haakon \"Crown Prince Haakon\") to take part in opening the year's cod fishing season on the [island of Senja](/wiki/Senja_%28island%29 \"Senja (island)\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Good fishing off Senja\\|url\\=http://www.royalcourt.no/nyhet.html?tid\\=124769\\&sek\\=27262\\|website\\=The Royal House of Norway\\|date\\=15 January 2015}}",
"By 2002, after a 10\\-year moratorium on fishing, the cod had still not returned. The local ecosystem seemed to have changed, with [forage fish](/wiki/Forage_fish \"Forage fish\"), such as [capelin](/wiki/Capelin \"Capelin\"), which used to provide food for the cod, increase in numbers, and eat the juvenile cod. The waters appeared to be dominated by crab and shrimp rather than fish.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2580733\\.stm \\|title\\=Cod's warning from Newfoundland \\|last\\=Hirsch \\|first\\=Tim \\|date\\=December 16, 2002 \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2009}} Local inshore fishermen blamed hundreds of [factory trawlers](/wiki/Factory_trawler \"Factory trawler\"), mainly from Eastern Europe, which started arriving soon after [WWII](/wiki/WWII \"WWII\"), catching all the breeding cod.",
"In 2003, COSEWIC in an update designated the [Newfoundland and Labrador](/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"Newfoundland and Labrador\") population of Atlantic cod as endangered, and Fisheries Minister [Robert Thibault](/wiki/Robert_Thibault \"Robert Thibault\") announced an indefinite closure of the cod fishery in the [Gulf of St. Lawrence](/wiki/Gulf_of_St._Lawrence \"Gulf of St. Lawrence\") and off the northeast coast of Newfoundland, thus closing the last remaining cod fishery in Atlantic Canada. In the Canadian system, however, under the 2002 Species at Risk Act (SARA){{cite web \\|url\\=http://sararegistry.gc.ca/approach/act/default\\_e.cfm \\|title\\=The Species at Risk Act \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606155109/http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/approach/act/default\\_e.cfm \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-06 }} the ultimate determination of conservation status (e.g., endangered) is a political, cabinet\\-level decision; Cabinet decided not to accept COSEWIC's 2003 recommendations. Bell has explained how both COSEWIC and public perceptions were manipulated, and the governing law broken, to favor that decision.",
"In 2004, the WWF in a report agreed that the [Barents Sea](/wiki/Barents_Sea \"Barents Sea\") cod fishery appeared to be healthy, but that the situation may not last due to [illegal fishing](/wiki/Illegal_fishing \"Illegal fishing\"), industrial development, and high quotas.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf\\_news/?12982/The\\-Barents\\-Sea\\-Cod\\-the\\-last\\-of\\-the\\-large\\-cod\\-stocks \\|title\\=WWF – The Barents Sea Cod – the last of the large cod stocks \\|publisher\\=Panda.org \\|date\\=10 May 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2010}}",
"In *[The End of the Line: How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat](/wiki/The_End_of_the_Line:How_Overfishing_Is_Changing_the_World_and_What_We_Eat \"How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat\")*, author Charles Clover claims that cod is only one example of how the modern unsustainable fishing industry is destroying ocean ecosystems.{{cite book\\|last\\=Clover\\|first\\=Charles\\|title\\=The End of the Line: How Overfishing is Changing the World and what We Eat\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GWhtPwAACAAJ\\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2021\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Ebury Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-09\\-189780\\-2}}",
"In 2005, the [WWF](/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature \"World Wide Fund for Nature\")—Canada accused foreign and Canadian fishing vessels of deliberate large\\-scale violations of the restrictions on the [Grand Banks](/wiki/Grand_Banks \"Grand Banks\"), in the form of [bycatch](/wiki/Bycatch \"Bycatch\"). WWF also claimed poor enforcement by [NAFO](/wiki/Northwest_Atlantic_Fisheries_Organization \"Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization\"), an intergovernmental organization with a mandate to provide scientific fishery advice and management in the northwestern [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.wwf.ca/NewsAndFacts/NewsRoom/default.asp?section\\=archive\\&page\\=display\\&ID\\=1407⟨\\=EN \\|title\\=Fisheries laying waste to endangered fish stocks \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wide Fund for Nature\\|WWF]] Canada \\|date\\=20 September 2005 \\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309012551/http://www.wwf.ca/NewsAndFacts/NewsRoom/default.asp?section\\=archive\\&page\\=display\\&ID\\=1407⟨\\=EN \\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2007 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.panda.org/wwf\\_news/?uNewsID\\=23370 \\|title\\=WWF – Cod overfished in the North\\-West Atlantic despite ban \\|publisher\\=Panda.org \\|date\\=27 May 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2010}}",
"In 2006, the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research considered coastal cod (but not the North East Arctic cod) endangered, but has since reversed this assessment.{{cite web \\|last\\=Hauge \\|first\\=Marie \\|date\\=9 November 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.imr.no/nyhetsarkiv/2010/november/raudlista\\_friskmelder\\_15\\_artar\\_kritisk\\_for\\_al\\_og\\_piggha/nb\\-no \\|work\\=Havforskningsinstituttet: Institute of Marine Research \\|title\\=Raudlista: Friskmelder 15 artar, kritisk for ål og pigghå \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724180636/http://www.imr.no/nyhetsarkiv/2010/november/raudlista\\_friskmelder\\_15\\_artar\\_kritisk\\_for\\_al\\_og\\_piggha/nb\\-no \\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 July 2011 \\|lang\\=no \\|trans\\-title\\=Red List: Announcement for 15 Species, Critical for European Eel and Spiny Dogfish }}",
"In November 2006, [Fisheries and Oceans Canada](/wiki/Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada \"Fisheries and Oceans Canada\") released an article suggesting that the unexpectedly slow recovery of the cod stock was due to inadequate food supplies, cooling of the [North Atlantic](/wiki/North_Atlantic \"North Atlantic\"), and a poor genetic stock due to the overfishing of larger cod.{{cite news \\|title\\=What's Holding Back the Cod Recovery? \\|url\\=http://www.dfo\\-mpo.gc.ca/science/Publications/article/2006/01\\-11\\-2006\\-eng.htm \\|website\\=\\[\\[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]] \\|orig\\-date\\=November 1, 2006 \\|date\\=January 30, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=February 6, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 24, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624012826/http://www.dfo\\-mpo.gc.ca/science/Publications/article/2006/01\\-11\\-2006\\-eng.htm }}",
"In 2010 a study by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization found that stocks in the [Grand Banks](/wiki/Grand_Banks \"Grand Banks\") near Newfoundland and Labrador had recovered by 69% since 2007, though that number only equated to 10% of the original stock.",
"In 2010, [Greenpeace International](/wiki/Greenpeace_International \"Greenpeace International\") added the Atlantic cod to its seafood red list, \"a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets worldwide, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/seafood/red\\-list\\-of\\-species \\|title\\=Greenpeace International Seafood Red list \\|publisher\\=Greenpeace.org \\|date\\=17 March 2003 \\|access\\-date\\=22 September 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703151825/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/seafood/red\\-list\\-of\\-species \\|archive\\-date\\=3 July 2008 }} According to [Seafood Watch](/wiki/Seafood_Watch \"Seafood Watch\"), cod is currently on the list of fish consumers should avoid.",
"In summer 2011, a study was announced that showing East Coast cod stocks around Nova Scotia showed promises of recovery starting in 2005, despite earlier thoughts of complete collapse.{{cite news\\|title\\=East Coast cod found to be recovering \\|url\\=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/east\\-coast\\-cod\\-found\\-to\\-be\\-recovering\\-1\\.989343?ref\\=rss \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CBC News]] \\|date\\=June 27, 2011}} It said that on the Scotian Shelf after the cod were gone, the small plankton\\-eating fish ([capelin](/wiki/Capelin \"Capelin\") etc.) that the cod ate multiplied to many times their old numbers and ate cod eggs and cod hatchlings, but in the early 2000s collapsed, giving in 2005 a window of opportunity for the cod to start to recover; but more time and studies were needed to study the long\\-term stability of the stock increase.",
"In 2011 in a letter to *Nature*, a team of Canadian scientists reported that cod in the [Scotian Shelf](/wiki/Scotian_Shelf \"Scotian Shelf\") ecosystem off Canada showed signs of recovery.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Frank \\| first1 \\= KT \\| last2 \\= Petrie \\| first2 \\= B \\| last3 \\= Fisher \\| first3 \\= JA \\| last4 \\= Leggett \\| first4 \\= WC \\| year \\= 2011 \\| title \\= Transient dynamics of an altered large marine ecosystem \\| url \\= https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10285\\| journal \\= Nature \\| volume \\= 477 \\| issue \\= 7362\\| pages \\= 86–89 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nature10285 \\| pmid \\= 21796120 \\| bibcode \\= 2011Natur.477\\...86F \\| s2cid \\= 3116043 }} Brian Petrie, a team member said, \"Cod is about a third of the way to full recovery, and haddock is already back to historical biomass levels.\"{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20735\\-canadian\\-cod\\-make\\-a\\-comeback.html\\#.Uq7QzOXQRvE\\|title\\=Canadian cod make a comeback\\|last\\=Coghlan\\|first\\=Andy\\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-28\\|magazine\\=New Scientist\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-28}} Despite such positive reports, cod landings continued to decline since 2009, according to Fisheries and Oceans Canada statistics through 2012\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dfo\\-mpo.gc.ca/stats/commercial/land\\-debarq/sea\\-maritimes/s2012aq\\-eng.htm \\|title\\=2012 Volume Atlantic Coast Commercial Landings, by Region \\| Fisheries and Oceans Canada \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220042500/http://www.dfo\\-mpo.gc.ca/stats/commercial/land\\-debarq/sea\\-maritimes/s2012aq\\-eng.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-20 }}",
"In 2015, two reports on cod fishery recovery suggested stocks had recovered somewhat.{{cite press release \\|work\\=Canadian Science Publishing (NRC Research Press) \\|title\\=The great northern cod comeback \\|url\\=https://phys.org/news/2015\\-10\\-great\\-northern\\-cod\\-comeback.html \\|via\\=phys.org \\|date\\=27 October 2015}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Cod recovery 'quite spectacular,' but George Rose calls for caution \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland\\-labrador/cod\\-fish\\-comeback\\-moratorium\\-1\\.3291994 \\|work\\=CBC News \\|date\\=28 October 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=2 January 2023 }}\n* A Canadian scientist reported that, cod were increasing in numbers, health, normalizing in maturity and behavior, and offered a promising estimate of increased biomass in particular areas.\n* A US report suggested that a failure to consider reduced resilience of cod populations due to increased mortality in warming surface water of the [Gulf of Maine](/wiki/Gulf_of_Maine \"Gulf of Maine\") had led to overfishing despite regulation. Thus, overestimates of stock biomass due to generalization of local estimates and ignorance of environmental factors in the growth or recovery potential of a cod fishery would lead to mismanagement and further collapse of stocks, through further unsustainable quotas, as in the past.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Goode \\|first1\\=Erica \\|title\\=Cod's Continuing Decline Linked to Warming Gulf of Maine Waters \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/30/science/cods\\-continuing\\-decline\\-traced\\-to\\-warming\\-gulf\\-of\\-maine\\-waters.html \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=29 October 2015}}{{cite journal \\|display\\-authors\\=1 \\|last1\\=Pershing \\|first1\\=Andrew J. \\|last2\\=Alexander \\|first2\\=Michael A. \\|last3\\=Hernandez \\|first3\\=Christina M. \\|last4\\=Kerr \\|first4\\=Lisa A. \\|last5\\=Le Bris \\|first5\\=Arnault \\|last6\\=Mills \\|first6\\=Katherine E. \\|last7\\=Nye \\|first7\\=Janet A. \\|last8\\=Record \\|first8\\=Nicholas R. \\|last9\\=Scannell \\|first9\\=Hillary A. \\|last10\\=Scott \\|first10\\=James D. \\|last11\\=Sherwood \\|first11\\=Graham D. \\|last12\\=Thomas \\|first12\\=Andrew C. \\|title\\=Slow adaptation in the face of rapid warming leads to collapse of the Gulf of Maine cod fishery \\|journal\\=Science \\|date\\=13 November 2015 \\|volume\\=350 \\|issue\\=6262 \\|pages\\=809–812 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.aac9819 \\|pmid\\=26516197\\|bibcode\\=2015Sci...350\\..809P \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"In June 2018, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans reduced the cod quota to 9500 tons, finding that the cod stocks had fallen again after just two years of fair catches.{{Cite web \\|date\\=June 15, 2015 \\|title\\=Newfoundland's cod comeback faces a setback — is fishing to blame? \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/quirks/june\\-16\\-2018\\-animals\\-becoming\\-nocturnal\\-cod\\-comeback\\-stumbles\\-and\\-more\\-1\\.4705655/newfoundland\\-s\\-cod\\-comeback\\-faces\\-a\\-setback\\-is\\-fishing\\-to\\-blame\\-1\\.4705669 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=October 9, 2024 \\|website\\=CBC}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The party was established in 1949, backed by the Saint Lucia Workers Cooperative Union.[Nohlen, D](/wiki/Dieter_Nohlen "Dieter Nohlen") (2005\) *Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I*, p581 {{ISBN\|978\-0\-19\-928357\-6}} In the [first elections](/wiki/1951_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1951 Saint Lucian general election") held under universal suffrage in 1951, and led by party founder [George Charles](/wiki/George_Charles "George Charles"), the party won five of the eight seats. It retained all five seats in the [1954 elections](/wiki/1954_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1954 Saint Lucian general election"), and increased their majority to seven of the eight seats in [1957](/wiki/1957_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1957 Saint Lucian general election") and nine of the ten seats in [1961](/wiki/1961_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1961 Saint Lucian general election").
In [1964](/wiki/1964_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1964 Saint Lucian general election"), the party lost an election for the first time, with the [United Workers Party](/wiki/United_Workers_Party_%28Saint_Lucia%29 "United Workers Party (Saint Lucia)"), born out of a schism from within the Labour Party led by [John Compton](/wiki/John_Compton "John Compton") and eventual merger of the breakaway faction with the [People's Progressive Party](/wiki/People%27s_Progressive_Party_%28Saint_Lucia%29 "People's Progressive Party (Saint Lucia)"), winning six of the ten seats, with the Labour Party reduced to two. It gained a seat in the [1969 elections](/wiki/1969_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1969 Saint Lucian general election"), and increased their representation to seven seats in [1974](/wiki/1974_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1974 Saint Lucian general election"), although the UWP remained in power as the total number of seats rose to 17\.
The Labour Party returned to power after winning the [1979 elections](/wiki/1979_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1979 Saint Lucian general election") (12/17\), led by Allan Louisy, replaced as prime minister during the term by [Winston Cenac](/wiki/Winston_Cenac "Winston Cenac"), himself replaced by [Michael Pilgrim](/wiki/Michael_Pilgrim "Michael Pilgrim"). The 1979 elections were the first elections held following independence from the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), declared on 22 February 1979\.
It lost the [1982 elections](/wiki/1982_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1982 Saint Lucian general election") to Compton's UWP when they were reduced to just two seats, challenged on their left by a breakaway faction, [George Odlum](/wiki/George_Odlum "George Odlum")'s [Progressive Labour Party](/wiki/Progressive_Labour_Party_%28Saint_Lucia%29 "Progressive Labour Party (Saint Lucia)") taking 1 seat. It remained in opposition following the [two elections](/wiki/6_April_1987_Saint_Lucian_general_election "6 April 1987 Saint Lucian general election") of [April 1987](/wiki/30_April_1987_Saint_Lucian_general_election "30 April 1987 Saint Lucian general election"), increasing its presence to 8 seats in both contests, and in [1992](/wiki/1992_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1992 Saint Lucian general election") (6/17\).
Led by Dr. [Kenny Anthony](/wiki/Kenny_Anthony "Kenny Anthony"), former cabinet minister in the 1979–1982 government, it won the [1997 elections](/wiki/1997_Saint_Lucian_general_election "1997 Saint Lucian general election"), taking 16 of the 17 seats. It remained in power after the [2001 elections](/wiki/2001_Saint_Lucian_general_election "2001 Saint Lucian general election") (14/17\).
It lost the [2006 elections](/wiki/2006_Saint_Lucian_general_election "2006 Saint Lucian general election") to the UWP, who had called back [John Compton](/wiki/John_Compton "John Compton"){{cite web \|title\=John George Melvin Compton \|url\=http://caribbeanelections.com/knowledge/biography/bios/compton\_john.asp \|access\-date\=3 Aug 2021}} as leader a year before \- he had retired in 1996\. Kenny Anthony remained leader of the party throughout its time as [loyal opposition](/wiki/Loyal_opposition "Loyal opposition"). The Labour Party won the [2011 Saint Lucian general election](/wiki/2011_Saint_Lucian_general_election "2011 Saint Lucian general election") (28 November 2011\), winning in 11 out of a 17\-seats contest and defeating UWP leader [Stephenson King](/wiki/Stephenson_King "Stephenson King") who had succeeded John Compton as Prime Minister (d. 2007, in office).
The Labour Party lost the [2016 elections](/wiki/2016_Saint_Lucian_general_election "2016 Saint Lucian general election") to the UWP by 11 seats to 6, and Kenny Anthony resigned as party leader. Former Deputy PM [Philip J. Pierre](/wiki/Philip_J._Pierre "Philip J. Pierre") was confirmed as party leader on 18 June 2016\.{{cite news \|title\=UWP wins general election \|work\=St. Lucia News Online \|date\=6 June 2016 \|url\=http://www.stlucianewsonline.com/uwp\-wins\-general\-election/ \|access\-date\=6 June 2016}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.loopslu.com/content/hon\-philip\-j\-pierre\-leader\-slp\-5 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806180735/http://www.loopslu.com/content/hon\-philip\-j\-pierre\-leader\-slp\-5 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=6 August 2016 \|title\=Hon. Philip J Pierre is leader of the SLP \|publisher\=Loop News \|date\=20 June 2016 \|access\-date\=21 June 2016 }}{{cite press release \|title\=Pierre confirmed as SLP Leader \|publisher\=Saint Lucia Labour Party \|date\=21 June 2016 \|url\=http://www.stlucianewsonline.com/pierre\-confirmed\-as\-slp\-and\-opposition\-leader/ \|access\-date\=21 June 2016}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The party was established in 1949, backed by the Saint Lucia Workers Cooperative Union.[Nohlen, D](/wiki/Dieter_Nohlen \"Dieter Nohlen\") (2005\\) *Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I*, p581 {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-19\\-928357\\-6}} In the [first elections](/wiki/1951_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1951 Saint Lucian general election\") held under universal suffrage in 1951, and led by party founder [George Charles](/wiki/George_Charles \"George Charles\"), the party won five of the eight seats. It retained all five seats in the [1954 elections](/wiki/1954_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1954 Saint Lucian general election\"), and increased their majority to seven of the eight seats in [1957](/wiki/1957_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1957 Saint Lucian general election\") and nine of the ten seats in [1961](/wiki/1961_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1961 Saint Lucian general election\").",
"In [1964](/wiki/1964_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1964 Saint Lucian general election\"), the party lost an election for the first time, with the [United Workers Party](/wiki/United_Workers_Party_%28Saint_Lucia%29 \"United Workers Party (Saint Lucia)\"), born out of a schism from within the Labour Party led by [John Compton](/wiki/John_Compton \"John Compton\") and eventual merger of the breakaway faction with the [People's Progressive Party](/wiki/People%27s_Progressive_Party_%28Saint_Lucia%29 \"People's Progressive Party (Saint Lucia)\"), winning six of the ten seats, with the Labour Party reduced to two. It gained a seat in the [1969 elections](/wiki/1969_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1969 Saint Lucian general election\"), and increased their representation to seven seats in [1974](/wiki/1974_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1974 Saint Lucian general election\"), although the UWP remained in power as the total number of seats rose to 17\\.",
"The Labour Party returned to power after winning the [1979 elections](/wiki/1979_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1979 Saint Lucian general election\") (12/17\\), led by Allan Louisy, replaced as prime minister during the term by [Winston Cenac](/wiki/Winston_Cenac \"Winston Cenac\"), himself replaced by [Michael Pilgrim](/wiki/Michael_Pilgrim \"Michael Pilgrim\"). The 1979 elections were the first elections held following independence from the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), declared on 22 February 1979\\.",
"It lost the [1982 elections](/wiki/1982_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1982 Saint Lucian general election\") to Compton's UWP when they were reduced to just two seats, challenged on their left by a breakaway faction, [George Odlum](/wiki/George_Odlum \"George Odlum\")'s [Progressive Labour Party](/wiki/Progressive_Labour_Party_%28Saint_Lucia%29 \"Progressive Labour Party (Saint Lucia)\") taking 1 seat. It remained in opposition following the [two elections](/wiki/6_April_1987_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"6 April 1987 Saint Lucian general election\") of [April 1987](/wiki/30_April_1987_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"30 April 1987 Saint Lucian general election\"), increasing its presence to 8 seats in both contests, and in [1992](/wiki/1992_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1992 Saint Lucian general election\") (6/17\\).",
"Led by Dr. [Kenny Anthony](/wiki/Kenny_Anthony \"Kenny Anthony\"), former cabinet minister in the 1979–1982 government, it won the [1997 elections](/wiki/1997_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"1997 Saint Lucian general election\"), taking 16 of the 17 seats. It remained in power after the [2001 elections](/wiki/2001_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"2001 Saint Lucian general election\") (14/17\\).",
"It lost the [2006 elections](/wiki/2006_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"2006 Saint Lucian general election\") to the UWP, who had called back [John Compton](/wiki/John_Compton \"John Compton\"){{cite web \\|title\\=John George Melvin Compton \\|url\\=http://caribbeanelections.com/knowledge/biography/bios/compton\\_john.asp \\|access\\-date\\=3 Aug 2021}} as leader a year before \\- he had retired in 1996\\. Kenny Anthony remained leader of the party throughout its time as [loyal opposition](/wiki/Loyal_opposition \"Loyal opposition\"). The Labour Party won the [2011 Saint Lucian general election](/wiki/2011_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"2011 Saint Lucian general election\") (28 November 2011\\), winning in 11 out of a 17\\-seats contest and defeating UWP leader [Stephenson King](/wiki/Stephenson_King \"Stephenson King\") who had succeeded John Compton as Prime Minister (d. 2007, in office).",
"The Labour Party lost the [2016 elections](/wiki/2016_Saint_Lucian_general_election \"2016 Saint Lucian general election\") to the UWP by 11 seats to 6, and Kenny Anthony resigned as party leader. Former Deputy PM [Philip J. Pierre](/wiki/Philip_J._Pierre \"Philip J. Pierre\") was confirmed as party leader on 18 June 2016\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=UWP wins general election \\|work\\=St. Lucia News Online \\|date\\=6 June 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.stlucianewsonline.com/uwp\\-wins\\-general\\-election/ \\|access\\-date\\=6 June 2016}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.loopslu.com/content/hon\\-philip\\-j\\-pierre\\-leader\\-slp\\-5 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806180735/http://www.loopslu.com/content/hon\\-philip\\-j\\-pierre\\-leader\\-slp\\-5 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2016 \\|title\\=Hon. Philip J Pierre is leader of the SLP \\|publisher\\=Loop News \\|date\\=20 June 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=21 June 2016 }}{{cite press release \\|title\\=Pierre confirmed as SLP Leader \\|publisher\\=Saint Lucia Labour Party \\|date\\=21 June 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.stlucianewsonline.com/pierre\\-confirmed\\-as\\-slp\\-and\\-opposition\\-leader/ \\|access\\-date\\=21 June 2016}}",
""
] |
Anti\-immigration arguments
---------------------------
### National identity
Whether and how national identity affects attitudes toward immigration depends heavily on the meanings associated with a particular national identity. If a national identity is defined in an exclusionary way that targets ethnic or racial groups, or if an ethnic or racial majority dominates in the political structures of a nation, then that national identity is likely to be associated with attitudes against immigration. Research also suggests that people respond more strongly to appeals to national identity than they do to economic considerations when they are asked about issues relating to immigration.{{cite journal \|last1\=Mylonas \|first1\=Harris \|last2\=Tudor \|first2\=Maya \|title\=Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know \|journal\=Annual Review of Political Science \|date\=11 May 2021 \|volume\=24 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=109–132\|doi\-access\=free \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-polisci\-041719\-101841 }} Both Americans and Europeans are likely to overestimate the number of immigrants in their countries and to favor lower immigration.{{cite journal\|author2\-link\=John M. Sides \|last1\=Citrin \|first1\=Jack \|last2\=Sides \|first2\=John \|title\=Immigration and the Imagined Community in Europe and the United States \|journal\=Political Studies \|date\=March 2008 \|volume\=56 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=33–56 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1467\-9248\.2007\.00716\.x \|s2cid\=145792964 \|url\=https://ideas.repec.org/a/bla/polstu/v56y2008i1p33\-56\.html \|access\-date\=28 September 2021}}
Where national identity is not defined in a way that conflicts with ethnic or racial identity, and where such groups are not excluded socio\-economically, national identity can be compatible with ethnic or [racial diversity](/wiki/Racial_diversity "Racial diversity").{{Cite book\|last\=Wimmer\|first\=Andreas\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1515/9781400888894\|title\=Nation Building\|date\=2018\-05\-08\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|doi\=10\.1515/9781400888894\|isbn\=978\-1\-4008\-8889\-4\|s2cid\=240305736}}
National identity can even be an important factor for social peace in cases where there are intra\-national divides. For example, a 2015 study showed that educational content emphasizing the national unity of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") was an important cause of improved inter\-ethnic and inter\-religious relationships in [Suharto](/wiki/Suharto "Suharto")'s Indonesia.{{cite web\|url\=https://mpra.ub.uni\-muenchen.de/64558/\|title\=Does Education Increase Interethnic and Interreligious Tolerance? Evidence from a Natural Experimen\|first1\=Christopher\|last1\=Roth\|first2\=Sudarno\|last2\=Sumarto\|date\=2 November 2015}}
### Isolation, separation and stability
Immigrants can be isolated in their own communities, forming self\-organized communities, [ghettos](/wiki/Ghetto "Ghetto") or [parallel societies](/wiki/Parallel_society "Parallel society") where they live according to their own culture, rather than assimilating to the native culture with a reduced or minimal spatial, social and cultural contact with the majority society into which they have immigrated. Such ethnic enclaves can be the result of humans naturally liking to be around people like themselves.{{cite magazine\|title\=End of nations: Is there an alternative to countries?\|url\=http://mpc\-journal.org/blog/2016/11/09/end\-of\-nations\-is\-there\-an\-alternative\-to\-countries/\|magazine\=New Scientist\|access\-date\=10 May 2017\|archive\-date\=18 March 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318172657/http://mpc\-journal.org/blog/2016/11/09/end\-of\-nations\-is\-there\-an\-alternative\-to\-countries/\|url\-status\=dead}} They might not learn the local language and might eventually undermine the national unity, as well as the [cultural](/wiki/Cultural "Cultural") and [religious](/wiki/Religious "Religious") unity of the native country.[Parallelgesellschaften?](http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/URZDVA), *Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte*, No. 1–2 (2006\) Research by Jennifer Neal of Michigan State University suggests that ethnic enclaves promote [social cohesion](/wiki/Social_cohesion "Social cohesion") at the cost of decreasing tolerance between groups and that their size, autonomy and proximity are factors. Some also suggest to devolve more power to local communities.
Immigration may adversely affect social{{cite book\|last1\=Sobel\|first1\=Andrew\|title\=Challenges of Globalization: Immigration, Social Welfare, Global Governance\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=9781135216955\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Q4CMAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA96\|access\-date\=10 May 2017\|language\=en\|date\=10 September 2009}} and political stability.{{cite web\|title\=Immigration and political stability\|url\=https://www.oecd.org/dev/pgd/46923664\.pdf\|access\-date\=10 May 2017}}
### Increased competition
Economic arguments concentrate on competition for employment, and the higher burdens that some groups of immigrants may impose on [social welfare](/wiki/Social_welfare_provision "Social welfare provision") systems, health systems, housing and public schools of the native state.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/09/is\-britain\-full\-home\-truths\-about\-population\-panic\|title\=Is Britain full? Home truths about the population panic\|first\=Andy\|last\=Beckett\|date\=9 February 2016\|newspaper\=The Guardian}} For example, Denmark's strict immigration law reform has saved the country 6\.7 billion euros compared to previous more permissive approach, according to a 2011 report from the Danish Integration Ministry.{{cite web \| last \= Reimann \| first \= Anna \| title \= Putting a price on foreigners: strict immigration laws 'Save Denmark Billions'\|url\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/putting\-a\-price\-on\-foreigners\-strict\-immigration\-laws\-save\-denmark\-billions\-a\-759716\.html \|website \=spiegel.de \| publisher \= Spiegel Online \| date \= 29 April 2011 \|access\-date\=14 September 2014}}{{cite news \|title\=Denmark's immigration laws save country £6 billion\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/denmark/8492822/Denmarks\-immigration\-laws\-save\-country\-6\-billion.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/denmark/8492822/Denmarks\-immigration\-laws\-save\-country\-6\-billion.html \|archive\-date\=12 January 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live \| work \= \[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \|access\-date\=14 September 2014}}{{cbignore}}
### Environmental space, quality and resource scarcity
Some people think{{weasel\-inline\|date\=October 2024}} there is a certain size of land needed to provide for a population ("[environmental space](/wiki/Environmental_space "Environmental space")"), e.g., to provide for the population's consumption, including absorption of waste products.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.populationmatters.org/wp\-content/uploads/population\_problem\_uk.pdf\|title\=The UK's population problem\|access\-date\=28 January 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020230841/http://www.populationmatters.org/wp\-content/uploads/population\_problem\_uk.pdf\|archive\-date\=20 October 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} Immigrants, in this logic, such as a newborn child, reduce the per\-capita size of land of the native country.
Some are concerned about [urban sprawl](/wiki/Urban_sprawl "Urban sprawl") and congestion, alterations in the wildlife and natural environment of the state, and an expansive carbon footprint due to immigration.{{cite web\|last1\=Rohe\|first1\=John F\|title\=Living Standards, Scarce Resources and Immigration: An Interview With Labor Economist Vernon M. Briggs, Jr.\|date\=1 January 2006\|url\=http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=1205\&context\=articles\|access\-date\=28 January 2017\|language\=en}} Furthermore, some are concerned over a state's scarce resources, dwindling water reserves, energy, pauperized soils and solid waste.
### Diseases
Immigrants (and cross\-border movements in general) can bring infectious diseases uncommon to the native population from their home countries{{cite book\|last1\=Dhooper\|first1\=Surjit Singh\|title\=Social Work in Health Care: Its Past and Future\|publisher\=SAGE Publications\|isbn\=9781483342573\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7dggAQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA110\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|language\=en\|date\=29 November 2011}}{{cite book\|last1\=Brown\|first1\=Diane\|last2\=Edwards\|first2\=Helen\|last3\=Seaton\|first3\=Lesley\|last4\=Buckley\|first4\=Thomas\|title\=Lewis's Medical\-Surgical Nursing: Assessment and Management of Clinical Problems\|publisher\=Elsevier Health Sciences\|isbn\=9780729582209\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=G5u9BwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA42\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|language\=en\|date\=29 January 2015}}{{cite web\|title\=U.S. – Mexico Cross\-Border Health\|publisher\=Gateway to Health Communication {{!}} CDC\|url\=https://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/entertainmented/tips/us\-mexico\-health.html\|website\=www.cdc.gov\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|language\=en\-us}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Gushulak\|first1\=B. D.\|last2\=MacPherson\|first2\=D. W.\|title\=Globalization of Infectious Diseases: The Impact of Migration\|journal\=Clinical Infectious Diseases\|date\=15 June 2004\|volume\=38\|issue\=12\|pages\=1742–1748\|doi\=10\.1086/421268\|pmid\=15227621\|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite book\|last1\=Wilder\-Smith\|first1\=Annelies\|last2\=Shaw\|first2\=Marc\|last3\=Schwartz\|first3\=Eli\|title\=Travel Medicine: Tales Behind the Science\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=9781136352157\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=821u8pqWgq4C\&pg\=PA218\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|language\=en\|date\=7 June 2007}} which some perceive as a threat of significance in opposition to immigration.{{cite news\|title\=Polish opposition warns refugees could spread infectious diseases\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-europe\-migrants\-poland\-idUSKCN0S918B20151015\|work\=Reuters\|access\-date\=13 February 2017\|date\=15 October 2016}}{{cite news\|last1\=Bruce\|first1\=Tammy\|title\=When foreigners bring disease across the border\|url\=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2016/jan/25/tammy\-bruce\-when\-foreigners\-bring\-disease\-across\-t/\|newspaper\=The Washington Times\|access\-date\=13 February 2017}}{{cite news\|title\=The Mexican 'germ invasion' is just the right's latest anti\-immigration myth\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jul/02/border\-patrol\-diseases\-anti\-immigration\-myth\|newspaper\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=13 February 2017\|date\=2 July 2014}}
There is a history of white supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan exaggerating or fabricating a connection between immigrants and infectious disease in order to stoke anti\-immigrant sentiment.{{Cite journal\|last\=Kraut\|first\=Alan M.\|date\=2010\|title\=Immigration, Ethnicity, and the Pandemic\|journal\=Public Health Reports\|volume\=125\|issue\=Suppl 3\|pages\=123–133\|issn\=0033\-3549\|pmc\=2862341\|pmid\=20568574\|doi\=10\.1177/00333549101250S315}}
### Immigrant crime
{{Main\|Immigration and crime\|}}
Opponents of immigration often claim that immigrants contribute to higher crime rates, but research suggests that people tend to overestimate the relationship between immigration and criminality.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hooghe\|first1\=Marc\|last2\=de Vroome\|first2\=Thomas\|date\=1 January 2016\|title\=The relation between ethnic diversity and fear of crime: An analysis of police records and survey data in Belgian communities \|journal\=International Journal of Intercultural Relations\|volume\=50\|pages\=66–75\|doi\=10\.1016/j.ijintrel.2015\.11\.002\|hdl\=1874/344394\|s2cid\=133596758 \|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Nunziata\|first\=Luca\|date\=4 March 2015\|title\=Immigration and crime: evidence from victimization data \|journal\=Journal of Population Economics\|volume\=28\|issue\=3\|pages\=697–736\|doi\=10\.1007/s00148\-015\-0543\-2\|s2cid\=154572522\|issn\=0933\-1433}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2016/06/28/americas\-puzzling\-moral\-ambivalence\-about\-middle\-east\-refugees/\|title\=America's puzzling moral ambivalence about Middle East refugees\|date\=28 June 2016\|newspaper\=Brookings\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=26 January 2017}} The academic literature provides mixed findings for the relationship between immigration and crime worldwide, but finds for the United States that immigration either has no impact on the crime rate or that it reduces the crime rate.{{Cite journal\|last\=Papadopoulos\|first\=Georgios\|date\=2 July 2014\|title\=Immigration status and property crime: an application of estimators for underreported outcomes\|url\=http://www.izajom.com/content/3/1/12/abstract\|journal\=IZA Journal of Migration\|volume\=3\|issue\=1\|page\=12\|doi\=10\.1186/2193\-9039\-3\-12\|issn\=2193\-9039\|doi\-access\=free\|hdl\=10\.1186/2193\-9039\-3\-12\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bianchi\|first1\=Milo\|last2\=Buonanno\|first2\=Paolo\|last3\=Pinotti\|first3\=Paolo\|date\=1 December 2012\|title\=Do Immigrants Cause Crime? \|journal\=Journal of the European Economic Association\|language\=en\|volume\=10\|issue\=6\|pages\=1318–1347\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1542\-4774\.2012\.01085\.x\|s2cid\=260571383 \|issn\=1542\-4774\|url\=http://aisberg.unibg.it/bitstream/10446/288/1/WPEco01(2008\)Bianchi.pdf}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Jaitman\|first1\=Laura\|last2\=Machin\|first2\=Stephen\|date\=25 October 2013\|title\=Crime and immigration: new evidence from England and Wales \|journal\=IZA Journal of Migration\|volume\=2\|issue\=1\|pages\=19\|doi\=10\.1186/2193\-9039\-2\-19\|s2cid\=58926977\|issn\=2193\-9039\|url\=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/92234/1/775177067\.pdf\|doi\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bell\|first1\=Brian\|last2\=Fasani\|first2\=Francesco\|last3\=Machin\|first3\=Stephen\|date\=10 October 2012\|title\=Crime and Immigration: Evidence from Large Immigrant Waves \|journal\=Review of Economics and Statistics\|volume\=95\|issue\=4\|pages\=1278–1290\|doi\=10\.1162/REST\_a\_00337\|s2cid\=11566473\|issn\=0034\-6535\|url\=http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp0984\.pdf}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bell\|first1\=Brian\|last2\=Machin\|first2\=Stephen\|date\=1 February 2013\|title\=Immigrant Enclaves and Crime \|journal\=Journal of Regional Science\|volume\=53\|issue\=1\|pages\=118–141\|doi\=10\.1111/jors.12003\|bibcode\=2013JRegS..53\..118B \|s2cid\=19138479\|issn\=1467\-9787\|url\=http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1104\.pdf}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Wadsworth\|first\=Tim\|date\=1 June 2010\|title\=Is Immigration Responsible for the Crime Drop? An Assessment of the Influence of Immigration on Changes in Violent Crime Between 1990 and 2000 \|journal\=Social Science Quarterly\|volume\=91\|issue\=2\|pages\=531–553\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1540\-6237\.2010\.00706\.x\|issn\=1540\-6237}}{{Cite report\|last1\=Piopiunik\|first1\=Marc\|last2\=Ruhose\|first2\=Jens\|date\=6 April 2015\|title\=Immigration, Regional Conditions, and Crime: Evidence from an Allocation Policy in Germany\|doi\=10\.2139/ssrn.2589824 \|ssrn\=2589824\|url\=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp8962 \|hdl\=10419/110652\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WtYEoD4u9RYC\|title\=Immigration, Crime and Justice\|publisher\=Emerald Group Publishing\|year\=2009\|pages\=3–16\|chapter\=Immigration reduces crime: an emerging scholarly consensus\|author1\=Lee, Matthew T.\|author2\=Martinez Jr., Ramiro\|isbn\=9781848554382}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bell\|first1\=Brian\|last2\=Oxford\|first2\=University of\|last3\=UK\|title\=Crime and immigration\|url\=http://wol.iza.org/articles/crime\-and\-immigration\|journal\=IZA World of Labor\|doi\=10\.15185/izawol.33\|year\=2014\|doi\-access\=free\|hdl\=10419/125260\|hdl\-access\=free}}
### Military unity
Some concerns regarding immigration can be found in perceived military loyalty, especially if the country of emigration becomes involved in a war with the country of immigration{{cite journal\|last1\=Kozak\|first1\=Krystof\|title\=Are Immigrants Disloyal? The Case of Mexicans in the U.S.\|url\=https://ejas.revues.org/7629\|journal\=European Journal of American Studies\|year\=2009\|volume\=4\|issue\=2\|publisher\=European Association for American Studies\|doi\=10\.4000/ejas.7629\|access\-date\=20 July 2016\|doi\-access\=free}} or if a country finds itself to need [conscription](/wiki/Conscription "Conscription").
### Dangerous journeys
Unauthorized or irregular migration can expose immigrants to many dangers, including exposure to harsh environments, lack of food and water, and violence from smugglers and authorities.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://publications.iom.int/books/global\-migration\-data\-analysis\-centre\-data\-briefing\-series\-issue\-no\-4\-august\-2016\|title\=Global Migration Data Analysis Centre: Data Briefing Series \| Issue No. 4, August 2016\|via\=publications.iom.int}} Since 2014, over 4,000 people have died each year on migration routes around the world, and this is likely to be a low estimate since many deaths are never recorded.{{cite web\|title\=Migrant Deaths and Disappearances\|url\=https://migrationdataportal.org/themes/migrant\-deaths\-and\-disappearances\|access\-date\=4 July 2021}}
Harshly restricting immigration and making these restrictions known to potential emigrants may prevent them from taking such dangerous journeys.{{cite news\|last1\=Farrell\|first1\=Paul\|title\=Could Australia's 'stop the boats' policy solve Europe's migrant crisis?\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/22/could\-australia\-stop\-the\-boats\-policy\-solve\-europe\-migrant\-crisis\|newspaper\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|date\=22 April 2015}}{{better source needed\|date\=January 2017}} In the United States, the border patrol policy of [Prevention Through Deterrence](/wiki/Prevention_Through_Deterrence "Prevention Through Deterrence") has deliberately acted to divert migrants into remote areas where they are more likely to encounter life\-threatening dangers.{{cite web\|title\=Left to die: Border patrol, search and rescue, \& the crisis of disappearance\|url\=http://www.thedisappearedreport.org/uploads/8/3/5/1/83515082/left\_to\_die\_\-\_english.pdf}}
### Import of culture
{{Further\|Islamization\|Cultural conflict\|\#National identity}}
Immigrants bring their culture with them.{{cite web\|title\=The gifts of immigration\|date\=21 April 2011 \|url\=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/04/the\-gifts\-of\-immigration/\|publisher\=Harvard Gazette\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en}}{{cite book\|last1\=Swain\|first1\=Laksha P.\|title\=Migration and Adjustment\|publisher\=Northern Book Centre\|isbn\=9788172112110\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=U7nOhJszK3QC\&pg\=PA45\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en\|year\=2006}}{{cite book\|last1\=Flores\|first1\=Juan\|last2\=Flores\|first2\=Prof of Social and Cultural Analysis Juan\|title\=The Diaspora Strikes Back: Caribeño Tales of Learning and Turning\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=9781135927592\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=OVSTAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PR7\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=2 April 2010}}{{cite book\|last1\=Chuang\|first1\=Susan S.\|title\=Immigrant Children: Change, Adaptation, and Cultural Transformation\|publisher\=Lexington Books\|isbn\=9780739167069\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AeDXAQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA239\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=16 June 2011}}{{cite journal\|title\=Muslims in France: Identifying a Discriminatory Equilibrium\|url\=http://ftp.iza.org/dp6953\.pdf\|access\-date\=10 May 2017}}{{cite book\|last1\=Rozell\|first1\=Mark J.\|last2\=Jelen\|first2\=Ted G.\|title\=American Political Culture: An Encyclopedia \[3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=9781610693783\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=MuVjCAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA953\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=28 April 2015}}{{cite book\|title\=Epidemiology for Public Health Practice\|publisher\=Jones \& Bartlett Publishers\|isbn\=9781449666637\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TLNMPc\-Pa5oC\&pg\=PA168\|access\-date\=10 May 2017\|language\=en\|date\=18 May 2009}} The immigrants' thinking, their norms, practices, customs and values shape, extend and influence the native country's culture ([Leitkultur](/wiki/Leitkultur "Leitkultur")). Some such extensions and influences might not be desired by parts of the native population, for reasons that may include practises considered less civilized, restrictions as well as collisions with the native country's norms, laws and values in general.{{cite book\|last1\=Chapman\|first1\=Roger\|last2\=Ciment\|first2\=James\|title\=Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints and Voices\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=9781317473510\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XO9nBwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA330\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=17 March 2015}}{{cite book\|last1\=Rahim\|first1\=Abdur\|title\=Canadian Immigration and South Asian Immigrants\|publisher\=Xlibris Corporation\|isbn\=9781499058727\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=o22mBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT168\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=19 September 2014}}{{Self\-published inline\|certain\=yes\|date\=December 2017}}{{cite book\|last1\=Congress\|first1\=Elaine P. \|last2\=Gonzalez\|first2\=Manny J. \|title\=Multicultural Perspectives in Working with Families: Second Edition\|publisher\=Springer Publishing Company\|isbn\=9780826131461\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eujRZg308isC\&pg\=PA382\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=15 April 2005 }}{{cite book\|last1\=Nyangweso\|first1\=Mary\|title\=Female Genital Cutting in Industrialized Countries: Mutilation or Cultural Tradition?\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=9781440833472\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9AyqBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA4\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=20 October 2014}}
### Economic costs
{{See also\|Economic results of migration}}
Opponents of immigration often state that immigrants have a net negative effect on public coffers mainly due to the provisioning of medical care and [welfare](/wiki/Welfare "Welfare").{{cite journal\|title\=Immigration and the Welfare State\|journal\=Cato Journal\|url\=https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato\-journal/2012/1/cj32n1\-11\.pdf\|access\-date\=12 February 2017}}{{cite web\|title\=The Cost of Welfare Use By Immigrant and Native Households\|url\=http://cis.org/Cost\-Welfare\-Immigrant\-Native\-Households\|publisher\=Center for Immigration Studies\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|language\=en\|date\=6 May 2016 \|last1\=Richwine \|first1\=Jason }}{{cite book\|last1\=Sowell\|first1\=Thomas\|title\=Applied Economics: Thinking Beyond Stage One\|publisher\=Basic Books\|isbn\=978\-0786722709\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=gh4JdTv\-t9sC\&pg\=PT173\|access\-date\=25 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=9 December 2008}}{{cite book\|last1\=Bommes\|first1\=Michael\|last2\=Geddes\|first2\=Andrew\|title\=Immigration and Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=9781134593705\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=tQuEXKGPqfEC\&pg\=PA9\|access\-date\=25 January 2017\|language\=en\|date\=2 September 2003}}{{cite news\|title\=Report: More than half of immigrants on welfare\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/09/01/immigrant\-welfare\-use\-report/71517072/\|newspaper\=USA TODAY\|access\-date\=25 January 2017\|language\=en}}{{cite web\|title\=Germany Announces Crackdown on Immigrant 'Welfare Abuse' {{!}} VICE News\|date\=28 August 2014 \|url\=https://news.vice.com/article/germany\-announces\-crackdown\-on\-immigrant\-welfare\-abuse\|publisher\=VICE News\|access\-date\=12 February 2017}}{{cite web\|title\=The Welfare Use of Immigrants and Natives in Germany: The Case of Turkish Immigrants\|url\=http://www.laser.uni\-erlangen.de/papers/paper/117\.pdf\|access\-date\=25 January 2017}}
Various factors influence the impact of immigrants to a nation's public coffers and their use of welfare. While immigrants can improve a state's welfare system by for example counteracting trends of [aging populations](/wiki/Population_ageing "Population ageing") their net economic impact might also be negative.{{cite web\|title\=The Impact of Immigration on Germany's Society\|url\=https://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/EN/Publikationen/Forschungsberichte/fb01\-einfluss\-zuwanderung.pdf?\_\_blob\=publicationFile\|publisher\=Federal Office for Migration and Refugees\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|date\=2005}}{{cite web\|title\=Refugee immigration and public finances in Sweden\|url\=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/38323/1/gupea\_2077\_38323\_1\.pdf\|access\-date\=10 May 2017}} [George Borjas](/wiki/George_Borjas "George Borjas"), economics professor at Harvard's [Kennedy School of Government](/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School "Harvard Kennedy School"), states that "the more unskilled the immigrant, the more likely the immigrant will be a fiscal burden".{{cite magazine\|last1\=Horn\|first1\=Heather\|title\=The Economics—and Morality—of Admitting Refugees\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/02/welfare\-state\-refugees\-europe/463272/\|magazine\=The Atlantic\|access\-date\=12 February 2017}} High\-skilled immigrants have better labor market prospects than those admitted based on kinship ties or for humanitarian reasons.{{cite web\|title\=Skill\-based immigration, economic integration, and economic performance\|url\=https://wol.iza.org/uploads/articles/41/pdfs/skill\-based\-immigration\-economic\-integration\-and\-economic\-performance.pdf\|access\-date\=10 May 2017}} It also depends on the tenures, wages and ages of the immigrants{{cite CiteSeerX\|title\=Economic Impacts of Immigration: A Survey\|year\=2011\|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.360\.324}} and the country's integration system.
### Damage to migrants' home countries
{{See also\|Brain drain}}
Some opponents of immigration argue that immigration of highly skilled or well\-educated individuals may hurt their home countries, which could otherwise benefit from them and build up their economy and improve their social and political system. However, that notion of "[brain drain](/wiki/Brain_drain "Brain drain")" remains largely unsupported in the academic literature. According to the economist [Michael Clemens](/wiki/Michael_Clemens "Michael Clemens"), it has not been shown that restrictions on high\-skill emigration reduce shortages in the countries of origin.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Clemens\|first1\=Michael\|last2\=Development\|first2\=Center for Global\|last3\=USA\|title\=Smart policy toward high\-skill emigrants\|url\=http://wol.iza.org/articles/smart\-policy\-toward\-high\-skill\-emigrants\|journal\=IZA World of Labor\|doi\=10\.15185/izawol.203\|year\=2015\|doi\-access\=free}} According to the development economist Justin Sandefur, "there is no study out there... showing any empirical evidence that migration restrictions have contributed to development."{{Cite web\|url\=http://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/migration\-and\-development\-who\-bears\-the\-burden\-of\-proof\-justin\-sandefur\-replies\-to\-paul\-collier\-2/\|title\=Migration and Development: Who Bears the Burden of Proof? Justin Sandefur replies to Paul Collier {{!}} From Poverty to Power\|website\=oxfamblogs.org\|access\-date\=3 July 2016\|archive\-date\=15 July 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715125841/http://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/migration\-and\-development\-who\-bears\-the\-burden\-of\-proof\-justin\-sandefur\-replies\-to\-paul\-collier\-2/\|url\-status\=dead}} Hein de Haas, a professor of sociology at the [University of Amsterdam](/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam "University of Amsterdam"), describes brain drain as a "myth".{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/eight\-myths\-about\-migration\-and\-refugees\-explained\-a\-1138053\.html\|title\=Myths of Migration: Much of What We Think We Know Is Wrong\|newspaper\=Der Spiegel\|date\=21 March 2017 \|access\-date\=23 March 2017\|last1\=Haas \|first1\=Hein de }} Research suggests that emigration (both low\- and high\-skilled) is beneficial to the sending countries in terms of economy,(speculation){{Cite journal\|last1\=di Giovanni\|first1\=Julian\|last2\=Levchenko\|first2\=Andrei A.\|last3\=Ortega\|first3\=Francesc\|date\=1 February 2015\|title\=A Global View of Cross\-Border Migration \|journal\=Journal of the European Economic Association\|volume\=13\|issue\=1\|pages\=168–202\|doi\=10\.1111/jeea.12110\|hdl\=10230/22196\|s2cid\=3465938\|issn\=1542\-4774\|url\=http://www.fordschool.umich.edu/rsie/workingpapers/Papers626\-650/r627\.pdf\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite web\|first1\=Dirk Andreas\|last1\=Willenbockel \|first2\=Delfin Sia \|last2\=Go \|first3\=S. Amer\|last3\=Ahmed \|date\=11 April 2016\|title\=Global migration revisited : short\-term pains, long\-term gains, and the potential of south\-south migration\|url\=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2016/04/26208170/global\-migration\-revisited\-short\-term\-pains\-long\-term\-gains\-potential\-south\-south\-migration\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cream\-migration.org/publ\_uploads/CDP\_24\_16\.pdf\|title\=The Gain from the Drain – Skill\-biased Migration and Global Welfare}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.voxeu.org/article/cross\-border\-movement\-persons\-stimulates\-trade\|title\=Cross\-border movement of persons stimulates trade\|last1\=Aner\|first1\=Emilie\|last2\=Graneli\|first2\=Anna\|date\=14 October 2015\|website\=VoxEU.org\|publisher\=Centre for Economic Policy Research\|last3\=Lodefolk\|first3\=Magnus\|access\-date\=19 October 2015}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bratti\|first1\=Massimiliano\|last2\=Benedictis\|first2\=Luca De\|last3\=Santoni\|first3\=Gianluca\|date\=18 April 2014\|title\=On the pro\-trade effects of immigrants \|journal\=Review of World Economics\|volume\=150\|issue\=3\|pages\=557–594\|doi\=10\.1007/s10290\-014\-0191\-8\|hdl\=11393/195448\|s2cid\=4981719\|issn\=1610\-2878\|url\=https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/141126/1/wp13014\.pdf\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Foley\|first1\=C. Fritz\|last2\=Kerr\|first2\=William R.\|year\=2013 \|title\=Ethnic Innovation and U.S. Multinational Firm Activity \|journal\=Management Science \|volume\=59 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=1529–1544 \|doi\=10\.1287/mnsc.1120\.1684 \|s2cid\=7275466\|url\=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn\-3:HUL.InstRepos:10018931}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Javorcik\|first1\=Beata S. \|author\-link1\=Beata Javorcik \|last2\=Özden\|first2\=Çaglar\|last3\=Spatareanu\|first3\=Mariana\|last4\=Neagu\|first4\=Cristina\|date\=1 January 2011\|title\=Migrant networks and foreign direct investment \|journal\=Journal of Development Economics\|volume\=94\|issue\=2\|pages\=231–241\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jdeveco.2010\.01\.012\|hdl\=10986/9023 \|s2cid\=17934565 \|url\=http://www\-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/10/25/000016406\_20061025122602/Rendered/PDF/wps4046\.pdf \|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Tong\|first\=Sarah Y.\|date\=1 November 2005\|title\=Ethnic Networks in FDI and the Impact of Institutional Development \|journal\=Review of Development Economics\|language\=en\|volume\=9\|issue\=4\|pages\=563–580\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1467\-9361\.2005\.00294\.x\|s2cid\=154262328\|issn\=1467\-9361}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Hillel Rapoport\|date\=20 September 2016\|title\=Migration and globalization: what's in it for developing countries? \|journal\=International Journal of Manpower\|volume\=37\|issue\=7\|pages\=1209–1226\|doi\=10\.1108/IJM\-08\-2015\-0116\|issn\=0143\-7720\|hdl\=10419/145243\|s2cid\=4931047\|url\=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp10109\|hdl\-access\=free}} education,{{Cite journal\|last\=Shrestha\|first\=Slesh A.\|date\=1 April 2016\|title\=No Man Left Behind: Effects of Emigration Prospects on Educational and Labour Outcomes of Non\-migrants \|journal\=The Economic Journal\|volume\=127\|issue\=600\|language\=en\|pages\=495–521\|doi\=10\.1111/ecoj.12306\|s2cid\=154362034\|issn\=1468\-0297}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Beine\|first1\=Michel\|last2\=Docquier\|first2\=Fréderic\|last3\=Rapoport\|first3\=Hillel\|date\=1 April 2008\|title\=Brain Drain and Human Capital Formation in Developing Countries: Winners and Losers \|journal\=The Economic Journal\|language\=en\|volume\=118\|issue\=528\|pages\=631–652\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1468\-0297\.2008\.02135\.x\|s2cid\=28988486\|issn\=1468\-0297\|url\=http://sites.uclouvain.be/econ/DP/IRES/2006\-23\.pdf}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Dinkelman \|first1\=Taryn \|last2\=Mariotti \|first2\=Martine \|year\=2016 \|title\=The Long Run Effects of Labor Migration on Human Capital Formation in Communities of Origin \|journal\=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics \|volume\=8 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=1–35 \|doi\=10\.1257/app.20150405 \|s2cid\=5140105 \|url\=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22049\.pdf }}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Batista\|first1\=Catia\|last2\=Lacuesta\|first2\=Aitor\|last3\=Vicente\|first3\=Pedro C.\|date\=1 January 2012\|title\=Testing the 'brain gain' hypothesis: Micro evidence from Cape Verde \|journal\=Journal of Development Economics\|volume\=97\|issue\=1\|pages\=32–45\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jdeveco.2011\.01\.005\|hdl\=10419/44193\|s2cid\=4489444\|url\=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp5048\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cgdev.org/publication/skilled\-emigration\-and\-skill\-creation\-quasi\-experiment\-working\-paper\-152\|title\=Skilled Emigration and Skill Creation: A quasi\-experiment – Working Paper 152\|access\-date\=3 July 2016}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.cgdev.org/publication/human\-capital\-investment\-under\-exit\-options\-evidence\-natural\-quasi\-experiment\|title\=Human Capital Investment under Exit Options: Evidence from a Natural Quasi\-Experiment – Working Paper 152\|website\=Center For Global Development\|language\=en\|access\-date\=12 March 2019}} and liberal democracy.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Docquier\|first1\=Frédéric\|last2\=Lodigiani\|first2\=Elisabetta\|last3\=Rapoport\|first3\=Hillel\|last4\=Schiff\|first4\=Maurice\|date\=1 May 2016\|title\=Emigration and democracy \|journal\=Journal of Development Economics\|volume\=120\|pages\=209–223\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jdeveco.2015\.12\.001\|s2cid\=15380816\|url\=https://www.hks.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/centers/cid/files/publications/faculty\-working\-papers/217\.pdf}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Escribà\-Folch\|first1\=Abel\|last2\=Meseguer\|first2\=Covadonga\|last3\=Wright\|first3\=Joseph\|date\=1 September 2015\|title\=Remittances and Democratization \|journal\=International Studies Quarterly\|language\=en\|volume\=59\|issue\=3\|pages\=571–586\|doi\=10\.1111/isqu.12180\|issn\=1468\-2478\|url\=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/63711/1/\_\_lse.ac.uk\_storage\_LIBRARY\_Secondary\_libfile\_shared\_repository\_Content\_Meseguer%2C%20C\_Remittances%20democratization\_Meseguer\_Remittances%20democratization\_2015\.pdf\|hdl\=10230/47906\|s2cid\=28432111 \|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://sites.google.com/site/mounirkaradja/\|title\=Mounir Karadja\|website\=sites.google.com\|access\-date\=20 September 2015}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://blogs.worldbank.org/impactevaluations/can\-emigration\-lead\-political\-change\-poor\-countries\-it\-did\-19th\-century\-sweden\-guest\-post\-mounir\|title\=Can emigration lead to political change in poor countries? It did in 19th century Sweden: Guest Post by Mounir Karadja\|website\=Impact Evaluations\|date\=December 2015 \|access\-date\=4 December 2015}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Tuccio\|first1\=Michele\|last2\=Wahba\|first2\=Jackline\|last3\=Hamdouch\|first3\=Bachir\|date\=1 January 2016\|title\=International Migration: Driver of Political and Social Change?\|journal\=IZA Discussion Papers \|url\=https://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp9794\.html\|publisher\=Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA)}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://editorialexpress.com/cgi\-bin/conference/download.cgi?db\_name\=CSAE2016\&paper\_id\=1009\|title\=Migration, Political Institutions, and Social Networks in Mozambique}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Batista\|first1\=Catia\|last2\=Vicente\|first2\=Pedro C.\|date\=1 January 2011\|title\=Do Migrants Improve Governance at Home? Evidence from a Voting Experiment \|journal\=The World Bank Economic Review\|language\=en\|volume\=25\|issue\=1\|pages\=77–104\|doi\=10\.1093/wber/lhr009\|issn\=0258\-6770\|hdl\=10986/13465\|s2cid\=1813461\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Mahmoud\|first1\=Omar\|last2\=Toman\|last3\=Rapoport\|first3\=Hillel\|last4\=Steinmayr\|first4\=Andreas\|last5\=Trebesch\|first5\=Christoph\|date\=18 September 2013\|title\=The Effect of Labor Migration on the Diffusion of Democracy: Evidence from a Former Soviet Republic\|doi\=10\.2139/ssrn.2327441 \|ssrn\=2327441\|url\=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp7980 \|hdl\=1814/39610\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Pfutze\|first\=Tobias\|date\=1 June 2014\|title\=Clientelism Versus Social Learning: The Electoral Effects of International Migration \|journal\=International Studies Quarterly\|language\=en\|volume\=58\|issue\=2\|pages\=295–307\|doi\=10\.1111/isqu.12072\|issn\=1468\-2478\|doi\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Beine\|first1\=Michel\|last2\=Sekkat\|first2\=Khalid\|date\=19 June 2013\|title\=Skilled migration and the transfer of institutional norms \|journal\=IZA Journal of Migration\|language\=en\|volume\=2\|issue\=1\|pages\=9\|doi\=10\.1186/2193\-9039\-2\-9\|issn\=2193\-9039\|doi\-access\=free\|hdl\=10\.1186/2193\-9039\-2\-9\|hdl\-access\=free}}{{Excessive citations inline\|date\=June 2024}}
[Remittances](/wiki/Remittance "Remittance") have a major impact on the [developing economies](/wiki/Developing_country "Developing country") of the world with the majority of remittances, $441 billion in 2015, going to developing nations. This amount is nearly triple the $131 billion of global [Official Development Assistance](/wiki/Official_development_assistance "Official development assistance").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/understanding\-importance\-remittances\|title\=Understanding the Importance of Remittances\|date\=1 October 2004\|work\=migrationpolicy.org\|access\-date\=3 May 2017\|language\=en}} For many developing nations, remittances received make up a significant portion of their economies often receiving over 10% of their [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") in remittances each year. From a macroeconomic perspective, there is no conclusive relationship between remittances and GDP growth.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Barajas\|first1\=Adolfo\|last2\=Chami\|first2\=Ralph\|last3\=Fullenkamp\|first3\=Connel\|last4\=Montiel\|first4\=Peter\|date\=2009\|title\=Do Workers' Remittances Promote Economic Growth?\|journal\=IMF Working Paper Series}} While remittances can boost aggregate demand and thereby spur economic activity, other research indicates that remittances may also have adverse macroeconomic impacts by increasing income inequality and reducing labour supply among recipient countries.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.dallasfed.org/assets/documents/research/papers/2010/wp1007\.pdf \|work\=Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas \|title\=Do Remittances Boost Economic Development? Evidence From Mexican States \|date\=October 2010 \|access\-date\=2 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=15 December 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215070726/http://www.dallasfed.org/assets/documents/research/papers/2010/wp1007\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}
### No solution to underlying problems
Immigration may be the outcome of problems in the migrants' countries of origin. Open immigration policies and efforts do not address the problems, but keeping borders closed does not address them either.
Jeanne Park of the [Council on Foreign Relations](/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations "Council on Foreign Relations") recommends European leaders to address the root causes of migration such as helping to broker an end to the [Syrian Civil War](/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War "Syrian Civil War"), restoring stability to [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"), and increasing aid to [sub\-Saharan Africa](/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa "Sub-Saharan Africa"). According to her, a political solution to the regional crises can make Europe no longer struggle with migrant inflows.{{cite web\|title\=Europe's Migration Crisis\|url\=http://www.cfr.org/refugees\-and\-the\-displaced/europes\-migration\-crisis/p32874\|publisher\=Council on Foreign Relations\|access\-date\=25 January 2017\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=24 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824223513/http://www.cfr.org/refugees\-and\-the\-displaced/europes\-migration\-crisis/p32874\|url\-status\=dead}} Concerning the migratory and refugee movements in and from the [Horn of Africa](/wiki/Horn_of_Africa "Horn of Africa"), Günther Schröder noted that more efforts are needed to deal with its causes.{{cite web\|title\=Migratory and Refugee Movements in and from the Horn of Africa\|url\=http://library.fes.de/pdf\-files/iez/12081\.pdf\|access\-date\=25 January 2017}} A report by the German Caritasverband stated that only a long\-term strategy that differentiates combating the causes for migration in the countries of origin and the development of an EU migration policy can find solutions.{{cite web\|title\=Foundations of a Humane Asylum and Migration Policy of the EU\|url\=https://www.caritas.de/cms/contents/caritasde/medien/dokumente/dcv\-zentrale/migration/foundationsofahumane/foundations%20of%20a%20humane%20asylum%20and%20migration%5B1%5D.pdf?d\=a\&f\=o\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806042921/https://www.caritas.de/cms/contents/caritasde/medien/dokumente/dcv\-zentrale/migration/foundationsofahumane/foundations%20of%20a%20humane%20asylum%20and%20migration%5b1%5d.pdf?d\=a\&f\=o\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=6 August 2020\|access\-date\=25 January 2017}} Responding to the root causes of illegal migration flows involves co\-operation with third countries, including migrants' countries of origin and transit, and might manifest itself in [conflict avoidance](/wiki/Conflict_avoidance "Conflict avoidance"), [peacekeeping](/wiki/Peacekeeping "Peacekeeping") and [state building](/wiki/State_building "State building").{{cite web\|title\=Preventing illegal migration flows \|url\=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/migratory\-pressures/preventing\-illegal\-migration\-flows/\|website\=www.consilium.europa.eu\|access\-date\=26 January 2017\|language\=en}} It has been suggested that safe havens be created within the country of origin.{{cite news\|title\=Why Eastern Europe's resistance to refugee quotas is not 'selfish'\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/16/eastern\-european\-migrants\-refugees\-selfish\|newspaper\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=29 January 2017\|date\=16 September 2015}} It can be argued that immigration means that people "flee" of their country's problems instead of organizing, building up pressure, being involved in constructive foreign aid programs, or otherwise addressing them.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2017}}
### Decolonization
Some advocates of [decolonization](/wiki/Decolonization "Decolonization") view immigrants as [colonizers](/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism") of the [native\-born](/wiki/Jus_sanguinis "Jus sanguinis") or [indigenous people](/wiki/Indigenous_people "Indigenous people").[Sharma, Nandita. "Migrants and indigeneity: Nationalism, nativism and the politics of place." Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies. Routledge, 2019\. 246\-257\.](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315458298-25/migrants-indigeneity-nandita-sharma)
|
[
"Anti\\-immigration arguments\n---------------------------",
"### National identity",
"Whether and how national identity affects attitudes toward immigration depends heavily on the meanings associated with a particular national identity. If a national identity is defined in an exclusionary way that targets ethnic or racial groups, or if an ethnic or racial majority dominates in the political structures of a nation, then that national identity is likely to be associated with attitudes against immigration. Research also suggests that people respond more strongly to appeals to national identity than they do to economic considerations when they are asked about issues relating to immigration.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Mylonas \\|first1\\=Harris \\|last2\\=Tudor \\|first2\\=Maya \\|title\\=Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know \\|journal\\=Annual Review of Political Science \\|date\\=11 May 2021 \\|volume\\=24 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=109–132\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-polisci\\-041719\\-101841 }} Both Americans and Europeans are likely to overestimate the number of immigrants in their countries and to favor lower immigration.{{cite journal\\|author2\\-link\\=John M. Sides \\|last1\\=Citrin \\|first1\\=Jack \\|last2\\=Sides \\|first2\\=John \\|title\\=Immigration and the Imagined Community in Europe and the United States \\|journal\\=Political Studies \\|date\\=March 2008 \\|volume\\=56 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=33–56 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1467\\-9248\\.2007\\.00716\\.x \\|s2cid\\=145792964 \\|url\\=https://ideas.repec.org/a/bla/polstu/v56y2008i1p33\\-56\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2021}}",
"Where national identity is not defined in a way that conflicts with ethnic or racial identity, and where such groups are not excluded socio\\-economically, national identity can be compatible with ethnic or [racial diversity](/wiki/Racial_diversity \"Racial diversity\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Wimmer\\|first\\=Andreas\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1515/9781400888894\\|title\\=Nation Building\\|date\\=2018\\-05\\-08\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|doi\\=10\\.1515/9781400888894\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4008\\-8889\\-4\\|s2cid\\=240305736}} \nNational identity can even be an important factor for social peace in cases where there are intra\\-national divides. For example, a 2015 study showed that educational content emphasizing the national unity of [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\") was an important cause of improved inter\\-ethnic and inter\\-religious relationships in [Suharto](/wiki/Suharto \"Suharto\")'s Indonesia.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mpra.ub.uni\\-muenchen.de/64558/\\|title\\=Does Education Increase Interethnic and Interreligious Tolerance? Evidence from a Natural Experimen\\|first1\\=Christopher\\|last1\\=Roth\\|first2\\=Sudarno\\|last2\\=Sumarto\\|date\\=2 November 2015}}",
"### Isolation, separation and stability",
"Immigrants can be isolated in their own communities, forming self\\-organized communities, [ghettos](/wiki/Ghetto \"Ghetto\") or [parallel societies](/wiki/Parallel_society \"Parallel society\") where they live according to their own culture, rather than assimilating to the native culture with a reduced or minimal spatial, social and cultural contact with the majority society into which they have immigrated. Such ethnic enclaves can be the result of humans naturally liking to be around people like themselves.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=End of nations: Is there an alternative to countries?\\|url\\=http://mpc\\-journal.org/blog/2016/11/09/end\\-of\\-nations\\-is\\-there\\-an\\-alternative\\-to\\-countries/\\|magazine\\=New Scientist\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318172657/http://mpc\\-journal.org/blog/2016/11/09/end\\-of\\-nations\\-is\\-there\\-an\\-alternative\\-to\\-countries/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} They might not learn the local language and might eventually undermine the national unity, as well as the [cultural](/wiki/Cultural \"Cultural\") and [religious](/wiki/Religious \"Religious\") unity of the native country.[Parallelgesellschaften?](http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/URZDVA), *Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte*, No. 1–2 (2006\\) Research by Jennifer Neal of Michigan State University suggests that ethnic enclaves promote [social cohesion](/wiki/Social_cohesion \"Social cohesion\") at the cost of decreasing tolerance between groups and that their size, autonomy and proximity are factors. Some also suggest to devolve more power to local communities.",
"Immigration may adversely affect social{{cite book\\|last1\\=Sobel\\|first1\\=Andrew\\|title\\=Challenges of Globalization: Immigration, Social Welfare, Global Governance\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=9781135216955\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Q4CMAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA96\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=10 September 2009}} and political stability.{{cite web\\|title\\=Immigration and political stability\\|url\\=https://www.oecd.org/dev/pgd/46923664\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2017}}",
"### Increased competition",
"Economic arguments concentrate on competition for employment, and the higher burdens that some groups of immigrants may impose on [social welfare](/wiki/Social_welfare_provision \"Social welfare provision\") systems, health systems, housing and public schools of the native state.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/09/is\\-britain\\-full\\-home\\-truths\\-about\\-population\\-panic\\|title\\=Is Britain full? Home truths about the population panic\\|first\\=Andy\\|last\\=Beckett\\|date\\=9 February 2016\\|newspaper\\=The Guardian}} For example, Denmark's strict immigration law reform has saved the country 6\\.7 billion euros compared to previous more permissive approach, according to a 2011 report from the Danish Integration Ministry.{{cite web \\| last \\= Reimann \\| first \\= Anna \\| title \\= Putting a price on foreigners: strict immigration laws 'Save Denmark Billions'\\|url\\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/putting\\-a\\-price\\-on\\-foreigners\\-strict\\-immigration\\-laws\\-save\\-denmark\\-billions\\-a\\-759716\\.html \\|website \\=spiegel.de \\| publisher \\= Spiegel Online \\| date \\= 29 April 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2014}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Denmark's immigration laws save country £6 billion\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/denmark/8492822/Denmarks\\-immigration\\-laws\\-save\\-country\\-6\\-billion.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/denmark/8492822/Denmarks\\-immigration\\-laws\\-save\\-country\\-6\\-billion.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live \\| work \\= \\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2014}}{{cbignore}}",
"### Environmental space, quality and resource scarcity",
"Some people think{{weasel\\-inline\\|date\\=October 2024}} there is a certain size of land needed to provide for a population (\"[environmental space](/wiki/Environmental_space \"Environmental space\")\"), e.g., to provide for the population's consumption, including absorption of waste products.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.populationmatters.org/wp\\-content/uploads/population\\_problem\\_uk.pdf\\|title\\=The UK's population problem\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020230841/http://www.populationmatters.org/wp\\-content/uploads/population\\_problem\\_uk.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=20 October 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Immigrants, in this logic, such as a newborn child, reduce the per\\-capita size of land of the native country.",
"Some are concerned about [urban sprawl](/wiki/Urban_sprawl \"Urban sprawl\") and congestion, alterations in the wildlife and natural environment of the state, and an expansive carbon footprint due to immigration.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Rohe\\|first1\\=John F\\|title\\=Living Standards, Scarce Resources and Immigration: An Interview With Labor Economist Vernon M. Briggs, Jr.\\|date\\=1 January 2006\\|url\\=http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=1205\\&context\\=articles\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2017\\|language\\=en}} Furthermore, some are concerned over a state's scarce resources, dwindling water reserves, energy, pauperized soils and solid waste.",
"### Diseases",
"Immigrants (and cross\\-border movements in general) can bring infectious diseases uncommon to the native population from their home countries{{cite book\\|last1\\=Dhooper\\|first1\\=Surjit Singh\\|title\\=Social Work in Health Care: Its Past and Future\\|publisher\\=SAGE Publications\\|isbn\\=9781483342573\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7dggAQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA110\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=29 November 2011}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Brown\\|first1\\=Diane\\|last2\\=Edwards\\|first2\\=Helen\\|last3\\=Seaton\\|first3\\=Lesley\\|last4\\=Buckley\\|first4\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Lewis's Medical\\-Surgical Nursing: Assessment and Management of Clinical Problems\\|publisher\\=Elsevier Health Sciences\\|isbn\\=9780729582209\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=G5u9BwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA42\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=29 January 2015}}{{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. – Mexico Cross\\-Border Health\\|publisher\\=Gateway to Health Communication {{!}} CDC\\|url\\=https://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/entertainmented/tips/us\\-mexico\\-health.html\\|website\\=www.cdc.gov\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\-us}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Gushulak\\|first1\\=B. D.\\|last2\\=MacPherson\\|first2\\=D. W.\\|title\\=Globalization of Infectious Diseases: The Impact of Migration\\|journal\\=Clinical Infectious Diseases\\|date\\=15 June 2004\\|volume\\=38\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=1742–1748\\|doi\\=10\\.1086/421268\\|pmid\\=15227621\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Wilder\\-Smith\\|first1\\=Annelies\\|last2\\=Shaw\\|first2\\=Marc\\|last3\\=Schwartz\\|first3\\=Eli\\|title\\=Travel Medicine: Tales Behind the Science\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=9781136352157\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=821u8pqWgq4C\\&pg\\=PA218\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=7 June 2007}} which some perceive as a threat of significance in opposition to immigration.{{cite news\\|title\\=Polish opposition warns refugees could spread infectious diseases\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-europe\\-migrants\\-poland\\-idUSKCN0S918B20151015\\|work\\=Reuters\\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2017\\|date\\=15 October 2016}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Bruce\\|first1\\=Tammy\\|title\\=When foreigners bring disease across the border\\|url\\=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2016/jan/25/tammy\\-bruce\\-when\\-foreigners\\-bring\\-disease\\-across\\-t/\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Times\\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2017}}{{cite news\\|title\\=The Mexican 'germ invasion' is just the right's latest anti\\-immigration myth\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jul/02/border\\-patrol\\-diseases\\-anti\\-immigration\\-myth\\|newspaper\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2017\\|date\\=2 July 2014}}",
"There is a history of white supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan exaggerating or fabricating a connection between immigrants and infectious disease in order to stoke anti\\-immigrant sentiment.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Kraut\\|first\\=Alan M.\\|date\\=2010\\|title\\=Immigration, Ethnicity, and the Pandemic\\|journal\\=Public Health Reports\\|volume\\=125\\|issue\\=Suppl 3\\|pages\\=123–133\\|issn\\=0033\\-3549\\|pmc\\=2862341\\|pmid\\=20568574\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/00333549101250S315}}",
"### Immigrant crime",
"{{Main\\|Immigration and crime\\|}}\nOpponents of immigration often claim that immigrants contribute to higher crime rates, but research suggests that people tend to overestimate the relationship between immigration and criminality.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hooghe\\|first1\\=Marc\\|last2\\=de Vroome\\|first2\\=Thomas\\|date\\=1 January 2016\\|title\\=The relation between ethnic diversity and fear of crime: An analysis of police records and survey data in Belgian communities \\|journal\\=International Journal of Intercultural Relations\\|volume\\=50\\|pages\\=66–75\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ijintrel.2015\\.11\\.002\\|hdl\\=1874/344394\\|s2cid\\=133596758 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Nunziata\\|first\\=Luca\\|date\\=4 March 2015\\|title\\=Immigration and crime: evidence from victimization data \\|journal\\=Journal of Population Economics\\|volume\\=28\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=697–736\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s00148\\-015\\-0543\\-2\\|s2cid\\=154572522\\|issn\\=0933\\-1433}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2016/06/28/americas\\-puzzling\\-moral\\-ambivalence\\-about\\-middle\\-east\\-refugees/\\|title\\=America's puzzling moral ambivalence about Middle East refugees\\|date\\=28 June 2016\\|newspaper\\=Brookings\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017}} The academic literature provides mixed findings for the relationship between immigration and crime worldwide, but finds for the United States that immigration either has no impact on the crime rate or that it reduces the crime rate.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Papadopoulos\\|first\\=Georgios\\|date\\=2 July 2014\\|title\\=Immigration status and property crime: an application of estimators for underreported outcomes\\|url\\=http://www.izajom.com/content/3/1/12/abstract\\|journal\\=IZA Journal of Migration\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=1\\|page\\=12\\|doi\\=10\\.1186/2193\\-9039\\-3\\-12\\|issn\\=2193\\-9039\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|hdl\\=10\\.1186/2193\\-9039\\-3\\-12\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bianchi\\|first1\\=Milo\\|last2\\=Buonanno\\|first2\\=Paolo\\|last3\\=Pinotti\\|first3\\=Paolo\\|date\\=1 December 2012\\|title\\=Do Immigrants Cause Crime? \\|journal\\=Journal of the European Economic Association\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=10\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=1318–1347\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1542\\-4774\\.2012\\.01085\\.x\\|s2cid\\=260571383 \\|issn\\=1542\\-4774\\|url\\=http://aisberg.unibg.it/bitstream/10446/288/1/WPEco01(2008\\)Bianchi.pdf}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Jaitman\\|first1\\=Laura\\|last2\\=Machin\\|first2\\=Stephen\\|date\\=25 October 2013\\|title\\=Crime and immigration: new evidence from England and Wales \\|journal\\=IZA Journal of Migration\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=19\\|doi\\=10\\.1186/2193\\-9039\\-2\\-19\\|s2cid\\=58926977\\|issn\\=2193\\-9039\\|url\\=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/92234/1/775177067\\.pdf\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bell\\|first1\\=Brian\\|last2\\=Fasani\\|first2\\=Francesco\\|last3\\=Machin\\|first3\\=Stephen\\|date\\=10 October 2012\\|title\\=Crime and Immigration: Evidence from Large Immigrant Waves \\|journal\\=Review of Economics and Statistics\\|volume\\=95\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1278–1290\\|doi\\=10\\.1162/REST\\_a\\_00337\\|s2cid\\=11566473\\|issn\\=0034\\-6535\\|url\\=http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp0984\\.pdf}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bell\\|first1\\=Brian\\|last2\\=Machin\\|first2\\=Stephen\\|date\\=1 February 2013\\|title\\=Immigrant Enclaves and Crime \\|journal\\=Journal of Regional Science\\|volume\\=53\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=118–141\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/jors.12003\\|bibcode\\=2013JRegS..53\\..118B \\|s2cid\\=19138479\\|issn\\=1467\\-9787\\|url\\=http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1104\\.pdf}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Wadsworth\\|first\\=Tim\\|date\\=1 June 2010\\|title\\=Is Immigration Responsible for the Crime Drop? An Assessment of the Influence of Immigration on Changes in Violent Crime Between 1990 and 2000 \\|journal\\=Social Science Quarterly\\|volume\\=91\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=531–553\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1540\\-6237\\.2010\\.00706\\.x\\|issn\\=1540\\-6237}}{{Cite report\\|last1\\=Piopiunik\\|first1\\=Marc\\|last2\\=Ruhose\\|first2\\=Jens\\|date\\=6 April 2015\\|title\\=Immigration, Regional Conditions, and Crime: Evidence from an Allocation Policy in Germany\\|doi\\=10\\.2139/ssrn.2589824 \\|ssrn\\=2589824\\|url\\=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp8962 \\|hdl\\=10419/110652\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WtYEoD4u9RYC\\|title\\=Immigration, Crime and Justice\\|publisher\\=Emerald Group Publishing\\|year\\=2009\\|pages\\=3–16\\|chapter\\=Immigration reduces crime: an emerging scholarly consensus\\|author1\\=Lee, Matthew T.\\|author2\\=Martinez Jr., Ramiro\\|isbn\\=9781848554382}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bell\\|first1\\=Brian\\|last2\\=Oxford\\|first2\\=University of\\|last3\\=UK\\|title\\=Crime and immigration\\|url\\=http://wol.iza.org/articles/crime\\-and\\-immigration\\|journal\\=IZA World of Labor\\|doi\\=10\\.15185/izawol.33\\|year\\=2014\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|hdl\\=10419/125260\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}",
"### Military unity",
"Some concerns regarding immigration can be found in perceived military loyalty, especially if the country of emigration becomes involved in a war with the country of immigration{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Kozak\\|first1\\=Krystof\\|title\\=Are Immigrants Disloyal? The Case of Mexicans in the U.S.\\|url\\=https://ejas.revues.org/7629\\|journal\\=European Journal of American Studies\\|year\\=2009\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=2\\|publisher\\=European Association for American Studies\\|doi\\=10\\.4000/ejas.7629\\|access\\-date\\=20 July 2016\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} or if a country finds itself to need [conscription](/wiki/Conscription \"Conscription\").",
"### Dangerous journeys",
"Unauthorized or irregular migration can expose immigrants to many dangers, including exposure to harsh environments, lack of food and water, and violence from smugglers and authorities.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://publications.iom.int/books/global\\-migration\\-data\\-analysis\\-centre\\-data\\-briefing\\-series\\-issue\\-no\\-4\\-august\\-2016\\|title\\=Global Migration Data Analysis Centre: Data Briefing Series \\| Issue No. 4, August 2016\\|via\\=publications.iom.int}} Since 2014, over 4,000 people have died each year on migration routes around the world, and this is likely to be a low estimate since many deaths are never recorded.{{cite web\\|title\\=Migrant Deaths and Disappearances\\|url\\=https://migrationdataportal.org/themes/migrant\\-deaths\\-and\\-disappearances\\|access\\-date\\=4 July 2021}}",
"Harshly restricting immigration and making these restrictions known to potential emigrants may prevent them from taking such dangerous journeys.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Farrell\\|first1\\=Paul\\|title\\=Could Australia's 'stop the boats' policy solve Europe's migrant crisis?\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/22/could\\-australia\\-stop\\-the\\-boats\\-policy\\-solve\\-europe\\-migrant\\-crisis\\|newspaper\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|date\\=22 April 2015}}{{better source needed\\|date\\=January 2017}} In the United States, the border patrol policy of [Prevention Through Deterrence](/wiki/Prevention_Through_Deterrence \"Prevention Through Deterrence\") has deliberately acted to divert migrants into remote areas where they are more likely to encounter life\\-threatening dangers.{{cite web\\|title\\=Left to die: Border patrol, search and rescue, \\& the crisis of disappearance\\|url\\=http://www.thedisappearedreport.org/uploads/8/3/5/1/83515082/left\\_to\\_die\\_\\-\\_english.pdf}}",
"### Import of culture",
"{{Further\\|Islamization\\|Cultural conflict\\|\\#National identity}}\nImmigrants bring their culture with them.{{cite web\\|title\\=The gifts of immigration\\|date\\=21 April 2011 \\|url\\=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/04/the\\-gifts\\-of\\-immigration/\\|publisher\\=Harvard Gazette\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Swain\\|first1\\=Laksha P.\\|title\\=Migration and Adjustment\\|publisher\\=Northern Book Centre\\|isbn\\=9788172112110\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=U7nOhJszK3QC\\&pg\\=PA45\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|year\\=2006}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Flores\\|first1\\=Juan\\|last2\\=Flores\\|first2\\=Prof of Social and Cultural Analysis Juan\\|title\\=The Diaspora Strikes Back: Caribeño Tales of Learning and Turning\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=9781135927592\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OVSTAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PR7\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=2 April 2010}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Chuang\\|first1\\=Susan S.\\|title\\=Immigrant Children: Change, Adaptation, and Cultural Transformation\\|publisher\\=Lexington Books\\|isbn\\=9780739167069\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AeDXAQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA239\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=16 June 2011}}{{cite journal\\|title\\=Muslims in France: Identifying a Discriminatory Equilibrium\\|url\\=http://ftp.iza.org/dp6953\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2017}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Rozell\\|first1\\=Mark J.\\|last2\\=Jelen\\|first2\\=Ted G.\\|title\\=American Political Culture: An Encyclopedia \\[3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=9781610693783\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=MuVjCAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA953\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=28 April 2015}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Epidemiology for Public Health Practice\\|publisher\\=Jones \\& Bartlett Publishers\\|isbn\\=9781449666637\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TLNMPc\\-Pa5oC\\&pg\\=PA168\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=18 May 2009}} The immigrants' thinking, their norms, practices, customs and values shape, extend and influence the native country's culture ([Leitkultur](/wiki/Leitkultur \"Leitkultur\")). Some such extensions and influences might not be desired by parts of the native population, for reasons that may include practises considered less civilized, restrictions as well as collisions with the native country's norms, laws and values in general.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Chapman\\|first1\\=Roger\\|last2\\=Ciment\\|first2\\=James\\|title\\=Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints and Voices\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=9781317473510\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XO9nBwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA330\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=17 March 2015}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Rahim\\|first1\\=Abdur\\|title\\=Canadian Immigration and South Asian Immigrants\\|publisher\\=Xlibris Corporation\\|isbn\\=9781499058727\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=o22mBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT168\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=19 September 2014}}{{Self\\-published inline\\|certain\\=yes\\|date\\=December 2017}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Congress\\|first1\\=Elaine P. \\|last2\\=Gonzalez\\|first2\\=Manny J. \\|title\\=Multicultural Perspectives in Working with Families: Second Edition\\|publisher\\=Springer Publishing Company\\|isbn\\=9780826131461\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eujRZg308isC\\&pg\\=PA382\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=15 April 2005 }}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Nyangweso\\|first1\\=Mary\\|title\\=Female Genital Cutting in Industrialized Countries: Mutilation or Cultural Tradition?\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=9781440833472\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9AyqBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA4\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=20 October 2014}}",
"### Economic costs",
"{{See also\\|Economic results of migration}}\nOpponents of immigration often state that immigrants have a net negative effect on public coffers mainly due to the provisioning of medical care and [welfare](/wiki/Welfare \"Welfare\").{{cite journal\\|title\\=Immigration and the Welfare State\\|journal\\=Cato Journal\\|url\\=https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato\\-journal/2012/1/cj32n1\\-11\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017}}{{cite web\\|title\\=The Cost of Welfare Use By Immigrant and Native Households\\|url\\=http://cis.org/Cost\\-Welfare\\-Immigrant\\-Native\\-Households\\|publisher\\=Center for Immigration Studies\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=6 May 2016 \\|last1\\=Richwine \\|first1\\=Jason }}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Sowell\\|first1\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Applied Economics: Thinking Beyond Stage One\\|publisher\\=Basic Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-0786722709\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gh4JdTv\\-t9sC\\&pg\\=PT173\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=9 December 2008}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Bommes\\|first1\\=Michael\\|last2\\=Geddes\\|first2\\=Andrew\\|title\\=Immigration and Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=9781134593705\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tQuEXKGPqfEC\\&pg\\=PA9\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|date\\=2 September 2003}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Report: More than half of immigrants on welfare\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/09/01/immigrant\\-welfare\\-use\\-report/71517072/\\|newspaper\\=USA TODAY\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2017\\|language\\=en}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Germany Announces Crackdown on Immigrant 'Welfare Abuse' {{!}} VICE News\\|date\\=28 August 2014 \\|url\\=https://news.vice.com/article/germany\\-announces\\-crackdown\\-on\\-immigrant\\-welfare\\-abuse\\|publisher\\=VICE News\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017}}{{cite web\\|title\\=The Welfare Use of Immigrants and Natives in Germany: The Case of Turkish Immigrants\\|url\\=http://www.laser.uni\\-erlangen.de/papers/paper/117\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2017}}",
"Various factors influence the impact of immigrants to a nation's public coffers and their use of welfare. While immigrants can improve a state's welfare system by for example counteracting trends of [aging populations](/wiki/Population_ageing \"Population ageing\") their net economic impact might also be negative.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Impact of Immigration on Germany's Society\\|url\\=https://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/EN/Publikationen/Forschungsberichte/fb01\\-einfluss\\-zuwanderung.pdf?\\_\\_blob\\=publicationFile\\|publisher\\=Federal Office for Migration and Refugees\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|date\\=2005}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Refugee immigration and public finances in Sweden\\|url\\=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/38323/1/gupea\\_2077\\_38323\\_1\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2017}} [George Borjas](/wiki/George_Borjas \"George Borjas\"), economics professor at Harvard's [Kennedy School of Government](/wiki/Harvard_Kennedy_School \"Harvard Kennedy School\"), states that \"the more unskilled the immigrant, the more likely the immigrant will be a fiscal burden\".{{cite magazine\\|last1\\=Horn\\|first1\\=Heather\\|title\\=The Economics—and Morality—of Admitting Refugees\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/02/welfare\\-state\\-refugees\\-europe/463272/\\|magazine\\=The Atlantic\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017}} High\\-skilled immigrants have better labor market prospects than those admitted based on kinship ties or for humanitarian reasons.{{cite web\\|title\\=Skill\\-based immigration, economic integration, and economic performance\\|url\\=https://wol.iza.org/uploads/articles/41/pdfs/skill\\-based\\-immigration\\-economic\\-integration\\-and\\-economic\\-performance.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=10 May 2017}} It also depends on the tenures, wages and ages of the immigrants{{cite CiteSeerX\\|title\\=Economic Impacts of Immigration: A Survey\\|year\\=2011\\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.360\\.324}} and the country's integration system.",
"### Damage to migrants' home countries",
"{{See also\\|Brain drain}}\nSome opponents of immigration argue that immigration of highly skilled or well\\-educated individuals may hurt their home countries, which could otherwise benefit from them and build up their economy and improve their social and political system. However, that notion of \"[brain drain](/wiki/Brain_drain \"Brain drain\")\" remains largely unsupported in the academic literature. According to the economist [Michael Clemens](/wiki/Michael_Clemens \"Michael Clemens\"), it has not been shown that restrictions on high\\-skill emigration reduce shortages in the countries of origin.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Clemens\\|first1\\=Michael\\|last2\\=Development\\|first2\\=Center for Global\\|last3\\=USA\\|title\\=Smart policy toward high\\-skill emigrants\\|url\\=http://wol.iza.org/articles/smart\\-policy\\-toward\\-high\\-skill\\-emigrants\\|journal\\=IZA World of Labor\\|doi\\=10\\.15185/izawol.203\\|year\\=2015\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} According to the development economist Justin Sandefur, \"there is no study out there... showing any empirical evidence that migration restrictions have contributed to development.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/migration\\-and\\-development\\-who\\-bears\\-the\\-burden\\-of\\-proof\\-justin\\-sandefur\\-replies\\-to\\-paul\\-collier\\-2/\\|title\\=Migration and Development: Who Bears the Burden of Proof? Justin Sandefur replies to Paul Collier {{!}} From Poverty to Power\\|website\\=oxfamblogs.org\\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=15 July 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715125841/http://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/migration\\-and\\-development\\-who\\-bears\\-the\\-burden\\-of\\-proof\\-justin\\-sandefur\\-replies\\-to\\-paul\\-collier\\-2/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Hein de Haas, a professor of sociology at the [University of Amsterdam](/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam \"University of Amsterdam\"), describes brain drain as a \"myth\".{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/eight\\-myths\\-about\\-migration\\-and\\-refugees\\-explained\\-a\\-1138053\\.html\\|title\\=Myths of Migration: Much of What We Think We Know Is Wrong\\|newspaper\\=Der Spiegel\\|date\\=21 March 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2017\\|last1\\=Haas \\|first1\\=Hein de }} Research suggests that emigration (both low\\- and high\\-skilled) is beneficial to the sending countries in terms of economy,(speculation){{Cite journal\\|last1\\=di Giovanni\\|first1\\=Julian\\|last2\\=Levchenko\\|first2\\=Andrei A.\\|last3\\=Ortega\\|first3\\=Francesc\\|date\\=1 February 2015\\|title\\=A Global View of Cross\\-Border Migration \\|journal\\=Journal of the European Economic Association\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=168–202\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/jeea.12110\\|hdl\\=10230/22196\\|s2cid\\=3465938\\|issn\\=1542\\-4774\\|url\\=http://www.fordschool.umich.edu/rsie/workingpapers/Papers626\\-650/r627\\.pdf\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite web\\|first1\\=Dirk Andreas\\|last1\\=Willenbockel \\|first2\\=Delfin Sia \\|last2\\=Go \\|first3\\=S. Amer\\|last3\\=Ahmed \\|date\\=11 April 2016\\|title\\=Global migration revisited : short\\-term pains, long\\-term gains, and the potential of south\\-south migration\\|url\\=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2016/04/26208170/global\\-migration\\-revisited\\-short\\-term\\-pains\\-long\\-term\\-gains\\-potential\\-south\\-south\\-migration\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cream\\-migration.org/publ\\_uploads/CDP\\_24\\_16\\.pdf\\|title\\=The Gain from the Drain – Skill\\-biased Migration and Global Welfare}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.voxeu.org/article/cross\\-border\\-movement\\-persons\\-stimulates\\-trade\\|title\\=Cross\\-border movement of persons stimulates trade\\|last1\\=Aner\\|first1\\=Emilie\\|last2\\=Graneli\\|first2\\=Anna\\|date\\=14 October 2015\\|website\\=VoxEU.org\\|publisher\\=Centre for Economic Policy Research\\|last3\\=Lodefolk\\|first3\\=Magnus\\|access\\-date\\=19 October 2015}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bratti\\|first1\\=Massimiliano\\|last2\\=Benedictis\\|first2\\=Luca De\\|last3\\=Santoni\\|first3\\=Gianluca\\|date\\=18 April 2014\\|title\\=On the pro\\-trade effects of immigrants \\|journal\\=Review of World Economics\\|volume\\=150\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=557–594\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10290\\-014\\-0191\\-8\\|hdl\\=11393/195448\\|s2cid\\=4981719\\|issn\\=1610\\-2878\\|url\\=https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/141126/1/wp13014\\.pdf\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Foley\\|first1\\=C. 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Evidence from a Voting Experiment \\|journal\\=The World Bank Economic Review\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=25\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=77–104\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/wber/lhr009\\|issn\\=0258\\-6770\\|hdl\\=10986/13465\\|s2cid\\=1813461\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Mahmoud\\|first1\\=Omar\\|last2\\=Toman\\|last3\\=Rapoport\\|first3\\=Hillel\\|last4\\=Steinmayr\\|first4\\=Andreas\\|last5\\=Trebesch\\|first5\\=Christoph\\|date\\=18 September 2013\\|title\\=The Effect of Labor Migration on the Diffusion of Democracy: Evidence from a Former Soviet Republic\\|doi\\=10\\.2139/ssrn.2327441 \\|ssrn\\=2327441\\|url\\=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp7980 \\|hdl\\=1814/39610\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Pfutze\\|first\\=Tobias\\|date\\=1 June 2014\\|title\\=Clientelism Versus Social Learning: The Electoral Effects of International Migration \\|journal\\=International Studies Quarterly\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=58\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=295–307\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/isqu.12072\\|issn\\=1468\\-2478\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Beine\\|first1\\=Michel\\|last2\\=Sekkat\\|first2\\=Khalid\\|date\\=19 June 2013\\|title\\=Skilled migration and the transfer of institutional norms \\|journal\\=IZA Journal of Migration\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=9\\|doi\\=10\\.1186/2193\\-9039\\-2\\-9\\|issn\\=2193\\-9039\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|hdl\\=10\\.1186/2193\\-9039\\-2\\-9\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}{{Excessive citations inline\\|date\\=June 2024}}",
"[Remittances](/wiki/Remittance \"Remittance\") have a major impact on the [developing economies](/wiki/Developing_country \"Developing country\") of the world with the majority of remittances, $441 billion in 2015, going to developing nations. This amount is nearly triple the $131 billion of global [Official Development Assistance](/wiki/Official_development_assistance \"Official development assistance\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/understanding\\-importance\\-remittances\\|title\\=Understanding the Importance of Remittances\\|date\\=1 October 2004\\|work\\=migrationpolicy.org\\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2017\\|language\\=en}} For many developing nations, remittances received make up a significant portion of their economies often receiving over 10% of their [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") in remittances each year. From a macroeconomic perspective, there is no conclusive relationship between remittances and GDP growth.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Barajas\\|first1\\=Adolfo\\|last2\\=Chami\\|first2\\=Ralph\\|last3\\=Fullenkamp\\|first3\\=Connel\\|last4\\=Montiel\\|first4\\=Peter\\|date\\=2009\\|title\\=Do Workers' Remittances Promote Economic Growth?\\|journal\\=IMF Working Paper Series}} While remittances can boost aggregate demand and thereby spur economic activity, other research indicates that remittances may also have adverse macroeconomic impacts by increasing income inequality and reducing labour supply among recipient countries.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dallasfed.org/assets/documents/research/papers/2010/wp1007\\.pdf \\|work\\=Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas \\|title\\=Do Remittances Boost Economic Development? Evidence From Mexican States \\|date\\=October 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 December 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215070726/http://www.dallasfed.org/assets/documents/research/papers/2010/wp1007\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### No solution to underlying problems",
"Immigration may be the outcome of problems in the migrants' countries of origin. Open immigration policies and efforts do not address the problems, but keeping borders closed does not address them either.",
"Jeanne Park of the [Council on Foreign Relations](/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations \"Council on Foreign Relations\") recommends European leaders to address the root causes of migration such as helping to broker an end to the [Syrian Civil War](/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War \"Syrian Civil War\"), restoring stability to [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"), and increasing aid to [sub\\-Saharan Africa](/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa \"Sub-Saharan Africa\"). According to her, a political solution to the regional crises can make Europe no longer struggle with migrant inflows.{{cite web\\|title\\=Europe's Migration Crisis\\|url\\=http://www.cfr.org/refugees\\-and\\-the\\-displaced/europes\\-migration\\-crisis/p32874\\|publisher\\=Council on Foreign Relations\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2017\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=24 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824223513/http://www.cfr.org/refugees\\-and\\-the\\-displaced/europes\\-migration\\-crisis/p32874\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Concerning the migratory and refugee movements in and from the [Horn of Africa](/wiki/Horn_of_Africa \"Horn of Africa\"), Günther Schröder noted that more efforts are needed to deal with its causes.{{cite web\\|title\\=Migratory and Refugee Movements in and from the Horn of Africa\\|url\\=http://library.fes.de/pdf\\-files/iez/12081\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2017}} A report by the German Caritasverband stated that only a long\\-term strategy that differentiates combating the causes for migration in the countries of origin and the development of an EU migration policy can find solutions.{{cite web\\|title\\=Foundations of a Humane Asylum and Migration Policy of the EU\\|url\\=https://www.caritas.de/cms/contents/caritasde/medien/dokumente/dcv\\-zentrale/migration/foundationsofahumane/foundations%20of%20a%20humane%20asylum%20and%20migration%5B1%5D.pdf?d\\=a\\&f\\=o\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806042921/https://www.caritas.de/cms/contents/caritasde/medien/dokumente/dcv\\-zentrale/migration/foundationsofahumane/foundations%20of%20a%20humane%20asylum%20and%20migration%5b1%5d.pdf?d\\=a\\&f\\=o\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=6 August 2020\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2017}} Responding to the root causes of illegal migration flows involves co\\-operation with third countries, including migrants' countries of origin and transit, and might manifest itself in [conflict avoidance](/wiki/Conflict_avoidance \"Conflict avoidance\"), [peacekeeping](/wiki/Peacekeeping \"Peacekeeping\") and [state building](/wiki/State_building \"State building\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Preventing illegal migration flows \\|url\\=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/migratory\\-pressures/preventing\\-illegal\\-migration\\-flows/\\|website\\=www.consilium.europa.eu\\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2017\\|language\\=en}} It has been suggested that safe havens be created within the country of origin.{{cite news\\|title\\=Why Eastern Europe's resistance to refugee quotas is not 'selfish'\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/16/eastern\\-european\\-migrants\\-refugees\\-selfish\\|newspaper\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2017\\|date\\=16 September 2015}} It can be argued that immigration means that people \"flee\" of their country's problems instead of organizing, building up pressure, being involved in constructive foreign aid programs, or otherwise addressing them.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2017}}",
"### Decolonization",
"Some advocates of [decolonization](/wiki/Decolonization \"Decolonization\") view immigrants as [colonizers](/wiki/Colonialism \"Colonialism\") of the [native\\-born](/wiki/Jus_sanguinis \"Jus sanguinis\") or [indigenous people](/wiki/Indigenous_people \"Indigenous people\").[Sharma, Nandita. \"Migrants and indigeneity: Nationalism, nativism and the politics of place.\" Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies. Routledge, 2019\\. 246\\-257\\.](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315458298-25/migrants-indigeneity-nandita-sharma)",
""
] |
Causes of anti\-immigration views
---------------------------------
A 2017 study comprised 18,000 interviews across eleven countries: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Japan, Korea, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. The study found that "higher\-skilled immigrants are preferred to their lower\-skilled counterparts at all levels of native socio\-economic status (SES). There is little support for the Labor Market Competition hypothesis, since respondents are not more opposed to immigrants in their own SES stratum. While skin tone itself has little effect in any country, immigrants from Muslim\-majority countries do elicit significantly lower levels of support, and racial animus remains a powerful force."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Valentino\|first1\=Nicholas A.\|last2\=Soroka\|first2\=Stuart N.\|last3\=Iyengar\|first3\=Shanto\|last4\=Aalberg\|first4\=Toril\|author5\-link\=Raymond Duch\|last5\=Duch\|first5\=Raymond\|last6\=Fraile\|first6\=Marta\|last7\=Hahn\|first7\=Kyu S.\|last8\=Hansen\|first8\=Kasper M.\|last9\=Harell\|first9\=Allison\|date\=2017\|title\=Economic and Cultural Drivers of Immigrant Support Worldwide\|url\=https://pcl.stanford.edu/research/2017/valentino\-bjps\-economic.pdf\|journal\=British Journal of Political Science\|volume\=49\|issue\=4\|pages\=1201–1226\|doi\=10\.1017/S000712341700031X\|issn\=0007\-1234\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611012157/https://pcl.stanford.edu/research/2017/valentino\-bjps\-economic.pdf\|archive\-date\=11 June 2018\|quote\=We conducted a series of survey experiments, fielded in nearly identical ways across eleven countries on four continents: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Japan, Korea, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. Evidence from several of these individual country studies has presented elsewhere.\|author\-link1\=Nicholas Valentino\|hdl\=11250/2493305\|hdl\-access\=free}}
A paper published in 2018 found that an influx of high\-skilled immigration was associated with declines in nationalist voting, but that an influx in low\-skilled immigration was associated with increases in nationalist voting in elections during the 2007–2016 period.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Moriconi\|first1\=Simone\|last2\=Peri\|first2\=Giovanni\|last3\=Turati\|first3\=Riccardo\|date\=2018\|title\=Skill of the Immigrants and Vote of the Natives: Immigration and Nationalism in European Elections 2007–2016\|series\=Working Paper Series \|publisher\=National Bureau of Economic Research \|location\=Cambridge, MA \|url\=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25077\|doi\=10\.3386/w25077\|quote\=In this paper we document the impact of immigration at the regional level on Europeans' political preferences as expressed by voting behavior in parliamentary or presidential elections between 2007 and 2016\.\|hdl\=2078\.1/204679\|s2cid\=53994396\|hdl\-access\=free}} Perceptions that immigrants are low skilled also caused increased opposition (though high\-skilled immigrants are more likely to be welcomed).Igarashi, Akira, and Yoshikuni Ono. Neoliberalism and Negative Attitudes toward Immigrants. Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (RIETI), 2019\. A 2019 paper from Tel Aviv University identified economic competition, cultural competition, racial attitudes, and fear of crime as some of the most significant factors in opposition to immigration.{{Cite journal \|doi \= 10\.3389/fsoc.2019\.00024\|title \= Unwelcome Immigrants: Sources of Opposition to Different Immigrant Groups Among Europeans\|year \= 2019\|last1 \= Gorodzeisky\|first1 \= Anastasia\|last2 \= Semyonov\|first2 \= Moshe\|journal \= Frontiers in Sociology\|volume \= 4\|page \= 24\|pmid \= 33869349\|pmc \= 8022805\|doi\-access \= free}}
While much research has been conducted to determine what causes opposition to immigration, little research has been done to determine the causes behind support for immigration.Newman, Benjamin J., Todd K. Hartman, Patrick L. Lown, and Stanley Feldman. "Easing the heavy hand: Humanitarian concern, empathy, and opinion on immigration." British Journal of Political Science 45, no. 3 (2015\): 583\-607\.
### Country of origin
A study of Europe found that immigrants themselves tend to hold more favorable views of immigration.{{Cite journal\|url\=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/14315/\|title\=Understanding Attitudes to Immigration: The Migration and Minority Module of the first European Social Survey\|first1\=D.\|last1\=Card\|first2\=C.\|last2\=Dustmann\|first3\=I.\|last3\=Preston\|date\=3 May 2005\|website\=discovery.ucl.ac.uk}} The same study found no evidence that the native\-born children of immigrants hold more favorable views of immigration. A 2017 study found that immigrants who stay in the country longer hold more negative views of immigration than those who have only been there for a brief period, possibly due to assimilating into native society and adopting its views.Braakmann, Nils, Muhammad Waqas, and John Wildman. "Are immigrants in favour of immigration? Evidence from England and Wales." The BE Journal of Economic Analysis \& Policy 17, no. 1 (2017\).
### Economic status
A 2014 review study in the *[Annual Review of Political Science](/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Political_Science "Annual Review of Political Science")* found that "there is little accumulated evidence that citizens primarily form attitudes about immigration based on its effects on their personal economic situation. This pattern has held in both North America and Western Europe, in both observational and experimental studies."{{Cite journal \|title\=Public Attitudes Toward Immigration\|last1\=Hainmueller\|first1\=Jens\|last2\=Hopkins\|first2\=Daniel J.\|date\=12 May 2014 \|journal\=Annual Review of Political Science \|volume\=17 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=225–249 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-polisci\-102512\-194818\|url\=https://www.cream\-migration.org/publ\_uploads/CDP\_15\_13\.pdf\|doi\-access\=free}} A study of Europe found the unemployed hold less favorable views towards immigration than the employed.
A 2022 study found that individuals in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy became less hostile to welfare for immigrants when immigrants had a long work history in the country.{{Cite journal \|last\=Magni \|first\=Gabriele \|date\=2022 \|title\=Boundaries of Solidarity: Immigrants, Economic Contributions, and Welfare Attitudes \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1111/ajps.12707 \|journal\=American Journal of Political Science \|volume\=68 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=72–92 \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1111/ajps.12707 \|s2cid\=248108351 \|issn\=0092\-5853}}
A 2020 study found that "economic anxiety" had little to do with a person's view on the inflow of immigrants in the U.S. The data collected by surveys showed that respondents' negative views/feelings about immigration were not impacted by economic anxiety but instead were impacted by higher levels of ethnocentrism. This means that if someone was anti\-immigrant their views were not likely to be justified through economic anxiety or viewing immigrants as burdens but instead, people were more likely to be anti\-immigrant based on the higher levels of ethnocentrism the individual had.{{cite journal \|last1\=Miller \|first1\=Steven V. \|title\=Economic anxiety or ethnocentrism? An evaluation of attitudes toward immigration in the U.S. from 1992 to 2017 \|journal\=The Social Science Journal \|date\=16 July 2020 \|volume\=60 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=818–837 \|doi\=10\.1080/03623319\.2020\.1782638\|s2cid\=225532169 }}
### Education
Levels of education are one of the best predictors of support for anti\-immigration policies and parties.{{Cite web \|last1\=Burn\-Murdoch \|first1\=John \|last2\=Ehrenberg\-Shannon \|first2\=Billy \|last3\=Wisniewska \|first3\=Aleksandra \|last4\=Rininsland \|first4\=Ændrew \|date\=7 May 2017 \|title\=French election results: Macron's victory in charts \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/62d782d6\-31a7\-11e7\-9555\-23ef563ecf9a \|access\-date\=13 May 2017 \|website\=\[\[Financial Times]] \|language\=en\-GB}}{{Cite web \|last1\=Ehrenberg\-Shannon \|first1\=Billy \|last2\=Wisniewska \|first2\=Aleksandra \|date\=1 March 2017 \|title\=How education level is the biggest predictor of support for Geert Wilders \|url\=https://www.ft.com/dutchvoting \|access\-date\=13 May 2017 \|website\=Financial Times \|language\=en\-GB}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Rustenbach\|first\=Elisa\|date\=1 January 2010\|title\=Sources of Negative Attitudes toward Immigrants in Europe: A Multi\-Level Analysis\|jstor\=20681745\|journal\=The International Migration Review\|volume\=44\|issue\=1\|pages\=53–77\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1747\-7379\.2009\.00798\.x\|s2cid\=153955759}} A 2016 study published in the *[European Economic Review](/wiki/European_Economic_Review "European Economic Review")* found, on the basis of European survey data in the period 2002–2012, that "higher levels of education lead to a more positive reported attitude toward immigrants". The authors suggest that this is explained by weaker economic competition between immigrants and educated natives, a higher aversion to discrimination among the educated, and a greater belief in the positive effects of immigration among the educated. A 2013 study in the *[American Journal of Political Science](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Political_Science "American Journal of Political Science")* lends some support to the economic competition theory, as highly educated Americans who exhibit lower levels of xenophobia tend to support reductions in the number of highly skilled immigrants.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Malhotra\|first1\=Neil\|author\-link1\=Neil Malhotra\|last2\=Margalit\|first2\=Yotam\|last3\=Mo\|first3\=Cecilia Hyunjung\|date\=1 April 2013\|title\=Economic Explanations for Opposition to Immigration: Distinguishing between Prevalence and Conditional Impact \|journal\=American Journal of Political Science\|language\=en\|volume\=57\|issue\=2\|pages\=391–410\|doi\=10\.1111/ajps.12012\|issn\=1540\-5907\|doi\-access\=free}}
A 2007 study in *[International Organization](/wiki/International_Organization "International Organization")* found that "people with higher levels of education and occupational skills are more likely to favor immigration regardless of the skill attributes of the immigrants in question. Across Europe, higher education and higher skills mean more support for all types of immigrants. These relationships are almost identical among individuals in the labor force (that is, those competing for jobs) and those not in the labor force."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hainmueller\|first1\=Jens\|last2\=Hiscox\|first2\=Michael J.\|date\=1 April 2007\|title\=Educated Preferences: Explaining Attitudes Toward Immigration in Europe \|journal\=International Organization\|volume\=61\|issue\=2\|pages\=399–442\|doi\=10\.1017/S0020818307070142\|doi\-broken\-date\=9 July 2024 \|s2cid\=14644165\|issn\=1531\-5088}} A 2018 study in the *[American Political Science Review](/wiki/American_Political_Science_Review "American Political Science Review")* found "an additional year of secondary schooling substantially reduces the probability of opposing immigration, believing that immigration erodes a country's quality of life, and feeling close to far\-right anti\-immigration parties."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Cavaille\|first1\=Charlotte\|last2\=Marshall\|first2\=John\|date\=2018\|title\=Education and Anti\-Immigration Attitudes: Evidence from Compulsory Schooling Reforms across Western Europe\|journal\=American Political Science Review\|language\=en\|volume\=113\|issue\=1 \|pages\=254–263\|doi\=10\.1017/S0003055418000588\|s2cid\=149597489\|issn\=0003\-0554}}
One study of Japan found that exposure to information about the benefits of immigration substantially increased support for a more open immigration policy.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Facchini\|first1\=Giovanni\|last2\=Margalit\|first2\=Yotam\|last3\=Nakata\|first3\=Hiroyuki\|date\=27 December 2016\|title\=Countering Public Opposition to Immigration: The Impact of Information Campaigns\|ssrn\=2889666}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://voxeu.org/article/effectiveness\-information\-campaigns\-countering\-public\-opposition\-immigration\|title\=Countering public opposition to immigration with information campaigns\|last1\=Facchini\|first1\=Giovanni\|last2\=Margalit\|first2\=Yotam\|date\=9 January 2017\|website\=VoxEU.org\|access\-date\=13 May 2017\|last3\=Nakata\|first3\=Hiroyuki}}
A study by Alexander Janus investigated whether [social desirability](/wiki/Social_desirability_bias "Social desirability bias") pressures may partially explain reduced opposition to immigration amongst the highly educated. Using an unobtrusive questioning technique, Janus found that anti\-immigration sentiments amongst American college graduates were far higher than subjects were willing to state. This indicates that support for immigration amongst the better educated may reflect expression of socially desirable views rather than actual beliefs.{{Cite journal\|last\=Janus\|first\=Alexander\|date\=25 October 2010\|title\=The Influence of Social Desirability Pressures on Expressed Immigration Attitudes \|journal\=Social Science Quarterly\|volume\=91\|issue\=4\|pages\=928–946\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1540\-6237\.2010\.00742\.x}} Further evidence for this was found in a study by Creighton et al., where amongst the college educated, it was found the stated support for immigration was higher than the actual pro\-immigrant sentiment. This was true for other education levels. The study also found that the 2008 economic crisis did not significantly increase anti\-immigration attitudes but rather there was a greater expression of opposition to immigration, with underlying attitudes changing little before and after the crisis.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Creighton\|first1\=Matthew\|last2\=Jamal\|first2\=Amaney\|last3\=Malancu\|first3\=Natalia\|date\=3 May 2014\|title\=Has Opposition to Immigration Increased in the United States after the Economic Crisis? An experimental Approach \|journal\=International Migration Review\|volume\=49\|issue\=3\|pages\=727–756\|doi\=10\.1111/imre.12091\|s2cid\=153811626}} A 2015 study found further evidence that support for immigration amongst the educated was mainly driven by social desirability bias.An, Brian P. "The role of social desirability bias and racial/ethnic composition on the relation between education and attitude toward immigration restrictionism." *The Social Science Journal* 52, no. 4 (2015\): 459–467\.
### Geographic proximity to immigrants
Some research suggests that geographic proximity to immigrants drives anti\-immigration views,{{Cite web\|url\=http://voxeu.org/article/immigration\-and\-far\-right\-voting\-new\-evidence\|title\=Immigration and far\-right voting: New evidence\|last1\=Halla\|first1\=Martin\|last2\=Wagner\|first2\=Alexander\|date\=29 November 2015\|website\=VoxEU.org\|access\-date\=13 May 2017\|last3\=Zweimüller\|first3\=Josef}} while other research shows the reverse.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.vox.com/2016/8/12/12454250/donald\-trump\-gallup\-trade\-immigration\-study\|title\=Donald Trump's supporters are LESS likely to be affected by trade and immigration, not more\|date\=12 August 2016\|website\=Vox\|access\-date\=13 May 2017}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Piekut\|first1\=Aneta\|last2\=Valentine\|first2\=Gill\|date\=1 June 2016\|title\=Perceived Diversity and Acceptance of Minority Ethnic Groups in Two Urban Contexts\|url\=https://academic.oup.com/esr/article/32/3/339/2453403/Perceived\-Diversity\-and\-Acceptance\-of\-Minority\|journal\=European Sociological Review\|language\=en\|volume\=32\|issue\=3\|pages\=339–354\|doi\=10\.1093/esr/jcw011\|issn\=0266\-7215\|doi\-access\=free}} Other research suggests that it is the *perception* of proximity, not actual proximity, that drives these views.
A 2017 study finds that "more rapid ethnic changes increase opposition to immigration and support for UKIP" in the United Kingdom.{{Cite journal\|last\=Kaufmann\|first\=Eric\|title\=Levels or changes?: Ethnic context, immigration and the UK Independence party vote \|journal\=Electoral Studies\|volume\=48\|pages\=57–69\|doi\=10\.1016/j.electstud.2017\.05\.002\|year\=2017\|doi\-access\=free}} A 2018 study found that increases in local ethnic diversity in Denmark caused "rightward shifts in election outcomes by shifting electoral support away from traditional “big government” left‐wing parties and towards anti‐immigrant nationalist parties."{{Cite journal\|last\=Harmon\|first\=Nikolaj A.\|date\=11 September 2018\|title\=Immigration, Ethnic Diversity, and Political Outcomes: Evidence from Denmark\|journal\=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics\|volume\=120\|issue\=4\|pages\=1043–1074\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.1111/sjoe.12239\|s2cid\=54936991\|issn\=0347\-0520\|url\=https://curis.ku.dk/portal/da/publications/immigration\-ethnic\-diversity\-and\-political\-outcomes\-evidence\-from\-denmark(2725b09a\-4340\-4b56\-aa6f\-56e5d253f92d).html}}
A 2018 study in the *American Political Science Review* found that Greeks who had "direct exposure to refugee arrivals" showed more hostility "toward refugees, immigrants, and Muslim minorities; support for restrictive asylum and immigration policies; and political engagement to effect such exclusionary policies."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Xefteris\|first1\=Dimitrios\|last2\=Matakos\|first2\=Konstantinos\|last3\=Marbach\|first3\=Moritz\|last4\=Dinas\|first4\=Elias\|last5\=Hangartner\|first5\=Dominik\|date\=2018\|title\=Does Exposure to the Refugee Crisis Make Natives More Hostile?\|journal\=American Political Science Review\|language\=en\|volume\=113\|issue\=2\|pages\=442–455\|doi\=10\.1017/S0003055418000813\|issn\=1537\-5943\|doi\-access\=free\|hdl\=1814/61885\|hdl\-access\=free}}
A 2019 study investigated why residents of cities tend to have more positive attitudes towards immigration and cosmopolitanism. The study concluded that it was not living in a city per se that created more positive attitudes but rather the composition of the populations of cities; city populations tended to be more educated, which correlated with more positive immigration attitudes, while people who were more positive of immigration were more likely to self\-select into large cities. Cities were also found to be internally heterogenous with regards to immigration attitudes, with attitudes varying between neighbourhoods.Maxwell, Rahsaan. "Cosmopolitan immigration attitudes in large European cities: Contextual or compositional effects?." American Political Science Review 113, no. 2 (2019\): 456–474\.
### Intergenerational transmission
Some research suggests that anti\-immigration views are transmitted from older generations to younger generations.{{Cite journal \|title\=Intergenerational Correlations of Extreme Right\-Wing Party Preferences and Attitudes toward Immigration\|doi\=10\.1111/sjoe.12190\|volume\=119\|year\=2017\|issue\=3\|journal\=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics\|pages\=768–800 \| last1 \= Avdeenko \| first1 \= Alexandra \| last2 \= Siedler \| first2 \= Thomas\|s2cid\=147145336\|url\=http://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/diw\_01\.c.535405\.de/diw\_sp0845\.pdf\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430043038/https://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/diw\_01\.c.535405\.de/diw\_sp0845\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=30 April 2019}} A 2015 study found that British communities that were more acceptant of Jews in medieval times show much more tolerance towards 20th century immigrants (chiefly Caribbean and South Asian immigrants) and 21st century immigrants (chiefly Eastern European), and less support for the [far right](/wiki/Far_right "Far right").{{Cite journal\|last\=Fielding\|first\=David\|date\=1 January 2015\|title\=Traditions of Tolerance: The Long\-Run Persistence of Regional Variation in Attitudes towards English Immigrants \|journal\=British Journal of Political Science\|pages\=167–188\|doi\=10\.1017/S0007123415000575\|issn\=0007\-1234\|volume\=48\|issue\=1 \|doi\-access\=free}}
### Cultural absolutism
The belief that some cultures are better than others, called *cultural absolutism* or *cultural racism*, is correlated with opposition to immigration.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Ramos \|first1\=Alice \|last2\=Pereira \|first2\=Cicero Roberto \|last3\=Vala \|first3\=Jorge \|date\=2020\-02\-17 \|title\=The impact of biological and cultural racisms on attitudes towards immigrants and immigration public policies \|url\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\.1080/1369183X.2018\.1550153 \|journal\=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies \|language\=en \|volume\=46 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=574–592 \|doi\=10\.1080/1369183X.2018\.1550153 \|hdl\=10451/38459 \|s2cid\=150849832 \|issn\=1369\-183X\|hdl\-access\=free }}{{Rp\|page\=6,12}}
### Biological racism
{{See also\|Racism}}
The belief that some groups of people are born with different psychological abilities or personalities was found to be correlated with opposition to immigration.{{Rp\|page\=6,12}}
### Religion
A 2017 study found that by emphasizing shared religion can produce more supportive attitudes toward refugees.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Lazarev\|first1\=Egor\|last2\=Sharma\|first2\=Kunaal\|date\=April 2017\|title\=Brother or Burden: An Experiment on Reducing Prejudice Toward Syrian Refugees in Turkey\*\|journal\=Political Science Research and Methods\|volume\=5\|issue\=2\|pages\=201–219\|doi\=10\.1017/psrm.2015\.57\|s2cid\=153704135\|issn\=2049\-8470}} A 2015 study of the US found that religion did not seem to determine opposition to immigration as while respondents were explicit about opposition to Muslim immigration, they also concealed significant opposition to Christian immigration due to social desirability bias. It was thus determined that religiosity or denomination did not determine explicit or implicit opposition and any differences were down to social desirability bias in this case.Creighton, Mathew J., and Amaney Jamal. "Does Islam play a role in anti\-immigrant sentiment? An experimental approach." Social science research 53 (2015\): 89–103\.
One 2018 study in the United Kingdom found that opposition to Muslim immigrants was not about a more negative view of Muslim (compared to Christian) immigrants but rather about rejecting fundamentalist religiosity. The study concluded that opposition based on religion was thus less about the religious group and more about political liberalism versus religious fundamentalism.{{Cite journal\|last\=Helbling\|first\=Marc\|date\=2017\|title\=What Is Islamophobia? Disentangling Citizenss Feelings Towards Ethnicity, Religion and Religiosity Using a Survey Experiment\|journal\=SSRN Working Paper Series\|language\=en\|doi\=10\.2139/ssrn.2906451\|issn\=1556\-5068\|ssrn\=2906451}}Helbling, Marc, and Richard Traunmüller. "What is Islamophobia? Disentangling Citizens' Feelings Toward Ethnicity, Religion and Religiosity Using a Survey Experiment." British Journal of Political Science (2018\): 1–18\.
### Sociopsychological explanations
A 2014 review study in the *[Annual Review of Political Science](/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Political_Science "Annual Review of Political Science")* found that there is substantial evidence in support of sociopsychological explanations for anti\-immigration views. A 2007 study in *[International Organization](/wiki/International_Organization "International Organization")* found that "the link between education and attitudes toward immigrants is driven by differences among individuals in cultural values and beliefs. More educated respondents are significantly less racist and place greater value on cultural diversity than do their counterparts; they are also more likely to believe that immigration generates benefits for the host economy as a whole."
A 2017 study in the *[American Political Science Review](/wiki/American_Political_Science_Review "American Political Science Review")* argued that hostility towards immigrants is driven by disgust and can be explained as a psychological mechanism designed to protect humans from disease.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Aarøe\|first1\=Lene\|last2\=Petersen\|first2\=Michael Bang\|last3\=Arceneaux\|first3\=Kevin\|date\=1 May 2017\|title\=The Behavioral Immune System Shapes Political Intuitions: Why and How Individual Differences in Disgust Sensitivity Underlie Opposition to Immigration\|journal\=American Political Science Review\|volume\=111\|issue\=2\|pages\=277–294\|doi\=10\.1017/S0003055416000770\|s2cid\=151895140\|issn\=0003\-0554\|url\=https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/121656845/12\_31\_The\_Behavioral\_Immune\_System\_Shapes\_Political\_Intuitions\_2017\.pdf}}
Research suggests that the perception that there is a positive causal link between immigration and crime leads to greater support for anti\-immigration policies or parties.{{Cite journal\|last\=Smith\|first\=Jason Matthew\|date\=1 November 2010\|title\=Does Crime Pay? Issue Ownership, Political Opportunity, and the Populist Right in Western Europe\|journal\=Comparative Political Studies\|volume\=43\|issue\=11\|pages\=1471–1498\|doi\=10\.1177/0010414010372593\|s2cid\=154607509\|issn\=0010\-4140}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Dinas\|first1\=Elias\|last2\=van Spanje\|first2\=Joost\|date\=1 December 2011\|title\=Crime Story: The role of crime and immigration in the anti\-immigration vote \|journal\=Electoral Studies\|volume\=30\|issue\=4\|pages\=658–671\|doi\=10\.1016/j.electstud.2011\.06\.010}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Burscher\|first1\=Bjorn\|last2\=van Spanje\|first2\=Joost\|last3\=de Vreese\|first3\=Claes H.\|date\=1 June 2015\|title\=Owning the issues of crime and immigration: The relation between immigration and crime news and anti\-immigrant voting in 11 countries \|journal\=Electoral Studies\|volume\=38\|pages\=59–69\|doi\=10\.1016/j.electstud.2015\.03\.001\|s2cid\=59143838 \|url\=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/2563200/168937\_503146\.pdf}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Rydgren\|first\=Jens\|date\=1 October 2008\|title\=Immigration sceptics, xenophobes or racists? Radical right\-wing voting in six West European countries \|journal\=European Journal of Political Research\|volume\=47\|issue\=6\|pages\=737–765\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1475\-6765\.2008\.00784\.x\|issn\=1475\-6765}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Mayda\|first\=Anna Maria\|date\=1 August 2006\|title\=Who Is Against Immigration? A Cross\-Country Investigation of Individual Attitudes toward Immigrants \|journal\=Review of Economics and Statistics\|volume\=88\|issue\=3\|pages\=510–530\|doi\=10\.1162/rest.88\.3\.510\|s2cid\=18610990\|issn\=0034\-6535\|url\=http://www.dagliano.unimi.it/media/WP2004\_187\.pdf\|hdl\=10419/20350\|hdl\-access\=free}} Research also suggests that [bigotry](/wiki/Bigotry "Bigotry") and immigrant alienation could exacerbate immigrant criminality and bigotry. For instance, University of California, San Diego political scientist Claire Adida, Stanford University political scientist David Laitin and Sorbonne University economist Marie\-Anne Valfort argue "fear\-based policies that target groups of people according to their religion or region of origin are counter\-productive. Our own research, which explains the failed integration of Muslim immigrants in France, suggests that such policies can feed into a [vicious cycle](/wiki/Vicious_cycle "Vicious cycle") that damages national security. French Islamophobia—a response to cultural difference—has encouraged Muslim immigrants to withdraw from French society, which then feeds back into French Islamophobia, thus further exacerbating Muslims' alienation, and so on."{{Cite journal\|last1\=Adida\|first1\=Claire L.\|last2\=Laitin\|first2\=David D.\|last3\=Valfort\|first3\=Marie\-Anne\|date\=1 February 2017\|title\=The Wrong Way to Stop Terrorism\|url\=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2017\-02\-01/wrong\-way\-stop\-terrorism\|journal\=Foreign Affairs}}
A study of the long\-term effects of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States found that the post\-9/11 increase in [hate crimes against Muslims](/wiki/Hate_crimes_against_Muslims_in_the_United_States "Hate crimes against Muslims in the United States") decreased assimilation by Muslim immigrants.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Gould\|first1\=Eric D.\|last2\=Klor\|first2\=Esteban F.\|date\=1 July 2015\|title\=The Long\-run Effect of 9/11: Terrorism, Backlash, and the Assimilation of Muslim Immigrants in the West \|journal\=The Economic Journal\|volume\=126\|issue\=597\|pages\=2064–2114\|doi\=10\.1111/ecoj.12219\|s2cid\=55809315\|issn\=1468\-0297\|hdl\=10\.1111/ecoj.12219\|hdl\-access\=free}} Controlling for relevant factors, the authors found that "Muslim immigrants living in states with the sharpest increase in hate crimes also exhibit: greater chances of marrying within their own ethnic group; higher fertility; lower female labour force participation; and lower English proficiency." A study of Germans found that the 9/11 terror attacks contributed to greater anti\-immigrant sentiments.{{Cite journal \|title\=The Effects of 9/11 on Attitudes toward Immigration and the Moderating Role of Education\|doi\=10\.1111/kykl.12122 \|volume\=69\|issue\= 4\|year\=2016\|journal\=Kyklos\|pages\=604–632 \| last1 \= Schüller \| first1 \= Simone\|s2cid\=184549\|url\= http://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/diw\_01\.c.415405\.de/diw\_sp0534\.pdf}} States that experience terrorist acts on their own soil or against their own citizens are more likely to adopt stricter restrictions on asylum recognition.{{Cite journal\|last\=Avdan\|first\=Nazli\|date\=1 December 2014\|title\=Do asylum recognition rates in Europe respond to transnational terrorism? The migration\-security nexus revisited \|journal\=European Union Politics\|language\=en\|volume\=15\|issue\=4\|pages\=445–471\|doi\=10\.1177/1465116514534908\|s2cid\=154649714\|issn\=1465\-1165}}
Research in 2017 also indicated opposition to immigration may be motivated by a person's concern about their group's social position.{{cite web \|url\=https://policyexchange.org.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2017/03/Racial\-Self\-Interest\-is\-not\-Racism\-FINAL.pdf \|last\=Kaufmann \|first\=Eric \|authorlink\=Eric Kaufmann \|title\=Racial Self\-Interest is not racism: ethno\-demographic interests and the immigration debate. \|website\=Policy Exchange \|location\=London \|year\=2017 \|pages\=4, 20–23 }} Studies found that increasing Hispanic immigration to the US caused greater support for immigration restriction amongst both white Americans and non\-Hispanic non\-white Americans (Hispanic Americans showed no change in attitudes), suggesting that concerns about group position could motivate opposition to immigration.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1177/1948550617712029\|title\=Hispanic Population Growth Engenders Conservative Shift Among Non\-Hispanic Racial Minorities\|year\=2018\|last1\=Craig\|first1\=Maureen A.\|last2\=Richeson\|first2\=Jennifer A.\|journal\=Social Psychological and Personality Science\|volume\=9\|issue\=4\|pages\=383–392\|s2cid\=3630320}}
{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1080/1369183X.2017\.1334540\|title\=What's left unsaid? In\-group solidarity and ethnic and racial differences in opposition to immigration in the United States\|year\=2018\|last1\=Bazo Vienrich\|first1\=Alessandra\|last2\=Creighton\|first2\=Mathew J.\|journal\=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies\|volume\=44\|issue\=13\|pages\=2240–2255\|s2cid\=148910927}} Political ideology can also interact with group social position;{{cite web \|last\=Kaufmann \|first\=Eric \|title\=Is tribalism racist? Antiracism norms and immigration. \|work\=British Politics and Policy at LSE \|date\=9 July 2017 \|url\=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/antiracism\-norms\-and\-immigration/ }} in the [2016 United States presidential election](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election "2016 United States presidential election") white Clinton voters were strongly opposed to the notion of white Americans limiting immigration to maintain their group position but were not generally opposed to the notion of Hispanic Americans desiring to increase their population share via increased immigration, while white Trump voters showed the opposite. [David Frum](/wiki/David_Frum "David Frum") suggests that while mass migration has occurred historically, for societies that have undergone a [demographic transition](/wiki/Demographic_transition "Demographic transition"), immigration brings change faster since the native population has fewer children. This causes immigrants to be perceived not as reinforcing the native population but instead as replacing it.{{cite news \|first\=David \|last\=Frum \|title\=How Much Immigration Is Too Much? \|date\=April 2019 \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/04/david\-frum\-how\-much\-immigration\-is\-too\-much/583252/ \|work\=The Atlantic }}
A study in [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") found that anti\-refugee sentiments persisted more strongly among people with [populist attitudes](/wiki/Populism "Populism") \- on both sides of the political spectrum, i.e. left and right \- even when controlling for demographic and economic factors, political interest, and satisfaction with democracy of the participants.{{cite book \|last1\=Pruysers \|first1\=Scott \|last2\=Schminke \|first2\=Tobias Gerhard \|title\=Prejudicial Populists? Evidence from Canada \|date\=2024 \|publisher\=De Gruyter \|doi\=10\.1515/9780228020486\-015 \|isbn\=9780228020486 \|url\=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10\.1515/9780228020486\-015/html?lang\=en \|access\-date\=30 July 2024}}
|
[
"Causes of anti\\-immigration views\n---------------------------------",
"A 2017 study comprised 18,000 interviews across eleven countries: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Japan, Korea, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. The study found that \"higher\\-skilled immigrants are preferred to their lower\\-skilled counterparts at all levels of native socio\\-economic status (SES). There is little support for the Labor Market Competition hypothesis, since respondents are not more opposed to immigrants in their own SES stratum. While skin tone itself has little effect in any country, immigrants from Muslim\\-majority countries do elicit significantly lower levels of support, and racial animus remains a powerful force.\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Valentino\\|first1\\=Nicholas A.\\|last2\\=Soroka\\|first2\\=Stuart N.\\|last3\\=Iyengar\\|first3\\=Shanto\\|last4\\=Aalberg\\|first4\\=Toril\\|author5\\-link\\=Raymond Duch\\|last5\\=Duch\\|first5\\=Raymond\\|last6\\=Fraile\\|first6\\=Marta\\|last7\\=Hahn\\|first7\\=Kyu S.\\|last8\\=Hansen\\|first8\\=Kasper M.\\|last9\\=Harell\\|first9\\=Allison\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=Economic and Cultural Drivers of Immigrant Support Worldwide\\|url\\=https://pcl.stanford.edu/research/2017/valentino\\-bjps\\-economic.pdf\\|journal\\=British Journal of Political Science\\|volume\\=49\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1201–1226\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S000712341700031X\\|issn\\=0007\\-1234\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611012157/https://pcl.stanford.edu/research/2017/valentino\\-bjps\\-economic.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=11 June 2018\\|quote\\=We conducted a series of survey experiments, fielded in nearly identical ways across eleven countries on four continents: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Japan, Korea, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. Evidence from several of these individual country studies has presented elsewhere.\\|author\\-link1\\=Nicholas Valentino\\|hdl\\=11250/2493305\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}",
"A paper published in 2018 found that an influx of high\\-skilled immigration was associated with declines in nationalist voting, but that an influx in low\\-skilled immigration was associated with increases in nationalist voting in elections during the 2007–2016 period.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Moriconi\\|first1\\=Simone\\|last2\\=Peri\\|first2\\=Giovanni\\|last3\\=Turati\\|first3\\=Riccardo\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Skill of the Immigrants and Vote of the Natives: Immigration and Nationalism in European Elections 2007–2016\\|series\\=Working Paper Series \\|publisher\\=National Bureau of Economic Research \\|location\\=Cambridge, MA \\|url\\=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25077\\|doi\\=10\\.3386/w25077\\|quote\\=In this paper we document the impact of immigration at the regional level on Europeans' political preferences as expressed by voting behavior in parliamentary or presidential elections between 2007 and 2016\\.\\|hdl\\=2078\\.1/204679\\|s2cid\\=53994396\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} Perceptions that immigrants are low skilled also caused increased opposition (though high\\-skilled immigrants are more likely to be welcomed).Igarashi, Akira, and Yoshikuni Ono. Neoliberalism and Negative Attitudes toward Immigrants. Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (RIETI), 2019\\. A 2019 paper from Tel Aviv University identified economic competition, cultural competition, racial attitudes, and fear of crime as some of the most significant factors in opposition to immigration.{{Cite journal \\|doi \\= 10\\.3389/fsoc.2019\\.00024\\|title \\= Unwelcome Immigrants: Sources of Opposition to Different Immigrant Groups Among Europeans\\|year \\= 2019\\|last1 \\= Gorodzeisky\\|first1 \\= Anastasia\\|last2 \\= Semyonov\\|first2 \\= Moshe\\|journal \\= Frontiers in Sociology\\|volume \\= 4\\|page \\= 24\\|pmid \\= 33869349\\|pmc \\= 8022805\\|doi\\-access \\= free}}",
"While much research has been conducted to determine what causes opposition to immigration, little research has been done to determine the causes behind support for immigration.Newman, Benjamin J., Todd K. Hartman, Patrick L. Lown, and Stanley Feldman. \"Easing the heavy hand: Humanitarian concern, empathy, and opinion on immigration.\" British Journal of Political Science 45, no. 3 (2015\\): 583\\-607\\.",
"### Country of origin",
"A study of Europe found that immigrants themselves tend to hold more favorable views of immigration.{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/14315/\\|title\\=Understanding Attitudes to Immigration: The Migration and Minority Module of the first European Social Survey\\|first1\\=D.\\|last1\\=Card\\|first2\\=C.\\|last2\\=Dustmann\\|first3\\=I.\\|last3\\=Preston\\|date\\=3 May 2005\\|website\\=discovery.ucl.ac.uk}} The same study found no evidence that the native\\-born children of immigrants hold more favorable views of immigration. A 2017 study found that immigrants who stay in the country longer hold more negative views of immigration than those who have only been there for a brief period, possibly due to assimilating into native society and adopting its views.Braakmann, Nils, Muhammad Waqas, and John Wildman. \"Are immigrants in favour of immigration? Evidence from England and Wales.\" The BE Journal of Economic Analysis \\& Policy 17, no. 1 (2017\\).",
"### Economic status",
"A 2014 review study in the *[Annual Review of Political Science](/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Political_Science \"Annual Review of Political Science\")* found that \"there is little accumulated evidence that citizens primarily form attitudes about immigration based on its effects on their personal economic situation. This pattern has held in both North America and Western Europe, in both observational and experimental studies.\"{{Cite journal \\|title\\=Public Attitudes Toward Immigration\\|last1\\=Hainmueller\\|first1\\=Jens\\|last2\\=Hopkins\\|first2\\=Daniel J.\\|date\\=12 May 2014 \\|journal\\=Annual Review of Political Science \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=225–249 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-polisci\\-102512\\-194818\\|url\\=https://www.cream\\-migration.org/publ\\_uploads/CDP\\_15\\_13\\.pdf\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} A study of Europe found the unemployed hold less favorable views towards immigration than the employed.",
"A 2022 study found that individuals in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy became less hostile to welfare for immigrants when immigrants had a long work history in the country.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Magni \\|first\\=Gabriele \\|date\\=2022 \\|title\\=Boundaries of Solidarity: Immigrants, Economic Contributions, and Welfare Attitudes \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1111/ajps.12707 \\|journal\\=American Journal of Political Science \\|volume\\=68 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=72–92 \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/ajps.12707 \\|s2cid\\=248108351 \\|issn\\=0092\\-5853}}",
"A 2020 study found that \"economic anxiety\" had little to do with a person's view on the inflow of immigrants in the U.S. The data collected by surveys showed that respondents' negative views/feelings about immigration were not impacted by economic anxiety but instead were impacted by higher levels of ethnocentrism. This means that if someone was anti\\-immigrant their views were not likely to be justified through economic anxiety or viewing immigrants as burdens but instead, people were more likely to be anti\\-immigrant based on the higher levels of ethnocentrism the individual had.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Miller \\|first1\\=Steven V. \\|title\\=Economic anxiety or ethnocentrism? An evaluation of attitudes toward immigration in the U.S. from 1992 to 2017 \\|journal\\=The Social Science Journal \\|date\\=16 July 2020 \\|volume\\=60 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=818–837 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/03623319\\.2020\\.1782638\\|s2cid\\=225532169 }}",
"### Education",
"Levels of education are one of the best predictors of support for anti\\-immigration policies and parties.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Burn\\-Murdoch \\|first1\\=John \\|last2\\=Ehrenberg\\-Shannon \\|first2\\=Billy \\|last3\\=Wisniewska \\|first3\\=Aleksandra \\|last4\\=Rininsland \\|first4\\=Ændrew \\|date\\=7 May 2017 \\|title\\=French election results: Macron's victory in charts \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/62d782d6\\-31a7\\-11e7\\-9555\\-23ef563ecf9a \\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2017 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Financial Times]] \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Ehrenberg\\-Shannon \\|first1\\=Billy \\|last2\\=Wisniewska \\|first2\\=Aleksandra \\|date\\=1 March 2017 \\|title\\=How education level is the biggest predictor of support for Geert Wilders \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/dutchvoting \\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2017 \\|website\\=Financial Times \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Rustenbach\\|first\\=Elisa\\|date\\=1 January 2010\\|title\\=Sources of Negative Attitudes toward Immigrants in Europe: A Multi\\-Level Analysis\\|jstor\\=20681745\\|journal\\=The International Migration Review\\|volume\\=44\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=53–77\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1747\\-7379\\.2009\\.00798\\.x\\|s2cid\\=153955759}} A 2016 study published in the *[European Economic Review](/wiki/European_Economic_Review \"European Economic Review\")* found, on the basis of European survey data in the period 2002–2012, that \"higher levels of education lead to a more positive reported attitude toward immigrants\". The authors suggest that this is explained by weaker economic competition between immigrants and educated natives, a higher aversion to discrimination among the educated, and a greater belief in the positive effects of immigration among the educated. A 2013 study in the *[American Journal of Political Science](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Political_Science \"American Journal of Political Science\")* lends some support to the economic competition theory, as highly educated Americans who exhibit lower levels of xenophobia tend to support reductions in the number of highly skilled immigrants.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Malhotra\\|first1\\=Neil\\|author\\-link1\\=Neil Malhotra\\|last2\\=Margalit\\|first2\\=Yotam\\|last3\\=Mo\\|first3\\=Cecilia Hyunjung\\|date\\=1 April 2013\\|title\\=Economic Explanations for Opposition to Immigration: Distinguishing between Prevalence and Conditional Impact \\|journal\\=American Journal of Political Science\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=57\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=391–410\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/ajps.12012\\|issn\\=1540\\-5907\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"A 2007 study in *[International Organization](/wiki/International_Organization \"International Organization\")* found that \"people with higher levels of education and occupational skills are more likely to favor immigration regardless of the skill attributes of the immigrants in question. Across Europe, higher education and higher skills mean more support for all types of immigrants. These relationships are almost identical among individuals in the labor force (that is, those competing for jobs) and those not in the labor force.\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hainmueller\\|first1\\=Jens\\|last2\\=Hiscox\\|first2\\=Michael J.\\|date\\=1 April 2007\\|title\\=Educated Preferences: Explaining Attitudes Toward Immigration in Europe \\|journal\\=International Organization\\|volume\\=61\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=399–442\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0020818307070142\\|doi\\-broken\\-date\\=9 July 2024 \\|s2cid\\=14644165\\|issn\\=1531\\-5088}} A 2018 study in the *[American Political Science Review](/wiki/American_Political_Science_Review \"American Political Science Review\")* found \"an additional year of secondary schooling substantially reduces the probability of opposing immigration, believing that immigration erodes a country's quality of life, and feeling close to far\\-right anti\\-immigration parties.\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Cavaille\\|first1\\=Charlotte\\|last2\\=Marshall\\|first2\\=John\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Education and Anti\\-Immigration Attitudes: Evidence from Compulsory Schooling Reforms across Western Europe\\|journal\\=American Political Science Review\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=113\\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=254–263\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0003055418000588\\|s2cid\\=149597489\\|issn\\=0003\\-0554}}",
"One study of Japan found that exposure to information about the benefits of immigration substantially increased support for a more open immigration policy.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Facchini\\|first1\\=Giovanni\\|last2\\=Margalit\\|first2\\=Yotam\\|last3\\=Nakata\\|first3\\=Hiroyuki\\|date\\=27 December 2016\\|title\\=Countering Public Opposition to Immigration: The Impact of Information Campaigns\\|ssrn\\=2889666}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://voxeu.org/article/effectiveness\\-information\\-campaigns\\-countering\\-public\\-opposition\\-immigration\\|title\\=Countering public opposition to immigration with information campaigns\\|last1\\=Facchini\\|first1\\=Giovanni\\|last2\\=Margalit\\|first2\\=Yotam\\|date\\=9 January 2017\\|website\\=VoxEU.org\\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2017\\|last3\\=Nakata\\|first3\\=Hiroyuki}}",
"A study by Alexander Janus investigated whether [social desirability](/wiki/Social_desirability_bias \"Social desirability bias\") pressures may partially explain reduced opposition to immigration amongst the highly educated. Using an unobtrusive questioning technique, Janus found that anti\\-immigration sentiments amongst American college graduates were far higher than subjects were willing to state. This indicates that support for immigration amongst the better educated may reflect expression of socially desirable views rather than actual beliefs.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Janus\\|first\\=Alexander\\|date\\=25 October 2010\\|title\\=The Influence of Social Desirability Pressures on Expressed Immigration Attitudes \\|journal\\=Social Science Quarterly\\|volume\\=91\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=928–946\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1540\\-6237\\.2010\\.00742\\.x}} Further evidence for this was found in a study by Creighton et al., where amongst the college educated, it was found the stated support for immigration was higher than the actual pro\\-immigrant sentiment. This was true for other education levels. The study also found that the 2008 economic crisis did not significantly increase anti\\-immigration attitudes but rather there was a greater expression of opposition to immigration, with underlying attitudes changing little before and after the crisis.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Creighton\\|first1\\=Matthew\\|last2\\=Jamal\\|first2\\=Amaney\\|last3\\=Malancu\\|first3\\=Natalia\\|date\\=3 May 2014\\|title\\=Has Opposition to Immigration Increased in the United States after the Economic Crisis? An experimental Approach \\|journal\\=International Migration Review\\|volume\\=49\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=727–756\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/imre.12091\\|s2cid\\=153811626}} A 2015 study found further evidence that support for immigration amongst the educated was mainly driven by social desirability bias.An, Brian P. \"The role of social desirability bias and racial/ethnic composition on the relation between education and attitude toward immigration restrictionism.\" *The Social Science Journal* 52, no. 4 (2015\\): 459–467\\.",
"### Geographic proximity to immigrants",
"Some research suggests that geographic proximity to immigrants drives anti\\-immigration views,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://voxeu.org/article/immigration\\-and\\-far\\-right\\-voting\\-new\\-evidence\\|title\\=Immigration and far\\-right voting: New evidence\\|last1\\=Halla\\|first1\\=Martin\\|last2\\=Wagner\\|first2\\=Alexander\\|date\\=29 November 2015\\|website\\=VoxEU.org\\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2017\\|last3\\=Zweimüller\\|first3\\=Josef}} while other research shows the reverse.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.vox.com/2016/8/12/12454250/donald\\-trump\\-gallup\\-trade\\-immigration\\-study\\|title\\=Donald Trump's supporters are LESS likely to be affected by trade and immigration, not more\\|date\\=12 August 2016\\|website\\=Vox\\|access\\-date\\=13 May 2017}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Piekut\\|first1\\=Aneta\\|last2\\=Valentine\\|first2\\=Gill\\|date\\=1 June 2016\\|title\\=Perceived Diversity and Acceptance of Minority Ethnic Groups in Two Urban Contexts\\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/esr/article/32/3/339/2453403/Perceived\\-Diversity\\-and\\-Acceptance\\-of\\-Minority\\|journal\\=European Sociological Review\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=32\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=339–354\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/esr/jcw011\\|issn\\=0266\\-7215\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Other research suggests that it is the *perception* of proximity, not actual proximity, that drives these views.",
"A 2017 study finds that \"more rapid ethnic changes increase opposition to immigration and support for UKIP\" in the United Kingdom.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Kaufmann\\|first\\=Eric\\|title\\=Levels or changes?: Ethnic context, immigration and the UK Independence party vote \\|journal\\=Electoral Studies\\|volume\\=48\\|pages\\=57–69\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.electstud.2017\\.05\\.002\\|year\\=2017\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} A 2018 study found that increases in local ethnic diversity in Denmark caused \"rightward shifts in election outcomes by shifting electoral support away from traditional “big government” left‐wing parties and towards anti‐immigrant nationalist parties.\"{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Harmon\\|first\\=Nikolaj A.\\|date\\=11 September 2018\\|title\\=Immigration, Ethnic Diversity, and Political Outcomes: Evidence from Denmark\\|journal\\=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics\\|volume\\=120\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1043–1074\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/sjoe.12239\\|s2cid\\=54936991\\|issn\\=0347\\-0520\\|url\\=https://curis.ku.dk/portal/da/publications/immigration\\-ethnic\\-diversity\\-and\\-political\\-outcomes\\-evidence\\-from\\-denmark(2725b09a\\-4340\\-4b56\\-aa6f\\-56e5d253f92d).html}}",
"A 2018 study in the *American Political Science Review* found that Greeks who had \"direct exposure to refugee arrivals\" showed more hostility \"toward refugees, immigrants, and Muslim minorities; support for restrictive asylum and immigration policies; and political engagement to effect such exclusionary policies.\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Xefteris\\|first1\\=Dimitrios\\|last2\\=Matakos\\|first2\\=Konstantinos\\|last3\\=Marbach\\|first3\\=Moritz\\|last4\\=Dinas\\|first4\\=Elias\\|last5\\=Hangartner\\|first5\\=Dominik\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Does Exposure to the Refugee Crisis Make Natives More Hostile?\\|journal\\=American Political Science Review\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=113\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=442–455\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0003055418000813\\|issn\\=1537\\-5943\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|hdl\\=1814/61885\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}",
"A 2019 study investigated why residents of cities tend to have more positive attitudes towards immigration and cosmopolitanism. The study concluded that it was not living in a city per se that created more positive attitudes but rather the composition of the populations of cities; city populations tended to be more educated, which correlated with more positive immigration attitudes, while people who were more positive of immigration were more likely to self\\-select into large cities. Cities were also found to be internally heterogenous with regards to immigration attitudes, with attitudes varying between neighbourhoods.Maxwell, Rahsaan. \"Cosmopolitan immigration attitudes in large European cities: Contextual or compositional effects?.\" American Political Science Review 113, no. 2 (2019\\): 456–474\\.",
"### Intergenerational transmission",
"Some research suggests that anti\\-immigration views are transmitted from older generations to younger generations.{{Cite journal \\|title\\=Intergenerational Correlations of Extreme Right\\-Wing Party Preferences and Attitudes toward Immigration\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/sjoe.12190\\|volume\\=119\\|year\\=2017\\|issue\\=3\\|journal\\=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics\\|pages\\=768–800 \\| last1 \\= Avdeenko \\| first1 \\= Alexandra \\| last2 \\= Siedler \\| first2 \\= Thomas\\|s2cid\\=147145336\\|url\\=http://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/diw\\_01\\.c.535405\\.de/diw\\_sp0845\\.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430043038/https://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/diw\\_01\\.c.535405\\.de/diw\\_sp0845\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2019}} A 2015 study found that British communities that were more acceptant of Jews in medieval times show much more tolerance towards 20th century immigrants (chiefly Caribbean and South Asian immigrants) and 21st century immigrants (chiefly Eastern European), and less support for the [far right](/wiki/Far_right \"Far right\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Fielding\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=1 January 2015\\|title\\=Traditions of Tolerance: The Long\\-Run Persistence of Regional Variation in Attitudes towards English Immigrants \\|journal\\=British Journal of Political Science\\|pages\\=167–188\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0007123415000575\\|issn\\=0007\\-1234\\|volume\\=48\\|issue\\=1 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"### Cultural absolutism",
"The belief that some cultures are better than others, called *cultural absolutism* or *cultural racism*, is correlated with opposition to immigration.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ramos \\|first1\\=Alice \\|last2\\=Pereira \\|first2\\=Cicero Roberto \\|last3\\=Vala \\|first3\\=Jorge \\|date\\=2020\\-02\\-17 \\|title\\=The impact of biological and cultural racisms on attitudes towards immigrants and immigration public policies \\|url\\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\\.1080/1369183X.2018\\.1550153 \\|journal\\=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=46 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=574–592 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/1369183X.2018\\.1550153 \\|hdl\\=10451/38459 \\|s2cid\\=150849832 \\|issn\\=1369\\-183X\\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}{{Rp\\|page\\=6,12}}",
"### Biological racism",
"{{See also\\|Racism}}\nThe belief that some groups of people are born with different psychological abilities or personalities was found to be correlated with opposition to immigration.{{Rp\\|page\\=6,12}}",
"### Religion",
"A 2017 study found that by emphasizing shared religion can produce more supportive attitudes toward refugees.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Lazarev\\|first1\\=Egor\\|last2\\=Sharma\\|first2\\=Kunaal\\|date\\=April 2017\\|title\\=Brother or Burden: An Experiment on Reducing Prejudice Toward Syrian Refugees in Turkey\\*\\|journal\\=Political Science Research and Methods\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=201–219\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/psrm.2015\\.57\\|s2cid\\=153704135\\|issn\\=2049\\-8470}} A 2015 study of the US found that religion did not seem to determine opposition to immigration as while respondents were explicit about opposition to Muslim immigration, they also concealed significant opposition to Christian immigration due to social desirability bias. It was thus determined that religiosity or denomination did not determine explicit or implicit opposition and any differences were down to social desirability bias in this case.Creighton, Mathew J., and Amaney Jamal. \"Does Islam play a role in anti\\-immigrant sentiment? An experimental approach.\" Social science research 53 (2015\\): 89–103\\.",
"One 2018 study in the United Kingdom found that opposition to Muslim immigrants was not about a more negative view of Muslim (compared to Christian) immigrants but rather about rejecting fundamentalist religiosity. The study concluded that opposition based on religion was thus less about the religious group and more about political liberalism versus religious fundamentalism.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Helbling\\|first\\=Marc\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=What Is Islamophobia? Disentangling Citizenss Feelings Towards Ethnicity, Religion and Religiosity Using a Survey Experiment\\|journal\\=SSRN Working Paper Series\\|language\\=en\\|doi\\=10\\.2139/ssrn.2906451\\|issn\\=1556\\-5068\\|ssrn\\=2906451}}Helbling, Marc, and Richard Traunmüller. \"What is Islamophobia? Disentangling Citizens' Feelings Toward Ethnicity, Religion and Religiosity Using a Survey Experiment.\" British Journal of Political Science (2018\\): 1–18\\.",
"### Sociopsychological explanations",
"A 2014 review study in the *[Annual Review of Political Science](/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Political_Science \"Annual Review of Political Science\")* found that there is substantial evidence in support of sociopsychological explanations for anti\\-immigration views. A 2007 study in *[International Organization](/wiki/International_Organization \"International Organization\")* found that \"the link between education and attitudes toward immigrants is driven by differences among individuals in cultural values and beliefs. More educated respondents are significantly less racist and place greater value on cultural diversity than do their counterparts; they are also more likely to believe that immigration generates benefits for the host economy as a whole.\"",
"A 2017 study in the *[American Political Science Review](/wiki/American_Political_Science_Review \"American Political Science Review\")* argued that hostility towards immigrants is driven by disgust and can be explained as a psychological mechanism designed to protect humans from disease.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Aarøe\\|first1\\=Lene\\|last2\\=Petersen\\|first2\\=Michael Bang\\|last3\\=Arceneaux\\|first3\\=Kevin\\|date\\=1 May 2017\\|title\\=The Behavioral Immune System Shapes Political Intuitions: Why and How Individual Differences in Disgust Sensitivity Underlie Opposition to Immigration\\|journal\\=American Political Science Review\\|volume\\=111\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=277–294\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0003055416000770\\|s2cid\\=151895140\\|issn\\=0003\\-0554\\|url\\=https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/121656845/12\\_31\\_The\\_Behavioral\\_Immune\\_System\\_Shapes\\_Political\\_Intuitions\\_2017\\.pdf}}",
"Research suggests that the perception that there is a positive causal link between immigration and crime leads to greater support for anti\\-immigration policies or parties.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Smith\\|first\\=Jason Matthew\\|date\\=1 November 2010\\|title\\=Does Crime Pay? Issue Ownership, Political Opportunity, and the Populist Right in Western Europe\\|journal\\=Comparative Political Studies\\|volume\\=43\\|issue\\=11\\|pages\\=1471–1498\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0010414010372593\\|s2cid\\=154607509\\|issn\\=0010\\-4140}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Dinas\\|first1\\=Elias\\|last2\\=van Spanje\\|first2\\=Joost\\|date\\=1 December 2011\\|title\\=Crime Story: The role of crime and immigration in the anti\\-immigration vote \\|journal\\=Electoral Studies\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=658–671\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.electstud.2011\\.06\\.010}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Burscher\\|first1\\=Bjorn\\|last2\\=van Spanje\\|first2\\=Joost\\|last3\\=de Vreese\\|first3\\=Claes H.\\|date\\=1 June 2015\\|title\\=Owning the issues of crime and immigration: The relation between immigration and crime news and anti\\-immigrant voting in 11 countries \\|journal\\=Electoral Studies\\|volume\\=38\\|pages\\=59–69\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.electstud.2015\\.03\\.001\\|s2cid\\=59143838 \\|url\\=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/2563200/168937\\_503146\\.pdf}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Rydgren\\|first\\=Jens\\|date\\=1 October 2008\\|title\\=Immigration sceptics, xenophobes or racists? Radical right\\-wing voting in six West European countries \\|journal\\=European Journal of Political Research\\|volume\\=47\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=737–765\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1475\\-6765\\.2008\\.00784\\.x\\|issn\\=1475\\-6765}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Mayda\\|first\\=Anna Maria\\|date\\=1 August 2006\\|title\\=Who Is Against Immigration? A Cross\\-Country Investigation of Individual Attitudes toward Immigrants \\|journal\\=Review of Economics and Statistics\\|volume\\=88\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=510–530\\|doi\\=10\\.1162/rest.88\\.3\\.510\\|s2cid\\=18610990\\|issn\\=0034\\-6535\\|url\\=http://www.dagliano.unimi.it/media/WP2004\\_187\\.pdf\\|hdl\\=10419/20350\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} Research also suggests that [bigotry](/wiki/Bigotry \"Bigotry\") and immigrant alienation could exacerbate immigrant criminality and bigotry. For instance, University of California, San Diego political scientist Claire Adida, Stanford University political scientist David Laitin and Sorbonne University economist Marie\\-Anne Valfort argue \"fear\\-based policies that target groups of people according to their religion or region of origin are counter\\-productive. Our own research, which explains the failed integration of Muslim immigrants in France, suggests that such policies can feed into a [vicious cycle](/wiki/Vicious_cycle \"Vicious cycle\") that damages national security. French Islamophobia—a response to cultural difference—has encouraged Muslim immigrants to withdraw from French society, which then feeds back into French Islamophobia, thus further exacerbating Muslims' alienation, and so on.\"{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Adida\\|first1\\=Claire L.\\|last2\\=Laitin\\|first2\\=David D.\\|last3\\=Valfort\\|first3\\=Marie\\-Anne\\|date\\=1 February 2017\\|title\\=The Wrong Way to Stop Terrorism\\|url\\=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2017\\-02\\-01/wrong\\-way\\-stop\\-terrorism\\|journal\\=Foreign Affairs}}",
"A study of the long\\-term effects of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States found that the post\\-9/11 increase in [hate crimes against Muslims](/wiki/Hate_crimes_against_Muslims_in_the_United_States \"Hate crimes against Muslims in the United States\") decreased assimilation by Muslim immigrants.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Gould\\|first1\\=Eric D.\\|last2\\=Klor\\|first2\\=Esteban F.\\|date\\=1 July 2015\\|title\\=The Long\\-run Effect of 9/11: Terrorism, Backlash, and the Assimilation of Muslim Immigrants in the West \\|journal\\=The Economic Journal\\|volume\\=126\\|issue\\=597\\|pages\\=2064–2114\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/ecoj.12219\\|s2cid\\=55809315\\|issn\\=1468\\-0297\\|hdl\\=10\\.1111/ecoj.12219\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} Controlling for relevant factors, the authors found that \"Muslim immigrants living in states with the sharpest increase in hate crimes also exhibit: greater chances of marrying within their own ethnic group; higher fertility; lower female labour force participation; and lower English proficiency.\" A study of Germans found that the 9/11 terror attacks contributed to greater anti\\-immigrant sentiments.{{Cite journal \\|title\\=The Effects of 9/11 on Attitudes toward Immigration and the Moderating Role of Education\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/kykl.12122 \\|volume\\=69\\|issue\\= 4\\|year\\=2016\\|journal\\=Kyklos\\|pages\\=604–632 \\| last1 \\= Schüller \\| first1 \\= Simone\\|s2cid\\=184549\\|url\\= http://www.diw.de/documents/publikationen/73/diw\\_01\\.c.415405\\.de/diw\\_sp0534\\.pdf}} States that experience terrorist acts on their own soil or against their own citizens are more likely to adopt stricter restrictions on asylum recognition.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Avdan\\|first\\=Nazli\\|date\\=1 December 2014\\|title\\=Do asylum recognition rates in Europe respond to transnational terrorism? The migration\\-security nexus revisited \\|journal\\=European Union Politics\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=15\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=445–471\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1465116514534908\\|s2cid\\=154649714\\|issn\\=1465\\-1165}}",
"Research in 2017 also indicated opposition to immigration may be motivated by a person's concern about their group's social position.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://policyexchange.org.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/03/Racial\\-Self\\-Interest\\-is\\-not\\-Racism\\-FINAL.pdf \\|last\\=Kaufmann \\|first\\=Eric \\|authorlink\\=Eric Kaufmann \\|title\\=Racial Self\\-Interest is not racism: ethno\\-demographic interests and the immigration debate. \\|website\\=Policy Exchange \\|location\\=London \\|year\\=2017 \\|pages\\=4, 20–23 }} Studies found that increasing Hispanic immigration to the US caused greater support for immigration restriction amongst both white Americans and non\\-Hispanic non\\-white Americans (Hispanic Americans showed no change in attitudes), suggesting that concerns about group position could motivate opposition to immigration.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1948550617712029\\|title\\=Hispanic Population Growth Engenders Conservative Shift Among Non\\-Hispanic Racial Minorities\\|year\\=2018\\|last1\\=Craig\\|first1\\=Maureen A.\\|last2\\=Richeson\\|first2\\=Jennifer A.\\|journal\\=Social Psychological and Personality Science\\|volume\\=9\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=383–392\\|s2cid\\=3630320}}\n{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/1369183X.2017\\.1334540\\|title\\=What's left unsaid? In\\-group solidarity and ethnic and racial differences in opposition to immigration in the United States\\|year\\=2018\\|last1\\=Bazo Vienrich\\|first1\\=Alessandra\\|last2\\=Creighton\\|first2\\=Mathew J.\\|journal\\=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies\\|volume\\=44\\|issue\\=13\\|pages\\=2240–2255\\|s2cid\\=148910927}} Political ideology can also interact with group social position;{{cite web \\|last\\=Kaufmann \\|first\\=Eric \\|title\\=Is tribalism racist? Antiracism norms and immigration. \\|work\\=British Politics and Policy at LSE \\|date\\=9 July 2017 \\|url\\=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/antiracism\\-norms\\-and\\-immigration/ }} in the [2016 United States presidential election](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election \"2016 United States presidential election\") white Clinton voters were strongly opposed to the notion of white Americans limiting immigration to maintain their group position but were not generally opposed to the notion of Hispanic Americans desiring to increase their population share via increased immigration, while white Trump voters showed the opposite. [David Frum](/wiki/David_Frum \"David Frum\") suggests that while mass migration has occurred historically, for societies that have undergone a [demographic transition](/wiki/Demographic_transition \"Demographic transition\"), immigration brings change faster since the native population has fewer children. This causes immigrants to be perceived not as reinforcing the native population but instead as replacing it.{{cite news \\|first\\=David \\|last\\=Frum \\|title\\=How Much Immigration Is Too Much? \\|date\\=April 2019 \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/04/david\\-frum\\-how\\-much\\-immigration\\-is\\-too\\-much/583252/ \\|work\\=The Atlantic }}",
"A study in [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") found that anti\\-refugee sentiments persisted more strongly among people with [populist attitudes](/wiki/Populism \"Populism\") \\- on both sides of the political spectrum, i.e. left and right \\- even when controlling for demographic and economic factors, political interest, and satisfaction with democracy of the participants.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Pruysers \\|first1\\=Scott \\|last2\\=Schminke \\|first2\\=Tobias Gerhard \\|title\\=Prejudicial Populists? Evidence from Canada \\|date\\=2024 \\|publisher\\=De Gruyter \\|doi\\=10\\.1515/9780228020486\\-015 \\|isbn\\=9780228020486 \\|url\\=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10\\.1515/9780228020486\\-015/html?lang\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2024}}",
""
] |
Opposition to immigration by country or region
----------------------------------------------
In 2018, a survey of 27 countries around the world showed that a median of 45% wanted fewer or no immigrants, 36% wanted to keep the current immigration levels and only 14% wanted immigration to increase. The median of those opposing was the highest in countries receiving the most migrants, with 51% in European countries.
| \+Respondents who indicated they wanted immigrants moving into their country | Country/territory | Fewer/none (%) | About the same (%) | More (%) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{Flag\|Greece}} | 82 | 15 | 2 |
| {{Flag\|Israel}} | 73 | 15 | 9 |
| {{Flag\|Hungary}} | 72 | 22 | 2 |
| {{Flag\|Italy}} | 71 | 18 | 5 |
| {{Flag\|Russia}} | 67 | 23 | 7 |
| {{Flag\|South Africa}} | 65 | 23 | 11 |
| {{Flag\|Argentina}} | 61 | 28 | 6 |
| {{Flag\|Kenya}} | 60 | 24 | 15 |
| {{Flag\|Germany}} | 58 | 30 | 10 |
| {{Flag\|Indonesia}} | 54 | 31 | 8 |
| {{Flag\|Sweden}} | 52 | 33 | 14 |
| {{Flag\|Nigeria}} | 50 | 26 | 20 |
| {{Flag\|Poland}} | 49 | 36 | 9 |
| {{Flag\|India}} | 45 | 11 | 13 |
| {{Flag\|Mexico}} | 44 | 42 | 11 |
| {{Flag\|Tunisia}} | 42 | 38 | 20 |
| {{Flag\|France}} | 41 | 42 | 16 |
| {{Flag\|Netherlands}} | 39 | 49 | 10 |
| {{Flag\|Australia}} | 38 | 42 | 18 |
| {{Flag\|Brazil}} | 37 | 44 | 14 |
| {{Flag\|United Kingdom}} | 37 | 43 | 16 |
| {{Flag\|Philippines}} | 32 | 46 | 19 |
| {{Flag\|Spain}} | 30 | 39 | 28 |
| {{Flag\|United States}} | 29 | 44 | 24 |
| {{Flag\|South Korea}} | 28 | 52 | 18 |
| {{Flag\|Canada}} | 27 | 53 | 19 |
| {{Flag\|Japan}} | 13 | 58 | 23 |
### Australia
[thumb\|[Pauline Hanson](/wiki/Pauline_Hanson "Pauline Hanson") said in her maiden speech in 1996 that Australia "was in danger of being swamped by Asians"{{Cite news \|date\=2016\-09\-15 \|title\=Pauline Hanson defiant as speech criticised in Australia \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-australia\-37335544 \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-12 \|work\=BBC News \|language\=en\-GB}}](/wiki/File:Pauline_Hanson_%28438351804%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "Pauline Hanson (438351804) (cropped).jpg")
The impact of Europeans was profoundly disruptive to Aboriginal life and, though the extent of violence is debated, there was considerable conflict on the frontier. At the same time, some settlers were quite aware they were usurping the Aborigines place in Australia. In 1845, settler Charles Griffiths sought to justify this, writing; "The question comes to this; which has the better right – the savage, born in a country, which he runs over but can scarcely be said to occupy ... or the civilized man, who comes to introduce into this ... unproductive country, the industry which supports life."{{citation needed\|date\=May 2024}}
A sparsely\-populated continental nation with a predominantly European population, [Australia](/wiki/History_of_Australia "History of Australia") has long feared being overwhelmed by the heavily populated Asian countries to its north. The standard policy after 1900 was "[White Australia](/wiki/White_Australia "White Australia")" which encouraged immigration from Britain, was suspicious of immigrants from Germany and elsewhere in Europe, and which was quite hostile to immigrants from Asia or the Pacific islands.{{cite journal \| last \= Jensen \| first \= Richard \| title \= Comparative nativism: the United States, Canada and Australia, 1880s–1910s \| journal \= Canadian Issues \| pages \= 45–55 \| publisher \= \[\[Association for Canadian Studies]] \| date \= Spring 2009 \| url \= https://acs\-aec.ca/en/publications/canadian\-issues/borders\-boundaries/buy\-now/ \| access\-date \= 23 February 2016 \| archive\-date \= 3 July 2017 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170703230221/https://acs\-aec.ca/en/publications/canadian\-issues/borders\-boundaries/buy\-now/ \| url\-status \= dead }} After World War II, most Australians agreed that the country must "populate or perish".{{citation needed\|date\=May 2024}} Immigration brought people from traditional sources such as the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles "British Isles") along with, for the first time, large numbers of Southern and Central Europeans. The abolition of the so\-called '[White Australia policy](/wiki/White_Australia_policy "White Australia policy")' during the early 1970s led to a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non\-European countries.
[Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia "Prime Minister of Australia") [John Curtin](/wiki/John_Curtin "John Curtin") supported [White Australia policy](/wiki/White_Australia_policy "White Australia policy"), saying "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact\-sheets/08abolition\|title\=Fact Sheet – Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy\|publisher\=Commonwealth of Australia, National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship\|work\=Australian Immigration\|access\-date\=27 March 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919131355/http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact\-sheets/08abolition\|archive\-date\=19 September 2015\|url\-status\=dead}}
[Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia "Prime Minister of Australia") [Stanley Bruce](/wiki/Stanley_Bruce "Stanley Bruce") was a supporter of the White Australia Policy, and made it an issue in his campaign for the 1925 Australian Federal election.
{{cite news \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article155676023 \|title\=ISSUES OF THE ELECTIONS \|newspaper\=\[\[The Age]] \|location\=Victoria, Australia \|date\=6 October 1925 \|access\-date\=9 December 2016 \|page\=11 \|via\=National Library of Australia}}
> It is necessary that we should determine what are the ideals towards which every Australian would desire to strive. I think those ideals might well be stated as being to secure our national safety, and to ensure the maintenance of our White Australia Policy to continue as an integral portion of the British Empire. We intend to keep this country white and not allow its people to be faced with the problems that at present are practically insoluble in many parts of the world.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ywV16n6mOUUC\&q\=%22stanley\+bruce%22\&pg\=PA301\|title\=The Great Barrier Reef: History, Science, Heritage\|last\=Bowen\|first\=James\|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge University Press]]\|year\=2002\|isbn\=0\-521\-82430\-3\|page\=301\|author2\=Bowen, Margarita\|access\-date\=24 January 2008}}
Labor leader (1951–1960\) [H. V. Evatt](/wiki/H._V._Evatt "H. V. Evatt") was a defender of the [White Australia Policy](/wiki/White_Australia_Policy "White Australia Policy"). There was a strong view in Australia that any softening of the White Australia stance might result in cheaper labour being imported from overseas. Another prevailing sentiment was that multiculturalism resulted in instability. Evatt, opposing resolutions which could have led to more Asian immigration to Australia, told the Chinese delegation at San Francisco:
> You have always insisted on the right to determine the composition of your own people. Australia wants that right now. What you are attempting to do now, Japan attempted after the last war \[the First World War] and was prevented by Australia. Had we opened New Guinea and Australia to Japanese immigration then the Pacific War by now might have ended disastrously and we might have had another shambles like that experienced in Malaya.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.moadoph.gov.au/blog/dr\-evatt\-goes\-to\-san\-francisco\|title\=Dr Evatt Goes to San Francisco\|first\=Executive Agency within the Prime Minister and Cabinet portfolio\|last\=corporatename:Old Parliament House\|website\=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House\|date\=25 June 2015 }}
Another (ALP) [Leader of the Labor Party](/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Australian_Labor_Party "Leaders of the Australian Labor Party") from 1960 to 1967 [Arthur Calwell](/wiki/Arthur_Calwell "Arthur Calwell") supported the White European Australia policy. This is reflected by Calwell's comments in his 1972 memoirs, *Be Just and Fear Not*, in which he made it clear that he maintained his view that non\-European people should not be allowed to settle in Australia. He wrote:
> I am proud of my white skin, just as a Chinese is proud of his yellow skin, a Japanese of his brown skin, and the Indians of their various hues from black to coffee\-colored. Anybody who is not proud of his race is not a man at all. And any man who tries to stigmatize the Australian community as racist because they want to preserve this country for the white race is doing our nation great harm... I reject, in conscience, the idea that Australia should or ever can become a multi\-racial society and survive.Calwell, *Be Just and Fear Not*, 117
It was the high\-profile historian [Geoffrey Blainey](/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey "Geoffrey Blainey"), however, who first achieved mainstream recognition for the anti\-multiculturalist cause when he wrote that multiculturalism threatened to transform Australia into a "cluster of tribes". In his 1984 book *[All for Australia](/wiki/All_for_Australia "All for Australia")*, Blainey criticised multiculturalism for tending to "emphasise the rights of ethnic minorities at the expense of the majority of Australians" and also for tending to be "anti\-British", even though "people from the United Kingdom and Ireland form the dominant class of pre\-war immigrants and the largest single group of post\-war immigrants."
According to Blainey, such a policy, with its "emphasis on what is different and on the rights of the new minority rather than the old majority," was unnecessarily creating division and threatened national cohesion. He argued that "the evidence is clear that many multicultural societies have failed and that the human cost of the failure has been high" and warned that "we should think very carefully about the perils of converting Australia into a giant multicultural laboratory for the assumed benefit of the peoples of the world."Blainey, G. (1984\). *All For Australia*, North Ryde, NSW: Methuen Haynes ({{ISBN\|0\-454\-00828\-7}})
In one of his many criticisms of [multiculturalism](/wiki/Multiculturalism "Multiculturalism"), Blainey wrote:
> For the millions of Australians who have no other nation to fall back upon, multiculturalism is almost an insult. It is divisive. It threatens social cohesion. It could, in the long\-term, also endanger Australia's military security because it sets up enclaves which in a crisis could appeal to their own homelands for help.
Blainey remained a persistent critic of multiculturalism into the 1990s, denouncing multiculturalism as "morally, intellectually and economically ... a sham".
In the 1996 election [Pauline Hanson](/wiki/Pauline_Hanson "Pauline Hanson") was elected to the federal seat of [Oxley](/wiki/Division_of_Oxley "Division of Oxley"). In her controversial maiden speech to the House of Representatives, she expressed her belief that Australia "was in danger of being swamped by Asians". Hanson went on to form the [One Nation Party](/wiki/One_Nation_Party "One Nation Party"), which initially won nearly one quarter of the vote in [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland "Queensland") state elections before entering a period of decline due to internal disputes.{{cite journal \|last \= Goot \|first \= Murray \| title \= Pauline Hanson's One Nation: extreme right, centre party or extreme left? \| journal \= Labour History \| volume \= 89 \|issue \= 89 \| pages \= 101–119 \| publisher \= Australian Society for the Study of Labour History (ASSLH) \| doi \= 10\.2307/27516078 \| jstor \= 27516078 \| date \= November 2005 }} The name "One Nation" was meant to signify national unity, in contrast to what Hanson said was an increasing division in Australian society caused by government policies favouring migrants (multiculturalism) and indigenous Australians.{{cite journal \|last \= Ben\-Moshe \|first \= Danny \| title \= One Nation and the Australian far right \| journal \= \[\[Patterns of Prejudice]] \| volume \= 35 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 24–40 \| publisher \= \[\[Taylor and Francis]] \| doi \= 10\.1080/003132201128811205 \| date \= July 2001 \|s2cid \= 145077630 }}
Some Australians reacted angrily to One Nation, as Hanson was subjected to water balloons filled with urine at public speeches, ridiculed in the media, and received so many death threats she filmed a "good\-bye video" in the case of her assassination.{{cite journal \| last \= Scalmer \|first \= Sean \| title \= From contestation to autonomy: the staging and framing of anti\-Hanson contention \| journal \= \[\[Australian Journal of Politics and History]] \| volume \= 47 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 209–224 \| publisher \= \[\[Wiley\-Blackwell\|Wiley]] \| doi \= 10\.1111/1467\-8497\.00228 \| date \= June 2001 }} She was imprisoned by the government on political corruption charges, which were dropped after her imprisonment. In recent years, however, Hanson returned to politics in 2016 after being elected as One Nation Senator for Queensland, and the rise of other anti\-immigrant parties such as the Australian Liberty Alliance and groups such as the United Patriot Front indicates that anti\-immigration sentiment may be becoming mainstream.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2024}}
Minister of immigration [Alex Hawke](/wiki/Alex_Hawke "Alex Hawke"), minister of defense [Peter Dutton](/wiki/Peter_Dutton "Peter Dutton"), former prime\-minister [Tony Abbott](/wiki/Tony_Abbott "Tony Abbott"), premier of New South Wales [Dominic Perrottet](/wiki/Dominic_Perrottet "Dominic Perrottet") and other members of [right\-wing faction](/wiki/National_Right_%28Liberal_Party_of_Australia%29 "National Right (Liberal Party of Australia)") of [Liberal/national coalition](/wiki/Coalition_%28Australia%29 "Coalition (Australia)") have anti\-immigration views.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2024}}
During the [premiership of Tony Abbott](/wiki/Abbott_government "Abbott government") Australia started the anti\-immigration [Operation Sovereign Borders](/wiki/Operation_Sovereign_Borders "Operation Sovereign Borders"), which was continued by the [Scott Morrison government](/wiki/Morrison_government "Morrison government")
### Canada
[thumb\|Stop immigration sticker on public roadsign ( Montréal, 2021 )](/wiki/File:Arr%C3%AAtons-l%27immigration_%282021%29.jpg "Arrêtons-l'immigration (2021).jpg")
Opponents of [immigration to Canada](/wiki/Immigration_to_Canada "Immigration to Canada") have argued that immigration to Canada in current numbers of over 400 000 per year,{{cite web \|last1\=Fraser \|first1\=Sean \|title\=Minister of Immigration, Refugees, and Citizenship \|url\=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/documents/pdf/english/corporate/publications\-manuals/annual\-report\-2022\-en.pdf \|website\=Government of Canada \|publisher\=Immigration, refugees, and citizenship Canada \|access\-date\=21 August 2023}} the highest in the Western world, is unsustainable and puts pressure on resources such as further worsening the country's current [housing crisis](/wiki/Affordable_housing "Affordable housing").{{Cite web\|url\=https://immigrationwatchcanada.org/2015/11/22/unjustified\-immigration\-levels\-against\-publics\-wishes/\|title\=Unjustified Immigration Levels Against Public's Wishes\|date\=23 November 2015\|website\=Immigration Watch Canada}}{{Unreliable source?\|reason\="highest in the Western world" needs a more reliable citation; the article in question does not give a citation for this statistic.\|date\=August 2023}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/canadas\-backlogged\-asylum\-system\-is\-not\-sustainable\-immigration\-minister\-says\-in\-leaked\-letter\|title\=Canada's backlogged asylum system is 'not sustainable,' immigration minister says in leaked letter\|newspaper\=National Post\|date\=25 August 2018 \|last1\=Humphreys \|first1\=Maura Forrest }} They argue that Canadian cities are limited in size and cannot take an infinite number of people. This also further creates a competition for jobs and puts a strain on the economy, the environment and tax funded public services.{{Cite web\|url\=https://vancouversun.com/opinion/letters/letters\-immigration\-policy\-fuels\-unsustainable\-demands\|title\=Letters: Immigration policy fuels unsustainable demands\|website\=vancouversun}}{{cite news \|last1\=Rieger \|first1\=Sarah \|title\=Why Bernier's PPC polls higher in Alberta than anywhere else \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/ppc\-alberta\-1\.5315754 \|access\-date\=28 September 2021 \|work\=CBC News \|date\=October 18, 2019}} Economic and housing resources seems to be the largest concern for Canadians, and recent studies show declining fear of immigrants threatening cultures or values.{{Cite web \|title\=Public Opinion about Immigration \& Refugees \|url\=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/projects/project\-details/public\-opinion\-about\-immigration\-refugees \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-08 \|website\=Environics Institute \|language\=en}}
### Europe
{{See also\|Immigration to Europe}}
A February 2017 poll of 10,000 people in 10 European countries by [Chatham House](/wiki/Chatham_House "Chatham House") found on average a majority (55%) were opposed to further Muslim immigration, with opposition especially pronounced in several countries: Austria (65%), Poland (71%), Hungary (64%), France (61%) and Belgium (64%). Except for Poland, all of those had recently suffered [jihadist terror attacks](/wiki/Islamic_terrorism "Islamic terrorism") or been at the centre of a refugee crisis. Of those opposed to further Muslim immigration, 3/4 classify themselves as on the right of the political spectrum. Of those self\-classifying as on the left of the political spectrum, 1/3 supported a halt.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/what\-do\-europeans\-think\-about\-muslim\-immigration\|title\=What Do Europeans Think About Muslim Immigration?\|work\=Chatham House\|access\-date\=28 September 2018\|language\=en}}
According to a [Yougov](/wiki/YouGov "YouGov") poll in 2018, majorities in all seven polled countries were opposed to accepting more migrants: Germany (72%), Denmark (65%), Finland (64%), Sweden (60%), United Kingdom (58%), France (58%) and Norway (52%).{{Cite web\|url\=https://yougov.co.uk/news/2018/07/17/eurotrack\-uk\-denmark\-finland\-and\-norway\-not\-pullin/\|title\=YouGov {{!}} Eurotrack: UK, Denmark, Finland and Norway not pulling their weight on migrants\|website\=YouGov: What the world thinks\|access\-date\=28 September 2018}}
Political opposition to high levels of legal immigration has been associated with certain [right\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics "Right-wing politics") parties in the EU. The issue increased with the [European migrant crisis](/wiki/European_migrant_crisis "European migrant crisis") in 2015 with large numbers of refugees from the Middle East and Africa making dangerous trips to Europe and many deaths en route. With high levels of unemployment and partly unassimilated non\-European immigrant populations already within the EU, parties opposed to immigration have improved their position in polls and elections. Right\-wing parties critical to immigration have entered the government in Austria, Denmark, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland and Slovakia, and have become major factors in English, Swedish, German and French politics.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Z2nG1bCRUEMC\&pg\=PA39\|title\=Rethinking the French New Right: Alternatives to Modernity\|first\=Tamir\|last\=Bar\-On\|date\=12 April 2013\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=9781135966263\|via\=Google Books}}
Immigration is one of the central political issues in many European countries, and increasingly also at [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") level. The anti\-immigration perspective is predominantly nationalist, cultural and economic. A new index measuring the level of perceived threat from immigrants has been recently proposed and applied to a data set covering 47 European countries and regions.{{cite journal \|last\=Marozzi\|first\=Marco \| title \= Construction, robustness assessment and application of an index of perceived level of socio\-economic threat from immigrants: a study of 47 European countries and regions \| journal \= \[\[Social Indicators Research]] \|volume\=128 \| pages \= 413–437 \| publisher \= \[\[Springer Science\+Business Media\|Springer]] \| doi \= 10\.1007/s11205\-015\-1037\-z \| date \= 2015 \|issue\=1 \|s2cid\=152888964 }}
In France, the [National Front](/wiki/National_Front_%28France%29 "National Front (France)") opposed immigration as of 2000\.{{cite book \| last \= Fetzer \| first \= Joel S. \| title \= Public attitudes toward immigration in the United States, France, and Germany \| publisher \= Cambridge University Press \| location \= Cambridge New York \| year \= 2000 \| isbn \= 9780521786799 \| url\-access \= registration \| url \= https://archive.org/details/publicattitudest0000fetz }} In the 1988 elections, 75% of supporters of its leader [Jean\-Marie Le Pen](/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Pen "Jean-Marie Le Pen") believed France had too many immigrants as opposed to 35% of all voters.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Mayer \|first1 \= Nonna \|author\-link1\=Nonna Mayer \| last2 \= Perrineau \| first2 \= Pascal \| title \= Why do they vote for Le Pen? \| journal \= \[\[European Journal of Political Research]] \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 123–141 \| publisher \= \[\[Wiley\-Blackwell\|Wiley]] \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1475\-6765\.1992\.tb00308\.x \| date \= July 1992 \|s2cid \= 153651501 \|url \= http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/f0uohitsgqh8dhk97j20ledri }}{{needs update\|date\=May 2024}}
#### Denmark
{{See also\|Immigration to Denmark\|Islam in Denmark}}
According to a poll in 2017, two out of three (64%) wished for limiting immigration from Muslim countries which was an increase from 2015 (54%).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.berlingske.dk/content/item/421956\|title\=To ud af tre vil begrænse muslimsk indvandring\|date\=14 March 2017\|website\=Berlingske.dk\|language\=da\|access\-date\=25 May 2019}}
#### France
{{Main\|Immigration to France}}
According to an Ipsos poll in September 2019, 65% responded that accepting migrants did not improve the situation in France and 45% responded that accepting migrants deprived the French of social services.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ipsos.com/fr\-fr/la\-france\-en\-tete\-des\-pays\-en\-attente\-dun\-leader\-fort\-pour\-casser\-les\-regles\|title\=La France en tête des pays en attente d'un leader " fort " pour " casser les règles "\|website\=Ipsos\|language\=fr\-fr\|access\-date\=17 September 2019}}
The largest party in Senate [Les Républicains](/wiki/The_Republicans_%28France%29 "The Republicans (France)") have a right\-wing populist views on immigration{{Cite web \|date\=2019\-11\-04 \|title\=Immigration \|url\=https://republicains.fr/nos\-propositions/immigration/ \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-25 \|website\=les Républicains \|language\=fr\-FR}}
#### Germany
{{See also\|Immigration to Germany\|European migrant crisis\|PEGIDA\|Alternative für Deutschland}}In 2018, a poll by [Pew Research](/wiki/Pew_Research_Center "Pew Research Center") found that a majority (58%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 30% wanted to keep the current level and 10% wanted to increase immigration.
#### Greece
In February 2020, more than 10,000 individuals attempted to cross the border between Greece and Turkey after Turkish president [Recep Tayyip Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan") opened its border to Europe, but they were blocked by Greek [army](/wiki/Hellenic_Army "Hellenic Army") and [police](/wiki/Hellenic_Police "Hellenic Police") forces. Hundreds of Greek soldiers and armed police resisted the trespassers and fired [tear gas](/wiki/Tear_gas "Tear gas") at them. Among those who attempted to cross the majority were not war refugees from Syria, but the largest group was from Afghanistan and the next largest from Pakistan along with significant numbers of migrants from African countries Ethiopia, Morocco and Algeria. Greece responded by refusing to accept asylum applications for a month.{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.yahoo.com/greece\-migrants\-struggle\-cross\-eu\-turkey\-162105944\.html\|title\='Are we in Greece?': Migrants seize their chance in Europe quest\|website\=news.yahoo.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=3 March 2020}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/20200301\-greece\-blocks\-thousands\-of\-migrants\-trying\-to\-enter\-from\-turkey\|title\=Greece blocks thousands of migrants trying to enter from Turkey\|date\=1 March 2020\|website\=France 24\|language\=en\|access\-date\=3 March 2020}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://m.focus.de/politik/ausland/schon\-fast\-37\-000\-grenzuebertritte\-verhindert\-rotes\-kreuz\-besorgt\-in\-griechenland\-kommen\-weit\-mehr\-migranten\-als\-fluechtlinge\-an\_id\_11738162\.html\|title\=Anders als 2015: In Griechenland kommen viel mehr Migranten als Syrer an\|website\=FOCUS Online\|language\=de\|access\-date\=8 March 2020}} Among the illegal immigrants who were apprehended between 28 February and 5 March by Greek authorities in the Evros region 64% were from Afghanistan, 19% were from Pakistan, 5% were from Turkey, 4% from Syria and 2\.6% from Somalia.
#### Hungary
{{See also\|Hungarian border barrier}}
In 2015 during the [European migrant crisis](/wiki/European_migrant_crisis "European migrant crisis"), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary") built a razor\-wire fence on its border to Serbia to stop migrants from entering the European Union.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-europe\-34260071\|title\=Migrants stranded at Hungarian border\|date\=15 September 2015\|access\-date\=27 September 2019\|language\=en\-GB}}
#### Ireland
In 2022, during the [Ukrainian refugee crisis](/wiki/2022_Ukrainian_refugee_crisis "2022 Ukrainian refugee crisis"), the Irish [Department of Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth](/wiki/Department_of_Children%2C_Equality%2C_Disability%2C_Integration_and_Youth "Department of Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth") (DCEDIY) set up [transitional shelters](/wiki/Transitional_shelter "Transitional shelter") for refugees from various backgrounds, which lead to nationwide protests, which the [Garda Síochána](/wiki/Garda_S%C3%ADoch%C3%A1na "Garda Síochána") say numbered 307 in 2022 and at least a further 169 {{As of\|2023\|August\|lc\=y}}.{{Cite web \|last\=Askew \|first\=Joshua \|date\=2023\-03\-13 \|title\='Keep Ireland Irish': Say hello to Ireland's growing far right \|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/13/keep\-ireland\-irish\-say\-hello\-to\-irelands\-growing\-far\-right \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-21 \|website\=\[\[Euronews]] \|language\=en}}{{Cite news \|last\=Gallagher \|first\=Conor \|date\=27 March 2023 \|title\=Anti\-immigration protests have 'peaked', gardaí believe \|language\=en \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/crime\-law/2023/03/27/anti\-immigration\-protests\-have\-peaked\-gardai\-believe/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-02}}{{Cite news \|last\=Lally \|first\=Conor \|date\=21 August 2023 \|title\=Sustained fall in number of anti\-immigration protests in Dublin \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/crime\-law/2023/08/21/sustained\-fall\-in\-number\-of\-anti\-immigration\-protests\-in\-dublin/}} They started over concerns over the lack of information given to the people in the areas beforehand,{{Cite web \|last\=Pepper \|first\=Diarmuid \|date\=22 November 2022 \|title\=Minister says East Wall 'leaflet drop' is planned amid dispute over asylum seeker accommodation \|url\=https://www.thejournal.ie/information\-leaflets\-dublin\-east\-wall\-residents\-asylum\-seeker\-accommodation\-5927360\-Nov2022/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-07 \|website\=TheJournal.ie \|language\=en}} an overcrowding of facilities and the existing housing crisis,{{Cite news \|last\=Grennan \|first\=Dan \|date\=30 November 2022 \|title\=East Wall locals slam 'embarrassing' refugee protests bringing 'element of fear' to the area \|work\=\[\[Dublin Live]] \|url\=https://www.dublinlive.ie/news/east\-wall\-locals\-slam\-embarrassing\-25640742 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-04}} refugee welfare,{{Cite news \|last\=De Vaal \|first\=Danny \|date\=9 December 2022 \|title\=Inside East Wall refugee centre as asylum seekers want to join protests and say rooms are like 'cage for animals' \|work\=\[\[The Irish Mirror]] \|url\=https://www.irishmirror.ie/news/irish\-news/inside\-east\-wall\-refugee\-centre\-28689129 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-19}} and the lack of [women](/wiki/Refugee_women "Refugee women") and [children](/wiki/Refugee_children "Refugee children") in the initial group.{{Cite news \|last\=De Vaal \|first\=Danny \|date\=21 November 2022 \|title\=Second protest takes place in East Wall after 'male\-only' asylum seekers housed in old ESB building \|work\=\[\[The Irish Mirror]] \|url\=https://www.irishmirror.ie/news/irish\-news/second\-protest\-takes\-place\-east\-28550267 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-19}}
As news of the protests spread, [far\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics "Far-right politics") protestors used the events to express their opposition to immigration and many have been criticized as being racist, which is what led to the [counter\-protests in County Cork](/wiki/East_Wall_and_Fermoy_protests%23Fermoy_demonstrations "East Wall and Fermoy protests#Fermoy demonstrations") and in the ["Ireland for All" rally](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Irish_anti-immigration_protests%23%22Ireland_for_All%22_Solidarity_Rally "2022–23 Irish anti-immigration protests#").{{Cite news \|last\=O'Callaghan \|first\=Gavin \|date\=2 December 2022 \|title\=Fermoy locals hosting 'Rally against Racism' demo in response to asylum protests \|work\=Cork Beo \|url\=https://www.corkbeo.ie/news/local\-news/fermoy\-locals\-hosting\-rally\-against\-25655458 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05}}{{cite news \|last\=Wilson \|first\=Jade \|date\=18 February 2023 \|title\=Thousands protest against 'hatred and disinformation' at anti\-racism march in Dublin \|work\=\[\[Irish Times]] \|location\= \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/social\-affairs/2023/02/18/thousands\-protest\-against\-hatred\-and\-disinformation\-at\-anti\-racism\-march\-in\-dublin/ \|access\-date\=18 February 2023}} Some minority parties such as the [National Party](/wiki/National_Party_%28Ireland%2C_2016%29 "National Party (Ireland, 2016)"),{{Cite news \|last\=McEnroe \|first\=Juno \|date\=18 November 2016 \|title\=National Party president wants immigrants to leave \|work\=\[\[Irish Examiner]] \|url\=https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid\-20431172\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-19}} the [Irish Freedom Party](/wiki/Irish_Freedom_Party "Irish Freedom Party"),{{Cite news \|last1\=Gallagher \|first1\=Conor \|last2\=Lally \|first2\=Conor \|date\=24 February 2021 \|title\=Refugee tribunal member sues for defamation \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/crime\-and\-law/refugee\-tribunal\-member\-sues\-for\-defamation\-1\.4494131 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-19}} and [Ireland First](/wiki/Ireland_First "Ireland First") oppose immigration.{{cite news \|last\=Gallagher \|first\=Conor \|date\=12 March 2023 \|title\=Ireland First: Inside the group chat of Ireland's latest far\-right political party \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|location\= \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/social\-affairs/2023/03/12/ireland\-first\-becomes\-a\-political\-party\-but\-will\-anyone\-vote\-for\-it/ \|access\-date\=13 March 2023}} [Independent politicians](/wiki/Independent_politician "Independent politician") opposed to immigration also formed the now defunct [Immigration Control Platform](/wiki/Immigration_Control_Platform "Immigration Control Platform") and party [Identity Ireland](/wiki/Identity_Ireland "Identity Ireland") want to tighten [border control](/wiki/Border_control "Border control") restrictions and have been described by the *[TheJournal.ie](/wiki/TheJournal.ie "TheJournal.ie")* as anti\-immigrant.{{Cite news \|last\=Brennan \|first\=Cianan \|date\=16 November 2016 \|title\=Dublin hotel cancels launch of new extreme right\-wing party which had been planned for tomorrow \|work\=\[\[TheJournal.ie]] \|url\=https://www.thejournal.ie/the\-national\-party\-merrion\-hotel\-3084352\-Nov2016/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-20}} There is also an [Irish off\-shoot of Pegida](/wiki/Pegida_Ireland "Pegida Ireland").{{cite news \|last\=Roche \|first\=Barry \|date\=9 February 2016 \|title\=Varadkar concerned by rise of anti\-Islamic group Pegida \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|url\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/varadkar\-concerned\-by\-rise\-of\-anti\-islamic\-group\-pegida\-1\.2526717 \|access\-date\=14 March 2016}}{{cite news \|last\=Roche \|first\=Barry \|date\=30 January 2016 \|title\=Anti\-Islamic group Pegida Ireland to be launched at Dublin rally \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|url\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish\-news/anti\-islamic\-group\-pegida\-ireland\-to\-be\-launched\-at\-dublin\-rally\-1\.2515875 \|access\-date\=27 February 2016}}
Social media campaigns have united the far\-right activists to join the anti\-immigration protests. Anti\-immigration activists have used [Telegram](/wiki/Telegram_%28software%29 "Telegram (software)") to communicate and started campaigns such as *[\#IrelandIsFull](/wiki/East_Wall_and_Fermoy_protests%23%22Ireland_is_full%22 "East Wall and Fermoy protests#")*, a [hashtag](/wiki/Hashtag "Hashtag") that trended on [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter").{{Cite news \|last\=Malekmian \|first\=Shamim \|date\=30 November 2022 \|title\=How the Government Created an Opening for Anti\-Immigration Activists to Exploit in East Wall \|work\=\[\[List of newspapers in the Republic of Ireland\#Dublin\|Dublin Inquirer]] \|url\=https://www.dublininquirer.com/2022/11/30/how\-the\-government\-created\-an\-opening\-for\-anti\-immigration\-activists\-to\-exploit\-in\-east\-wall \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05}} The DCEDIY projected a shortfall of 15,000 beds for refugees in December 2022 and admitted that there was mounting pressure to house 65,000 people.{{Cite news \|date\=19 November 2022 \|title\=Protest held over housing of asylum seekers in Dublin \|work\=\[\[RTÉ]] \|url\=https://www.rte.ie/news/regional/2022/1119/1337137\-east\-wall\-protest/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05}}
Controversy has been raised over the loss or destruction of travel documents by 2,232 asylum seekers who were over 16 and traveling through [Dublin Airport](/wiki/Dublin_Airport "Dublin Airport") in 2022 after a [freedom of information request](/wiki/Freedom_of_information_laws_by_country%23Ireland "Freedom of information laws by country#Ireland"). Reports had been made of the destruction of passports during transit in 2019\.{{Cite news \|last\=Gallagher \|first\=Conor \|date\=2022\-06\-08 \|title\=Thousands of asylum seekers arrive at Dublin Airport with no travel documents \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/2022/10/06/thousands\-of\-passengers\-destroy\-or\-lose\-passports\-before\-arrival\-at\-dublin\-airport/ \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-16 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Healy \|first\=John \|title\=Bringing down the immigration curtain \|url\=https://www.mayonews.ie/news/local\-news/1133830/bringing\-down\-the\-immigration\-curtain.html \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-16 \|website\=\[\[The Mayo News]] \|language\=en\-ie \|archive\-date\=16 January 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116183827/https://www.mayonews.ie/comment\-opinion/down\-memory\-lane/39023\-bringing\-down\-the\-immigration\-curtain \|url\-status\=dead }}
#### Italy
{{See also\|Immigration to Italy}}
According to poll published by *[Corriere della Serra](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera "Corriere della Sera")*, one of two respondents (51%) approved closing Italy's ports to further boat migrants arriving via the Mediterranean, while 19% welcomed further boat migrants.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.corriere.it/politica/19\_gennaio\_11/colpe\-dell\-emergenza\-migranti\-salvini\-conte\-dimaio\-dacb3282\-15e0\-11e9\-9cd3\-6f68d3bb44a0\.shtml\|title\=Le colpe dell'emergenza migranti? Il 60% punta il dito contro l'Europa\|last\=Pagnoncelli\|first\=Nando\|date\=1 November 2019\|website\=Corriere della Sera\|language\=it\|access\-date\=12 January 2019}}
In 2018, a poll by [Pew Research](/wiki/Pew_Research_Center "Pew Research Center") found that a majority (71%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 18% wanted to keep the current level and 5% wanted to increase immigration.
#### Portugal
Portugal had little immigration until a sudden influx in the 1970s, as ex\-colonists, most of them ethnically white, returned.{{Cite web\|last\=Peralta\|first\=Elsa\|date\=2019\|title\=A integração dos retornados: identidade, desidentificação e ocultação\|url\=http://analisesocial.ics.ul.pt/documentos/n231\_a04\.pdf\|website\=Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa.\|language\=pt\-PT}} After the former Portuguese African colonies gained independence, and because nationals of Portuguese\-speaking nations can freely live and work in Portugal without much bureaucracy, an incremental growth of immigration from Portugal's former overseas possessions was observed over the past few decades, primarily from [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"), [Cape Verde](/wiki/Cape_Verde "Cape Verde"), [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola") and [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique").{{Cite web\|date\=December 2019\|title\=AFRODESCENDENTES EM PORTUGAL\|url\=https://www.om.acm.gov.pt/documents/58428/183863/Revista\+Migra%C3%A7%C3%B5es\+16\.pdf/d7e56cb0\-7d04\-4f2c\-96a6\-fb2c7ee8e9ff\|website\=Revista do Observatório das Migrações\|language\=pt\-PT}}{{Cite web\|date\=March 2023\|title\=Cidadãos de países da CPLP vão ter autorizações de residência em 72 horas\|url\=https://www.publico.pt/2023/03/10/sociedade/noticia/cidadaos\-paises\-cplp\-vao\-autorizacoes\-residencia\-72\-horas\-2042005\|website\=Público\|language\=pt\-PT}} The country now has are nearly 240,000 Brazilians{{Cite web\|date\=June 2023\|title\=Quase 800 mil estrangeiros vivem em Portugal e 30% são brasileiros\|url\=https://www.publico.pt/2023/06/23/sociedade/noticia/quase\-800\-mil\-estrangeiros\-vivem\-portugal\-30\-sao\-brasileiros\-2054424\|website\=Público\|language\=pt\-PT}} and about 350,000 people born in an African country.{{Cite web\|title\=População residente de naturalidade estrangeira segundo os Censos: total e por país de naturalidade\|url\=https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/populacao\+residente\+de\+naturalidade\+estrangeira\+segundo\+os\+censos\+total\+e\+por\+pais\+de\+naturalidade\-3800\-325591\|website\=Pordata\|language\=pt\-PT}} Although immigrants are mostly concentrated in urban and suburban areas, mainly on Portugal's coast, Portuguese authorities have in recent times encouraged immigration, notably from Brazil, to rural areas, in an effort to increase an ever shrinking population.{{Cite web\|last\=Amato\|first\=Gian\|date\=14 December 2020\|title\='Há qualidade de vida no interior de Portugal, faltam pessoas. É o momento de os brasileiros virem', diz ministra do país\|url\=https://oglobo.globo.com/economia/ha\-qualidade\-de\-vida\-no\-interior\-de\-portugal\-faltam\-pessoas\-o\-momento\-de\-os\-brasileiros\-virem\-diz\-ministra\-do\-pais\-1\-24794797\|website\=O Globo\|language\=pt\-PT}} The growth of the number of immigrants has been linked to an escalation of anti\-immigration sentiments and protests throughout Portugal since the mids 2000's.{{Cite web\|last\=Rattner\|first\=Jair\|date\=18 June 2005\|title\=Portugueses fazem protesto em Lisboa contra imigrantes e violência\|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/bbc/ult272u43602\.shtml\|website\=Folha\|language\=pt\-PT}}{{Cite web\|last\=Carlos\|first\=João\|date\=20 August 2020\|title\=Ataques racistas preocupam imigrantes africanos em Portugal\|url\=https://www.dw.com/pt\-002/ataques\-racistas\-preocupam\-imigrantes\-africanos\-em\-portugal/a\-54635065\|website\=DW\|language\=pt\-PT}}
Until recently,{{when\|date\=May 2024}} far\-right party "[National Renewal Party](/wiki/National_Renewal_Party "National Renewal Party")", known as PNR, was the only one in Portugal which actively targeted{{clarify\|date\=May 2024}} the mass\-immigration and ethnic minorities (mainly related to [Gypsy](/wiki/Gypsy "Gypsy") and African communities) issues.{{Cite web\|last\=Gomes\|first\=Joaquim\|date\=1 December 2018\|title\=Líder do PNR contra "marxismo cultural que captura o pensamento"\|url\=https://ionline.sapo.pt/artigo/636732/lider\-do\-pnr\-contra\-marxismo\-cultural\-que\-captura\-o\-pensamento\-?seccao\=Portugal\_i\|website\=Sapo\|language\=pt\-PT}}{{Cite web\|last\=Henriques\|first\=Joana\|date\=13 July 2018\|title\=Boicote do PNR a protesto anti\-racista vigiado pela PSP\|url\=https://www.publico.pt/2018/07/13/sociedade/noticia/psp\-vai\-vigiar\-concentracao\-do\-pnr\-a\-protesto\-antiracista\-1837879\|website\=Publico\|language\=pt\-PT}} After years of growing support—0\.09% 4,712 [2002](/wiki/Portuguese_legislative_election%2C_2002 "Portuguese legislative election, 2002"), 0\.16% 9,374 [2005](/wiki/Portuguese_legislative_election%2C_2005 "Portuguese legislative election, 2005"), 0\.20% 11,503 [2009](/wiki/Portuguese_legislative_election%2C_2009 "Portuguese legislative election, 2009"), 0\.31% 17,548 [2011](/wiki/Portuguese_legislative_election%2C_2011 "Portuguese legislative election, 2011")— it managed 0\.50%, or 27,269, of the electorate in the [2015 Portuguese legislative election](/wiki/2015_Portuguese_legislative_election "2015 Portuguese legislative election"). Since 2019, far\-right political party [CHEGA!](/wiki/Chega_%28political_party%29 "Chega (political party)") has gained traction in the country. Following the [2019 Portuguese legislative election](/wiki/2019_Portuguese_legislative_election "2019 Portuguese legislative election"), the party's president, [André Ventura](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ventura "André Ventura"), assured a seat in [Assembly of the Republic](/wiki/Assembly_of_the_Republic_%28Portugal%29 "Assembly of the Republic (Portugal)"), after having received over 66,000 votes, 1,3% of the electorate.{{Cite web\|last\=Jorge\|first\=Catarina\|date\=7 October 2019\|title\=O Chega elegeu um deputado e promete ser "o maior partido daqui a 8 anos"\|url\=https://observador.pt/2019/10/07/o\-chega\-elegeu\-um\-deputado\-e\-promete\-ser\-o\-maior\-partido\-daqui\-a\-8\-anos/\|access\-date\=20 February 2021\|website\=Observador\|language\=pt\-PT}} In the [2020 Azorean regional election](/wiki/2020_Azorean_regional_election "2020 Azorean regional election"), the party secured two assemblyman to the regional parliament{{Cite web\|date\=7 October 2019\|title\=Eleições nos Açores: Chega elege dois deputados\|url\=https://www.publico.pt/2020/10/25/politica/noticia/chega\-elege\-deputado\-circulo\-sao\-miguel\-1936698\|access\-date\=20 February 2021\|website\=Publico\|language\=pt\-PT}} and, during the [2021 Portuguese presidential election](/wiki/2021_Portuguese_presidential_election "2021 Portuguese presidential election"), André Ventura managed to gather approximately 500,000 votes, 12% of the total.{{Cite web\|date\=25 January 2021\|title\=Portugal's centre\-right president re\-elected but far right gains ground\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/25/portugals\-centre\-right\-president\-re\-elected\-but\-far\-right\-gains\-ground\|access\-date\=21 January 2021\|website\=The Guardian\|language\=en\-EN}} The party opposes immigration and has been described by the media and mainstream parties as xenophobic.{{Cite web\|date\=25 January 2021\|title\=Is the far\-right gaining popularity in Portugal?\|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2021/01/21/is\-the\-far\-right\-gaining\-popularity\-in\-portugal\|access\-date\=20 February 2021\|website\=Euronews\|language\=en\-EN}} CHEGA! has an estimated 28,000 militant members{{Cite web\|last\=Figueiredo\|first\=Inês André\|date\=10 March 2021\|title\=Só um em cada cinco militantes do Chega inscritos nos cadernos eleitorais votou em Ventura\|url\=https://observador.pt/2021/03/10/so\-um\-em\-cada\-cinco\-militantes\-do\-chega\-votou\-em\-ventura/\|access\-date\=20 February 2021\|website\=Observador\|language\=pt\-PT}} and is expected to continue to rise in popularity and political force.{{Cite web\|last\=Cotrim\|first\=António\|date\=21 December 2020\|title\=Sondagem legislativas. Chega passa a terceira força e Bloco cai\|url\=https://expresso.pt/politica/2020\-12\-21\-Sondagem\-legislativas.\-Chega\-passa\-a\-terceira\-forca\-e\-Bloco\-cai\|access\-date\=20 February 2021\|website\=Publico\|language\=pt\-PT}}
#### Spain
A January 2004 survey by Spanish newspaper *[El País](/wiki/El_Pa%C3%ADs "El País")* found that the "majority" of Spaniards believed immigration was too high.{{Cite news\|last\=Staff writer \|title\=Immigration time\-bomb \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528065305/http://www.expatica.com/source/site\_article.asp?subchannel\_id\=83\&story\_id\=8794\&name\=Immigration%2Btime\-bomb \|archive\-date\=28 May 2006 \|url\=http://www.expatica.com/source/site\_article.asp?subchannel\_id\=83\&story\_id\=8794\&name\=Immigration\+time%2Dbomb \|work\=\[\[Expatica]] \|date\=23 June 2004 \|access\-date\=11 August 2010 \|url\-status\=dead }}
In Spain, as of 2005, surveys found "in descending order, jobs, crime and housing" were the primary concerns for citizens opposed to immigration.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=JIWNAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA136\|title\=Europe's Population\|author1\=Ray Hall\|author2\=Paul White\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2005\|isbn\=9781135369484\|page\=136}}
Small [Neo\-fascist](/wiki/Neo-fascism "Neo-fascism") parties, such as Movimiento Social Español, openly campaign using nationalist or anti\-immigrant rhetoric as do other small far\-right parties such as [National Democracy (Spain)](/wiki/National_Democracy_%28Spain%29 "National Democracy (Spain)") and [España 2000](/wiki/Espa%C3%B1a_2000 "España 2000"). These parties have never won national or regional parliamentary seats.{{cn\|date\=May 2024}}
#### Sweden
{{Main\|Immigration to Sweden}}
A 2008 study, which involved questionnaires circulated to 5000 people, showed that less than a quarter of the respondents (23%) wanted to live in areas characterised by cultural, ethnic and social diversity.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.svd.se/svenskar\-vill\-ha\-inhagnat\-boende\|title\=Svenskar vill ha inhägnat boende {{!}} SvD\|last\=TT\|work\=SvD.se\|access\-date\=14 July 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322170850/http://www.svd.se/svenskar\-vill\-ha\-inhagnat\-boende\|archive\-date\=22 March 2016\|language\=sv}} A 2016 [SOM Institute](/wiki/SOM_Institute "SOM Institute") survey published by [University of Gothenburg](/wiki/University_of_Gothenburg "University of Gothenburg") reported that between the years 2011 and 2016, the estimated share of people with concerns about the increasing number of immigrants increased from around 20% to 45%.{{cite web\|url\=http://som.gu.se/digitalAssets/1649/1649642\_32\-svenska\-trender\-1986\-2016\.pdf\|title\=Svenska Trender report\|website\=\[\[University of Gothenburg]]\|publisher\=\[\[SOM Institute]]\|pages\=24, 48\|access\-date\=9 November 2017\|archive\-date\=12 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712211328/http://som.gu.se/digitalAssets/1649/1649642\_32\-svenska\-trender\-1986\-2016\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}; cf. [VAD SVENSKAR OROAR SIG FÖR – Sociala klyftor och ökat antal flyktingar](https://imgur.com/ZTcINnh) In 2018, a poll by [Pew Research](/wiki/Pew_Research_Center "Pew Research Center") found that a majority (52%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 33% wanted to keep the current level and 14% wanted to increase immigration.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact\-tank/2018/12/10/many\-worldwide\-oppose\-more\-migration\-both\-into\-and\-out\-of\-their\-countries/\|title\=Many worldwide oppose more migration – both into and out of their countries\|last1\=Connor\|first1\=Phillip\|last2\=Krogstad\|first2\=Jens Manuel\|website\=Pew Research Center\|date\=10 December 2018 \|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=24 January 2019}}
On the question of [repatriation](/wiki/Repatriation "Repatriation") of the asylum immigrants, 61% of native respondents in 1990 thought that it was a good suggestion, with this figure steadily decreasing over the ensuing years to a low of around 40% in 2014\. In 2015, there was an increase in respondents in favor of repatriation, with a majority, 52%, deeming it a good suggestion. The proportion of respondents who felt repatriation was neither a good nor bad proposal simultaneously dropped from almost 40% to 24%.
In February 2020 finance minister [Magdalena Andersson](/wiki/Magdalena_Andersson_%28Social_Democrat%29 "Magdalena Andersson (Social Democrat)") encouraged migrants to head for countries other than Sweden. Andersson stated in an interview that integration of immigrants in Sweden wasn't working, neither before nor after 2015, and that Sweden cannot accept more immigration than it is able to integrate.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.aftonbladet.se/a/5V6xz1\|title\=Magdalena Andersson: Sök er till annat land\|website\=Aftonbladet\|date\=21 December 2017 \|language\=sv\|access\-date\=6 March 2020}}
#### Switzerland
{{excerpt\|Immigration to Europe\|Switzerland}}
#### United Kingdom
{{Main\|Immigration to the United Kingdom}}
In the UK the [British National Party](/wiki/British_National_Party "British National Party") made opposition to immigration one of their central policies in the [2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election "2010 United Kingdom general election").{{cite news \| title \= BNP call for end to immigration from Muslim nations \| url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\_news/politics/election\_2010/8639097\.stm \| work \= \[\[BBC News]] \| publisher \= \[\[BBC]] \| date \= 23 April 2010 }} In 2015 the anti\-mass\-immigration party, [UKIP](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Independence_Party "United Kingdom Independence Party"), proposed setting up a Migration Control Commission, tasked with bringing down net migration.{{cite news \| last \= Wilkinson \| first \= Michael \| title \= Immigration policies: General Election 2015 and how each party will tackle it \| url \= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/general\-election\-2015/11451936/General\-Election\-2015\-Immigration\-policy.html \| work \= \[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \| date \= 5 May 2015 }} The [Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Conservative Party (UK)") pledged before the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election") to bring immigration from the [EU](/wiki/EU "EU") and rest of the world down to the "tens of thousands", with a range of welfare restrictions and housing restrictions.{{needs update\|date\=May 2024}}
The [vote for the UK to leave the EU](/wiki/United_Kingdom_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union "United Kingdom withdrawal from the European Union") was successful in Britain, with several commentators suggesting that populist concern over immigration from the EU was a major feature of the public debate.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.yahoo.com/news/triumph\-brexiteer\-nigel\-farage\-british\-scourge\-eu\-134149305\.html\|title\=Triumph for 'Brexiteer' Nigel Farage, British scourge of the EU\|website\=www.yahoo.com\|date\=24 June 2016 }} British Prime Minister David Cameron resigned over the vote. He had agreed to hold a vote on leaving the EU, due in part to the Conservative party losing votes to UKIP.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/may/13/david\-cameron\-eu\-ukip \| title\=David Cameron offers olive branch on EU referendum as Ukip soars \|work\=The Guardian \| access\-date\=28 June 2019}}
The former Prime Minister [Theresa May](/wiki/Theresa_May "Theresa May") introduced an [Immigration Skills Charge](/wiki/Immigration_Skills_Charge "Immigration Skills Charge") in April 2017, on companies who employ skilled non\-EU immigrants, of £1000 per immigrant employee; small or charitable organizations pay a reduced amount of £364\.{{cite web\|author\=Kerry Garcia, Kate Fellows\-Tully\|url\=http://www.personneltoday.com/hr/five\-costly\-immigration\-changes\-april\-2017/\|title\=Five costly immigration changes in April 2017\|publisher\=Personnel Today\|date\=22 March 2017\|access\-date\=19 May 2017}}[The Immigration Skills Charge Regulations 2017](http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2017/9780111154663), legislation.gov.uk. The money is to be used to help fund apprenticeships and skills training for people from the UK and EU. In her [2017 General Election](/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election") manifesto, the Prime Minister promised to double the Immigration Skills Charge to £2,000 per employee, if re\-elected.{{cite news \|last1\=Bienkov \|first1\=Adam \|title\=Theresa May to charge companies £2,000 a year for each non\-EU worker they employ \|url\=https://uk.sports.yahoo.com/news/theresa\-may\-charge\-companies\-2\-080047563\.html \|access\-date\=18 May 2017 \|work\=Yahoo Sports \|issue\=Immigration \|date\=18 May 2017}}
### Asia
#### India
{{main\|Illegal immigration to India}}
India has anti\-immigration parties at the state level. Two anti\-immigration parties in the state of [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra"), the [Shiv Sena](/wiki/Shiv_Sena "Shiv Sena") and the [Maharashtra Navnirman Sena](/wiki/Maharashtra_Navnirman_Sena "Maharashtra Navnirman Sena"), are a proponent of the idea that migrants from Northern India steal jobs from the native [Marathi people](/wiki/Marathi_people "Marathi people"), with a history of attacking immigrants and accusing them of playing a role in crime in the city of Mumbai. The Shiv Sena also has a history of threatening the Pakistani cricket team from coming to Mumbai and also threatening Australian cricket players in the [Indian Premier League](/wiki/Indian_Premier_League "Indian Premier League"), following racially motivated attacks on Indian students in Australia in 2009\.
In the last few decades, there has been a rise in the anti\-illegal immigration attitudes in the North East Indian states like [Assam](/wiki/Assam "Assam"), which has become a common entry point for illegal immigrants from [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"). Riots have occurred between the native tribes of Assam and illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.
In 2019, the [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") introduced the [Citizenship Amendment Act](/wiki/Citizenship_Amendment_Act "Citizenship Amendment Act"), which gives a faster path to Indian citizenship for Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian religious minorities that have immigrated both legally and illegally from [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), Bangladesh and [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") that suffer [religious persecution](/wiki/Religious_persecution "Religious persecution") (provided they arrived in India before 31 December 2014\).{{Cite web\|url\=https://pib.gov.in/ErrorPage.html?aspxerrorpath\=/newsite/mainpage.aspx\|title\=Untitled Page\|website\=pib.gov.in}} Any refugees from these groups that arrived after the cutoff must reside in India for at least 5 years before they can gain citizenship. Widespread protests have been held, both opposing and supporting the Act.
The [National Register of Citizens](/wiki/National_Register_of_Citizens "National Register of Citizens") is a register of all Indian citizens whose creation is mandated by the [2003 amendment](/wiki/Citizenship_%28Amendment%29_Act%2C_2003 "Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2003") of the [Citizenship Act, 1955](/wiki/Citizenship_Act%2C_1955 "Citizenship Act, 1955"). Its purpose is to document all the legal citizens of India so that the illegal migrants can be identified and deported.[Assam final NRC list released: 19,06,657 people excluded, 3\.11 crore make it to citizenship list](https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/assam-final-nrc-list-out-over-19-lakh-people-excluded-1593769-2019-08-31), India Today, 31 August 2019\.Ravi Agrawal, Kathryn Salam, [India Is Betraying Its Founding Fathers](https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/17/india-citizenship-law-protests-narendra-modi-amit-shah-founding-fathers/), Foreign Policy, 17 December 2019\. {{citation needed span \|text\=It has been implemented for the state of Assam starting in 2013–2014\. \|date\=April 2023}} The [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") plans to implement it for the rest of the country in 2021\.{{cite news \|title\=As Anti\-CAA Pressure Builds, BJP Govt Goes Discernibly on the Backfoot \|date\=21 December 2019 \|work\=The Wire \|url\=https://thewire.in/politics/bjp\-anti\-caa\-nrc \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221231703/https://thewire.in/politics/bjp\-anti\-caa\-nrc \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|url\-status\=live}}
#### Israel
In 2012, Israel constructed a [barrier on its border with Egypt](/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier "Egypt–Israel barrier") which reduced the number of illegal immigrants crossing the border into Israel, from {{Val\|16000}} in 2011 to fewer than 20 in 2016 which represents a decrease of 99%.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/32949/Default.aspx\|title\=Israel to Deport 40,000 Illegal Immigrants\|website\=www.israeltoday.co.il\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=12 January 2019}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.politifact.com/truth\-o\-meter/statements/2017/feb/13/ron\-johnson/border\-fence\-israel\-cut\-illegal\-immigration\-99\-per/\|title\=GOP senator says Israel border fence cut illegal immigration\|website\=@politifact\|language\=en\|access\-date\=12 January 2019}} The government tried offering money to migrants to encourage them to return to their countries of origin, while the Supreme Court blocked the government's attempts to deport them.
In December 2017, the parliament approved legislation which would allow the government to overrule the Supreme Court to deport {{Val\|40000}} illegal immigrants. In the preceding decade, some {{Val\|60000}} illegal immigrants entered Israel by crossing the [border with Egypt](/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier "Egypt–Israel barrier"). Some were legitimate refugees, most were economic migrants.
#### Japan
{{Main\|Ethnic issues in Japan\|Human rights in Japan}}
The movement for Japanese cultural isolation, {{nihongo\|''\[\[sakoku]]''\|\[\[wikt:鎖\|鎖]] \[\[wikt:国\|国]]}}, arose in [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period "Edo period") Japan, in response to the strong influence of [Western culture](/wiki/Western_culture "Western culture"). The study of (ancient) Japanese literature and culture was called {{nihongo\|''kokugaku''\|\[\[wikt:国\|国]] \[\[wikt:学\|学]]\|\|"country study"}}.
#### Turkey
{{Main\|Turkey's migrant crisis}}
Established against the increasing number of legal and illegal refugees in Turkey as much as several millions, [Victory Party (Turkey)](/wiki/Victory_Party_%28Turkey%29 "Victory Party (Turkey)") has been the leader of return of the refugees to their home countries in Turkey since the day it was founded. The Victory Party's founding manifesto has numerous references to the founding father of the modern Turkish Republic, [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk") and his nationalist revolution after [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F "Ümit Özdağ") defines the mass refugee influx from the Middle East to Turkey as “strategically engineered migration”—a renewed imperialist plot, resurfacing a century after the republic's inception (referencing to the [Treaty of Sèvres](/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres "Treaty of Sèvres") of 1920\). Only this time, [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F "Ümit Özdağ") suggests, the imperialists will not use a “rental Greek army” to upend Turkey's sovereignty; they will instead install a Sunni Arab population of refugees to undermine Turkish national identity.
The Victory Party promises to send all fugitives and asylum seekers within one year. Although there is not a very high rate of votes among the public for now, it seems to have received 4\.1% of the votes in some polls. The slogan of the party is "Victory Party will come, refugees will go." Foreign policy reported on [Victory Party (Turkey)](/wiki/Victory_Party_%28Turkey%29 "Victory Party (Turkey)") and [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F "Ümit Özdağ") [Turkey’s Far Right Has Already Won](https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/12/turkeys-far-right-has-already-won/)
### Americas
#### Brazil
{{See also\|Venezuelan refugee crisis}}
Brazil is a country of immigrants and developed a reputation for "warm welcome" of people all over the world. Nevertheless, different analysts often dispute how truthful this image is and, although openly xenophobic manifestation were uncommon, some scholars denounce it existence in more subtle ways.{{cite news \|last1\=Novais \|first1\=Andréa \|title\=Xenophobia in Brazil \|url\=http://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/xenophobia\-in\-brazil \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=The Brazil Business \|date\=30 November 2012}}
Despite the fact that Brazil was considered a safe haven for neighboring refugees and immigrants, xenophobic violence has erupted. Brazil received up to 3000 [Syrian refugees](/wiki/Syrian_refugees "Syrian refugees") becoming the largest receiver of such in Latin America.{{cite news \|last1\=Tsavkko Garcia \|first1\=Raphael \|title\=Is Brazil no longer safe for refugees and immigrants? \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/08/brazil\-longer\-safe\-refugees\-immigrants\-170809113330259\.html \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=\[\[Al Jazeera English\|Al Jazeera]] \|date\=16 August 2017}} However, [xenophobic](/wiki/Xenophobic "Xenophobic") and [islamophobic](/wiki/Islamophobic "Islamophobic") attacks were reported against Syrian refugees and Muslims in general. After the alleged beating of a shop owner during a robbery by alleged [Venezuelan migrants](/wiki/Venezuelan_refugee_crisis "Venezuelan refugee crisis"), riots occurred in the [Brazilian\-Venezuelan border](/wiki/Venezuela-Brazil_border "Venezuela-Brazil border") which included attacks on Venezuelans nationals, destruction of refugee tents and fires.{{cite news \|last1\=Doce Villamar \|first1\=Inacio \|title\=Tense calm on Brazil\-Venezuelan border after anti\-immigrant riot \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-venezuela\-brazil\-border/tense\-calm\-on\-brazil\-venezuelan\-border\-after\-anti\-immigrant\-riot\-idUSKCN1L40LU \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819201458/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-venezuela\-brazil\-border/tense\-calm\-on\-brazil\-venezuelan\-border\-after\-anti\-immigrant\-riot\-idUSKCN1L40LU \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=19 August 2018 \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|work\=Reuters \|date\=19 August 2018}} 1200 Venezuelans went back to their homeland as a result and the administration of [President](/wiki/President_of_Brazil "President of Brazil") [Michel Temer](/wiki/Michel_Temer "Michel Temer") increased military personnel in the border. The burning of the refugee camps was reported in national and international news outlet and the authorities announce they will investigate and prosecute the authors.
During the [Brazilian general election](/wiki/2018_Brazilian_general_election "2018 Brazilian general election") in 2018, then [far\-right](/wiki/Far-right "Far-right") presidential candidate [Jair Bolsonaro](/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro "Jair Bolsonaro") said the government should not turn its back on popular sentiment in Roraima, and proposed the creation of [refugee camps](/wiki/Refugee_camps "Refugee camps") with the help of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations").{{Cite news\|url\=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil\-jair\-bolsonaro\-sugiere\-crear\-campos\-refugiados\-venezolanos\-venezuela\-noticia\-550369\|title\=Bolsonaro sugiere crear campos de refugiados para venezolanos\|date\=24 August 2018\|website\=El Comercio\|language\=es\|access\-date\=19 September 2019}} Once he became president, Bolsonaro said he would adopt more rigorous criteria for the entry of foreigners to Brazil, but ruled that he would not repatriate Venezuelan immigrants to their country.{{Cite news\|url\=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil\-jair\-bolsonaro\-devolvera\-venezolanos\-roraima\-anuncia\-control\-migratorio\-noticia\-580848\|title\=Jair Bolsonaro no devolverá a venezolanos en Roraima pero anuncia control migratorio\|date\=24 November 2018\|website\=El Comercio\|language\=es\|access\-date\=19 September 2019}}
#### Canada
Historically, Canada has implemented a variety of anti\-immigration laws. In the early 19th century Canadian immigration laws specifically discriminated against people based on class, race, and disability. These policies continued into the 20th century, which did not change until following [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").{{Cite web \|title\=Immigration Policy in Canada \|url\=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/immigration\-policy \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-09 \|website\=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca \|language\=en}}
In a 2013 interview with the French news magazine *[L'Express](/wiki/L%27Express "L'Express")* Canadian academic and [environmental activist](/wiki/Environmentalism "Environmentalism") [David Suzuki](/wiki/David_Suzuki "David Suzuki") stated that Canada's immigration policy was "crazy" and "Canada is full". However, he insisted that Canada should "open its doors to those who are oppressed" and accept refugees.{{cite news \|title\=David Suzuki 'full' comment slammed by Jason Kenney \|url\=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/jason\-kenney\-slams\-david\-suzukis\-immigration\-views\-as\-toxic\-and\-irresponsible\-after\-environmentalist\-says\-canada\-full \|access\-date\=25 April 2020 \|work\=National Post \|date\=11 July 2013 \|language\=en\-CA}} The leader of the [People's Party of Canada](/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Canada "People's Party of Canada"), [Maxime Bernier](/wiki/Maxime_Bernier "Maxime Bernier") believes that current immigration harms Canadian values, and also makes it more difficult for real refuges to come to Canada.{{Cite news \|last\=Goodyear \|first\=Sheena \|title\=Maxime Bernier explains what he means by 'extreme multiculturalism' \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as\-it\-happens\-friday\-edition\-1\.4833110/maxime\-bernier\-explains\-what\-he\-means\-by\-extreme\-multiculturalism\-1\.4833113 \|url\-status\=live}}
In a 2017 poll conducted by the [Angus Reid Institute](/wiki/Angus_Reid_Institute "Angus Reid Institute"), a majority of respondents (57%) indicated that they believed Canada should accept fewer immigrants and refugees.{{cite web \|title\=Spirituality in a changing world: Half say faith is 'important' to how they consider society's problems \|url\=http://angusreid.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/05/2017\.05\.17\-Faith\-Wave\-1\-Part2\.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[Angus Reid Institute]] \|access\-date\=25 April 2020}} Despite this more recent surveys immigration is one of the smallest concerns to the average Canadian, with only 2% of Canadian surveyed ranking immigration as their largest concern.{{Cite web \|last\=Neuman \|first\=Keith \|title\=Canadian Public Opinion About Immigration \& Refugees, Fall 2023 \|url\=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default\-source/focus\-canada\-fall\-2023/focus\-canada\-fall\-2023\-\-\-canadian\-public\-opinion\-about\-immigration\-refugees\-\-\-final\-report.pdf?sfvrsn\=75312743\_2 }} Concerns for immigration seem to be directly tied to cost of living increases that the country has faced, with Canadians feeling housing costs are increasing due to immigration.{{Cite web \|title\=Majority of Canadians say higher immigration is fuelling housing crisis: poll \- National {{!}} Globalnews.ca \|url\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10126729/immigration\-housing\-canada\-leger\-poll/ \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-09 \|website\=Global News \|language\=en\-US}}
The [National Citizens Alliance](/wiki/National_Citizens_Alliance "National Citizens Alliance") was a far\-right political party in Canada that regularly held anti\-immigration rallies.{{cite news \|last1\=Gunn \|first1\=Andrea \|title\=Atlantic Canada's alt\-right fringe \|url\=https://www.theguardian.pe.ca/news/provincial/atlantic\-canadas\-alt\-right\-fringe\-340070/ \|access\-date\=17 April 2020 \|work\=\[\[The Guardian (Charlottetown)\|The Guardian]] \|date\=9 August 2019 \|language\=en \|quotation\=Garvey's policies are decidedly anti\-immigrant, and he speaks extensively about the need to preserve Canada's 'European heritage'.}}{{cite web\|title\=Anti\-immigration rally on Hill fizzles, leader disappointed\|website\=Ottawa Citizen\|url\=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local\-news/anti\-immigration\-rally\-on\-hill\-fizzles\-leader\-disappointed\|access\-date\=14 August 2019\|quote\=Dozens of tourists took photographs of the far\-right participants, many waving Canadian and Quebec flags.}}
The political parties [Avenir Quebec](/wiki/Coalition_Avenir_Qu%C3%A9bec "Coalition Avenir Québec"), [United Conservative](/wiki/United_Conservative_Party "United Conservative Party"), [Bloc Québécois](/wiki/Bloc_Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois "Bloc Québécois"), [People's party](/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Canada "People's Party of Canada") and factions of [Conservative party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada "Conservative Party of Canada") have anti\-immigration views, the former minister of foreign Affairs [Maxime Bernier](/wiki/Maxime_Bernier "Maxime Bernier") and some members of conservative party and regional conservative parties, such as [Jason Kenney](/wiki/Jason_Kenney "Jason Kenney"), [François Legault](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Legault "François Legault"), [Scott Reid](/wiki/Scott_Reid_%28politician%29 "Scott Reid (politician)") have anti\-immigration views.
#### Costa Rica
Anti\-immigrant feelings date back to the late 19th century and early 20th century with the country's first waves of migrations from places like [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon") and [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"). Non\-Polish European migration dates back to practically the independence from [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") but was generally well received.{{cite journal\|last1\=González\|first1\=Daniel\|title\=Migración e identidad cultural en Costa Rica (1840–1940\)\|journal\=Revista de Ciencia Sociales UCR\|date\=18 August 2017\|issue\=155\|url\=https://revistas.ucr.ac.cr/index.php/sociales/article/view/30259/30231\|access\-date\=12 October 2017}} [Polish migration](/wiki/Polish_diaspora "Polish diaspora") was mostly [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") thus the backlash was due to [anti\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism "Anti-Semitism"). Records of the time show Chinese migrants as the most affected by prejudice especially from government official and the first [anti\-Chinese](/wiki/Anti-Chinese "Anti-Chinese") laws were enacted as far back as the 1910s. In 1903 [President](/wiki/President_of_Costa_Rica "President of Costa Rica") [Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra](/wiki/Ascensi%C3%B3n_Esquivel_Ibarra "Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra") enacted one of the first decrees forbidding non\-White immigration and explicitly stating that migration from Asians, Blacks, Gypsies, Arabs and Turks was not allowed. Although these laws were common in Latin America at the time, and Costa Rica's government eventually became the lead force in its abolishment.
[Polish](/wiki/Polish_People "Polish People"), [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_people "Chinese people") and [Lebanese](/wiki/Lebanese_diaspora "Lebanese diaspora") migrants would integrate fully into Costa Rican society with time to the point that many prominent Costa Ricans from industry, politics, arts, academy, etc. are of those descents. Latin American migrants became the next source of mistrust and opposition, especially [Nicaraguan](/wiki/Nicaraguans_in_Costa_Rica "Nicaraguans in Costa Rica") and [Colombian](/wiki/Colombians_in_Costa_Rica "Colombians in Costa Rica") migrants. During the second half of the 20th century and to this date Costa Rica receives numerous waves of [Latin American](/wiki/Latin_American "Latin American") migrants from all the region, but Nicaraguans are by far the higher group among immigrant population encompassing 74\.6% of the immigrant population,{{cite journal\|last1\=Acuña\|first1\=Guillermo\|title\=La migración en Costa Rica\|journal\=Ministerio de Salud\|date\=2005\|url\=https://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/gestores\_en\_salud/derechos%20humanos/migracion/inmigracr.pdf\|access\-date\=12 October 2017\|archive\-date\=24 July 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724075158/http://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/gestores\_en\_salud/derechos%20humanos/migracion/inmigracr.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} followed by Colombians and [Americans](/wiki/Americans_in_Costa_Rica "Americans in Costa Rica") (immigrants in general are 9% of the population) making [ethnic Nicaraguans](/wiki/Nicaraguan_people "Nicaraguan people") and binational Nicaraguan\-Costa Rican citizens one of the most notorious ethnic minorities in Costa Rica outnumbering other groups like [African\-Costa Ricans](/wiki/African-Costa_Rican "African-Costa Rican"). This caused debate in the country with some voices claiming for harder regulations and border control. The issue was one of the main topics of the [2002 election](/wiki/Costa_Rican_general_election%2C_2002 "Costa Rican general election, 2002") and was again important for the [2018's campaign](/wiki/Costa_Rican_general_election%2C_2018 "Costa Rican general election, 2018") with right\-wing politicians like [Otto Guevara](/wiki/Otto_Guevara "Otto Guevara") quoting [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") as an inspiration{{cite news\|last1\=Arias\|first1\=L\|title\=Costa Rican legislator praises Trump's tactics as he eyes new presidential bid\|url\=http://www.ticotimes.net/2016/11/23/otto\-guevara\-trump\-campaign\|access\-date\=12 October 2017\|agency\=The Tico Times\|date\=23 November 2016}} and calling for harsher migratory laws and eliminating the [citizenship by birth](/wiki/Citizenship_by_birth "Citizenship by birth") in the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Costa_Rica "Constitution of Costa Rica"). The Migration Law was reform globally in 2005 hardening some of the requirements for entering, staying and working on the country which was criticized as excessive,{{cite journal\|last1\=Dobles\|first1\=Ignacio\|last2\=Vargas\|first2\=Gabriela\|last3\=Amadro\|first3\=Krissia\|last4\=Arroyo\|first4\=Massiel\|title\=La inmigración y el Poder Legislativo en Costa Rica\|date\=2013\|url\=http://www.redalyc.org/html/729/72927050005/\|access\-date\=12 October 2017}} but further reforms, the last one in 2009, reduce some of the impact of the more controversial parts of the law. [Far\-right](/wiki/Far-right "Far-right") ultra\-[conservative](/wiki/Conservatism "Conservatism") [National Restoration Party](/wiki/National_Restoration_Party_%28Costa_Rica%29 "National Restoration Party (Costa Rica)"), that held an important role in the [2018 presidential election](/wiki/2018_Costa_Rican_general_election "2018 Costa Rican general election"), also holds anti\-migration positions.{{cite news \|last1\=Chinchilla \|first1\=Aaron \|title\=Restauración Nacional exige al Gobierno reforzar controles migratorios en Peñas Blancas \|agency\=El Periódico \|date\=25 July 2018}}{{cite news \|last1\=Pérez \|first1\=Karla \|title\=Fabricio Alvarado: Hay que implementar una política migratoria fuerte \|agency\=El Mundo \|date\=January 2018}}
After a series of [fake news](/wiki/Fake_news "Fake news") spread by several far\-right [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook") pages{{cite news \|last1\=Rico \|title\=44 arrested for xenophobic attacks against Nicaraguans in San José \|url\=https://qcostarica.com/44\-arrested\-for\-xenophobic\-attacks\-against\-nicaraguans\-in\-san\-jose/ \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=QCosta Rica \|date\=18 August 2018}} inciting hatred against Nicaraguan migrants, an anti\-migration manifestation was organized on 18 August 2018 known as the "Taken of La Merced" after Nicaraguan refugees were falsely accused of having "taking" La Merced Park in [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jos%C3%A9%2C_Costa_Rica "San José, Costa Rica"), a common gathering of the Nicaraguan community. Although some of the protesters were peaceful, participation of openly [neo\-Nazi](/wiki/Neo-Nazi "Neo-Nazi") groups and violent [hooligans](/wiki/Hooligans "Hooligans") with criminal records caused riots and attacks on Nicaraguans or people suspected of being. The national police [Public Force](/wiki/Public_Forces_of_Costa_Rica "Public Forces of Costa Rica") intervened{{cite news \|title\=Costa Rica: symboles nazis lors d'une manifestation anti\-migrants nicaraguayens \|url\=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2018/08/19/costa\-rica\-symboles\-nazis\-lors\-dune\-manifestation\-anti\-migrants\-nicaraguayens \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=Journal de Montreal \|date\=19 August 2018}} with up to 44 people arrested, 36 of such were Costa Rican and the rest Nicaraguans. Several violent articles including [Molotov bombs](/wiki/Molotov_bomb "Molotov bomb") were confiscated and some of the protesters identify themselves with [Swastikas](/wiki/Swastikas "Swastikas") and yelled "¡Fuera nicas!" (Nicas out!).{{cite news \|title\=Costa Rica: violenta protesta contra inmigración nicaragüense \|url\=https://www.dw.com/es/costa\-rica\-violenta\-protesta\-contra\-inmigraci%C3%B3n\-nicarag%C3%BCense/a\-45134202 \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=DW}} A pro\-immigrant manifestation was scheduled a week later with a high attendance.{{cite news \|last1\=Redaccion \|title\=Costa Rica marcha contra la xenofobia hacia los migrantes de Nicaragua que llegan al país huyendo de la crisis \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias\-america\-latina\-45312167 \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=BBC Mundo \|date\=26 August 2018}} Further anti\-migration protests (this time with the explicit exclusion of hooligans and neo\-nazi) were organized in later days but with lesser participation.
#### Mexico
{{Update\|section\|date\=May 2024}}
In Mexico, during the first eight months of 2005, more than 120,000 people from [Central America](/wiki/Central_America "Central America") were deported to their countries of origin. This is a much higher number than the people deported in the same period in 2002, when only 1 person was deported in the entire year.{{cite news \| last \= Roman \| first \= Jose Antonio \| title \= Detienen en seis meses a 120 mil indocumentados de Centroamérica \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20111024215950/http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/08/24/018n3pol.php \| archive\-date \= 24 October 2011 \| url \= http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/08/24/018n3pol.php \| work \= La Journada \| publisher \= Desarrollo de Medios, S.A. de C.V. (DEMOS) \| date \= 24 August 2005 }} Many women from countries in the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States") (most of former [USSR](/wiki/USSR "USSR")), [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and Central and [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America") are offered jobs at [table dance](/wiki/Table_dance "Table dance") establishments in large cities throughout the country, causing the [National Institute of Migration](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Migration "National Institute of Migration") (INM) in Mexico to raid [strip clubs](/wiki/Strip_clubs "Strip clubs") and deport foreigners who work without the proper documentation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tvazteca.com/hechos/archivos2/2004/10/102327\.shtml\|title\=TV en vivo por internet y capítulos en línea\|publisher\=tvazteca.com\|date\=October 2004\|access\-date\=14 September 2014\|archive\-date\=2 December 2006\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061202164716/http://www.tvazteca.com/hechos/archivos2/2004/10/102327\.shtml\|url\-status\=dead}}
[Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") has very strict laws pertaining to both illegal and legal immigrants.{{cite news \| last \= Slagle \| first \= John W. \| title \= Illegal alien amnesty, guest workers, international law and politics \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20071007080905/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID\=5240 \| archive\-date \= 7 October 2007 \| url \= http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID\=5240 \| work \= American Chronicle \| publisher \= Ultio \| date \= 28 January 2006 }} The Mexican constitution restricts non\-citizens or foreign\-born persons from participating in politics, holding office, acting as a member of the clergy, or serving on the crews of Mexican\-flagged ships or airplanes. Certain legal rights are waived, such as the right to a deportation hearing or other legal motions. In cases of [flagrante delicto](/wiki/Flagrante_delicto "Flagrante delicto"), any person may make a citizen's arrest on the offender and his accomplices, turning them over without delay to the nearest authorities.
Many immigration restrictionists in the United States have accused the Mexican government of [hypocrisy](/wiki/Hypocrisy "Hypocrisy") in its immigration policy, noting that while the [Government of Mexico](/wiki/Government_of_Mexico "Government of Mexico") and [Mexican Americans](/wiki/Mexican_Americans "Mexican Americans") are demanding looser immigration laws in the United States and oppose the [2010 Arizona Immigration Bill](/wiki/2010_Arizona_Immigration_Bill "2010 Arizona Immigration Bill"), at the same time Mexico is imposing even tighter restrictions on immigration into Mexico from Central America and other places than the Arizona law. However, Mexico started enforcing those laws which they previously ignored at the direct request of the United States, which saw a surge of Central American immigration during the Bush years; the newly elected president{{who\|date\=May 2024}} of Mexico has stated his desire to be more open, and would not deport Central Americans on their way to the United States or those who wish to remain in Mexico. {{citation needed\|date\=April 2017}}
#### Panama
The recent [exodus of Venezuelan migrants](/wiki/Venezuelan_refugee_crisis "Venezuelan refugee crisis") in [Panama](/wiki/Panama "Panama") encouraged the xenophobic and anti\-migration public speech from Panamanian nationalist groups.
#### United States
{{See also\|Immigration reduction in the United States\|Illegal immigration to the United States}}
[thumb\| [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") campaigned for president in 2016 by promising to build a wall on the border of Mexico and the United States "as the centerpiece of his immigration plan", as well as [a temporary suspension of Muslim migration to the United States](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 "Executive Order 13769")"Venturing to Mexico, Donald Trump defends right to build huge wall". [AP Aug 21, 2016](http://floridapolitics.com/archives/220947-venturing-mexico-donald-trump-defends-right-build-huge-wall)](/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_August_19%2C_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg "Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg")
[thumb\|Anti\-illegal immigrant car sticker in Colorado](/wiki/File:Anti-immigration_sign_in_Colorado.jpg "Anti-immigration sign in Colorado.jpg")
In the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), opponents of immigration typically focus on perceived adverse effects, such as economic costs (job competition and burdens on education and social services); negative environmental impact from accelerated population growth; increased crime rates, and in the long run, changes in traditional identities and values.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0IGSBQAAQBAJ\|title\=White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics\|author1\=Marisa Abrajano\|author2\=Zoltan L. Hajnal\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|year\=2015\|isbn\=9781400866489\|pages\=31–35}}
In countries where the majority of the population is of immigrant descent, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the form of [nativism](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 "Nativism (politics)").{{cite book \|last \= Higham \| first \= John \| title \= Strangers in the land: patterns of American nativism, 1860–1925 \| publisher \= Atheneum \| location \= New York \| year \= 1963 \| oclc \= 421752 }}
In the United States, opposition to immigration has a long history, starting in the late 1790s, in reaction to an influx of political refugees from France and Ireland. The [Alien and Sedition Acts](/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts "Alien and Sedition Acts") of 1798 severely restricted the rights of immigrants. Nativism first gained a name and affected politics in the mid\-19th century United States because of the large inflows of immigrants from cultures that were markedly different from the existing [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") culture. Nativists primarily objected to [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), especially [Irish Americans](/wiki/Irish_Americans "Irish Americans"). Nativist movements included the [American Party](/wiki/Know_Nothing "Know Nothing") of the mid\-19th Century (formed by members of the [Know\-Nothing movement](/wiki/Know-Nothing_movement "Know-Nothing movement")), the Immigration Restriction League of the early 20th Century, and the anti\-Asian movements in the [West](/wiki/Western_United_States "Western United States"), resulting in the [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act "Chinese Exclusion Act") and the so\-called "[Gentlemen's Agreement](/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907 "Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907")" which was aimed at the Japanese. Major restrictions became law in the 1920s and sharply cut the inflow of immigrants until 1965, when they ended. The federal government took charge of finding and deporting illegal aliens, which it still does.{{cite journal \|last \= Ngai \|first \= Mae M. \|title \= The strange career of the illegal alien: immigration restriction and deportation policy in the United States, 1921–1965 \|journal \= Law and History Review \|volume \= 21 \|issue \= 1 \|pages \= 69–107 \|publisher \= \[\[Cambridge University Press\|Cambridge Journals]] \|doi \= 10\.2307/3595069 \|jstor \= 3595069 \|date \=Spring 2003 \|s2cid \= 145344500 }}
Immigration again became a major issue from the 1990s onward, with burgeoning rates of undocumented immigration, particularly by Mexicans who crossed the Southern border, and others who overstayed their visitor visas. The [Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986](/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986 "Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986") provided an amnesty which was described as the amnesty to end all amnesties but it had no lasting impact on the flow of illegal immigrants.{{cite journal \|last \= Camarota \|first \= Steven A. \|url\=http://www.cis.org/articles/2000/ins1986amnesty.html\|title\=New INS Report \|website\=cis.org \|publisher \= Center for Immigration Studies \|date \= October 2000 \|access\-date\=14 September 2014}}
*See also*: {{cite book \|last \= INS \|author\-link \= Immigration and Naturalization Service \|title \= Statistical yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 2000 \|url \= https://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/two\_unauthorized\_immigration\_us.pdf \|publisher \= \[\[Immigration and Naturalization Service\|Immigration and Naturalization Service, U.S. Department of Justice]] \|id \= M\-367 \|date \= September 2000 \|location \= Washington, D.C. \|oclc \= 780095878 }}
* By 2014, the [Tea Party movement](/wiki/Tea_Party_movement "Tea Party movement") narrowed its focus away from economic issues, spending and [Obamacare](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act") to attacking President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama")'s immigration policies. They saw his immigration policies as threatening to transform American society. They tried but failed to defeat leading Republicans who supported immigration programs, such as Senator [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain"). A typical slogan appeared in the *Tea Party Tribune*: "Amnesty for Millions, Tyranny for All." The *New York Times* reported:
What started five years ago as a groundswell of conservatives committed to curtailing the reach of the federal government, cutting the deficit and countering the Wall Street wing of the Republican Party has become a movement largely against immigration overhaul. The politicians, intellectual leaders and activists who consider themselves part of the Tea Party movement have redirected their energy from fiscal austerity and small government to stopping any changes that would legitimize people who are here illegally, either through granting them citizenship or legal status.{{cite news \|last\=Peters \|first\=Jeremy W. \|date\=25 November 2014 \|title\=Obama's Immigration Action Reinvigorates Tea Party \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/26/us/obamas\-immigration\-action\-reinvigorates\-tea\-party.html \|newspaper\= \[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=29 January 2015}}
As of 2014, over 42\.4 million immigrants were living in the United States. This was about 13\.3% of the entire United States population at that time.{{cite web\|last1\=Zong\|first1\=Jie\|last2\=Batalova\|first2\=Jeanne\|title\=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States\|url\=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently\-requested\-statistics\-immigrants\-and\-immigration\-united\-states\|website\=Migration Policy Institute\|access\-date\=30 January 2017}}
In 2016, New York City millionaire and media personality, [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump"), ran [a successful presidential campaign aimed at ending illegal immigration](/wiki/Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign "Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"). Trump portrayed himself as the outsider who would "[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again")," calling out to the Tea Party movement and the like who wanted to "take their country back." Several of his campaign promises included [construction of a border wall along the US–Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall "Trump wall"), a temporary suspension of migration to the United States from several Muslim\-majority nations, and the [deportation](/wiki/Deportation "Deportation") of undocumented immigrants. Trump was known for his "[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again")" rhetoric which could become provocative, inciting violence at [his campaign rallies](/wiki/List_of_rallies_for_the_Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign "List of rallies for the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"). A major part of his 2016 campaign was opposition to "[political correctness](/wiki/Political_correctness "Political correctness")", which he criticized as too nice, when we need to be stronger and tougher. Although Trump's [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"), and even some of his fellow [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)"), such as [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain") and [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney "Mitt Romney"), called Trump's ["Make America Great Again"](/wiki/%22Make_America_Great_Again%22)/anti\-immigrant rhetoric racist, xenophobic, Islamophobic, and dangerous, but his proposals found strong support in the [heartland](/wiki/Heartland_%28United_States%29 "Heartland (United States)") and the [south](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States").
On [November 8, 2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election "2016 United States presidential election"), Trump won as the 2016 US presidential election against his [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"). Although Clinton won the popular vote, Trump won the electoral college.
Trump was later [inaugurated on January 20, 2017](/wiki/Inauguration_of_Donald_Trump "Inauguration of Donald Trump"). After taking the oath of office, Trump gave a speech that lacked any of the incendiary rhetoric many people had grown accustomed to, such as when he argued that prejudice isn't consistent with patriotism \- though many still viewed his speech as divisive. He tried to strike a balance between rallying [his supporters](/wiki/Trumpism "Trumpism") and uniting the country. The speech seemingly called out previous US politicians, including [the former](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") [presidents](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") [sitting next](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") [to him](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter"), as being ineffective and inadequate at leading most Americans. It also echoed much of the same [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist "Isolationist") and [nativist](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 "Nativism (politics)") rhetoric that [his campaign](/wiki/Trumpism "Trumpism") had inspired, in which Trump related his election to that of a revolution in the country, promising to take the country back. [Nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism "Nationalism") ran high, with Trump stating that [America would come first in every situation from that moment forward](/wiki/America_First_%28policy%29 "America First (policy)"), and in the finale he repeated his longstanding campaign promise to [Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again").
Promptly after his inauguration, Trump issued an executive order to begin construction of [a border wall along the US\-Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall "Trump wall") and limit the number of refugees and foreigners entering the country. Then on January 27, 2017, he issued [an executive order banning the admission of travelers from seven Muslim\-majority nations](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 "Executive Order 13769"), which was met with [large protests at airports all over the nation](/wiki/Protests_against_Executive_Order_13769 "Protests against Executive Order 13769"). The order would not only shut down the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program for 120 days, but also suspend entry from seven countries for 90 days. Since the countries subject to the ban were [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"), [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"), [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"), and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen "Yemen"), Trump’s travel ban was referred to by critics and supporters alike as “the Muslim ban.” After the original executive order, there were two more modified versions of the travel ban, which were all met with polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.
Later on in his presidency, in April 2018, the [Trump administration](/wiki/Trump_administration "Trump administration")’s zero\-tolerance [family separation policy saw migrant children taken from their parents, until it was suspended in response to public opposition](/wiki/Trump_administration_family_separation_policy "Trump administration family separation policy") on June 20, 2018\. But immigration became the focus again in the lead\-up to the midterm elections when President Trump sent troops to the border to meet a migrant caravan. Tensions came to a head on November 25, 2018, when border agents fired tear gas after migrants rushed barriers. Tear gas has been used at the border since 2010, but critics called its use on a desperate group with small children overkill. In one of the more surreal moments of 2018, the President at first denied that children had been gassed, despite plenty of photos. This was also met with [large nationwide protests](/wiki/Families_Belong_Together "Families Belong Together") and polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.
Labor unions
{{Main\|Immigration policies of American labor unions}}
The [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor "American Federation of Labor") (AFL), a coalition of labor unions formed in the 1880s, vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.{{cite journal \|last \= Collomp \|first \= Catherine \| title \= Unions, civics, and National identity: organized Labor's reaction to immigration, 1881–1897 \| journal \= \[\[Labor History (journal)\|Labor History]] \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 450–474 \| publisher \= \[\[Taylor and Francis]] \| doi \= 10\.1080/00236568800890311 \| date \= October 1988 }} Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. However, nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its [Euro\-American](/wiki/European_Americans "European Americans") members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 [Emergency Quota Act](/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act "Emergency Quota Act") and the [Immigration Act of 1924](/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924 "Immigration Act of 1924"), and seeing that they were strictly enforced.{{cite journal \|last \= Lane \|first \= A.T. \| title \= American trade unions, mass immigration and the literacy test: 1900–1917 \| journal \= \[\[Labor History (journal)\|Labor History]] \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 5–25 \| publisher \= \[\[Taylor and Francis]] \| doi \= 10\.1080/00236568408584739 \| date \= January 1984 }}
Mink (1986\) concludes that the link between the AFL and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "History of the Democratic Party (United States)") rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.{{cite book \| last \= Mink \| first \= Gwendolyn \| title \= Old labor and new immigrants in American political development: union, party, and state, 1875–1920 \| publisher \= Cornell University Press \| location \= Ithaca \| year \= 1986 \| isbn \= 9780801418631 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/oldlabornewimmig00mink }}
The [United Farm Workers](/wiki/United_Farm_Workers "United Farm Workers") was committed to restricting immigration during [Cesar Chavez](/wiki/Cesar_Chavez "Cesar Chavez") tenure. Chavez and [Dolores Huerta](/wiki/Dolores_Huerta "Dolores Huerta"), cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the [Bracero Program](/wiki/Bracero_Program "Bracero Program") that existed from 1942 to 1964\. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964\. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.
On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti\-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti\-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the [Imperial](/wiki/Imperial_Valley_%28California%29 "Imperial Valley (California)") and [Coachella Valleys](/wiki/Coachella_Valley "Coachella Valley") to the border of Mexico to protest growers' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. Joining him on the march were Reverend [Ralph Abernathy](/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy "Ralph Abernathy") and U.S. Senator [Walter Mondale](/wiki/Walter_Mondale "Walter Mondale").{{cite web \|last1\=Artz \|first1\=Matt \|title\=Civil Rights, Vietnam and the Decade of Protest (1960\-1970\) \|url\=https://understandingrace.org/history/society/civil\-rights\-vietnam\-and\-the\-decade\-of\-protest\-1960\-1970/\#:\~:text\=In%201969%2C%20Chávez%20and%20UFW,from%20grape%20and%20lettuce%20growers. \|website\=Understanding RACE \|access\-date\=15 June 2023 \|date\=27 January 1960}} In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the [Immigration and Naturalization Service](/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service "Immigration and Naturalization Service").{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HAd4W9OdLX0C\&q\=UFW\+report\+undocumented\&pg\=PA197\|title\=Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants and the Politics of Ethnicity\|first\=David Gregory\|last\=Gutiérrez\|year\=1995\|pages\=97–98\|publisher\=University of California Press\|location\=San Diego\|isbn\=9780520916869}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.aim.org/publications/media\_monitor/2003/03/05\.html\|title\=Why Journalists Support Illegal Immigration\|publisher\=Accuracy in the Media\|first1\=Reed\|last1\=Irvine\|first2\=Cliff\|last2\=Kincaid\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|archive\-date\=3 December 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203084534/http://www.aim.org/publications/media\_monitor/2003/03/05\.html\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ewnEO2GvkFIC\&q\=ufw\+undocumented\&pg\=PA89\|title\=Strawberry Fields: Politics, Class, and Work in California Agriculture\|first\=Miriam J.\|last\=Wells\|pages\=89–90\|publisher\=Cornell University Press\|location\=New York\|year\=1996\|isbn\=9780801482793}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PnUgAAAAMAAJ\&q\=crack\+down\|title\=Beyond the Border: Mexico \& the U.S. Today\|first1\=Peter\|last1\=Baird\|first2\=Ed\|last2\=McCaughan\|page\=169\|publisher\=North American Congress on Latin America\|isbn\=9780916024376\|year\=1979}}Farmworker Collective Bargaining, 1979: Hearings Before the Committee on Labor Human Resources Hearings held in Salinas, Calif., 26 April 27, and Washington, D.C., 24 May 1979
In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a "wet line" along the [United States\-Mexico border](/wiki/United_States-Mexico_border "United States-Mexico border") to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW's unionization efforts.["PBS Airs Chávez Documentary"](http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=217_0_3_0), University of California at Davis – Rural Migration News. During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some [UFW](/wiki/UFW "UFW") members, under the guidance of Chavez's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=raNFo6Tvmt0C\&q\=cesar\+chavez\+undocumented\&pg\=PA18\|title\=Cesar Chavez: A Brief Biography with Documents\|first\=Richard W.\|last\=Etulain\|page\=18\|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan\|year\=2002\|isbn\=9780312294274}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\-12\-29/columns/ask\-a\-mexican/\|title\=The year in Mexican\-bashing\|first\=Gustavo\|last\=Arellano\|newspaper\=OC Weekly\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609052417/http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\-12\-29/columns/ask\-a\-mexican/\|archive\-date\=9 June 2014\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\-ed/navarrette/20050330\-9999\-lz1e30navar.html\|title\=The Arizona Minutemen and César Chávez\|newspaper\=San Diego Union Tribune\|first\=Ruben Jr.\|last\=Navarrette\|date\=30 March 2005\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805204302/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\-ed/navarrette/20050330\-9999\-lz1e30navar.html\|archive\-date\=5 August 2009}}
In 1979, Chavez used a forum of a U.S. Senate committee hearing to denounce the federal immigration service, which he said the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service purportedly refused to arrest illegal Mexican immigrants who Chavez claims are being used to break the union's strike.{{cite news \|last1\=Cannon \|first1\=Lou \|title\=Chavez Employs Senate Hearing To Urge National Lettuce Boycott \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/27/chavez\-employs\-senate\-hearing\-to\-urge\-national\-lettuce\-boycott/50b668f3\-0b1d\-46de\-8c11\-909a61e5bcae/ \|access\-date\=28 September 2021 \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 27, 1979}}
[Bernie Sanders](/wiki/Bernie_Sanders "Bernie Sanders") opposes guest worker programs{{cite web \|last\=Jamieson \|first\=Dave \|date\=19 June 2013 \|title\=Senator Sounds Alarm On Teen Unemployment \|website\=The Huffington Post \|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/19/bernie\-sanders\-immigration\-reform\_n\_3467243\.html \|access\-date\=15 June 2015}} and he is also skeptical of skilled immigrant ([H\-1B](/wiki/H-1B "H-1B")) visas, saying,: "Last year, the top 10 employers of H\-1B guest workers were all offshore outsourcing companies. These firms are responsible for shipping large numbers of American information technology jobs to India and other countries".{{cite web \|last\=Thibodeau \|first\=Patrick \|date\=1 May 2015 \|title\=Meet Bernie Sanders, H\-1B skeptic \|website\=Computerworld \|url\=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2916827/it\-outsourcing/bernie\-sanders\-h\-1b\-skeptic.html \|access\-date\=15 June 2015}} In an interview with *Vox*, he stated his opposition to an open borders immigration policy, describing it as such:
> \[A] right\-wing proposal, which says essentially there is no United States. \[...] \[Y]ou're doing away with the concept of a nation\-state. What right\-wing people in this country would love is an open\-border policy. Bring in all kinds of people, work for $2 or $3 an hour, that would be great for them. I don't believe in that. I think we have to raise wages in this country, I think we have to do everything we can to create millions of jobs.{{cite web\|last\=Bier \|first\=Daniel \|url\=http://www.newsweek.com/bernie\-sanders\-immigrants\-silly\-tribal\-and\-economically\-illiterate\-358369 \|title\=Bernie Sanders on Immigrants: Silly, Tribal and Economically Illiterate \|date\=30 July 2015 \|publisher\=Newsweek.com \|access\-date\=27 July 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/aug/03/bernie\-sanders\-open\-borders\-economy\|title\=Bernie Sanders is wrong on open borders; they'd help boost the economy \|last\=Massimino\|first\=Cory\|work\=the Guardian\|date\=3 August 2015 }}
### Africa
#### South Africa
{{see also\|Xenophobia in South Africa\|Immigration to South Africa}}
Several periods of violent riots against migrants have occurred in South Africa in the past decade, some resulting in fatalities. Countries from which the migrants targeted originated include [Malawi](/wiki/Malawi "Malawi"), [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique") and [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe "Zimbabwe").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-africa\-32372501\|title\=South Africa anti\-immigrant violence: Hundreds held\|work\=BBC News\|date\=19 April 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2014045/South\-Africa\-riots\-Violence\-against\-immigrants\-spreads\-to\-Cape\-Town.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2014045/South\-Africa\-riots\-Violence\-against\-immigrants\-spreads\-to\-Cape\-Town.html \|archive\-date\=12 January 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|title\=South Africa riots: Violence against immigrants spreads to Cape Town\|date\=23 May 2008}}{{cbignore}}
In March 2019, groups armed with machetes broke into the homes of migrants in [Durban](/wiki/Durban "Durban"). At least six people were killed, several were wounded and their homes were looted. At least 300 Malawi migrants were forced to leave the country. In separate attacks, foreign truck drivers were forced out of their vehicles and were attacked with knives. On 2 April 2019, another group of migrants in Durban was attacked{{By whom\|date\=April 2019}} and forced to flee their homes. The escalating violence added tension to the [2019 South African general election](/wiki/2019_South_African_general_election "2019 South African general election").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.gp.se/1\.14580250\|title\=Våld mot migranter skapar oro i Sydafrika\|last\=Karlsson, TT\|first\=Mia Holmberg\|website\=gp.se\|date\=16 April 2019\|language\=sv\|access\-date\=16 April 2019}}
[Operation Dudula](/wiki/Operation_Dudula "Operation Dudula") is a political organization described as xenophobic and linked to violent targeting of immigrants.
|
[
"Opposition to immigration by country or region\n----------------------------------------------",
"In 2018, a survey of 27 countries around the world showed that a median of 45% wanted fewer or no immigrants, 36% wanted to keep the current immigration levels and only 14% wanted immigration to increase. The median of those opposing was the highest in countries receiving the most migrants, with 51% in European countries.",
"| \\+Respondents who indicated they wanted immigrants moving into their country | Country/territory | Fewer/none (%) | About the same (%) | More (%) |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{Flag\\|Greece}} | 82 | 15 | 2 |\n| {{Flag\\|Israel}} | 73 | 15 | 9 |\n| {{Flag\\|Hungary}} | 72 | 22 | 2 |\n| {{Flag\\|Italy}} | 71 | 18 | 5 |\n| {{Flag\\|Russia}} | 67 | 23 | 7 |\n| {{Flag\\|South Africa}} | 65 | 23 | 11 |\n| {{Flag\\|Argentina}} | 61 | 28 | 6 |\n| {{Flag\\|Kenya}} | 60 | 24 | 15 |\n| {{Flag\\|Germany}} | 58 | 30 | 10 |\n| {{Flag\\|Indonesia}} | 54 | 31 | 8 |\n| {{Flag\\|Sweden}} | 52 | 33 | 14 |\n| {{Flag\\|Nigeria}} | 50 | 26 | 20 |\n| {{Flag\\|Poland}} | 49 | 36 | 9 |\n| {{Flag\\|India}} | 45 | 11 | 13 |\n| {{Flag\\|Mexico}} | 44 | 42 | 11 |\n| {{Flag\\|Tunisia}} | 42 | 38 | 20 |\n| {{Flag\\|France}} | 41 | 42 | 16 |\n| {{Flag\\|Netherlands}} | 39 | 49 | 10 |\n| {{Flag\\|Australia}} | 38 | 42 | 18 |\n| {{Flag\\|Brazil}} | 37 | 44 | 14 |\n| {{Flag\\|United Kingdom}} | 37 | 43 | 16 |\n| {{Flag\\|Philippines}} | 32 | 46 | 19 |\n| {{Flag\\|Spain}} | 30 | 39 | 28 |\n| {{Flag\\|United States}} | 29 | 44 | 24 |\n| {{Flag\\|South Korea}} | 28 | 52 | 18 |\n| {{Flag\\|Canada}} | 27 | 53 | 19 |\n| {{Flag\\|Japan}} | 13 | 58 | 23 |",
"",
"### Australia",
"[thumb\\|[Pauline Hanson](/wiki/Pauline_Hanson \"Pauline Hanson\") said in her maiden speech in 1996 that Australia \"was in danger of being swamped by Asians\"{{Cite news \\|date\\=2016\\-09\\-15 \\|title\\=Pauline Hanson defiant as speech criticised in Australia \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-australia\\-37335544 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-12 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}](/wiki/File:Pauline_Hanson_%28438351804%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Pauline Hanson (438351804) (cropped).jpg\")",
"The impact of Europeans was profoundly disruptive to Aboriginal life and, though the extent of violence is debated, there was considerable conflict on the frontier. At the same time, some settlers were quite aware they were usurping the Aborigines place in Australia. In 1845, settler Charles Griffiths sought to justify this, writing; \"The question comes to this; which has the better right – the savage, born in a country, which he runs over but can scarcely be said to occupy ... or the civilized man, who comes to introduce into this ... unproductive country, the industry which supports life.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"A sparsely\\-populated continental nation with a predominantly European population, [Australia](/wiki/History_of_Australia \"History of Australia\") has long feared being overwhelmed by the heavily populated Asian countries to its north. The standard policy after 1900 was \"[White Australia](/wiki/White_Australia \"White Australia\")\" which encouraged immigration from Britain, was suspicious of immigrants from Germany and elsewhere in Europe, and which was quite hostile to immigrants from Asia or the Pacific islands.{{cite journal \\| last \\= Jensen \\| first \\= Richard \\| title \\= Comparative nativism: the United States, Canada and Australia, 1880s–1910s \\| journal \\= Canadian Issues \\| pages \\= 45–55 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Association for Canadian Studies]] \\| date \\= Spring 2009 \\| url \\= https://acs\\-aec.ca/en/publications/canadian\\-issues/borders\\-boundaries/buy\\-now/ \\| access\\-date \\= 23 February 2016 \\| archive\\-date \\= 3 July 2017 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170703230221/https://acs\\-aec.ca/en/publications/canadian\\-issues/borders\\-boundaries/buy\\-now/ \\| url\\-status \\= dead }} After World War II, most Australians agreed that the country must \"populate or perish\".{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}} Immigration brought people from traditional sources such as the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles \"British Isles\") along with, for the first time, large numbers of Southern and Central Europeans. The abolition of the so\\-called '[White Australia policy](/wiki/White_Australia_policy \"White Australia policy\")' during the early 1970s led to a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non\\-European countries.",
"[Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia \"Prime Minister of Australia\") [John Curtin](/wiki/John_Curtin \"John Curtin\") supported [White Australia policy](/wiki/White_Australia_policy \"White Australia policy\"), saying \"This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact\\-sheets/08abolition\\|title\\=Fact Sheet – Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy\\|publisher\\=Commonwealth of Australia, National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship\\|work\\=Australian Immigration\\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919131355/http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact\\-sheets/08abolition\\|archive\\-date\\=19 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"[Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia \"Prime Minister of Australia\") [Stanley Bruce](/wiki/Stanley_Bruce \"Stanley Bruce\") was a supporter of the White Australia Policy, and made it an issue in his campaign for the 1925 Australian Federal election.\n{{cite news \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article155676023 \\|title\\=ISSUES OF THE ELECTIONS \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Age]] \\|location\\=Victoria, Australia \\|date\\=6 October 1925 \\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2016 \\|page\\=11 \\|via\\=National Library of Australia}}\n> It is necessary that we should determine what are the ideals towards which every Australian would desire to strive. I think those ideals might well be stated as being to secure our national safety, and to ensure the maintenance of our White Australia Policy to continue as an integral portion of the British Empire. We intend to keep this country white and not allow its people to be faced with the problems that at present are practically insoluble in many parts of the world.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ywV16n6mOUUC\\&q\\=%22stanley\\+bruce%22\\&pg\\=PA301\\|title\\=The Great Barrier Reef: History, Science, Heritage\\|last\\=Bowen\\|first\\=James\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge University Press]]\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-82430\\-3\\|page\\=301\\|author2\\=Bowen, Margarita\\|access\\-date\\=24 January 2008}}",
"",
"Labor leader (1951–1960\\) [H. V. Evatt](/wiki/H._V._Evatt \"H. V. Evatt\") was a defender of the [White Australia Policy](/wiki/White_Australia_Policy \"White Australia Policy\"). There was a strong view in Australia that any softening of the White Australia stance might result in cheaper labour being imported from overseas. Another prevailing sentiment was that multiculturalism resulted in instability. Evatt, opposing resolutions which could have led to more Asian immigration to Australia, told the Chinese delegation at San Francisco:",
"> You have always insisted on the right to determine the composition of your own people. Australia wants that right now. What you are attempting to do now, Japan attempted after the last war \\[the First World War] and was prevented by Australia. Had we opened New Guinea and Australia to Japanese immigration then the Pacific War by now might have ended disastrously and we might have had another shambles like that experienced in Malaya.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.moadoph.gov.au/blog/dr\\-evatt\\-goes\\-to\\-san\\-francisco\\|title\\=Dr Evatt Goes to San Francisco\\|first\\=Executive Agency within the Prime Minister and Cabinet portfolio\\|last\\=corporatename:Old Parliament House\\|website\\=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House\\|date\\=25 June 2015 }}",
"",
"Another (ALP) [Leader of the Labor Party](/wiki/Leaders_of_the_Australian_Labor_Party \"Leaders of the Australian Labor Party\") from 1960 to 1967 [Arthur Calwell](/wiki/Arthur_Calwell \"Arthur Calwell\") supported the White European Australia policy. This is reflected by Calwell's comments in his 1972 memoirs, *Be Just and Fear Not*, in which he made it clear that he maintained his view that non\\-European people should not be allowed to settle in Australia. He wrote:",
"",
"> I am proud of my white skin, just as a Chinese is proud of his yellow skin, a Japanese of his brown skin, and the Indians of their various hues from black to coffee\\-colored. Anybody who is not proud of his race is not a man at all. And any man who tries to stigmatize the Australian community as racist because they want to preserve this country for the white race is doing our nation great harm... I reject, in conscience, the idea that Australia should or ever can become a multi\\-racial society and survive.Calwell, *Be Just and Fear Not*, 117",
"It was the high\\-profile historian [Geoffrey Blainey](/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey \"Geoffrey Blainey\"), however, who first achieved mainstream recognition for the anti\\-multiculturalist cause when he wrote that multiculturalism threatened to transform Australia into a \"cluster of tribes\". In his 1984 book *[All for Australia](/wiki/All_for_Australia \"All for Australia\")*, Blainey criticised multiculturalism for tending to \"emphasise the rights of ethnic minorities at the expense of the majority of Australians\" and also for tending to be \"anti\\-British\", even though \"people from the United Kingdom and Ireland form the dominant class of pre\\-war immigrants and the largest single group of post\\-war immigrants.\"",
"According to Blainey, such a policy, with its \"emphasis on what is different and on the rights of the new minority rather than the old majority,\" was unnecessarily creating division and threatened national cohesion. He argued that \"the evidence is clear that many multicultural societies have failed and that the human cost of the failure has been high\" and warned that \"we should think very carefully about the perils of converting Australia into a giant multicultural laboratory for the assumed benefit of the peoples of the world.\"Blainey, G. (1984\\). *All For Australia*, North Ryde, NSW: Methuen Haynes ({{ISBN\\|0\\-454\\-00828\\-7}})",
"In one of his many criticisms of [multiculturalism](/wiki/Multiculturalism \"Multiculturalism\"), Blainey wrote:",
"",
"> For the millions of Australians who have no other nation to fall back upon, multiculturalism is almost an insult. It is divisive. It threatens social cohesion. It could, in the long\\-term, also endanger Australia's military security because it sets up enclaves which in a crisis could appeal to their own homelands for help.",
"Blainey remained a persistent critic of multiculturalism into the 1990s, denouncing multiculturalism as \"morally, intellectually and economically ... a sham\".",
"In the 1996 election [Pauline Hanson](/wiki/Pauline_Hanson \"Pauline Hanson\") was elected to the federal seat of [Oxley](/wiki/Division_of_Oxley \"Division of Oxley\"). In her controversial maiden speech to the House of Representatives, she expressed her belief that Australia \"was in danger of being swamped by Asians\". Hanson went on to form the [One Nation Party](/wiki/One_Nation_Party \"One Nation Party\"), which initially won nearly one quarter of the vote in [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\") state elections before entering a period of decline due to internal disputes.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Goot \\|first \\= Murray \\| title \\= Pauline Hanson's One Nation: extreme right, centre party or extreme left? \\| journal \\= Labour History \\| volume \\= 89 \\|issue \\= 89 \\| pages \\= 101–119 \\| publisher \\= Australian Society for the Study of Labour History (ASSLH) \\| doi \\= 10\\.2307/27516078 \\| jstor \\= 27516078 \\| date \\= November 2005 }} The name \"One Nation\" was meant to signify national unity, in contrast to what Hanson said was an increasing division in Australian society caused by government policies favouring migrants (multiculturalism) and indigenous Australians.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Ben\\-Moshe \\|first \\= Danny \\| title \\= One Nation and the Australian far right \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Patterns of Prejudice]] \\| volume \\= 35 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 24–40 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Taylor and Francis]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/003132201128811205 \\| date \\= July 2001 \\|s2cid \\= 145077630 }}",
"Some Australians reacted angrily to One Nation, as Hanson was subjected to water balloons filled with urine at public speeches, ridiculed in the media, and received so many death threats she filmed a \"good\\-bye video\" in the case of her assassination.{{cite journal \\| last \\= Scalmer \\|first \\= Sean \\| title \\= From contestation to autonomy: the staging and framing of anti\\-Hanson contention \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Australian Journal of Politics and History]] \\| volume \\= 47 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 209–224 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Wiley\\-Blackwell\\|Wiley]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/1467\\-8497\\.00228 \\| date \\= June 2001 }} She was imprisoned by the government on political corruption charges, which were dropped after her imprisonment. In recent years, however, Hanson returned to politics in 2016 after being elected as One Nation Senator for Queensland, and the rise of other anti\\-immigrant parties such as the Australian Liberty Alliance and groups such as the United Patriot Front indicates that anti\\-immigration sentiment may be becoming mainstream.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"Minister of immigration [Alex Hawke](/wiki/Alex_Hawke \"Alex Hawke\"), minister of defense [Peter Dutton](/wiki/Peter_Dutton \"Peter Dutton\"), former prime\\-minister [Tony Abbott](/wiki/Tony_Abbott \"Tony Abbott\"), premier of New South Wales [Dominic Perrottet](/wiki/Dominic_Perrottet \"Dominic Perrottet\") and other members of [right\\-wing faction](/wiki/National_Right_%28Liberal_Party_of_Australia%29 \"National Right (Liberal Party of Australia)\") of [Liberal/national coalition](/wiki/Coalition_%28Australia%29 \"Coalition (Australia)\") have anti\\-immigration views.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"During the [premiership of Tony Abbott](/wiki/Abbott_government \"Abbott government\") Australia started the anti\\-immigration [Operation Sovereign Borders](/wiki/Operation_Sovereign_Borders \"Operation Sovereign Borders\"), which was continued by the [Scott Morrison government](/wiki/Morrison_government \"Morrison government\")",
"### Canada",
"[thumb\\|Stop immigration sticker on public roadsign ( Montréal, 2021 )](/wiki/File:Arr%C3%AAtons-l%27immigration_%282021%29.jpg \"Arrêtons-l'immigration (2021).jpg\")\nOpponents of [immigration to Canada](/wiki/Immigration_to_Canada \"Immigration to Canada\") have argued that immigration to Canada in current numbers of over 400 000 per year,{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fraser \\|first1\\=Sean \\|title\\=Minister of Immigration, Refugees, and Citizenship \\|url\\=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/documents/pdf/english/corporate/publications\\-manuals/annual\\-report\\-2022\\-en.pdf \\|website\\=Government of Canada \\|publisher\\=Immigration, refugees, and citizenship Canada \\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2023}} the highest in the Western world, is unsustainable and puts pressure on resources such as further worsening the country's current [housing crisis](/wiki/Affordable_housing \"Affordable housing\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://immigrationwatchcanada.org/2015/11/22/unjustified\\-immigration\\-levels\\-against\\-publics\\-wishes/\\|title\\=Unjustified Immigration Levels Against Public's Wishes\\|date\\=23 November 2015\\|website\\=Immigration Watch Canada}}{{Unreliable source?\\|reason\\=\"highest in the Western world\" needs a more reliable citation; the article in question does not give a citation for this statistic.\\|date\\=August 2023}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/canadas\\-backlogged\\-asylum\\-system\\-is\\-not\\-sustainable\\-immigration\\-minister\\-says\\-in\\-leaked\\-letter\\|title\\=Canada's backlogged asylum system is 'not sustainable,' immigration minister says in leaked letter\\|newspaper\\=National Post\\|date\\=25 August 2018 \\|last1\\=Humphreys \\|first1\\=Maura Forrest }} They argue that Canadian cities are limited in size and cannot take an infinite number of people. This also further creates a competition for jobs and puts a strain on the economy, the environment and tax funded public services.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://vancouversun.com/opinion/letters/letters\\-immigration\\-policy\\-fuels\\-unsustainable\\-demands\\|title\\=Letters: Immigration policy fuels unsustainable demands\\|website\\=vancouversun}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Rieger \\|first1\\=Sarah \\|title\\=Why Bernier's PPC polls higher in Alberta than anywhere else \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/ppc\\-alberta\\-1\\.5315754 \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2021 \\|work\\=CBC News \\|date\\=October 18, 2019}} Economic and housing resources seems to be the largest concern for Canadians, and recent studies show declining fear of immigrants threatening cultures or values.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Public Opinion about Immigration \\& Refugees \\|url\\=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/projects/project\\-details/public\\-opinion\\-about\\-immigration\\-refugees \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-08 \\|website\\=Environics Institute \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Europe",
"{{See also\\|Immigration to Europe}}",
"A February 2017 poll of 10,000 people in 10 European countries by [Chatham House](/wiki/Chatham_House \"Chatham House\") found on average a majority (55%) were opposed to further Muslim immigration, with opposition especially pronounced in several countries: Austria (65%), Poland (71%), Hungary (64%), France (61%) and Belgium (64%). Except for Poland, all of those had recently suffered [jihadist terror attacks](/wiki/Islamic_terrorism \"Islamic terrorism\") or been at the centre of a refugee crisis. Of those opposed to further Muslim immigration, 3/4 classify themselves as on the right of the political spectrum. Of those self\\-classifying as on the left of the political spectrum, 1/3 supported a halt.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/what\\-do\\-europeans\\-think\\-about\\-muslim\\-immigration\\|title\\=What Do Europeans Think About Muslim Immigration?\\|work\\=Chatham House\\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2018\\|language\\=en}}",
"According to a [Yougov](/wiki/YouGov \"YouGov\") poll in 2018, majorities in all seven polled countries were opposed to accepting more migrants: Germany (72%), Denmark (65%), Finland (64%), Sweden (60%), United Kingdom (58%), France (58%) and Norway (52%).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://yougov.co.uk/news/2018/07/17/eurotrack\\-uk\\-denmark\\-finland\\-and\\-norway\\-not\\-pullin/\\|title\\=YouGov {{!}} Eurotrack: UK, Denmark, Finland and Norway not pulling their weight on migrants\\|website\\=YouGov: What the world thinks\\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2018}}",
"Political opposition to high levels of legal immigration has been associated with certain [right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") parties in the EU. The issue increased with the [European migrant crisis](/wiki/European_migrant_crisis \"European migrant crisis\") in 2015 with large numbers of refugees from the Middle East and Africa making dangerous trips to Europe and many deaths en route. With high levels of unemployment and partly unassimilated non\\-European immigrant populations already within the EU, parties opposed to immigration have improved their position in polls and elections. Right\\-wing parties critical to immigration have entered the government in Austria, Denmark, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland and Slovakia, and have become major factors in English, Swedish, German and French politics.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Z2nG1bCRUEMC\\&pg\\=PA39\\|title\\=Rethinking the French New Right: Alternatives to Modernity\\|first\\=Tamir\\|last\\=Bar\\-On\\|date\\=12 April 2013\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=9781135966263\\|via\\=Google Books}}",
"Immigration is one of the central political issues in many European countries, and increasingly also at [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") level. The anti\\-immigration perspective is predominantly nationalist, cultural and economic. A new index measuring the level of perceived threat from immigrants has been recently proposed and applied to a data set covering 47 European countries and regions.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Marozzi\\|first\\=Marco \\| title \\= Construction, robustness assessment and application of an index of perceived level of socio\\-economic threat from immigrants: a study of 47 European countries and regions \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Social Indicators Research]] \\|volume\\=128 \\| pages \\= 413–437 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Springer Science\\+Business Media\\|Springer]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s11205\\-015\\-1037\\-z \\| date \\= 2015 \\|issue\\=1 \\|s2cid\\=152888964 }}",
"In France, the [National Front](/wiki/National_Front_%28France%29 \"National Front (France)\") opposed immigration as of 2000\\.{{cite book \\| last \\= Fetzer \\| first \\= Joel S. \\| title \\= Public attitudes toward immigration in the United States, France, and Germany \\| publisher \\= Cambridge University Press \\| location \\= Cambridge New York \\| year \\= 2000 \\| isbn \\= 9780521786799 \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/publicattitudest0000fetz }} In the 1988 elections, 75% of supporters of its leader [Jean\\-Marie Le Pen](/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Pen \"Jean-Marie Le Pen\") believed France had too many immigrants as opposed to 35% of all voters.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Mayer \\|first1 \\= Nonna \\|author\\-link1\\=Nonna Mayer \\| last2 \\= Perrineau \\| first2 \\= Pascal \\| title \\= Why do they vote for Le Pen? \\| journal \\= \\[\\[European Journal of Political Research]] \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 123–141 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Wiley\\-Blackwell\\|Wiley]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1475\\-6765\\.1992\\.tb00308\\.x \\| date \\= July 1992 \\|s2cid \\= 153651501 \\|url \\= http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/f0uohitsgqh8dhk97j20ledri }}{{needs update\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"#### Denmark",
"{{See also\\|Immigration to Denmark\\|Islam in Denmark}}\nAccording to a poll in 2017, two out of three (64%) wished for limiting immigration from Muslim countries which was an increase from 2015 (54%).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.berlingske.dk/content/item/421956\\|title\\=To ud af tre vil begrænse muslimsk indvandring\\|date\\=14 March 2017\\|website\\=Berlingske.dk\\|language\\=da\\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2019}}",
"#### France",
"{{Main\\|Immigration to France}}",
"According to an Ipsos poll in September 2019, 65% responded that accepting migrants did not improve the situation in France and 45% responded that accepting migrants deprived the French of social services.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ipsos.com/fr\\-fr/la\\-france\\-en\\-tete\\-des\\-pays\\-en\\-attente\\-dun\\-leader\\-fort\\-pour\\-casser\\-les\\-regles\\|title\\=La France en tête des pays en attente d'un leader \" fort \" pour \" casser les règles \"\\|website\\=Ipsos\\|language\\=fr\\-fr\\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2019}}",
"The largest party in Senate [Les Républicains](/wiki/The_Republicans_%28France%29 \"The Republicans (France)\") have a right\\-wing populist views on immigration{{Cite web \\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-04 \\|title\\=Immigration \\|url\\=https://republicains.fr/nos\\-propositions/immigration/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-25 \\|website\\=les Républicains \\|language\\=fr\\-FR}}",
"#### Germany",
"{{See also\\|Immigration to Germany\\|European migrant crisis\\|PEGIDA\\|Alternative für Deutschland}}In 2018, a poll by [Pew Research](/wiki/Pew_Research_Center \"Pew Research Center\") found that a majority (58%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 30% wanted to keep the current level and 10% wanted to increase immigration.",
"#### Greece",
"In February 2020, more than 10,000 individuals attempted to cross the border between Greece and Turkey after Turkish president [Recep Tayyip Erdoğan](/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan \"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan\") opened its border to Europe, but they were blocked by Greek [army](/wiki/Hellenic_Army \"Hellenic Army\") and [police](/wiki/Hellenic_Police \"Hellenic Police\") forces. Hundreds of Greek soldiers and armed police resisted the trespassers and fired [tear gas](/wiki/Tear_gas \"Tear gas\") at them. Among those who attempted to cross the majority were not war refugees from Syria, but the largest group was from Afghanistan and the next largest from Pakistan along with significant numbers of migrants from African countries Ethiopia, Morocco and Algeria. Greece responded by refusing to accept asylum applications for a month.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.yahoo.com/greece\\-migrants\\-struggle\\-cross\\-eu\\-turkey\\-162105944\\.html\\|title\\='Are we in Greece?': Migrants seize their chance in Europe quest\\|website\\=news.yahoo.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2020}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/20200301\\-greece\\-blocks\\-thousands\\-of\\-migrants\\-trying\\-to\\-enter\\-from\\-turkey\\|title\\=Greece blocks thousands of migrants trying to enter from Turkey\\|date\\=1 March 2020\\|website\\=France 24\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2020}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://m.focus.de/politik/ausland/schon\\-fast\\-37\\-000\\-grenzuebertritte\\-verhindert\\-rotes\\-kreuz\\-besorgt\\-in\\-griechenland\\-kommen\\-weit\\-mehr\\-migranten\\-als\\-fluechtlinge\\-an\\_id\\_11738162\\.html\\|title\\=Anders als 2015: In Griechenland kommen viel mehr Migranten als Syrer an\\|website\\=FOCUS Online\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=8 March 2020}} Among the illegal immigrants who were apprehended between 28 February and 5 March by Greek authorities in the Evros region 64% were from Afghanistan, 19% were from Pakistan, 5% were from Turkey, 4% from Syria and 2\\.6% from Somalia.",
"#### Hungary",
"{{See also\\|Hungarian border barrier}}\nIn 2015 during the [European migrant crisis](/wiki/European_migrant_crisis \"European migrant crisis\"), [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\") built a razor\\-wire fence on its border to Serbia to stop migrants from entering the European Union.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-europe\\-34260071\\|title\\=Migrants stranded at Hungarian border\\|date\\=15 September 2015\\|access\\-date\\=27 September 2019\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"#### Ireland",
"In 2022, during the [Ukrainian refugee crisis](/wiki/2022_Ukrainian_refugee_crisis \"2022 Ukrainian refugee crisis\"), the Irish [Department of Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth](/wiki/Department_of_Children%2C_Equality%2C_Disability%2C_Integration_and_Youth \"Department of Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth\") (DCEDIY) set up [transitional shelters](/wiki/Transitional_shelter \"Transitional shelter\") for refugees from various backgrounds, which lead to nationwide protests, which the [Garda Síochána](/wiki/Garda_S%C3%ADoch%C3%A1na \"Garda Síochána\") say numbered 307 in 2022 and at least a further 169 {{As of\\|2023\\|August\\|lc\\=y}}.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Askew \\|first\\=Joshua \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-13 \\|title\\='Keep Ireland Irish': Say hello to Ireland's growing far right \\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/13/keep\\-ireland\\-irish\\-say\\-hello\\-to\\-irelands\\-growing\\-far\\-right \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-21 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Euronews]] \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gallagher \\|first\\=Conor \\|date\\=27 March 2023 \\|title\\=Anti\\-immigration protests have 'peaked', gardaí believe \\|language\\=en \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/crime\\-law/2023/03/27/anti\\-immigration\\-protests\\-have\\-peaked\\-gardai\\-believe/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-02}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Lally \\|first\\=Conor \\|date\\=21 August 2023 \\|title\\=Sustained fall in number of anti\\-immigration protests in Dublin \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/crime\\-law/2023/08/21/sustained\\-fall\\-in\\-number\\-of\\-anti\\-immigration\\-protests\\-in\\-dublin/}} They started over concerns over the lack of information given to the people in the areas beforehand,{{Cite web \\|last\\=Pepper \\|first\\=Diarmuid \\|date\\=22 November 2022 \\|title\\=Minister says East Wall 'leaflet drop' is planned amid dispute over asylum seeker accommodation \\|url\\=https://www.thejournal.ie/information\\-leaflets\\-dublin\\-east\\-wall\\-residents\\-asylum\\-seeker\\-accommodation\\-5927360\\-Nov2022/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-07 \\|website\\=TheJournal.ie \\|language\\=en}} an overcrowding of facilities and the existing housing crisis,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Grennan \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=30 November 2022 \\|title\\=East Wall locals slam 'embarrassing' refugee protests bringing 'element of fear' to the area \\|work\\=\\[\\[Dublin Live]] \\|url\\=https://www.dublinlive.ie/news/east\\-wall\\-locals\\-slam\\-embarrassing\\-25640742 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-04}} refugee welfare,{{Cite news \\|last\\=De Vaal \\|first\\=Danny \\|date\\=9 December 2022 \\|title\\=Inside East Wall refugee centre as asylum seekers want to join protests and say rooms are like 'cage for animals' \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Irish Mirror]] \\|url\\=https://www.irishmirror.ie/news/irish\\-news/inside\\-east\\-wall\\-refugee\\-centre\\-28689129 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-19}} and the lack of [women](/wiki/Refugee_women \"Refugee women\") and [children](/wiki/Refugee_children \"Refugee children\") in the initial group.{{Cite news \\|last\\=De Vaal \\|first\\=Danny \\|date\\=21 November 2022 \\|title\\=Second protest takes place in East Wall after 'male\\-only' asylum seekers housed in old ESB building \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Irish Mirror]] \\|url\\=https://www.irishmirror.ie/news/irish\\-news/second\\-protest\\-takes\\-place\\-east\\-28550267 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-19}}",
"As news of the protests spread, [far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") protestors used the events to express their opposition to immigration and many have been criticized as being racist, which is what led to the [counter\\-protests in County Cork](/wiki/East_Wall_and_Fermoy_protests%23Fermoy_demonstrations \"East Wall and Fermoy protests#Fermoy demonstrations\") and in the [\"Ireland for All\" rally](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Irish_anti-immigration_protests%23%22Ireland_for_All%22_Solidarity_Rally \"2022–23 Irish anti-immigration protests#\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=O'Callaghan \\|first\\=Gavin \\|date\\=2 December 2022 \\|title\\=Fermoy locals hosting 'Rally against Racism' demo in response to asylum protests \\|work\\=Cork Beo \\|url\\=https://www.corkbeo.ie/news/local\\-news/fermoy\\-locals\\-hosting\\-rally\\-against\\-25655458 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Wilson \\|first\\=Jade \\|date\\=18 February 2023 \\|title\\=Thousands protest against 'hatred and disinformation' at anti\\-racism march in Dublin \\|work\\=\\[\\[Irish Times]] \\|location\\= \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/social\\-affairs/2023/02/18/thousands\\-protest\\-against\\-hatred\\-and\\-disinformation\\-at\\-anti\\-racism\\-march\\-in\\-dublin/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 February 2023}} Some minority parties such as the [National Party](/wiki/National_Party_%28Ireland%2C_2016%29 \"National Party (Ireland, 2016)\"),{{Cite news \\|last\\=McEnroe \\|first\\=Juno \\|date\\=18 November 2016 \\|title\\=National Party president wants immigrants to leave \\|work\\=\\[\\[Irish Examiner]] \\|url\\=https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid\\-20431172\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-19}} the [Irish Freedom Party](/wiki/Irish_Freedom_Party \"Irish Freedom Party\"),{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Gallagher \\|first1\\=Conor \\|last2\\=Lally \\|first2\\=Conor \\|date\\=24 February 2021 \\|title\\=Refugee tribunal member sues for defamation \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/crime\\-and\\-law/refugee\\-tribunal\\-member\\-sues\\-for\\-defamation\\-1\\.4494131 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-19}} and [Ireland First](/wiki/Ireland_First \"Ireland First\") oppose immigration.{{cite news \\|last\\=Gallagher \\|first\\=Conor \\|date\\=12 March 2023 \\|title\\=Ireland First: Inside the group chat of Ireland's latest far\\-right political party \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|location\\= \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/social\\-affairs/2023/03/12/ireland\\-first\\-becomes\\-a\\-political\\-party\\-but\\-will\\-anyone\\-vote\\-for\\-it/ \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2023}} [Independent politicians](/wiki/Independent_politician \"Independent politician\") opposed to immigration also formed the now defunct [Immigration Control Platform](/wiki/Immigration_Control_Platform \"Immigration Control Platform\") and party [Identity Ireland](/wiki/Identity_Ireland \"Identity Ireland\") want to tighten [border control](/wiki/Border_control \"Border control\") restrictions and have been described by the *[TheJournal.ie](/wiki/TheJournal.ie \"TheJournal.ie\")* as anti\\-immigrant.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Brennan \\|first\\=Cianan \\|date\\=16 November 2016 \\|title\\=Dublin hotel cancels launch of new extreme right\\-wing party which had been planned for tomorrow \\|work\\=\\[\\[TheJournal.ie]] \\|url\\=https://www.thejournal.ie/the\\-national\\-party\\-merrion\\-hotel\\-3084352\\-Nov2016/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-20}} There is also an [Irish off\\-shoot of Pegida](/wiki/Pegida_Ireland \"Pegida Ireland\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Roche \\|first\\=Barry \\|date\\=9 February 2016 \\|title\\=Varadkar concerned by rise of anti\\-Islamic group Pegida \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|url\\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/varadkar\\-concerned\\-by\\-rise\\-of\\-anti\\-islamic\\-group\\-pegida\\-1\\.2526717 \\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2016}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Roche \\|first\\=Barry \\|date\\=30 January 2016 \\|title\\=Anti\\-Islamic group Pegida Ireland to be launched at Dublin rally \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|url\\=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish\\-news/anti\\-islamic\\-group\\-pegida\\-ireland\\-to\\-be\\-launched\\-at\\-dublin\\-rally\\-1\\.2515875 \\|access\\-date\\=27 February 2016}}",
"Social media campaigns have united the far\\-right activists to join the anti\\-immigration protests. Anti\\-immigration activists have used [Telegram](/wiki/Telegram_%28software%29 \"Telegram (software)\") to communicate and started campaigns such as *[\\#IrelandIsFull](/wiki/East_Wall_and_Fermoy_protests%23%22Ireland_is_full%22 \"East Wall and Fermoy protests#\")*, a [hashtag](/wiki/Hashtag \"Hashtag\") that trended on [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Malekmian \\|first\\=Shamim \\|date\\=30 November 2022 \\|title\\=How the Government Created an Opening for Anti\\-Immigration Activists to Exploit in East Wall \\|work\\=\\[\\[List of newspapers in the Republic of Ireland\\#Dublin\\|Dublin Inquirer]] \\|url\\=https://www.dublininquirer.com/2022/11/30/how\\-the\\-government\\-created\\-an\\-opening\\-for\\-anti\\-immigration\\-activists\\-to\\-exploit\\-in\\-east\\-wall \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05}} The DCEDIY projected a shortfall of 15,000 beds for refugees in December 2022 and admitted that there was mounting pressure to house 65,000 people.{{Cite news \\|date\\=19 November 2022 \\|title\\=Protest held over housing of asylum seekers in Dublin \\|work\\=\\[\\[RTÉ]] \\|url\\=https://www.rte.ie/news/regional/2022/1119/1337137\\-east\\-wall\\-protest/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05}}",
"Controversy has been raised over the loss or destruction of travel documents by 2,232 asylum seekers who were over 16 and traveling through [Dublin Airport](/wiki/Dublin_Airport \"Dublin Airport\") in 2022 after a [freedom of information request](/wiki/Freedom_of_information_laws_by_country%23Ireland \"Freedom of information laws by country#Ireland\"). Reports had been made of the destruction of passports during transit in 2019\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gallagher \\|first\\=Conor \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-08 \\|title\\=Thousands of asylum seekers arrive at Dublin Airport with no travel documents \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/2022/10/06/thousands\\-of\\-passengers\\-destroy\\-or\\-lose\\-passports\\-before\\-arrival\\-at\\-dublin\\-airport/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-16 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Healy \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=Bringing down the immigration curtain \\|url\\=https://www.mayonews.ie/news/local\\-news/1133830/bringing\\-down\\-the\\-immigration\\-curtain.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-16 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Mayo News]] \\|language\\=en\\-ie \\|archive\\-date\\=16 January 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116183827/https://www.mayonews.ie/comment\\-opinion/down\\-memory\\-lane/39023\\-bringing\\-down\\-the\\-immigration\\-curtain \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"#### Italy",
"{{See also\\|Immigration to Italy}}",
"According to poll published by *[Corriere della Serra](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera \"Corriere della Sera\")*, one of two respondents (51%) approved closing Italy's ports to further boat migrants arriving via the Mediterranean, while 19% welcomed further boat migrants.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.corriere.it/politica/19\\_gennaio\\_11/colpe\\-dell\\-emergenza\\-migranti\\-salvini\\-conte\\-dimaio\\-dacb3282\\-15e0\\-11e9\\-9cd3\\-6f68d3bb44a0\\.shtml\\|title\\=Le colpe dell'emergenza migranti? Il 60% punta il dito contro l'Europa\\|last\\=Pagnoncelli\\|first\\=Nando\\|date\\=1 November 2019\\|website\\=Corriere della Sera\\|language\\=it\\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2019}}",
"In 2018, a poll by [Pew Research](/wiki/Pew_Research_Center \"Pew Research Center\") found that a majority (71%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 18% wanted to keep the current level and 5% wanted to increase immigration.",
"#### Portugal",
"Portugal had little immigration until a sudden influx in the 1970s, as ex\\-colonists, most of them ethnically white, returned.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Peralta\\|first\\=Elsa\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=A integração dos retornados: identidade, desidentificação e ocultação\\|url\\=http://analisesocial.ics.ul.pt/documentos/n231\\_a04\\.pdf\\|website\\=Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa.\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} After the former Portuguese African colonies gained independence, and because nationals of Portuguese\\-speaking nations can freely live and work in Portugal without much bureaucracy, an incremental growth of immigration from Portugal's former overseas possessions was observed over the past few decades, primarily from [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"), [Cape Verde](/wiki/Cape_Verde \"Cape Verde\"), [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\") and [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique \"Mozambique\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=December 2019\\|title\\=AFRODESCENDENTES EM PORTUGAL\\|url\\=https://www.om.acm.gov.pt/documents/58428/183863/Revista\\+Migra%C3%A7%C3%B5es\\+16\\.pdf/d7e56cb0\\-7d04\\-4f2c\\-96a6\\-fb2c7ee8e9ff\\|website\\=Revista do Observatório das Migrações\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=March 2023\\|title\\=Cidadãos de países da CPLP vão ter autorizações de residência em 72 horas\\|url\\=https://www.publico.pt/2023/03/10/sociedade/noticia/cidadaos\\-paises\\-cplp\\-vao\\-autorizacoes\\-residencia\\-72\\-horas\\-2042005\\|website\\=Público\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} The country now has are nearly 240,000 Brazilians{{Cite web\\|date\\=June 2023\\|title\\=Quase 800 mil estrangeiros vivem em Portugal e 30% são brasileiros\\|url\\=https://www.publico.pt/2023/06/23/sociedade/noticia/quase\\-800\\-mil\\-estrangeiros\\-vivem\\-portugal\\-30\\-sao\\-brasileiros\\-2054424\\|website\\=Público\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} and about 350,000 people born in an African country.{{Cite web\\|title\\=População residente de naturalidade estrangeira segundo os Censos: total e por país de naturalidade\\|url\\=https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/populacao\\+residente\\+de\\+naturalidade\\+estrangeira\\+segundo\\+os\\+censos\\+total\\+e\\+por\\+pais\\+de\\+naturalidade\\-3800\\-325591\\|website\\=Pordata\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} Although immigrants are mostly concentrated in urban and suburban areas, mainly on Portugal's coast, Portuguese authorities have in recent times encouraged immigration, notably from Brazil, to rural areas, in an effort to increase an ever shrinking population.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Amato\\|first\\=Gian\\|date\\=14 December 2020\\|title\\='Há qualidade de vida no interior de Portugal, faltam pessoas. É o momento de os brasileiros virem', diz ministra do país\\|url\\=https://oglobo.globo.com/economia/ha\\-qualidade\\-de\\-vida\\-no\\-interior\\-de\\-portugal\\-faltam\\-pessoas\\-o\\-momento\\-de\\-os\\-brasileiros\\-virem\\-diz\\-ministra\\-do\\-pais\\-1\\-24794797\\|website\\=O Globo\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} The growth of the number of immigrants has been linked to an escalation of anti\\-immigration sentiments and protests throughout Portugal since the mids 2000's.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Rattner\\|first\\=Jair\\|date\\=18 June 2005\\|title\\=Portugueses fazem protesto em Lisboa contra imigrantes e violência\\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/bbc/ult272u43602\\.shtml\\|website\\=Folha\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Carlos\\|first\\=João\\|date\\=20 August 2020\\|title\\=Ataques racistas preocupam imigrantes africanos em Portugal\\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/pt\\-002/ataques\\-racistas\\-preocupam\\-imigrantes\\-africanos\\-em\\-portugal/a\\-54635065\\|website\\=DW\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}}",
"Until recently,{{when\\|date\\=May 2024}} far\\-right party \"[National Renewal Party](/wiki/National_Renewal_Party \"National Renewal Party\")\", known as PNR, was the only one in Portugal which actively targeted{{clarify\\|date\\=May 2024}} the mass\\-immigration and ethnic minorities (mainly related to [Gypsy](/wiki/Gypsy \"Gypsy\") and African communities) issues.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Gomes\\|first\\=Joaquim\\|date\\=1 December 2018\\|title\\=Líder do PNR contra \"marxismo cultural que captura o pensamento\"\\|url\\=https://ionline.sapo.pt/artigo/636732/lider\\-do\\-pnr\\-contra\\-marxismo\\-cultural\\-que\\-captura\\-o\\-pensamento\\-?seccao\\=Portugal\\_i\\|website\\=Sapo\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Henriques\\|first\\=Joana\\|date\\=13 July 2018\\|title\\=Boicote do PNR a protesto anti\\-racista vigiado pela PSP\\|url\\=https://www.publico.pt/2018/07/13/sociedade/noticia/psp\\-vai\\-vigiar\\-concentracao\\-do\\-pnr\\-a\\-protesto\\-antiracista\\-1837879\\|website\\=Publico\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} After years of growing support—0\\.09% 4,712 [2002](/wiki/Portuguese_legislative_election%2C_2002 \"Portuguese legislative election, 2002\"), 0\\.16% 9,374 [2005](/wiki/Portuguese_legislative_election%2C_2005 \"Portuguese legislative election, 2005\"), 0\\.20% 11,503 [2009](/wiki/Portuguese_legislative_election%2C_2009 \"Portuguese legislative election, 2009\"), 0\\.31% 17,548 [2011](/wiki/Portuguese_legislative_election%2C_2011 \"Portuguese legislative election, 2011\")— it managed 0\\.50%, or 27,269, of the electorate in the [2015 Portuguese legislative election](/wiki/2015_Portuguese_legislative_election \"2015 Portuguese legislative election\"). Since 2019, far\\-right political party [CHEGA!](/wiki/Chega_%28political_party%29 \"Chega (political party)\") has gained traction in the country. Following the [2019 Portuguese legislative election](/wiki/2019_Portuguese_legislative_election \"2019 Portuguese legislative election\"), the party's president, [André Ventura](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ventura \"André Ventura\"), assured a seat in [Assembly of the Republic](/wiki/Assembly_of_the_Republic_%28Portugal%29 \"Assembly of the Republic (Portugal)\"), after having received over 66,000 votes, 1,3% of the electorate.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Jorge\\|first\\=Catarina\\|date\\=7 October 2019\\|title\\=O Chega elegeu um deputado e promete ser \"o maior partido daqui a 8 anos\"\\|url\\=https://observador.pt/2019/10/07/o\\-chega\\-elegeu\\-um\\-deputado\\-e\\-promete\\-ser\\-o\\-maior\\-partido\\-daqui\\-a\\-8\\-anos/\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2021\\|website\\=Observador\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} In the [2020 Azorean regional election](/wiki/2020_Azorean_regional_election \"2020 Azorean regional election\"), the party secured two assemblyman to the regional parliament{{Cite web\\|date\\=7 October 2019\\|title\\=Eleições nos Açores: Chega elege dois deputados\\|url\\=https://www.publico.pt/2020/10/25/politica/noticia/chega\\-elege\\-deputado\\-circulo\\-sao\\-miguel\\-1936698\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2021\\|website\\=Publico\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} and, during the [2021 Portuguese presidential election](/wiki/2021_Portuguese_presidential_election \"2021 Portuguese presidential election\"), André Ventura managed to gather approximately 500,000 votes, 12% of the total.{{Cite web\\|date\\=25 January 2021\\|title\\=Portugal's centre\\-right president re\\-elected but far right gains ground\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/25/portugals\\-centre\\-right\\-president\\-re\\-elected\\-but\\-far\\-right\\-gains\\-ground\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2021\\|website\\=The Guardian\\|language\\=en\\-EN}} The party opposes immigration and has been described by the media and mainstream parties as xenophobic.{{Cite web\\|date\\=25 January 2021\\|title\\=Is the far\\-right gaining popularity in Portugal?\\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2021/01/21/is\\-the\\-far\\-right\\-gaining\\-popularity\\-in\\-portugal\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2021\\|website\\=Euronews\\|language\\=en\\-EN}} CHEGA! has an estimated 28,000 militant members{{Cite web\\|last\\=Figueiredo\\|first\\=Inês André\\|date\\=10 March 2021\\|title\\=Só um em cada cinco militantes do Chega inscritos nos cadernos eleitorais votou em Ventura\\|url\\=https://observador.pt/2021/03/10/so\\-um\\-em\\-cada\\-cinco\\-militantes\\-do\\-chega\\-votou\\-em\\-ventura/\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2021\\|website\\=Observador\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}} and is expected to continue to rise in popularity and political force.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Cotrim\\|first\\=António\\|date\\=21 December 2020\\|title\\=Sondagem legislativas. Chega passa a terceira força e Bloco cai\\|url\\=https://expresso.pt/politica/2020\\-12\\-21\\-Sondagem\\-legislativas.\\-Chega\\-passa\\-a\\-terceira\\-forca\\-e\\-Bloco\\-cai\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2021\\|website\\=Publico\\|language\\=pt\\-PT}}",
"#### Spain",
"A January 2004 survey by Spanish newspaper *[El País](/wiki/El_Pa%C3%ADs \"El País\")* found that the \"majority\" of Spaniards believed immigration was too high.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Staff writer \\|title\\=Immigration time\\-bomb \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528065305/http://www.expatica.com/source/site\\_article.asp?subchannel\\_id\\=83\\&story\\_id\\=8794\\&name\\=Immigration%2Btime\\-bomb \\|archive\\-date\\=28 May 2006 \\|url\\=http://www.expatica.com/source/site\\_article.asp?subchannel\\_id\\=83\\&story\\_id\\=8794\\&name\\=Immigration\\+time%2Dbomb \\|work\\=\\[\\[Expatica]] \\|date\\=23 June 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"In Spain, as of 2005, surveys found \"in descending order, jobs, crime and housing\" were the primary concerns for citizens opposed to immigration.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JIWNAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA136\\|title\\=Europe's Population\\|author1\\=Ray Hall\\|author2\\=Paul White\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=9781135369484\\|page\\=136}}",
"Small [Neo\\-fascist](/wiki/Neo-fascism \"Neo-fascism\") parties, such as Movimiento Social Español, openly campaign using nationalist or anti\\-immigrant rhetoric as do other small far\\-right parties such as [National Democracy (Spain)](/wiki/National_Democracy_%28Spain%29 \"National Democracy (Spain)\") and [España 2000](/wiki/Espa%C3%B1a_2000 \"España 2000\"). These parties have never won national or regional parliamentary seats.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"#### Sweden",
"{{Main\\|Immigration to Sweden}}",
"A 2008 study, which involved questionnaires circulated to 5000 people, showed that less than a quarter of the respondents (23%) wanted to live in areas characterised by cultural, ethnic and social diversity.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.svd.se/svenskar\\-vill\\-ha\\-inhagnat\\-boende\\|title\\=Svenskar vill ha inhägnat boende {{!}} SvD\\|last\\=TT\\|work\\=SvD.se\\|access\\-date\\=14 July 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322170850/http://www.svd.se/svenskar\\-vill\\-ha\\-inhagnat\\-boende\\|archive\\-date\\=22 March 2016\\|language\\=sv}} A 2016 [SOM Institute](/wiki/SOM_Institute \"SOM Institute\") survey published by [University of Gothenburg](/wiki/University_of_Gothenburg \"University of Gothenburg\") reported that between the years 2011 and 2016, the estimated share of people with concerns about the increasing number of immigrants increased from around 20% to 45%.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://som.gu.se/digitalAssets/1649/1649642\\_32\\-svenska\\-trender\\-1986\\-2016\\.pdf\\|title\\=Svenska Trender report\\|website\\=\\[\\[University of Gothenburg]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[SOM Institute]]\\|pages\\=24, 48\\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712211328/http://som.gu.se/digitalAssets/1649/1649642\\_32\\-svenska\\-trender\\-1986\\-2016\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}; cf. [VAD SVENSKAR OROAR SIG FÖR – Sociala klyftor och ökat antal flyktingar](https://imgur.com/ZTcINnh) In 2018, a poll by [Pew Research](/wiki/Pew_Research_Center \"Pew Research Center\") found that a majority (52%) wanted fewer immigrants to be allowed into the country, 33% wanted to keep the current level and 14% wanted to increase immigration.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact\\-tank/2018/12/10/many\\-worldwide\\-oppose\\-more\\-migration\\-both\\-into\\-and\\-out\\-of\\-their\\-countries/\\|title\\=Many worldwide oppose more migration – both into and out of their countries\\|last1\\=Connor\\|first1\\=Phillip\\|last2\\=Krogstad\\|first2\\=Jens Manuel\\|website\\=Pew Research Center\\|date\\=10 December 2018 \\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=24 January 2019}}",
"On the question of [repatriation](/wiki/Repatriation \"Repatriation\") of the asylum immigrants, 61% of native respondents in 1990 thought that it was a good suggestion, with this figure steadily decreasing over the ensuing years to a low of around 40% in 2014\\. In 2015, there was an increase in respondents in favor of repatriation, with a majority, 52%, deeming it a good suggestion. The proportion of respondents who felt repatriation was neither a good nor bad proposal simultaneously dropped from almost 40% to 24%.",
"In February 2020 finance minister [Magdalena Andersson](/wiki/Magdalena_Andersson_%28Social_Democrat%29 \"Magdalena Andersson (Social Democrat)\") encouraged migrants to head for countries other than Sweden. Andersson stated in an interview that integration of immigrants in Sweden wasn't working, neither before nor after 2015, and that Sweden cannot accept more immigration than it is able to integrate.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.aftonbladet.se/a/5V6xz1\\|title\\=Magdalena Andersson: Sök er till annat land\\|website\\=Aftonbladet\\|date\\=21 December 2017 \\|language\\=sv\\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2020}}",
"#### Switzerland",
"{{excerpt\\|Immigration to Europe\\|Switzerland}}\n#### United Kingdom",
"{{Main\\|Immigration to the United Kingdom}}",
"In the UK the [British National Party](/wiki/British_National_Party \"British National Party\") made opposition to immigration one of their central policies in the [2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2010 United Kingdom general election\").{{cite news \\| title \\= BNP call for end to immigration from Muslim nations \\| url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk\\_news/politics/election\\_2010/8639097\\.stm \\| work \\= \\[\\[BBC News]] \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[BBC]] \\| date \\= 23 April 2010 }} In 2015 the anti\\-mass\\-immigration party, [UKIP](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Independence_Party \"United Kingdom Independence Party\"), proposed setting up a Migration Control Commission, tasked with bringing down net migration.{{cite news \\| last \\= Wilkinson \\| first \\= Michael \\| title \\= Immigration policies: General Election 2015 and how each party will tackle it \\| url \\= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/general\\-election\\-2015/11451936/General\\-Election\\-2015\\-Immigration\\-policy.html \\| work \\= \\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\| date \\= 5 May 2015 }} The [Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") pledged before the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2015 United Kingdom general election\") to bring immigration from the [EU](/wiki/EU \"EU\") and rest of the world down to the \"tens of thousands\", with a range of welfare restrictions and housing restrictions.{{needs update\\|date\\=May 2024}}",
"The [vote for the UK to leave the EU](/wiki/United_Kingdom_withdrawal_from_the_European_Union \"United Kingdom withdrawal from the European Union\") was successful in Britain, with several commentators suggesting that populist concern over immigration from the EU was a major feature of the public debate.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.yahoo.com/news/triumph\\-brexiteer\\-nigel\\-farage\\-british\\-scourge\\-eu\\-134149305\\.html\\|title\\=Triumph for 'Brexiteer' Nigel Farage, British scourge of the EU\\|website\\=www.yahoo.com\\|date\\=24 June 2016 }} British Prime Minister David Cameron resigned over the vote. He had agreed to hold a vote on leaving the EU, due in part to the Conservative party losing votes to UKIP.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/may/13/david\\-cameron\\-eu\\-ukip \\| title\\=David Cameron offers olive branch on EU referendum as Ukip soars \\|work\\=The Guardian \\| access\\-date\\=28 June 2019}}",
"The former Prime Minister [Theresa May](/wiki/Theresa_May \"Theresa May\") introduced an [Immigration Skills Charge](/wiki/Immigration_Skills_Charge \"Immigration Skills Charge\") in April 2017, on companies who employ skilled non\\-EU immigrants, of £1000 per immigrant employee; small or charitable organizations pay a reduced amount of £364\\.{{cite web\\|author\\=Kerry Garcia, Kate Fellows\\-Tully\\|url\\=http://www.personneltoday.com/hr/five\\-costly\\-immigration\\-changes\\-april\\-2017/\\|title\\=Five costly immigration changes in April 2017\\|publisher\\=Personnel Today\\|date\\=22 March 2017\\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2017}}[The Immigration Skills Charge Regulations 2017](http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2017/9780111154663), legislation.gov.uk. The money is to be used to help fund apprenticeships and skills training for people from the UK and EU. In her [2017 General Election](/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2017 United Kingdom general election\") manifesto, the Prime Minister promised to double the Immigration Skills Charge to £2,000 per employee, if re\\-elected.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Bienkov \\|first1\\=Adam \\|title\\=Theresa May to charge companies £2,000 a year for each non\\-EU worker they employ \\|url\\=https://uk.sports.yahoo.com/news/theresa\\-may\\-charge\\-companies\\-2\\-080047563\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2017 \\|work\\=Yahoo Sports \\|issue\\=Immigration \\|date\\=18 May 2017}}",
"### Asia",
"#### India",
"{{main\\|Illegal immigration to India}}\nIndia has anti\\-immigration parties at the state level. Two anti\\-immigration parties in the state of [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\"), the [Shiv Sena](/wiki/Shiv_Sena \"Shiv Sena\") and the [Maharashtra Navnirman Sena](/wiki/Maharashtra_Navnirman_Sena \"Maharashtra Navnirman Sena\"), are a proponent of the idea that migrants from Northern India steal jobs from the native [Marathi people](/wiki/Marathi_people \"Marathi people\"), with a history of attacking immigrants and accusing them of playing a role in crime in the city of Mumbai. The Shiv Sena also has a history of threatening the Pakistani cricket team from coming to Mumbai and also threatening Australian cricket players in the [Indian Premier League](/wiki/Indian_Premier_League \"Indian Premier League\"), following racially motivated attacks on Indian students in Australia in 2009\\.",
"In the last few decades, there has been a rise in the anti\\-illegal immigration attitudes in the North East Indian states like [Assam](/wiki/Assam \"Assam\"), which has become a common entry point for illegal immigrants from [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"). Riots have occurred between the native tribes of Assam and illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.",
"In 2019, the [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") introduced the [Citizenship Amendment Act](/wiki/Citizenship_Amendment_Act \"Citizenship Amendment Act\"), which gives a faster path to Indian citizenship for Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian religious minorities that have immigrated both legally and illegally from [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), Bangladesh and [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") that suffer [religious persecution](/wiki/Religious_persecution \"Religious persecution\") (provided they arrived in India before 31 December 2014\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://pib.gov.in/ErrorPage.html?aspxerrorpath\\=/newsite/mainpage.aspx\\|title\\=Untitled Page\\|website\\=pib.gov.in}} Any refugees from these groups that arrived after the cutoff must reside in India for at least 5 years before they can gain citizenship. Widespread protests have been held, both opposing and supporting the Act.",
"The [National Register of Citizens](/wiki/National_Register_of_Citizens \"National Register of Citizens\") is a register of all Indian citizens whose creation is mandated by the [2003 amendment](/wiki/Citizenship_%28Amendment%29_Act%2C_2003 \"Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2003\") of the [Citizenship Act, 1955](/wiki/Citizenship_Act%2C_1955 \"Citizenship Act, 1955\"). Its purpose is to document all the legal citizens of India so that the illegal migrants can be identified and deported.[Assam final NRC list released: 19,06,657 people excluded, 3\\.11 crore make it to citizenship list](https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/assam-final-nrc-list-out-over-19-lakh-people-excluded-1593769-2019-08-31), India Today, 31 August 2019\\.Ravi Agrawal, Kathryn Salam, [India Is Betraying Its Founding Fathers](https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/17/india-citizenship-law-protests-narendra-modi-amit-shah-founding-fathers/), Foreign Policy, 17 December 2019\\. {{citation needed span \\|text\\=It has been implemented for the state of Assam starting in 2013–2014\\. \\|date\\=April 2023}} The [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") plans to implement it for the rest of the country in 2021\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=As Anti\\-CAA Pressure Builds, BJP Govt Goes Discernibly on the Backfoot \\|date\\=21 December 2019 \\|work\\=The Wire \\|url\\=https://thewire.in/politics/bjp\\-anti\\-caa\\-nrc \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221231703/https://thewire.in/politics/bjp\\-anti\\-caa\\-nrc \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### Israel",
"In 2012, Israel constructed a [barrier on its border with Egypt](/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier \"Egypt–Israel barrier\") which reduced the number of illegal immigrants crossing the border into Israel, from {{Val\\|16000}} in 2011 to fewer than 20 in 2016 which represents a decrease of 99%.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/32949/Default.aspx\\|title\\=Israel to Deport 40,000 Illegal Immigrants\\|website\\=www.israeltoday.co.il\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2019}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.politifact.com/truth\\-o\\-meter/statements/2017/feb/13/ron\\-johnson/border\\-fence\\-israel\\-cut\\-illegal\\-immigration\\-99\\-per/\\|title\\=GOP senator says Israel border fence cut illegal immigration\\|website\\=@politifact\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2019}} The government tried offering money to migrants to encourage them to return to their countries of origin, while the Supreme Court blocked the government's attempts to deport them.",
"In December 2017, the parliament approved legislation which would allow the government to overrule the Supreme Court to deport {{Val\\|40000}} illegal immigrants. In the preceding decade, some {{Val\\|60000}} illegal immigrants entered Israel by crossing the [border with Egypt](/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier \"Egypt–Israel barrier\"). Some were legitimate refugees, most were economic migrants.",
"#### Japan",
"{{Main\\|Ethnic issues in Japan\\|Human rights in Japan}}\nThe movement for Japanese cultural isolation, {{nihongo\\|''\\[\\[sakoku]]''\\|\\[\\[wikt:鎖\\|鎖]] \\[\\[wikt:国\\|国]]}}, arose in [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\") Japan, in response to the strong influence of [Western culture](/wiki/Western_culture \"Western culture\"). The study of (ancient) Japanese literature and culture was called {{nihongo\\|''kokugaku''\\|\\[\\[wikt:国\\|国]] \\[\\[wikt:学\\|学]]\\|\\|\"country study\"}}.",
"#### Turkey",
"{{Main\\|Turkey's migrant crisis}}",
"Established against the increasing number of legal and illegal refugees in Turkey as much as several millions, [Victory Party (Turkey)](/wiki/Victory_Party_%28Turkey%29 \"Victory Party (Turkey)\") has been the leader of return of the refugees to their home countries in Turkey since the day it was founded. The Victory Party's founding manifesto has numerous references to the founding father of the modern Turkish Republic, [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk \"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk\") and his nationalist revolution after [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F \"Ümit Özdağ\") defines the mass refugee influx from the Middle East to Turkey as “strategically engineered migration”—a renewed imperialist plot, resurfacing a century after the republic's inception (referencing to the [Treaty of Sèvres](/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres \"Treaty of Sèvres\") of 1920\\). Only this time, [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F \"Ümit Özdağ\") suggests, the imperialists will not use a “rental Greek army” to upend Turkey's sovereignty; they will instead install a Sunni Arab population of refugees to undermine Turkish national identity.",
"The Victory Party promises to send all fugitives and asylum seekers within one year. Although there is not a very high rate of votes among the public for now, it seems to have received 4\\.1% of the votes in some polls. The slogan of the party is \"Victory Party will come, refugees will go.\" Foreign policy reported on [Victory Party (Turkey)](/wiki/Victory_Party_%28Turkey%29 \"Victory Party (Turkey)\") and [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F \"Ümit Özdağ\") [Turkey’s Far Right Has Already Won](https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/12/turkeys-far-right-has-already-won/)",
"### Americas",
"#### Brazil",
"{{See also\\|Venezuelan refugee crisis}}",
"Brazil is a country of immigrants and developed a reputation for \"warm welcome\" of people all over the world. Nevertheless, different analysts often dispute how truthful this image is and, although openly xenophobic manifestation were uncommon, some scholars denounce it existence in more subtle ways.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Novais \\|first1\\=Andréa \\|title\\=Xenophobia in Brazil \\|url\\=http://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/xenophobia\\-in\\-brazil \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=The Brazil Business \\|date\\=30 November 2012}}",
"Despite the fact that Brazil was considered a safe haven for neighboring refugees and immigrants, xenophobic violence has erupted. Brazil received up to 3000 [Syrian refugees](/wiki/Syrian_refugees \"Syrian refugees\") becoming the largest receiver of such in Latin America.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Tsavkko Garcia \\|first1\\=Raphael \\|title\\=Is Brazil no longer safe for refugees and immigrants? \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/08/brazil\\-longer\\-safe\\-refugees\\-immigrants\\-170809113330259\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Al Jazeera English\\|Al Jazeera]] \\|date\\=16 August 2017}} However, [xenophobic](/wiki/Xenophobic \"Xenophobic\") and [islamophobic](/wiki/Islamophobic \"Islamophobic\") attacks were reported against Syrian refugees and Muslims in general. After the alleged beating of a shop owner during a robbery by alleged [Venezuelan migrants](/wiki/Venezuelan_refugee_crisis \"Venezuelan refugee crisis\"), riots occurred in the [Brazilian\\-Venezuelan border](/wiki/Venezuela-Brazil_border \"Venezuela-Brazil border\") which included attacks on Venezuelans nationals, destruction of refugee tents and fires.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Doce Villamar \\|first1\\=Inacio \\|title\\=Tense calm on Brazil\\-Venezuelan border after anti\\-immigrant riot \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-venezuela\\-brazil\\-border/tense\\-calm\\-on\\-brazil\\-venezuelan\\-border\\-after\\-anti\\-immigrant\\-riot\\-idUSKCN1L40LU \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819201458/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-venezuela\\-brazil\\-border/tense\\-calm\\-on\\-brazil\\-venezuelan\\-border\\-after\\-anti\\-immigrant\\-riot\\-idUSKCN1L40LU \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=19 August 2018}} 1200 Venezuelans went back to their homeland as a result and the administration of [President](/wiki/President_of_Brazil \"President of Brazil\") [Michel Temer](/wiki/Michel_Temer \"Michel Temer\") increased military personnel in the border. The burning of the refugee camps was reported in national and international news outlet and the authorities announce they will investigate and prosecute the authors.",
"During the [Brazilian general election](/wiki/2018_Brazilian_general_election \"2018 Brazilian general election\") in 2018, then [far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right \"Far-right\") presidential candidate [Jair Bolsonaro](/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro \"Jair Bolsonaro\") said the government should not turn its back on popular sentiment in Roraima, and proposed the creation of [refugee camps](/wiki/Refugee_camps \"Refugee camps\") with the help of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil\\-jair\\-bolsonaro\\-sugiere\\-crear\\-campos\\-refugiados\\-venezolanos\\-venezuela\\-noticia\\-550369\\|title\\=Bolsonaro sugiere crear campos de refugiados para venezolanos\\|date\\=24 August 2018\\|website\\=El Comercio\\|language\\=es\\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2019}} Once he became president, Bolsonaro said he would adopt more rigorous criteria for the entry of foreigners to Brazil, but ruled that he would not repatriate Venezuelan immigrants to their country.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil\\-jair\\-bolsonaro\\-devolvera\\-venezolanos\\-roraima\\-anuncia\\-control\\-migratorio\\-noticia\\-580848\\|title\\=Jair Bolsonaro no devolverá a venezolanos en Roraima pero anuncia control migratorio\\|date\\=24 November 2018\\|website\\=El Comercio\\|language\\=es\\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2019}}",
"#### Canada",
"Historically, Canada has implemented a variety of anti\\-immigration laws. In the early 19th century Canadian immigration laws specifically discriminated against people based on class, race, and disability. These policies continued into the 20th century, which did not change until following [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Immigration Policy in Canada \\|url\\=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/immigration\\-policy \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-09 \\|website\\=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca \\|language\\=en}}",
"In a 2013 interview with the French news magazine *[L'Express](/wiki/L%27Express \"L'Express\")* Canadian academic and [environmental activist](/wiki/Environmentalism \"Environmentalism\") [David Suzuki](/wiki/David_Suzuki \"David Suzuki\") stated that Canada's immigration policy was \"crazy\" and \"Canada is full\". However, he insisted that Canada should \"open its doors to those who are oppressed\" and accept refugees.{{cite news \\|title\\=David Suzuki 'full' comment slammed by Jason Kenney \\|url\\=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/jason\\-kenney\\-slams\\-david\\-suzukis\\-immigration\\-views\\-as\\-toxic\\-and\\-irresponsible\\-after\\-environmentalist\\-says\\-canada\\-full \\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2020 \\|work\\=National Post \\|date\\=11 July 2013 \\|language\\=en\\-CA}} The leader of the [People's Party of Canada](/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Canada \"People's Party of Canada\"), [Maxime Bernier](/wiki/Maxime_Bernier \"Maxime Bernier\") believes that current immigration harms Canadian values, and also makes it more difficult for real refuges to come to Canada.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Goodyear \\|first\\=Sheena \\|title\\=Maxime Bernier explains what he means by 'extreme multiculturalism' \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as\\-it\\-happens\\-friday\\-edition\\-1\\.4833110/maxime\\-bernier\\-explains\\-what\\-he\\-means\\-by\\-extreme\\-multiculturalism\\-1\\.4833113 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In a 2017 poll conducted by the [Angus Reid Institute](/wiki/Angus_Reid_Institute \"Angus Reid Institute\"), a majority of respondents (57%) indicated that they believed Canada should accept fewer immigrants and refugees.{{cite web \\|title\\=Spirituality in a changing world: Half say faith is 'important' to how they consider society's problems \\|url\\=http://angusreid.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/05/2017\\.05\\.17\\-Faith\\-Wave\\-1\\-Part2\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Angus Reid Institute]] \\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2020}} Despite this more recent surveys immigration is one of the smallest concerns to the average Canadian, with only 2% of Canadian surveyed ranking immigration as their largest concern.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Neuman \\|first\\=Keith \\|title\\=Canadian Public Opinion About Immigration \\& Refugees, Fall 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default\\-source/focus\\-canada\\-fall\\-2023/focus\\-canada\\-fall\\-2023\\-\\-\\-canadian\\-public\\-opinion\\-about\\-immigration\\-refugees\\-\\-\\-final\\-report.pdf?sfvrsn\\=75312743\\_2 }} Concerns for immigration seem to be directly tied to cost of living increases that the country has faced, with Canadians feeling housing costs are increasing due to immigration.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Majority of Canadians say higher immigration is fuelling housing crisis: poll \\- National {{!}} Globalnews.ca \\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10126729/immigration\\-housing\\-canada\\-leger\\-poll/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-09 \\|website\\=Global News \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"The [National Citizens Alliance](/wiki/National_Citizens_Alliance \"National Citizens Alliance\") was a far\\-right political party in Canada that regularly held anti\\-immigration rallies.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Gunn \\|first1\\=Andrea \\|title\\=Atlantic Canada's alt\\-right fringe \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.pe.ca/news/provincial/atlantic\\-canadas\\-alt\\-right\\-fringe\\-340070/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian (Charlottetown)\\|The Guardian]] \\|date\\=9 August 2019 \\|language\\=en \\|quotation\\=Garvey's policies are decidedly anti\\-immigrant, and he speaks extensively about the need to preserve Canada's 'European heritage'.}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Anti\\-immigration rally on Hill fizzles, leader disappointed\\|website\\=Ottawa Citizen\\|url\\=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local\\-news/anti\\-immigration\\-rally\\-on\\-hill\\-fizzles\\-leader\\-disappointed\\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2019\\|quote\\=Dozens of tourists took photographs of the far\\-right participants, many waving Canadian and Quebec flags.}}",
"The political parties [Avenir Quebec](/wiki/Coalition_Avenir_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Coalition Avenir Québec\"), [United Conservative](/wiki/United_Conservative_Party \"United Conservative Party\"), [Bloc Québécois](/wiki/Bloc_Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois \"Bloc Québécois\"), [People's party](/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Canada \"People's Party of Canada\") and factions of [Conservative party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada \"Conservative Party of Canada\") have anti\\-immigration views, the former minister of foreign Affairs [Maxime Bernier](/wiki/Maxime_Bernier \"Maxime Bernier\") and some members of conservative party and regional conservative parties, such as [Jason Kenney](/wiki/Jason_Kenney \"Jason Kenney\"), [François Legault](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Legault \"François Legault\"), [Scott Reid](/wiki/Scott_Reid_%28politician%29 \"Scott Reid (politician)\") have anti\\-immigration views.",
"#### Costa Rica",
"Anti\\-immigrant feelings date back to the late 19th century and early 20th century with the country's first waves of migrations from places like [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\") and [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"). Non\\-Polish European migration dates back to practically the independence from [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") but was generally well received.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=González\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|title\\=Migración e identidad cultural en Costa Rica (1840–1940\\)\\|journal\\=Revista de Ciencia Sociales UCR\\|date\\=18 August 2017\\|issue\\=155\\|url\\=https://revistas.ucr.ac.cr/index.php/sociales/article/view/30259/30231\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2017}} [Polish migration](/wiki/Polish_diaspora \"Polish diaspora\") was mostly [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") thus the backlash was due to [anti\\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism \"Anti-Semitism\"). Records of the time show Chinese migrants as the most affected by prejudice especially from government official and the first [anti\\-Chinese](/wiki/Anti-Chinese \"Anti-Chinese\") laws were enacted as far back as the 1910s. In 1903 [President](/wiki/President_of_Costa_Rica \"President of Costa Rica\") [Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra](/wiki/Ascensi%C3%B3n_Esquivel_Ibarra \"Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra\") enacted one of the first decrees forbidding non\\-White immigration and explicitly stating that migration from Asians, Blacks, Gypsies, Arabs and Turks was not allowed. Although these laws were common in Latin America at the time, and Costa Rica's government eventually became the lead force in its abolishment.",
"[Polish](/wiki/Polish_People \"Polish People\"), [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_people \"Chinese people\") and [Lebanese](/wiki/Lebanese_diaspora \"Lebanese diaspora\") migrants would integrate fully into Costa Rican society with time to the point that many prominent Costa Ricans from industry, politics, arts, academy, etc. are of those descents. Latin American migrants became the next source of mistrust and opposition, especially [Nicaraguan](/wiki/Nicaraguans_in_Costa_Rica \"Nicaraguans in Costa Rica\") and [Colombian](/wiki/Colombians_in_Costa_Rica \"Colombians in Costa Rica\") migrants. During the second half of the 20th century and to this date Costa Rica receives numerous waves of [Latin American](/wiki/Latin_American \"Latin American\") migrants from all the region, but Nicaraguans are by far the higher group among immigrant population encompassing 74\\.6% of the immigrant population,{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Acuña\\|first1\\=Guillermo\\|title\\=La migración en Costa Rica\\|journal\\=Ministerio de Salud\\|date\\=2005\\|url\\=https://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/gestores\\_en\\_salud/derechos%20humanos/migracion/inmigracr.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=24 July 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724075158/http://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/gestores\\_en\\_salud/derechos%20humanos/migracion/inmigracr.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} followed by Colombians and [Americans](/wiki/Americans_in_Costa_Rica \"Americans in Costa Rica\") (immigrants in general are 9% of the population) making [ethnic Nicaraguans](/wiki/Nicaraguan_people \"Nicaraguan people\") and binational Nicaraguan\\-Costa Rican citizens one of the most notorious ethnic minorities in Costa Rica outnumbering other groups like [African\\-Costa Ricans](/wiki/African-Costa_Rican \"African-Costa Rican\"). This caused debate in the country with some voices claiming for harder regulations and border control. The issue was one of the main topics of the [2002 election](/wiki/Costa_Rican_general_election%2C_2002 \"Costa Rican general election, 2002\") and was again important for the [2018's campaign](/wiki/Costa_Rican_general_election%2C_2018 \"Costa Rican general election, 2018\") with right\\-wing politicians like [Otto Guevara](/wiki/Otto_Guevara \"Otto Guevara\") quoting [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") as an inspiration{{cite news\\|last1\\=Arias\\|first1\\=L\\|title\\=Costa Rican legislator praises Trump's tactics as he eyes new presidential bid\\|url\\=http://www.ticotimes.net/2016/11/23/otto\\-guevara\\-trump\\-campaign\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2017\\|agency\\=The Tico Times\\|date\\=23 November 2016}} and calling for harsher migratory laws and eliminating the [citizenship by birth](/wiki/Citizenship_by_birth \"Citizenship by birth\") in the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Costa_Rica \"Constitution of Costa Rica\"). The Migration Law was reform globally in 2005 hardening some of the requirements for entering, staying and working on the country which was criticized as excessive,{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Dobles\\|first1\\=Ignacio\\|last2\\=Vargas\\|first2\\=Gabriela\\|last3\\=Amadro\\|first3\\=Krissia\\|last4\\=Arroyo\\|first4\\=Massiel\\|title\\=La inmigración y el Poder Legislativo en Costa Rica\\|date\\=2013\\|url\\=http://www.redalyc.org/html/729/72927050005/\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2017}} but further reforms, the last one in 2009, reduce some of the impact of the more controversial parts of the law. [Far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right \"Far-right\") ultra\\-[conservative](/wiki/Conservatism \"Conservatism\") [National Restoration Party](/wiki/National_Restoration_Party_%28Costa_Rica%29 \"National Restoration Party (Costa Rica)\"), that held an important role in the [2018 presidential election](/wiki/2018_Costa_Rican_general_election \"2018 Costa Rican general election\"), also holds anti\\-migration positions.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Chinchilla \\|first1\\=Aaron \\|title\\=Restauración Nacional exige al Gobierno reforzar controles migratorios en Peñas Blancas \\|agency\\=El Periódico \\|date\\=25 July 2018}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Pérez \\|first1\\=Karla \\|title\\=Fabricio Alvarado: Hay que implementar una política migratoria fuerte \\|agency\\=El Mundo \\|date\\=January 2018}}",
"After a series of [fake news](/wiki/Fake_news \"Fake news\") spread by several far\\-right [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") pages{{cite news \\|last1\\=Rico \\|title\\=44 arrested for xenophobic attacks against Nicaraguans in San José \\|url\\=https://qcostarica.com/44\\-arrested\\-for\\-xenophobic\\-attacks\\-against\\-nicaraguans\\-in\\-san\\-jose/ \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=QCosta Rica \\|date\\=18 August 2018}} inciting hatred against Nicaraguan migrants, an anti\\-migration manifestation was organized on 18 August 2018 known as the \"Taken of La Merced\" after Nicaraguan refugees were falsely accused of having \"taking\" La Merced Park in [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jos%C3%A9%2C_Costa_Rica \"San José, Costa Rica\"), a common gathering of the Nicaraguan community. Although some of the protesters were peaceful, participation of openly [neo\\-Nazi](/wiki/Neo-Nazi \"Neo-Nazi\") groups and violent [hooligans](/wiki/Hooligans \"Hooligans\") with criminal records caused riots and attacks on Nicaraguans or people suspected of being. The national police [Public Force](/wiki/Public_Forces_of_Costa_Rica \"Public Forces of Costa Rica\") intervened{{cite news \\|title\\=Costa Rica: symboles nazis lors d'une manifestation anti\\-migrants nicaraguayens \\|url\\=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2018/08/19/costa\\-rica\\-symboles\\-nazis\\-lors\\-dune\\-manifestation\\-anti\\-migrants\\-nicaraguayens \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=Journal de Montreal \\|date\\=19 August 2018}} with up to 44 people arrested, 36 of such were Costa Rican and the rest Nicaraguans. Several violent articles including [Molotov bombs](/wiki/Molotov_bomb \"Molotov bomb\") were confiscated and some of the protesters identify themselves with [Swastikas](/wiki/Swastikas \"Swastikas\") and yelled \"¡Fuera nicas!\" (Nicas out!).{{cite news \\|title\\=Costa Rica: violenta protesta contra inmigración nicaragüense \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/es/costa\\-rica\\-violenta\\-protesta\\-contra\\-inmigraci%C3%B3n\\-nicarag%C3%BCense/a\\-45134202 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=DW}} A pro\\-immigrant manifestation was scheduled a week later with a high attendance.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Redaccion \\|title\\=Costa Rica marcha contra la xenofobia hacia los migrantes de Nicaragua que llegan al país huyendo de la crisis \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias\\-america\\-latina\\-45312167 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=BBC Mundo \\|date\\=26 August 2018}} Further anti\\-migration protests (this time with the explicit exclusion of hooligans and neo\\-nazi) were organized in later days but with lesser participation.",
"#### Mexico",
"{{Update\\|section\\|date\\=May 2024}}\nIn Mexico, during the first eight months of 2005, more than 120,000 people from [Central America](/wiki/Central_America \"Central America\") were deported to their countries of origin. This is a much higher number than the people deported in the same period in 2002, when only 1 person was deported in the entire year.{{cite news \\| last \\= Roman \\| first \\= Jose Antonio \\| title \\= Detienen en seis meses a 120 mil indocumentados de Centroamérica \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111024215950/http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/08/24/018n3pol.php \\| archive\\-date \\= 24 October 2011 \\| url \\= http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/08/24/018n3pol.php \\| work \\= La Journada \\| publisher \\= Desarrollo de Medios, S.A. de C.V. (DEMOS) \\| date \\= 24 August 2005 }} Many women from countries in the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States \"Commonwealth of Independent States\") (most of former [USSR](/wiki/USSR \"USSR\")), [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and Central and [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\") are offered jobs at [table dance](/wiki/Table_dance \"Table dance\") establishments in large cities throughout the country, causing the [National Institute of Migration](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Migration \"National Institute of Migration\") (INM) in Mexico to raid [strip clubs](/wiki/Strip_clubs \"Strip clubs\") and deport foreigners who work without the proper documentation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvazteca.com/hechos/archivos2/2004/10/102327\\.shtml\\|title\\=TV en vivo por internet y capítulos en línea\\|publisher\\=tvazteca.com\\|date\\=October 2004\\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=2 December 2006\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061202164716/http://www.tvazteca.com/hechos/archivos2/2004/10/102327\\.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"[Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") has very strict laws pertaining to both illegal and legal immigrants.{{cite news \\| last \\= Slagle \\| first \\= John W. \\| title \\= Illegal alien amnesty, guest workers, international law and politics \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20071007080905/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID\\=5240 \\| archive\\-date \\= 7 October 2007 \\| url \\= http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID\\=5240 \\| work \\= American Chronicle \\| publisher \\= Ultio \\| date \\= 28 January 2006 }} The Mexican constitution restricts non\\-citizens or foreign\\-born persons from participating in politics, holding office, acting as a member of the clergy, or serving on the crews of Mexican\\-flagged ships or airplanes. Certain legal rights are waived, such as the right to a deportation hearing or other legal motions. In cases of [flagrante delicto](/wiki/Flagrante_delicto \"Flagrante delicto\"), any person may make a citizen's arrest on the offender and his accomplices, turning them over without delay to the nearest authorities.",
"Many immigration restrictionists in the United States have accused the Mexican government of [hypocrisy](/wiki/Hypocrisy \"Hypocrisy\") in its immigration policy, noting that while the [Government of Mexico](/wiki/Government_of_Mexico \"Government of Mexico\") and [Mexican Americans](/wiki/Mexican_Americans \"Mexican Americans\") are demanding looser immigration laws in the United States and oppose the [2010 Arizona Immigration Bill](/wiki/2010_Arizona_Immigration_Bill \"2010 Arizona Immigration Bill\"), at the same time Mexico is imposing even tighter restrictions on immigration into Mexico from Central America and other places than the Arizona law. However, Mexico started enforcing those laws which they previously ignored at the direct request of the United States, which saw a surge of Central American immigration during the Bush years; the newly elected president{{who\\|date\\=May 2024}} of Mexico has stated his desire to be more open, and would not deport Central Americans on their way to the United States or those who wish to remain in Mexico. {{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2017}}",
"#### Panama",
"The recent [exodus of Venezuelan migrants](/wiki/Venezuelan_refugee_crisis \"Venezuelan refugee crisis\") in [Panama](/wiki/Panama \"Panama\") encouraged the xenophobic and anti\\-migration public speech from Panamanian nationalist groups.",
"#### United States",
"{{See also\\|Immigration reduction in the United States\\|Illegal immigration to the United States}}\n[thumb\\| [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") campaigned for president in 2016 by promising to build a wall on the border of Mexico and the United States \"as the centerpiece of his immigration plan\", as well as [a temporary suspension of Muslim migration to the United States](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 \"Executive Order 13769\")\"Venturing to Mexico, Donald Trump defends right to build huge wall\". [AP Aug 21, 2016](http://floridapolitics.com/archives/220947-venturing-mexico-donald-trump-defends-right-build-huge-wall)](/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_August_19%2C_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Anti\\-illegal immigrant car sticker in Colorado](/wiki/File:Anti-immigration_sign_in_Colorado.jpg \"Anti-immigration sign in Colorado.jpg\")",
"In the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), opponents of immigration typically focus on perceived adverse effects, such as economic costs (job competition and burdens on education and social services); negative environmental impact from accelerated population growth; increased crime rates, and in the long run, changes in traditional identities and values.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0IGSBQAAQBAJ\\|title\\=White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics\\|author1\\=Marisa Abrajano\\|author2\\=Zoltan L. Hajnal\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|year\\=2015\\|isbn\\=9781400866489\\|pages\\=31–35}}\nIn countries where the majority of the population is of immigrant descent, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the form of [nativism](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 \"Nativism (politics)\").{{cite book \\|last \\= Higham \\| first \\= John \\| title \\= Strangers in the land: patterns of American nativism, 1860–1925 \\| publisher \\= Atheneum \\| location \\= New York \\| year \\= 1963 \\| oclc \\= 421752 }}",
"In the United States, opposition to immigration has a long history, starting in the late 1790s, in reaction to an influx of political refugees from France and Ireland. The [Alien and Sedition Acts](/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts \"Alien and Sedition Acts\") of 1798 severely restricted the rights of immigrants. Nativism first gained a name and affected politics in the mid\\-19th century United States because of the large inflows of immigrants from cultures that were markedly different from the existing [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") culture. Nativists primarily objected to [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), especially [Irish Americans](/wiki/Irish_Americans \"Irish Americans\"). Nativist movements included the [American Party](/wiki/Know_Nothing \"Know Nothing\") of the mid\\-19th Century (formed by members of the [Know\\-Nothing movement](/wiki/Know-Nothing_movement \"Know-Nothing movement\")), the Immigration Restriction League of the early 20th Century, and the anti\\-Asian movements in the [West](/wiki/Western_United_States \"Western United States\"), resulting in the [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act \"Chinese Exclusion Act\") and the so\\-called \"[Gentlemen's Agreement](/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907 \"Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907\")\" which was aimed at the Japanese. Major restrictions became law in the 1920s and sharply cut the inflow of immigrants until 1965, when they ended. The federal government took charge of finding and deporting illegal aliens, which it still does.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Ngai \\|first \\= Mae M. \\|title \\= The strange career of the illegal alien: immigration restriction and deportation policy in the United States, 1921–1965 \\|journal \\= Law and History Review \\|volume \\= 21 \\|issue \\= 1 \\|pages \\= 69–107 \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Cambridge University Press\\|Cambridge Journals]] \\|doi \\= 10\\.2307/3595069 \\|jstor \\= 3595069 \\|date \\=Spring 2003 \\|s2cid \\= 145344500 }}",
"Immigration again became a major issue from the 1990s onward, with burgeoning rates of undocumented immigration, particularly by Mexicans who crossed the Southern border, and others who overstayed their visitor visas. The [Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986](/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986 \"Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986\") provided an amnesty which was described as the amnesty to end all amnesties but it had no lasting impact on the flow of illegal immigrants.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Camarota \\|first \\= Steven A. \\|url\\=http://www.cis.org/articles/2000/ins1986amnesty.html\\|title\\=New INS Report \\|website\\=cis.org \\|publisher \\= Center for Immigration Studies \\|date \\= October 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2014}}\n *See also*: {{cite book \\|last \\= INS \\|author\\-link \\= Immigration and Naturalization Service \\|title \\= Statistical yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 2000 \\|url \\= https://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/two\\_unauthorized\\_immigration\\_us.pdf \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Immigration and Naturalization Service\\|Immigration and Naturalization Service, U.S. Department of Justice]] \\|id \\= M\\-367 \\|date \\= September 2000 \\|location \\= Washington, D.C. \\|oclc \\= 780095878 }}",
"* By 2014, the [Tea Party movement](/wiki/Tea_Party_movement \"Tea Party movement\") narrowed its focus away from economic issues, spending and [Obamacare](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act \"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act\") to attacking President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\")'s immigration policies. They saw his immigration policies as threatening to transform American society. They tried but failed to defeat leading Republicans who supported immigration programs, such as Senator [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\"). A typical slogan appeared in the *Tea Party Tribune*: \"Amnesty for Millions, Tyranny for All.\" The *New York Times* reported:",
"What started five years ago as a groundswell of conservatives committed to curtailing the reach of the federal government, cutting the deficit and countering the Wall Street wing of the Republican Party has become a movement largely against immigration overhaul. The politicians, intellectual leaders and activists who consider themselves part of the Tea Party movement have redirected their energy from fiscal austerity and small government to stopping any changes that would legitimize people who are here illegally, either through granting them citizenship or legal status.{{cite news \\|last\\=Peters \\|first\\=Jeremy W. \\|date\\=25 November 2014 \\|title\\=Obama's Immigration Action Reinvigorates Tea Party \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/26/us/obamas\\-immigration\\-action\\-reinvigorates\\-tea\\-party.html \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2015}}",
"As of 2014, over 42\\.4 million immigrants were living in the United States. This was about 13\\.3% of the entire United States population at that time.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Zong\\|first1\\=Jie\\|last2\\=Batalova\\|first2\\=Jeanne\\|title\\=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States\\|url\\=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently\\-requested\\-statistics\\-immigrants\\-and\\-immigration\\-united\\-states\\|website\\=Migration Policy Institute\\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2017}}",
"In 2016, New York City millionaire and media personality, [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\"), ran [a successful presidential campaign aimed at ending illegal immigration](/wiki/Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign \"Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign\"). Trump portrayed himself as the outsider who would \"[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\"),\" calling out to the Tea Party movement and the like who wanted to \"take their country back.\" Several of his campaign promises included [construction of a border wall along the US–Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall \"Trump wall\"), a temporary suspension of migration to the United States from several Muslim\\-majority nations, and the [deportation](/wiki/Deportation \"Deportation\") of undocumented immigrants. Trump was known for his \"[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\")\" rhetoric which could become provocative, inciting violence at [his campaign rallies](/wiki/List_of_rallies_for_the_Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign \"List of rallies for the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign\"). A major part of his 2016 campaign was opposition to \"[political correctness](/wiki/Political_correctness \"Political correctness\")\", which he criticized as too nice, when we need to be stronger and tougher. Although Trump's [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"), and even some of his fellow [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\"), such as [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\") and [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney \"Mitt Romney\"), called Trump's [\"Make America Great Again\"](/wiki/%22Make_America_Great_Again%22)/anti\\-immigrant rhetoric racist, xenophobic, Islamophobic, and dangerous, but his proposals found strong support in the [heartland](/wiki/Heartland_%28United_States%29 \"Heartland (United States)\") and the [south](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\").",
"On [November 8, 2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election \"2016 United States presidential election\"), Trump won as the 2016 US presidential election against his [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"). Although Clinton won the popular vote, Trump won the electoral college.",
"Trump was later [inaugurated on January 20, 2017](/wiki/Inauguration_of_Donald_Trump \"Inauguration of Donald Trump\"). After taking the oath of office, Trump gave a speech that lacked any of the incendiary rhetoric many people had grown accustomed to, such as when he argued that prejudice isn't consistent with patriotism \\- though many still viewed his speech as divisive. He tried to strike a balance between rallying [his supporters](/wiki/Trumpism \"Trumpism\") and uniting the country. The speech seemingly called out previous US politicians, including [the former](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") [presidents](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") [sitting next](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") [to him](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter \"Jimmy Carter\"), as being ineffective and inadequate at leading most Americans. It also echoed much of the same [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist \"Isolationist\") and [nativist](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 \"Nativism (politics)\") rhetoric that [his campaign](/wiki/Trumpism \"Trumpism\") had inspired, in which Trump related his election to that of a revolution in the country, promising to take the country back. [Nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") ran high, with Trump stating that [America would come first in every situation from that moment forward](/wiki/America_First_%28policy%29 \"America First (policy)\"), and in the finale he repeated his longstanding campaign promise to [Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\").",
"Promptly after his inauguration, Trump issued an executive order to begin construction of [a border wall along the US\\-Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall \"Trump wall\") and limit the number of refugees and foreigners entering the country. Then on January 27, 2017, he issued [an executive order banning the admission of travelers from seven Muslim\\-majority nations](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 \"Executive Order 13769\"), which was met with [large protests at airports all over the nation](/wiki/Protests_against_Executive_Order_13769 \"Protests against Executive Order 13769\"). The order would not only shut down the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program for 120 days, but also suspend entry from seven countries for 90 days. Since the countries subject to the ban were [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"), [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"), [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"), and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen \"Yemen\"), Trump’s travel ban was referred to by critics and supporters alike as “the Muslim ban.” After the original executive order, there were two more modified versions of the travel ban, which were all met with polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.",
"Later on in his presidency, in April 2018, the [Trump administration](/wiki/Trump_administration \"Trump administration\")’s zero\\-tolerance [family separation policy saw migrant children taken from their parents, until it was suspended in response to public opposition](/wiki/Trump_administration_family_separation_policy \"Trump administration family separation policy\") on June 20, 2018\\. But immigration became the focus again in the lead\\-up to the midterm elections when President Trump sent troops to the border to meet a migrant caravan. Tensions came to a head on November 25, 2018, when border agents fired tear gas after migrants rushed barriers. Tear gas has been used at the border since 2010, but critics called its use on a desperate group with small children overkill. In one of the more surreal moments of 2018, the President at first denied that children had been gassed, despite plenty of photos. This was also met with [large nationwide protests](/wiki/Families_Belong_Together \"Families Belong Together\") and polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.",
"Labor unions\n{{Main\\|Immigration policies of American labor unions}}\nThe [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor \"American Federation of Labor\") (AFL), a coalition of labor unions formed in the 1880s, vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Collomp \\|first \\= Catherine \\| title \\= Unions, civics, and National identity: organized Labor's reaction to immigration, 1881–1897 \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Labor History (journal)\\|Labor History]] \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 450–474 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Taylor and Francis]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/00236568800890311 \\| date \\= October 1988 }} Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. However, nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its [Euro\\-American](/wiki/European_Americans \"European Americans\") members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 [Emergency Quota Act](/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act \"Emergency Quota Act\") and the [Immigration Act of 1924](/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924 \"Immigration Act of 1924\"), and seeing that they were strictly enforced.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Lane \\|first \\= A.T. \\| title \\= American trade unions, mass immigration and the literacy test: 1900–1917 \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Labor History (journal)\\|Labor History]] \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 5–25 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Taylor and Francis]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/00236568408584739 \\| date \\= January 1984 }}\nMink (1986\\) concludes that the link between the AFL and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"History of the Democratic Party (United States)\") rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.{{cite book \\| last \\= Mink \\| first \\= Gwendolyn \\| title \\= Old labor and new immigrants in American political development: union, party, and state, 1875–1920 \\| publisher \\= Cornell University Press \\| location \\= Ithaca \\| year \\= 1986 \\| isbn \\= 9780801418631 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/oldlabornewimmig00mink }}",
"The [United Farm Workers](/wiki/United_Farm_Workers \"United Farm Workers\") was committed to restricting immigration during [Cesar Chavez](/wiki/Cesar_Chavez \"Cesar Chavez\") tenure. Chavez and [Dolores Huerta](/wiki/Dolores_Huerta \"Dolores Huerta\"), cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the [Bracero Program](/wiki/Bracero_Program \"Bracero Program\") that existed from 1942 to 1964\\. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964\\. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.",
"On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti\\-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti\\-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the [Imperial](/wiki/Imperial_Valley_%28California%29 \"Imperial Valley (California)\") and [Coachella Valleys](/wiki/Coachella_Valley \"Coachella Valley\") to the border of Mexico to protest growers' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. Joining him on the march were Reverend [Ralph Abernathy](/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy \"Ralph Abernathy\") and U.S. Senator [Walter Mondale](/wiki/Walter_Mondale \"Walter Mondale\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Artz \\|first1\\=Matt \\|title\\=Civil Rights, Vietnam and the Decade of Protest (1960\\-1970\\) \\|url\\=https://understandingrace.org/history/society/civil\\-rights\\-vietnam\\-and\\-the\\-decade\\-of\\-protest\\-1960\\-1970/\\#:\\~:text\\=In%201969%2C%20Chávez%20and%20UFW,from%20grape%20and%20lettuce%20growers. \\|website\\=Understanding RACE \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2023 \\|date\\=27 January 1960}} In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the [Immigration and Naturalization Service](/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service \"Immigration and Naturalization Service\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HAd4W9OdLX0C\\&q\\=UFW\\+report\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA197\\|title\\=Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants and the Politics of Ethnicity\\|first\\=David Gregory\\|last\\=Gutiérrez\\|year\\=1995\\|pages\\=97–98\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|location\\=San Diego\\|isbn\\=9780520916869}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aim.org/publications/media\\_monitor/2003/03/05\\.html\\|title\\=Why Journalists Support Illegal Immigration\\|publisher\\=Accuracy in the Media\\|first1\\=Reed\\|last1\\=Irvine\\|first2\\=Cliff\\|last2\\=Kincaid\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203084534/http://www.aim.org/publications/media\\_monitor/2003/03/05\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ewnEO2GvkFIC\\&q\\=ufw\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA89\\|title\\=Strawberry Fields: Politics, Class, and Work in California Agriculture\\|first\\=Miriam J.\\|last\\=Wells\\|pages\\=89–90\\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press\\|location\\=New York\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=9780801482793}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PnUgAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=crack\\+down\\|title\\=Beyond the Border: Mexico \\& the U.S. Today\\|first1\\=Peter\\|last1\\=Baird\\|first2\\=Ed\\|last2\\=McCaughan\\|page\\=169\\|publisher\\=North American Congress on Latin America\\|isbn\\=9780916024376\\|year\\=1979}}Farmworker Collective Bargaining, 1979: Hearings Before the Committee on Labor Human Resources Hearings held in Salinas, Calif., 26 April 27, and Washington, D.C., 24 May 1979",
"In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a \"wet line\" along the [United States\\-Mexico border](/wiki/United_States-Mexico_border \"United States-Mexico border\") to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW's unionization efforts.[\"PBS Airs Chávez Documentary\"](http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=217_0_3_0), University of California at Davis – Rural Migration News. During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some [UFW](/wiki/UFW \"UFW\") members, under the guidance of Chavez's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=raNFo6Tvmt0C\\&q\\=cesar\\+chavez\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA18\\|title\\=Cesar Chavez: A Brief Biography with Documents\\|first\\=Richard W.\\|last\\=Etulain\\|page\\=18\\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=9780312294274}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\\-12\\-29/columns/ask\\-a\\-mexican/\\|title\\=The year in Mexican\\-bashing\\|first\\=Gustavo\\|last\\=Arellano\\|newspaper\\=OC Weekly\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609052417/http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\\-12\\-29/columns/ask\\-a\\-mexican/\\|archive\\-date\\=9 June 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\\-ed/navarrette/20050330\\-9999\\-lz1e30navar.html\\|title\\=The Arizona Minutemen and César Chávez\\|newspaper\\=San Diego Union Tribune\\|first\\=Ruben Jr.\\|last\\=Navarrette\\|date\\=30 March 2005\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805204302/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\\-ed/navarrette/20050330\\-9999\\-lz1e30navar.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2009}}",
"In 1979, Chavez used a forum of a U.S. Senate committee hearing to denounce the federal immigration service, which he said the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service purportedly refused to arrest illegal Mexican immigrants who Chavez claims are being used to break the union's strike.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Cannon \\|first1\\=Lou \\|title\\=Chavez Employs Senate Hearing To Urge National Lettuce Boycott \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/27/chavez\\-employs\\-senate\\-hearing\\-to\\-urge\\-national\\-lettuce\\-boycott/50b668f3\\-0b1d\\-46de\\-8c11\\-909a61e5bcae/ \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2021 \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 27, 1979}}",
"[Bernie Sanders](/wiki/Bernie_Sanders \"Bernie Sanders\") opposes guest worker programs{{cite web \\|last\\=Jamieson \\|first\\=Dave \\|date\\=19 June 2013 \\|title\\=Senator Sounds Alarm On Teen Unemployment \\|website\\=The Huffington Post \\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/19/bernie\\-sanders\\-immigration\\-reform\\_n\\_3467243\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2015}} and he is also skeptical of skilled immigrant ([H\\-1B](/wiki/H-1B \"H-1B\")) visas, saying,: \"Last year, the top 10 employers of H\\-1B guest workers were all offshore outsourcing companies. These firms are responsible for shipping large numbers of American information technology jobs to India and other countries\".{{cite web \\|last\\=Thibodeau \\|first\\=Patrick \\|date\\=1 May 2015 \\|title\\=Meet Bernie Sanders, H\\-1B skeptic \\|website\\=Computerworld \\|url\\=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2916827/it\\-outsourcing/bernie\\-sanders\\-h\\-1b\\-skeptic.html \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2015}} In an interview with *Vox*, he stated his opposition to an open borders immigration policy, describing it as such:\n> \\[A] right\\-wing proposal, which says essentially there is no United States. \\[...] \\[Y]ou're doing away with the concept of a nation\\-state. What right\\-wing people in this country would love is an open\\-border policy. Bring in all kinds of people, work for $2 or $3 an hour, that would be great for them. I don't believe in that. I think we have to raise wages in this country, I think we have to do everything we can to create millions of jobs.{{cite web\\|last\\=Bier \\|first\\=Daniel \\|url\\=http://www.newsweek.com/bernie\\-sanders\\-immigrants\\-silly\\-tribal\\-and\\-economically\\-illiterate\\-358369 \\|title\\=Bernie Sanders on Immigrants: Silly, Tribal and Economically Illiterate \\|date\\=30 July 2015 \\|publisher\\=Newsweek.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/aug/03/bernie\\-sanders\\-open\\-borders\\-economy\\|title\\=Bernie Sanders is wrong on open borders; they'd help boost the economy \\|last\\=Massimino\\|first\\=Cory\\|work\\=the Guardian\\|date\\=3 August 2015 }}",
"",
"### Africa",
"#### South Africa",
"{{see also\\|Xenophobia in South Africa\\|Immigration to South Africa}}\nSeveral periods of violent riots against migrants have occurred in South Africa in the past decade, some resulting in fatalities. Countries from which the migrants targeted originated include [Malawi](/wiki/Malawi \"Malawi\"), [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique \"Mozambique\") and [Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe \"Zimbabwe\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-africa\\-32372501\\|title\\=South Africa anti\\-immigrant violence: Hundreds held\\|work\\=BBC News\\|date\\=19 April 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2014045/South\\-Africa\\-riots\\-Violence\\-against\\-immigrants\\-spreads\\-to\\-Cape\\-Town.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2014045/South\\-Africa\\-riots\\-Violence\\-against\\-immigrants\\-spreads\\-to\\-Cape\\-Town.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=South Africa riots: Violence against immigrants spreads to Cape Town\\|date\\=23 May 2008}}{{cbignore}}",
"In March 2019, groups armed with machetes broke into the homes of migrants in [Durban](/wiki/Durban \"Durban\"). At least six people were killed, several were wounded and their homes were looted. At least 300 Malawi migrants were forced to leave the country. In separate attacks, foreign truck drivers were forced out of their vehicles and were attacked with knives. On 2 April 2019, another group of migrants in Durban was attacked{{By whom\\|date\\=April 2019}} and forced to flee their homes. The escalating violence added tension to the [2019 South African general election](/wiki/2019_South_African_general_election \"2019 South African general election\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gp.se/1\\.14580250\\|title\\=Våld mot migranter skapar oro i Sydafrika\\|last\\=Karlsson, TT\\|first\\=Mia Holmberg\\|website\\=gp.se\\|date\\=16 April 2019\\|language\\=sv\\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2019}}",
"[Operation Dudula](/wiki/Operation_Dudula \"Operation Dudula\") is a political organization described as xenophobic and linked to violent targeting of immigrants.",
""
] |
### Asia
#### India
{{main\|Illegal immigration to India}}
India has anti\-immigration parties at the state level. Two anti\-immigration parties in the state of [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra"), the [Shiv Sena](/wiki/Shiv_Sena "Shiv Sena") and the [Maharashtra Navnirman Sena](/wiki/Maharashtra_Navnirman_Sena "Maharashtra Navnirman Sena"), are a proponent of the idea that migrants from Northern India steal jobs from the native [Marathi people](/wiki/Marathi_people "Marathi people"), with a history of attacking immigrants and accusing them of playing a role in crime in the city of Mumbai. The Shiv Sena also has a history of threatening the Pakistani cricket team from coming to Mumbai and also threatening Australian cricket players in the [Indian Premier League](/wiki/Indian_Premier_League "Indian Premier League"), following racially motivated attacks on Indian students in Australia in 2009\.
In the last few decades, there has been a rise in the anti\-illegal immigration attitudes in the North East Indian states like [Assam](/wiki/Assam "Assam"), which has become a common entry point for illegal immigrants from [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"). Riots have occurred between the native tribes of Assam and illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.
In 2019, the [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") introduced the [Citizenship Amendment Act](/wiki/Citizenship_Amendment_Act "Citizenship Amendment Act"), which gives a faster path to Indian citizenship for Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian religious minorities that have immigrated both legally and illegally from [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"), Bangladesh and [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") that suffer [religious persecution](/wiki/Religious_persecution "Religious persecution") (provided they arrived in India before 31 December 2014\).{{Cite web\|url\=https://pib.gov.in/ErrorPage.html?aspxerrorpath\=/newsite/mainpage.aspx\|title\=Untitled Page\|website\=pib.gov.in}} Any refugees from these groups that arrived after the cutoff must reside in India for at least 5 years before they can gain citizenship. Widespread protests have been held, both opposing and supporting the Act.
The [National Register of Citizens](/wiki/National_Register_of_Citizens "National Register of Citizens") is a register of all Indian citizens whose creation is mandated by the [2003 amendment](/wiki/Citizenship_%28Amendment%29_Act%2C_2003 "Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2003") of the [Citizenship Act, 1955](/wiki/Citizenship_Act%2C_1955 "Citizenship Act, 1955"). Its purpose is to document all the legal citizens of India so that the illegal migrants can be identified and deported.[Assam final NRC list released: 19,06,657 people excluded, 3\.11 crore make it to citizenship list](https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/assam-final-nrc-list-out-over-19-lakh-people-excluded-1593769-2019-08-31), India Today, 31 August 2019\.Ravi Agrawal, Kathryn Salam, [India Is Betraying Its Founding Fathers](https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/17/india-citizenship-law-protests-narendra-modi-amit-shah-founding-fathers/), Foreign Policy, 17 December 2019\. {{citation needed span \|text\=It has been implemented for the state of Assam starting in 2013–2014\. \|date\=April 2023}} The [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") plans to implement it for the rest of the country in 2021\.{{cite news \|title\=As Anti\-CAA Pressure Builds, BJP Govt Goes Discernibly on the Backfoot \|date\=21 December 2019 \|work\=The Wire \|url\=https://thewire.in/politics/bjp\-anti\-caa\-nrc \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221231703/https://thewire.in/politics/bjp\-anti\-caa\-nrc \|archive\-date\=21 December 2019 \|url\-status\=live}}
#### Israel
In 2012, Israel constructed a [barrier on its border with Egypt](/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier "Egypt–Israel barrier") which reduced the number of illegal immigrants crossing the border into Israel, from {{Val\|16000}} in 2011 to fewer than 20 in 2016 which represents a decrease of 99%.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/32949/Default.aspx\|title\=Israel to Deport 40,000 Illegal Immigrants\|website\=www.israeltoday.co.il\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=12 January 2019}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.politifact.com/truth\-o\-meter/statements/2017/feb/13/ron\-johnson/border\-fence\-israel\-cut\-illegal\-immigration\-99\-per/\|title\=GOP senator says Israel border fence cut illegal immigration\|website\=@politifact\|language\=en\|access\-date\=12 January 2019}} The government tried offering money to migrants to encourage them to return to their countries of origin, while the Supreme Court blocked the government's attempts to deport them.
In December 2017, the parliament approved legislation which would allow the government to overrule the Supreme Court to deport {{Val\|40000}} illegal immigrants. In the preceding decade, some {{Val\|60000}} illegal immigrants entered Israel by crossing the [border with Egypt](/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier "Egypt–Israel barrier"). Some were legitimate refugees, most were economic migrants.
#### Japan
{{Main\|Ethnic issues in Japan\|Human rights in Japan}}
The movement for Japanese cultural isolation, {{nihongo\|''\[\[sakoku]]''\|\[\[wikt:鎖\|鎖]] \[\[wikt:国\|国]]}}, arose in [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period "Edo period") Japan, in response to the strong influence of [Western culture](/wiki/Western_culture "Western culture"). The study of (ancient) Japanese literature and culture was called {{nihongo\|''kokugaku''\|\[\[wikt:国\|国]] \[\[wikt:学\|学]]\|\|"country study"}}.
#### Turkey
{{Main\|Turkey's migrant crisis}}
Established against the increasing number of legal and illegal refugees in Turkey as much as several millions, [Victory Party (Turkey)](/wiki/Victory_Party_%28Turkey%29 "Victory Party (Turkey)") has been the leader of return of the refugees to their home countries in Turkey since the day it was founded. The Victory Party's founding manifesto has numerous references to the founding father of the modern Turkish Republic, [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk") and his nationalist revolution after [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F "Ümit Özdağ") defines the mass refugee influx from the Middle East to Turkey as “strategically engineered migration”—a renewed imperialist plot, resurfacing a century after the republic's inception (referencing to the [Treaty of Sèvres](/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres "Treaty of Sèvres") of 1920\). Only this time, [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F "Ümit Özdağ") suggests, the imperialists will not use a “rental Greek army” to upend Turkey's sovereignty; they will instead install a Sunni Arab population of refugees to undermine Turkish national identity.
The Victory Party promises to send all fugitives and asylum seekers within one year. Although there is not a very high rate of votes among the public for now, it seems to have received 4\.1% of the votes in some polls. The slogan of the party is "Victory Party will come, refugees will go." Foreign policy reported on [Victory Party (Turkey)](/wiki/Victory_Party_%28Turkey%29 "Victory Party (Turkey)") and [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F "Ümit Özdağ") [Turkey’s Far Right Has Already Won](https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/12/turkeys-far-right-has-already-won/)
|
[
"### Asia",
"#### India",
"{{main\\|Illegal immigration to India}}\nIndia has anti\\-immigration parties at the state level. Two anti\\-immigration parties in the state of [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\"), the [Shiv Sena](/wiki/Shiv_Sena \"Shiv Sena\") and the [Maharashtra Navnirman Sena](/wiki/Maharashtra_Navnirman_Sena \"Maharashtra Navnirman Sena\"), are a proponent of the idea that migrants from Northern India steal jobs from the native [Marathi people](/wiki/Marathi_people \"Marathi people\"), with a history of attacking immigrants and accusing them of playing a role in crime in the city of Mumbai. The Shiv Sena also has a history of threatening the Pakistani cricket team from coming to Mumbai and also threatening Australian cricket players in the [Indian Premier League](/wiki/Indian_Premier_League \"Indian Premier League\"), following racially motivated attacks on Indian students in Australia in 2009\\.",
"In the last few decades, there has been a rise in the anti\\-illegal immigration attitudes in the North East Indian states like [Assam](/wiki/Assam \"Assam\"), which has become a common entry point for illegal immigrants from [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"). Riots have occurred between the native tribes of Assam and illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.",
"In 2019, the [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") introduced the [Citizenship Amendment Act](/wiki/Citizenship_Amendment_Act \"Citizenship Amendment Act\"), which gives a faster path to Indian citizenship for Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian religious minorities that have immigrated both legally and illegally from [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"), Bangladesh and [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") that suffer [religious persecution](/wiki/Religious_persecution \"Religious persecution\") (provided they arrived in India before 31 December 2014\\).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://pib.gov.in/ErrorPage.html?aspxerrorpath\\=/newsite/mainpage.aspx\\|title\\=Untitled Page\\|website\\=pib.gov.in}} Any refugees from these groups that arrived after the cutoff must reside in India for at least 5 years before they can gain citizenship. Widespread protests have been held, both opposing and supporting the Act.",
"The [National Register of Citizens](/wiki/National_Register_of_Citizens \"National Register of Citizens\") is a register of all Indian citizens whose creation is mandated by the [2003 amendment](/wiki/Citizenship_%28Amendment%29_Act%2C_2003 \"Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2003\") of the [Citizenship Act, 1955](/wiki/Citizenship_Act%2C_1955 \"Citizenship Act, 1955\"). Its purpose is to document all the legal citizens of India so that the illegal migrants can be identified and deported.[Assam final NRC list released: 19,06,657 people excluded, 3\\.11 crore make it to citizenship list](https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/assam-final-nrc-list-out-over-19-lakh-people-excluded-1593769-2019-08-31), India Today, 31 August 2019\\.Ravi Agrawal, Kathryn Salam, [India Is Betraying Its Founding Fathers](https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/17/india-citizenship-law-protests-narendra-modi-amit-shah-founding-fathers/), Foreign Policy, 17 December 2019\\. {{citation needed span \\|text\\=It has been implemented for the state of Assam starting in 2013–2014\\. \\|date\\=April 2023}} The [Government of India](/wiki/Government_of_India \"Government of India\") plans to implement it for the rest of the country in 2021\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=As Anti\\-CAA Pressure Builds, BJP Govt Goes Discernibly on the Backfoot \\|date\\=21 December 2019 \\|work\\=The Wire \\|url\\=https://thewire.in/politics/bjp\\-anti\\-caa\\-nrc \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221231703/https://thewire.in/politics/bjp\\-anti\\-caa\\-nrc \\|archive\\-date\\=21 December 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"#### Israel",
"In 2012, Israel constructed a [barrier on its border with Egypt](/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier \"Egypt–Israel barrier\") which reduced the number of illegal immigrants crossing the border into Israel, from {{Val\\|16000}} in 2011 to fewer than 20 in 2016 which represents a decrease of 99%.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/32949/Default.aspx\\|title\\=Israel to Deport 40,000 Illegal Immigrants\\|website\\=www.israeltoday.co.il\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2019}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.politifact.com/truth\\-o\\-meter/statements/2017/feb/13/ron\\-johnson/border\\-fence\\-israel\\-cut\\-illegal\\-immigration\\-99\\-per/\\|title\\=GOP senator says Israel border fence cut illegal immigration\\|website\\=@politifact\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2019}} The government tried offering money to migrants to encourage them to return to their countries of origin, while the Supreme Court blocked the government's attempts to deport them.",
"In December 2017, the parliament approved legislation which would allow the government to overrule the Supreme Court to deport {{Val\\|40000}} illegal immigrants. In the preceding decade, some {{Val\\|60000}} illegal immigrants entered Israel by crossing the [border with Egypt](/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_barrier \"Egypt–Israel barrier\"). Some were legitimate refugees, most were economic migrants.",
"#### Japan",
"{{Main\\|Ethnic issues in Japan\\|Human rights in Japan}}\nThe movement for Japanese cultural isolation, {{nihongo\\|''\\[\\[sakoku]]''\\|\\[\\[wikt:鎖\\|鎖]] \\[\\[wikt:国\\|国]]}}, arose in [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\") Japan, in response to the strong influence of [Western culture](/wiki/Western_culture \"Western culture\"). The study of (ancient) Japanese literature and culture was called {{nihongo\\|''kokugaku''\\|\\[\\[wikt:国\\|国]] \\[\\[wikt:学\\|学]]\\|\\|\"country study\"}}.",
"#### Turkey",
"{{Main\\|Turkey's migrant crisis}}",
"Established against the increasing number of legal and illegal refugees in Turkey as much as several millions, [Victory Party (Turkey)](/wiki/Victory_Party_%28Turkey%29 \"Victory Party (Turkey)\") has been the leader of return of the refugees to their home countries in Turkey since the day it was founded. The Victory Party's founding manifesto has numerous references to the founding father of the modern Turkish Republic, [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk \"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk\") and his nationalist revolution after [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F \"Ümit Özdağ\") defines the mass refugee influx from the Middle East to Turkey as “strategically engineered migration”—a renewed imperialist plot, resurfacing a century after the republic's inception (referencing to the [Treaty of Sèvres](/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres \"Treaty of Sèvres\") of 1920\\). Only this time, [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F \"Ümit Özdağ\") suggests, the imperialists will not use a “rental Greek army” to upend Turkey's sovereignty; they will instead install a Sunni Arab population of refugees to undermine Turkish national identity.",
"The Victory Party promises to send all fugitives and asylum seekers within one year. Although there is not a very high rate of votes among the public for now, it seems to have received 4\\.1% of the votes in some polls. The slogan of the party is \"Victory Party will come, refugees will go.\" Foreign policy reported on [Victory Party (Turkey)](/wiki/Victory_Party_%28Turkey%29 \"Victory Party (Turkey)\") and [Ümit Özdağ](/wiki/%C3%9Cmit_%C3%96zda%C4%9F \"Ümit Özdağ\") [Turkey’s Far Right Has Already Won](https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/12/turkeys-far-right-has-already-won/)",
""
] |
### Americas
#### Brazil
{{See also\|Venezuelan refugee crisis}}
Brazil is a country of immigrants and developed a reputation for "warm welcome" of people all over the world. Nevertheless, different analysts often dispute how truthful this image is and, although openly xenophobic manifestation were uncommon, some scholars denounce it existence in more subtle ways.{{cite news \|last1\=Novais \|first1\=Andréa \|title\=Xenophobia in Brazil \|url\=http://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/xenophobia\-in\-brazil \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=The Brazil Business \|date\=30 November 2012}}
Despite the fact that Brazil was considered a safe haven for neighboring refugees and immigrants, xenophobic violence has erupted. Brazil received up to 3000 [Syrian refugees](/wiki/Syrian_refugees "Syrian refugees") becoming the largest receiver of such in Latin America.{{cite news \|last1\=Tsavkko Garcia \|first1\=Raphael \|title\=Is Brazil no longer safe for refugees and immigrants? \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/08/brazil\-longer\-safe\-refugees\-immigrants\-170809113330259\.html \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=\[\[Al Jazeera English\|Al Jazeera]] \|date\=16 August 2017}} However, [xenophobic](/wiki/Xenophobic "Xenophobic") and [islamophobic](/wiki/Islamophobic "Islamophobic") attacks were reported against Syrian refugees and Muslims in general. After the alleged beating of a shop owner during a robbery by alleged [Venezuelan migrants](/wiki/Venezuelan_refugee_crisis "Venezuelan refugee crisis"), riots occurred in the [Brazilian\-Venezuelan border](/wiki/Venezuela-Brazil_border "Venezuela-Brazil border") which included attacks on Venezuelans nationals, destruction of refugee tents and fires.{{cite news \|last1\=Doce Villamar \|first1\=Inacio \|title\=Tense calm on Brazil\-Venezuelan border after anti\-immigrant riot \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-venezuela\-brazil\-border/tense\-calm\-on\-brazil\-venezuelan\-border\-after\-anti\-immigrant\-riot\-idUSKCN1L40LU \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819201458/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-venezuela\-brazil\-border/tense\-calm\-on\-brazil\-venezuelan\-border\-after\-anti\-immigrant\-riot\-idUSKCN1L40LU \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=19 August 2018 \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|work\=Reuters \|date\=19 August 2018}} 1200 Venezuelans went back to their homeland as a result and the administration of [President](/wiki/President_of_Brazil "President of Brazil") [Michel Temer](/wiki/Michel_Temer "Michel Temer") increased military personnel in the border. The burning of the refugee camps was reported in national and international news outlet and the authorities announce they will investigate and prosecute the authors.
During the [Brazilian general election](/wiki/2018_Brazilian_general_election "2018 Brazilian general election") in 2018, then [far\-right](/wiki/Far-right "Far-right") presidential candidate [Jair Bolsonaro](/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro "Jair Bolsonaro") said the government should not turn its back on popular sentiment in Roraima, and proposed the creation of [refugee camps](/wiki/Refugee_camps "Refugee camps") with the help of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations").{{Cite news\|url\=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil\-jair\-bolsonaro\-sugiere\-crear\-campos\-refugiados\-venezolanos\-venezuela\-noticia\-550369\|title\=Bolsonaro sugiere crear campos de refugiados para venezolanos\|date\=24 August 2018\|website\=El Comercio\|language\=es\|access\-date\=19 September 2019}} Once he became president, Bolsonaro said he would adopt more rigorous criteria for the entry of foreigners to Brazil, but ruled that he would not repatriate Venezuelan immigrants to their country.{{Cite news\|url\=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil\-jair\-bolsonaro\-devolvera\-venezolanos\-roraima\-anuncia\-control\-migratorio\-noticia\-580848\|title\=Jair Bolsonaro no devolverá a venezolanos en Roraima pero anuncia control migratorio\|date\=24 November 2018\|website\=El Comercio\|language\=es\|access\-date\=19 September 2019}}
#### Canada
Historically, Canada has implemented a variety of anti\-immigration laws. In the early 19th century Canadian immigration laws specifically discriminated against people based on class, race, and disability. These policies continued into the 20th century, which did not change until following [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").{{Cite web \|title\=Immigration Policy in Canada \|url\=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/immigration\-policy \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-09 \|website\=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca \|language\=en}}
In a 2013 interview with the French news magazine *[L'Express](/wiki/L%27Express "L'Express")* Canadian academic and [environmental activist](/wiki/Environmentalism "Environmentalism") [David Suzuki](/wiki/David_Suzuki "David Suzuki") stated that Canada's immigration policy was "crazy" and "Canada is full". However, he insisted that Canada should "open its doors to those who are oppressed" and accept refugees.{{cite news \|title\=David Suzuki 'full' comment slammed by Jason Kenney \|url\=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/jason\-kenney\-slams\-david\-suzukis\-immigration\-views\-as\-toxic\-and\-irresponsible\-after\-environmentalist\-says\-canada\-full \|access\-date\=25 April 2020 \|work\=National Post \|date\=11 July 2013 \|language\=en\-CA}} The leader of the [People's Party of Canada](/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Canada "People's Party of Canada"), [Maxime Bernier](/wiki/Maxime_Bernier "Maxime Bernier") believes that current immigration harms Canadian values, and also makes it more difficult for real refuges to come to Canada.{{Cite news \|last\=Goodyear \|first\=Sheena \|title\=Maxime Bernier explains what he means by 'extreme multiculturalism' \|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as\-it\-happens\-friday\-edition\-1\.4833110/maxime\-bernier\-explains\-what\-he\-means\-by\-extreme\-multiculturalism\-1\.4833113 \|url\-status\=live}}
In a 2017 poll conducted by the [Angus Reid Institute](/wiki/Angus_Reid_Institute "Angus Reid Institute"), a majority of respondents (57%) indicated that they believed Canada should accept fewer immigrants and refugees.{{cite web \|title\=Spirituality in a changing world: Half say faith is 'important' to how they consider society's problems \|url\=http://angusreid.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/05/2017\.05\.17\-Faith\-Wave\-1\-Part2\.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[Angus Reid Institute]] \|access\-date\=25 April 2020}} Despite this more recent surveys immigration is one of the smallest concerns to the average Canadian, with only 2% of Canadian surveyed ranking immigration as their largest concern.{{Cite web \|last\=Neuman \|first\=Keith \|title\=Canadian Public Opinion About Immigration \& Refugees, Fall 2023 \|url\=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default\-source/focus\-canada\-fall\-2023/focus\-canada\-fall\-2023\-\-\-canadian\-public\-opinion\-about\-immigration\-refugees\-\-\-final\-report.pdf?sfvrsn\=75312743\_2 }} Concerns for immigration seem to be directly tied to cost of living increases that the country has faced, with Canadians feeling housing costs are increasing due to immigration.{{Cite web \|title\=Majority of Canadians say higher immigration is fuelling housing crisis: poll \- National {{!}} Globalnews.ca \|url\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10126729/immigration\-housing\-canada\-leger\-poll/ \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-09 \|website\=Global News \|language\=en\-US}}
The [National Citizens Alliance](/wiki/National_Citizens_Alliance "National Citizens Alliance") was a far\-right political party in Canada that regularly held anti\-immigration rallies.{{cite news \|last1\=Gunn \|first1\=Andrea \|title\=Atlantic Canada's alt\-right fringe \|url\=https://www.theguardian.pe.ca/news/provincial/atlantic\-canadas\-alt\-right\-fringe\-340070/ \|access\-date\=17 April 2020 \|work\=\[\[The Guardian (Charlottetown)\|The Guardian]] \|date\=9 August 2019 \|language\=en \|quotation\=Garvey's policies are decidedly anti\-immigrant, and he speaks extensively about the need to preserve Canada's 'European heritage'.}}{{cite web\|title\=Anti\-immigration rally on Hill fizzles, leader disappointed\|website\=Ottawa Citizen\|url\=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local\-news/anti\-immigration\-rally\-on\-hill\-fizzles\-leader\-disappointed\|access\-date\=14 August 2019\|quote\=Dozens of tourists took photographs of the far\-right participants, many waving Canadian and Quebec flags.}}
The political parties [Avenir Quebec](/wiki/Coalition_Avenir_Qu%C3%A9bec "Coalition Avenir Québec"), [United Conservative](/wiki/United_Conservative_Party "United Conservative Party"), [Bloc Québécois](/wiki/Bloc_Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois "Bloc Québécois"), [People's party](/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Canada "People's Party of Canada") and factions of [Conservative party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada "Conservative Party of Canada") have anti\-immigration views, the former minister of foreign Affairs [Maxime Bernier](/wiki/Maxime_Bernier "Maxime Bernier") and some members of conservative party and regional conservative parties, such as [Jason Kenney](/wiki/Jason_Kenney "Jason Kenney"), [François Legault](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Legault "François Legault"), [Scott Reid](/wiki/Scott_Reid_%28politician%29 "Scott Reid (politician)") have anti\-immigration views.
#### Costa Rica
Anti\-immigrant feelings date back to the late 19th century and early 20th century with the country's first waves of migrations from places like [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon") and [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"). Non\-Polish European migration dates back to practically the independence from [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") but was generally well received.{{cite journal\|last1\=González\|first1\=Daniel\|title\=Migración e identidad cultural en Costa Rica (1840–1940\)\|journal\=Revista de Ciencia Sociales UCR\|date\=18 August 2017\|issue\=155\|url\=https://revistas.ucr.ac.cr/index.php/sociales/article/view/30259/30231\|access\-date\=12 October 2017}} [Polish migration](/wiki/Polish_diaspora "Polish diaspora") was mostly [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish") thus the backlash was due to [anti\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism "Anti-Semitism"). Records of the time show Chinese migrants as the most affected by prejudice especially from government official and the first [anti\-Chinese](/wiki/Anti-Chinese "Anti-Chinese") laws were enacted as far back as the 1910s. In 1903 [President](/wiki/President_of_Costa_Rica "President of Costa Rica") [Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra](/wiki/Ascensi%C3%B3n_Esquivel_Ibarra "Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra") enacted one of the first decrees forbidding non\-White immigration and explicitly stating that migration from Asians, Blacks, Gypsies, Arabs and Turks was not allowed. Although these laws were common in Latin America at the time, and Costa Rica's government eventually became the lead force in its abolishment.
[Polish](/wiki/Polish_People "Polish People"), [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_people "Chinese people") and [Lebanese](/wiki/Lebanese_diaspora "Lebanese diaspora") migrants would integrate fully into Costa Rican society with time to the point that many prominent Costa Ricans from industry, politics, arts, academy, etc. are of those descents. Latin American migrants became the next source of mistrust and opposition, especially [Nicaraguan](/wiki/Nicaraguans_in_Costa_Rica "Nicaraguans in Costa Rica") and [Colombian](/wiki/Colombians_in_Costa_Rica "Colombians in Costa Rica") migrants. During the second half of the 20th century and to this date Costa Rica receives numerous waves of [Latin American](/wiki/Latin_American "Latin American") migrants from all the region, but Nicaraguans are by far the higher group among immigrant population encompassing 74\.6% of the immigrant population,{{cite journal\|last1\=Acuña\|first1\=Guillermo\|title\=La migración en Costa Rica\|journal\=Ministerio de Salud\|date\=2005\|url\=https://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/gestores\_en\_salud/derechos%20humanos/migracion/inmigracr.pdf\|access\-date\=12 October 2017\|archive\-date\=24 July 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724075158/http://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/gestores\_en\_salud/derechos%20humanos/migracion/inmigracr.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} followed by Colombians and [Americans](/wiki/Americans_in_Costa_Rica "Americans in Costa Rica") (immigrants in general are 9% of the population) making [ethnic Nicaraguans](/wiki/Nicaraguan_people "Nicaraguan people") and binational Nicaraguan\-Costa Rican citizens one of the most notorious ethnic minorities in Costa Rica outnumbering other groups like [African\-Costa Ricans](/wiki/African-Costa_Rican "African-Costa Rican"). This caused debate in the country with some voices claiming for harder regulations and border control. The issue was one of the main topics of the [2002 election](/wiki/Costa_Rican_general_election%2C_2002 "Costa Rican general election, 2002") and was again important for the [2018's campaign](/wiki/Costa_Rican_general_election%2C_2018 "Costa Rican general election, 2018") with right\-wing politicians like [Otto Guevara](/wiki/Otto_Guevara "Otto Guevara") quoting [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") as an inspiration{{cite news\|last1\=Arias\|first1\=L\|title\=Costa Rican legislator praises Trump's tactics as he eyes new presidential bid\|url\=http://www.ticotimes.net/2016/11/23/otto\-guevara\-trump\-campaign\|access\-date\=12 October 2017\|agency\=The Tico Times\|date\=23 November 2016}} and calling for harsher migratory laws and eliminating the [citizenship by birth](/wiki/Citizenship_by_birth "Citizenship by birth") in the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Costa_Rica "Constitution of Costa Rica"). The Migration Law was reform globally in 2005 hardening some of the requirements for entering, staying and working on the country which was criticized as excessive,{{cite journal\|last1\=Dobles\|first1\=Ignacio\|last2\=Vargas\|first2\=Gabriela\|last3\=Amadro\|first3\=Krissia\|last4\=Arroyo\|first4\=Massiel\|title\=La inmigración y el Poder Legislativo en Costa Rica\|date\=2013\|url\=http://www.redalyc.org/html/729/72927050005/\|access\-date\=12 October 2017}} but further reforms, the last one in 2009, reduce some of the impact of the more controversial parts of the law. [Far\-right](/wiki/Far-right "Far-right") ultra\-[conservative](/wiki/Conservatism "Conservatism") [National Restoration Party](/wiki/National_Restoration_Party_%28Costa_Rica%29 "National Restoration Party (Costa Rica)"), that held an important role in the [2018 presidential election](/wiki/2018_Costa_Rican_general_election "2018 Costa Rican general election"), also holds anti\-migration positions.{{cite news \|last1\=Chinchilla \|first1\=Aaron \|title\=Restauración Nacional exige al Gobierno reforzar controles migratorios en Peñas Blancas \|agency\=El Periódico \|date\=25 July 2018}}{{cite news \|last1\=Pérez \|first1\=Karla \|title\=Fabricio Alvarado: Hay que implementar una política migratoria fuerte \|agency\=El Mundo \|date\=January 2018}}
After a series of [fake news](/wiki/Fake_news "Fake news") spread by several far\-right [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook") pages{{cite news \|last1\=Rico \|title\=44 arrested for xenophobic attacks against Nicaraguans in San José \|url\=https://qcostarica.com/44\-arrested\-for\-xenophobic\-attacks\-against\-nicaraguans\-in\-san\-jose/ \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=QCosta Rica \|date\=18 August 2018}} inciting hatred against Nicaraguan migrants, an anti\-migration manifestation was organized on 18 August 2018 known as the "Taken of La Merced" after Nicaraguan refugees were falsely accused of having "taking" La Merced Park in [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jos%C3%A9%2C_Costa_Rica "San José, Costa Rica"), a common gathering of the Nicaraguan community. Although some of the protesters were peaceful, participation of openly [neo\-Nazi](/wiki/Neo-Nazi "Neo-Nazi") groups and violent [hooligans](/wiki/Hooligans "Hooligans") with criminal records caused riots and attacks on Nicaraguans or people suspected of being. The national police [Public Force](/wiki/Public_Forces_of_Costa_Rica "Public Forces of Costa Rica") intervened{{cite news \|title\=Costa Rica: symboles nazis lors d'une manifestation anti\-migrants nicaraguayens \|url\=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2018/08/19/costa\-rica\-symboles\-nazis\-lors\-dune\-manifestation\-anti\-migrants\-nicaraguayens \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=Journal de Montreal \|date\=19 August 2018}} with up to 44 people arrested, 36 of such were Costa Rican and the rest Nicaraguans. Several violent articles including [Molotov bombs](/wiki/Molotov_bomb "Molotov bomb") were confiscated and some of the protesters identify themselves with [Swastikas](/wiki/Swastikas "Swastikas") and yelled "¡Fuera nicas!" (Nicas out!).{{cite news \|title\=Costa Rica: violenta protesta contra inmigración nicaragüense \|url\=https://www.dw.com/es/costa\-rica\-violenta\-protesta\-contra\-inmigraci%C3%B3n\-nicarag%C3%BCense/a\-45134202 \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=DW}} A pro\-immigrant manifestation was scheduled a week later with a high attendance.{{cite news \|last1\=Redaccion \|title\=Costa Rica marcha contra la xenofobia hacia los migrantes de Nicaragua que llegan al país huyendo de la crisis \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias\-america\-latina\-45312167 \|access\-date\=2 November 2018 \|agency\=BBC Mundo \|date\=26 August 2018}} Further anti\-migration protests (this time with the explicit exclusion of hooligans and neo\-nazi) were organized in later days but with lesser participation.
#### Mexico
{{Update\|section\|date\=May 2024}}
In Mexico, during the first eight months of 2005, more than 120,000 people from [Central America](/wiki/Central_America "Central America") were deported to their countries of origin. This is a much higher number than the people deported in the same period in 2002, when only 1 person was deported in the entire year.{{cite news \| last \= Roman \| first \= Jose Antonio \| title \= Detienen en seis meses a 120 mil indocumentados de Centroamérica \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20111024215950/http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/08/24/018n3pol.php \| archive\-date \= 24 October 2011 \| url \= http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/08/24/018n3pol.php \| work \= La Journada \| publisher \= Desarrollo de Medios, S.A. de C.V. (DEMOS) \| date \= 24 August 2005 }} Many women from countries in the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States") (most of former [USSR](/wiki/USSR "USSR")), [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia") and Central and [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America") are offered jobs at [table dance](/wiki/Table_dance "Table dance") establishments in large cities throughout the country, causing the [National Institute of Migration](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Migration "National Institute of Migration") (INM) in Mexico to raid [strip clubs](/wiki/Strip_clubs "Strip clubs") and deport foreigners who work without the proper documentation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tvazteca.com/hechos/archivos2/2004/10/102327\.shtml\|title\=TV en vivo por internet y capítulos en línea\|publisher\=tvazteca.com\|date\=October 2004\|access\-date\=14 September 2014\|archive\-date\=2 December 2006\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061202164716/http://www.tvazteca.com/hechos/archivos2/2004/10/102327\.shtml\|url\-status\=dead}}
[Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") has very strict laws pertaining to both illegal and legal immigrants.{{cite news \| last \= Slagle \| first \= John W. \| title \= Illegal alien amnesty, guest workers, international law and politics \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20071007080905/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID\=5240 \| archive\-date \= 7 October 2007 \| url \= http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID\=5240 \| work \= American Chronicle \| publisher \= Ultio \| date \= 28 January 2006 }} The Mexican constitution restricts non\-citizens or foreign\-born persons from participating in politics, holding office, acting as a member of the clergy, or serving on the crews of Mexican\-flagged ships or airplanes. Certain legal rights are waived, such as the right to a deportation hearing or other legal motions. In cases of [flagrante delicto](/wiki/Flagrante_delicto "Flagrante delicto"), any person may make a citizen's arrest on the offender and his accomplices, turning them over without delay to the nearest authorities.
Many immigration restrictionists in the United States have accused the Mexican government of [hypocrisy](/wiki/Hypocrisy "Hypocrisy") in its immigration policy, noting that while the [Government of Mexico](/wiki/Government_of_Mexico "Government of Mexico") and [Mexican Americans](/wiki/Mexican_Americans "Mexican Americans") are demanding looser immigration laws in the United States and oppose the [2010 Arizona Immigration Bill](/wiki/2010_Arizona_Immigration_Bill "2010 Arizona Immigration Bill"), at the same time Mexico is imposing even tighter restrictions on immigration into Mexico from Central America and other places than the Arizona law. However, Mexico started enforcing those laws which they previously ignored at the direct request of the United States, which saw a surge of Central American immigration during the Bush years; the newly elected president{{who\|date\=May 2024}} of Mexico has stated his desire to be more open, and would not deport Central Americans on their way to the United States or those who wish to remain in Mexico. {{citation needed\|date\=April 2017}}
#### Panama
The recent [exodus of Venezuelan migrants](/wiki/Venezuelan_refugee_crisis "Venezuelan refugee crisis") in [Panama](/wiki/Panama "Panama") encouraged the xenophobic and anti\-migration public speech from Panamanian nationalist groups.
#### United States
{{See also\|Immigration reduction in the United States\|Illegal immigration to the United States}}
[thumb\| [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") campaigned for president in 2016 by promising to build a wall on the border of Mexico and the United States "as the centerpiece of his immigration plan", as well as [a temporary suspension of Muslim migration to the United States](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 "Executive Order 13769")"Venturing to Mexico, Donald Trump defends right to build huge wall". [AP Aug 21, 2016](http://floridapolitics.com/archives/220947-venturing-mexico-donald-trump-defends-right-build-huge-wall)](/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_August_19%2C_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg "Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg")
[thumb\|Anti\-illegal immigrant car sticker in Colorado](/wiki/File:Anti-immigration_sign_in_Colorado.jpg "Anti-immigration sign in Colorado.jpg")
In the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), opponents of immigration typically focus on perceived adverse effects, such as economic costs (job competition and burdens on education and social services); negative environmental impact from accelerated population growth; increased crime rates, and in the long run, changes in traditional identities and values.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0IGSBQAAQBAJ\|title\=White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics\|author1\=Marisa Abrajano\|author2\=Zoltan L. Hajnal\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|year\=2015\|isbn\=9781400866489\|pages\=31–35}}
In countries where the majority of the population is of immigrant descent, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the form of [nativism](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 "Nativism (politics)").{{cite book \|last \= Higham \| first \= John \| title \= Strangers in the land: patterns of American nativism, 1860–1925 \| publisher \= Atheneum \| location \= New York \| year \= 1963 \| oclc \= 421752 }}
In the United States, opposition to immigration has a long history, starting in the late 1790s, in reaction to an influx of political refugees from France and Ireland. The [Alien and Sedition Acts](/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts "Alien and Sedition Acts") of 1798 severely restricted the rights of immigrants. Nativism first gained a name and affected politics in the mid\-19th century United States because of the large inflows of immigrants from cultures that were markedly different from the existing [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") culture. Nativists primarily objected to [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), especially [Irish Americans](/wiki/Irish_Americans "Irish Americans"). Nativist movements included the [American Party](/wiki/Know_Nothing "Know Nothing") of the mid\-19th Century (formed by members of the [Know\-Nothing movement](/wiki/Know-Nothing_movement "Know-Nothing movement")), the Immigration Restriction League of the early 20th Century, and the anti\-Asian movements in the [West](/wiki/Western_United_States "Western United States"), resulting in the [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act "Chinese Exclusion Act") and the so\-called "[Gentlemen's Agreement](/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907 "Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907")" which was aimed at the Japanese. Major restrictions became law in the 1920s and sharply cut the inflow of immigrants until 1965, when they ended. The federal government took charge of finding and deporting illegal aliens, which it still does.{{cite journal \|last \= Ngai \|first \= Mae M. \|title \= The strange career of the illegal alien: immigration restriction and deportation policy in the United States, 1921–1965 \|journal \= Law and History Review \|volume \= 21 \|issue \= 1 \|pages \= 69–107 \|publisher \= \[\[Cambridge University Press\|Cambridge Journals]] \|doi \= 10\.2307/3595069 \|jstor \= 3595069 \|date \=Spring 2003 \|s2cid \= 145344500 }}
Immigration again became a major issue from the 1990s onward, with burgeoning rates of undocumented immigration, particularly by Mexicans who crossed the Southern border, and others who overstayed their visitor visas. The [Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986](/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986 "Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986") provided an amnesty which was described as the amnesty to end all amnesties but it had no lasting impact on the flow of illegal immigrants.{{cite journal \|last \= Camarota \|first \= Steven A. \|url\=http://www.cis.org/articles/2000/ins1986amnesty.html\|title\=New INS Report \|website\=cis.org \|publisher \= Center for Immigration Studies \|date \= October 2000 \|access\-date\=14 September 2014}}
*See also*: {{cite book \|last \= INS \|author\-link \= Immigration and Naturalization Service \|title \= Statistical yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 2000 \|url \= https://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/two\_unauthorized\_immigration\_us.pdf \|publisher \= \[\[Immigration and Naturalization Service\|Immigration and Naturalization Service, U.S. Department of Justice]] \|id \= M\-367 \|date \= September 2000 \|location \= Washington, D.C. \|oclc \= 780095878 }}
* By 2014, the [Tea Party movement](/wiki/Tea_Party_movement "Tea Party movement") narrowed its focus away from economic issues, spending and [Obamacare](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act") to attacking President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama")'s immigration policies. They saw his immigration policies as threatening to transform American society. They tried but failed to defeat leading Republicans who supported immigration programs, such as Senator [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain"). A typical slogan appeared in the *Tea Party Tribune*: "Amnesty for Millions, Tyranny for All." The *New York Times* reported:
What started five years ago as a groundswell of conservatives committed to curtailing the reach of the federal government, cutting the deficit and countering the Wall Street wing of the Republican Party has become a movement largely against immigration overhaul. The politicians, intellectual leaders and activists who consider themselves part of the Tea Party movement have redirected their energy from fiscal austerity and small government to stopping any changes that would legitimize people who are here illegally, either through granting them citizenship or legal status.{{cite news \|last\=Peters \|first\=Jeremy W. \|date\=25 November 2014 \|title\=Obama's Immigration Action Reinvigorates Tea Party \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/26/us/obamas\-immigration\-action\-reinvigorates\-tea\-party.html \|newspaper\= \[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=29 January 2015}}
As of 2014, over 42\.4 million immigrants were living in the United States. This was about 13\.3% of the entire United States population at that time.{{cite web\|last1\=Zong\|first1\=Jie\|last2\=Batalova\|first2\=Jeanne\|title\=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States\|url\=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently\-requested\-statistics\-immigrants\-and\-immigration\-united\-states\|website\=Migration Policy Institute\|access\-date\=30 January 2017}}
In 2016, New York City millionaire and media personality, [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump"), ran [a successful presidential campaign aimed at ending illegal immigration](/wiki/Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign "Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"). Trump portrayed himself as the outsider who would "[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again")," calling out to the Tea Party movement and the like who wanted to "take their country back." Several of his campaign promises included [construction of a border wall along the US–Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall "Trump wall"), a temporary suspension of migration to the United States from several Muslim\-majority nations, and the [deportation](/wiki/Deportation "Deportation") of undocumented immigrants. Trump was known for his "[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again")" rhetoric which could become provocative, inciting violence at [his campaign rallies](/wiki/List_of_rallies_for_the_Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign "List of rallies for the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"). A major part of his 2016 campaign was opposition to "[political correctness](/wiki/Political_correctness "Political correctness")", which he criticized as too nice, when we need to be stronger and tougher. Although Trump's [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"), and even some of his fellow [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)"), such as [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain") and [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney "Mitt Romney"), called Trump's ["Make America Great Again"](/wiki/%22Make_America_Great_Again%22)/anti\-immigrant rhetoric racist, xenophobic, Islamophobic, and dangerous, but his proposals found strong support in the [heartland](/wiki/Heartland_%28United_States%29 "Heartland (United States)") and the [south](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States").
On [November 8, 2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election "2016 United States presidential election"), Trump won as the 2016 US presidential election against his [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"). Although Clinton won the popular vote, Trump won the electoral college.
Trump was later [inaugurated on January 20, 2017](/wiki/Inauguration_of_Donald_Trump "Inauguration of Donald Trump"). After taking the oath of office, Trump gave a speech that lacked any of the incendiary rhetoric many people had grown accustomed to, such as when he argued that prejudice isn't consistent with patriotism \- though many still viewed his speech as divisive. He tried to strike a balance between rallying [his supporters](/wiki/Trumpism "Trumpism") and uniting the country. The speech seemingly called out previous US politicians, including [the former](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") [presidents](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") [sitting next](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") [to him](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter"), as being ineffective and inadequate at leading most Americans. It also echoed much of the same [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist "Isolationist") and [nativist](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 "Nativism (politics)") rhetoric that [his campaign](/wiki/Trumpism "Trumpism") had inspired, in which Trump related his election to that of a revolution in the country, promising to take the country back. [Nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism "Nationalism") ran high, with Trump stating that [America would come first in every situation from that moment forward](/wiki/America_First_%28policy%29 "America First (policy)"), and in the finale he repeated his longstanding campaign promise to [Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again").
Promptly after his inauguration, Trump issued an executive order to begin construction of [a border wall along the US\-Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall "Trump wall") and limit the number of refugees and foreigners entering the country. Then on January 27, 2017, he issued [an executive order banning the admission of travelers from seven Muslim\-majority nations](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 "Executive Order 13769"), which was met with [large protests at airports all over the nation](/wiki/Protests_against_Executive_Order_13769 "Protests against Executive Order 13769"). The order would not only shut down the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program for 120 days, but also suspend entry from seven countries for 90 days. Since the countries subject to the ban were [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"), [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"), [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"), and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen "Yemen"), Trump’s travel ban was referred to by critics and supporters alike as “the Muslim ban.” After the original executive order, there were two more modified versions of the travel ban, which were all met with polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.
Later on in his presidency, in April 2018, the [Trump administration](/wiki/Trump_administration "Trump administration")’s zero\-tolerance [family separation policy saw migrant children taken from their parents, until it was suspended in response to public opposition](/wiki/Trump_administration_family_separation_policy "Trump administration family separation policy") on June 20, 2018\. But immigration became the focus again in the lead\-up to the midterm elections when President Trump sent troops to the border to meet a migrant caravan. Tensions came to a head on November 25, 2018, when border agents fired tear gas after migrants rushed barriers. Tear gas has been used at the border since 2010, but critics called its use on a desperate group with small children overkill. In one of the more surreal moments of 2018, the President at first denied that children had been gassed, despite plenty of photos. This was also met with [large nationwide protests](/wiki/Families_Belong_Together "Families Belong Together") and polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.
Labor unions
{{Main\|Immigration policies of American labor unions}}
The [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor "American Federation of Labor") (AFL), a coalition of labor unions formed in the 1880s, vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.{{cite journal \|last \= Collomp \|first \= Catherine \| title \= Unions, civics, and National identity: organized Labor's reaction to immigration, 1881–1897 \| journal \= \[\[Labor History (journal)\|Labor History]] \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 450–474 \| publisher \= \[\[Taylor and Francis]] \| doi \= 10\.1080/00236568800890311 \| date \= October 1988 }} Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. However, nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its [Euro\-American](/wiki/European_Americans "European Americans") members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 [Emergency Quota Act](/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act "Emergency Quota Act") and the [Immigration Act of 1924](/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924 "Immigration Act of 1924"), and seeing that they were strictly enforced.{{cite journal \|last \= Lane \|first \= A.T. \| title \= American trade unions, mass immigration and the literacy test: 1900–1917 \| journal \= \[\[Labor History (journal)\|Labor History]] \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 5–25 \| publisher \= \[\[Taylor and Francis]] \| doi \= 10\.1080/00236568408584739 \| date \= January 1984 }}
Mink (1986\) concludes that the link between the AFL and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "History of the Democratic Party (United States)") rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.{{cite book \| last \= Mink \| first \= Gwendolyn \| title \= Old labor and new immigrants in American political development: union, party, and state, 1875–1920 \| publisher \= Cornell University Press \| location \= Ithaca \| year \= 1986 \| isbn \= 9780801418631 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/oldlabornewimmig00mink }}
The [United Farm Workers](/wiki/United_Farm_Workers "United Farm Workers") was committed to restricting immigration during [Cesar Chavez](/wiki/Cesar_Chavez "Cesar Chavez") tenure. Chavez and [Dolores Huerta](/wiki/Dolores_Huerta "Dolores Huerta"), cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the [Bracero Program](/wiki/Bracero_Program "Bracero Program") that existed from 1942 to 1964\. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964\. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.
On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti\-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti\-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the [Imperial](/wiki/Imperial_Valley_%28California%29 "Imperial Valley (California)") and [Coachella Valleys](/wiki/Coachella_Valley "Coachella Valley") to the border of Mexico to protest growers' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. Joining him on the march were Reverend [Ralph Abernathy](/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy "Ralph Abernathy") and U.S. Senator [Walter Mondale](/wiki/Walter_Mondale "Walter Mondale").{{cite web \|last1\=Artz \|first1\=Matt \|title\=Civil Rights, Vietnam and the Decade of Protest (1960\-1970\) \|url\=https://understandingrace.org/history/society/civil\-rights\-vietnam\-and\-the\-decade\-of\-protest\-1960\-1970/\#:\~:text\=In%201969%2C%20Chávez%20and%20UFW,from%20grape%20and%20lettuce%20growers. \|website\=Understanding RACE \|access\-date\=15 June 2023 \|date\=27 January 1960}} In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the [Immigration and Naturalization Service](/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service "Immigration and Naturalization Service").{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HAd4W9OdLX0C\&q\=UFW\+report\+undocumented\&pg\=PA197\|title\=Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants and the Politics of Ethnicity\|first\=David Gregory\|last\=Gutiérrez\|year\=1995\|pages\=97–98\|publisher\=University of California Press\|location\=San Diego\|isbn\=9780520916869}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.aim.org/publications/media\_monitor/2003/03/05\.html\|title\=Why Journalists Support Illegal Immigration\|publisher\=Accuracy in the Media\|first1\=Reed\|last1\=Irvine\|first2\=Cliff\|last2\=Kincaid\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|archive\-date\=3 December 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203084534/http://www.aim.org/publications/media\_monitor/2003/03/05\.html\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ewnEO2GvkFIC\&q\=ufw\+undocumented\&pg\=PA89\|title\=Strawberry Fields: Politics, Class, and Work in California Agriculture\|first\=Miriam J.\|last\=Wells\|pages\=89–90\|publisher\=Cornell University Press\|location\=New York\|year\=1996\|isbn\=9780801482793}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PnUgAAAAMAAJ\&q\=crack\+down\|title\=Beyond the Border: Mexico \& the U.S. Today\|first1\=Peter\|last1\=Baird\|first2\=Ed\|last2\=McCaughan\|page\=169\|publisher\=North American Congress on Latin America\|isbn\=9780916024376\|year\=1979}}Farmworker Collective Bargaining, 1979: Hearings Before the Committee on Labor Human Resources Hearings held in Salinas, Calif., 26 April 27, and Washington, D.C., 24 May 1979
In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a "wet line" along the [United States\-Mexico border](/wiki/United_States-Mexico_border "United States-Mexico border") to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW's unionization efforts.["PBS Airs Chávez Documentary"](http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=217_0_3_0), University of California at Davis – Rural Migration News. During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some [UFW](/wiki/UFW "UFW") members, under the guidance of Chavez's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=raNFo6Tvmt0C\&q\=cesar\+chavez\+undocumented\&pg\=PA18\|title\=Cesar Chavez: A Brief Biography with Documents\|first\=Richard W.\|last\=Etulain\|page\=18\|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan\|year\=2002\|isbn\=9780312294274}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\-12\-29/columns/ask\-a\-mexican/\|title\=The year in Mexican\-bashing\|first\=Gustavo\|last\=Arellano\|newspaper\=OC Weekly\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609052417/http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\-12\-29/columns/ask\-a\-mexican/\|archive\-date\=9 June 2014\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\-ed/navarrette/20050330\-9999\-lz1e30navar.html\|title\=The Arizona Minutemen and César Chávez\|newspaper\=San Diego Union Tribune\|first\=Ruben Jr.\|last\=Navarrette\|date\=30 March 2005\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805204302/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\-ed/navarrette/20050330\-9999\-lz1e30navar.html\|archive\-date\=5 August 2009}}
In 1979, Chavez used a forum of a U.S. Senate committee hearing to denounce the federal immigration service, which he said the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service purportedly refused to arrest illegal Mexican immigrants who Chavez claims are being used to break the union's strike.{{cite news \|last1\=Cannon \|first1\=Lou \|title\=Chavez Employs Senate Hearing To Urge National Lettuce Boycott \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/27/chavez\-employs\-senate\-hearing\-to\-urge\-national\-lettuce\-boycott/50b668f3\-0b1d\-46de\-8c11\-909a61e5bcae/ \|access\-date\=28 September 2021 \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 27, 1979}}
[Bernie Sanders](/wiki/Bernie_Sanders "Bernie Sanders") opposes guest worker programs{{cite web \|last\=Jamieson \|first\=Dave \|date\=19 June 2013 \|title\=Senator Sounds Alarm On Teen Unemployment \|website\=The Huffington Post \|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/19/bernie\-sanders\-immigration\-reform\_n\_3467243\.html \|access\-date\=15 June 2015}} and he is also skeptical of skilled immigrant ([H\-1B](/wiki/H-1B "H-1B")) visas, saying,: "Last year, the top 10 employers of H\-1B guest workers were all offshore outsourcing companies. These firms are responsible for shipping large numbers of American information technology jobs to India and other countries".{{cite web \|last\=Thibodeau \|first\=Patrick \|date\=1 May 2015 \|title\=Meet Bernie Sanders, H\-1B skeptic \|website\=Computerworld \|url\=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2916827/it\-outsourcing/bernie\-sanders\-h\-1b\-skeptic.html \|access\-date\=15 June 2015}} In an interview with *Vox*, he stated his opposition to an open borders immigration policy, describing it as such:
> \[A] right\-wing proposal, which says essentially there is no United States. \[...] \[Y]ou're doing away with the concept of a nation\-state. What right\-wing people in this country would love is an open\-border policy. Bring in all kinds of people, work for $2 or $3 an hour, that would be great for them. I don't believe in that. I think we have to raise wages in this country, I think we have to do everything we can to create millions of jobs.{{cite web\|last\=Bier \|first\=Daniel \|url\=http://www.newsweek.com/bernie\-sanders\-immigrants\-silly\-tribal\-and\-economically\-illiterate\-358369 \|title\=Bernie Sanders on Immigrants: Silly, Tribal and Economically Illiterate \|date\=30 July 2015 \|publisher\=Newsweek.com \|access\-date\=27 July 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/aug/03/bernie\-sanders\-open\-borders\-economy\|title\=Bernie Sanders is wrong on open borders; they'd help boost the economy \|last\=Massimino\|first\=Cory\|work\=the Guardian\|date\=3 August 2015 }}
|
[
"### Americas",
"#### Brazil",
"{{See also\\|Venezuelan refugee crisis}}",
"Brazil is a country of immigrants and developed a reputation for \"warm welcome\" of people all over the world. Nevertheless, different analysts often dispute how truthful this image is and, although openly xenophobic manifestation were uncommon, some scholars denounce it existence in more subtle ways.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Novais \\|first1\\=Andréa \\|title\\=Xenophobia in Brazil \\|url\\=http://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/xenophobia\\-in\\-brazil \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=The Brazil Business \\|date\\=30 November 2012}}",
"Despite the fact that Brazil was considered a safe haven for neighboring refugees and immigrants, xenophobic violence has erupted. Brazil received up to 3000 [Syrian refugees](/wiki/Syrian_refugees \"Syrian refugees\") becoming the largest receiver of such in Latin America.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Tsavkko Garcia \\|first1\\=Raphael \\|title\\=Is Brazil no longer safe for refugees and immigrants? \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/08/brazil\\-longer\\-safe\\-refugees\\-immigrants\\-170809113330259\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Al Jazeera English\\|Al Jazeera]] \\|date\\=16 August 2017}} However, [xenophobic](/wiki/Xenophobic \"Xenophobic\") and [islamophobic](/wiki/Islamophobic \"Islamophobic\") attacks were reported against Syrian refugees and Muslims in general. After the alleged beating of a shop owner during a robbery by alleged [Venezuelan migrants](/wiki/Venezuelan_refugee_crisis \"Venezuelan refugee crisis\"), riots occurred in the [Brazilian\\-Venezuelan border](/wiki/Venezuela-Brazil_border \"Venezuela-Brazil border\") which included attacks on Venezuelans nationals, destruction of refugee tents and fires.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Doce Villamar \\|first1\\=Inacio \\|title\\=Tense calm on Brazil\\-Venezuelan border after anti\\-immigrant riot \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-venezuela\\-brazil\\-border/tense\\-calm\\-on\\-brazil\\-venezuelan\\-border\\-after\\-anti\\-immigrant\\-riot\\-idUSKCN1L40LU \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819201458/https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-venezuela\\-brazil\\-border/tense\\-calm\\-on\\-brazil\\-venezuelan\\-border\\-after\\-anti\\-immigrant\\-riot\\-idUSKCN1L40LU \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=19 August 2018}} 1200 Venezuelans went back to their homeland as a result and the administration of [President](/wiki/President_of_Brazil \"President of Brazil\") [Michel Temer](/wiki/Michel_Temer \"Michel Temer\") increased military personnel in the border. The burning of the refugee camps was reported in national and international news outlet and the authorities announce they will investigate and prosecute the authors.",
"During the [Brazilian general election](/wiki/2018_Brazilian_general_election \"2018 Brazilian general election\") in 2018, then [far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right \"Far-right\") presidential candidate [Jair Bolsonaro](/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro \"Jair Bolsonaro\") said the government should not turn its back on popular sentiment in Roraima, and proposed the creation of [refugee camps](/wiki/Refugee_camps \"Refugee camps\") with the help of the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil\\-jair\\-bolsonaro\\-sugiere\\-crear\\-campos\\-refugiados\\-venezolanos\\-venezuela\\-noticia\\-550369\\|title\\=Bolsonaro sugiere crear campos de refugiados para venezolanos\\|date\\=24 August 2018\\|website\\=El Comercio\\|language\\=es\\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2019}} Once he became president, Bolsonaro said he would adopt more rigorous criteria for the entry of foreigners to Brazil, but ruled that he would not repatriate Venezuelan immigrants to their country.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil\\-jair\\-bolsonaro\\-devolvera\\-venezolanos\\-roraima\\-anuncia\\-control\\-migratorio\\-noticia\\-580848\\|title\\=Jair Bolsonaro no devolverá a venezolanos en Roraima pero anuncia control migratorio\\|date\\=24 November 2018\\|website\\=El Comercio\\|language\\=es\\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2019}}",
"#### Canada",
"Historically, Canada has implemented a variety of anti\\-immigration laws. In the early 19th century Canadian immigration laws specifically discriminated against people based on class, race, and disability. These policies continued into the 20th century, which did not change until following [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Immigration Policy in Canada \\|url\\=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/immigration\\-policy \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-09 \\|website\\=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca \\|language\\=en}}",
"In a 2013 interview with the French news magazine *[L'Express](/wiki/L%27Express \"L'Express\")* Canadian academic and [environmental activist](/wiki/Environmentalism \"Environmentalism\") [David Suzuki](/wiki/David_Suzuki \"David Suzuki\") stated that Canada's immigration policy was \"crazy\" and \"Canada is full\". However, he insisted that Canada should \"open its doors to those who are oppressed\" and accept refugees.{{cite news \\|title\\=David Suzuki 'full' comment slammed by Jason Kenney \\|url\\=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/jason\\-kenney\\-slams\\-david\\-suzukis\\-immigration\\-views\\-as\\-toxic\\-and\\-irresponsible\\-after\\-environmentalist\\-says\\-canada\\-full \\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2020 \\|work\\=National Post \\|date\\=11 July 2013 \\|language\\=en\\-CA}} The leader of the [People's Party of Canada](/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Canada \"People's Party of Canada\"), [Maxime Bernier](/wiki/Maxime_Bernier \"Maxime Bernier\") believes that current immigration harms Canadian values, and also makes it more difficult for real refuges to come to Canada.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Goodyear \\|first\\=Sheena \\|title\\=Maxime Bernier explains what he means by 'extreme multiculturalism' \\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as\\-it\\-happens\\-friday\\-edition\\-1\\.4833110/maxime\\-bernier\\-explains\\-what\\-he\\-means\\-by\\-extreme\\-multiculturalism\\-1\\.4833113 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In a 2017 poll conducted by the [Angus Reid Institute](/wiki/Angus_Reid_Institute \"Angus Reid Institute\"), a majority of respondents (57%) indicated that they believed Canada should accept fewer immigrants and refugees.{{cite web \\|title\\=Spirituality in a changing world: Half say faith is 'important' to how they consider society's problems \\|url\\=http://angusreid.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/05/2017\\.05\\.17\\-Faith\\-Wave\\-1\\-Part2\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Angus Reid Institute]] \\|access\\-date\\=25 April 2020}} Despite this more recent surveys immigration is one of the smallest concerns to the average Canadian, with only 2% of Canadian surveyed ranking immigration as their largest concern.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Neuman \\|first\\=Keith \\|title\\=Canadian Public Opinion About Immigration \\& Refugees, Fall 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default\\-source/focus\\-canada\\-fall\\-2023/focus\\-canada\\-fall\\-2023\\-\\-\\-canadian\\-public\\-opinion\\-about\\-immigration\\-refugees\\-\\-\\-final\\-report.pdf?sfvrsn\\=75312743\\_2 }} Concerns for immigration seem to be directly tied to cost of living increases that the country has faced, with Canadians feeling housing costs are increasing due to immigration.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Majority of Canadians say higher immigration is fuelling housing crisis: poll \\- National {{!}} Globalnews.ca \\|url\\=https://globalnews.ca/news/10126729/immigration\\-housing\\-canada\\-leger\\-poll/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-09 \\|website\\=Global News \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"The [National Citizens Alliance](/wiki/National_Citizens_Alliance \"National Citizens Alliance\") was a far\\-right political party in Canada that regularly held anti\\-immigration rallies.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Gunn \\|first1\\=Andrea \\|title\\=Atlantic Canada's alt\\-right fringe \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.pe.ca/news/provincial/atlantic\\-canadas\\-alt\\-right\\-fringe\\-340070/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2020 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian (Charlottetown)\\|The Guardian]] \\|date\\=9 August 2019 \\|language\\=en \\|quotation\\=Garvey's policies are decidedly anti\\-immigrant, and he speaks extensively about the need to preserve Canada's 'European heritage'.}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Anti\\-immigration rally on Hill fizzles, leader disappointed\\|website\\=Ottawa Citizen\\|url\\=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local\\-news/anti\\-immigration\\-rally\\-on\\-hill\\-fizzles\\-leader\\-disappointed\\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2019\\|quote\\=Dozens of tourists took photographs of the far\\-right participants, many waving Canadian and Quebec flags.}}",
"The political parties [Avenir Quebec](/wiki/Coalition_Avenir_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Coalition Avenir Québec\"), [United Conservative](/wiki/United_Conservative_Party \"United Conservative Party\"), [Bloc Québécois](/wiki/Bloc_Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois \"Bloc Québécois\"), [People's party](/wiki/People%27s_Party_of_Canada \"People's Party of Canada\") and factions of [Conservative party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada \"Conservative Party of Canada\") have anti\\-immigration views, the former minister of foreign Affairs [Maxime Bernier](/wiki/Maxime_Bernier \"Maxime Bernier\") and some members of conservative party and regional conservative parties, such as [Jason Kenney](/wiki/Jason_Kenney \"Jason Kenney\"), [François Legault](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Legault \"François Legault\"), [Scott Reid](/wiki/Scott_Reid_%28politician%29 \"Scott Reid (politician)\") have anti\\-immigration views.",
"#### Costa Rica",
"Anti\\-immigrant feelings date back to the late 19th century and early 20th century with the country's first waves of migrations from places like [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\") and [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"). Non\\-Polish European migration dates back to practically the independence from [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") but was generally well received.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=González\\|first1\\=Daniel\\|title\\=Migración e identidad cultural en Costa Rica (1840–1940\\)\\|journal\\=Revista de Ciencia Sociales UCR\\|date\\=18 August 2017\\|issue\\=155\\|url\\=https://revistas.ucr.ac.cr/index.php/sociales/article/view/30259/30231\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2017}} [Polish migration](/wiki/Polish_diaspora \"Polish diaspora\") was mostly [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") thus the backlash was due to [anti\\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism \"Anti-Semitism\"). Records of the time show Chinese migrants as the most affected by prejudice especially from government official and the first [anti\\-Chinese](/wiki/Anti-Chinese \"Anti-Chinese\") laws were enacted as far back as the 1910s. In 1903 [President](/wiki/President_of_Costa_Rica \"President of Costa Rica\") [Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra](/wiki/Ascensi%C3%B3n_Esquivel_Ibarra \"Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra\") enacted one of the first decrees forbidding non\\-White immigration and explicitly stating that migration from Asians, Blacks, Gypsies, Arabs and Turks was not allowed. Although these laws were common in Latin America at the time, and Costa Rica's government eventually became the lead force in its abolishment.",
"[Polish](/wiki/Polish_People \"Polish People\"), [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_people \"Chinese people\") and [Lebanese](/wiki/Lebanese_diaspora \"Lebanese diaspora\") migrants would integrate fully into Costa Rican society with time to the point that many prominent Costa Ricans from industry, politics, arts, academy, etc. are of those descents. Latin American migrants became the next source of mistrust and opposition, especially [Nicaraguan](/wiki/Nicaraguans_in_Costa_Rica \"Nicaraguans in Costa Rica\") and [Colombian](/wiki/Colombians_in_Costa_Rica \"Colombians in Costa Rica\") migrants. During the second half of the 20th century and to this date Costa Rica receives numerous waves of [Latin American](/wiki/Latin_American \"Latin American\") migrants from all the region, but Nicaraguans are by far the higher group among immigrant population encompassing 74\\.6% of the immigrant population,{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Acuña\\|first1\\=Guillermo\\|title\\=La migración en Costa Rica\\|journal\\=Ministerio de Salud\\|date\\=2005\\|url\\=https://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/gestores\\_en\\_salud/derechos%20humanos/migracion/inmigracr.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=24 July 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724075158/http://www.ministeriodesalud.go.cr/gestores\\_en\\_salud/derechos%20humanos/migracion/inmigracr.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} followed by Colombians and [Americans](/wiki/Americans_in_Costa_Rica \"Americans in Costa Rica\") (immigrants in general are 9% of the population) making [ethnic Nicaraguans](/wiki/Nicaraguan_people \"Nicaraguan people\") and binational Nicaraguan\\-Costa Rican citizens one of the most notorious ethnic minorities in Costa Rica outnumbering other groups like [African\\-Costa Ricans](/wiki/African-Costa_Rican \"African-Costa Rican\"). This caused debate in the country with some voices claiming for harder regulations and border control. The issue was one of the main topics of the [2002 election](/wiki/Costa_Rican_general_election%2C_2002 \"Costa Rican general election, 2002\") and was again important for the [2018's campaign](/wiki/Costa_Rican_general_election%2C_2018 \"Costa Rican general election, 2018\") with right\\-wing politicians like [Otto Guevara](/wiki/Otto_Guevara \"Otto Guevara\") quoting [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") as an inspiration{{cite news\\|last1\\=Arias\\|first1\\=L\\|title\\=Costa Rican legislator praises Trump's tactics as he eyes new presidential bid\\|url\\=http://www.ticotimes.net/2016/11/23/otto\\-guevara\\-trump\\-campaign\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2017\\|agency\\=The Tico Times\\|date\\=23 November 2016}} and calling for harsher migratory laws and eliminating the [citizenship by birth](/wiki/Citizenship_by_birth \"Citizenship by birth\") in the [Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Costa_Rica \"Constitution of Costa Rica\"). The Migration Law was reform globally in 2005 hardening some of the requirements for entering, staying and working on the country which was criticized as excessive,{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Dobles\\|first1\\=Ignacio\\|last2\\=Vargas\\|first2\\=Gabriela\\|last3\\=Amadro\\|first3\\=Krissia\\|last4\\=Arroyo\\|first4\\=Massiel\\|title\\=La inmigración y el Poder Legislativo en Costa Rica\\|date\\=2013\\|url\\=http://www.redalyc.org/html/729/72927050005/\\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2017}} but further reforms, the last one in 2009, reduce some of the impact of the more controversial parts of the law. [Far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right \"Far-right\") ultra\\-[conservative](/wiki/Conservatism \"Conservatism\") [National Restoration Party](/wiki/National_Restoration_Party_%28Costa_Rica%29 \"National Restoration Party (Costa Rica)\"), that held an important role in the [2018 presidential election](/wiki/2018_Costa_Rican_general_election \"2018 Costa Rican general election\"), also holds anti\\-migration positions.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Chinchilla \\|first1\\=Aaron \\|title\\=Restauración Nacional exige al Gobierno reforzar controles migratorios en Peñas Blancas \\|agency\\=El Periódico \\|date\\=25 July 2018}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Pérez \\|first1\\=Karla \\|title\\=Fabricio Alvarado: Hay que implementar una política migratoria fuerte \\|agency\\=El Mundo \\|date\\=January 2018}}",
"After a series of [fake news](/wiki/Fake_news \"Fake news\") spread by several far\\-right [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") pages{{cite news \\|last1\\=Rico \\|title\\=44 arrested for xenophobic attacks against Nicaraguans in San José \\|url\\=https://qcostarica.com/44\\-arrested\\-for\\-xenophobic\\-attacks\\-against\\-nicaraguans\\-in\\-san\\-jose/ \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=QCosta Rica \\|date\\=18 August 2018}} inciting hatred against Nicaraguan migrants, an anti\\-migration manifestation was organized on 18 August 2018 known as the \"Taken of La Merced\" after Nicaraguan refugees were falsely accused of having \"taking\" La Merced Park in [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jos%C3%A9%2C_Costa_Rica \"San José, Costa Rica\"), a common gathering of the Nicaraguan community. Although some of the protesters were peaceful, participation of openly [neo\\-Nazi](/wiki/Neo-Nazi \"Neo-Nazi\") groups and violent [hooligans](/wiki/Hooligans \"Hooligans\") with criminal records caused riots and attacks on Nicaraguans or people suspected of being. The national police [Public Force](/wiki/Public_Forces_of_Costa_Rica \"Public Forces of Costa Rica\") intervened{{cite news \\|title\\=Costa Rica: symboles nazis lors d'une manifestation anti\\-migrants nicaraguayens \\|url\\=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2018/08/19/costa\\-rica\\-symboles\\-nazis\\-lors\\-dune\\-manifestation\\-anti\\-migrants\\-nicaraguayens \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=Journal de Montreal \\|date\\=19 August 2018}} with up to 44 people arrested, 36 of such were Costa Rican and the rest Nicaraguans. Several violent articles including [Molotov bombs](/wiki/Molotov_bomb \"Molotov bomb\") were confiscated and some of the protesters identify themselves with [Swastikas](/wiki/Swastikas \"Swastikas\") and yelled \"¡Fuera nicas!\" (Nicas out!).{{cite news \\|title\\=Costa Rica: violenta protesta contra inmigración nicaragüense \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/es/costa\\-rica\\-violenta\\-protesta\\-contra\\-inmigraci%C3%B3n\\-nicarag%C3%BCense/a\\-45134202 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=DW}} A pro\\-immigrant manifestation was scheduled a week later with a high attendance.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Redaccion \\|title\\=Costa Rica marcha contra la xenofobia hacia los migrantes de Nicaragua que llegan al país huyendo de la crisis \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias\\-america\\-latina\\-45312167 \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2018 \\|agency\\=BBC Mundo \\|date\\=26 August 2018}} Further anti\\-migration protests (this time with the explicit exclusion of hooligans and neo\\-nazi) were organized in later days but with lesser participation.",
"#### Mexico",
"{{Update\\|section\\|date\\=May 2024}}\nIn Mexico, during the first eight months of 2005, more than 120,000 people from [Central America](/wiki/Central_America \"Central America\") were deported to their countries of origin. This is a much higher number than the people deported in the same period in 2002, when only 1 person was deported in the entire year.{{cite news \\| last \\= Roman \\| first \\= Jose Antonio \\| title \\= Detienen en seis meses a 120 mil indocumentados de Centroamérica \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111024215950/http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/08/24/018n3pol.php \\| archive\\-date \\= 24 October 2011 \\| url \\= http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/08/24/018n3pol.php \\| work \\= La Journada \\| publisher \\= Desarrollo de Medios, S.A. de C.V. (DEMOS) \\| date \\= 24 August 2005 }} Many women from countries in the [Commonwealth of Independent States](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States \"Commonwealth of Independent States\") (most of former [USSR](/wiki/USSR \"USSR\")), [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\") and Central and [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\") are offered jobs at [table dance](/wiki/Table_dance \"Table dance\") establishments in large cities throughout the country, causing the [National Institute of Migration](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Migration \"National Institute of Migration\") (INM) in Mexico to raid [strip clubs](/wiki/Strip_clubs \"Strip clubs\") and deport foreigners who work without the proper documentation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvazteca.com/hechos/archivos2/2004/10/102327\\.shtml\\|title\\=TV en vivo por internet y capítulos en línea\\|publisher\\=tvazteca.com\\|date\\=October 2004\\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=2 December 2006\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061202164716/http://www.tvazteca.com/hechos/archivos2/2004/10/102327\\.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"[Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") has very strict laws pertaining to both illegal and legal immigrants.{{cite news \\| last \\= Slagle \\| first \\= John W. \\| title \\= Illegal alien amnesty, guest workers, international law and politics \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20071007080905/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID\\=5240 \\| archive\\-date \\= 7 October 2007 \\| url \\= http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID\\=5240 \\| work \\= American Chronicle \\| publisher \\= Ultio \\| date \\= 28 January 2006 }} The Mexican constitution restricts non\\-citizens or foreign\\-born persons from participating in politics, holding office, acting as a member of the clergy, or serving on the crews of Mexican\\-flagged ships or airplanes. Certain legal rights are waived, such as the right to a deportation hearing or other legal motions. In cases of [flagrante delicto](/wiki/Flagrante_delicto \"Flagrante delicto\"), any person may make a citizen's arrest on the offender and his accomplices, turning them over without delay to the nearest authorities.",
"Many immigration restrictionists in the United States have accused the Mexican government of [hypocrisy](/wiki/Hypocrisy \"Hypocrisy\") in its immigration policy, noting that while the [Government of Mexico](/wiki/Government_of_Mexico \"Government of Mexico\") and [Mexican Americans](/wiki/Mexican_Americans \"Mexican Americans\") are demanding looser immigration laws in the United States and oppose the [2010 Arizona Immigration Bill](/wiki/2010_Arizona_Immigration_Bill \"2010 Arizona Immigration Bill\"), at the same time Mexico is imposing even tighter restrictions on immigration into Mexico from Central America and other places than the Arizona law. However, Mexico started enforcing those laws which they previously ignored at the direct request of the United States, which saw a surge of Central American immigration during the Bush years; the newly elected president{{who\\|date\\=May 2024}} of Mexico has stated his desire to be more open, and would not deport Central Americans on their way to the United States or those who wish to remain in Mexico. {{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2017}}",
"#### Panama",
"The recent [exodus of Venezuelan migrants](/wiki/Venezuelan_refugee_crisis \"Venezuelan refugee crisis\") in [Panama](/wiki/Panama \"Panama\") encouraged the xenophobic and anti\\-migration public speech from Panamanian nationalist groups.",
"#### United States",
"{{See also\\|Immigration reduction in the United States\\|Illegal immigration to the United States}}\n[thumb\\| [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") campaigned for president in 2016 by promising to build a wall on the border of Mexico and the United States \"as the centerpiece of his immigration plan\", as well as [a temporary suspension of Muslim migration to the United States](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 \"Executive Order 13769\")\"Venturing to Mexico, Donald Trump defends right to build huge wall\". [AP Aug 21, 2016](http://floridapolitics.com/archives/220947-venturing-mexico-donald-trump-defends-right-build-huge-wall)](/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_August_19%2C_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Anti\\-illegal immigrant car sticker in Colorado](/wiki/File:Anti-immigration_sign_in_Colorado.jpg \"Anti-immigration sign in Colorado.jpg\")",
"In the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), opponents of immigration typically focus on perceived adverse effects, such as economic costs (job competition and burdens on education and social services); negative environmental impact from accelerated population growth; increased crime rates, and in the long run, changes in traditional identities and values.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0IGSBQAAQBAJ\\|title\\=White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics\\|author1\\=Marisa Abrajano\\|author2\\=Zoltan L. Hajnal\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|year\\=2015\\|isbn\\=9781400866489\\|pages\\=31–35}}\nIn countries where the majority of the population is of immigrant descent, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the form of [nativism](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 \"Nativism (politics)\").{{cite book \\|last \\= Higham \\| first \\= John \\| title \\= Strangers in the land: patterns of American nativism, 1860–1925 \\| publisher \\= Atheneum \\| location \\= New York \\| year \\= 1963 \\| oclc \\= 421752 }}",
"In the United States, opposition to immigration has a long history, starting in the late 1790s, in reaction to an influx of political refugees from France and Ireland. The [Alien and Sedition Acts](/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts \"Alien and Sedition Acts\") of 1798 severely restricted the rights of immigrants. Nativism first gained a name and affected politics in the mid\\-19th century United States because of the large inflows of immigrants from cultures that were markedly different from the existing [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") culture. Nativists primarily objected to [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), especially [Irish Americans](/wiki/Irish_Americans \"Irish Americans\"). Nativist movements included the [American Party](/wiki/Know_Nothing \"Know Nothing\") of the mid\\-19th Century (formed by members of the [Know\\-Nothing movement](/wiki/Know-Nothing_movement \"Know-Nothing movement\")), the Immigration Restriction League of the early 20th Century, and the anti\\-Asian movements in the [West](/wiki/Western_United_States \"Western United States\"), resulting in the [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act \"Chinese Exclusion Act\") and the so\\-called \"[Gentlemen's Agreement](/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907 \"Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907\")\" which was aimed at the Japanese. Major restrictions became law in the 1920s and sharply cut the inflow of immigrants until 1965, when they ended. The federal government took charge of finding and deporting illegal aliens, which it still does.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Ngai \\|first \\= Mae M. \\|title \\= The strange career of the illegal alien: immigration restriction and deportation policy in the United States, 1921–1965 \\|journal \\= Law and History Review \\|volume \\= 21 \\|issue \\= 1 \\|pages \\= 69–107 \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Cambridge University Press\\|Cambridge Journals]] \\|doi \\= 10\\.2307/3595069 \\|jstor \\= 3595069 \\|date \\=Spring 2003 \\|s2cid \\= 145344500 }}",
"Immigration again became a major issue from the 1990s onward, with burgeoning rates of undocumented immigration, particularly by Mexicans who crossed the Southern border, and others who overstayed their visitor visas. The [Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986](/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986 \"Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986\") provided an amnesty which was described as the amnesty to end all amnesties but it had no lasting impact on the flow of illegal immigrants.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Camarota \\|first \\= Steven A. \\|url\\=http://www.cis.org/articles/2000/ins1986amnesty.html\\|title\\=New INS Report \\|website\\=cis.org \\|publisher \\= Center for Immigration Studies \\|date \\= October 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2014}}\n *See also*: {{cite book \\|last \\= INS \\|author\\-link \\= Immigration and Naturalization Service \\|title \\= Statistical yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 2000 \\|url \\= https://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/two\\_unauthorized\\_immigration\\_us.pdf \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Immigration and Naturalization Service\\|Immigration and Naturalization Service, U.S. Department of Justice]] \\|id \\= M\\-367 \\|date \\= September 2000 \\|location \\= Washington, D.C. \\|oclc \\= 780095878 }}",
"* By 2014, the [Tea Party movement](/wiki/Tea_Party_movement \"Tea Party movement\") narrowed its focus away from economic issues, spending and [Obamacare](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act \"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act\") to attacking President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\")'s immigration policies. They saw his immigration policies as threatening to transform American society. They tried but failed to defeat leading Republicans who supported immigration programs, such as Senator [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\"). A typical slogan appeared in the *Tea Party Tribune*: \"Amnesty for Millions, Tyranny for All.\" The *New York Times* reported:",
"What started five years ago as a groundswell of conservatives committed to curtailing the reach of the federal government, cutting the deficit and countering the Wall Street wing of the Republican Party has become a movement largely against immigration overhaul. The politicians, intellectual leaders and activists who consider themselves part of the Tea Party movement have redirected their energy from fiscal austerity and small government to stopping any changes that would legitimize people who are here illegally, either through granting them citizenship or legal status.{{cite news \\|last\\=Peters \\|first\\=Jeremy W. \\|date\\=25 November 2014 \\|title\\=Obama's Immigration Action Reinvigorates Tea Party \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/26/us/obamas\\-immigration\\-action\\-reinvigorates\\-tea\\-party.html \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2015}}",
"As of 2014, over 42\\.4 million immigrants were living in the United States. This was about 13\\.3% of the entire United States population at that time.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Zong\\|first1\\=Jie\\|last2\\=Batalova\\|first2\\=Jeanne\\|title\\=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States\\|url\\=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently\\-requested\\-statistics\\-immigrants\\-and\\-immigration\\-united\\-states\\|website\\=Migration Policy Institute\\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2017}}",
"In 2016, New York City millionaire and media personality, [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\"), ran [a successful presidential campaign aimed at ending illegal immigration](/wiki/Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign \"Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign\"). Trump portrayed himself as the outsider who would \"[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\"),\" calling out to the Tea Party movement and the like who wanted to \"take their country back.\" Several of his campaign promises included [construction of a border wall along the US–Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall \"Trump wall\"), a temporary suspension of migration to the United States from several Muslim\\-majority nations, and the [deportation](/wiki/Deportation \"Deportation\") of undocumented immigrants. Trump was known for his \"[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\")\" rhetoric which could become provocative, inciting violence at [his campaign rallies](/wiki/List_of_rallies_for_the_Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign \"List of rallies for the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign\"). A major part of his 2016 campaign was opposition to \"[political correctness](/wiki/Political_correctness \"Political correctness\")\", which he criticized as too nice, when we need to be stronger and tougher. Although Trump's [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"), and even some of his fellow [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\"), such as [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\") and [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney \"Mitt Romney\"), called Trump's [\"Make America Great Again\"](/wiki/%22Make_America_Great_Again%22)/anti\\-immigrant rhetoric racist, xenophobic, Islamophobic, and dangerous, but his proposals found strong support in the [heartland](/wiki/Heartland_%28United_States%29 \"Heartland (United States)\") and the [south](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\").",
"On [November 8, 2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election \"2016 United States presidential election\"), Trump won as the 2016 US presidential election against his [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"). Although Clinton won the popular vote, Trump won the electoral college.",
"Trump was later [inaugurated on January 20, 2017](/wiki/Inauguration_of_Donald_Trump \"Inauguration of Donald Trump\"). After taking the oath of office, Trump gave a speech that lacked any of the incendiary rhetoric many people had grown accustomed to, such as when he argued that prejudice isn't consistent with patriotism \\- though many still viewed his speech as divisive. He tried to strike a balance between rallying [his supporters](/wiki/Trumpism \"Trumpism\") and uniting the country. The speech seemingly called out previous US politicians, including [the former](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") [presidents](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") [sitting next](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") [to him](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter \"Jimmy Carter\"), as being ineffective and inadequate at leading most Americans. It also echoed much of the same [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist \"Isolationist\") and [nativist](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 \"Nativism (politics)\") rhetoric that [his campaign](/wiki/Trumpism \"Trumpism\") had inspired, in which Trump related his election to that of a revolution in the country, promising to take the country back. [Nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") ran high, with Trump stating that [America would come first in every situation from that moment forward](/wiki/America_First_%28policy%29 \"America First (policy)\"), and in the finale he repeated his longstanding campaign promise to [Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\").",
"Promptly after his inauguration, Trump issued an executive order to begin construction of [a border wall along the US\\-Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall \"Trump wall\") and limit the number of refugees and foreigners entering the country. Then on January 27, 2017, he issued [an executive order banning the admission of travelers from seven Muslim\\-majority nations](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 \"Executive Order 13769\"), which was met with [large protests at airports all over the nation](/wiki/Protests_against_Executive_Order_13769 \"Protests against Executive Order 13769\"). The order would not only shut down the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program for 120 days, but also suspend entry from seven countries for 90 days. Since the countries subject to the ban were [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"), [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"), [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"), and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen \"Yemen\"), Trump’s travel ban was referred to by critics and supporters alike as “the Muslim ban.” After the original executive order, there were two more modified versions of the travel ban, which were all met with polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.",
"Later on in his presidency, in April 2018, the [Trump administration](/wiki/Trump_administration \"Trump administration\")’s zero\\-tolerance [family separation policy saw migrant children taken from their parents, until it was suspended in response to public opposition](/wiki/Trump_administration_family_separation_policy \"Trump administration family separation policy\") on June 20, 2018\\. But immigration became the focus again in the lead\\-up to the midterm elections when President Trump sent troops to the border to meet a migrant caravan. Tensions came to a head on November 25, 2018, when border agents fired tear gas after migrants rushed barriers. Tear gas has been used at the border since 2010, but critics called its use on a desperate group with small children overkill. In one of the more surreal moments of 2018, the President at first denied that children had been gassed, despite plenty of photos. This was also met with [large nationwide protests](/wiki/Families_Belong_Together \"Families Belong Together\") and polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.",
"Labor unions\n{{Main\\|Immigration policies of American labor unions}}\nThe [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor \"American Federation of Labor\") (AFL), a coalition of labor unions formed in the 1880s, vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Collomp \\|first \\= Catherine \\| title \\= Unions, civics, and National identity: organized Labor's reaction to immigration, 1881–1897 \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Labor History (journal)\\|Labor History]] \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 450–474 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Taylor and Francis]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/00236568800890311 \\| date \\= October 1988 }} Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. However, nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its [Euro\\-American](/wiki/European_Americans \"European Americans\") members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 [Emergency Quota Act](/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act \"Emergency Quota Act\") and the [Immigration Act of 1924](/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924 \"Immigration Act of 1924\"), and seeing that they were strictly enforced.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Lane \\|first \\= A.T. \\| title \\= American trade unions, mass immigration and the literacy test: 1900–1917 \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Labor History (journal)\\|Labor History]] \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 5–25 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Taylor and Francis]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/00236568408584739 \\| date \\= January 1984 }}\nMink (1986\\) concludes that the link between the AFL and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"History of the Democratic Party (United States)\") rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.{{cite book \\| last \\= Mink \\| first \\= Gwendolyn \\| title \\= Old labor and new immigrants in American political development: union, party, and state, 1875–1920 \\| publisher \\= Cornell University Press \\| location \\= Ithaca \\| year \\= 1986 \\| isbn \\= 9780801418631 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/oldlabornewimmig00mink }}",
"The [United Farm Workers](/wiki/United_Farm_Workers \"United Farm Workers\") was committed to restricting immigration during [Cesar Chavez](/wiki/Cesar_Chavez \"Cesar Chavez\") tenure. Chavez and [Dolores Huerta](/wiki/Dolores_Huerta \"Dolores Huerta\"), cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the [Bracero Program](/wiki/Bracero_Program \"Bracero Program\") that existed from 1942 to 1964\\. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964\\. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.",
"On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti\\-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti\\-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the [Imperial](/wiki/Imperial_Valley_%28California%29 \"Imperial Valley (California)\") and [Coachella Valleys](/wiki/Coachella_Valley \"Coachella Valley\") to the border of Mexico to protest growers' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. Joining him on the march were Reverend [Ralph Abernathy](/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy \"Ralph Abernathy\") and U.S. Senator [Walter Mondale](/wiki/Walter_Mondale \"Walter Mondale\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Artz \\|first1\\=Matt \\|title\\=Civil Rights, Vietnam and the Decade of Protest (1960\\-1970\\) \\|url\\=https://understandingrace.org/history/society/civil\\-rights\\-vietnam\\-and\\-the\\-decade\\-of\\-protest\\-1960\\-1970/\\#:\\~:text\\=In%201969%2C%20Chávez%20and%20UFW,from%20grape%20and%20lettuce%20growers. \\|website\\=Understanding RACE \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2023 \\|date\\=27 January 1960}} In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the [Immigration and Naturalization Service](/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service \"Immigration and Naturalization Service\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HAd4W9OdLX0C\\&q\\=UFW\\+report\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA197\\|title\\=Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants and the Politics of Ethnicity\\|first\\=David Gregory\\|last\\=Gutiérrez\\|year\\=1995\\|pages\\=97–98\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|location\\=San Diego\\|isbn\\=9780520916869}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aim.org/publications/media\\_monitor/2003/03/05\\.html\\|title\\=Why Journalists Support Illegal Immigration\\|publisher\\=Accuracy in the Media\\|first1\\=Reed\\|last1\\=Irvine\\|first2\\=Cliff\\|last2\\=Kincaid\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203084534/http://www.aim.org/publications/media\\_monitor/2003/03/05\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ewnEO2GvkFIC\\&q\\=ufw\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA89\\|title\\=Strawberry Fields: Politics, Class, and Work in California Agriculture\\|first\\=Miriam J.\\|last\\=Wells\\|pages\\=89–90\\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press\\|location\\=New York\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=9780801482793}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PnUgAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=crack\\+down\\|title\\=Beyond the Border: Mexico \\& the U.S. Today\\|first1\\=Peter\\|last1\\=Baird\\|first2\\=Ed\\|last2\\=McCaughan\\|page\\=169\\|publisher\\=North American Congress on Latin America\\|isbn\\=9780916024376\\|year\\=1979}}Farmworker Collective Bargaining, 1979: Hearings Before the Committee on Labor Human Resources Hearings held in Salinas, Calif., 26 April 27, and Washington, D.C., 24 May 1979",
"In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a \"wet line\" along the [United States\\-Mexico border](/wiki/United_States-Mexico_border \"United States-Mexico border\") to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW's unionization efforts.[\"PBS Airs Chávez Documentary\"](http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=217_0_3_0), University of California at Davis – Rural Migration News. During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some [UFW](/wiki/UFW \"UFW\") members, under the guidance of Chavez's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=raNFo6Tvmt0C\\&q\\=cesar\\+chavez\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA18\\|title\\=Cesar Chavez: A Brief Biography with Documents\\|first\\=Richard W.\\|last\\=Etulain\\|page\\=18\\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=9780312294274}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\\-12\\-29/columns/ask\\-a\\-mexican/\\|title\\=The year in Mexican\\-bashing\\|first\\=Gustavo\\|last\\=Arellano\\|newspaper\\=OC Weekly\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609052417/http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\\-12\\-29/columns/ask\\-a\\-mexican/\\|archive\\-date\\=9 June 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\\-ed/navarrette/20050330\\-9999\\-lz1e30navar.html\\|title\\=The Arizona Minutemen and César Chávez\\|newspaper\\=San Diego Union Tribune\\|first\\=Ruben Jr.\\|last\\=Navarrette\\|date\\=30 March 2005\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805204302/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\\-ed/navarrette/20050330\\-9999\\-lz1e30navar.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2009}}",
"In 1979, Chavez used a forum of a U.S. Senate committee hearing to denounce the federal immigration service, which he said the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service purportedly refused to arrest illegal Mexican immigrants who Chavez claims are being used to break the union's strike.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Cannon \\|first1\\=Lou \\|title\\=Chavez Employs Senate Hearing To Urge National Lettuce Boycott \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/27/chavez\\-employs\\-senate\\-hearing\\-to\\-urge\\-national\\-lettuce\\-boycott/50b668f3\\-0b1d\\-46de\\-8c11\\-909a61e5bcae/ \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2021 \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 27, 1979}}",
"[Bernie Sanders](/wiki/Bernie_Sanders \"Bernie Sanders\") opposes guest worker programs{{cite web \\|last\\=Jamieson \\|first\\=Dave \\|date\\=19 June 2013 \\|title\\=Senator Sounds Alarm On Teen Unemployment \\|website\\=The Huffington Post \\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/19/bernie\\-sanders\\-immigration\\-reform\\_n\\_3467243\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2015}} and he is also skeptical of skilled immigrant ([H\\-1B](/wiki/H-1B \"H-1B\")) visas, saying,: \"Last year, the top 10 employers of H\\-1B guest workers were all offshore outsourcing companies. These firms are responsible for shipping large numbers of American information technology jobs to India and other countries\".{{cite web \\|last\\=Thibodeau \\|first\\=Patrick \\|date\\=1 May 2015 \\|title\\=Meet Bernie Sanders, H\\-1B skeptic \\|website\\=Computerworld \\|url\\=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2916827/it\\-outsourcing/bernie\\-sanders\\-h\\-1b\\-skeptic.html \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2015}} In an interview with *Vox*, he stated his opposition to an open borders immigration policy, describing it as such:\n> \\[A] right\\-wing proposal, which says essentially there is no United States. \\[...] \\[Y]ou're doing away with the concept of a nation\\-state. What right\\-wing people in this country would love is an open\\-border policy. Bring in all kinds of people, work for $2 or $3 an hour, that would be great for them. I don't believe in that. I think we have to raise wages in this country, I think we have to do everything we can to create millions of jobs.{{cite web\\|last\\=Bier \\|first\\=Daniel \\|url\\=http://www.newsweek.com/bernie\\-sanders\\-immigrants\\-silly\\-tribal\\-and\\-economically\\-illiterate\\-358369 \\|title\\=Bernie Sanders on Immigrants: Silly, Tribal and Economically Illiterate \\|date\\=30 July 2015 \\|publisher\\=Newsweek.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/aug/03/bernie\\-sanders\\-open\\-borders\\-economy\\|title\\=Bernie Sanders is wrong on open borders; they'd help boost the economy \\|last\\=Massimino\\|first\\=Cory\\|work\\=the Guardian\\|date\\=3 August 2015 }}",
"",
""
] |
#### United States
{{See also\|Immigration reduction in the United States\|Illegal immigration to the United States}}
[thumb\| [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") campaigned for president in 2016 by promising to build a wall on the border of Mexico and the United States "as the centerpiece of his immigration plan", as well as [a temporary suspension of Muslim migration to the United States](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 "Executive Order 13769")"Venturing to Mexico, Donald Trump defends right to build huge wall". [AP Aug 21, 2016](http://floridapolitics.com/archives/220947-venturing-mexico-donald-trump-defends-right-build-huge-wall)](/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_August_19%2C_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg "Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg")
[thumb\|Anti\-illegal immigrant car sticker in Colorado](/wiki/File:Anti-immigration_sign_in_Colorado.jpg "Anti-immigration sign in Colorado.jpg")
In the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), opponents of immigration typically focus on perceived adverse effects, such as economic costs (job competition and burdens on education and social services); negative environmental impact from accelerated population growth; increased crime rates, and in the long run, changes in traditional identities and values.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0IGSBQAAQBAJ\|title\=White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics\|author1\=Marisa Abrajano\|author2\=Zoltan L. Hajnal\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|year\=2015\|isbn\=9781400866489\|pages\=31–35}}
In countries where the majority of the population is of immigrant descent, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the form of [nativism](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 "Nativism (politics)").{{cite book \|last \= Higham \| first \= John \| title \= Strangers in the land: patterns of American nativism, 1860–1925 \| publisher \= Atheneum \| location \= New York \| year \= 1963 \| oclc \= 421752 }}
In the United States, opposition to immigration has a long history, starting in the late 1790s, in reaction to an influx of political refugees from France and Ireland. The [Alien and Sedition Acts](/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts "Alien and Sedition Acts") of 1798 severely restricted the rights of immigrants. Nativism first gained a name and affected politics in the mid\-19th century United States because of the large inflows of immigrants from cultures that were markedly different from the existing [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") culture. Nativists primarily objected to [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"), especially [Irish Americans](/wiki/Irish_Americans "Irish Americans"). Nativist movements included the [American Party](/wiki/Know_Nothing "Know Nothing") of the mid\-19th Century (formed by members of the [Know\-Nothing movement](/wiki/Know-Nothing_movement "Know-Nothing movement")), the Immigration Restriction League of the early 20th Century, and the anti\-Asian movements in the [West](/wiki/Western_United_States "Western United States"), resulting in the [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act "Chinese Exclusion Act") and the so\-called "[Gentlemen's Agreement](/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907 "Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907")" which was aimed at the Japanese. Major restrictions became law in the 1920s and sharply cut the inflow of immigrants until 1965, when they ended. The federal government took charge of finding and deporting illegal aliens, which it still does.{{cite journal \|last \= Ngai \|first \= Mae M. \|title \= The strange career of the illegal alien: immigration restriction and deportation policy in the United States, 1921–1965 \|journal \= Law and History Review \|volume \= 21 \|issue \= 1 \|pages \= 69–107 \|publisher \= \[\[Cambridge University Press\|Cambridge Journals]] \|doi \= 10\.2307/3595069 \|jstor \= 3595069 \|date \=Spring 2003 \|s2cid \= 145344500 }}
Immigration again became a major issue from the 1990s onward, with burgeoning rates of undocumented immigration, particularly by Mexicans who crossed the Southern border, and others who overstayed their visitor visas. The [Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986](/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986 "Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986") provided an amnesty which was described as the amnesty to end all amnesties but it had no lasting impact on the flow of illegal immigrants.{{cite journal \|last \= Camarota \|first \= Steven A. \|url\=http://www.cis.org/articles/2000/ins1986amnesty.html\|title\=New INS Report \|website\=cis.org \|publisher \= Center for Immigration Studies \|date \= October 2000 \|access\-date\=14 September 2014}}
*See also*: {{cite book \|last \= INS \|author\-link \= Immigration and Naturalization Service \|title \= Statistical yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 2000 \|url \= https://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/two\_unauthorized\_immigration\_us.pdf \|publisher \= \[\[Immigration and Naturalization Service\|Immigration and Naturalization Service, U.S. Department of Justice]] \|id \= M\-367 \|date \= September 2000 \|location \= Washington, D.C. \|oclc \= 780095878 }}
* By 2014, the [Tea Party movement](/wiki/Tea_Party_movement "Tea Party movement") narrowed its focus away from economic issues, spending and [Obamacare](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act") to attacking President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama")'s immigration policies. They saw his immigration policies as threatening to transform American society. They tried but failed to defeat leading Republicans who supported immigration programs, such as Senator [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain"). A typical slogan appeared in the *Tea Party Tribune*: "Amnesty for Millions, Tyranny for All." The *New York Times* reported:
What started five years ago as a groundswell of conservatives committed to curtailing the reach of the federal government, cutting the deficit and countering the Wall Street wing of the Republican Party has become a movement largely against immigration overhaul. The politicians, intellectual leaders and activists who consider themselves part of the Tea Party movement have redirected their energy from fiscal austerity and small government to stopping any changes that would legitimize people who are here illegally, either through granting them citizenship or legal status.{{cite news \|last\=Peters \|first\=Jeremy W. \|date\=25 November 2014 \|title\=Obama's Immigration Action Reinvigorates Tea Party \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/26/us/obamas\-immigration\-action\-reinvigorates\-tea\-party.html \|newspaper\= \[\[The New York Times]] \|access\-date\=29 January 2015}}
As of 2014, over 42\.4 million immigrants were living in the United States. This was about 13\.3% of the entire United States population at that time.{{cite web\|last1\=Zong\|first1\=Jie\|last2\=Batalova\|first2\=Jeanne\|title\=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States\|url\=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently\-requested\-statistics\-immigrants\-and\-immigration\-united\-states\|website\=Migration Policy Institute\|access\-date\=30 January 2017}}
In 2016, New York City millionaire and media personality, [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump"), ran [a successful presidential campaign aimed at ending illegal immigration](/wiki/Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign "Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"). Trump portrayed himself as the outsider who would "[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again")," calling out to the Tea Party movement and the like who wanted to "take their country back." Several of his campaign promises included [construction of a border wall along the US–Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall "Trump wall"), a temporary suspension of migration to the United States from several Muslim\-majority nations, and the [deportation](/wiki/Deportation "Deportation") of undocumented immigrants. Trump was known for his "[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again")" rhetoric which could become provocative, inciting violence at [his campaign rallies](/wiki/List_of_rallies_for_the_Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign "List of rallies for the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign"). A major part of his 2016 campaign was opposition to "[political correctness](/wiki/Political_correctness "Political correctness")", which he criticized as too nice, when we need to be stronger and tougher. Although Trump's [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"), and even some of his fellow [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)"), such as [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain") and [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney "Mitt Romney"), called Trump's ["Make America Great Again"](/wiki/%22Make_America_Great_Again%22)/anti\-immigrant rhetoric racist, xenophobic, Islamophobic, and dangerous, but his proposals found strong support in the [heartland](/wiki/Heartland_%28United_States%29 "Heartland (United States)") and the [south](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States").
On [November 8, 2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election "2016 United States presidential election"), Trump won as the 2016 US presidential election against his [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"). Although Clinton won the popular vote, Trump won the electoral college.
Trump was later [inaugurated on January 20, 2017](/wiki/Inauguration_of_Donald_Trump "Inauguration of Donald Trump"). After taking the oath of office, Trump gave a speech that lacked any of the incendiary rhetoric many people had grown accustomed to, such as when he argued that prejudice isn't consistent with patriotism \- though many still viewed his speech as divisive. He tried to strike a balance between rallying [his supporters](/wiki/Trumpism "Trumpism") and uniting the country. The speech seemingly called out previous US politicians, including [the former](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") [presidents](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") [sitting next](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") [to him](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter"), as being ineffective and inadequate at leading most Americans. It also echoed much of the same [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist "Isolationist") and [nativist](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 "Nativism (politics)") rhetoric that [his campaign](/wiki/Trumpism "Trumpism") had inspired, in which Trump related his election to that of a revolution in the country, promising to take the country back. [Nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism "Nationalism") ran high, with Trump stating that [America would come first in every situation from that moment forward](/wiki/America_First_%28policy%29 "America First (policy)"), and in the finale he repeated his longstanding campaign promise to [Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again "Make America Great Again").
Promptly after his inauguration, Trump issued an executive order to begin construction of [a border wall along the US\-Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall "Trump wall") and limit the number of refugees and foreigners entering the country. Then on January 27, 2017, he issued [an executive order banning the admission of travelers from seven Muslim\-majority nations](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 "Executive Order 13769"), which was met with [large protests at airports all over the nation](/wiki/Protests_against_Executive_Order_13769 "Protests against Executive Order 13769"). The order would not only shut down the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program for 120 days, but also suspend entry from seven countries for 90 days. Since the countries subject to the ban were [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"), [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"), [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"), and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen "Yemen"), Trump’s travel ban was referred to by critics and supporters alike as “the Muslim ban.” After the original executive order, there were two more modified versions of the travel ban, which were all met with polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.
Later on in his presidency, in April 2018, the [Trump administration](/wiki/Trump_administration "Trump administration")’s zero\-tolerance [family separation policy saw migrant children taken from their parents, until it was suspended in response to public opposition](/wiki/Trump_administration_family_separation_policy "Trump administration family separation policy") on June 20, 2018\. But immigration became the focus again in the lead\-up to the midterm elections when President Trump sent troops to the border to meet a migrant caravan. Tensions came to a head on November 25, 2018, when border agents fired tear gas after migrants rushed barriers. Tear gas has been used at the border since 2010, but critics called its use on a desperate group with small children overkill. In one of the more surreal moments of 2018, the President at first denied that children had been gassed, despite plenty of photos. This was also met with [large nationwide protests](/wiki/Families_Belong_Together "Families Belong Together") and polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.
Labor unions
{{Main\|Immigration policies of American labor unions}}
The [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor "American Federation of Labor") (AFL), a coalition of labor unions formed in the 1880s, vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.{{cite journal \|last \= Collomp \|first \= Catherine \| title \= Unions, civics, and National identity: organized Labor's reaction to immigration, 1881–1897 \| journal \= \[\[Labor History (journal)\|Labor History]] \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 450–474 \| publisher \= \[\[Taylor and Francis]] \| doi \= 10\.1080/00236568800890311 \| date \= October 1988 }} Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. However, nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its [Euro\-American](/wiki/European_Americans "European Americans") members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 [Emergency Quota Act](/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act "Emergency Quota Act") and the [Immigration Act of 1924](/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924 "Immigration Act of 1924"), and seeing that they were strictly enforced.{{cite journal \|last \= Lane \|first \= A.T. \| title \= American trade unions, mass immigration and the literacy test: 1900–1917 \| journal \= \[\[Labor History (journal)\|Labor History]] \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 5–25 \| publisher \= \[\[Taylor and Francis]] \| doi \= 10\.1080/00236568408584739 \| date \= January 1984 }}
Mink (1986\) concludes that the link between the AFL and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "History of the Democratic Party (United States)") rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.{{cite book \| last \= Mink \| first \= Gwendolyn \| title \= Old labor and new immigrants in American political development: union, party, and state, 1875–1920 \| publisher \= Cornell University Press \| location \= Ithaca \| year \= 1986 \| isbn \= 9780801418631 \| url \= https://archive.org/details/oldlabornewimmig00mink }}
The [United Farm Workers](/wiki/United_Farm_Workers "United Farm Workers") was committed to restricting immigration during [Cesar Chavez](/wiki/Cesar_Chavez "Cesar Chavez") tenure. Chavez and [Dolores Huerta](/wiki/Dolores_Huerta "Dolores Huerta"), cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the [Bracero Program](/wiki/Bracero_Program "Bracero Program") that existed from 1942 to 1964\. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964\. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.
On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti\-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti\-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the [Imperial](/wiki/Imperial_Valley_%28California%29 "Imperial Valley (California)") and [Coachella Valleys](/wiki/Coachella_Valley "Coachella Valley") to the border of Mexico to protest growers' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. Joining him on the march were Reverend [Ralph Abernathy](/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy "Ralph Abernathy") and U.S. Senator [Walter Mondale](/wiki/Walter_Mondale "Walter Mondale").{{cite web \|last1\=Artz \|first1\=Matt \|title\=Civil Rights, Vietnam and the Decade of Protest (1960\-1970\) \|url\=https://understandingrace.org/history/society/civil\-rights\-vietnam\-and\-the\-decade\-of\-protest\-1960\-1970/\#:\~:text\=In%201969%2C%20Chávez%20and%20UFW,from%20grape%20and%20lettuce%20growers. \|website\=Understanding RACE \|access\-date\=15 June 2023 \|date\=27 January 1960}} In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the [Immigration and Naturalization Service](/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service "Immigration and Naturalization Service").{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HAd4W9OdLX0C\&q\=UFW\+report\+undocumented\&pg\=PA197\|title\=Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants and the Politics of Ethnicity\|first\=David Gregory\|last\=Gutiérrez\|year\=1995\|pages\=97–98\|publisher\=University of California Press\|location\=San Diego\|isbn\=9780520916869}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.aim.org/publications/media\_monitor/2003/03/05\.html\|title\=Why Journalists Support Illegal Immigration\|publisher\=Accuracy in the Media\|first1\=Reed\|last1\=Irvine\|first2\=Cliff\|last2\=Kincaid\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|archive\-date\=3 December 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203084534/http://www.aim.org/publications/media\_monitor/2003/03/05\.html\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ewnEO2GvkFIC\&q\=ufw\+undocumented\&pg\=PA89\|title\=Strawberry Fields: Politics, Class, and Work in California Agriculture\|first\=Miriam J.\|last\=Wells\|pages\=89–90\|publisher\=Cornell University Press\|location\=New York\|year\=1996\|isbn\=9780801482793}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PnUgAAAAMAAJ\&q\=crack\+down\|title\=Beyond the Border: Mexico \& the U.S. Today\|first1\=Peter\|last1\=Baird\|first2\=Ed\|last2\=McCaughan\|page\=169\|publisher\=North American Congress on Latin America\|isbn\=9780916024376\|year\=1979}}Farmworker Collective Bargaining, 1979: Hearings Before the Committee on Labor Human Resources Hearings held in Salinas, Calif., 26 April 27, and Washington, D.C., 24 May 1979
In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a "wet line" along the [United States\-Mexico border](/wiki/United_States-Mexico_border "United States-Mexico border") to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW's unionization efforts.["PBS Airs Chávez Documentary"](http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=217_0_3_0), University of California at Davis – Rural Migration News. During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some [UFW](/wiki/UFW "UFW") members, under the guidance of Chavez's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=raNFo6Tvmt0C\&q\=cesar\+chavez\+undocumented\&pg\=PA18\|title\=Cesar Chavez: A Brief Biography with Documents\|first\=Richard W.\|last\=Etulain\|page\=18\|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan\|year\=2002\|isbn\=9780312294274}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\-12\-29/columns/ask\-a\-mexican/\|title\=The year in Mexican\-bashing\|first\=Gustavo\|last\=Arellano\|newspaper\=OC Weekly\|access\-date\=18 June 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609052417/http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\-12\-29/columns/ask\-a\-mexican/\|archive\-date\=9 June 2014\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\-ed/navarrette/20050330\-9999\-lz1e30navar.html\|title\=The Arizona Minutemen and César Chávez\|newspaper\=San Diego Union Tribune\|first\=Ruben Jr.\|last\=Navarrette\|date\=30 March 2005\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805204302/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\-ed/navarrette/20050330\-9999\-lz1e30navar.html\|archive\-date\=5 August 2009}}
In 1979, Chavez used a forum of a U.S. Senate committee hearing to denounce the federal immigration service, which he said the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service purportedly refused to arrest illegal Mexican immigrants who Chavez claims are being used to break the union's strike.{{cite news \|last1\=Cannon \|first1\=Lou \|title\=Chavez Employs Senate Hearing To Urge National Lettuce Boycott \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/27/chavez\-employs\-senate\-hearing\-to\-urge\-national\-lettuce\-boycott/50b668f3\-0b1d\-46de\-8c11\-909a61e5bcae/ \|access\-date\=28 September 2021 \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|date\=April 27, 1979}}
[Bernie Sanders](/wiki/Bernie_Sanders "Bernie Sanders") opposes guest worker programs{{cite web \|last\=Jamieson \|first\=Dave \|date\=19 June 2013 \|title\=Senator Sounds Alarm On Teen Unemployment \|website\=The Huffington Post \|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/19/bernie\-sanders\-immigration\-reform\_n\_3467243\.html \|access\-date\=15 June 2015}} and he is also skeptical of skilled immigrant ([H\-1B](/wiki/H-1B "H-1B")) visas, saying,: "Last year, the top 10 employers of H\-1B guest workers were all offshore outsourcing companies. These firms are responsible for shipping large numbers of American information technology jobs to India and other countries".{{cite web \|last\=Thibodeau \|first\=Patrick \|date\=1 May 2015 \|title\=Meet Bernie Sanders, H\-1B skeptic \|website\=Computerworld \|url\=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2916827/it\-outsourcing/bernie\-sanders\-h\-1b\-skeptic.html \|access\-date\=15 June 2015}} In an interview with *Vox*, he stated his opposition to an open borders immigration policy, describing it as such:
> \[A] right\-wing proposal, which says essentially there is no United States. \[...] \[Y]ou're doing away with the concept of a nation\-state. What right\-wing people in this country would love is an open\-border policy. Bring in all kinds of people, work for $2 or $3 an hour, that would be great for them. I don't believe in that. I think we have to raise wages in this country, I think we have to do everything we can to create millions of jobs.{{cite web\|last\=Bier \|first\=Daniel \|url\=http://www.newsweek.com/bernie\-sanders\-immigrants\-silly\-tribal\-and\-economically\-illiterate\-358369 \|title\=Bernie Sanders on Immigrants: Silly, Tribal and Economically Illiterate \|date\=30 July 2015 \|publisher\=Newsweek.com \|access\-date\=27 July 2016}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/aug/03/bernie\-sanders\-open\-borders\-economy\|title\=Bernie Sanders is wrong on open borders; they'd help boost the economy \|last\=Massimino\|first\=Cory\|work\=the Guardian\|date\=3 August 2015 }}
|
[
"#### United States",
"{{See also\\|Immigration reduction in the United States\\|Illegal immigration to the United States}}\n[thumb\\| [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") campaigned for president in 2016 by promising to build a wall on the border of Mexico and the United States \"as the centerpiece of his immigration plan\", as well as [a temporary suspension of Muslim migration to the United States](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 \"Executive Order 13769\")\"Venturing to Mexico, Donald Trump defends right to build huge wall\". [AP Aug 21, 2016](http://floridapolitics.com/archives/220947-venturing-mexico-donald-trump-defends-right-build-huge-wall)](/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_August_19%2C_2015_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Anti\\-illegal immigrant car sticker in Colorado](/wiki/File:Anti-immigration_sign_in_Colorado.jpg \"Anti-immigration sign in Colorado.jpg\")",
"In the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), opponents of immigration typically focus on perceived adverse effects, such as economic costs (job competition and burdens on education and social services); negative environmental impact from accelerated population growth; increased crime rates, and in the long run, changes in traditional identities and values.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0IGSBQAAQBAJ\\|title\\=White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics\\|author1\\=Marisa Abrajano\\|author2\\=Zoltan L. Hajnal\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|year\\=2015\\|isbn\\=9781400866489\\|pages\\=31–35}}\nIn countries where the majority of the population is of immigrant descent, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the form of [nativism](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 \"Nativism (politics)\").{{cite book \\|last \\= Higham \\| first \\= John \\| title \\= Strangers in the land: patterns of American nativism, 1860–1925 \\| publisher \\= Atheneum \\| location \\= New York \\| year \\= 1963 \\| oclc \\= 421752 }}",
"In the United States, opposition to immigration has a long history, starting in the late 1790s, in reaction to an influx of political refugees from France and Ireland. The [Alien and Sedition Acts](/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts \"Alien and Sedition Acts\") of 1798 severely restricted the rights of immigrants. Nativism first gained a name and affected politics in the mid\\-19th century United States because of the large inflows of immigrants from cultures that were markedly different from the existing [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") culture. Nativists primarily objected to [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"), especially [Irish Americans](/wiki/Irish_Americans \"Irish Americans\"). Nativist movements included the [American Party](/wiki/Know_Nothing \"Know Nothing\") of the mid\\-19th Century (formed by members of the [Know\\-Nothing movement](/wiki/Know-Nothing_movement \"Know-Nothing movement\")), the Immigration Restriction League of the early 20th Century, and the anti\\-Asian movements in the [West](/wiki/Western_United_States \"Western United States\"), resulting in the [Chinese Exclusion Act](/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act \"Chinese Exclusion Act\") and the so\\-called \"[Gentlemen's Agreement](/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907 \"Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907\")\" which was aimed at the Japanese. Major restrictions became law in the 1920s and sharply cut the inflow of immigrants until 1965, when they ended. The federal government took charge of finding and deporting illegal aliens, which it still does.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Ngai \\|first \\= Mae M. \\|title \\= The strange career of the illegal alien: immigration restriction and deportation policy in the United States, 1921–1965 \\|journal \\= Law and History Review \\|volume \\= 21 \\|issue \\= 1 \\|pages \\= 69–107 \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Cambridge University Press\\|Cambridge Journals]] \\|doi \\= 10\\.2307/3595069 \\|jstor \\= 3595069 \\|date \\=Spring 2003 \\|s2cid \\= 145344500 }}",
"Immigration again became a major issue from the 1990s onward, with burgeoning rates of undocumented immigration, particularly by Mexicans who crossed the Southern border, and others who overstayed their visitor visas. The [Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986](/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986 \"Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986\") provided an amnesty which was described as the amnesty to end all amnesties but it had no lasting impact on the flow of illegal immigrants.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Camarota \\|first \\= Steven A. \\|url\\=http://www.cis.org/articles/2000/ins1986amnesty.html\\|title\\=New INS Report \\|website\\=cis.org \\|publisher \\= Center for Immigration Studies \\|date \\= October 2000 \\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2014}}\n *See also*: {{cite book \\|last \\= INS \\|author\\-link \\= Immigration and Naturalization Service \\|title \\= Statistical yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 2000 \\|url \\= https://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/two\\_unauthorized\\_immigration\\_us.pdf \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Immigration and Naturalization Service\\|Immigration and Naturalization Service, U.S. Department of Justice]] \\|id \\= M\\-367 \\|date \\= September 2000 \\|location \\= Washington, D.C. \\|oclc \\= 780095878 }}",
"* By 2014, the [Tea Party movement](/wiki/Tea_Party_movement \"Tea Party movement\") narrowed its focus away from economic issues, spending and [Obamacare](/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act \"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act\") to attacking President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\")'s immigration policies. They saw his immigration policies as threatening to transform American society. They tried but failed to defeat leading Republicans who supported immigration programs, such as Senator [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\"). A typical slogan appeared in the *Tea Party Tribune*: \"Amnesty for Millions, Tyranny for All.\" The *New York Times* reported:",
"What started five years ago as a groundswell of conservatives committed to curtailing the reach of the federal government, cutting the deficit and countering the Wall Street wing of the Republican Party has become a movement largely against immigration overhaul. The politicians, intellectual leaders and activists who consider themselves part of the Tea Party movement have redirected their energy from fiscal austerity and small government to stopping any changes that would legitimize people who are here illegally, either through granting them citizenship or legal status.{{cite news \\|last\\=Peters \\|first\\=Jeremy W. \\|date\\=25 November 2014 \\|title\\=Obama's Immigration Action Reinvigorates Tea Party \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/26/us/obamas\\-immigration\\-action\\-reinvigorates\\-tea\\-party.html \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=29 January 2015}}",
"As of 2014, over 42\\.4 million immigrants were living in the United States. This was about 13\\.3% of the entire United States population at that time.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Zong\\|first1\\=Jie\\|last2\\=Batalova\\|first2\\=Jeanne\\|title\\=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States\\|url\\=http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently\\-requested\\-statistics\\-immigrants\\-and\\-immigration\\-united\\-states\\|website\\=Migration Policy Institute\\|access\\-date\\=30 January 2017}}",
"In 2016, New York City millionaire and media personality, [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\"), ran [a successful presidential campaign aimed at ending illegal immigration](/wiki/Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign \"Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign\"). Trump portrayed himself as the outsider who would \"[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\"),\" calling out to the Tea Party movement and the like who wanted to \"take their country back.\" Several of his campaign promises included [construction of a border wall along the US–Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall \"Trump wall\"), a temporary suspension of migration to the United States from several Muslim\\-majority nations, and the [deportation](/wiki/Deportation \"Deportation\") of undocumented immigrants. Trump was known for his \"[Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\")\" rhetoric which could become provocative, inciting violence at [his campaign rallies](/wiki/List_of_rallies_for_the_Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign \"List of rallies for the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign\"). A major part of his 2016 campaign was opposition to \"[political correctness](/wiki/Political_correctness \"Political correctness\")\", which he criticized as too nice, when we need to be stronger and tougher. Although Trump's [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"), and even some of his fellow [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\"), such as [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\") and [Mitt Romney](/wiki/Mitt_Romney \"Mitt Romney\"), called Trump's [\"Make America Great Again\"](/wiki/%22Make_America_Great_Again%22)/anti\\-immigrant rhetoric racist, xenophobic, Islamophobic, and dangerous, but his proposals found strong support in the [heartland](/wiki/Heartland_%28United_States%29 \"Heartland (United States)\") and the [south](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\").",
"On [November 8, 2016](/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election \"2016 United States presidential election\"), Trump won as the 2016 US presidential election against his [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") rival [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"). Although Clinton won the popular vote, Trump won the electoral college.",
"Trump was later [inaugurated on January 20, 2017](/wiki/Inauguration_of_Donald_Trump \"Inauguration of Donald Trump\"). After taking the oath of office, Trump gave a speech that lacked any of the incendiary rhetoric many people had grown accustomed to, such as when he argued that prejudice isn't consistent with patriotism \\- though many still viewed his speech as divisive. He tried to strike a balance between rallying [his supporters](/wiki/Trumpism \"Trumpism\") and uniting the country. The speech seemingly called out previous US politicians, including [the former](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") [presidents](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") [sitting next](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") [to him](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter \"Jimmy Carter\"), as being ineffective and inadequate at leading most Americans. It also echoed much of the same [isolationist](/wiki/Isolationist \"Isolationist\") and [nativist](/wiki/Nativism_%28politics%29 \"Nativism (politics)\") rhetoric that [his campaign](/wiki/Trumpism \"Trumpism\") had inspired, in which Trump related his election to that of a revolution in the country, promising to take the country back. [Nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") ran high, with Trump stating that [America would come first in every situation from that moment forward](/wiki/America_First_%28policy%29 \"America First (policy)\"), and in the finale he repeated his longstanding campaign promise to [Make America Great Again](/wiki/Make_America_Great_Again \"Make America Great Again\").",
"Promptly after his inauguration, Trump issued an executive order to begin construction of [a border wall along the US\\-Mexico border](/wiki/Trump_wall \"Trump wall\") and limit the number of refugees and foreigners entering the country. Then on January 27, 2017, he issued [an executive order banning the admission of travelers from seven Muslim\\-majority nations](/wiki/Executive_Order_13769 \"Executive Order 13769\"), which was met with [large protests at airports all over the nation](/wiki/Protests_against_Executive_Order_13769 \"Protests against Executive Order 13769\"). The order would not only shut down the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program for 120 days, but also suspend entry from seven countries for 90 days. Since the countries subject to the ban were [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"), [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"), [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"), and [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen \"Yemen\"), Trump’s travel ban was referred to by critics and supporters alike as “the Muslim ban.” After the original executive order, there were two more modified versions of the travel ban, which were all met with polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.",
"Later on in his presidency, in April 2018, the [Trump administration](/wiki/Trump_administration \"Trump administration\")’s zero\\-tolerance [family separation policy saw migrant children taken from their parents, until it was suspended in response to public opposition](/wiki/Trump_administration_family_separation_policy \"Trump administration family separation policy\") on June 20, 2018\\. But immigration became the focus again in the lead\\-up to the midterm elections when President Trump sent troops to the border to meet a migrant caravan. Tensions came to a head on November 25, 2018, when border agents fired tear gas after migrants rushed barriers. Tear gas has been used at the border since 2010, but critics called its use on a desperate group with small children overkill. In one of the more surreal moments of 2018, the President at first denied that children had been gassed, despite plenty of photos. This was also met with [large nationwide protests](/wiki/Families_Belong_Together \"Families Belong Together\") and polarized reactions from politicians and the general public alike.",
"Labor unions\n{{Main\\|Immigration policies of American labor unions}}\nThe [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor \"American Federation of Labor\") (AFL), a coalition of labor unions formed in the 1880s, vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Collomp \\|first \\= Catherine \\| title \\= Unions, civics, and National identity: organized Labor's reaction to immigration, 1881–1897 \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Labor History (journal)\\|Labor History]] \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 450–474 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Taylor and Francis]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/00236568800890311 \\| date \\= October 1988 }} Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. However, nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its [Euro\\-American](/wiki/European_Americans \"European Americans\") members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 [Emergency Quota Act](/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act \"Emergency Quota Act\") and the [Immigration Act of 1924](/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924 \"Immigration Act of 1924\"), and seeing that they were strictly enforced.{{cite journal \\|last \\= Lane \\|first \\= A.T. \\| title \\= American trade unions, mass immigration and the literacy test: 1900–1917 \\| journal \\= \\[\\[Labor History (journal)\\|Labor History]] \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 5–25 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Taylor and Francis]] \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/00236568408584739 \\| date \\= January 1984 }}\nMink (1986\\) concludes that the link between the AFL and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"History of the Democratic Party (United States)\") rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.{{cite book \\| last \\= Mink \\| first \\= Gwendolyn \\| title \\= Old labor and new immigrants in American political development: union, party, and state, 1875–1920 \\| publisher \\= Cornell University Press \\| location \\= Ithaca \\| year \\= 1986 \\| isbn \\= 9780801418631 \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/oldlabornewimmig00mink }}",
"The [United Farm Workers](/wiki/United_Farm_Workers \"United Farm Workers\") was committed to restricting immigration during [Cesar Chavez](/wiki/Cesar_Chavez \"Cesar Chavez\") tenure. Chavez and [Dolores Huerta](/wiki/Dolores_Huerta \"Dolores Huerta\"), cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the [Bracero Program](/wiki/Bracero_Program \"Bracero Program\") that existed from 1942 to 1964\\. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964\\. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.",
"On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti\\-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti\\-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the [Imperial](/wiki/Imperial_Valley_%28California%29 \"Imperial Valley (California)\") and [Coachella Valleys](/wiki/Coachella_Valley \"Coachella Valley\") to the border of Mexico to protest growers' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. Joining him on the march were Reverend [Ralph Abernathy](/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy \"Ralph Abernathy\") and U.S. Senator [Walter Mondale](/wiki/Walter_Mondale \"Walter Mondale\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Artz \\|first1\\=Matt \\|title\\=Civil Rights, Vietnam and the Decade of Protest (1960\\-1970\\) \\|url\\=https://understandingrace.org/history/society/civil\\-rights\\-vietnam\\-and\\-the\\-decade\\-of\\-protest\\-1960\\-1970/\\#:\\~:text\\=In%201969%2C%20Chávez%20and%20UFW,from%20grape%20and%20lettuce%20growers. \\|website\\=Understanding RACE \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2023 \\|date\\=27 January 1960}} In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the [Immigration and Naturalization Service](/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service \"Immigration and Naturalization Service\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HAd4W9OdLX0C\\&q\\=UFW\\+report\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA197\\|title\\=Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants and the Politics of Ethnicity\\|first\\=David Gregory\\|last\\=Gutiérrez\\|year\\=1995\\|pages\\=97–98\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|location\\=San Diego\\|isbn\\=9780520916869}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.aim.org/publications/media\\_monitor/2003/03/05\\.html\\|title\\=Why Journalists Support Illegal Immigration\\|publisher\\=Accuracy in the Media\\|first1\\=Reed\\|last1\\=Irvine\\|first2\\=Cliff\\|last2\\=Kincaid\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203084534/http://www.aim.org/publications/media\\_monitor/2003/03/05\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ewnEO2GvkFIC\\&q\\=ufw\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA89\\|title\\=Strawberry Fields: Politics, Class, and Work in California Agriculture\\|first\\=Miriam J.\\|last\\=Wells\\|pages\\=89–90\\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press\\|location\\=New York\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=9780801482793}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PnUgAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=crack\\+down\\|title\\=Beyond the Border: Mexico \\& the U.S. Today\\|first1\\=Peter\\|last1\\=Baird\\|first2\\=Ed\\|last2\\=McCaughan\\|page\\=169\\|publisher\\=North American Congress on Latin America\\|isbn\\=9780916024376\\|year\\=1979}}Farmworker Collective Bargaining, 1979: Hearings Before the Committee on Labor Human Resources Hearings held in Salinas, Calif., 26 April 27, and Washington, D.C., 24 May 1979",
"In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a \"wet line\" along the [United States\\-Mexico border](/wiki/United_States-Mexico_border \"United States-Mexico border\") to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW's unionization efforts.[\"PBS Airs Chávez Documentary\"](http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=217_0_3_0), University of California at Davis – Rural Migration News. During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some [UFW](/wiki/UFW \"UFW\") members, under the guidance of Chavez's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=raNFo6Tvmt0C\\&q\\=cesar\\+chavez\\+undocumented\\&pg\\=PA18\\|title\\=Cesar Chavez: A Brief Biography with Documents\\|first\\=Richard W.\\|last\\=Etulain\\|page\\=18\\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=9780312294274}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\\-12\\-29/columns/ask\\-a\\-mexican/\\|title\\=The year in Mexican\\-bashing\\|first\\=Gustavo\\|last\\=Arellano\\|newspaper\\=OC Weekly\\|access\\-date\\=18 June 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609052417/http://www.ocweekly.com/2005\\-12\\-29/columns/ask\\-a\\-mexican/\\|archive\\-date\\=9 June 2014\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\\-ed/navarrette/20050330\\-9999\\-lz1e30navar.html\\|title\\=The Arizona Minutemen and César Chávez\\|newspaper\\=San Diego Union Tribune\\|first\\=Ruben Jr.\\|last\\=Navarrette\\|date\\=30 March 2005\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805204302/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/op\\-ed/navarrette/20050330\\-9999\\-lz1e30navar.html\\|archive\\-date\\=5 August 2009}}",
"In 1979, Chavez used a forum of a U.S. Senate committee hearing to denounce the federal immigration service, which he said the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service purportedly refused to arrest illegal Mexican immigrants who Chavez claims are being used to break the union's strike.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Cannon \\|first1\\=Lou \\|title\\=Chavez Employs Senate Hearing To Urge National Lettuce Boycott \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/27/chavez\\-employs\\-senate\\-hearing\\-to\\-urge\\-national\\-lettuce\\-boycott/50b668f3\\-0b1d\\-46de\\-8c11\\-909a61e5bcae/ \\|access\\-date\\=28 September 2021 \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|date\\=April 27, 1979}}",
"[Bernie Sanders](/wiki/Bernie_Sanders \"Bernie Sanders\") opposes guest worker programs{{cite web \\|last\\=Jamieson \\|first\\=Dave \\|date\\=19 June 2013 \\|title\\=Senator Sounds Alarm On Teen Unemployment \\|website\\=The Huffington Post \\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/19/bernie\\-sanders\\-immigration\\-reform\\_n\\_3467243\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2015}} and he is also skeptical of skilled immigrant ([H\\-1B](/wiki/H-1B \"H-1B\")) visas, saying,: \"Last year, the top 10 employers of H\\-1B guest workers were all offshore outsourcing companies. These firms are responsible for shipping large numbers of American information technology jobs to India and other countries\".{{cite web \\|last\\=Thibodeau \\|first\\=Patrick \\|date\\=1 May 2015 \\|title\\=Meet Bernie Sanders, H\\-1B skeptic \\|website\\=Computerworld \\|url\\=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2916827/it\\-outsourcing/bernie\\-sanders\\-h\\-1b\\-skeptic.html \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2015}} In an interview with *Vox*, he stated his opposition to an open borders immigration policy, describing it as such:\n> \\[A] right\\-wing proposal, which says essentially there is no United States. \\[...] \\[Y]ou're doing away with the concept of a nation\\-state. What right\\-wing people in this country would love is an open\\-border policy. Bring in all kinds of people, work for $2 or $3 an hour, that would be great for them. I don't believe in that. I think we have to raise wages in this country, I think we have to do everything we can to create millions of jobs.{{cite web\\|last\\=Bier \\|first\\=Daniel \\|url\\=http://www.newsweek.com/bernie\\-sanders\\-immigrants\\-silly\\-tribal\\-and\\-economically\\-illiterate\\-358369 \\|title\\=Bernie Sanders on Immigrants: Silly, Tribal and Economically Illiterate \\|date\\=30 July 2015 \\|publisher\\=Newsweek.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2016}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/aug/03/bernie\\-sanders\\-open\\-borders\\-economy\\|title\\=Bernie Sanders is wrong on open borders; they'd help boost the economy \\|last\\=Massimino\\|first\\=Cory\\|work\\=the Guardian\\|date\\=3 August 2015 }}",
"",
""
] |
Plot
----
Ned Ravine, who is both a police officer and lawyer (who often defends the people he arrests), believes that he knows everything about women, and says that he will throw away his badge if anyone ever proves him wrong. While on a [stakeout](/wiki/Stakeout "Stakeout"), he encounters a seductive woman named Lola Cain; the next day, Lola shows up at his law office, saying that she needs him to look over some papers she has come across. Meanwhile, Max Shady, who was just released from prison after seven years, starts stalking Ned, planning to kill him for failing to successfully defend Max in court.
Ned's wife Lana and her car mechanic Frank, with whom she is having an affair, start plotting to kill Ned in order to collect on his accident insurance, which has a [triple indemnity](/wiki/Double_indemnity_%28insurance%29 "Double indemnity (insurance)") rider; if Ned is shot, falls from a northbound train, and drowns in a freshwater stream, Lana will collect nine million dollars.
Lola gets Ned to come to her house to examine the "papers", which are actually a laundry receipt and an expired lottery ticket, and the two of them end up having sex in various wild ways. The next morning, Ned says that they can never do that again because he loves his wife; this drives Lola to start stalking Ned.
A few days later, Ned takes the train to go to a legal [symposium](/wiki/Symposium "Symposium"); Lana and Frank are also on the train, and so is Max. When the train passes over a lake, Lana shoots Max 36 times with a [revolver](/wiki/Revolver "Revolver"), mistaking him for Ned, and he backflips through the door to his death; Ned thinks that Lana had acted to save his life. He arrests Lana, and then defends her in court, getting her cleared of all charges. Lana later kills Frank, believing that he was going to abandon her, by pinning him against a wall with his power drill; Lola witnesses this, and starts [blackmailing](/wiki/Blackmail "Blackmail") Lana.
Ned confronts Lola, and learns that she and Lana are [identical twin](/wiki/Twin "Twin") sisters; after Lana had smashed Lola's face with a shovel, the doctors had given her a whole new face, causing the man she loved to leave her for Lana; Frank was the man's son. Lola's plan from the beginning was to get revenge on Lana by seducing her husband and ruining her marriage.
Later, Ned's secretary Laura tells Ned about Lana's plans to kill him, having figured it out herself. Upstairs, Lana is attacked by Lola, who drowns her in the bathtub. While Ned goes upstairs to investigate, Laura's abusive husband (whom she had escaped from three years ago) comes in and confronts her; she kills him with a frying pan. Lola and Ned fight, and Lola falls to her death from the second\-floor landing after Ned pushes her back with a powered\-up hair dryer through a broken handrail (which Lana had sawn off earlier). As Ned and Laura embrace each other (and Ned throws his badge away), Lola and Lana come back to life and attack; Laura shoots them both. Ned and Laura marry a few days later.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Ned Ravine, who is both a police officer and lawyer (who often defends the people he arrests), believes that he knows everything about women, and says that he will throw away his badge if anyone ever proves him wrong. While on a [stakeout](/wiki/Stakeout \"Stakeout\"), he encounters a seductive woman named Lola Cain; the next day, Lola shows up at his law office, saying that she needs him to look over some papers she has come across. Meanwhile, Max Shady, who was just released from prison after seven years, starts stalking Ned, planning to kill him for failing to successfully defend Max in court.",
"Ned's wife Lana and her car mechanic Frank, with whom she is having an affair, start plotting to kill Ned in order to collect on his accident insurance, which has a [triple indemnity](/wiki/Double_indemnity_%28insurance%29 \"Double indemnity (insurance)\") rider; if Ned is shot, falls from a northbound train, and drowns in a freshwater stream, Lana will collect nine million dollars.",
"Lola gets Ned to come to her house to examine the \"papers\", which are actually a laundry receipt and an expired lottery ticket, and the two of them end up having sex in various wild ways. The next morning, Ned says that they can never do that again because he loves his wife; this drives Lola to start stalking Ned.",
"A few days later, Ned takes the train to go to a legal [symposium](/wiki/Symposium \"Symposium\"); Lana and Frank are also on the train, and so is Max. When the train passes over a lake, Lana shoots Max 36 times with a [revolver](/wiki/Revolver \"Revolver\"), mistaking him for Ned, and he backflips through the door to his death; Ned thinks that Lana had acted to save his life. He arrests Lana, and then defends her in court, getting her cleared of all charges. Lana later kills Frank, believing that he was going to abandon her, by pinning him against a wall with his power drill; Lola witnesses this, and starts [blackmailing](/wiki/Blackmail \"Blackmail\") Lana.",
"Ned confronts Lola, and learns that she and Lana are [identical twin](/wiki/Twin \"Twin\") sisters; after Lana had smashed Lola's face with a shovel, the doctors had given her a whole new face, causing the man she loved to leave her for Lana; Frank was the man's son. Lola's plan from the beginning was to get revenge on Lana by seducing her husband and ruining her marriage.",
"Later, Ned's secretary Laura tells Ned about Lana's plans to kill him, having figured it out herself. Upstairs, Lana is attacked by Lola, who drowns her in the bathtub. While Ned goes upstairs to investigate, Laura's abusive husband (whom she had escaped from three years ago) comes in and confronts her; she kills him with a frying pan. Lola and Ned fight, and Lola falls to her death from the second\\-floor landing after Ned pushes her back with a powered\\-up hair dryer through a broken handrail (which Lana had sawn off earlier). As Ned and Laura embrace each other (and Ned throws his badge away), Lola and Lana come back to life and attack; Laura shoots them both. Ned and Laura marry a few days later.",
""
] |
As a political party
--------------------
In the General Electoral Union\-SNU split, three conservative MPs sided with SNUoF. These were [Alf Meyerhöffer](/wiki/Alf_Meyerh%C3%B6ffer "Alf Meyerhöffer"), [Gösta Jacobsson](/wiki/G%C3%B6sta_Jacobsson "Gösta Jacobsson") and [John Gustafsson](/wiki/John_Gustafsson "John Gustafsson"). These three parliamentarians formed their own independent faction within parliament, dubbed *Nationella Gruppen* (the "National Faction"). None of them would see re\-election in 1936 (see below).
In 1934, the small pro\-[German](/wiki/Germany "Germany") [National Labour League](/wiki/National_Labour_League "National Labour League") (*Nationella Arbetsförbundet*) merged into SNUoF.
The group contested the 1935 municipal elections, gaining 70 seats throughout the country. The same year the name was changed to **National League of Sweden** (*Sveriges Nationella Förbund*). [Antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism "Antisemitism") became a more prominent feature of the party. At this time its membership was around 40,000\.
The party contested the 1936 general elections. With a mere 31,015 votes, the SNL did not win any seat in the parliament. The following year, on October 10, 1937, the [National League New Sweden](/wiki/National_League_New_Sweden "National League New Sweden") of [Per Engdahl](/wiki/Per_Engdahl "Per Engdahl") merged into SNF. Engdahl was allotted the position of vice\-chairman of SNF.
At its national conference in 1938 SNF officially adopted a party programme, describing themselves as Corporative, New Swedish, Radical, Nationalist and Socialist. In the same year the [Swedish Front](/wiki/Swedish_Front "Swedish Front") of Bengt\-Olov Ljungberg was attached to the party. Under Ljungberg's direction, the youth wing [National Youth](/wiki/National_Youth "National Youth") was built up in 1939\.
In 1941, Engdahl broke away from SNF. Along with him left many prominent party members, like Ljungberg, and a major section of the youth wing. Engdahl and his followers formed [Swedish Opposition](/wiki/New_Swedish_Movement "New Swedish Movement"). The same year SNF began to receive financial support from the Nazi Germany to publish the newspaper *[Dagsposten](/wiki/Dagsposten_%28Swedish_newspaper%29 "Dagsposten (Swedish newspaper)")* from Stockholm.{{cite journal\|author\=Lena Berggren\|title\=Swedish Fascism — Why Bother?\|journal\=Journal of Contemporary History\|date\=2002\|volume\=37\|issue\=3\|page\=407 \|doi\=10\.1177/00220094020370030401\|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1177/00220094020370030401}}
|
[
"As a political party\n--------------------",
"In the General Electoral Union\\-SNU split, three conservative MPs sided with SNUoF. These were [Alf Meyerhöffer](/wiki/Alf_Meyerh%C3%B6ffer \"Alf Meyerhöffer\"), [Gösta Jacobsson](/wiki/G%C3%B6sta_Jacobsson \"Gösta Jacobsson\") and [John Gustafsson](/wiki/John_Gustafsson \"John Gustafsson\"). These three parliamentarians formed their own independent faction within parliament, dubbed *Nationella Gruppen* (the \"National Faction\"). None of them would see re\\-election in 1936 (see below).",
"In 1934, the small pro\\-[German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") [National Labour League](/wiki/National_Labour_League \"National Labour League\") (*Nationella Arbetsförbundet*) merged into SNUoF.",
"The group contested the 1935 municipal elections, gaining 70 seats throughout the country. The same year the name was changed to **National League of Sweden** (*Sveriges Nationella Förbund*). [Antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism \"Antisemitism\") became a more prominent feature of the party. At this time its membership was around 40,000\\.",
"The party contested the 1936 general elections. With a mere 31,015 votes, the SNL did not win any seat in the parliament. The following year, on October 10, 1937, the [National League New Sweden](/wiki/National_League_New_Sweden \"National League New Sweden\") of [Per Engdahl](/wiki/Per_Engdahl \"Per Engdahl\") merged into SNF. Engdahl was allotted the position of vice\\-chairman of SNF.",
"At its national conference in 1938 SNF officially adopted a party programme, describing themselves as Corporative, New Swedish, Radical, Nationalist and Socialist. In the same year the [Swedish Front](/wiki/Swedish_Front \"Swedish Front\") of Bengt\\-Olov Ljungberg was attached to the party. Under Ljungberg's direction, the youth wing [National Youth](/wiki/National_Youth \"National Youth\") was built up in 1939\\.",
"In 1941, Engdahl broke away from SNF. Along with him left many prominent party members, like Ljungberg, and a major section of the youth wing. Engdahl and his followers formed [Swedish Opposition](/wiki/New_Swedish_Movement \"New Swedish Movement\"). The same year SNF began to receive financial support from the Nazi Germany to publish the newspaper *[Dagsposten](/wiki/Dagsposten_%28Swedish_newspaper%29 \"Dagsposten (Swedish newspaper)\")* from Stockholm.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Lena Berggren\\|title\\=Swedish Fascism — Why Bother?\\|journal\\=Journal of Contemporary History\\|date\\=2002\\|volume\\=37\\|issue\\=3\\|page\\=407 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/00220094020370030401\\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1177/00220094020370030401}}",
""
] |
The University in 1881
----------------------
There were 224 students enrolled at Berkeley in the academic year of 1881\-1882\. 52 of them were women; three were graduate students. The faculty numbered 30\.Centennial Record of the University of California, Verne A. Steadman, ed., Berkeley, 1967, pp. 214, 267\. The major buildings on the campus were North Hall, South Hall, the Bacon Library and the Harmon Gymnasium. The office of the Secretary was located in South Hall, the only one of these buildings which still stands.
It was a tumultuous time. The nation was in financial crisis, and student conduct was out of hand at Berkeley. Fraternity hi\-jinks resulted in the Regents' suspension of secret societies in 1879\. That year, the sophomore class published a parody of the Junior Class Day program, considered "obscene" by the standards of the day, and President [John LeConte](/wiki/John_LeConte "John LeConte") suspended most of the sophomore class. These events, and the University's own financial difficulties, led to his resignation as President in 1881\.*The University of California, 1868\-1968, A Centennial History*, Verne A. Steadman, McGraw\-Hill 1968, pp. 89\-90\.
President LeConte's weakness was hardly his fault. The years 1875\-1900 have been termed "The Era of Powerless Presidents" by University historian Verne Steadman.*The University of California 1868\-1968, A Centennial History*, McGraw\-Hill 1968, Chapter 7, pp. 88\-105\. The Board of Regents ran the school, hiring and firing faculty, and attending to details in a way that can only be termed "micromanagement".*Shared Governance at the University of California: An Historical Review*, John Aubrey Douglass, Research and Occasional Papers Series: CSHE.1\.198, March 1998\.
The University President was largely a figurehead: fundraiser, PR man, and liaison between the Regents and faculty.*The University of California 1869\-1968, a Centennial History*, Verne A. Steadman, McGraw\-Hill 1968, p. 88 Presidents Reid (1881–1885\), Holden (1885–1888\) and Davis (1881–1890\) each complained of the interference of the Regents and the powerlessness of the Presidency. In 1891 President Kellog was the first to gain some limited authority over the Regents, and in particular, over the Secretary.*The University of California, 1868\-1968, a Centennial History*, Verne A. Steadman, McGraw\-Hill 1968, 105\-106\. In his memoir, [Clark Kerr](/wiki/Clark_Kerr "Clark Kerr") calls this the 'first major decentralization' of Regental authority.*The Gold and Blue, a Personal Memoir of the University of California 1949\-1967*, Clark Kerr, p. 195\.
The real power in those years lay in the office of the Secretary of the Board of Regents, who was responsible for keeping the records of the Regents' transactions, corresponding with learned, professional, and technical societies, collecting seeds and plants from all over the world, as well as being the chief accounting officer and business manager for the University.University of California Digital Archives, [Regents of the University of California, Historical Overview](https://archive.today/20120630220359/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/~ucalhist/general_history/overview/regents) It was a nearly impossible task. In time J.H.C. Bonté also served as Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds, Land Agent, Secretary of the Academic Senate, and Professor of Legal Ethics at Hastings College of the Law.*Illustrated History of the University of California* (Revised 1901\), William Carey Jones, Berkeley, 1901, p. 368\.
When J.H.C. Bonté began his years at Berkeley, the University had recently survived political attacks from the State Grange and the Workingmen's Party in the 1870s that attempted to abolish the Regents (claimed by them to be corrupt)Creating a Fourth Branch of State Government: The University of California and the Constitutional Convention of 1879, John Aubrey Douglass, *History of Education Quarterly*, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Spring, 1992\) p. 31\. and to establish a school of agriculture, mining, and mechanical arts, more in keeping with the needs of a growing state than a school of 'Eastern' and 'gentlemanly training.' Fortunately, the state constitution of 1879 established the University as a "public trust" and gave it such independence that it has been termed "the fourth branch of state government".Creating a Fourth Branch of State Government: The University of California and the Constitutional Convention of 1879, John Aubrey Douglass, *History of Education Quarterly,* Vol. 32, No. 1 (Spring 1992\) p. 31\.
|
[
"The University in 1881\n----------------------",
"There were 224 students enrolled at Berkeley in the academic year of 1881\\-1882\\. 52 of them were women; three were graduate students. The faculty numbered 30\\.Centennial Record of the University of California, Verne A. Steadman, ed., Berkeley, 1967, pp. 214, 267\\. The major buildings on the campus were North Hall, South Hall, the Bacon Library and the Harmon Gymnasium. The office of the Secretary was located in South Hall, the only one of these buildings which still stands.",
"It was a tumultuous time. The nation was in financial crisis, and student conduct was out of hand at Berkeley. Fraternity hi\\-jinks resulted in the Regents' suspension of secret societies in 1879\\. That year, the sophomore class published a parody of the Junior Class Day program, considered \"obscene\" by the standards of the day, and President [John LeConte](/wiki/John_LeConte \"John LeConte\") suspended most of the sophomore class. These events, and the University's own financial difficulties, led to his resignation as President in 1881\\.*The University of California, 1868\\-1968, A Centennial History*, Verne A. Steadman, McGraw\\-Hill 1968, pp. 89\\-90\\.",
"President LeConte's weakness was hardly his fault. The years 1875\\-1900 have been termed \"The Era of Powerless Presidents\" by University historian Verne Steadman.*The University of California 1868\\-1968, A Centennial History*, McGraw\\-Hill 1968, Chapter 7, pp. 88\\-105\\. The Board of Regents ran the school, hiring and firing faculty, and attending to details in a way that can only be termed \"micromanagement\".*Shared Governance at the University of California: An Historical Review*, John Aubrey Douglass, Research and Occasional Papers Series: CSHE.1\\.198, March 1998\\.\nThe University President was largely a figurehead: fundraiser, PR man, and liaison between the Regents and faculty.*The University of California 1869\\-1968, a Centennial History*, Verne A. Steadman, McGraw\\-Hill 1968, p. 88 Presidents Reid (1881–1885\\), Holden (1885–1888\\) and Davis (1881–1890\\) each complained of the interference of the Regents and the powerlessness of the Presidency. In 1891 President Kellog was the first to gain some limited authority over the Regents, and in particular, over the Secretary.*The University of California, 1868\\-1968, a Centennial History*, Verne A. Steadman, McGraw\\-Hill 1968, 105\\-106\\. In his memoir, [Clark Kerr](/wiki/Clark_Kerr \"Clark Kerr\") calls this the 'first major decentralization' of Regental authority.*The Gold and Blue, a Personal Memoir of the University of California 1949\\-1967*, Clark Kerr, p. 195\\.",
"The real power in those years lay in the office of the Secretary of the Board of Regents, who was responsible for keeping the records of the Regents' transactions, corresponding with learned, professional, and technical societies, collecting seeds and plants from all over the world, as well as being the chief accounting officer and business manager for the University.University of California Digital Archives, [Regents of the University of California, Historical Overview](https://archive.today/20120630220359/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/~ucalhist/general_history/overview/regents) It was a nearly impossible task. In time J.H.C. Bonté also served as Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds, Land Agent, Secretary of the Academic Senate, and Professor of Legal Ethics at Hastings College of the Law.*Illustrated History of the University of California* (Revised 1901\\), William Carey Jones, Berkeley, 1901, p. 368\\.",
"When J.H.C. Bonté began his years at Berkeley, the University had recently survived political attacks from the State Grange and the Workingmen's Party in the 1870s that attempted to abolish the Regents (claimed by them to be corrupt)Creating a Fourth Branch of State Government: The University of California and the Constitutional Convention of 1879, John Aubrey Douglass, *History of Education Quarterly*, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Spring, 1992\\) p. 31\\. and to establish a school of agriculture, mining, and mechanical arts, more in keeping with the needs of a growing state than a school of 'Eastern' and 'gentlemanly training.' Fortunately, the state constitution of 1879 established the University as a \"public trust\" and gave it such independence that it has been termed \"the fourth branch of state government\".Creating a Fourth Branch of State Government: The University of California and the Constitutional Convention of 1879, John Aubrey Douglass, *History of Education Quarterly,* Vol. 32, No. 1 (Spring 1992\\) p. 31\\.",
""
] |
Campus life
-----------
While University presidents came and went, Dr. Bonté exercised considerable authority over University affairs for fifteen years. Because of his righteous bearing, personal integrity, and intolerance for slackers, the students referred to him as the "Chief Cop" and nicknamed him "Jesus H. Christ Bonté". There is much presumably good\-natured ribbing in the 'Blue and Gold' annuals published by the students in those years. [Lincoln Steffens](/wiki/Lincoln_Steffens "Lincoln Steffens"), in his autobiography, reports a humorous incident when he and his fraternity brothers were invited to the Bonté house to be fed some chickens that they didn't quite steal from the Bonté henhouse. Steffens describes Bonté as "the popular treasurer (sic) of the University" and portrays a man with a keen sense of humor and intellect.*Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens*, Harcourt Brace and Company, Lincoln Steffens, 1931, pp. 121\-122\.
The 1892 'Blue and Gold' parodies J.H.C. Bonté in the farcical Junior Class play depicting the University as a 'headless' institution with no president and "The Rev. U. B. Blode" as an officious, ambitious little man, nailing signs on every thing and every person declaring "PROPERTY OF THE STATE" and telling all who will or won't listen that "I AM THE SECRETARY!" and in general making a nuisance of himself. At one point he is about to be boiled in an iron pot by the natives (students) and but is rescued by the Regents, only to be eventually vanquished by the Alumni.*Blue and Gold*, 1892, Vol XVIII, pp. 122\-144\.
Bonté did not shirk from his considerable power whenever he thought it should be exercised. He decreed in 1896 that no baseball would be played on University grounds on Sundays when it was discovered that two teams unaffiliated with the University scheduled a game on campus. Tickets had been printed and sold (ten cents each). Bonté announced that the University police officer (there was only one) would arrest anyone who showed up to the game. There were, in those years, no activities at all on campus on Sundays. Visitors and families "enjoy the quietness and beauty of the place, and to allow a baseball game to intrude on such a scene would be monstrous", he said. There were no arrests; the organizers of the game wisely made other arrangements.*San Francisco Call*, June 21, 1896, p. 15\.
Occasionally he would overstep his bounds. Military training was part of the mandatory curriculum and when the professor of military science had the cadets collect the spent brass shells, sell them for scrap (for $1\.75\) and then use the money to paint the targets, Bonté claimed corruption and complained to the War Department in Washington, D.C. who, after due investigation, failed to find any wrongdoing. The professor complained to the appropriate committed of the Regents. The plan was for Bonté to be 'quietly and severely rebuked" at the next Regents' meeting for his "unauthorized, uncalled for and improper" action. (And so he was.) Unfortunately, the San Francisco Chronicle got wind of the matter and printed a story of "personal spite, overzealous officiousness, and laughable invocation of the power of the Government regarding a few empty cartridge shells picked up off the grass."*San Francisco Chronicle*, October 16, 1890\.
That the Regents kept him on as Secretary despite his chronic irascibility for 15 years is a testament to what he did accomplish. He was privy to nearly all of the Regents' deliberations and he frequently drove himself to exhaustion from overwork.{{Cite book\|author\=Verne A. Stadtman\|title\=The University of California, 1868\-1968\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WwKfAAAAMAAJ\&q\=exhaustion\+\|accessdate\=2 August 2010\|year\=1970\|publisher\=McGraw\-Hill\|page\=96}}
In 1883, Bonté advocated the enlargement of the University printing office. "Provision should be made for an establishment that will enable the faculty to publish numerous bulletins upon important subjects and the University will never perform its whole duty to the people until this is done. This is a grave matter, and deserves thorough consideration."Centennial Record of the University of California, Verne A. Steadman, ed., Berkeley 1968, p. 393\. It took ten years, until 1893, for the Regents to designate sufficient money ($1,000\) to really get the printing office off the ground. The Printing Office was the progenitor of the [University of California Press](/wiki/University_of_California_Press "University of California Press")*California Historical Society Quarterly*, Vol LXXII, No.3, "A Voice From the Wilderness: The Early University of California Press", Albert Muto, p. 226\.
Probably Bonté's most important contribution to the University was his advocacy and successful lobbying for the "penny tax", which gave the University automatic funding without having to go to the state legislature, hat in hand, each year for specific appropriations, thus freeing the funding of the University from the vagaries of political pressures.
The University of California was a "[Land\-grant university](/wiki/Land-grant_university "Land-grant university")" whereby the federal government granted land to states that was then sold to fund public colleges. By 1881, this funding was no longer meeting the needs of the growing institution. A permanent funding source was desperately needed, especially for capital improvements. Requests to the legislature for specific purposes left little in the way of discretionary flexibility.
In 1883, Bonté suggested that a "certain percentage of the annual taxes of the State of California be devoted to the University for a number of years." President Reid endorsed the idea and recommended it to the Regents in 1884\. President Holden lobbied for this, too, in 1884 and again in 1885, suggesting a payment into a special fund of one cent on every $100 of assessed property in the State of California, paid annually.
In 1886 Bonté co\-authored a bill to do just that. After revisions, it was presented to the legislature by Henry Vrooman, state senator from Alameda County. When amendments were proposed in the state assembly mandating that half the money be used for permanent improvements, they failed to pass because of J.H.C. Bonté's personal assurance that they were unnecessary because the intent would be followed even if the restriction was not in the bill.{{Cite book\|author\=Verne A. Stadtman\|title\=The University of California, 1868\-1968\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WwKfAAAAMAAJ\&q\=%22revenues\+be\+used\+for\+permanent\+improvements\+%22\|accessdate\=2 August 2010\|year\=1970\|publisher\=McGraw\-Hill\|pages\=113–114}} The law as enacted by the legislature allowed the Regents "or such officers of the Board as may be duly authorized thereto" to draw on the fund at any time and account for the expenses later. The law took place immediately upon passage, February 14, 1887\.Statutes and Resolutions, Legislature of 1886, First Session, Statutes, Chapter III, p. 2, Sacramento 1887\.
Beginning in 1886, Bonté taught Legal Ethics at [Hastings College of the Law](/wiki/Hastings_College_of_the_Law "Hastings College of the Law"), bringing his clerical background and training as a practicing attorney to bear in a course of 10 or 12 lectures to the senior class sometimes with "great difficulty" because of continued problems with his voice and health. He considered these lectures as a partial satisfaction of his clerical duties as an ordained Episcopal priest.Journal of the Thirty\-ninth Annual Convention of the Episcopal Church in the Diocese of California, San Francisco, 1889, p. 126\. He was a popular lecturer and at the time Hastings was unique in recognizing the importance of ethics as part of a legal education. He served without pay.*Hastings College of the Law, The First Century*, Thomas Garden Barnes, San Francisco, 1978, p. 126\. The relationship of Hastings to the University of California has always been confusing. It was the desire of founder Serranus Clinton Hastings to found a law school "affiliated" with the University of California but the relationship between Hastings' Board of Trustees and the University's Board of Regents has been "an imperfect relationship and an anomalous structure" from the beginning and the confusion continues to the present day. Litigation and California Supreme Court decisions in the 19th century failed to clarify the situation.*Hastings College of the Law, the First Century*, Thomas Garden Barnes, San Francisco, 1978, p. 85\. In appointing J.H.C. Bonté to be professor of legal ethics, the Regents and the Trustees had in his person a means of communication and of heading off potential problems.
In addition to Hastings, the University was affiliated with a medical school, a pharmacy school, a dental school, and a veterinary college, all located in San Francisco. These institutions were for the most part self\-regulating and self\-supporting and required little direct attention from the Regents.The University of California, 1868\-1968, A Centennial History, Verne A. Steadman, Berkeley, 1968, pp. 125\-141\. On behalf of the Regents, Bonté did accept, in 1895, the gift of land from [Adolph Sutro](/wiki/Adolph_Sutro "Adolph Sutro") where U.C. San Francisco now stands, and one of his first official acts as Secretary in 1881 was to record the Regents' acceptance of affiliation with the Dental Department.*Dentistry and the University of California\-\-The Early Days*, centennial publication, San Francisco.
Bonté developed a close relationship with [Edward Singleton Holden](/wiki/Edward_Singleton_Holden "Edward Singleton Holden"), who, after serving as University president from 1885 to 1888, became the first director of [Lick Observatory](/wiki/Lick_Observatory "Lick Observatory") on Mount Hamilton. In 1891, while recuperating from exhaustion at his son's home in Sacramento, his wife wrote that a visit to the mountain was not possible for health reasons. In other letters to Holden, he complains of the Regents' refusal to consider bills submitted too late; of having to wait for money from [Phoebe Apperson Hearst](/wiki/Phoebe_Apperson_Hearst "Phoebe Apperson Hearst") ("Is the Board expected to advance the money on the Hearst accounts over which the Board has no direct control?"); and that "the time is not right for a School of Astronomy on the mountain (...the man who proposes it now, will, I fear, be kicked...)". Bonté also counsels Holden to 'go very slow in making acquisitions" and also advises Holden on personnel problems on the mountain, of which there were many.Mary Lea Shane *Archives of the Lick Observatory, Santa Cruz*: Letter from Emily Bonté to Holden, Feb. 21, 1891; Letters from JHC Bonté to Holden, August 12, 1893, Jan. 20, 1892; Aug. 27, 1894 Holden appreciated Bonté's efforts in advancing the development of the observatory, and made public his gratitude in a post\-mortem tribute.Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, December 1, 1896, Vol. VIII, No. 53, pp. 330\-331\.
In October, 1891, the Rev. Dr. J.H.C. Bonté was one of the visiting dignitaries at the opening of [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University") in Palo Alto. He gave the benediction at the end of the formal program.Souvenir of the Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, 1891\-1892\. At Berkeley, he was the 'tour guide' for visiting notables. In March 1892, he accompanied [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde "Oscar Wilde") on a campus tour which attracted a crowd of students.*The Berkeley Advocate*, Vol. 6, no. 14 (April 1, 1881\); {{cite web\|url\=http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/gaybears/wilde/ \|title\=Gay Bears: Oscar Wilde \|accessdate\=2010\-09\-01 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521192433/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/gaybears/wilde/ \|archivedate\=2011\-05\-21 }} In 1892, Bonté's friend Charles Lanam, secretary to the Japanese Legation, arranged for two young women to stay at the Bonté home before leaving for Japan. They enjoyed attending parties, visiting the Berkeley campus and shopping. One of these young women was Ume Tsuda, ([Tsuda Umeko](/wiki/Tsuda_Umeko "Tsuda Umeko")), who later was a champion for the education of women in Japan in the early 20th century.*The White Plum, a biography of Ume Tsuda: Pioneer in the Higher Education of Japanese Women*, Furuki Yoshiko, Weatherhill 1991, p. 40\.
J.H.C. Bonté executed his duties with a "scrupulous exactitude" and "unlimited zeal"*Illustrated History of the University of California*, (Revised 1901\), William Carey Jones, Berkeley, p. 369\. that "frequently drove him to exhaustion from overwork."*The University of California, 1868\-1968, a Centennial History*, Verne A Steadman, McGraw\-Hill, 1968, p. 96\.
He authored an article on "The Northerly Winds of California" in 1886 speculating on the causes and effects on people, animals and crops of the winds in the Sacramento Valley, which was published by the State of California.*Meteorology and Climatology of the Great Valleys and Foothills of California*, James A. Barwick, State of California, Sacramento, 1881, pp. 64\-65\. He also contributed to "The Pacific Churchman", a periodical published by the Episcopal Diocese of California.{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2011}}
J.H.C. Bonté was not a regent, and had no vote on the Board but he expressed his strong opinions at Regents' meetings. In response to a proposal that the Regents appropriate $1,475 for plantings and to remove dirt (so that North Hall would not appear to be "in a hole"), Bonté asked "Shall we sacrifice the education of the students for a few improvements? ... the mind must be cared for first ... the 'ground' must wait for more prosperous times." The Regents then voted to spend $50\.00 for the planting of ivy and the Buildings and Grounds Committee then declined even that.Annual Report of the Secretary to the Board of Regents for the year ending June 30, 1895, Sacramento, 1895, pp. 36\-38\.
Such thrift accounted for the generally shabby appearance of the university in those years and it was not until after J.H.C. Bonté died in 1896 that sufficient funds were made available from Phoebe Apperson Hearst to truly beautify the campus. The student poet who wrote this in the *Blue and Gold* for 1896 was right:
{{quote\|text\=When Dr. Bonté's in heaven,
Head\-Chief\-High\-Kicker\-Saint
Then, and then only, old North Hall
Shall receive a coat of paint.\|sign\=student poet\|source\=''Blue and Gold'', Berkeley, California, 1896, p. 140\.}}
|
[
"Campus life\n-----------",
"While University presidents came and went, Dr. Bonté exercised considerable authority over University affairs for fifteen years. Because of his righteous bearing, personal integrity, and intolerance for slackers, the students referred to him as the \"Chief Cop\" and nicknamed him \"Jesus H. Christ Bonté\". There is much presumably good\\-natured ribbing in the 'Blue and Gold' annuals published by the students in those years. [Lincoln Steffens](/wiki/Lincoln_Steffens \"Lincoln Steffens\"), in his autobiography, reports a humorous incident when he and his fraternity brothers were invited to the Bonté house to be fed some chickens that they didn't quite steal from the Bonté henhouse. Steffens describes Bonté as \"the popular treasurer (sic) of the University\" and portrays a man with a keen sense of humor and intellect.*Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens*, Harcourt Brace and Company, Lincoln Steffens, 1931, pp. 121\\-122\\.",
"The 1892 'Blue and Gold' parodies J.H.C. Bonté in the farcical Junior Class play depicting the University as a 'headless' institution with no president and \"The Rev. U. B. Blode\" as an officious, ambitious little man, nailing signs on every thing and every person declaring \"PROPERTY OF THE STATE\" and telling all who will or won't listen that \"I AM THE SECRETARY!\" and in general making a nuisance of himself. At one point he is about to be boiled in an iron pot by the natives (students) and but is rescued by the Regents, only to be eventually vanquished by the Alumni.*Blue and Gold*, 1892, Vol XVIII, pp. 122\\-144\\.",
"Bonté did not shirk from his considerable power whenever he thought it should be exercised. He decreed in 1896 that no baseball would be played on University grounds on Sundays when it was discovered that two teams unaffiliated with the University scheduled a game on campus. Tickets had been printed and sold (ten cents each). Bonté announced that the University police officer (there was only one) would arrest anyone who showed up to the game. There were, in those years, no activities at all on campus on Sundays. Visitors and families \"enjoy the quietness and beauty of the place, and to allow a baseball game to intrude on such a scene would be monstrous\", he said. There were no arrests; the organizers of the game wisely made other arrangements.*San Francisco Call*, June 21, 1896, p. 15\\.",
"Occasionally he would overstep his bounds. Military training was part of the mandatory curriculum and when the professor of military science had the cadets collect the spent brass shells, sell them for scrap (for $1\\.75\\) and then use the money to paint the targets, Bonté claimed corruption and complained to the War Department in Washington, D.C. who, after due investigation, failed to find any wrongdoing. The professor complained to the appropriate committed of the Regents. The plan was for Bonté to be 'quietly and severely rebuked\" at the next Regents' meeting for his \"unauthorized, uncalled for and improper\" action. (And so he was.) Unfortunately, the San Francisco Chronicle got wind of the matter and printed a story of \"personal spite, overzealous officiousness, and laughable invocation of the power of the Government regarding a few empty cartridge shells picked up off the grass.\"*San Francisco Chronicle*, October 16, 1890\\.",
"That the Regents kept him on as Secretary despite his chronic irascibility for 15 years is a testament to what he did accomplish. He was privy to nearly all of the Regents' deliberations and he frequently drove himself to exhaustion from overwork.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Verne A. Stadtman\\|title\\=The University of California, 1868\\-1968\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WwKfAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=exhaustion\\+\\|accessdate\\=2 August 2010\\|year\\=1970\\|publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill\\|page\\=96}}",
"In 1883, Bonté advocated the enlargement of the University printing office. \"Provision should be made for an establishment that will enable the faculty to publish numerous bulletins upon important subjects and the University will never perform its whole duty to the people until this is done. This is a grave matter, and deserves thorough consideration.\"Centennial Record of the University of California, Verne A. Steadman, ed., Berkeley 1968, p. 393\\. It took ten years, until 1893, for the Regents to designate sufficient money ($1,000\\) to really get the printing office off the ground. The Printing Office was the progenitor of the [University of California Press](/wiki/University_of_California_Press \"University of California Press\")*California Historical Society Quarterly*, Vol LXXII, No.3, \"A Voice From the Wilderness: The Early University of California Press\", Albert Muto, p. 226\\.",
"Probably Bonté's most important contribution to the University was his advocacy and successful lobbying for the \"penny tax\", which gave the University automatic funding without having to go to the state legislature, hat in hand, each year for specific appropriations, thus freeing the funding of the University from the vagaries of political pressures.",
"The University of California was a \"[Land\\-grant university](/wiki/Land-grant_university \"Land-grant university\")\" whereby the federal government granted land to states that was then sold to fund public colleges. By 1881, this funding was no longer meeting the needs of the growing institution. A permanent funding source was desperately needed, especially for capital improvements. Requests to the legislature for specific purposes left little in the way of discretionary flexibility.",
"In 1883, Bonté suggested that a \"certain percentage of the annual taxes of the State of California be devoted to the University for a number of years.\" President Reid endorsed the idea and recommended it to the Regents in 1884\\. President Holden lobbied for this, too, in 1884 and again in 1885, suggesting a payment into a special fund of one cent on every $100 of assessed property in the State of California, paid annually.",
"In 1886 Bonté co\\-authored a bill to do just that. After revisions, it was presented to the legislature by Henry Vrooman, state senator from Alameda County. When amendments were proposed in the state assembly mandating that half the money be used for permanent improvements, they failed to pass because of J.H.C. Bonté's personal assurance that they were unnecessary because the intent would be followed even if the restriction was not in the bill.{{Cite book\\|author\\=Verne A. Stadtman\\|title\\=The University of California, 1868\\-1968\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WwKfAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%22revenues\\+be\\+used\\+for\\+permanent\\+improvements\\+%22\\|accessdate\\=2 August 2010\\|year\\=1970\\|publisher\\=McGraw\\-Hill\\|pages\\=113–114}} The law as enacted by the legislature allowed the Regents \"or such officers of the Board as may be duly authorized thereto\" to draw on the fund at any time and account for the expenses later. The law took place immediately upon passage, February 14, 1887\\.Statutes and Resolutions, Legislature of 1886, First Session, Statutes, Chapter III, p. 2, Sacramento 1887\\.",
"Beginning in 1886, Bonté taught Legal Ethics at [Hastings College of the Law](/wiki/Hastings_College_of_the_Law \"Hastings College of the Law\"), bringing his clerical background and training as a practicing attorney to bear in a course of 10 or 12 lectures to the senior class sometimes with \"great difficulty\" because of continued problems with his voice and health. He considered these lectures as a partial satisfaction of his clerical duties as an ordained Episcopal priest.Journal of the Thirty\\-ninth Annual Convention of the Episcopal Church in the Diocese of California, San Francisco, 1889, p. 126\\. He was a popular lecturer and at the time Hastings was unique in recognizing the importance of ethics as part of a legal education. He served without pay.*Hastings College of the Law, The First Century*, Thomas Garden Barnes, San Francisco, 1978, p. 126\\. The relationship of Hastings to the University of California has always been confusing. It was the desire of founder Serranus Clinton Hastings to found a law school \"affiliated\" with the University of California but the relationship between Hastings' Board of Trustees and the University's Board of Regents has been \"an imperfect relationship and an anomalous structure\" from the beginning and the confusion continues to the present day. Litigation and California Supreme Court decisions in the 19th century failed to clarify the situation.*Hastings College of the Law, the First Century*, Thomas Garden Barnes, San Francisco, 1978, p. 85\\. In appointing J.H.C. Bonté to be professor of legal ethics, the Regents and the Trustees had in his person a means of communication and of heading off potential problems.",
"In addition to Hastings, the University was affiliated with a medical school, a pharmacy school, a dental school, and a veterinary college, all located in San Francisco. These institutions were for the most part self\\-regulating and self\\-supporting and required little direct attention from the Regents.The University of California, 1868\\-1968, A Centennial History, Verne A. Steadman, Berkeley, 1968, pp. 125\\-141\\. On behalf of the Regents, Bonté did accept, in 1895, the gift of land from [Adolph Sutro](/wiki/Adolph_Sutro \"Adolph Sutro\") where U.C. San Francisco now stands, and one of his first official acts as Secretary in 1881 was to record the Regents' acceptance of affiliation with the Dental Department.*Dentistry and the University of California\\-\\-The Early Days*, centennial publication, San Francisco.",
"Bonté developed a close relationship with [Edward Singleton Holden](/wiki/Edward_Singleton_Holden \"Edward Singleton Holden\"), who, after serving as University president from 1885 to 1888, became the first director of [Lick Observatory](/wiki/Lick_Observatory \"Lick Observatory\") on Mount Hamilton. In 1891, while recuperating from exhaustion at his son's home in Sacramento, his wife wrote that a visit to the mountain was not possible for health reasons. In other letters to Holden, he complains of the Regents' refusal to consider bills submitted too late; of having to wait for money from [Phoebe Apperson Hearst](/wiki/Phoebe_Apperson_Hearst \"Phoebe Apperson Hearst\") (\"Is the Board expected to advance the money on the Hearst accounts over which the Board has no direct control?\"); and that \"the time is not right for a School of Astronomy on the mountain (...the man who proposes it now, will, I fear, be kicked...)\". Bonté also counsels Holden to 'go very slow in making acquisitions\" and also advises Holden on personnel problems on the mountain, of which there were many.Mary Lea Shane *Archives of the Lick Observatory, Santa Cruz*: Letter from Emily Bonté to Holden, Feb. 21, 1891; Letters from JHC Bonté to Holden, August 12, 1893, Jan. 20, 1892; Aug. 27, 1894 Holden appreciated Bonté's efforts in advancing the development of the observatory, and made public his gratitude in a post\\-mortem tribute.Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, December 1, 1896, Vol. VIII, No. 53, pp. 330\\-331\\.",
"In October, 1891, the Rev. Dr. J.H.C. Bonté was one of the visiting dignitaries at the opening of [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\") in Palo Alto. He gave the benediction at the end of the formal program.Souvenir of the Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, 1891\\-1892\\. At Berkeley, he was the 'tour guide' for visiting notables. In March 1892, he accompanied [Oscar Wilde](/wiki/Oscar_Wilde \"Oscar Wilde\") on a campus tour which attracted a crowd of students.*The Berkeley Advocate*, Vol. 6, no. 14 (April 1, 1881\\); {{cite web\\|url\\=http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/gaybears/wilde/ \\|title\\=Gay Bears: Oscar Wilde \\|accessdate\\=2010\\-09\\-01 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521192433/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/gaybears/wilde/ \\|archivedate\\=2011\\-05\\-21 }} In 1892, Bonté's friend Charles Lanam, secretary to the Japanese Legation, arranged for two young women to stay at the Bonté home before leaving for Japan. They enjoyed attending parties, visiting the Berkeley campus and shopping. One of these young women was Ume Tsuda, ([Tsuda Umeko](/wiki/Tsuda_Umeko \"Tsuda Umeko\")), who later was a champion for the education of women in Japan in the early 20th century.*The White Plum, a biography of Ume Tsuda: Pioneer in the Higher Education of Japanese Women*, Furuki Yoshiko, Weatherhill 1991, p. 40\\.",
"J.H.C. Bonté executed his duties with a \"scrupulous exactitude\" and \"unlimited zeal\"*Illustrated History of the University of California*, (Revised 1901\\), William Carey Jones, Berkeley, p. 369\\. that \"frequently drove him to exhaustion from overwork.\"*The University of California, 1868\\-1968, a Centennial History*, Verne A Steadman, McGraw\\-Hill, 1968, p. 96\\.",
"He authored an article on \"The Northerly Winds of California\" in 1886 speculating on the causes and effects on people, animals and crops of the winds in the Sacramento Valley, which was published by the State of California.*Meteorology and Climatology of the Great Valleys and Foothills of California*, James A. Barwick, State of California, Sacramento, 1881, pp. 64\\-65\\. He also contributed to \"The Pacific Churchman\", a periodical published by the Episcopal Diocese of California.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2011}}",
"J.H.C. Bonté was not a regent, and had no vote on the Board but he expressed his strong opinions at Regents' meetings. In response to a proposal that the Regents appropriate $1,475 for plantings and to remove dirt (so that North Hall would not appear to be \"in a hole\"), Bonté asked \"Shall we sacrifice the education of the students for a few improvements? ... the mind must be cared for first ... the 'ground' must wait for more prosperous times.\" The Regents then voted to spend $50\\.00 for the planting of ivy and the Buildings and Grounds Committee then declined even that.Annual Report of the Secretary to the Board of Regents for the year ending June 30, 1895, Sacramento, 1895, pp. 36\\-38\\.",
"Such thrift accounted for the generally shabby appearance of the university in those years and it was not until after J.H.C. Bonté died in 1896 that sufficient funds were made available from Phoebe Apperson Hearst to truly beautify the campus. The student poet who wrote this in the *Blue and Gold* for 1896 was right:",
"{{quote\\|text\\=When Dr. Bonté's in heaven, \n Head\\-Chief\\-High\\-Kicker\\-Saint \nThen, and then only, old North Hall \n Shall receive a coat of paint.\\|sign\\=student poet\\|source\\=''Blue and Gold'', Berkeley, California, 1896, p. 140\\.}}",
""
] |
Racing career
-------------
### Early years
He raced in the Elf Clio Renaultsport UK Cup for Mardi Gras in 2002{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.mardigras.co.uk/htm\_files/last\_season\_2002\.html \|title\=Mardi Gras Motorsport: Last Season \|access\-date\=11 June 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120053239/http://www.mardigras.co.uk/htm\_files/last\_season\_2002\.html \|archive\-date\=20 November 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} and 2003,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mardigras.co.uk/htm\_files/last\_season\_2003\.html \|title\=Mardi Gras Motorsport: Last Season \|accessdate\=2007\-06\-11 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927120532/http://www.mardigras.co.uk/htm\_files/last\_season\_2003\.html \|archivedate\=27 September 2007 }} without much success. He also did some EERC Endurance races for them in 2003/2004 winning the saloon car class. He also did Britcar in 2005{{cite web\|url\=http://www.serverware\-racing.co.uk/pages/gallery/britcar0606\.asp \|title\=Serverware Racing \- Britcar June 2005 Photos \|accessdate\=2007\-06\-11 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702074641/http://www.serverware\-racing.co.uk/pages/gallery/britcar0606\.asp \|archivedate\= 2 July 2007 }} winning his class in the Britcar/Silverstone 24hr and coming 2nd in 2006\.
### British Touring Car Championship
#### Mardi Gras Motorsport (2004\)
[thumb\|right\|George at the 2009 BTCC Media Day at [Rockingham](/wiki/Rockingham_Motor_Speedway "Rockingham Motor Speedway").](/wiki/File:George_Honda_Integra_BTCC.jpg "George Honda Integra BTCC.jpg")
George made his [British Touring Car Championship](/wiki/British_Touring_Car_Championship "British Touring Car Championship") debut in [2004](/wiki/2004_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season "2004 British Touring Car Championship season"), his entry for Mardi Gras was notable as the first car to use [Liquefied petroleum gas](/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas "Liquefied petroleum gas") (LPG) fuel.[John George – Putting his foot on the gas!](http://www.btccpages.co.uk/news/040322jg.php/) He drove both a [Honda Civic Type\-R](/wiki/Honda_Civic_Type-R "Honda Civic Type-R") and a [Peugeot 406](/wiki/Peugeot_406 "Peugeot 406") during the season. A 2005 ride for [Vic Lee Racing](/wiki/Vic_Lee_Racing "Vic Lee Racing") fell through when Lee was jailed for drug\-dealing.
#### TH Motorsport (2007–2009\)
In [2007](/wiki/2007_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season "2007 British Touring Car Championship season") he returned to the BTCC claiming the [TH Motorsport](/wiki/TH_Motorsport "TH Motorsport") team's first ever BTCC points, with a top finish of 8th, and two pole starts in the reverse grid format, driving an ex\-[Matt Neal](/wiki/Matt_Neal "Matt Neal") [Honda Integra](/wiki/Honda_Integra "Honda Integra") for the [TH Motorsport](/wiki/TH_Motorsport "TH Motorsport") team.
The Integra was becoming outdated by [2008](/wiki/2008_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season "2008 British Touring Car Championship season"), and with only one point, George finished 21st in the championship. His season ended with a spectacular crash during the final round at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch "Brands Hatch"). George was battling with [Darren Turner](/wiki/Darren_Turner "Darren Turner") as they approached Surtees for the first time. Turner made contact with the rear of George's Integra and it cannoned off into the barriers which launched the car into a series of rolls, before landing on its side. He suffered bruising but no broken bones, but spent 2 nights in hospital as a precaution.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/70791/ \| work\=Autosport \| date\=23 September 2008}}
He struggled in the [2009 season](/wiki/2009_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season "2009 British Touring Car Championship season"), finishing 25th in the championship for TH Motorsport.
#### Tech\-Speed Motorsport (2010–2011\)
He has moved to the [Tech\-Speed Motorsport](/wiki/Tech-Speed_Motorsport "Tech-Speed Motorsport") team for [2010](/wiki/2010_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season "2010 British Touring Car Championship season") and finished 13th in the Independent championship in what he has described as his most competitive season alongside team\-mate [Paul O'Neill](/wiki/Paul_O%27Neill_%28racing_driver%29 "Paul O'Neill (racing driver)"). His best result was a ninth place at the opening race at [Thruxton](/wiki/Thruxton_Circuit "Thruxton Circuit"), however the team and George both expressed hopes that they would be back out for 2011 and realise a potential for more points\-scoring finishes.
George stayed alongside O'Neill in [2011](/wiki/2011_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season "2011 British Touring Car Championship season"), driving an ex–[Silverline Chevrolet](/wiki/RML_Group "RML Group") [Super 2000](/wiki/Super_2000 "Super 2000") [Chevrolet Cruze](/wiki/Chevrolet_Cruze "Chevrolet Cruze").{{cite news\|title\=Cruzes for O'Neill \& George\|url\=http://www.btcc.net/html/generalnews\_detail.php?id\=2291\|work\=\[\[British Touring Car Championship]]\|publisher\=\[\[TOCA]]\|accessdate\=20 February 2013\|date\=23 March 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511185624/http://www.btcc.net/html/generalnews\_detail.php?id\=2291\|archivedate\=11 May 2011\|df\=dmy\-all}} He collided with one of the barriers at [Croft](/wiki/Croft_Circuit "Croft Circuit") and tore the tendons in his right hand. He was able to participate in the following round at [Snetterton](/wiki/Snetterton_Motor_Racing_Circuit "Snetterton Motor Racing Circuit") while on painkillers and was fully healed by the time of the [Knockhill](/wiki/Knockhill_Racing_Circuit "Knockhill Racing Circuit") round.{{cite news\|title\=George repaired for Knockhill\|url\=http://www.btcc.net/html/generalnews\_detail.php?id\=2580\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130413164821/http://www.btcc.net/html/generalnews\_detail.php?id\=2580\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=13 April 2013\|work\=\[\[British Touring Car Championship]]\|publisher\=\[\[TOCA]]\|accessdate\=20 February 2013\|date\=25 August 2011}} Despite not scoring points in the main drivers' championship, he scored five points in the independents' trophy to finish the season 22nd in class.
He is coached by John Pratt, who has previously worked with [Andy Priaulx](/wiki/Andy_Priaulx "Andy Priaulx").[http://www.thisisplymouth.co.uk/displayNode.jsp?nodeId\=181429\&command\=displayContent\&sourceNode\=231065\&contentPK\=20480926\&folderPk\=108034\&pNodeId\=231071](http://www.thisisplymouth.co.uk/displayNode.jsp?nodeId=181429&command=displayContent&sourceNode=231065&contentPK=20480926&folderPk=108034&pNodeId=231071) {{Dead link\|date\=February 2022}}
|
[
"Racing career\n-------------",
"### Early years",
"He raced in the Elf Clio Renaultsport UK Cup for Mardi Gras in 2002{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mardigras.co.uk/htm\\_files/last\\_season\\_2002\\.html \\|title\\=Mardi Gras Motorsport: Last Season \\|access\\-date\\=11 June 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120053239/http://www.mardigras.co.uk/htm\\_files/last\\_season\\_2002\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=20 November 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and 2003,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mardigras.co.uk/htm\\_files/last\\_season\\_2003\\.html \\|title\\=Mardi Gras Motorsport: Last Season \\|accessdate\\=2007\\-06\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927120532/http://www.mardigras.co.uk/htm\\_files/last\\_season\\_2003\\.html \\|archivedate\\=27 September 2007 }} without much success. He also did some EERC Endurance races for them in 2003/2004 winning the saloon car class. He also did Britcar in 2005{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.serverware\\-racing.co.uk/pages/gallery/britcar0606\\.asp \\|title\\=Serverware Racing \\- Britcar June 2005 Photos \\|accessdate\\=2007\\-06\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702074641/http://www.serverware\\-racing.co.uk/pages/gallery/britcar0606\\.asp \\|archivedate\\= 2 July 2007 }} winning his class in the Britcar/Silverstone 24hr and coming 2nd in 2006\\.",
"### British Touring Car Championship",
"#### Mardi Gras Motorsport (2004\\)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|George at the 2009 BTCC Media Day at [Rockingham](/wiki/Rockingham_Motor_Speedway \"Rockingham Motor Speedway\").](/wiki/File:George_Honda_Integra_BTCC.jpg \"George Honda Integra BTCC.jpg\")\nGeorge made his [British Touring Car Championship](/wiki/British_Touring_Car_Championship \"British Touring Car Championship\") debut in [2004](/wiki/2004_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season \"2004 British Touring Car Championship season\"), his entry for Mardi Gras was notable as the first car to use [Liquefied petroleum gas](/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas \"Liquefied petroleum gas\") (LPG) fuel.[John George – Putting his foot on the gas!](http://www.btccpages.co.uk/news/040322jg.php/) He drove both a [Honda Civic Type\\-R](/wiki/Honda_Civic_Type-R \"Honda Civic Type-R\") and a [Peugeot 406](/wiki/Peugeot_406 \"Peugeot 406\") during the season. A 2005 ride for [Vic Lee Racing](/wiki/Vic_Lee_Racing \"Vic Lee Racing\") fell through when Lee was jailed for drug\\-dealing.",
"#### TH Motorsport (2007–2009\\)",
"In [2007](/wiki/2007_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season \"2007 British Touring Car Championship season\") he returned to the BTCC claiming the [TH Motorsport](/wiki/TH_Motorsport \"TH Motorsport\") team's first ever BTCC points, with a top finish of 8th, and two pole starts in the reverse grid format, driving an ex\\-[Matt Neal](/wiki/Matt_Neal \"Matt Neal\") [Honda Integra](/wiki/Honda_Integra \"Honda Integra\") for the [TH Motorsport](/wiki/TH_Motorsport \"TH Motorsport\") team.",
"The Integra was becoming outdated by [2008](/wiki/2008_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season \"2008 British Touring Car Championship season\"), and with only one point, George finished 21st in the championship. His season ended with a spectacular crash during the final round at [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch \"Brands Hatch\"). George was battling with [Darren Turner](/wiki/Darren_Turner \"Darren Turner\") as they approached Surtees for the first time. Turner made contact with the rear of George's Integra and it cannoned off into the barriers which launched the car into a series of rolls, before landing on its side. He suffered bruising but no broken bones, but spent 2 nights in hospital as a precaution.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/70791/ \\| work\\=Autosport \\| date\\=23 September 2008}}",
"He struggled in the [2009 season](/wiki/2009_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season \"2009 British Touring Car Championship season\"), finishing 25th in the championship for TH Motorsport.",
"#### Tech\\-Speed Motorsport (2010–2011\\)",
"He has moved to the [Tech\\-Speed Motorsport](/wiki/Tech-Speed_Motorsport \"Tech-Speed Motorsport\") team for [2010](/wiki/2010_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season \"2010 British Touring Car Championship season\") and finished 13th in the Independent championship in what he has described as his most competitive season alongside team\\-mate [Paul O'Neill](/wiki/Paul_O%27Neill_%28racing_driver%29 \"Paul O'Neill (racing driver)\"). His best result was a ninth place at the opening race at [Thruxton](/wiki/Thruxton_Circuit \"Thruxton Circuit\"), however the team and George both expressed hopes that they would be back out for 2011 and realise a potential for more points\\-scoring finishes.",
"George stayed alongside O'Neill in [2011](/wiki/2011_British_Touring_Car_Championship_season \"2011 British Touring Car Championship season\"), driving an ex–[Silverline Chevrolet](/wiki/RML_Group \"RML Group\") [Super 2000](/wiki/Super_2000 \"Super 2000\") [Chevrolet Cruze](/wiki/Chevrolet_Cruze \"Chevrolet Cruze\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Cruzes for O'Neill \\& George\\|url\\=http://www.btcc.net/html/generalnews\\_detail.php?id\\=2291\\|work\\=\\[\\[British Touring Car Championship]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TOCA]]\\|accessdate\\=20 February 2013\\|date\\=23 March 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511185624/http://www.btcc.net/html/generalnews\\_detail.php?id\\=2291\\|archivedate\\=11 May 2011\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} He collided with one of the barriers at [Croft](/wiki/Croft_Circuit \"Croft Circuit\") and tore the tendons in his right hand. He was able to participate in the following round at [Snetterton](/wiki/Snetterton_Motor_Racing_Circuit \"Snetterton Motor Racing Circuit\") while on painkillers and was fully healed by the time of the [Knockhill](/wiki/Knockhill_Racing_Circuit \"Knockhill Racing Circuit\") round.{{cite news\\|title\\=George repaired for Knockhill\\|url\\=http://www.btcc.net/html/generalnews\\_detail.php?id\\=2580\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130413164821/http://www.btcc.net/html/generalnews\\_detail.php?id\\=2580\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2013\\|work\\=\\[\\[British Touring Car Championship]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TOCA]]\\|accessdate\\=20 February 2013\\|date\\=25 August 2011}} Despite not scoring points in the main drivers' championship, he scored five points in the independents' trophy to finish the season 22nd in class.",
"He is coached by John Pratt, who has previously worked with [Andy Priaulx](/wiki/Andy_Priaulx \"Andy Priaulx\").[http://www.thisisplymouth.co.uk/displayNode.jsp?nodeId\\=181429\\&command\\=displayContent\\&sourceNode\\=231065\\&contentPK\\=20480926\\&folderPk\\=108034\\&pNodeId\\=231071](http://www.thisisplymouth.co.uk/displayNode.jsp?nodeId=181429&command=displayContent&sourceNode=231065&contentPK=20480926&folderPk=108034&pNodeId=231071) {{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2022}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Borsch started racing in [Altereds](/wiki/Altered_%28drag_racing%29 "Altered (drag racing)") in 1960 with [*Winged Express*](/wiki/Winged_Express_%28Altered%29 "Winged Express (Altered)"), built by Borsch and partner [Al "Mousie" Marcellus](/wiki/Al_Marcellus "Al Marcellus"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/nhra/news/nhra\-s\-50\-greatest\-drivers\-willie\-borsch/61147/ \|title\=NHRA's 50 greatest drivers: Willie Borsch \|website\=Motorsport.com \|accessdate\=14 September 2018}} assisted by [Howard Johansen](/wiki/Howard_Johansen "Howard Johansen") (of [Howard's Cams](/wiki/Howard%27s_Cams "Howard's Cams")), Don Reynolds, Phil Johnson, Dale Young, and Jerry Hyatt.{{cite book \|author\=McClurg, Bob \|title\=Diggers, Funnies, Gassers and Altereds: Drag Racing's Golden Age \|publisher\=CarTech Inc \|year\=2013 \|page\=47 \|ISBN\=9781613251058}} The car's [392 hemi](/wiki/Chrysler_Hemi_engine%23392 "Chrysler Hemi engine#392") was built by [Jim Harrell](/wiki/Jim_Harrell_%28Jim%27s_Auto_Parts%29 "Jim Harrell (Jim's Auto Parts)") (of Jim's Auto Parts).
He raced *Winged Express* for ten years, winning AA/FA ([supercharged](/wiki/Supercharger "Supercharger") A\-category [Fuel](/wiki/Nitromethane "Nitromethane") Altered) at the [NHRA Winternationals](/wiki/NHRA_Winternationals "NHRA Winternationals") in 1967 and 1968\. Since AA/FA was not recognized as a class by the [National Hot Rod Association](/wiki/National_Hot_Rod_Association "National Hot Rod Association") (NHRA) until 1967, Borsch was never credited with a national title.
On 28 September 1967 at Irwindale, Borsch turned in the first {{convert\|200\|mph\|abbr\=on}} pass in an Altered, at 7\.91 seconds and {{convert\|200\.44\|mph\|abbr\=on}}.Boyce, Doug. 1001 Drag Racing Facts (North Branch, MN: CarTech, Inc, 2015\), p.175, item \#513\.
Borsch qualified for the [1968 NHRA Winternationals](/wiki/1968_NHRA_Winternationals "1968 NHRA Winternationals"), a 32\-car field in [Top Fuel](/wiki/Top_Fuel "Top Fuel"), setting an AA/FA record [elapsed time](/wiki/Elapsed_time "Elapsed time") of 7\.29 seconds. The rest of the field refused to race him, for fear of the ill\-handling Altered. It turned out they were right: in round one of Super Eliminator, Borsch went from guardrail to centerline in a wild ride, which was photographed by Bob McClurg; it "became one of the most famous drag racing photos of all time."
After getting a deal with [model kit](/wiki/Scale_model "Scale model") maker [Revell](/wiki/Revell "Revell") for royalties,[*National Dragster* online](https://www.nhra.com/news/2017/ed-mcculloch-roaring-down-memory-lane) at NHRA.com (retrieved 14 September 2018\) Borsch took the wheel of the new [*Wild Man*](/wiki/Wild_Man_%28funny_car%29 "Wild Man (funny car)") [Dodge Charger](/wiki/Dodge_Charger "Dodge Charger") funny car. Because he had become famous for driving *Winged Express* one\-handed, using his other arm to brace himself against the body of the car, he created a dummy arm and attached it to the left window of the new funny car. This was included as a feature of the Revell kit.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nhra.com/news/2012/i\-d\-give\-my\-left\-arm\-own \|title\=I'd give my left arm to own that ... \|website\=NHRA.com \|access\-date\=15 September 2018}} The Revell deal, and the partnership with Marcellus, fell apart after the independent\-minded Borsch refused to wear a sponsor teeshirt for a publicity event.Boyce, p.176, item \#515\.
Borsch died in October 1991 at age 61\.
He was named to *[Car Craft](/wiki/Car_Craft "Car Craft")* magazine's All\-Star Drag Racing team six years in a row, starting in 1967\. He was inducted into the International Drag Racing Hall of Fame in 1992\. He was also rated as one of NHRA's 50 greatest drivers.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Borsch started racing in [Altereds](/wiki/Altered_%28drag_racing%29 \"Altered (drag racing)\") in 1960 with [*Winged Express*](/wiki/Winged_Express_%28Altered%29 \"Winged Express (Altered)\"), built by Borsch and partner [Al \"Mousie\" Marcellus](/wiki/Al_Marcellus \"Al Marcellus\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/nhra/news/nhra\\-s\\-50\\-greatest\\-drivers\\-willie\\-borsch/61147/ \\|title\\=NHRA's 50 greatest drivers: Willie Borsch \\|website\\=Motorsport.com \\|accessdate\\=14 September 2018}} assisted by [Howard Johansen](/wiki/Howard_Johansen \"Howard Johansen\") (of [Howard's Cams](/wiki/Howard%27s_Cams \"Howard's Cams\")), Don Reynolds, Phil Johnson, Dale Young, and Jerry Hyatt.{{cite book \\|author\\=McClurg, Bob \\|title\\=Diggers, Funnies, Gassers and Altereds: Drag Racing's Golden Age \\|publisher\\=CarTech Inc \\|year\\=2013 \\|page\\=47 \\|ISBN\\=9781613251058}} The car's [392 hemi](/wiki/Chrysler_Hemi_engine%23392 \"Chrysler Hemi engine#392\") was built by [Jim Harrell](/wiki/Jim_Harrell_%28Jim%27s_Auto_Parts%29 \"Jim Harrell (Jim's Auto Parts)\") (of Jim's Auto Parts).",
"He raced *Winged Express* for ten years, winning AA/FA ([supercharged](/wiki/Supercharger \"Supercharger\") A\\-category [Fuel](/wiki/Nitromethane \"Nitromethane\") Altered) at the [NHRA Winternationals](/wiki/NHRA_Winternationals \"NHRA Winternationals\") in 1967 and 1968\\. Since AA/FA was not recognized as a class by the [National Hot Rod Association](/wiki/National_Hot_Rod_Association \"National Hot Rod Association\") (NHRA) until 1967, Borsch was never credited with a national title.",
"On 28 September 1967 at Irwindale, Borsch turned in the first {{convert\\|200\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}} pass in an Altered, at 7\\.91 seconds and {{convert\\|200\\.44\\|mph\\|abbr\\=on}}.Boyce, Doug. 1001 Drag Racing Facts (North Branch, MN: CarTech, Inc, 2015\\), p.175, item \\#513\\.",
"Borsch qualified for the [1968 NHRA Winternationals](/wiki/1968_NHRA_Winternationals \"1968 NHRA Winternationals\"), a 32\\-car field in [Top Fuel](/wiki/Top_Fuel \"Top Fuel\"), setting an AA/FA record [elapsed time](/wiki/Elapsed_time \"Elapsed time\") of 7\\.29 seconds. The rest of the field refused to race him, for fear of the ill\\-handling Altered. It turned out they were right: in round one of Super Eliminator, Borsch went from guardrail to centerline in a wild ride, which was photographed by Bob McClurg; it \"became one of the most famous drag racing photos of all time.\"",
"After getting a deal with [model kit](/wiki/Scale_model \"Scale model\") maker [Revell](/wiki/Revell \"Revell\") for royalties,[*National Dragster* online](https://www.nhra.com/news/2017/ed-mcculloch-roaring-down-memory-lane) at NHRA.com (retrieved 14 September 2018\\) Borsch took the wheel of the new [*Wild Man*](/wiki/Wild_Man_%28funny_car%29 \"Wild Man (funny car)\") [Dodge Charger](/wiki/Dodge_Charger \"Dodge Charger\") funny car. Because he had become famous for driving *Winged Express* one\\-handed, using his other arm to brace himself against the body of the car, he created a dummy arm and attached it to the left window of the new funny car. This was included as a feature of the Revell kit.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nhra.com/news/2012/i\\-d\\-give\\-my\\-left\\-arm\\-own \\|title\\=I'd give my left arm to own that ... \\|website\\=NHRA.com \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2018}} The Revell deal, and the partnership with Marcellus, fell apart after the independent\\-minded Borsch refused to wear a sponsor teeshirt for a publicity event.Boyce, p.176, item \\#515\\.",
"Borsch died in October 1991 at age 61\\.",
"He was named to *[Car Craft](/wiki/Car_Craft \"Car Craft\")* magazine's All\\-Star Drag Racing team six years in a row, starting in 1967\\. He was inducted into the International Drag Racing Hall of Fame in 1992\\. He was also rated as one of NHRA's 50 greatest drivers.",
""
] |
Arrival of Legaspi
------------------
{{main\|Sandugo}}
On November 21, 1564,{{cite thesis\|author\=Peter Schreurs, MSC\|title\= Caraga Antigua 1521\-1910: the Hispanization and Christianization of Agusan, Surigao and East Davao\|publisher\=\[\[Radboud University]] and \[\[University of San Carlos]], \[\[Cebu City]]\|date\=1989\|page\=61\-67}} [El Adelantado](/wiki/Adelantado "Adelantado") [Governor\-General](/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Philippines "Governor-General of the Philippines") Miguel López de Legaspi led an expedition and departed from [Barra de Navidad](/wiki/Barra_de_Navidad "Barra de Navidad"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") (formerly *Nueva España*) in search for spices and the [Spice Islands](/wiki/Spice_Islands "Spice Islands") as commissioned by [Viceroy](/wiki/Viceroy "Viceroy") [Luis de Velasco](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_de_Velasco "Luís de Velasco") by the royal order of King [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain "Philip II of Spain"). With him were [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians "Augustinians") friars — Fr. [Andrés de Urdaneta](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta "Andrés de Urdaneta"), also a known navigator served as their spiritual adviser, Fr. [Martín de Rada](/wiki/Martin_de_Rada "Martin de Rada"), Fr. Diego de Herrera, Fr. Andrés de Aguirre, Fr. Lorenzo Jimenez de Esteban, and Fr. Pedro de Gamboa. Also included in the expedition were Spaniards — soldiers [Martín de Goiti](/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti "Martín de Goiti"), [Alonso de Arellano](/wiki/Alonso_de_Arellano "Alonso de Arellano"), Mateo del Saz, Melchor de Legaspi (*Legaspi's son*), Felipe de Salcedo (*Legaspi's grandson*), the future Governor\-General [Guido de Lavezaris](/wiki/Guido_de_Lavezaris "Guido de Lavezaris") (*successor of Legaspi*), a survivor of the 1521 [Magellan's circumnavigation](/wiki/Magellan%27s_circumnavigation "Magellan's circumnavigation"), and more than 200 others.{{cite book\|title\=Collecion de documentos ineditos de Ultramar, second edition II\|publisher\=Real Academia de la Historia (Spain), Madrid\|date\=1886\|pages\=211–213}} The expedition was composed of the *Capitana*, which carried on board Legazpi and Urdaneta, the [galleons](/wiki/Galleon "Galleon") *San Pablo* and *San Pedro*, and the [ship's tenders](/wiki/Ship%27s_tender "Ship's tender") *San Juan* and *San Lucas*.{{cite book\|title\=Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas, 1565\-1615\|author\=Gaspar de San Agustin\|translator\=Luis Antonio Mañeru\|publisher\=San Agustin Museum\|date\=1998}} This was *the fifth, the last, and the most successful* of all Spanish expeditions after [Ferdinand Magellan](/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan "Ferdinand Magellan") in 1521, [García Jofre de Loaísa](/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_Jofre_de_Loa%C3%ADsa "García Jofre de Loaísa") in 1525, [Sebastian Cabot](/wiki/Sebastian_Cabot_%28explorer%29 "Sebastian Cabot (explorer)") in 1526, [Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Saavedra_Cer%C3%B3n "Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón") in 1527, and [Ruy López de Villalobos](/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos "Ruy López de Villalobos") in 1542 before Spanish colonization of the Philippines.{{cite book\|url\=http://www.aenet.org/bohol/boholhis.htm\|author\=\[\[Gregorio F. Zaide]]\|publisher\=Manila, Philippine Education Co.\|title\=Philippine Political and Cultural History, Volume I\|date\=1949\|access\-date\=December 30, 2020}}
The expedition reached [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") on January 23, 1565;{{cite book\|title\=A Bibliography on Legazpi and Urdaneta, Philippine Studies vol. 13, no. 2\|date\=1965\|pages\=287–329\|author\=Isacio R. Rodriguez\|publisher\=Philippine Studies, \[\[Ateneo de Manila University]]\|url\=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/2484\|access\-date\=June 30, 2008}} [Samar](/wiki/Samar "Samar") and [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte "Leyte") on February 13; [Limasawa](/wiki/Limasawa "Limasawa") on March 9; and [Camiguin](/wiki/Camiguin "Camiguin") on March 11\. On March 14, they attempted reach Butuan, but unfortunately drifted by strong currents to Bohol at night. On March 15 at daybreak, they arrived offshore at [Jagna, Bohol](/wiki/Jagna%2C_Bohol "Jagna, Bohol"){{cite book\|title\=The Cabletow Vol. 89, No. 2, Centennial Lectures: Freemasonry In Bohol and Cebu encountered by Gen. Miguel Lopez De Legazpi\|author\=Jes B. Tirol\|date\=August 2012\|pages\=32–45}} and commissioned a light ship, San Juan to go [Butuan](/wiki/Butuan "Butuan"), while the rest will wait for them in Bohol. While in Bohol, they captured a Bornean native [parao](/wiki/Parao "Parao") (ship), piloted by *Tuasanmalea*, also a Bornean. The pilot narrated that the natives were already agitated with their arrival since the island was previously ransacked by foreigners, Ternatans and Portuguese two years earlier during the fall of Bool Kingdom. On March 19, 1565, they landed at Hinawanan Bay in Loay, Bohol.
Wary of the possible violent reaction from Boholanos, Legaspi tasked Tuasanmalea to look for the chief of the island as to make a friendly alliance with them, stressing that they aren't those barbaric Portuguese but rather peaceful Spaniards. Tuasanmalea travelled through Loboc river from Hinawanan Bay (now part of *Villalimpia, Loay*), 2 leagues (about 11 km) away to Himilian (*Jimilian*), the seat of government of Datu Sigala. However, during that time, Sigala was not in Himilian. Instead, Datu Sikatuna welcomed him and told the pilot to let their commander (Legaspi) come to make a [Sandugo](/wiki/Sandugo "Sandugo") with him as to seal their alliance. However, when Tuasanmalea returned, he only brought Santiago de Garnica, the constable\-in\-charge of water of Capitana. Knowing that Garcina was not their leader, Sikatuna only allowed his son to make a blood compact with the former. Sikatuna then agreed to walk towards the shore to meet Legaspi.
The next morning, Datu Sikatuna, accompanied with about 40 warriors and women arrived at the shoreline of Hinawanan. They were greeted by the Spaniards and eventually requested Sikatuna to board San Pedro and to meet Legaspi.
With several Spaniards remained at the shore, Sikatuna agreed to board the flagship with 4 companions: Sibumanglar (*Si Bumanglar*), a Boholano, about 30 years old; Ximongoi (*Si Mungoy*), also a Boholano, 25 years old; Ceilan, a Bornean interpreter, about 35 years old; and Magut, also a Bornean, 25 years old. These Borneans were already in Bohol which either be merely traders or captives. These 4 companions executed 4 affidavits in the presence of Hernado Riquel, Legaspi's chief clerk for administrative matters. The affidavits narrated the detailed events during the attack of the Portuguese and Ternateans in Bool Kingdom in 1563\.
Off the coast of Hinawanan Bay, [Loay, Bohol](/wiki/Loay%2C_Bohol "Loay, Bohol") and on the flagship San Pedro, the symbolic *Pacto de Sangre* ([Sandugo](/wiki/Sandugo "Sandugo")) between Datu Sikatuna and Governor\-General Miguel López de Legaspi was performed, sealing the first treaty of peace and friendship on March 25, 1565\.
Another blood compact was performed, this time between Legaspi and Datu Sigala, the chieftain of Loboc on March 28, 1565\. This Sandugo was said to be more consequential than the former since it was done in a more traditional manner. The wine used during their blood compact was the native [*Tubâ*](/wiki/Arrack%23Philippines "Arrack#Philippines") ([palm toddy](/wiki/Palm_toddy "Palm toddy")) mixed in a *Hangot* ([coconut shell cup](/wiki/Coconut_shell_cup "Coconut shell cup")) instead of Spanish goblet. Sigala also shared a *cantaro* (about 4 gallons) of *tubâ* and a native [lechon](/wiki/Lechon "Lechon") to the Spaniards, signifying the hospitality and generosity of Filipinos towards foreign cultures.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.boholchronicle.com.ph/2015/03/29/the\-more\-meaningful\-sigala\-legazpi\-blood\-compact/\|publisher\=\[\[Bohol Chronicle]]\|author\=Jes B. Tirol\|date\=March 29, 2015\|access\-date\=December 31, 2020\|title\=The More Meaningful Sigala\-Legazpi Blood Compact}}
While still in Bohol, Legaspi sent a frigate to explore the islands of Cebu. However, despite his instruction to return after eight days, the frigate failed to return even after 15 days. Saddened by the situation, Legaspi sought help and immediately requested Sigala and Sikatuna to find the frigate in Cebu. Accompanied with two Spanish soldiers, the two chiefs went to Cebu on board a large armed boat with thirty rowers. Unfortunately, the chiefs reported that the frigate was not there when they returned to Bohol. Later, Legaspi decided to bring the whole fleet to Cebu on April 27, 1565 where they defeated Rajah Tupas, establishing the first Spanish colony in the Philippines, *Villa del Santísimo Nombre de Jesús* ("Town of the Most Holy Name of Jesus") and declaring it as its first capital.
|
[
"Arrival of Legaspi\n------------------",
"{{main\\|Sandugo}}",
"On November 21, 1564,{{cite thesis\\|author\\=Peter Schreurs, MSC\\|title\\= Caraga Antigua 1521\\-1910: the Hispanization and Christianization of Agusan, Surigao and East Davao\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Radboud University]] and \\[\\[University of San Carlos]], \\[\\[Cebu City]]\\|date\\=1989\\|page\\=61\\-67}} [El Adelantado](/wiki/Adelantado \"Adelantado\") [Governor\\-General](/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Philippines \"Governor-General of the Philippines\") Miguel López de Legaspi led an expedition and departed from [Barra de Navidad](/wiki/Barra_de_Navidad \"Barra de Navidad\"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") (formerly *Nueva España*) in search for spices and the [Spice Islands](/wiki/Spice_Islands \"Spice Islands\") as commissioned by [Viceroy](/wiki/Viceroy \"Viceroy\") [Luis de Velasco](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_de_Velasco \"Luís de Velasco\") by the royal order of King [Philip II of Spain](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain \"Philip II of Spain\"). With him were [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians \"Augustinians\") friars — Fr. [Andrés de Urdaneta](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta \"Andrés de Urdaneta\"), also a known navigator served as their spiritual adviser, Fr. [Martín de Rada](/wiki/Martin_de_Rada \"Martin de Rada\"), Fr. Diego de Herrera, Fr. Andrés de Aguirre, Fr. Lorenzo Jimenez de Esteban, and Fr. Pedro de Gamboa. Also included in the expedition were Spaniards — soldiers [Martín de Goiti](/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti \"Martín de Goiti\"), [Alonso de Arellano](/wiki/Alonso_de_Arellano \"Alonso de Arellano\"), Mateo del Saz, Melchor de Legaspi (*Legaspi's son*), Felipe de Salcedo (*Legaspi's grandson*), the future Governor\\-General [Guido de Lavezaris](/wiki/Guido_de_Lavezaris \"Guido de Lavezaris\") (*successor of Legaspi*), a survivor of the 1521 [Magellan's circumnavigation](/wiki/Magellan%27s_circumnavigation \"Magellan's circumnavigation\"), and more than 200 others.{{cite book\\|title\\=Collecion de documentos ineditos de Ultramar, second edition II\\|publisher\\=Real Academia de la Historia (Spain), Madrid\\|date\\=1886\\|pages\\=211–213}} The expedition was composed of the *Capitana*, which carried on board Legazpi and Urdaneta, the [galleons](/wiki/Galleon \"Galleon\") *San Pablo* and *San Pedro*, and the [ship's tenders](/wiki/Ship%27s_tender \"Ship's tender\") *San Juan* and *San Lucas*.{{cite book\\|title\\=Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas, 1565\\-1615\\|author\\=Gaspar de San Agustin\\|translator\\=Luis Antonio Mañeru\\|publisher\\=San Agustin Museum\\|date\\=1998}} This was *the fifth, the last, and the most successful* of all Spanish expeditions after [Ferdinand Magellan](/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan \"Ferdinand Magellan\") in 1521, [García Jofre de Loaísa](/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_Jofre_de_Loa%C3%ADsa \"García Jofre de Loaísa\") in 1525, [Sebastian Cabot](/wiki/Sebastian_Cabot_%28explorer%29 \"Sebastian Cabot (explorer)\") in 1526, [Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Saavedra_Cer%C3%B3n \"Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón\") in 1527, and [Ruy López de Villalobos](/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos \"Ruy López de Villalobos\") in 1542 before Spanish colonization of the Philippines.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.aenet.org/bohol/boholhis.htm\\|author\\=\\[\\[Gregorio F. Zaide]]\\|publisher\\=Manila, Philippine Education Co.\\|title\\=Philippine Political and Cultural History, Volume I\\|date\\=1949\\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2020}}",
"The expedition reached [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") on January 23, 1565;{{cite book\\|title\\=A Bibliography on Legazpi and Urdaneta, Philippine Studies vol. 13, no. 2\\|date\\=1965\\|pages\\=287–329\\|author\\=Isacio R. Rodriguez\\|publisher\\=Philippine Studies, \\[\\[Ateneo de Manila University]]\\|url\\=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/2484\\|access\\-date\\=June 30, 2008}} [Samar](/wiki/Samar \"Samar\") and [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte \"Leyte\") on February 13; [Limasawa](/wiki/Limasawa \"Limasawa\") on March 9; and [Camiguin](/wiki/Camiguin \"Camiguin\") on March 11\\. On March 14, they attempted reach Butuan, but unfortunately drifted by strong currents to Bohol at night. On March 15 at daybreak, they arrived offshore at [Jagna, Bohol](/wiki/Jagna%2C_Bohol \"Jagna, Bohol\"){{cite book\\|title\\=The Cabletow Vol. 89, No. 2, Centennial Lectures: Freemasonry In Bohol and Cebu encountered by Gen. Miguel Lopez De Legazpi\\|author\\=Jes B. Tirol\\|date\\=August 2012\\|pages\\=32–45}} and commissioned a light ship, San Juan to go [Butuan](/wiki/Butuan \"Butuan\"), while the rest will wait for them in Bohol. While in Bohol, they captured a Bornean native [parao](/wiki/Parao \"Parao\") (ship), piloted by *Tuasanmalea*, also a Bornean. The pilot narrated that the natives were already agitated with their arrival since the island was previously ransacked by foreigners, Ternatans and Portuguese two years earlier during the fall of Bool Kingdom. On March 19, 1565, they landed at Hinawanan Bay in Loay, Bohol.",
"Wary of the possible violent reaction from Boholanos, Legaspi tasked Tuasanmalea to look for the chief of the island as to make a friendly alliance with them, stressing that they aren't those barbaric Portuguese but rather peaceful Spaniards. Tuasanmalea travelled through Loboc river from Hinawanan Bay (now part of *Villalimpia, Loay*), 2 leagues (about 11 km) away to Himilian (*Jimilian*), the seat of government of Datu Sigala. However, during that time, Sigala was not in Himilian. Instead, Datu Sikatuna welcomed him and told the pilot to let their commander (Legaspi) come to make a [Sandugo](/wiki/Sandugo \"Sandugo\") with him as to seal their alliance. However, when Tuasanmalea returned, he only brought Santiago de Garnica, the constable\\-in\\-charge of water of Capitana. Knowing that Garcina was not their leader, Sikatuna only allowed his son to make a blood compact with the former. Sikatuna then agreed to walk towards the shore to meet Legaspi.",
"The next morning, Datu Sikatuna, accompanied with about 40 warriors and women arrived at the shoreline of Hinawanan. They were greeted by the Spaniards and eventually requested Sikatuna to board San Pedro and to meet Legaspi. \nWith several Spaniards remained at the shore, Sikatuna agreed to board the flagship with 4 companions: Sibumanglar (*Si Bumanglar*), a Boholano, about 30 years old; Ximongoi (*Si Mungoy*), also a Boholano, 25 years old; Ceilan, a Bornean interpreter, about 35 years old; and Magut, also a Bornean, 25 years old. These Borneans were already in Bohol which either be merely traders or captives. These 4 companions executed 4 affidavits in the presence of Hernado Riquel, Legaspi's chief clerk for administrative matters. The affidavits narrated the detailed events during the attack of the Portuguese and Ternateans in Bool Kingdom in 1563\\.",
"Off the coast of Hinawanan Bay, [Loay, Bohol](/wiki/Loay%2C_Bohol \"Loay, Bohol\") and on the flagship San Pedro, the symbolic *Pacto de Sangre* ([Sandugo](/wiki/Sandugo \"Sandugo\")) between Datu Sikatuna and Governor\\-General Miguel López de Legaspi was performed, sealing the first treaty of peace and friendship on March 25, 1565\\.",
"Another blood compact was performed, this time between Legaspi and Datu Sigala, the chieftain of Loboc on March 28, 1565\\. This Sandugo was said to be more consequential than the former since it was done in a more traditional manner. The wine used during their blood compact was the native [*Tubâ*](/wiki/Arrack%23Philippines \"Arrack#Philippines\") ([palm toddy](/wiki/Palm_toddy \"Palm toddy\")) mixed in a *Hangot* ([coconut shell cup](/wiki/Coconut_shell_cup \"Coconut shell cup\")) instead of Spanish goblet. Sigala also shared a *cantaro* (about 4 gallons) of *tubâ* and a native [lechon](/wiki/Lechon \"Lechon\") to the Spaniards, signifying the hospitality and generosity of Filipinos towards foreign cultures.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.boholchronicle.com.ph/2015/03/29/the\\-more\\-meaningful\\-sigala\\-legazpi\\-blood\\-compact/\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bohol Chronicle]]\\|author\\=Jes B. Tirol\\|date\\=March 29, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=December 31, 2020\\|title\\=The More Meaningful Sigala\\-Legazpi Blood Compact}}",
"While still in Bohol, Legaspi sent a frigate to explore the islands of Cebu. However, despite his instruction to return after eight days, the frigate failed to return even after 15 days. Saddened by the situation, Legaspi sought help and immediately requested Sigala and Sikatuna to find the frigate in Cebu. Accompanied with two Spanish soldiers, the two chiefs went to Cebu on board a large armed boat with thirty rowers. Unfortunately, the chiefs reported that the frigate was not there when they returned to Bohol. Later, Legaspi decided to bring the whole fleet to Cebu on April 27, 1565 where they defeated Rajah Tupas, establishing the first Spanish colony in the Philippines, *Villa del Santísimo Nombre de Jesús* (\"Town of the Most Holy Name of Jesus\") and declaring it as its first capital.",
""
] |
Episodes
--------
The series was released on [VHS](/wiki/VHS "VHS") and on August 2, 2005, National Geographic began releasing the episodes on DVD.
{{Episode table \|background\=\#FFD700 \|overall\=8 \|title\=72 \|airdate\=20 \|episodes\=
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Swinging Safari
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1994\|3\|2}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=1
\| ShortSummary\=This episode features animals from Africa, primarily in the \[\[Serengeti]], but also the jungles of mid\-Africa and the \[\[Kalahari Desert]] including Botswana's \[\[Central Kalahari Game Reserve]]. These animals include elephants, hippos, rhinos, giraffes, zebras, \[\[chimpanzee]]s, \[\[Black\-and\-white colobus\|colobus monkey]]s, \[\[meerkat]]s, cheetahs, and lions. The law of survival and the food chain are also emphasized. \[\[Jane Goodall]] and \[\[Daphne Sheldrick]] appear.
There are five songs. The first is about lions ("Hey Lion"); the second is about baby animals ("Young Thing"); the third is about how \[\[human]]s, monkeys, and \[\[ape]]s are related ("Family"); the fourth is about zebras ("Stripes"), and the fifth is about Africa's beauty ("The Heart That Beats in Africa") sung by \[\[Dorian Holley]].
Note: The first three episodes were produced in 1993\. The DVD version omits the "Weather Update", "Africa's Most Wanted", "Traffic Update" and "As the Earth Turns" signs.
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Wonders Down Under
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1994\|3\|2}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=2
\| ShortSummary\=In this episode, the animals of Australia are examined. The theme of "weirdness" among Australia's creatures (compared to the rest of the world) is explored by looking at mammals, birds, and reptiles. The \[\[kangaroo]]s, \[\[mudskipper]]s, \[\[quoll]]s, \[\[fruit bat]]s, \[\[echidna]]s, \[\[platypus]]es, \[\[riflebird]]s, \[\[bowerbird]]s, \[\[lyrebird]]s, \[\[emu]]s, \[\[malleefowl]]s, \[\[Chlamydosaurus\|frilled lizard]]s, \[\[Ranoidea platycephala\|water\-holding frog]]s, \[\[dingo]]es, \[\[Tasmanian devil]]s, \[\[Sugar Glider\|flying possum]]s, \[\[numbat]]s, \[\[thorny devil]]s, and \[\[koala]]s are featured.
There are five songs. The first is about Australia and how unique it is ("Down Under"); the second is about kangaroos ("Wait Up, Kangaroo"); the third is about Australia's strange animals ("Proud to Be Strange"); the fourth is about the Outback's reptiles and amphibians ("Tracks in the Sand"); and the fifth is about how despite the "strange" appearances, Australia's animals make it a unique land ("Strange New Friend").
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Deep Sea Dive
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1994\|3\|2}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=3
\| ShortSummary\=This episode plunges into the world's oceans and explores underwater life. Key destinations include the \[\[Great Barrier Reef]] and \[\[Antarctica]]. Some of the animals featured are dolphins, octopuses, \[\[seahorse]]s, fish, \[\[cuttlefish]], \[\[jellyfish]], \[\[sea otter]]s, sharks, \[\[emperor penguin]]s and whales. It also attempts to capture the wonders of the sea and the importance of protecting it from pollution.
There are five songs. The first is about water ("Water"); the second is about strange animals that live deep in the sea ("City of the Creeps"); the third is about the importance of keeping the water clean ("If the Water is Clear"); the fourth is about animal movement ("It's in the Way You Move"); and the fifth is about the "real" underwater treasure, all the wildlife ("I Found a Treasure").
Note: This is the first episode Spin explores the world instead of just sticking to one continent, and the last one Caesar Video Graphics animated.
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Totally Tropical Rain Forest
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1994\|7\|27}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/88956726/\|title\=Johnny and Juliette\|newspaper\=\[\[Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette]]\|date\=July 1, 1994\|via\=\[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=4
\| ShortSummary\=This episode shows an in\-depth look at the \[\[rainforest]]s of Central and South America. It is structured around a journey through the layers of the forest, from the floor to the mid\-layers to the canopy. During this journey the \[\[jaguar]], \[\[tapir]], \[\[leafcutter ant]], \[\[howler monkey]], \[\[Basiliscus (genus)\|basilisk lizard]], \[\[Poison dart frog\|poison arrow frog]], parrot, \[\[tarantula]], \[\[harpy eagle]], \[\[piranha]], \[\[vampire bat]], \[\[hoatzin]], \[\[Bald uakari\|uakari]], \[\[three\-toed sloth]], and \[\[Amazon river dolphin\|river dolphin]] are among the animals shown. Environmental issues surrounding deforestation are also looked at.
There are four songs. The first is about all the life that lives in the rainforest ("Greenhouse"); the second is about the importance of finding food and the food chain ("What Do You Want for Lunch"); the third is about the rainforest canopy and all the birds that call it home ("Bird's\-Eye View"), and the fourth is about the importance of keeping the rainforest safe ("This Must Be the Place").
Note: This is the first episode animated by Click 3X and the change in studios resulted in Spin being redesigned. The end has a prototype animation in which Spin doesn't put away his magnifying glass at the end; he zooms in.
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Amazing North America
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1994\|7\|27}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=5
\| ShortSummary\=This episode looks at North America's \[\[ecosystem]]s from its deserts and swamps to its cities and tundra. \[\[Ground squirrel]]s, \[\[rattlesnakes]], beavers, raccoons, \[\[woodpecker]]s, \[\[corn snake]]s, alligators, \[\[Florida red\-bellied cooter\|red\-bellied turtle]]s, \[\[Arctic wolves]], \[\[musk ox]]en, polar bears and black bears are all featured. The film's diversity of the North American landscape and how its animals have adapted are key points.
There are four songs. The first is about what animals need to do to survive in North America ("I Gotta Be Wild"); the second is about the places animals call home ("Look Who's Moving In"); the third is about difficulties in getting what animals want ("To Get What You Want"), and the fourth is about the winter season ("Winter").
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Adventures in Asia
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1994\|7\|27}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=6
\| ShortSummary\=The immense continent of Asia is explored. With such a large area to cover, Spin jumps from one place to the next, including the tropical islands of \[\[Indonesia]], the \[\[Arabian Peninsula]], Russian mountains, Japanese mountains, Indian jungles, and Chinese forests and mountains. Some of the featured animals are the \[\[sea snake]], \[\[white\-bellied sea eagle]], \[\[Japanese macaque\|snow monkey]], \[\[proboscis monkey]], \[\[mudskipper]], \[\[fiddler crab]], \[\[dhole]], \[\[Asian elephant]], tiger, \[\[Komodo dragon]], \[\[cobra]], \[\[Arabian oryx]], \[\[ibex]], \[\[camel]], \[\[garden eel]], \[\[manta ray]], \[\[giant panda]], \[\[Crane (bird)\|crane]], \[\[Cave swiftlet\|swiftlet]], and \[\[orangutan]]. The difference between myth and reality is tested in uncovering the lifestyles of all these creatures.
There are four songs. The first is about all the Asian legends and how much truth is in them ("Legends in Asia"); the second is about territories ("Get Off of My Turf"); the third is about animal roughhousing and its importance ("Roughhouse"); and the fourth is about all the life, human and animal, in Asia ("Keep the Legends Alive").
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Polar Prowl
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1994}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=7
\| ShortSummary\=
In this episode, Spin takes a trip to the \[\[Arctic]] and \[\[Antarctica\|Antarctic]]. Animals such as polar bears, walruses, \[\[orca]]s, \[\[caribou]], \[\[musk oxen]], \[\[Kodiak bear]]s, \[\[arctic tern]]s, penguins, seals, and \[\[humpback whale]]s are explored. Additionally, they examine the three ways animals survive the harsh cold: \[\[hibernation]], insulation, and migration.
There are four songs. The first is about the cold temperatures and how the animals survive ("Cold, Cold, Cold"); the second is about ways animals beat the cold ("That's the Way We Do It Up Here"); the third is about penguins, and names the 17 species ("Penguins"), and the fourth is a tribute to Antarctica ("The Last Great Wilderness").
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Hot Dogs and Cool Cats
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1995}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=8
\| ShortSummary\=Spin looks at dogs and tries to determine if there is a link between wild and tame dogs. The first song is about why dogs do what they do ("Hey Dog"), and the second is about dogs' loyalty ("Best Friends").
Spin examines cats and learns that no matter how tame, they are always wild. The first song is about cats having an attitude ("The Cat's Got an Attitude"), and the second is about how they are wild inside ("Wild Inside").
Note: Due to ''Really Wild Animals'' becoming available for television broadcast at this point, all episodes starting with this one contain two half\-hour segments, each featuring two songs. A bridging dog commercial between the two episodes is removed from the DVD version. The second part is also the first time Alan O'Day does not appear.
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Dinosaurs and Other Creature Features
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1996\|8\|27}}{{cite news\|url\=https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive\-All\-Music/Billboard/90s/1996/BB\-1996\-08\-24\.pdf\|title\='Tis the season for creature features and Christmas capers (page 75/91\)\|newspaper\=\[\[Billboard (magazine)\|Billboard]]\|date\=August 24, 1996}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=9
\| ShortSummary\=Spin examines dinosaurs such as duck\-billed \[\[Hadrosaur]]s, ''\[\[Struthiomimus]]'', ''\[\[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', and \[\[Dromaeosaur]]s (Raptors), and tries to answer the questions surrounding them, including how they became extinct, and if relatives still exist such as alligators, snakes, \[\[Komodo dragon]]s, lizards, \[\[ostrich]]es, and \[\[cassowary\|cassowaries]]. The first song focuses on dinosaurs ("Dinosaurs"), and the second shows how their modern\-day relatives still "rock our world" ("We're Gonna Rock Your World").
Spin looks at some of the world's creepiest creatures, such as \[\[vampire bat]]s, ants, flies, spiders, \[\[vulture]]s, and \[\[dung beetle]]s. He shows that no matter how scary they are, they all play an important part in the world. The first song is about how creatures are creepy and intriguing ("Creepy Creatures", animation by Jim and Vezna Tozzi), and the second is about how important they are ("Keep on Creepin' On").
Notes: This is the first episode where the background changes from the sky to outer space, which will remain for the rest of the series. Also, Spin reads the title card as "Dinos and Other Creature Features" and footage from Phil Tippett's ''\[\[Prehistoric Beast]]'' and ''\[\[Dinosaur! (1985 film)\|Dinosaur!]]'' are used for the dinosaur scenes. Paleontologist \[\[Robert T. Bakker]] appears, and footage from the ''\[\[The Three Stooges\|Three Stooges]]'' episode "\[\[Disorder in the Court]]" and a clip from ''\[\[Killer Shrews]]'' is shown.
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Monkey Business and Other Family Fun
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1996\|8\|27}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=10
\| ShortSummary\=Spin looks at primates, including \[\[gibbon]]s, \[\[Colobinae\|langurs]], \[\[bush baby\|bush babies]], \[\[aye\-aye]]s, \[\[Capuchin monkey\|capuchin]]s, and \[\[baboon]]s. He also explains that primates are our distant relatives. The first song is about all \[\[primate]]s ("Primates"), and the second is about \[\[gorilla]]s, our "gentle brothers" ("Gentle Brother").
Spin looks at animal families, including elephants, \[\[African bullfrog\|bullfrog]]s, \[\[ostrich]]es, octopuses, \[\[albatross]]es, and \[\[Loggerhead sea turtle\|sea turtle]]s and shows they are not all that different from human families. The first song is about how curious animal children are ("I'm Curious"), and the second is about how important families are ("You're My Family").
Note: This episode features a parody of ''\[\[Candid Camera]]'' called "Candid Critter Camera" hosted by "Alan Grunt" (a parody of \[\[Allen Funt]]), who is played by \[\[Billy West]]. A "Candid Critter Camera" segment between the two episodes involving meerkats is removed from the DVD version.
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Farmyard Friends
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1997}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=11
\| ShortSummary\=Spin looks at farm animals, such as turkeys, pigs, sheep, horses, and cows, and examines their wild relatives, such as \[\[dall sheep]], \[\[wild turkeys]], \[\[warthogs]], and \[\[zebras]], from all over the world. The first song is about all the animals on the farm ("Farmer, Farmer"), and the second is about whether the viewer would be wild or tame ("Would You Rather be Wild, Would You Rather be Tame").
Spin looks at humans helping endangered animals, how animals rescue people, and if people work together to save animals, they will prevent them from becoming extinct. The first song is about help being available for animals ("Help is on the Way"), and the second is about humans working to save animals ("Safe at Last").
Notes: This first part does not mention the second segment. The TV version of "Farmyard Friends" was titled "Spin's Really Wild Farm Tour". \[\[Warner Home Video]] became the series' home video distributor and started advertising before the episode began.
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Awesome Animal Builders
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1997}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=12
\| ShortSummary\=It shows how animals build their own homes, such as \[\[termite]]s, beavers, \[\[orb\-weaver spider]]s, \[\[Cave swiftlet\|swiftlet]]s, bees, \[\[Bombyx mori\|silkworms]], caterpillars, \[\[Ploceidae\|weaver birds]], \[\[Naked mole\-rat\|naked mole rats]], and \[\[osprey]]s, and explains that they build their homes to have families. The first song is about the different kinds of animal homes ("Anything to Make it Home"), and the second is about why animals build homes ("I Am an Architect").
Spin takes us to look at animals that migrate, such as \[\[wildebeest]], \[\[sockeye salmon]], \[\[tundra swan]]s, \[\[African elephant]]s, geese, sharks, \[\[Batoidea\|ray]]s, \[\[pronghorn]] and toads. It explains that the cycle of \[\[Animal migration\|migration]] never ends. The first song is about animals migrating ("I'm Movin' Out"), and the second is about how migration never ends for animals ("Every Ending is a Beginning").
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
{{Episode list
\| Title\=Secret Weapons and Great Escapes
\| OriginalAirDate\={{Start date\|1997\|10\|21}}
\| EpisodeNumber\=13
\| ShortSummary\=Spin is a spy who is trying to find out how some animals have ways to defend themselves, such as \[\[Chlamydosaurus\|frilled\-neck lizards]], \[\[poison dart frog]]s, \[\[Owl butterfly\|owl butterflies]], \[\[green tree python]]s, \[\[Hemisphaerota\|Hemisphaerota beetle]]s, \[\[army ant]]s, skunks, \[\[Common Surinam toad\|Surinam toads]], \[\[Latrodectus\|black widow spider]]s, \[\[bombardier beetle]]s, \[\[mantis shrimp]], \[\[cobra]]s, \[\[tomato frog]]s, \[\[cone snail]]s, and \[\[Tetraodontidae\|puffer fish]], and finds out why animals need defenses. The first song is about animals having secret defenses ("I've Got a Secret"), and the second is about animals needing to watch out for other animals' defenses ("Trick of the Trade").
Spin shows animals that live on certain islands, such as \[\[lemur]]s and \[\[chameleon]]s in \[\[Madagascar]], \[\[Marine iguana\|Marine]] and \[\[Galapagos land iguana\|land iguana]]s on the \[\[Galápagos Islands\|Galapagos]], \[\[Tasmanian devil]]s and \[\[quoll]]s in \[\[Tasmania]], \[\[gannet]]s and \[\[kea]]s in \[\[New Zealand]], \[\[Juan Fernández fur seal\|fur seal]]s on the \[\[Juan Fernández Islands]] and \[\[eastern rockhopper penguin]]s with \[\[Snares penguin]]s in \[\[Snares Islands / Tini Heke\|Snares Island]], and shows how unique they are. Footage of \[\[New York City]] and its \[\[World Trade Center (1973–2001\)\|Twin Towers]] are shown, as well as the \[\[heron]]s and \[\[egret]]s on the harbor's islands. Both songs are about islands and how unique they are ("Welcome to the Islands" and "It's a World Within a World").
\|LineColor\=FFD700
}}
}}
|
[
"Episodes\n--------",
"The series was released on [VHS](/wiki/VHS \"VHS\") and on August 2, 2005, National Geographic began releasing the episodes on DVD.\n{{Episode table \\|background\\=\\#FFD700 \\|overall\\=8 \\|title\\=72 \\|airdate\\=20 \\|episodes\\=\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Swinging Safari\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1994\\|3\\|2}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=1\n\\| ShortSummary\\=This episode features animals from Africa, primarily in the \\[\\[Serengeti]], but also the jungles of mid\\-Africa and the \\[\\[Kalahari Desert]] including Botswana's \\[\\[Central Kalahari Game Reserve]]. These animals include elephants, hippos, rhinos, giraffes, zebras, \\[\\[chimpanzee]]s, \\[\\[Black\\-and\\-white colobus\\|colobus monkey]]s, \\[\\[meerkat]]s, cheetahs, and lions. The law of survival and the food chain are also emphasized. \\[\\[Jane Goodall]] and \\[\\[Daphne Sheldrick]] appear.",
"There are five songs. The first is about lions (\"Hey Lion\"); the second is about baby animals (\"Young Thing\"); the third is about how \\[\\[human]]s, monkeys, and \\[\\[ape]]s are related (\"Family\"); the fourth is about zebras (\"Stripes\"), and the fifth is about Africa's beauty (\"The Heart That Beats in Africa\") sung by \\[\\[Dorian Holley]].\nNote: The first three episodes were produced in 1993\\. The DVD version omits the \"Weather Update\", \"Africa's Most Wanted\", \"Traffic Update\" and \"As the Earth Turns\" signs.\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Wonders Down Under\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1994\\|3\\|2}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=2\n\\| ShortSummary\\=In this episode, the animals of Australia are examined. The theme of \"weirdness\" among Australia's creatures (compared to the rest of the world) is explored by looking at mammals, birds, and reptiles. The \\[\\[kangaroo]]s, \\[\\[mudskipper]]s, \\[\\[quoll]]s, \\[\\[fruit bat]]s, \\[\\[echidna]]s, \\[\\[platypus]]es, \\[\\[riflebird]]s, \\[\\[bowerbird]]s, \\[\\[lyrebird]]s, \\[\\[emu]]s, \\[\\[malleefowl]]s, \\[\\[Chlamydosaurus\\|frilled lizard]]s, \\[\\[Ranoidea platycephala\\|water\\-holding frog]]s, \\[\\[dingo]]es, \\[\\[Tasmanian devil]]s, \\[\\[Sugar Glider\\|flying possum]]s, \\[\\[numbat]]s, \\[\\[thorny devil]]s, and \\[\\[koala]]s are featured.",
"There are five songs. The first is about Australia and how unique it is (\"Down Under\"); the second is about kangaroos (\"Wait Up, Kangaroo\"); the third is about Australia's strange animals (\"Proud to Be Strange\"); the fourth is about the Outback's reptiles and amphibians (\"Tracks in the Sand\"); and the fifth is about how despite the \"strange\" appearances, Australia's animals make it a unique land (\"Strange New Friend\").\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Deep Sea Dive\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1994\\|3\\|2}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=3\n\\| ShortSummary\\=This episode plunges into the world's oceans and explores underwater life. Key destinations include the \\[\\[Great Barrier Reef]] and \\[\\[Antarctica]]. Some of the animals featured are dolphins, octopuses, \\[\\[seahorse]]s, fish, \\[\\[cuttlefish]], \\[\\[jellyfish]], \\[\\[sea otter]]s, sharks, \\[\\[emperor penguin]]s and whales. It also attempts to capture the wonders of the sea and the importance of protecting it from pollution.",
"There are five songs. The first is about water (\"Water\"); the second is about strange animals that live deep in the sea (\"City of the Creeps\"); the third is about the importance of keeping the water clean (\"If the Water is Clear\"); the fourth is about animal movement (\"It's in the Way You Move\"); and the fifth is about the \"real\" underwater treasure, all the wildlife (\"I Found a Treasure\").\nNote: This is the first episode Spin explores the world instead of just sticking to one continent, and the last one Caesar Video Graphics animated.\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Totally Tropical Rain Forest\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1994\\|7\\|27}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/88956726/\\|title\\=Johnny and Juliette\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette]]\\|date\\=July 1, 1994\\|via\\=\\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=4\n\\| ShortSummary\\=This episode shows an in\\-depth look at the \\[\\[rainforest]]s of Central and South America. It is structured around a journey through the layers of the forest, from the floor to the mid\\-layers to the canopy. During this journey the \\[\\[jaguar]], \\[\\[tapir]], \\[\\[leafcutter ant]], \\[\\[howler monkey]], \\[\\[Basiliscus (genus)\\|basilisk lizard]], \\[\\[Poison dart frog\\|poison arrow frog]], parrot, \\[\\[tarantula]], \\[\\[harpy eagle]], \\[\\[piranha]], \\[\\[vampire bat]], \\[\\[hoatzin]], \\[\\[Bald uakari\\|uakari]], \\[\\[three\\-toed sloth]], and \\[\\[Amazon river dolphin\\|river dolphin]] are among the animals shown. Environmental issues surrounding deforestation are also looked at.",
"There are four songs. The first is about all the life that lives in the rainforest (\"Greenhouse\"); the second is about the importance of finding food and the food chain (\"What Do You Want for Lunch\"); the third is about the rainforest canopy and all the birds that call it home (\"Bird's\\-Eye View\"), and the fourth is about the importance of keeping the rainforest safe (\"This Must Be the Place\").",
"Note: This is the first episode animated by Click 3X and the change in studios resulted in Spin being redesigned. The end has a prototype animation in which Spin doesn't put away his magnifying glass at the end; he zooms in.\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Amazing North America\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1994\\|7\\|27}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=5\n\\| ShortSummary\\=This episode looks at North America's \\[\\[ecosystem]]s from its deserts and swamps to its cities and tundra. \\[\\[Ground squirrel]]s, \\[\\[rattlesnakes]], beavers, raccoons, \\[\\[woodpecker]]s, \\[\\[corn snake]]s, alligators, \\[\\[Florida red\\-bellied cooter\\|red\\-bellied turtle]]s, \\[\\[Arctic wolves]], \\[\\[musk ox]]en, polar bears and black bears are all featured. The film's diversity of the North American landscape and how its animals have adapted are key points.",
"There are four songs. The first is about what animals need to do to survive in North America (\"I Gotta Be Wild\"); the second is about the places animals call home (\"Look Who's Moving In\"); the third is about difficulties in getting what animals want (\"To Get What You Want\"), and the fourth is about the winter season (\"Winter\").\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Adventures in Asia\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1994\\|7\\|27}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=6\n\\| ShortSummary\\=The immense continent of Asia is explored. With such a large area to cover, Spin jumps from one place to the next, including the tropical islands of \\[\\[Indonesia]], the \\[\\[Arabian Peninsula]], Russian mountains, Japanese mountains, Indian jungles, and Chinese forests and mountains. Some of the featured animals are the \\[\\[sea snake]], \\[\\[white\\-bellied sea eagle]], \\[\\[Japanese macaque\\|snow monkey]], \\[\\[proboscis monkey]], \\[\\[mudskipper]], \\[\\[fiddler crab]], \\[\\[dhole]], \\[\\[Asian elephant]], tiger, \\[\\[Komodo dragon]], \\[\\[cobra]], \\[\\[Arabian oryx]], \\[\\[ibex]], \\[\\[camel]], \\[\\[garden eel]], \\[\\[manta ray]], \\[\\[giant panda]], \\[\\[Crane (bird)\\|crane]], \\[\\[Cave swiftlet\\|swiftlet]], and \\[\\[orangutan]]. The difference between myth and reality is tested in uncovering the lifestyles of all these creatures.",
"There are four songs. The first is about all the Asian legends and how much truth is in them (\"Legends in Asia\"); the second is about territories (\"Get Off of My Turf\"); the third is about animal roughhousing and its importance (\"Roughhouse\"); and the fourth is about all the life, human and animal, in Asia (\"Keep the Legends Alive\").\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Polar Prowl\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1994}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=7\n\\| ShortSummary\\=\nIn this episode, Spin takes a trip to the \\[\\[Arctic]] and \\[\\[Antarctica\\|Antarctic]]. Animals such as polar bears, walruses, \\[\\[orca]]s, \\[\\[caribou]], \\[\\[musk oxen]], \\[\\[Kodiak bear]]s, \\[\\[arctic tern]]s, penguins, seals, and \\[\\[humpback whale]]s are explored. Additionally, they examine the three ways animals survive the harsh cold: \\[\\[hibernation]], insulation, and migration.",
"There are four songs. The first is about the cold temperatures and how the animals survive (\"Cold, Cold, Cold\"); the second is about ways animals beat the cold (\"That's the Way We Do It Up Here\"); the third is about penguins, and names the 17 species (\"Penguins\"), and the fourth is a tribute to Antarctica (\"The Last Great Wilderness\").\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Hot Dogs and Cool Cats\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1995}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=8\n\\| ShortSummary\\=Spin looks at dogs and tries to determine if there is a link between wild and tame dogs. The first song is about why dogs do what they do (\"Hey Dog\"), and the second is about dogs' loyalty (\"Best Friends\").",
"Spin examines cats and learns that no matter how tame, they are always wild. The first song is about cats having an attitude (\"The Cat's Got an Attitude\"), and the second is about how they are wild inside (\"Wild Inside\").",
"Note: Due to ''Really Wild Animals'' becoming available for television broadcast at this point, all episodes starting with this one contain two half\\-hour segments, each featuring two songs. A bridging dog commercial between the two episodes is removed from the DVD version. The second part is also the first time Alan O'Day does not appear.\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Dinosaurs and Other Creature Features\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1996\\|8\\|27}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive\\-All\\-Music/Billboard/90s/1996/BB\\-1996\\-08\\-24\\.pdf\\|title\\='Tis the season for creature features and Christmas capers (page 75/91\\)\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Billboard (magazine)\\|Billboard]]\\|date\\=August 24, 1996}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=9\n\\| ShortSummary\\=Spin examines dinosaurs such as duck\\-billed \\[\\[Hadrosaur]]s, ''\\[\\[Struthiomimus]]'', ''\\[\\[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', and \\[\\[Dromaeosaur]]s (Raptors), and tries to answer the questions surrounding them, including how they became extinct, and if relatives still exist such as alligators, snakes, \\[\\[Komodo dragon]]s, lizards, \\[\\[ostrich]]es, and \\[\\[cassowary\\|cassowaries]]. The first song focuses on dinosaurs (\"Dinosaurs\"), and the second shows how their modern\\-day relatives still \"rock our world\" (\"We're Gonna Rock Your World\").",
"Spin looks at some of the world's creepiest creatures, such as \\[\\[vampire bat]]s, ants, flies, spiders, \\[\\[vulture]]s, and \\[\\[dung beetle]]s. He shows that no matter how scary they are, they all play an important part in the world. The first song is about how creatures are creepy and intriguing (\"Creepy Creatures\", animation by Jim and Vezna Tozzi), and the second is about how important they are (\"Keep on Creepin' On\").",
"Notes: This is the first episode where the background changes from the sky to outer space, which will remain for the rest of the series. Also, Spin reads the title card as \"Dinos and Other Creature Features\" and footage from Phil Tippett's ''\\[\\[Prehistoric Beast]]'' and ''\\[\\[Dinosaur! (1985 film)\\|Dinosaur!]]'' are used for the dinosaur scenes. Paleontologist \\[\\[Robert T. Bakker]] appears, and footage from the ''\\[\\[The Three Stooges\\|Three Stooges]]'' episode \"\\[\\[Disorder in the Court]]\" and a clip from ''\\[\\[Killer Shrews]]'' is shown.\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Monkey Business and Other Family Fun\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1996\\|8\\|27}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=10\n\\| ShortSummary\\=Spin looks at primates, including \\[\\[gibbon]]s, \\[\\[Colobinae\\|langurs]], \\[\\[bush baby\\|bush babies]], \\[\\[aye\\-aye]]s, \\[\\[Capuchin monkey\\|capuchin]]s, and \\[\\[baboon]]s. He also explains that primates are our distant relatives. The first song is about all \\[\\[primate]]s (\"Primates\"), and the second is about \\[\\[gorilla]]s, our \"gentle brothers\" (\"Gentle Brother\").",
"Spin looks at animal families, including elephants, \\[\\[African bullfrog\\|bullfrog]]s, \\[\\[ostrich]]es, octopuses, \\[\\[albatross]]es, and \\[\\[Loggerhead sea turtle\\|sea turtle]]s and shows they are not all that different from human families. The first song is about how curious animal children are (\"I'm Curious\"), and the second is about how important families are (\"You're My Family\").",
"Note: This episode features a parody of ''\\[\\[Candid Camera]]'' called \"Candid Critter Camera\" hosted by \"Alan Grunt\" (a parody of \\[\\[Allen Funt]]), who is played by \\[\\[Billy West]]. A \"Candid Critter Camera\" segment between the two episodes involving meerkats is removed from the DVD version.\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Farmyard Friends\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1997}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=11\n\\| ShortSummary\\=Spin looks at farm animals, such as turkeys, pigs, sheep, horses, and cows, and examines their wild relatives, such as \\[\\[dall sheep]], \\[\\[wild turkeys]], \\[\\[warthogs]], and \\[\\[zebras]], from all over the world. The first song is about all the animals on the farm (\"Farmer, Farmer\"), and the second is about whether the viewer would be wild or tame (\"Would You Rather be Wild, Would You Rather be Tame\").",
"Spin looks at humans helping endangered animals, how animals rescue people, and if people work together to save animals, they will prevent them from becoming extinct. The first song is about help being available for animals (\"Help is on the Way\"), and the second is about humans working to save animals (\"Safe at Last\").",
"Notes: This first part does not mention the second segment. The TV version of \"Farmyard Friends\" was titled \"Spin's Really Wild Farm Tour\". \\[\\[Warner Home Video]] became the series' home video distributor and started advertising before the episode began.\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Awesome Animal Builders\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1997}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=12\n\\| ShortSummary\\=It shows how animals build their own homes, such as \\[\\[termite]]s, beavers, \\[\\[orb\\-weaver spider]]s, \\[\\[Cave swiftlet\\|swiftlet]]s, bees, \\[\\[Bombyx mori\\|silkworms]], caterpillars, \\[\\[Ploceidae\\|weaver birds]], \\[\\[Naked mole\\-rat\\|naked mole rats]], and \\[\\[osprey]]s, and explains that they build their homes to have families. The first song is about the different kinds of animal homes (\"Anything to Make it Home\"), and the second is about why animals build homes (\"I Am an Architect\").",
"Spin takes us to look at animals that migrate, such as \\[\\[wildebeest]], \\[\\[sockeye salmon]], \\[\\[tundra swan]]s, \\[\\[African elephant]]s, geese, sharks, \\[\\[Batoidea\\|ray]]s, \\[\\[pronghorn]] and toads. It explains that the cycle of \\[\\[Animal migration\\|migration]] never ends. The first song is about animals migrating (\"I'm Movin' Out\"), and the second is about how migration never ends for animals (\"Every Ending is a Beginning\").\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n{{Episode list\n\\| Title\\=Secret Weapons and Great Escapes\n\\| OriginalAirDate\\={{Start date\\|1997\\|10\\|21}}\n\\| EpisodeNumber\\=13\n\\| ShortSummary\\=Spin is a spy who is trying to find out how some animals have ways to defend themselves, such as \\[\\[Chlamydosaurus\\|frilled\\-neck lizards]], \\[\\[poison dart frog]]s, \\[\\[Owl butterfly\\|owl butterflies]], \\[\\[green tree python]]s, \\[\\[Hemisphaerota\\|Hemisphaerota beetle]]s, \\[\\[army ant]]s, skunks, \\[\\[Common Surinam toad\\|Surinam toads]], \\[\\[Latrodectus\\|black widow spider]]s, \\[\\[bombardier beetle]]s, \\[\\[mantis shrimp]], \\[\\[cobra]]s, \\[\\[tomato frog]]s, \\[\\[cone snail]]s, and \\[\\[Tetraodontidae\\|puffer fish]], and finds out why animals need defenses. The first song is about animals having secret defenses (\"I've Got a Secret\"), and the second is about animals needing to watch out for other animals' defenses (\"Trick of the Trade\").",
"Spin shows animals that live on certain islands, such as \\[\\[lemur]]s and \\[\\[chameleon]]s in \\[\\[Madagascar]], \\[\\[Marine iguana\\|Marine]] and \\[\\[Galapagos land iguana\\|land iguana]]s on the \\[\\[Galápagos Islands\\|Galapagos]], \\[\\[Tasmanian devil]]s and \\[\\[quoll]]s in \\[\\[Tasmania]], \\[\\[gannet]]s and \\[\\[kea]]s in \\[\\[New Zealand]], \\[\\[Juan Fernández fur seal\\|fur seal]]s on the \\[\\[Juan Fernández Islands]] and \\[\\[eastern rockhopper penguin]]s with \\[\\[Snares penguin]]s in \\[\\[Snares Islands / Tini Heke\\|Snares Island]], and shows how unique they are. Footage of \\[\\[New York City]] and its \\[\\[World Trade Center (1973–2001\\)\\|Twin Towers]] are shown, as well as the \\[\\[heron]]s and \\[\\[egret]]s on the harbor's islands. Both songs are about islands and how unique they are (\"Welcome to the Islands\" and \"It's a World Within a World\").\n\\|LineColor\\=FFD700\n}}\n}}",
"",
""
] |
Chairmen since 1975
-------------------
[thumb\|right\|250px\|National Assembly from the [Suriname River](/wiki/Suriname_River "Suriname River")](/wiki/File:Nationale_Assembl%C3%A9e%2C_seen_from_Suriname_river.JPG "Nationale Assemblée, seen from Suriname river.JPG")
From December 1973, [Emile Wijntuin](/wiki/Emile_Wijntuin "Emile Wijntuin") was the Chairman of the Estates of Suriname, and remained Chairman of Parliament after Independence, until it was dissolved in August 1980\.{{cite web\|url\=http://dna.sr/achtergrond\-info/geschiedenis\-dna/lijst\-van\-oud\-voorzitters/\|title\=De Nationale Assemblée: Lijst van Oud\-Voorzitters\|language\=nl\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130714135843/http://www.dna.sr/achtergrond/lijst\-van\-oud\-voorzitters\|archive\-date\=14 July 2013}}["The Year of the Sergeants" by Edward Dew in the Caribbean Review](http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00095576/00033/7j)
After the elections in 1987, [Jagernath Lachmon](/wiki/Jagernath_Lachmon "Jagernath Lachmon") ([VHP](/wiki/Progressive_Reform_Party_%28Suriname%29 "Progressive Reform Party (Suriname)")) became Chairman, an office which he already had taken twice in the [Estates of Suriname](/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_Estates_of_Suriname "List of chairmen of the Estates of Suriname"). Lachmon resigned in 1996, because he could not agree with the [Wijdenbosch](/wiki/Jules_Wijdenbosch "Jules Wijdenbosch") government.
On 10 October 1996, [Marijke Djwalapersad](/wiki/Marijke_Djwalapersad "Marijke Djwalapersad") ([BVD](/wiki/Basic_Party_for_Renewal_and_Democracy "Basic Party for Renewal and Democracy")) was elected as Chair, becoming the first woman in Suriname's history to assume this office.{{cite web\|url\=https://vijfeeuwenmigratie.nl/marijke\-djwalapersad\-eerste\-vrouwelijke\-parlementsvoorzitter\-suriname\|title\=Marijke Djwalapersad: eerste vrouwelijke parlementsvoorzitter in Suriname\|website\=Vijf eeuwen migratie\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|language\=nl}} On 24 July 2000, Djwalapersad was succeeded by Jagernath Lachmon, who remained in office until his death in 2001\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.dbsuriname.com/2017/09/22/familie\-lachmon\-plaatst\-bloemstuk\-bij\-standbeeld/\|title\=Familie Lachmon plaatst bloemstuk bij standbeeld\|website\=Dagblad Suriname\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|language\=nl}} His fellow party man [Ramdien Sardjoe](/wiki/Ramdien_Sardjoe "Ramdien Sardjoe") took his place.
After the elections of 2005, [Paul Somohardjo](/wiki/Paul_Somohardjo "Paul Somohardjo") of [Pertjajah Luhur](/wiki/Pertjajah_Luhur "Pertjajah Luhur") (a party that was part of the [New Front](/wiki/New_Front_for_Democracy_and_Development "New Front for Democracy and Development") combination) wanted to become [Vice President of Suriname](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Suriname "Vice President of Suriname"). This did not seem feasible, since he was convicted in August 2003 for defamation, which resulted in a suspended two\-month sentence and his removal as minister.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.dbsuriname.com/2018/08/03/javanen\-in\-de\-politiek\-morat\-marit/\|title\=Javanen in de politiek: Morat Marit\|website\=Dagblad Suriname\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|language\=nl}} Within the coalition was decided to make [Ramdien Sardjoe](/wiki/Ramdien_Sardjoe "Ramdien Sardjoe") vice president{{cite web\|url\=http://ramdiensardjoe.com/index.php/home/proloog\-verder\|title\=Vervolg Proloog\|website\=Ramdien Sardjoe\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|language\=nl}} and Somohardjo Chairman of the National Assembly.
On 30 June 2005, Somohardjo was elected to the proposed office with 29 out of 50 votes.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.andasuriname.com/102alg/1uitslagpresident.html\|title\=Verkiezingen Verenigde Volks Vergadering\|website\=Anda Suriname\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|language\=nl}} [Caprino Alendy](/wiki/Caprino_Alendy "Caprino Alendy") ([BEP](/wiki/Brotherhood_and_Unity_in_Politics "Brotherhood and Unity in Politics")/[A\-Combination](/wiki/A-Combination "A-Combination")) was elected as vice\-Chairman, with the same number of votes.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.starnieuws.com/index.php/welcome/index/nieuwsitem/47\|title\=BEP\- Partij voor Broederschap en Eenheid in de Politiek \|website\=Star Nieuws\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|language\=nl}}
On 30 June 2010, [Jennifer Simons](/wiki/Jennifer_Simons "Jennifer Simons") of [Dési Bouterse](/wiki/D%C3%A9si_Bouterse "Dési Bouterse")'s [NDP](/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_%28Suriname%29 "National Democratic Party (Suriname)")/[MC](/wiki/Mega_Combination "Mega Combination") surprisingly won the office from Somohardjo, with 26 votes against 24 votes, and became the incumbent Chair of the Assembly.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.de\-surinaamse\-krant.com/2015/06/geerlings\-simons\-herkozen\-als.html \|title\=Geerlings\-Simons herkozen als voorzitter met 1 stem uit oppositie \|language\=nl \|publisher\=De Surinaamse Krant \|access\-date\=15 July 2015}} Ruth Wijdenbosch was elected as Vice Chair with 25 votes, one more than her rival, [Anton Paal](/wiki/Anton_Paal "Anton Paal") ([PALU](/wiki/Progressive_Workers%27_and_Farmers%27_Union "Progressive Workers' and Farmers' Union")/[MC](/wiki/Mega_Combination "Mega Combination")).{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nickerie.net/News2010/2010\-06\-30%20\-%20nnet%20\-%20Jenny%20Simons%20nieuwe%20DNA\-voorzitter%20en%20Ruth%20Wijdenbosch%20vice\-voorzitter.htm\|title\=Jenny Simons nieuwe DNA\-voorzitter en Ruth Wijdenbosch vice\-voorzitter \|website\=Nickerie.net\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|language\=nl}} Remarkable is the fact that this is the first time that these offices are held by opposing politicians. It is also the first time that both offices are held by women.
On 29 June 2020, [Ronnie Brunswijk](/wiki/Ronnie_Brunswijk "Ronnie Brunswijk") was elected as Chairperson of the National Assembly in an uncontested election. [Dew Sharman](/wiki/Dew_Sharman "Dew Sharman") was elected as Vice Chairperson.{{cite news\|url\=http://dwtonline.com/laatste\-nieuws/2020/06/29/live\-blog\-verkiezing\-parlementsvoorzitter/\|title\=Live blog: Verkiezing parlementsvoorzitter\|website\=De Ware Tijd\|access\-date\=29 June 2020\|language\=nl}} After Brunswijk was elected [Vice President of Suriname](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Suriname "Vice President of Suriname") on 13 July 2020, [Marinus Bee](/wiki/Marinus_Bee "Marinus Bee") was installed as his successor on 14 July 2020\.
|
[
"Chairmen since 1975\n-------------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|National Assembly from the [Suriname River](/wiki/Suriname_River \"Suriname River\")](/wiki/File:Nationale_Assembl%C3%A9e%2C_seen_from_Suriname_river.JPG \"Nationale Assemblée, seen from Suriname river.JPG\")\nFrom December 1973, [Emile Wijntuin](/wiki/Emile_Wijntuin \"Emile Wijntuin\") was the Chairman of the Estates of Suriname, and remained Chairman of Parliament after Independence, until it was dissolved in August 1980\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://dna.sr/achtergrond\\-info/geschiedenis\\-dna/lijst\\-van\\-oud\\-voorzitters/\\|title\\=De Nationale Assemblée: Lijst van Oud\\-Voorzitters\\|language\\=nl\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130714135843/http://www.dna.sr/achtergrond/lijst\\-van\\-oud\\-voorzitters\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2013}}[\"The Year of the Sergeants\" by Edward Dew in the Caribbean Review](http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00095576/00033/7j)",
"After the elections in 1987, [Jagernath Lachmon](/wiki/Jagernath_Lachmon \"Jagernath Lachmon\") ([VHP](/wiki/Progressive_Reform_Party_%28Suriname%29 \"Progressive Reform Party (Suriname)\")) became Chairman, an office which he already had taken twice in the [Estates of Suriname](/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_Estates_of_Suriname \"List of chairmen of the Estates of Suriname\"). Lachmon resigned in 1996, because he could not agree with the [Wijdenbosch](/wiki/Jules_Wijdenbosch \"Jules Wijdenbosch\") government.",
"On 10 October 1996, [Marijke Djwalapersad](/wiki/Marijke_Djwalapersad \"Marijke Djwalapersad\") ([BVD](/wiki/Basic_Party_for_Renewal_and_Democracy \"Basic Party for Renewal and Democracy\")) was elected as Chair, becoming the first woman in Suriname's history to assume this office.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://vijfeeuwenmigratie.nl/marijke\\-djwalapersad\\-eerste\\-vrouwelijke\\-parlementsvoorzitter\\-suriname\\|title\\=Marijke Djwalapersad: eerste vrouwelijke parlementsvoorzitter in Suriname\\|website\\=Vijf eeuwen migratie\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|language\\=nl}} On 24 July 2000, Djwalapersad was succeeded by Jagernath Lachmon, who remained in office until his death in 2001\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.dbsuriname.com/2017/09/22/familie\\-lachmon\\-plaatst\\-bloemstuk\\-bij\\-standbeeld/\\|title\\=Familie Lachmon plaatst bloemstuk bij standbeeld\\|website\\=Dagblad Suriname\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|language\\=nl}} His fellow party man [Ramdien Sardjoe](/wiki/Ramdien_Sardjoe \"Ramdien Sardjoe\") took his place.",
"After the elections of 2005, [Paul Somohardjo](/wiki/Paul_Somohardjo \"Paul Somohardjo\") of [Pertjajah Luhur](/wiki/Pertjajah_Luhur \"Pertjajah Luhur\") (a party that was part of the [New Front](/wiki/New_Front_for_Democracy_and_Development \"New Front for Democracy and Development\") combination) wanted to become [Vice President of Suriname](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Suriname \"Vice President of Suriname\"). This did not seem feasible, since he was convicted in August 2003 for defamation, which resulted in a suspended two\\-month sentence and his removal as minister.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.dbsuriname.com/2018/08/03/javanen\\-in\\-de\\-politiek\\-morat\\-marit/\\|title\\=Javanen in de politiek: Morat Marit\\|website\\=Dagblad Suriname\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|language\\=nl}} Within the coalition was decided to make [Ramdien Sardjoe](/wiki/Ramdien_Sardjoe \"Ramdien Sardjoe\") vice president{{cite web\\|url\\=http://ramdiensardjoe.com/index.php/home/proloog\\-verder\\|title\\=Vervolg Proloog\\|website\\=Ramdien Sardjoe\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|language\\=nl}} and Somohardjo Chairman of the National Assembly.",
"On 30 June 2005, Somohardjo was elected to the proposed office with 29 out of 50 votes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.andasuriname.com/102alg/1uitslagpresident.html\\|title\\=Verkiezingen Verenigde Volks Vergadering\\|website\\=Anda Suriname\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|language\\=nl}} [Caprino Alendy](/wiki/Caprino_Alendy \"Caprino Alendy\") ([BEP](/wiki/Brotherhood_and_Unity_in_Politics \"Brotherhood and Unity in Politics\")/[A\\-Combination](/wiki/A-Combination \"A-Combination\")) was elected as vice\\-Chairman, with the same number of votes.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.starnieuws.com/index.php/welcome/index/nieuwsitem/47\\|title\\=BEP\\- Partij voor Broederschap en Eenheid in de Politiek \\|website\\=Star Nieuws\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|language\\=nl}}",
"On 30 June 2010, [Jennifer Simons](/wiki/Jennifer_Simons \"Jennifer Simons\") of [Dési Bouterse](/wiki/D%C3%A9si_Bouterse \"Dési Bouterse\")'s [NDP](/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_%28Suriname%29 \"National Democratic Party (Suriname)\")/[MC](/wiki/Mega_Combination \"Mega Combination\") surprisingly won the office from Somohardjo, with 26 votes against 24 votes, and became the incumbent Chair of the Assembly.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.de\\-surinaamse\\-krant.com/2015/06/geerlings\\-simons\\-herkozen\\-als.html \\|title\\=Geerlings\\-Simons herkozen als voorzitter met 1 stem uit oppositie \\|language\\=nl \\|publisher\\=De Surinaamse Krant \\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2015}} Ruth Wijdenbosch was elected as Vice Chair with 25 votes, one more than her rival, [Anton Paal](/wiki/Anton_Paal \"Anton Paal\") ([PALU](/wiki/Progressive_Workers%27_and_Farmers%27_Union \"Progressive Workers' and Farmers' Union\")/[MC](/wiki/Mega_Combination \"Mega Combination\")).{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nickerie.net/News2010/2010\\-06\\-30%20\\-%20nnet%20\\-%20Jenny%20Simons%20nieuwe%20DNA\\-voorzitter%20en%20Ruth%20Wijdenbosch%20vice\\-voorzitter.htm\\|title\\=Jenny Simons nieuwe DNA\\-voorzitter en Ruth Wijdenbosch vice\\-voorzitter \\|website\\=Nickerie.net\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|language\\=nl}} Remarkable is the fact that this is the first time that these offices are held by opposing politicians. It is also the first time that both offices are held by women.",
"On 29 June 2020, [Ronnie Brunswijk](/wiki/Ronnie_Brunswijk \"Ronnie Brunswijk\") was elected as Chairperson of the National Assembly in an uncontested election. [Dew Sharman](/wiki/Dew_Sharman \"Dew Sharman\") was elected as Vice Chairperson.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://dwtonline.com/laatste\\-nieuws/2020/06/29/live\\-blog\\-verkiezing\\-parlementsvoorzitter/\\|title\\=Live blog: Verkiezing parlementsvoorzitter\\|website\\=De Ware Tijd\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2020\\|language\\=nl}} After Brunswijk was elected [Vice President of Suriname](/wiki/Vice_President_of_Suriname \"Vice President of Suriname\") on 13 July 2020, [Marinus Bee](/wiki/Marinus_Bee \"Marinus Bee\") was installed as his successor on 14 July 2020\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
### FIFA World Cup
At the [FIFA World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup "FIFA World Cup"), Petrović refereed a total of four matches and served as [linesman](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29 "Assistant referee (association football)") in two other matches.
At the [1986 World Cup](/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup "1986 FIFA World Cup") in Mexico, he was the main referee in the [Iraq vs. Mexico](/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_B%23Iraq_vs_Mexico "1986 FIFA World Cup Group B#Iraq vs Mexico") group stage match, as well as in the [Morocco vs. West Germany](/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup_knockout_stage%23Morocco_vs_West_Germany "1986 FIFA World Cup knockout stage#Morocco vs West Germany") round of 16 contest.
At the [1990 World Cup](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup "1990 FIFA World Cup") in Italy, Petrović was the main referee in the [England vs. Netherlands](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_F%23England_vs_Netherlands "1990 FIFA World Cup Group F#England vs Netherlands") group stage match, as well as in the [Sweden vs. Costa Rica](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_C%23Sweden_vs_Costa_Rica "1990 FIFA World Cup Group C#Sweden vs Costa Rica") group stage match. At the same tournament he performed linesman duties at two more matches \- the group stage match [Austria vs. United States](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_A%23Austria_vs_United_States "1990 FIFA World Cup Group A#Austria vs United States") as well as the round of 16 contest [Italy vs. Uruguay](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup_knockout_stage%23Italy_vs_Uruguay "1990 FIFA World Cup knockout stage#Italy vs Uruguay").
Furthermore, Petrović refereed the [1992 UEFA Cup Final](/wiki/1992_UEFA_Cup_Final "1992 UEFA Cup Final") return leg match at [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam")'s [Olympic Stadium](/wiki/Olympic_Stadium_%28Amsterdam%29 "Olympic Stadium (Amsterdam)") that saw [Ajax](/wiki/Ajax_Amsterdam "Ajax Amsterdam") take on [Torino Calcio](/wiki/Torino_Calcio "Torino Calcio").
### J.League
After refereeing at two World Cups, Zoran Petrović signed a professional contract with the [Japan Football Association](/wiki/Japan_Football_Association "Japan Football Association"). He refereed matches in Japan's [J. League](/wiki/J._League "J. League") from 1994 until 1997, with the added task of passing his experience and knowledge onto upstart Japanese referees being stipulated as one of his contractual obligations in the country. He won two Best Referee Awards, in 1994 and 1996\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### FIFA World Cup",
"At the [FIFA World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup \"FIFA World Cup\"), Petrović refereed a total of four matches and served as [linesman](/wiki/Assistant_referee_%28association_football%29 \"Assistant referee (association football)\") in two other matches.",
"At the [1986 World Cup](/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup \"1986 FIFA World Cup\") in Mexico, he was the main referee in the [Iraq vs. Mexico](/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_B%23Iraq_vs_Mexico \"1986 FIFA World Cup Group B#Iraq vs Mexico\") group stage match, as well as in the [Morocco vs. West Germany](/wiki/1986_FIFA_World_Cup_knockout_stage%23Morocco_vs_West_Germany \"1986 FIFA World Cup knockout stage#Morocco vs West Germany\") round of 16 contest.",
"At the [1990 World Cup](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup \"1990 FIFA World Cup\") in Italy, Petrović was the main referee in the [England vs. Netherlands](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_F%23England_vs_Netherlands \"1990 FIFA World Cup Group F#England vs Netherlands\") group stage match, as well as in the [Sweden vs. Costa Rica](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_C%23Sweden_vs_Costa_Rica \"1990 FIFA World Cup Group C#Sweden vs Costa Rica\") group stage match. At the same tournament he performed linesman duties at two more matches \\- the group stage match [Austria vs. United States](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup_Group_A%23Austria_vs_United_States \"1990 FIFA World Cup Group A#Austria vs United States\") as well as the round of 16 contest [Italy vs. Uruguay](/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup_knockout_stage%23Italy_vs_Uruguay \"1990 FIFA World Cup knockout stage#Italy vs Uruguay\").",
"Furthermore, Petrović refereed the [1992 UEFA Cup Final](/wiki/1992_UEFA_Cup_Final \"1992 UEFA Cup Final\") return leg match at [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam \"Amsterdam\")'s [Olympic Stadium](/wiki/Olympic_Stadium_%28Amsterdam%29 \"Olympic Stadium (Amsterdam)\") that saw [Ajax](/wiki/Ajax_Amsterdam \"Ajax Amsterdam\") take on [Torino Calcio](/wiki/Torino_Calcio \"Torino Calcio\").",
"### J.League",
"After refereeing at two World Cups, Zoran Petrović signed a professional contract with the [Japan Football Association](/wiki/Japan_Football_Association \"Japan Football Association\"). He refereed matches in Japan's [J. League](/wiki/J._League \"J. League\") from 1994 until 1997, with the added task of passing his experience and knowledge onto upstart Japanese referees being stipulated as one of his contractual obligations in the country. He won two Best Referee Awards, in 1994 and 1996\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life and studies
Arnaud d'Ossat, son of Bernard d'Ossat, was perhaps born at [Larroque\-Magnoac](/wiki/Larroque-Magnoac "Larroque-Magnoac") in Gascony; a contract entered into by M. Arnaud d'Ossat on 22 April 1559 states that he was from La Nogue en Maignac.Marie\-Genevieve Charlotte Darfus Theroux, *Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat* (Paris: Chez Herissant 1771\) I, pp. 2\-3\. La Nogue is probably a corrupt reading of Larroque. His mother, Bertrande de Conté, was a native of Cassignebere in Gascony, the property of the Lords of Ramefort. Hence the conjecture (which goes back to Scipion Dupleix' *Histoire d' Henri IV* of 1635\) that Armand was the bastard son of the Lord of Ramefort.This conjecture seems to be without documentary foundation, a poor basis on which to label Mme. d'Ossat an adultress and M. d'Ossat a cuckold. Bastardy, moreover, would have required a papal dispensation for taking Holy Orders. Dupleix seems to be trying to supply a mythical noble bloodline for the brilliant son of a blacksmith. See Antoine Degert, *Le cardinal d'Ossat* (Paris: Victor Lecoffre 1894\), p. 3\. Many of the important connections in Ossat's life were with other southerners, the most prominent being Henri IV himself.{{cn\|date\=July 2017}}
On 26 December 1556, he was received into the clergy, by being tonsured by Dominique de Bigorre, Bishop of Albi, administrator of the Diocese of Auch in the name of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este (1551\-1563\).Degert, p. 5\. He was sent first to the nearby College of [Auch](/wiki/Auch "Auch") as tutor to the sons of a local merchant, Thomas de Marca, then, in the first week of May, 1559, to the *[Collège de France](/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France "Collège de France")*, Paris.Degert, p. 6\. There he studied rhetoric and philosophy for more than two years with the famous humanist logician and mathematician [Petrus Ramus](/wiki/Petrus_Ramus "Petrus Ramus"), who became his friend. He was unfortunately drawn into an academic dispute*Expositio Arnaldi Ossati in disputationem Jacobi Carpentarii de Methodo* (Parisiis: Apud Andream Wechelum 1564\), 16pp. *Arnaldi Ossati Additio ad expositionem de methodo* (Parisiis: apud A. Wechselum 1564\), 20 pp. between his master Ramus and the famous Jacques Charpentier, Rector, Dean, Censor, and finally (in his victory over Ramus) Professor of Medicine and Mathematics at the College Royale (1566\).César Du Boulay, *Historia Universitatis Parisiensis* VI (Paris 1673\), p. 941\. J.\-A. Hazon, *Notice des hommes les plus célèbres de la Faculté de Medicine dans l' Université de Paris* (Paris 1778\), pp. 61\-62\. Charpentier was an Aristotelian and a vigorous persecutor of heretics, while Ramus was a humanist and an Augustinian, and therefore suspect. Seeing his own reputation and prospects diminishing as a result of the quarrel, Ossat withdrew to Bourges at the end of 1565 or beginning of 1566\. He studied law briefly at Bourges under the famous [legist](/wiki/Legist "Legist") [Jacques Cujas](/wiki/Jacques_Cujas "Jacques Cujas"), though his legal studies ultimately filled more than two years.Degert, p. 14\. He was back in Paris by 8 September 1568, when he wrote to his mother that he was going to practice as an advocate before the [Parlement of Paris](/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris "Parlement of Paris").Degert, p. 14\. Around the same time he agreed to act as a director of the studies of the twenty\-three year old [Jean de la Barrière](/wiki/Jean_de_la_Barri%C3%A8re "Jean de la Barrière"), the abbot of the [Feuillants](/wiki/Congregation_of_the_Feuillants "Congregation of the Feuillants") and its eventual reformer,See: The Religious of the Congregation des Feuillants \[Jean\-Baptiste de Saint\-Anne], *La conduite de Dom Jean de la Barrière, premier abbé et instituteur des Feuillans* (Paris: François H. Muguet 1699\), p. 5\. who was eager for guidance in the pursuit of an ecclesiastical career.{{cn\|date\=July 2017}}
### Early Diplomatic Career
In 1572 he joined the household of [Paul de Foix](/wiki/Paul_de_Foix "Paul de Foix"), [Archbishop](/wiki/Archbishop "Archbishop")\-elect of [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse "Toulouse") since 1577,*Gallia christiana* XIII (Paris 1785\), 58\-59\. whom he accompanied on various embassies.Oddly, due to his extremely moderate view of the treatment of the Huguenots, Paul de Foix had spent time in prison under the displeasure of the King, and then kept out of France by being sent on embassies. He was ambassador to Scotland and then England in 1561 for a four year term, to Venice in 1565\-1570, and again to England for the embarrassing negotiations for the marriage of Queen Elizabeth with the Duc d'Alençon; he was back in France in 1572\. Degert, 23\. One of these was certainly the Embassy to Poland for the accession of the Duc d'Anjou as King of Poland in 1573\.Degert, p. 24\. Immediately after that mission, allegedly to thank all the princes of Italy for their felicitations on the election, King Charles IX sent Foix on an embassy to Italy; the instructions were issued on 7 October 1573\.Degert, p. 24\. D' Ossat again accompanied him.*Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat*, in Amelot de la Houssaie *Letres du Cardinal d'Ossat* I (Paris: Jean Boudot, 1698\), pp. 18\-20\. Their reception at the Papal Curia was not what they had expected. Despite his diplomatic status, Foix found himself under interrogation for his actions and opinions during the events of 1559 leading to the Edict against heresy of 2 June. His orthodoxy was ably defended by d'Ossat in a memoire composed for his defense.Degert, pp. 25\-26 However, only too aware of the views and intrigues of his fellow cardinals, Cardinal Prospero Santacroce advised his friend Foix to depart from Rome before any further proceedings could take place.*Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat*, in Amelot de la Houssaie *Letres du Cardinal d'Ossat* I (Paris: Jean Boudot, 1698\), p. 20\. The story of the Roman legation is also related by Jacques\-Auguste de Thou, *Memoires de la vie de Jacques\-Auguste de Thou* (Rotterdam: Reinier Leers 1711\), pp. 25\-32\. The death of Charles IX on 30 May 1574 provided the appropriate opportunity.
D' Ossat accompanied Msgr. de Foix again on his mission to Rome (1582\-1584\), where the Archbishop was granted his bulls on 5 November and his pallium on 15 December 1582\.Gulick\-Eubel *Hierarchia catholica* editio altera (Monasterii 1923\), p. 315\. Pierre La Croix, *Mémoire historique sur les institutions de la France à Rome* (2nd edition par Jean Arnaud) (Rome 1892\) p. 155\. Letters of the Archbishop in Rome to the King in France survive.*Les lettres de Messire Paul de Foix, Archevesque de Tolose, et Ambassadeur pour le Roy auprés du Pape Gregoire XIII escrites au Roy Henry III* (Paris: Charles Chappelain 1628\). They are preceded by a French translation of the Funeral Oration of Marc Antoine Muret. The next Ambassador Ordinary was the Marquis Pitany, who was not received until 1592, after some struggle; this long delay of eight years was due to the irregular status of Henri IV as an heretic; a pope could not enter into direct friendly relations with an heretic, and Sixtus V was violently opposed to Henri IV; he had also excommunicated Henri III for allowing the murders of the Duc de Guise and the Cardinal de Lorraine in 1589\. Therefore, after Msgr. de Foix died in Rome on 29 May 1584, d'Ossat remained at the Papal Court in Rome, supervising the French embassy for a year, to the evident satisfaction of King Henri III and Secretary Villeroy, who presented him with a gift of 2,000 ecus on 18 July 1586\. They were evidently impressed by the report of the Bishop of Paris, Pierre de Gondi, who had been in Rome in early 1586, attempting to smooth over difficulties between Pope Sixtus V and the French Ambassador Marquis Pitany.Degert, p. 36\.
D'Ossat then became secretary to Cardinal [Luigi d'Este](/wiki/Luigi_d%27Este "Luigi d'Este"), the Protector of France before the Holy See, who, unfortunately, died on 30 December 1586\. He was succeeded a month later, on 16 February 1587,Amelot de Houssaye (ed.), *Letres du Cardinal d' Ossat* II (Amsterdam 1708\), Letre XLV (16 February 1596\), pp. 30\-31\. by Cardinal [François de Joyeuse](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Joyeuse "François de Joyeuse"), who took charge of French affairs upon his arrival in Rome on 20 August 1587, and who also enjoyed Ossat's services as secretary. Ossat was ordained to the priesthood around this time, perhaps at the end of 1587; Jacques de Thou wrote that Ossat had written a letter to Henri III in 1588 that he had received ordination.Degert, p. 40\.
In 1588 he refused the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs to [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_France "Henry III of France"), after the King had dismissed all of his secretaries of state, including Villeroy. The refusal was made, no doubt, out of a sense of loyalty to his friend and patron, Villeroy. Then, the Cardinal de Joyeuse and d' Ossat were driven from Rome by the rupture of diplomatic relations with the Pope after the murder of [Charles de Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine](/wiki/Charles%2C_Cardinal_of_Lorraine "Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine") (1588\), but they returned after the murder of Henry III on 2 August 1589 by the Dominican friar Jacques Clément. D'Ossat thereupon undertook to serve as the private agent) procurator) in Rome of the widowed queen, Louise de Vaudemont.Twenty\-four of D'Ossat's letters to Queen Louise, written between 1590 and 1600, can be found near the beginning of Volume I of the *Letres du Cardinal d'Ossat*, edited by Abraham\-Nicolas Amelot de la Houssaie (Paris: Jean Boudot, 1698\).
### Ossat, Henri IV, and Rome
He used his unofficial position to support the cause of Henry IV, whose conversion to Catholicism he prepared [Pope Clement VIII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII "Pope Clement VIII") to accept. On 1 August 1593, Henri IV wrote directly to d' Ossat in Rome that he was sending the Duc de Nevers to negotiate with the Pope, and he instructed d'Ossat to share all of his knowledge of and influence in the Roman Court, as well as his wise counsel, to advance the affairs of France.Berger de Xivrey (ed.), *Recueil des lettres missives de Henri IV* Tome IV (Paris 1848\), pp. 20\-21\. Shortly before the arrival of Nevers in Rome, the French faced the verbal onslaught of a Spanish chamberlain of the Pope, Gonzalez Ponce de Leon, in the form of a memoire arguing that the pope did not have the authority to absolve a relapsed heretic (such as Henri IV). When it appeared that Clement VIII was impressed by the arguments, D' Ossat undertook to reply to the Spanish chamberlain in a memoire of his own. The arguments, summarized by de Thou in his history,Jacques\-Auguste de Thou, *Iac. Augusti Thuani Historiarum sui temporis continuatio. Pars Quarta, ab a.C.n. 1585 usqye ad Annum 1595* (Francofurti: Peter Kopf 1621\), pp.1298\-1304; and in French translation *Histoire universelle*, Livre CVII, capitulum xii. In the edition published in The Hague by Henri Scheuerleer in 1740, the passage is in Volume VIII, pp. 314\-315\. Degert, p. 81\. convinced the Pope, who, in the end, preferred to believe that he had more power than less power. Unofficial negotiations therefore continued. As Envoy Extraordinary for Henri,Pierre La Croix, *Mémoire historique sur les institutions de la France à Rome* (2nd edition par Jean Arnaud) (Rome 1892\) p. 155\. Abel Desjardins, *Une Congrégation générale des cardinaux en 1595* (Douai: Lucien Crepin 1875\), *passim*. cooperating with Jacques Davy du Perron, Bishop of Évreux, he negotiated the reconciliation of the King with the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope, which took place on 19 September 1595\. This was the greatest act of d'Ossat's diplomatic career, assuring as it did the definitive triumph of Henri IV over the [House of Guise](/wiki/House_of_Guise "House of Guise") and the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 "Catholic League (French)"), and the restoration of peace to France after more than thirty years of civil war (see [French Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion "French Wars of Religion")).{{fact\|date\=July 2017}}
### Episcopate
In January 1596, King Henri IV named d' Ossat [Bishop of Rennes](/wiki/Bishop_of_Rennes "Bishop of Rennes"). The bishop's letter of thanks to the King is dated 20 February 1596\.Lettre XLVI (ed. Amelot de Houssaye). It was not until the Consistory of Monday, 9 September 1596, however, that Pope Clement VIII authorized the issue of the appropriate bulls authorizing his consecration.Letter LXXX, p. 313\. He was consecrated in Rome on Sunday, 27 October, in the Church of S. Marco, by Cardinal Agostino Valier, Bishop of Verona."Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat", in Amelot de Houssaye, *Letres* I (Paris 1698\), p. 9; and Lettre LXXXVIII, p. 553\. The co\-consecrators were Guillaume d'Avançon, Archbishop of Embrun, and Francesco Serini, Bishop of Bagnoregio [http://www2\.fiu.edu/\~mirandas/bios1599\.htm\#Ossat](http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1599.htm#Ossat). Ossat remained at Rome, without any well\-defined office, though he was charged with occasional missions to Venice and Florence (1598\), and managed the French embassy in the absence of a noble ambassador, as professional diplomats traditionally do, and was always the enlightened and devoted representative of French interests. All the ambassadors of Henry IV had orders to make known to him the business with which they were charged and to be guided by his advice. [Villeroy](/wiki/Nicolas_de_Neufville%2C_seigneur_de_Villeroy "Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy"), Henri's minister of foreign affairs, himself consulted him on all matters in any way connected with Rome.
Ossat was pleased to be notified, by a letter and brevet of 6 September 1597, that King Henri IV had named him a Councillor of State.Amelot de Houssaye, *Letres* II (Amsterdam 1708\), Letre CXVI, pp. 485\-489 (to the King, 18 October 1597\).
### Cardinalate
{{ref improve\|section\|date\=July 2017}}
He was created [cardinal priest](/wiki/Cardinal_priest "Cardinal priest"), on the recommendation of King Henri IV of France, in the consistory of 3 March 1599\. Later, in the Consistory of 17 March 1599, he was granted the title of S. Eusebio. Ossat was also promoted to the [Diocese of Bayeux](/wiki/Diocese_of_Bayeux "Diocese of Bayeux"), a richer and more prestigious benefice, on 26 June 1600\. On 4 August 1600, he took possession of the diocese through his procurator, Pierre Ruel, Councillor of the Parlement of Paris, but he never visited his new diocese in person.*Gallia christiana* Volume XI, pp. 390\-393\. Only one week before his death, he received permission from the King to relinquish his episcopal throne.
In 1602, he consecrated the Church of [San Bernardo alle Terme](/wiki/San_Bernardo_alle_Terme "San Bernardo alle Terme").["San Bernardo alle Terme", CoR](http://www.churches-of-rome.info/CoR_Info/SBT%20095/095-San%20Bernardo%20alle%20Terme.pdf)
A measure of Ossat's skill and tact may be gained by the French measures he was able to present successfully to the Holy See: the expulsion of the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuit "Jesuit") from France, the indefinite postponement of the publication of the decrees of the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent "Council of Trent"), the [Edict of Nantes](/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes "Edict of Nantes"), and French alliances with England and even with the Sultan of Turkey, the annulment of Henry IV's marriage with Margaret of Valois, and the marriage of the Duc de Bar with [Catherine of Navarre](/wiki/Catherine_of_Navarre%2C_Duchess_of_Lorraine "Catherine of Navarre, Duchess of Lorraine"), the king's sister and an unrepentant [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinism "Calvinism").
At the same time d'Ossat used his influence at Rome for the benefit of French humanists: the historian [Jacques\-Auguste de Thou](/wiki/Jacques-Auguste_de_Thou "Jacques-Auguste de Thou") (witness to the [St. Bartholomew's Day Massacres](/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_Massacre "St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre")), the philosopher [Michel de Montaigne](/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne "Michel de Montaigne"), and the savant [Nicolas Claude Fabri de Peiresc](/wiki/Nicolas_Claude_Fabri_de_Peiresc "Nicolas Claude Fabri de Peiresc").
### Death
Cardinal d'Ossat died on 13 March 1604 (his tombstone says 14 March) in Rome, after brief illness. He was buried in the church of [San Luigi dei Francesi](/wiki/San_Luigi_dei_Francesi "San Luigi dei Francesi"), near the Piazza Navona. His tomb is still to be seen, though the inscription is a substitute, ca. 1763, for the original, which was destroyed during renovations of the church.V. Forcella, *Inscrizioni delle chiese di Roma* III (Roma 1873\), p. 32 no. 82 (original); p. 54 no. 139 (substitute). Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio (1579\-1644\) said of him that never was a man more worthy of the cardinal's hat, because of his religious zeal, the integrity of his morals, and the eminence of his learning.Bentivoglio, *Mémoires*.
In the course of his diplomatic career Ossat wrote many letters and memoranda,Abraham\-Nicolas Amelot de la Houssaie (editor), *Letres du Cardinal d' Ossat. Nouvelle edition, corrigée sur le manuscrit original et notablement augmentée, avec des notes historiques et politiques* 5 vols (Paris 1698\). a selection of which, printed in 1614, long served as models for diplomats, owing not only to the importance of the questions which they treat but especially to the talent for exposition which Ossat displays in them. The [Académie Française](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Fran%C3%A7aise "Académie Française") inscribed Ossat among the "dead authors who have written our French language most purely", and [Lord Chesterfield](/wiki/Lord_Chesterfield "Lord Chesterfield") wrote to his son that the "simplicity and clearness of Cardinal d'Ossat's letters show how business letters should be written".{{cn\|date\=July 2017}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life and studies",
"Arnaud d'Ossat, son of Bernard d'Ossat, was perhaps born at [Larroque\\-Magnoac](/wiki/Larroque-Magnoac \"Larroque-Magnoac\") in Gascony; a contract entered into by M. Arnaud d'Ossat on 22 April 1559 states that he was from La Nogue en Maignac.Marie\\-Genevieve Charlotte Darfus Theroux, *Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat* (Paris: Chez Herissant 1771\\) I, pp. 2\\-3\\. La Nogue is probably a corrupt reading of Larroque. His mother, Bertrande de Conté, was a native of Cassignebere in Gascony, the property of the Lords of Ramefort. Hence the conjecture (which goes back to Scipion Dupleix' *Histoire d' Henri IV* of 1635\\) that Armand was the bastard son of the Lord of Ramefort.This conjecture seems to be without documentary foundation, a poor basis on which to label Mme. d'Ossat an adultress and M. d'Ossat a cuckold. Bastardy, moreover, would have required a papal dispensation for taking Holy Orders. Dupleix seems to be trying to supply a mythical noble bloodline for the brilliant son of a blacksmith. See Antoine Degert, *Le cardinal d'Ossat* (Paris: Victor Lecoffre 1894\\), p. 3\\. Many of the important connections in Ossat's life were with other southerners, the most prominent being Henri IV himself.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2017}}",
"On 26 December 1556, he was received into the clergy, by being tonsured by Dominique de Bigorre, Bishop of Albi, administrator of the Diocese of Auch in the name of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este (1551\\-1563\\).Degert, p. 5\\. He was sent first to the nearby College of [Auch](/wiki/Auch \"Auch\") as tutor to the sons of a local merchant, Thomas de Marca, then, in the first week of May, 1559, to the *[Collège de France](/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France \"Collège de France\")*, Paris.Degert, p. 6\\. There he studied rhetoric and philosophy for more than two years with the famous humanist logician and mathematician [Petrus Ramus](/wiki/Petrus_Ramus \"Petrus Ramus\"), who became his friend. He was unfortunately drawn into an academic dispute*Expositio Arnaldi Ossati in disputationem Jacobi Carpentarii de Methodo* (Parisiis: Apud Andream Wechelum 1564\\), 16pp. *Arnaldi Ossati Additio ad expositionem de methodo* (Parisiis: apud A. Wechselum 1564\\), 20 pp. between his master Ramus and the famous Jacques Charpentier, Rector, Dean, Censor, and finally (in his victory over Ramus) Professor of Medicine and Mathematics at the College Royale (1566\\).César Du Boulay, *Historia Universitatis Parisiensis* VI (Paris 1673\\), p. 941\\. J.\\-A. Hazon, *Notice des hommes les plus célèbres de la Faculté de Medicine dans l' Université de Paris* (Paris 1778\\), pp. 61\\-62\\. Charpentier was an Aristotelian and a vigorous persecutor of heretics, while Ramus was a humanist and an Augustinian, and therefore suspect. Seeing his own reputation and prospects diminishing as a result of the quarrel, Ossat withdrew to Bourges at the end of 1565 or beginning of 1566\\. He studied law briefly at Bourges under the famous [legist](/wiki/Legist \"Legist\") [Jacques Cujas](/wiki/Jacques_Cujas \"Jacques Cujas\"), though his legal studies ultimately filled more than two years.Degert, p. 14\\. He was back in Paris by 8 September 1568, when he wrote to his mother that he was going to practice as an advocate before the [Parlement of Paris](/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris \"Parlement of Paris\").Degert, p. 14\\. Around the same time he agreed to act as a director of the studies of the twenty\\-three year old [Jean de la Barrière](/wiki/Jean_de_la_Barri%C3%A8re \"Jean de la Barrière\"), the abbot of the [Feuillants](/wiki/Congregation_of_the_Feuillants \"Congregation of the Feuillants\") and its eventual reformer,See: The Religious of the Congregation des Feuillants \\[Jean\\-Baptiste de Saint\\-Anne], *La conduite de Dom Jean de la Barrière, premier abbé et instituteur des Feuillans* (Paris: François H. Muguet 1699\\), p. 5\\. who was eager for guidance in the pursuit of an ecclesiastical career.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2017}}",
"### Early Diplomatic Career",
"In 1572 he joined the household of [Paul de Foix](/wiki/Paul_de_Foix \"Paul de Foix\"), [Archbishop](/wiki/Archbishop \"Archbishop\")\\-elect of [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse \"Toulouse\") since 1577,*Gallia christiana* XIII (Paris 1785\\), 58\\-59\\. whom he accompanied on various embassies.Oddly, due to his extremely moderate view of the treatment of the Huguenots, Paul de Foix had spent time in prison under the displeasure of the King, and then kept out of France by being sent on embassies. He was ambassador to Scotland and then England in 1561 for a four year term, to Venice in 1565\\-1570, and again to England for the embarrassing negotiations for the marriage of Queen Elizabeth with the Duc d'Alençon; he was back in France in 1572\\. Degert, 23\\. One of these was certainly the Embassy to Poland for the accession of the Duc d'Anjou as King of Poland in 1573\\.Degert, p. 24\\. Immediately after that mission, allegedly to thank all the princes of Italy for their felicitations on the election, King Charles IX sent Foix on an embassy to Italy; the instructions were issued on 7 October 1573\\.Degert, p. 24\\. D' Ossat again accompanied him.*Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat*, in Amelot de la Houssaie *Letres du Cardinal d'Ossat* I (Paris: Jean Boudot, 1698\\), pp. 18\\-20\\. Their reception at the Papal Curia was not what they had expected. Despite his diplomatic status, Foix found himself under interrogation for his actions and opinions during the events of 1559 leading to the Edict against heresy of 2 June. His orthodoxy was ably defended by d'Ossat in a memoire composed for his defense.Degert, pp. 25\\-26 However, only too aware of the views and intrigues of his fellow cardinals, Cardinal Prospero Santacroce advised his friend Foix to depart from Rome before any further proceedings could take place.*Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat*, in Amelot de la Houssaie *Letres du Cardinal d'Ossat* I (Paris: Jean Boudot, 1698\\), p. 20\\. The story of the Roman legation is also related by Jacques\\-Auguste de Thou, *Memoires de la vie de Jacques\\-Auguste de Thou* (Rotterdam: Reinier Leers 1711\\), pp. 25\\-32\\. The death of Charles IX on 30 May 1574 provided the appropriate opportunity.",
"D' Ossat accompanied Msgr. de Foix again on his mission to Rome (1582\\-1584\\), where the Archbishop was granted his bulls on 5 November and his pallium on 15 December 1582\\.Gulick\\-Eubel *Hierarchia catholica* editio altera (Monasterii 1923\\), p. 315\\. Pierre La Croix, *Mémoire historique sur les institutions de la France à Rome* (2nd edition par Jean Arnaud) (Rome 1892\\) p. 155\\. Letters of the Archbishop in Rome to the King in France survive.*Les lettres de Messire Paul de Foix, Archevesque de Tolose, et Ambassadeur pour le Roy auprés du Pape Gregoire XIII escrites au Roy Henry III* (Paris: Charles Chappelain 1628\\). They are preceded by a French translation of the Funeral Oration of Marc Antoine Muret. The next Ambassador Ordinary was the Marquis Pitany, who was not received until 1592, after some struggle; this long delay of eight years was due to the irregular status of Henri IV as an heretic; a pope could not enter into direct friendly relations with an heretic, and Sixtus V was violently opposed to Henri IV; he had also excommunicated Henri III for allowing the murders of the Duc de Guise and the Cardinal de Lorraine in 1589\\. Therefore, after Msgr. de Foix died in Rome on 29 May 1584, d'Ossat remained at the Papal Court in Rome, supervising the French embassy for a year, to the evident satisfaction of King Henri III and Secretary Villeroy, who presented him with a gift of 2,000 ecus on 18 July 1586\\. They were evidently impressed by the report of the Bishop of Paris, Pierre de Gondi, who had been in Rome in early 1586, attempting to smooth over difficulties between Pope Sixtus V and the French Ambassador Marquis Pitany.Degert, p. 36\\.",
"D'Ossat then became secretary to Cardinal [Luigi d'Este](/wiki/Luigi_d%27Este \"Luigi d'Este\"), the Protector of France before the Holy See, who, unfortunately, died on 30 December 1586\\. He was succeeded a month later, on 16 February 1587,Amelot de Houssaye (ed.), *Letres du Cardinal d' Ossat* II (Amsterdam 1708\\), Letre XLV (16 February 1596\\), pp. 30\\-31\\. by Cardinal [François de Joyeuse](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Joyeuse \"François de Joyeuse\"), who took charge of French affairs upon his arrival in Rome on 20 August 1587, and who also enjoyed Ossat's services as secretary. Ossat was ordained to the priesthood around this time, perhaps at the end of 1587; Jacques de Thou wrote that Ossat had written a letter to Henri III in 1588 that he had received ordination.Degert, p. 40\\.",
"In 1588 he refused the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs to [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_France \"Henry III of France\"), after the King had dismissed all of his secretaries of state, including Villeroy. The refusal was made, no doubt, out of a sense of loyalty to his friend and patron, Villeroy. Then, the Cardinal de Joyeuse and d' Ossat were driven from Rome by the rupture of diplomatic relations with the Pope after the murder of [Charles de Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine](/wiki/Charles%2C_Cardinal_of_Lorraine \"Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine\") (1588\\), but they returned after the murder of Henry III on 2 August 1589 by the Dominican friar Jacques Clément. D'Ossat thereupon undertook to serve as the private agent) procurator) in Rome of the widowed queen, Louise de Vaudemont.Twenty\\-four of D'Ossat's letters to Queen Louise, written between 1590 and 1600, can be found near the beginning of Volume I of the *Letres du Cardinal d'Ossat*, edited by Abraham\\-Nicolas Amelot de la Houssaie (Paris: Jean Boudot, 1698\\).",
"### Ossat, Henri IV, and Rome",
"He used his unofficial position to support the cause of Henry IV, whose conversion to Catholicism he prepared [Pope Clement VIII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII \"Pope Clement VIII\") to accept. On 1 August 1593, Henri IV wrote directly to d' Ossat in Rome that he was sending the Duc de Nevers to negotiate with the Pope, and he instructed d'Ossat to share all of his knowledge of and influence in the Roman Court, as well as his wise counsel, to advance the affairs of France.Berger de Xivrey (ed.), *Recueil des lettres missives de Henri IV* Tome IV (Paris 1848\\), pp. 20\\-21\\. Shortly before the arrival of Nevers in Rome, the French faced the verbal onslaught of a Spanish chamberlain of the Pope, Gonzalez Ponce de Leon, in the form of a memoire arguing that the pope did not have the authority to absolve a relapsed heretic (such as Henri IV). When it appeared that Clement VIII was impressed by the arguments, D' Ossat undertook to reply to the Spanish chamberlain in a memoire of his own. The arguments, summarized by de Thou in his history,Jacques\\-Auguste de Thou, *Iac. Augusti Thuani Historiarum sui temporis continuatio. Pars Quarta, ab a.C.n. 1585 usqye ad Annum 1595* (Francofurti: Peter Kopf 1621\\), pp.1298\\-1304; and in French translation *Histoire universelle*, Livre CVII, capitulum xii. In the edition published in The Hague by Henri Scheuerleer in 1740, the passage is in Volume VIII, pp. 314\\-315\\. Degert, p. 81\\. convinced the Pope, who, in the end, preferred to believe that he had more power than less power. Unofficial negotiations therefore continued. As Envoy Extraordinary for Henri,Pierre La Croix, *Mémoire historique sur les institutions de la France à Rome* (2nd edition par Jean Arnaud) (Rome 1892\\) p. 155\\. Abel Desjardins, *Une Congrégation générale des cardinaux en 1595* (Douai: Lucien Crepin 1875\\), *passim*. cooperating with Jacques Davy du Perron, Bishop of Évreux, he negotiated the reconciliation of the King with the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope, which took place on 19 September 1595\\. This was the greatest act of d'Ossat's diplomatic career, assuring as it did the definitive triumph of Henri IV over the [House of Guise](/wiki/House_of_Guise \"House of Guise\") and the [Catholic League](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 \"Catholic League (French)\"), and the restoration of peace to France after more than thirty years of civil war (see [French Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion \"French Wars of Religion\")).{{fact\\|date\\=July 2017}}",
"### Episcopate",
"In January 1596, King Henri IV named d' Ossat [Bishop of Rennes](/wiki/Bishop_of_Rennes \"Bishop of Rennes\"). The bishop's letter of thanks to the King is dated 20 February 1596\\.Lettre XLVI (ed. Amelot de Houssaye). It was not until the Consistory of Monday, 9 September 1596, however, that Pope Clement VIII authorized the issue of the appropriate bulls authorizing his consecration.Letter LXXX, p. 313\\. He was consecrated in Rome on Sunday, 27 October, in the Church of S. Marco, by Cardinal Agostino Valier, Bishop of Verona.\"Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat\", in Amelot de Houssaye, *Letres* I (Paris 1698\\), p. 9; and Lettre LXXXVIII, p. 553\\. The co\\-consecrators were Guillaume d'Avançon, Archbishop of Embrun, and Francesco Serini, Bishop of Bagnoregio [http://www2\\.fiu.edu/\\~mirandas/bios1599\\.htm\\#Ossat](http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1599.htm#Ossat). Ossat remained at Rome, without any well\\-defined office, though he was charged with occasional missions to Venice and Florence (1598\\), and managed the French embassy in the absence of a noble ambassador, as professional diplomats traditionally do, and was always the enlightened and devoted representative of French interests. All the ambassadors of Henry IV had orders to make known to him the business with which they were charged and to be guided by his advice. [Villeroy](/wiki/Nicolas_de_Neufville%2C_seigneur_de_Villeroy \"Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy\"), Henri's minister of foreign affairs, himself consulted him on all matters in any way connected with Rome.",
"Ossat was pleased to be notified, by a letter and brevet of 6 September 1597, that King Henri IV had named him a Councillor of State.Amelot de Houssaye, *Letres* II (Amsterdam 1708\\), Letre CXVI, pp. 485\\-489 (to the King, 18 October 1597\\).",
"### Cardinalate",
"{{ref improve\\|section\\|date\\=July 2017}}\nHe was created [cardinal priest](/wiki/Cardinal_priest \"Cardinal priest\"), on the recommendation of King Henri IV of France, in the consistory of 3 March 1599\\. Later, in the Consistory of 17 March 1599, he was granted the title of S. Eusebio. Ossat was also promoted to the [Diocese of Bayeux](/wiki/Diocese_of_Bayeux \"Diocese of Bayeux\"), a richer and more prestigious benefice, on 26 June 1600\\. On 4 August 1600, he took possession of the diocese through his procurator, Pierre Ruel, Councillor of the Parlement of Paris, but he never visited his new diocese in person.*Gallia christiana* Volume XI, pp. 390\\-393\\. Only one week before his death, he received permission from the King to relinquish his episcopal throne.",
"In 1602, he consecrated the Church of [San Bernardo alle Terme](/wiki/San_Bernardo_alle_Terme \"San Bernardo alle Terme\").[\"San Bernardo alle Terme\", CoR](http://www.churches-of-rome.info/CoR_Info/SBT%20095/095-San%20Bernardo%20alle%20Terme.pdf)",
"A measure of Ossat's skill and tact may be gained by the French measures he was able to present successfully to the Holy See: the expulsion of the [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuit \"Jesuit\") from France, the indefinite postponement of the publication of the decrees of the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent \"Council of Trent\"), the [Edict of Nantes](/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes \"Edict of Nantes\"), and French alliances with England and even with the Sultan of Turkey, the annulment of Henry IV's marriage with Margaret of Valois, and the marriage of the Duc de Bar with [Catherine of Navarre](/wiki/Catherine_of_Navarre%2C_Duchess_of_Lorraine \"Catherine of Navarre, Duchess of Lorraine\"), the king's sister and an unrepentant [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinism \"Calvinism\").",
"At the same time d'Ossat used his influence at Rome for the benefit of French humanists: the historian [Jacques\\-Auguste de Thou](/wiki/Jacques-Auguste_de_Thou \"Jacques-Auguste de Thou\") (witness to the [St. Bartholomew's Day Massacres](/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_Massacre \"St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre\")), the philosopher [Michel de Montaigne](/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne \"Michel de Montaigne\"), and the savant [Nicolas Claude Fabri de Peiresc](/wiki/Nicolas_Claude_Fabri_de_Peiresc \"Nicolas Claude Fabri de Peiresc\").",
"### Death",
"Cardinal d'Ossat died on 13 March 1604 (his tombstone says 14 March) in Rome, after brief illness. He was buried in the church of [San Luigi dei Francesi](/wiki/San_Luigi_dei_Francesi \"San Luigi dei Francesi\"), near the Piazza Navona. His tomb is still to be seen, though the inscription is a substitute, ca. 1763, for the original, which was destroyed during renovations of the church.V. Forcella, *Inscrizioni delle chiese di Roma* III (Roma 1873\\), p. 32 no. 82 (original); p. 54 no. 139 (substitute). Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio (1579\\-1644\\) said of him that never was a man more worthy of the cardinal's hat, because of his religious zeal, the integrity of his morals, and the eminence of his learning.Bentivoglio, *Mémoires*.",
"In the course of his diplomatic career Ossat wrote many letters and memoranda,Abraham\\-Nicolas Amelot de la Houssaie (editor), *Letres du Cardinal d' Ossat. Nouvelle edition, corrigée sur le manuscrit original et notablement augmentée, avec des notes historiques et politiques* 5 vols (Paris 1698\\). a selection of which, printed in 1614, long served as models for diplomats, owing not only to the importance of the questions which they treat but especially to the talent for exposition which Ossat displays in them. The [Académie Française](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Fran%C3%A7aise \"Académie Française\") inscribed Ossat among the \"dead authors who have written our French language most purely\", and [Lord Chesterfield](/wiki/Lord_Chesterfield \"Lord Chesterfield\") wrote to his son that the \"simplicity and clearness of Cardinal d'Ossat's letters show how business letters should be written\".{{cn\\|date\\=July 2017}}",
""
] |
History
-------
{{lang\|pl\|\[\[Telewizja Polska]]\|i\=unset}} (TVP) is a full member of the [European Broadcasting Union](/wiki/European_Broadcasting_Union "European Broadcasting Union") (EBU) since 1 January 1993, thus eligible to participate in the [Eurovision Song Contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest "Eurovision Song Contest") since then. It has participated in the contest representing Poland since its {{escyr\|1994\|\|39th edition}} in 1994\. Before becoming a member of the EBU, earlier contests had often been broadcast on TVP.
TVP first ever entrant was at the 1994 contest: "[To nie ja!](/wiki/To_nie_ja%21 "To nie ja!")" by [Edyta Górniak](/wiki/Edyta_G%C3%B3rniak "Edyta Górniak") is also by far the most successful Polish entry to date, receiving 166 points and placing second. Poland was almost disqualified that year though; there was no free\-language rule in operation at the time, and a furor erupted at the dress rehearsal when Górniak sung the second half of "To nie ja!" in English. Six national delegations formally petitioned for Poland to be disqualified; however Eurovision rules required a majority of delegations (13 in this case) to complain before the European Broadcasting Union could examine the case for disqualification, so Poland was allowed to remain.
The Polish entry for the [1995 contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_1995 "Eurovision Song Contest 1995") was again selected through internal selection. It was "[Sama](/wiki/Sama_%28song%29 "Sama (song)")" by [Justyna Steczkowska](/wiki/Justyna_Steczkowska "Justyna Steczkowska"). Steczkowska could not replicate Górniak's 2nd place, receiving only 15 points and placing 18th out of 23\.
During the competition in 1996, a qualifying round was organized with the aim of reducing the number of countries participating in the final of the competition. The qualifying stage was not televised or recorded, and national juries audited the studio versions of all competition proposals and awarded them points. Out of 29 works sent by public broadcasters, 22 entries qualified for the finals. The only country not participating in the qualifying round was the competition host, Norway. The 1996 entry was [Kasia Kowalska](/wiki/Kasia_Kowalska "Kasia Kowalska") with "[Chcę znać swój grzech...](/wiki/Chc%C4%99_zna%C4%87_sw%C3%B3j_grzech... "Chcę znać swój grzech...")". She qualified to the final and placed 15th with 31 points.
Poland competed in the 1997 competition with the song "[Ale jestem](/wiki/Ale_jestem "Ale jestem")", the first uptempo Polish entry, which was performed by [Anna Maria Jopek](/wiki/Anna_Maria_Jopek "Anna Maria Jopek"). At the close of voting, she had received 54 points, placing 11th in a field of 25\.
In 1998 Poland was represented by band [Sixteen](/wiki/Sixteen_%28Polish_band%29 "Sixteen (Polish band)"). They performed the song "[To takie proste](/wiki/To_takie_proste "To takie proste")" in the final of the competition, finishing 17th of 25 entrants, receiving 19 points.
In 1999 {{ill\|Mietek Szcześniak\|pl}} represented Poland with the song "[Przytul mnie mocno](/wiki/Przytul_mnie_mocno "Przytul mnie mocno")". He was the first male singer who represented Poland. He placed 18th with 17 points. Due to the low results over previous five years, Poland did not participate in the [Eurovision Song Contest 2000](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2000 "Eurovision Song Contest 2000").
Poland returned to [the 2001 contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2001 "Eurovision Song Contest 2001") following an enforced one\-year absence. However, after they placed 20th out of 23, they had to withdraw again from the [Eurovision Song Contest 2002](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2002 "Eurovision Song Contest 2002"). They did however return in 2003\.
For the [2003 contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2003 "Eurovision Song Contest 2003") Poland organized its first public selection for Eurovision entry;[Ich Troje](/wiki/Ich_Troje "Ich Troje") and some of the biggest Polish music acts, such as [Wilki](/wiki/Wilki "Wilki"), [Blue Café](/wiki/Blue_Caf%C3%A9 "Blue Café") and [Varius Manx](/wiki/Varius_Manx "Varius Manx"), participated in the pre\-selection, it was no surprise when the group [Ich Troje](/wiki/Ich_Troje "Ich Troje") won the public vote ahead of [Blue Café](/wiki/Blue_Caf%C3%A9 "Blue Café"), placing 7th of 26 countries in the final. This placing allowed Poland to skip the semi\-final of the 2004 contest, automatically qualifying for the final.
The Polish entry for the [2004 contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2004 "Eurovision Song Contest 2004") was again selected through National Final, the Krajowe Eliminacje. The winner was Blue Café with "[Love Song](/wiki/Love_Song_%28Blue_Caf%C3%A9_song%29 "Love Song (Blue Café song)")". Group could not repeat Ich Troje's 7th place, receiving only 27 points and placing 17th.
In 2005 [TVP](/wiki/Telewizja_Polska "Telewizja Polska") went back to an internal selection, picking "[Czarna dziewczyna](/wiki/Czarna_dziewczyna "Czarna dziewczyna")", a multilingual song performed in [Polish](/wiki/Polish_language "Polish language") and Russian. Poland competed at the semi\-final for the first time. The song just missed out on a place in the final, coming 11th in the semi\-final with 81 points, only 4 points behind Latvia.
Poland's 2006 entry was chosen with the comeback of the public vote on TVP. Ich Troje were chosen again in 2006 with song "[Follow My Heart](/wiki/Follow_My_Heart "Follow My Heart")", but could not repeat their 7th place from 2003\. They failed to qualify for the final, coming 11th with 70 points in the semi\-final only 6 points behind Macedonia. Poland's [2007](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2007 "Eurovision Song Contest 2007") entry, "[Time To Party](/wiki/Time_To_Party "Time To Party")", sung by [The Jet Set](/wiki/The_Jet_Set "The Jet Set"), only finished 14th in the semi\-final.
Poland's only appearance in the final between 2005 and 2011, was in [2008](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2008 "Eurovision Song Contest 2008"). Even then, its song ("[For Life](/wiki/For_Life_%28Isis_Gee_song%29 "For Life (Isis Gee song)")", sung by [Isis Gee](/wiki/Isis_Gee "Isis Gee")) only qualified as a jury wildcard and placed a lowly 24th in the final, ahead of only United Kingdom.
In the [2009](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2009 "Eurovision Song Contest 2009"), Poland selected [Lidia Kopania](/wiki/Lidia_Kopania "Lidia Kopania") and her song "[I Don't Wanna Leave](/wiki/I_Don%27t_Wanna_Leave_%28Lidia_Kopania_song%29 "I Don't Wanna Leave (Lidia Kopania song)")". She performed in the second semi\-final on 14 May 2009, however she failed to qualify, finishing 12th with 43 points.
The 2010 entry for Poland was [Marcin Mroziński](/wiki/Marcin_Mrozi%C5%84ski "Marcin Mroziński") with song "[Legenda](/wiki/Legenda_%28song%29 "Legenda (song)")". He performed in the first semi\-final on 25 May 2010 but he didn't qualify for the final, finishing 13th with 44 points.
In 2011, Poland was represented by [Magdalena Tul](/wiki/Magdalena_Tul "Magdalena Tul"), and the country's entry was sung in Polish. Her song was called "Jestem", translated as "I am". Although initially a favorite with bookmakers, "Jestem" failed to qualify, finishing last 19th with 18 points in the first semi\-final. This remains the worst Polish result to date.
Members of the Polish [OGAE](/wiki/OGAE "OGAE") have said at their annual convention that they would like [Edyta Górniak](/wiki/Edyta_G%C3%B3rniak "Edyta Górniak") to represent Poland for a second time. For years it was unknown if Górniak would enter Eurovision again,{{cite web\|url\=http://esctoday.com/12221/ogae\_poland\_a\_convention\_to\_remember\|title\=OGAE Poland: A convention to remember\|author\=Floras, Stella\|publisher\=ESCToday\|date\=25 August 2008\|access\-date\=25 August 2008}} until when in 2016 she made a second attempt at representing her country in the contest, placing third in the national final.
### 2012–2013 absence
In December 2011, it was announced that Poland will not compete at the [Eurovision Song Contest 2012](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2012 "Eurovision Song Contest 2012") in [Baku](/wiki/Baku "Baku"). The Polish broadcaster stated that having to organize the [European Football Championship 2012](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2012 "UEFA Euro 2012") (hosted by Poland and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine")) was a major factor in their non\-participation.{{cite web\|title\=Poland: TVP withdraws from Eurovision 2012\|url\=http://www.escdaily.com/poland\-tvp\-withdraws\-from\-eurovision\-2012/\#\|last\=Van Ee\|first\=Dennis\|publisher\=ESCDaily\|date\=16 December 2011\|access\-date\=16 December 2011}} TVP informed esctoday.com that their decision to abstain would not hamper their chances of returning in {{Escyr\|2013}}. However, Poland confirmed on 22 November 2012 that they would not be participating in {{Escyr\|2013}}.{{cite web\|title\=No return: Poland will not be in Malmö\|url\=http://www.esctoday.com/?p\=39143\|work\=esctoday.com\|access\-date\=22 November 2012}}
### Return
TVP, the Polish national broadcaster has confirmed on 5 December 2013 that Poland will return to the Eurovision Song Contest in 2014\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.esctoday.com/69854/tvp\-poland/\|title \= Eurovision Song Contest 2022 news by esctoday \- Turin Italy}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.tvp.pl/o\-tvp/centrum\-prasowe/komunikaty\-prasowe/tvp\-znow\-w\-konkursie\-eurowizji/13230106\|title \= Centrum Informacji \- Telewizja Polska S.A. \- TVP.pl}} On 25 February, it was announced that [Donatan](/wiki/Donatan "Donatan") and [Cleo](/wiki/Cleo_%28Polish_singer%29 "Cleo (Polish singer)") would represent Poland with their song "[My Słowianie](/wiki/My_S%C5%82owianie "My Słowianie")".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tvp.pl/o\-tvp/centrum\-prasowe/komunikaty\-prasowe/my\-slowianie\-na\-eurowizji/14156701\|title\=My, Słowianie na Eurowizji\|date\=25 February 2014\|access\-date\=25 February 2014\|publisher\=\[\[Telewizja Polska\|Tvp.pl]]\|language\=pl}} They qualified for the final placing 8th with 70 points, making it only the second time Poland has qualified for the final since 2008\. [Donatan](/wiki/Donatan "Donatan") and [Cleo](/wiki/Cleo_%28Polish_singer%29 "Cleo (Polish singer)") performed 9th in the final and ended up placing 14th out of 26, with 62 points. The duo fared clearly better with the televoters, finishing third in the semi\-final and 5th in the final respectively.
In 2015 TVP has selected their entry internally again by choosing [Monika Kuszyńska](/wiki/Monika_Kuszy%C5%84ska "Monika Kuszyńska") and her song "[In the Name of Love](/wiki/In_the_Name_of_Love_%28Monika_Kuszy%C5%84ska_song%29 "In the Name of Love (Monika Kuszyńska song)")". She was the first ever Eurovision participant to sit in a wheelchair during her performance, due to the fact that she was paralyzed after being involved in a serious car accident in 2006\. Kuszyńska performed last in the second semi\-final on 21 May 2015 and qualified for the final placing 8th with 57 points. In the final, she came 23rd out of 27 acts, receiving ten points. Alike Donatan and Cleo, she fared clearly better with the televoters, coming fourth in the semi\-final and 15th in the final respectively.
At the beginning of October 2015, TVP confirmed its participation in the 61st Eurovision Song Contest. Although the original representative of the country was to be selected internally by the station's management, on January 26, 2016, TVP1 director informed that the Polish representative will be selected through national final. Because of this, the *Krajowe Eliminacje* returned in 2016\. [Edyta Górniak](/wiki/Edyta_G%C3%B3rniak "Edyta Górniak") and some of the biggest Polish music acts, such as [Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_%28singer%29 "Margaret (singer)"), [Natalia Szroeder](/wiki/Natalia_Szroeder "Natalia Szroeder") took part in the competition with [Michał Szpak](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Szpak "Michał Szpak") winning it. Szpak performed second in the second semi\-final on 12 May 2016, and qualified for the final by finishing in sixth place, with 151 points. In the final, held on 14 May 2016, he performed 12th and placed 8th out of 26 acts, with 229 points, which gave Poland their third best result ever.
In 2017, TVP decided to host the second edition of the national final, the interest for turned out to be smaller. [Kasia Moś](/wiki/Kasia_Mo%C5%9B "Kasia Moś") and her song "[Flashlight](/wiki/Flashlight_%28Kasia_Mo%C5%9B_song%29 "Flashlight (Kasia Moś song)")" was announced as a winner. Moś performed 11th in the first semi\-final on 9 May 2017\. She qualified for the final placing 9th with 119 points. In the final, held on 13 May 2017, she performed 2nd and came 22nd out of 26 acts with 64 points total.
Poland's run of qualifications came to an end in 2018, when the song "[Light Me Up](/wiki/Light_Me_Up_%28Gromee_song%29 "Light Me Up (Gromee song)")" by Polish DJ [Gromee](/wiki/Gromee "Gromee") and Swedish vocalist [Lukas Meijer](/wiki/Lukas_Meijer "Lukas Meijer"), again chosen during the national final, failed to qualify to the final by placing 14th with 81 points in the second semi\-final. It is the first Polish entry since its return to the contest in 2014, not to qualify for the final.
In 2019, TVP returned to an internal selection, after a successful internal choice of [Roksana Węgiel](/wiki/Roksana_W%C4%99giel "Roksana Węgiel") who won the [Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018](/wiki/Junior_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2018 "Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018"). On 15 February 2019, it was announced that TVP has chosen [Tulia](/wiki/Tulia_%28band%29 "Tulia (band)") to represent Poland in Tel Aviv. However Poland failed to qualify for the grand final by placing 11th with 120 points in the first semi\-final only 2 points behind Belarus.
In 2020, TVP used the talent show *[Szansa na Sukces](/wiki/Szansa_na_Sukces "Szansa na Sukces")* to select the Polish artist and song, having used the show to select the song "[Superhero](/wiki/Superhero_%28Viki_Gabor_song%29 "Superhero (Viki Gabor song)")" performed by [Viki Gabor](/wiki/Viki_Gabor "Viki Gabor") for the [Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019](/wiki/Junior_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2019 "Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019"), which went on to win.{{cite web\|url\=https://eurovoix.com/2020/01/02/poland\-szansa\-na\-sukces\-to\-select\-eurovision\-2020\-entrant/\|title\=Poland: Szansa na Sukces to Select Eurovision 2020 Entrant\|website\=eurovoix.com\|date\=2 January 2020\|first\=Neil\|last\=Farren}} [Alicja Szemplińska](/wiki/Alicja_Szempli%C5%84ska "Alicja Szemplińska") won the national final with the song "[Empires](/wiki/Empires_%28Alicja_Szempli%C5%84ska_song%29 "Empires (Alicja Szemplińska song)")", winning both the public and the jury vote. However, the 2020 contest was later cancelled due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").
In 2021, TVP used an internal selection. On 12 March 2021 during the [TVP2](/wiki/TVP2 "TVP2") programme *Pytanie na śniadanie* it was announced that [Rafał Brzozowski](/wiki/Rafa%C5%82_Brzozowski "Rafał Brzozowski") would represent the country with the song "[The Ride](/wiki/The_Ride_%28Rafa%C5%82_Brzozowski_song%29 "The Ride (Rafał Brzozowski song)")". Poland failed to qualify for the final, placing 14th with 35 points in the second semi\-final.
In 2022, TVP used the national final *[Tu bije serce Europy! Wybieramy hit na Eurowizję](/wiki/Poland_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2022 "Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022")* to select its entry. The national final was held on 19 February 2022, with 10 entries competing, and was won by [Ochman](/wiki/Krystian_Ochman "Krystian Ochman") with "[River](/wiki/River_%28Ochman_song%29 "River (Ochman song)")". Ochman performed 14th in the second semi\-final on 12 May 2022\. He qualified for the final placing 6th with 198 points. In the final, held on 14 May 2022, he performed 23rd, where he placed 12th with 151 points.
In 2023, *[Tu bije serce Europy! Wybieramy hit na Eurowizję](/wiki/Poland_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2023 "Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023")* was again used to select the Polish entry. The national final took place on 26 February 2023, where [Blanka](/wiki/Blanka_Stajkow "Blanka Stajkow") won with the song "[Solo](/wiki/Solo_%28Blanka_song%29 "Solo (Blanka song)")". Her victory was met with a negative reception among Polish media and Eurovision fans. Blanka presented herself for the first time during the second semi\-final of the competition on 11 May and qualified for the final from third place after scoring 124 points, the best result for Poland in a semi\-final to date. In the final, she performed fourth and she finished in 19th place with 93 points.
In 2024, the broadcaster reverted to an internal selection process.{{cite web\|url\=https://eurovisionfun.com/en/2024/01/poland\-applications\-for\-malmo\-now\-open/\|last\=Ampatzidis\|first\=Ioannis\|title\=Poland: Applications for Malmö now open!\|work\=Eurovisionfun\|date\=2024\-01\-09\|access\-date\=2024\-01\-09}} On 19 February it was announced that Luna would represent Poland with "The Tower". She performed sixth in the first semi\-final on 7 May, failing to qualify, and ultimately finishing 12th with 35 points.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{lang\\|pl\\|\\[\\[Telewizja Polska]]\\|i\\=unset}} (TVP) is a full member of the [European Broadcasting Union](/wiki/European_Broadcasting_Union \"European Broadcasting Union\") (EBU) since 1 January 1993, thus eligible to participate in the [Eurovision Song Contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest \"Eurovision Song Contest\") since then. It has participated in the contest representing Poland since its {{escyr\\|1994\\|\\|39th edition}} in 1994\\. Before becoming a member of the EBU, earlier contests had often been broadcast on TVP.",
"TVP first ever entrant was at the 1994 contest: \"[To nie ja!](/wiki/To_nie_ja%21 \"To nie ja!\")\" by [Edyta Górniak](/wiki/Edyta_G%C3%B3rniak \"Edyta Górniak\") is also by far the most successful Polish entry to date, receiving 166 points and placing second. Poland was almost disqualified that year though; there was no free\\-language rule in operation at the time, and a furor erupted at the dress rehearsal when Górniak sung the second half of \"To nie ja!\" in English. Six national delegations formally petitioned for Poland to be disqualified; however Eurovision rules required a majority of delegations (13 in this case) to complain before the European Broadcasting Union could examine the case for disqualification, so Poland was allowed to remain.",
"The Polish entry for the [1995 contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_1995 \"Eurovision Song Contest 1995\") was again selected through internal selection. It was \"[Sama](/wiki/Sama_%28song%29 \"Sama (song)\")\" by [Justyna Steczkowska](/wiki/Justyna_Steczkowska \"Justyna Steczkowska\"). Steczkowska could not replicate Górniak's 2nd place, receiving only 15 points and placing 18th out of 23\\.",
"During the competition in 1996, a qualifying round was organized with the aim of reducing the number of countries participating in the final of the competition. The qualifying stage was not televised or recorded, and national juries audited the studio versions of all competition proposals and awarded them points. Out of 29 works sent by public broadcasters, 22 entries qualified for the finals. The only country not participating in the qualifying round was the competition host, Norway. The 1996 entry was [Kasia Kowalska](/wiki/Kasia_Kowalska \"Kasia Kowalska\") with \"[Chcę znać swój grzech...](/wiki/Chc%C4%99_zna%C4%87_sw%C3%B3j_grzech... \"Chcę znać swój grzech...\")\". She qualified to the final and placed 15th with 31 points.",
"Poland competed in the 1997 competition with the song \"[Ale jestem](/wiki/Ale_jestem \"Ale jestem\")\", the first uptempo Polish entry, which was performed by [Anna Maria Jopek](/wiki/Anna_Maria_Jopek \"Anna Maria Jopek\"). At the close of voting, she had received 54 points, placing 11th in a field of 25\\.",
"In 1998 Poland was represented by band [Sixteen](/wiki/Sixteen_%28Polish_band%29 \"Sixteen (Polish band)\"). They performed the song \"[To takie proste](/wiki/To_takie_proste \"To takie proste\")\" in the final of the competition, finishing 17th of 25 entrants, receiving 19 points.",
"In 1999 {{ill\\|Mietek Szcześniak\\|pl}} represented Poland with the song \"[Przytul mnie mocno](/wiki/Przytul_mnie_mocno \"Przytul mnie mocno\")\". He was the first male singer who represented Poland. He placed 18th with 17 points. Due to the low results over previous five years, Poland did not participate in the [Eurovision Song Contest 2000](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2000 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2000\").",
"Poland returned to [the 2001 contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2001 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2001\") following an enforced one\\-year absence. However, after they placed 20th out of 23, they had to withdraw again from the [Eurovision Song Contest 2002](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2002 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2002\"). They did however return in 2003\\.",
"For the [2003 contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2003 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2003\") Poland organized its first public selection for Eurovision entry;[Ich Troje](/wiki/Ich_Troje \"Ich Troje\") and some of the biggest Polish music acts, such as [Wilki](/wiki/Wilki \"Wilki\"), [Blue Café](/wiki/Blue_Caf%C3%A9 \"Blue Café\") and [Varius Manx](/wiki/Varius_Manx \"Varius Manx\"), participated in the pre\\-selection, it was no surprise when the group [Ich Troje](/wiki/Ich_Troje \"Ich Troje\") won the public vote ahead of [Blue Café](/wiki/Blue_Caf%C3%A9 \"Blue Café\"), placing 7th of 26 countries in the final. This placing allowed Poland to skip the semi\\-final of the 2004 contest, automatically qualifying for the final.",
"The Polish entry for the [2004 contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2004 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2004\") was again selected through National Final, the Krajowe Eliminacje. The winner was Blue Café with \"[Love Song](/wiki/Love_Song_%28Blue_Caf%C3%A9_song%29 \"Love Song (Blue Café song)\")\". Group could not repeat Ich Troje's 7th place, receiving only 27 points and placing 17th.",
"In 2005 [TVP](/wiki/Telewizja_Polska \"Telewizja Polska\") went back to an internal selection, picking \"[Czarna dziewczyna](/wiki/Czarna_dziewczyna \"Czarna dziewczyna\")\", a multilingual song performed in [Polish](/wiki/Polish_language \"Polish language\") and Russian. Poland competed at the semi\\-final for the first time. The song just missed out on a place in the final, coming 11th in the semi\\-final with 81 points, only 4 points behind Latvia.",
"Poland's 2006 entry was chosen with the comeback of the public vote on TVP. Ich Troje were chosen again in 2006 with song \"[Follow My Heart](/wiki/Follow_My_Heart \"Follow My Heart\")\", but could not repeat their 7th place from 2003\\. They failed to qualify for the final, coming 11th with 70 points in the semi\\-final only 6 points behind Macedonia. Poland's [2007](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2007 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2007\") entry, \"[Time To Party](/wiki/Time_To_Party \"Time To Party\")\", sung by [The Jet Set](/wiki/The_Jet_Set \"The Jet Set\"), only finished 14th in the semi\\-final.",
"Poland's only appearance in the final between 2005 and 2011, was in [2008](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2008 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2008\"). Even then, its song (\"[For Life](/wiki/For_Life_%28Isis_Gee_song%29 \"For Life (Isis Gee song)\")\", sung by [Isis Gee](/wiki/Isis_Gee \"Isis Gee\")) only qualified as a jury wildcard and placed a lowly 24th in the final, ahead of only United Kingdom.",
"In the [2009](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2009 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2009\"), Poland selected [Lidia Kopania](/wiki/Lidia_Kopania \"Lidia Kopania\") and her song \"[I Don't Wanna Leave](/wiki/I_Don%27t_Wanna_Leave_%28Lidia_Kopania_song%29 \"I Don't Wanna Leave (Lidia Kopania song)\")\". She performed in the second semi\\-final on 14 May 2009, however she failed to qualify, finishing 12th with 43 points.",
"The 2010 entry for Poland was [Marcin Mroziński](/wiki/Marcin_Mrozi%C5%84ski \"Marcin Mroziński\") with song \"[Legenda](/wiki/Legenda_%28song%29 \"Legenda (song)\")\". He performed in the first semi\\-final on 25 May 2010 but he didn't qualify for the final, finishing 13th with 44 points.",
"In 2011, Poland was represented by [Magdalena Tul](/wiki/Magdalena_Tul \"Magdalena Tul\"), and the country's entry was sung in Polish. Her song was called \"Jestem\", translated as \"I am\". Although initially a favorite with bookmakers, \"Jestem\" failed to qualify, finishing last 19th with 18 points in the first semi\\-final. This remains the worst Polish result to date.",
"Members of the Polish [OGAE](/wiki/OGAE \"OGAE\") have said at their annual convention that they would like [Edyta Górniak](/wiki/Edyta_G%C3%B3rniak \"Edyta Górniak\") to represent Poland for a second time. For years it was unknown if Górniak would enter Eurovision again,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://esctoday.com/12221/ogae\\_poland\\_a\\_convention\\_to\\_remember\\|title\\=OGAE Poland: A convention to remember\\|author\\=Floras, Stella\\|publisher\\=ESCToday\\|date\\=25 August 2008\\|access\\-date\\=25 August 2008}} until when in 2016 she made a second attempt at representing her country in the contest, placing third in the national final.",
"### 2012–2013 absence",
"In December 2011, it was announced that Poland will not compete at the [Eurovision Song Contest 2012](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2012 \"Eurovision Song Contest 2012\") in [Baku](/wiki/Baku \"Baku\"). The Polish broadcaster stated that having to organize the [European Football Championship 2012](/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2012 \"UEFA Euro 2012\") (hosted by Poland and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\")) was a major factor in their non\\-participation.{{cite web\\|title\\=Poland: TVP withdraws from Eurovision 2012\\|url\\=http://www.escdaily.com/poland\\-tvp\\-withdraws\\-from\\-eurovision\\-2012/\\#\\|last\\=Van Ee\\|first\\=Dennis\\|publisher\\=ESCDaily\\|date\\=16 December 2011\\|access\\-date\\=16 December 2011}} TVP informed esctoday.com that their decision to abstain would not hamper their chances of returning in {{Escyr\\|2013}}. However, Poland confirmed on 22 November 2012 that they would not be participating in {{Escyr\\|2013}}.{{cite web\\|title\\=No return: Poland will not be in Malmö\\|url\\=http://www.esctoday.com/?p\\=39143\\|work\\=esctoday.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2012}}",
"### Return",
"TVP, the Polish national broadcaster has confirmed on 5 December 2013 that Poland will return to the Eurovision Song Contest in 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.esctoday.com/69854/tvp\\-poland/\\|title \\= Eurovision Song Contest 2022 news by esctoday \\- Turin Italy}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvp.pl/o\\-tvp/centrum\\-prasowe/komunikaty\\-prasowe/tvp\\-znow\\-w\\-konkursie\\-eurowizji/13230106\\|title \\= Centrum Informacji \\- Telewizja Polska S.A. \\- TVP.pl}} On 25 February, it was announced that [Donatan](/wiki/Donatan \"Donatan\") and [Cleo](/wiki/Cleo_%28Polish_singer%29 \"Cleo (Polish singer)\") would represent Poland with their song \"[My Słowianie](/wiki/My_S%C5%82owianie \"My Słowianie\")\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvp.pl/o\\-tvp/centrum\\-prasowe/komunikaty\\-prasowe/my\\-slowianie\\-na\\-eurowizji/14156701\\|title\\=My, Słowianie na Eurowizji\\|date\\=25 February 2014\\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2014\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Telewizja Polska\\|Tvp.pl]]\\|language\\=pl}} They qualified for the final placing 8th with 70 points, making it only the second time Poland has qualified for the final since 2008\\. [Donatan](/wiki/Donatan \"Donatan\") and [Cleo](/wiki/Cleo_%28Polish_singer%29 \"Cleo (Polish singer)\") performed 9th in the final and ended up placing 14th out of 26, with 62 points. The duo fared clearly better with the televoters, finishing third in the semi\\-final and 5th in the final respectively.",
"In 2015 TVP has selected their entry internally again by choosing [Monika Kuszyńska](/wiki/Monika_Kuszy%C5%84ska \"Monika Kuszyńska\") and her song \"[In the Name of Love](/wiki/In_the_Name_of_Love_%28Monika_Kuszy%C5%84ska_song%29 \"In the Name of Love (Monika Kuszyńska song)\")\". She was the first ever Eurovision participant to sit in a wheelchair during her performance, due to the fact that she was paralyzed after being involved in a serious car accident in 2006\\. Kuszyńska performed last in the second semi\\-final on 21 May 2015 and qualified for the final placing 8th with 57 points. In the final, she came 23rd out of 27 acts, receiving ten points. Alike Donatan and Cleo, she fared clearly better with the televoters, coming fourth in the semi\\-final and 15th in the final respectively.",
"At the beginning of October 2015, TVP confirmed its participation in the 61st Eurovision Song Contest. Although the original representative of the country was to be selected internally by the station's management, on January 26, 2016, TVP1 director informed that the Polish representative will be selected through national final. Because of this, the *Krajowe Eliminacje* returned in 2016\\. [Edyta Górniak](/wiki/Edyta_G%C3%B3rniak \"Edyta Górniak\") and some of the biggest Polish music acts, such as [Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_%28singer%29 \"Margaret (singer)\"), [Natalia Szroeder](/wiki/Natalia_Szroeder \"Natalia Szroeder\") took part in the competition with [Michał Szpak](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Szpak \"Michał Szpak\") winning it. Szpak performed second in the second semi\\-final on 12 May 2016, and qualified for the final by finishing in sixth place, with 151 points. In the final, held on 14 May 2016, he performed 12th and placed 8th out of 26 acts, with 229 points, which gave Poland their third best result ever.",
"In 2017, TVP decided to host the second edition of the national final, the interest for turned out to be smaller. [Kasia Moś](/wiki/Kasia_Mo%C5%9B \"Kasia Moś\") and her song \"[Flashlight](/wiki/Flashlight_%28Kasia_Mo%C5%9B_song%29 \"Flashlight (Kasia Moś song)\")\" was announced as a winner. Moś performed 11th in the first semi\\-final on 9 May 2017\\. She qualified for the final placing 9th with 119 points. In the final, held on 13 May 2017, she performed 2nd and came 22nd out of 26 acts with 64 points total.",
"Poland's run of qualifications came to an end in 2018, when the song \"[Light Me Up](/wiki/Light_Me_Up_%28Gromee_song%29 \"Light Me Up (Gromee song)\")\" by Polish DJ [Gromee](/wiki/Gromee \"Gromee\") and Swedish vocalist [Lukas Meijer](/wiki/Lukas_Meijer \"Lukas Meijer\"), again chosen during the national final, failed to qualify to the final by placing 14th with 81 points in the second semi\\-final. It is the first Polish entry since its return to the contest in 2014, not to qualify for the final.",
"In 2019, TVP returned to an internal selection, after a successful internal choice of [Roksana Węgiel](/wiki/Roksana_W%C4%99giel \"Roksana Węgiel\") who won the [Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018](/wiki/Junior_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2018 \"Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018\"). On 15 February 2019, it was announced that TVP has chosen [Tulia](/wiki/Tulia_%28band%29 \"Tulia (band)\") to represent Poland in Tel Aviv. However Poland failed to qualify for the grand final by placing 11th with 120 points in the first semi\\-final only 2 points behind Belarus.",
"In 2020, TVP used the talent show *[Szansa na Sukces](/wiki/Szansa_na_Sukces \"Szansa na Sukces\")* to select the Polish artist and song, having used the show to select the song \"[Superhero](/wiki/Superhero_%28Viki_Gabor_song%29 \"Superhero (Viki Gabor song)\")\" performed by [Viki Gabor](/wiki/Viki_Gabor \"Viki Gabor\") for the [Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019](/wiki/Junior_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2019 \"Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019\"), which went on to win.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://eurovoix.com/2020/01/02/poland\\-szansa\\-na\\-sukces\\-to\\-select\\-eurovision\\-2020\\-entrant/\\|title\\=Poland: Szansa na Sukces to Select Eurovision 2020 Entrant\\|website\\=eurovoix.com\\|date\\=2 January 2020\\|first\\=Neil\\|last\\=Farren}} [Alicja Szemplińska](/wiki/Alicja_Szempli%C5%84ska \"Alicja Szemplińska\") won the national final with the song \"[Empires](/wiki/Empires_%28Alicja_Szempli%C5%84ska_song%29 \"Empires (Alicja Szemplińska song)\")\", winning both the public and the jury vote. However, the 2020 contest was later cancelled due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").",
"In 2021, TVP used an internal selection. On 12 March 2021 during the [TVP2](/wiki/TVP2 \"TVP2\") programme *Pytanie na śniadanie* it was announced that [Rafał Brzozowski](/wiki/Rafa%C5%82_Brzozowski \"Rafał Brzozowski\") would represent the country with the song \"[The Ride](/wiki/The_Ride_%28Rafa%C5%82_Brzozowski_song%29 \"The Ride (Rafał Brzozowski song)\")\". Poland failed to qualify for the final, placing 14th with 35 points in the second semi\\-final.",
"In 2022, TVP used the national final *[Tu bije serce Europy! Wybieramy hit na Eurowizję](/wiki/Poland_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2022 \"Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022\")* to select its entry. The national final was held on 19 February 2022, with 10 entries competing, and was won by [Ochman](/wiki/Krystian_Ochman \"Krystian Ochman\") with \"[River](/wiki/River_%28Ochman_song%29 \"River (Ochman song)\")\". Ochman performed 14th in the second semi\\-final on 12 May 2022\\. He qualified for the final placing 6th with 198 points. In the final, held on 14 May 2022, he performed 23rd, where he placed 12th with 151 points.",
"In 2023, *[Tu bije serce Europy! Wybieramy hit na Eurowizję](/wiki/Poland_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2023 \"Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023\")* was again used to select the Polish entry. The national final took place on 26 February 2023, where [Blanka](/wiki/Blanka_Stajkow \"Blanka Stajkow\") won with the song \"[Solo](/wiki/Solo_%28Blanka_song%29 \"Solo (Blanka song)\")\". Her victory was met with a negative reception among Polish media and Eurovision fans. Blanka presented herself for the first time during the second semi\\-final of the competition on 11 May and qualified for the final from third place after scoring 124 points, the best result for Poland in a semi\\-final to date. In the final, she performed fourth and she finished in 19th place with 93 points.",
"In 2024, the broadcaster reverted to an internal selection process.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://eurovisionfun.com/en/2024/01/poland\\-applications\\-for\\-malmo\\-now\\-open/\\|last\\=Ampatzidis\\|first\\=Ioannis\\|title\\=Poland: Applications for Malmö now open!\\|work\\=Eurovisionfun\\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-09\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-09}} On 19 February it was announced that Luna would represent Poland with \"The Tower\". She performed sixth in the first semi\\-final on 7 May, failing to qualify, and ultimately finishing 12th with 35 points.",
""
] |
### Return
TVP, the Polish national broadcaster has confirmed on 5 December 2013 that Poland will return to the Eurovision Song Contest in 2014\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.esctoday.com/69854/tvp\-poland/\|title \= Eurovision Song Contest 2022 news by esctoday \- Turin Italy}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.tvp.pl/o\-tvp/centrum\-prasowe/komunikaty\-prasowe/tvp\-znow\-w\-konkursie\-eurowizji/13230106\|title \= Centrum Informacji \- Telewizja Polska S.A. \- TVP.pl}} On 25 February, it was announced that [Donatan](/wiki/Donatan "Donatan") and [Cleo](/wiki/Cleo_%28Polish_singer%29 "Cleo (Polish singer)") would represent Poland with their song "[My Słowianie](/wiki/My_S%C5%82owianie "My Słowianie")".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tvp.pl/o\-tvp/centrum\-prasowe/komunikaty\-prasowe/my\-slowianie\-na\-eurowizji/14156701\|title\=My, Słowianie na Eurowizji\|date\=25 February 2014\|access\-date\=25 February 2014\|publisher\=\[\[Telewizja Polska\|Tvp.pl]]\|language\=pl}} They qualified for the final placing 8th with 70 points, making it only the second time Poland has qualified for the final since 2008\. [Donatan](/wiki/Donatan "Donatan") and [Cleo](/wiki/Cleo_%28Polish_singer%29 "Cleo (Polish singer)") performed 9th in the final and ended up placing 14th out of 26, with 62 points. The duo fared clearly better with the televoters, finishing third in the semi\-final and 5th in the final respectively.
In 2015 TVP has selected their entry internally again by choosing [Monika Kuszyńska](/wiki/Monika_Kuszy%C5%84ska "Monika Kuszyńska") and her song "[In the Name of Love](/wiki/In_the_Name_of_Love_%28Monika_Kuszy%C5%84ska_song%29 "In the Name of Love (Monika Kuszyńska song)")". She was the first ever Eurovision participant to sit in a wheelchair during her performance, due to the fact that she was paralyzed after being involved in a serious car accident in 2006\. Kuszyńska performed last in the second semi\-final on 21 May 2015 and qualified for the final placing 8th with 57 points. In the final, she came 23rd out of 27 acts, receiving ten points. Alike Donatan and Cleo, she fared clearly better with the televoters, coming fourth in the semi\-final and 15th in the final respectively.
At the beginning of October 2015, TVP confirmed its participation in the 61st Eurovision Song Contest. Although the original representative of the country was to be selected internally by the station's management, on January 26, 2016, TVP1 director informed that the Polish representative will be selected through national final. Because of this, the *Krajowe Eliminacje* returned in 2016\. [Edyta Górniak](/wiki/Edyta_G%C3%B3rniak "Edyta Górniak") and some of the biggest Polish music acts, such as [Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_%28singer%29 "Margaret (singer)"), [Natalia Szroeder](/wiki/Natalia_Szroeder "Natalia Szroeder") took part in the competition with [Michał Szpak](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Szpak "Michał Szpak") winning it. Szpak performed second in the second semi\-final on 12 May 2016, and qualified for the final by finishing in sixth place, with 151 points. In the final, held on 14 May 2016, he performed 12th and placed 8th out of 26 acts, with 229 points, which gave Poland their third best result ever.
In 2017, TVP decided to host the second edition of the national final, the interest for turned out to be smaller. [Kasia Moś](/wiki/Kasia_Mo%C5%9B "Kasia Moś") and her song "[Flashlight](/wiki/Flashlight_%28Kasia_Mo%C5%9B_song%29 "Flashlight (Kasia Moś song)")" was announced as a winner. Moś performed 11th in the first semi\-final on 9 May 2017\. She qualified for the final placing 9th with 119 points. In the final, held on 13 May 2017, she performed 2nd and came 22nd out of 26 acts with 64 points total.
Poland's run of qualifications came to an end in 2018, when the song "[Light Me Up](/wiki/Light_Me_Up_%28Gromee_song%29 "Light Me Up (Gromee song)")" by Polish DJ [Gromee](/wiki/Gromee "Gromee") and Swedish vocalist [Lukas Meijer](/wiki/Lukas_Meijer "Lukas Meijer"), again chosen during the national final, failed to qualify to the final by placing 14th with 81 points in the second semi\-final. It is the first Polish entry since its return to the contest in 2014, not to qualify for the final.
In 2019, TVP returned to an internal selection, after a successful internal choice of [Roksana Węgiel](/wiki/Roksana_W%C4%99giel "Roksana Węgiel") who won the [Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018](/wiki/Junior_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2018 "Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018"). On 15 February 2019, it was announced that TVP has chosen [Tulia](/wiki/Tulia_%28band%29 "Tulia (band)") to represent Poland in Tel Aviv. However Poland failed to qualify for the grand final by placing 11th with 120 points in the first semi\-final only 2 points behind Belarus.
In 2020, TVP used the talent show *[Szansa na Sukces](/wiki/Szansa_na_Sukces "Szansa na Sukces")* to select the Polish artist and song, having used the show to select the song "[Superhero](/wiki/Superhero_%28Viki_Gabor_song%29 "Superhero (Viki Gabor song)")" performed by [Viki Gabor](/wiki/Viki_Gabor "Viki Gabor") for the [Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019](/wiki/Junior_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2019 "Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019"), which went on to win.{{cite web\|url\=https://eurovoix.com/2020/01/02/poland\-szansa\-na\-sukces\-to\-select\-eurovision\-2020\-entrant/\|title\=Poland: Szansa na Sukces to Select Eurovision 2020 Entrant\|website\=eurovoix.com\|date\=2 January 2020\|first\=Neil\|last\=Farren}} [Alicja Szemplińska](/wiki/Alicja_Szempli%C5%84ska "Alicja Szemplińska") won the national final with the song "[Empires](/wiki/Empires_%28Alicja_Szempli%C5%84ska_song%29 "Empires (Alicja Szemplińska song)")", winning both the public and the jury vote. However, the 2020 contest was later cancelled due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").
In 2021, TVP used an internal selection. On 12 March 2021 during the [TVP2](/wiki/TVP2 "TVP2") programme *Pytanie na śniadanie* it was announced that [Rafał Brzozowski](/wiki/Rafa%C5%82_Brzozowski "Rafał Brzozowski") would represent the country with the song "[The Ride](/wiki/The_Ride_%28Rafa%C5%82_Brzozowski_song%29 "The Ride (Rafał Brzozowski song)")". Poland failed to qualify for the final, placing 14th with 35 points in the second semi\-final.
In 2022, TVP used the national final *[Tu bije serce Europy! Wybieramy hit na Eurowizję](/wiki/Poland_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2022 "Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022")* to select its entry. The national final was held on 19 February 2022, with 10 entries competing, and was won by [Ochman](/wiki/Krystian_Ochman "Krystian Ochman") with "[River](/wiki/River_%28Ochman_song%29 "River (Ochman song)")". Ochman performed 14th in the second semi\-final on 12 May 2022\. He qualified for the final placing 6th with 198 points. In the final, held on 14 May 2022, he performed 23rd, where he placed 12th with 151 points.
In 2023, *[Tu bije serce Europy! Wybieramy hit na Eurowizję](/wiki/Poland_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2023 "Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023")* was again used to select the Polish entry. The national final took place on 26 February 2023, where [Blanka](/wiki/Blanka_Stajkow "Blanka Stajkow") won with the song "[Solo](/wiki/Solo_%28Blanka_song%29 "Solo (Blanka song)")". Her victory was met with a negative reception among Polish media and Eurovision fans. Blanka presented herself for the first time during the second semi\-final of the competition on 11 May and qualified for the final from third place after scoring 124 points, the best result for Poland in a semi\-final to date. In the final, she performed fourth and she finished in 19th place with 93 points.
In 2024, the broadcaster reverted to an internal selection process.{{cite web\|url\=https://eurovisionfun.com/en/2024/01/poland\-applications\-for\-malmo\-now\-open/\|last\=Ampatzidis\|first\=Ioannis\|title\=Poland: Applications for Malmö now open!\|work\=Eurovisionfun\|date\=2024\-01\-09\|access\-date\=2024\-01\-09}} On 19 February it was announced that Luna would represent Poland with "The Tower". She performed sixth in the first semi\-final on 7 May, failing to qualify, and ultimately finishing 12th with 35 points.
|
[
"### Return",
"TVP, the Polish national broadcaster has confirmed on 5 December 2013 that Poland will return to the Eurovision Song Contest in 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.esctoday.com/69854/tvp\\-poland/\\|title \\= Eurovision Song Contest 2022 news by esctoday \\- Turin Italy}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvp.pl/o\\-tvp/centrum\\-prasowe/komunikaty\\-prasowe/tvp\\-znow\\-w\\-konkursie\\-eurowizji/13230106\\|title \\= Centrum Informacji \\- Telewizja Polska S.A. \\- TVP.pl}} On 25 February, it was announced that [Donatan](/wiki/Donatan \"Donatan\") and [Cleo](/wiki/Cleo_%28Polish_singer%29 \"Cleo (Polish singer)\") would represent Poland with their song \"[My Słowianie](/wiki/My_S%C5%82owianie \"My Słowianie\")\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvp.pl/o\\-tvp/centrum\\-prasowe/komunikaty\\-prasowe/my\\-slowianie\\-na\\-eurowizji/14156701\\|title\\=My, Słowianie na Eurowizji\\|date\\=25 February 2014\\|access\\-date\\=25 February 2014\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Telewizja Polska\\|Tvp.pl]]\\|language\\=pl}} They qualified for the final placing 8th with 70 points, making it only the second time Poland has qualified for the final since 2008\\. [Donatan](/wiki/Donatan \"Donatan\") and [Cleo](/wiki/Cleo_%28Polish_singer%29 \"Cleo (Polish singer)\") performed 9th in the final and ended up placing 14th out of 26, with 62 points. The duo fared clearly better with the televoters, finishing third in the semi\\-final and 5th in the final respectively.",
"In 2015 TVP has selected their entry internally again by choosing [Monika Kuszyńska](/wiki/Monika_Kuszy%C5%84ska \"Monika Kuszyńska\") and her song \"[In the Name of Love](/wiki/In_the_Name_of_Love_%28Monika_Kuszy%C5%84ska_song%29 \"In the Name of Love (Monika Kuszyńska song)\")\". She was the first ever Eurovision participant to sit in a wheelchair during her performance, due to the fact that she was paralyzed after being involved in a serious car accident in 2006\\. Kuszyńska performed last in the second semi\\-final on 21 May 2015 and qualified for the final placing 8th with 57 points. In the final, she came 23rd out of 27 acts, receiving ten points. Alike Donatan and Cleo, she fared clearly better with the televoters, coming fourth in the semi\\-final and 15th in the final respectively.",
"At the beginning of October 2015, TVP confirmed its participation in the 61st Eurovision Song Contest. Although the original representative of the country was to be selected internally by the station's management, on January 26, 2016, TVP1 director informed that the Polish representative will be selected through national final. Because of this, the *Krajowe Eliminacje* returned in 2016\\. [Edyta Górniak](/wiki/Edyta_G%C3%B3rniak \"Edyta Górniak\") and some of the biggest Polish music acts, such as [Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_%28singer%29 \"Margaret (singer)\"), [Natalia Szroeder](/wiki/Natalia_Szroeder \"Natalia Szroeder\") took part in the competition with [Michał Szpak](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Szpak \"Michał Szpak\") winning it. Szpak performed second in the second semi\\-final on 12 May 2016, and qualified for the final by finishing in sixth place, with 151 points. In the final, held on 14 May 2016, he performed 12th and placed 8th out of 26 acts, with 229 points, which gave Poland their third best result ever.",
"In 2017, TVP decided to host the second edition of the national final, the interest for turned out to be smaller. [Kasia Moś](/wiki/Kasia_Mo%C5%9B \"Kasia Moś\") and her song \"[Flashlight](/wiki/Flashlight_%28Kasia_Mo%C5%9B_song%29 \"Flashlight (Kasia Moś song)\")\" was announced as a winner. Moś performed 11th in the first semi\\-final on 9 May 2017\\. She qualified for the final placing 9th with 119 points. In the final, held on 13 May 2017, she performed 2nd and came 22nd out of 26 acts with 64 points total.",
"Poland's run of qualifications came to an end in 2018, when the song \"[Light Me Up](/wiki/Light_Me_Up_%28Gromee_song%29 \"Light Me Up (Gromee song)\")\" by Polish DJ [Gromee](/wiki/Gromee \"Gromee\") and Swedish vocalist [Lukas Meijer](/wiki/Lukas_Meijer \"Lukas Meijer\"), again chosen during the national final, failed to qualify to the final by placing 14th with 81 points in the second semi\\-final. It is the first Polish entry since its return to the contest in 2014, not to qualify for the final.",
"In 2019, TVP returned to an internal selection, after a successful internal choice of [Roksana Węgiel](/wiki/Roksana_W%C4%99giel \"Roksana Węgiel\") who won the [Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018](/wiki/Junior_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2018 \"Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018\"). On 15 February 2019, it was announced that TVP has chosen [Tulia](/wiki/Tulia_%28band%29 \"Tulia (band)\") to represent Poland in Tel Aviv. However Poland failed to qualify for the grand final by placing 11th with 120 points in the first semi\\-final only 2 points behind Belarus.",
"In 2020, TVP used the talent show *[Szansa na Sukces](/wiki/Szansa_na_Sukces \"Szansa na Sukces\")* to select the Polish artist and song, having used the show to select the song \"[Superhero](/wiki/Superhero_%28Viki_Gabor_song%29 \"Superhero (Viki Gabor song)\")\" performed by [Viki Gabor](/wiki/Viki_Gabor \"Viki Gabor\") for the [Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019](/wiki/Junior_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2019 \"Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2019\"), which went on to win.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://eurovoix.com/2020/01/02/poland\\-szansa\\-na\\-sukces\\-to\\-select\\-eurovision\\-2020\\-entrant/\\|title\\=Poland: Szansa na Sukces to Select Eurovision 2020 Entrant\\|website\\=eurovoix.com\\|date\\=2 January 2020\\|first\\=Neil\\|last\\=Farren}} [Alicja Szemplińska](/wiki/Alicja_Szempli%C5%84ska \"Alicja Szemplińska\") won the national final with the song \"[Empires](/wiki/Empires_%28Alicja_Szempli%C5%84ska_song%29 \"Empires (Alicja Szemplińska song)\")\", winning both the public and the jury vote. However, the 2020 contest was later cancelled due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").",
"In 2021, TVP used an internal selection. On 12 March 2021 during the [TVP2](/wiki/TVP2 \"TVP2\") programme *Pytanie na śniadanie* it was announced that [Rafał Brzozowski](/wiki/Rafa%C5%82_Brzozowski \"Rafał Brzozowski\") would represent the country with the song \"[The Ride](/wiki/The_Ride_%28Rafa%C5%82_Brzozowski_song%29 \"The Ride (Rafał Brzozowski song)\")\". Poland failed to qualify for the final, placing 14th with 35 points in the second semi\\-final.",
"In 2022, TVP used the national final *[Tu bije serce Europy! Wybieramy hit na Eurowizję](/wiki/Poland_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2022 \"Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022\")* to select its entry. The national final was held on 19 February 2022, with 10 entries competing, and was won by [Ochman](/wiki/Krystian_Ochman \"Krystian Ochman\") with \"[River](/wiki/River_%28Ochman_song%29 \"River (Ochman song)\")\". Ochman performed 14th in the second semi\\-final on 12 May 2022\\. He qualified for the final placing 6th with 198 points. In the final, held on 14 May 2022, he performed 23rd, where he placed 12th with 151 points.",
"In 2023, *[Tu bije serce Europy! Wybieramy hit na Eurowizję](/wiki/Poland_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2023 \"Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023\")* was again used to select the Polish entry. The national final took place on 26 February 2023, where [Blanka](/wiki/Blanka_Stajkow \"Blanka Stajkow\") won with the song \"[Solo](/wiki/Solo_%28Blanka_song%29 \"Solo (Blanka song)\")\". Her victory was met with a negative reception among Polish media and Eurovision fans. Blanka presented herself for the first time during the second semi\\-final of the competition on 11 May and qualified for the final from third place after scoring 124 points, the best result for Poland in a semi\\-final to date. In the final, she performed fourth and she finished in 19th place with 93 points.",
"In 2024, the broadcaster reverted to an internal selection process.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://eurovisionfun.com/en/2024/01/poland\\-applications\\-for\\-malmo\\-now\\-open/\\|last\\=Ampatzidis\\|first\\=Ioannis\\|title\\=Poland: Applications for Malmö now open!\\|work\\=Eurovisionfun\\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-09\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-09}} On 19 February it was announced that Luna would represent Poland with \"The Tower\". She performed sixth in the first semi\\-final on 7 May, failing to qualify, and ultimately finishing 12th with 35 points.",
""
] |
Extracurricular activities
--------------------------
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=June 2015}}
Quest Academy's middle school athletic teams include boys' and girls' cross country, basketball, soccer, volleyball, and track.
The student council program is called the Knight Program. To become a knight, students must be courteous and follow twelve specified character traits while also doing a "knight" project. School\-wide "pageant" assemblies are held where new knights and "squires" are recognized. To be a knight or squire, you must demonstrate the character traits.
Choir is a required subject through fifth grade, but many students choose to continue through eighth grade, with nearly two\-thirds of the fifth through eighth\-grade students participating. There are three choirs at Quest: The Benton Street Boys (Boys only), Bella Voce (girls only), and Chamber, though Chamber is the only auditioned choir. As a part of the curriculum, eighth\-graders are required to perform in a musical. Past musicals include "Beauty and the Beast", "Peter Pan" and "Mary Poppins".
Quest also competes in several math competitions, including [The Latin School of Chicago](/wiki/The_Latin_School_of_Chicago "The Latin School of Chicago"), [AMC 8](/wiki/AMC_8 "AMC 8") and [Mathcounts](/wiki/Mathcounts "Mathcounts").
Quest Academy gifted curriculum covers mathematics, LASS (Language Arts and Social Studies are not combined in middle school), art, drama, science, music, Spanish, technology, and library. Elective trimester\-long classes are also offered several days a week.
Middle School students may participate in weekly flexes{{clarify\|date\=March 2021}}, furthering their knowledge of the arts.
|
[
"Extracurricular activities\n--------------------------",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=June 2015}}\nQuest Academy's middle school athletic teams include boys' and girls' cross country, basketball, soccer, volleyball, and track.",
"The student council program is called the Knight Program. To become a knight, students must be courteous and follow twelve specified character traits while also doing a \"knight\" project. School\\-wide \"pageant\" assemblies are held where new knights and \"squires\" are recognized. To be a knight or squire, you must demonstrate the character traits.",
"Choir is a required subject through fifth grade, but many students choose to continue through eighth grade, with nearly two\\-thirds of the fifth through eighth\\-grade students participating. There are three choirs at Quest: The Benton Street Boys (Boys only), Bella Voce (girls only), and Chamber, though Chamber is the only auditioned choir. As a part of the curriculum, eighth\\-graders are required to perform in a musical. Past musicals include \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"Peter Pan\" and \"Mary Poppins\".",
"Quest also competes in several math competitions, including [The Latin School of Chicago](/wiki/The_Latin_School_of_Chicago \"The Latin School of Chicago\"), [AMC 8](/wiki/AMC_8 \"AMC 8\") and [Mathcounts](/wiki/Mathcounts \"Mathcounts\").",
"Quest Academy gifted curriculum covers mathematics, LASS (Language Arts and Social Studies are not combined in middle school), art, drama, science, music, Spanish, technology, and library. Elective trimester\\-long classes are also offered several days a week.",
"Middle School students may participate in weekly flexes{{clarify\\|date\\=March 2021}}, furthering their knowledge of the arts.",
""
] |
Priesthood
----------
Ġużepp studied in the Gozo Major Seminary under the Jesuits. He was admired for his brilliant mind and for his prudence and profound spirituality. He was ordained by the Bishop of Gozo [Giovanni Maria Camilleri](/wiki/Giovanni_Maria_Camilleri "Giovanni Maria Camilleri") in the Gozo Cathedral on 21 December 1907\. As a young priest, Reverend Portelli exercised his pastoral ministry in the village of San Lawrenz, where his eldest brother, Monsignor Salv Portelli, served as parish priest.
When the Jesuits left the Gozo Seminary with a view to open a similar college in Malta, Reverend Portelli, who had become a lecturer at the Seminary, was called by Bishop Camilleri to become one of the new superiors of the Seminary and was made Vice Rector. Other superiors were Reverend Alfons Hili, who was the Rector, and Reverend Joseph Farrugia, who was the Prefect of Studies. Reverend Portelli was also made a Monsignor of the cathedral chapter.
Monsignor Portelli was also a renowned preacher who was often invited to deliver sermons and spiritual exercises in several churches in Malta and Gozo. Once, during Lent, was asked to preach to the Maltese Community of Tripoli. Monsignor Portelli was also confessor of the Franciscan and Dominican Sisters of Victoria.
Every Saturday evening, Monsignor Portelli used to go to Ta 'Pinu to celebrate mass. During this time his brother, Monsignor Karm Portelli was Archpriest of the Collegiate church of Gharb. Monsignor Portelli served as administrator of Ghasri, Nadur, Qala and Ta 'Sannat when the post of parish priest became vacant.
In 1933, several centres of [Catholic Action](/wiki/Catholic_Action "Catholic Action") started to emerge in [Gozo](/wiki/Gozo "Gozo") and Monsignor Portelli became the Spiritual Director of the branch of [Għarb](/wiki/G%C4%A7arb "Għarb"). Here he used to give religious lessons and organized retreats for its members.["Ta' Pinu National Shrine \- Gozo, Malta"](https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=616686851765822&id=173440436090468&substory_index=0), Malta, 07 March 2015\. Retrieved on 30 May 2015\.
Apart from his pastoral duties he also wrote a number of theatrical plays and even music notes. Portelli became rector of the chapel of Ta’ Pinu and he is still remembered as the person who commissioned the building of the new church of Ta’ Pinu on 30 May 1922\. The church was completed in 1932 and consecrated on August 31 of the same year in the presence of Monsignor Portelli. Monsignor Portelli died on March 7, 1949, after a brief illness. He was buried in Għarb Cemetery. On June 16, 2008, the remains of Monsignor Portelli were reburied inside the Basilica of [Ta' Pinu](/wiki/Ta%27_Pinu "Ta' Pinu").["From Chapel to Basilica"](http://www.tapinu-australia.org/our_foundation/from-chapel-to-basilica/). Retrieved on 30 May 2015\.
|
[
"Priesthood\n----------",
"Ġużepp studied in the Gozo Major Seminary under the Jesuits. He was admired for his brilliant mind and for his prudence and profound spirituality. He was ordained by the Bishop of Gozo [Giovanni Maria Camilleri](/wiki/Giovanni_Maria_Camilleri \"Giovanni Maria Camilleri\") in the Gozo Cathedral on 21 December 1907\\. As a young priest, Reverend Portelli exercised his pastoral ministry in the village of San Lawrenz, where his eldest brother, Monsignor Salv Portelli, served as parish priest.",
"When the Jesuits left the Gozo Seminary with a view to open a similar college in Malta, Reverend Portelli, who had become a lecturer at the Seminary, was called by Bishop Camilleri to become one of the new superiors of the Seminary and was made Vice Rector. Other superiors were Reverend Alfons Hili, who was the Rector, and Reverend Joseph Farrugia, who was the Prefect of Studies. Reverend Portelli was also made a Monsignor of the cathedral chapter.",
"Monsignor Portelli was also a renowned preacher who was often invited to deliver sermons and spiritual exercises in several churches in Malta and Gozo. Once, during Lent, was asked to preach to the Maltese Community of Tripoli. Monsignor Portelli was also confessor of the Franciscan and Dominican Sisters of Victoria.",
"Every Saturday evening, Monsignor Portelli used to go to Ta 'Pinu to celebrate mass. During this time his brother, Monsignor Karm Portelli was Archpriest of the Collegiate church of Gharb. Monsignor Portelli served as administrator of Ghasri, Nadur, Qala and Ta 'Sannat when the post of parish priest became vacant.",
"In 1933, several centres of [Catholic Action](/wiki/Catholic_Action \"Catholic Action\") started to emerge in [Gozo](/wiki/Gozo \"Gozo\") and Monsignor Portelli became the Spiritual Director of the branch of [Għarb](/wiki/G%C4%A7arb \"Għarb\"). Here he used to give religious lessons and organized retreats for its members.[\"Ta' Pinu National Shrine \\- Gozo, Malta\"](https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=616686851765822&id=173440436090468&substory_index=0), Malta, 07 March 2015\\. Retrieved on 30 May 2015\\.",
"Apart from his pastoral duties he also wrote a number of theatrical plays and even music notes. Portelli became rector of the chapel of Ta’ Pinu and he is still remembered as the person who commissioned the building of the new church of Ta’ Pinu on 30 May 1922\\. The church was completed in 1932 and consecrated on August 31 of the same year in the presence of Monsignor Portelli. Monsignor Portelli died on March 7, 1949, after a brief illness. He was buried in Għarb Cemetery. On June 16, 2008, the remains of Monsignor Portelli were reburied inside the Basilica of [Ta' Pinu](/wiki/Ta%27_Pinu \"Ta' Pinu\").[\"From Chapel to Basilica\"](http://www.tapinu-australia.org/our_foundation/from-chapel-to-basilica/). Retrieved on 30 May 2015\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|235px\|left\|The facade of the Convent of Santo António oriented to the Garden of São Lázaro](/wiki/File:Biblioteca_Municipal_Porto-01.jpg "Biblioteca Municipal Porto-01.jpg")
[thumb\|235px\|left\|Exterior facade of the convent/public library](/wiki/File:Biblioteca_publica_municipal_do_Porto.jpg "Biblioteca publica municipal do Porto.jpg")
[thumb\|235px\|left\|Entrance to the cloister of the convent](/wiki/File:Biblioteca_Municipal_do_Porto_patio.jpg "Biblioteca Municipal do Porto patio.jpg")
In 1747, a hospice was founded in the city of Porto to the invocation of *Nossa Senhora da Conceição* (*Our Lady of the Conception*), by the [Minor Reformed Friars of St. Francis](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin "Order of Friars Minor Capuchin"), or [Capuchos of the Province of Conceiçaõ](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor "Order of Friars Minor").{{citation \|url\=http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP\_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id\=5418 \|title\=Convento de Santo António da Cidade/Edifício da Biblioteca Pública Municipal do Porto (IPA.00005418/PT011312120035\) \|publisher\=SIPA – Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico \|editor\=SIPA \|location\=Lisbon, Portugal \|language\=Portuguese \|first\=Isabel \|last\=Sereno \|first2\=Ana \|last2\=Filipe \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=22 October 2016}}
Two years later, a chapel was constructed by Dionísio Verney in the field of São Lázaro, that was later acquired by the religious friars for the hospice. Between 1779 and 1780, Queen D. [Maria I](/wiki/Maria_I_of_Portugal "Maria I of Portugal") conceded to the Franciscans authorization to found a Regular Hospice in the city of Porto. On 26 November 1780, António José Mendes Guimarães sold the *"public chapel with mystical houses with it"* and other lands and houses in the field of São Lázaro, to the Franciscans. The community of Franciscans of the Province of Conceição transferred from the houses of *Rua de Santa Catarina* to the building in São Lázaro on 30 November 1780\. On 26 May 1781\. there was a petition by the municipal council to occupy the land of São Lázaro to continue the services of a religious hospice.
In 1783, the convent of Santo António was founded in São Lázaro, by the religious minor reformed friars of St. Francis.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.patrimoniocultural.gov.pt/pt/patrimonio/patrimonio\-imovel/pesquisa\-do\-patrimonio/classificado\-ou\-em\-vias\-de\-classificacao/geral/view/73483 \|title\=Edifício onde se encontra instalada a Biblioteca Pública Municipal do Porto \|editor\=IGESPAR \|access\-date\=16 April 2017 \|year\=2016 \|location\=Lisbon, Portugal \|publisher\=IGESPAR\-Instituto de Gestão do Património Arquitectónico e Arqueológico \|language\=Portuguese \|first\=Rosário \|last\=Carvalho}} The convent building was not yet concluded (although the fountain in the cloister dates to this period) when in 1789 Father Agostinho Rebelo da Costa indicated the building was would be the largest convent in the city. In two years time the hospice became a convent and capital house.
In April 1809, the convent began to operate as a hospital for French troops during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War") and then on 20 May designated for Portuguese troops.
In July 1831, the convent was abandoned by the last religious friar and occupied by English troops supporting the Liberal monarchy.
On 9 July 1833, the *Real Biblioteca do Porto* (*Royal Library of Porto*) was established by decree of King D. [Pedro](/wiki/Peter_I_of_Portugal "Peter I of Portugal"), which was initially lodged in the *Hospício de Santo António do Vale da Piedade*, Cordoaria and the Episcopal Palace of Porto.
In 1834, the religious orders were extinguished, even as the convent had not been concluded. Temporarily, the *Museu Nacional dos Reis* (*National Museum of the Kings*) stored their collections in the dependencies of the former\-convent, with access coming from the cloister.
The creation of the *Escola de Belas Artes do Porto* (*Porto School of Fine Arts*), by [Passos Manuel](/wiki/Passos_Manuel "Passos Manuel"), resulted in the use of the convent's terrace for their activities, and the institutions move in 1836\.
Provisionally, in September 1836, the Royal Library was open in the Episcopal Palace.
The former\-convent of Santo António was donated to the Municipal Council of Porto on 30 July 1839, resulting in the move of the *Royal Library*. On 4 April 1842, the Royal Library was definitively installed in the former hospital.
Between 1929 and 1932, Hispano\-Moorish azulejos from the Convent of Santa Clara, in Vila do Conde were moved to the public library.
In addition to the diverse basis for the library's collection (manuscripts, special editions, etc.) the public library became a depository for many azulejo tiles from religious convents, which were collected in the entrance to the cloister. Among the panels saved were those from the second half of 18th century, from the Convent of São Bartolomeu of Coimbra, another two from the refectory from the monastery of São Bento da Vitória,Quaresma (1995\) the Convent of Santa Clara and the Monastery of São Bento de Avé\-Maria.Santos (1979\), p.109
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|235px\\|left\\|The facade of the Convent of Santo António oriented to the Garden of São Lázaro](/wiki/File:Biblioteca_Municipal_Porto-01.jpg \"Biblioteca Municipal Porto-01.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|235px\\|left\\|Exterior facade of the convent/public library](/wiki/File:Biblioteca_publica_municipal_do_Porto.jpg \"Biblioteca publica municipal do Porto.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|235px\\|left\\|Entrance to the cloister of the convent](/wiki/File:Biblioteca_Municipal_do_Porto_patio.jpg \"Biblioteca Municipal do Porto patio.jpg\")\nIn 1747, a hospice was founded in the city of Porto to the invocation of *Nossa Senhora da Conceição* (*Our Lady of the Conception*), by the [Minor Reformed Friars of St. Francis](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin \"Order of Friars Minor Capuchin\"), or [Capuchos of the Province of Conceiçaõ](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor \"Order of Friars Minor\").{{citation \\|url\\=http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP\\_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id\\=5418 \\|title\\=Convento de Santo António da Cidade/Edifício da Biblioteca Pública Municipal do Porto (IPA.00005418/PT011312120035\\) \\|publisher\\=SIPA – Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico \\|editor\\=SIPA \\|location\\=Lisbon, Portugal \\|language\\=Portuguese \\|first\\=Isabel \\|last\\=Sereno \\|first2\\=Ana \\|last2\\=Filipe \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=22 October 2016}}",
"Two years later, a chapel was constructed by Dionísio Verney in the field of São Lázaro, that was later acquired by the religious friars for the hospice. Between 1779 and 1780, Queen D. [Maria I](/wiki/Maria_I_of_Portugal \"Maria I of Portugal\") conceded to the Franciscans authorization to found a Regular Hospice in the city of Porto. On 26 November 1780, António José Mendes Guimarães sold the *\"public chapel with mystical houses with it\"* and other lands and houses in the field of São Lázaro, to the Franciscans. The community of Franciscans of the Province of Conceição transferred from the houses of *Rua de Santa Catarina* to the building in São Lázaro on 30 November 1780\\. On 26 May 1781\\. there was a petition by the municipal council to occupy the land of São Lázaro to continue the services of a religious hospice.",
"In 1783, the convent of Santo António was founded in São Lázaro, by the religious minor reformed friars of St. Francis.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.patrimoniocultural.gov.pt/pt/patrimonio/patrimonio\\-imovel/pesquisa\\-do\\-patrimonio/classificado\\-ou\\-em\\-vias\\-de\\-classificacao/geral/view/73483 \\|title\\=Edifício onde se encontra instalada a Biblioteca Pública Municipal do Porto \\|editor\\=IGESPAR \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2017 \\|year\\=2016 \\|location\\=Lisbon, Portugal \\|publisher\\=IGESPAR\\-Instituto de Gestão do Património Arquitectónico e Arqueológico \\|language\\=Portuguese \\|first\\=Rosário \\|last\\=Carvalho}} The convent building was not yet concluded (although the fountain in the cloister dates to this period) when in 1789 Father Agostinho Rebelo da Costa indicated the building was would be the largest convent in the city. In two years time the hospice became a convent and capital house.",
"In April 1809, the convent began to operate as a hospital for French troops during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\") and then on 20 May designated for Portuguese troops.",
"In July 1831, the convent was abandoned by the last religious friar and occupied by English troops supporting the Liberal monarchy.",
"On 9 July 1833, the *Real Biblioteca do Porto* (*Royal Library of Porto*) was established by decree of King D. [Pedro](/wiki/Peter_I_of_Portugal \"Peter I of Portugal\"), which was initially lodged in the *Hospício de Santo António do Vale da Piedade*, Cordoaria and the Episcopal Palace of Porto.",
"In 1834, the religious orders were extinguished, even as the convent had not been concluded. Temporarily, the *Museu Nacional dos Reis* (*National Museum of the Kings*) stored their collections in the dependencies of the former\\-convent, with access coming from the cloister.",
"The creation of the *Escola de Belas Artes do Porto* (*Porto School of Fine Arts*), by [Passos Manuel](/wiki/Passos_Manuel \"Passos Manuel\"), resulted in the use of the convent's terrace for their activities, and the institutions move in 1836\\.",
"Provisionally, in September 1836, the Royal Library was open in the Episcopal Palace.",
"The former\\-convent of Santo António was donated to the Municipal Council of Porto on 30 July 1839, resulting in the move of the *Royal Library*. On 4 April 1842, the Royal Library was definitively installed in the former hospital.",
"Between 1929 and 1932, Hispano\\-Moorish azulejos from the Convent of Santa Clara, in Vila do Conde were moved to the public library.",
"In addition to the diverse basis for the library's collection (manuscripts, special editions, etc.) the public library became a depository for many azulejo tiles from religious convents, which were collected in the entrance to the cloister. Among the panels saved were those from the second half of 18th century, from the Convent of São Bartolomeu of Coimbra, another two from the refectory from the monastery of São Bento da Vitória,Quaresma (1995\\) the Convent of Santa Clara and the Monastery of São Bento de Avé\\-Maria.Santos (1979\\), p.109",
""
] |
Results
-------
Danish champion ([DGI](/wiki/Danske_Gymnastik-_%26_Idr%C3%A6tsforeninger "Danske Gymnastik- & Idrætsforeninger")\-Landsmester) in short distance 50 meter freestyle swimming and vice Danish champion in 100 meter backstroke swimming. In 2018 she again wins gold at the Danish Championship DOM\-L Masters in 100 m Backstroke, 50 m and 100 m Freestyle.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.jv.dk/navneaabenraa/Nahids\-stop\-knap\-er\-defekt\-Flerfoldig\-verdensmester\-kaemper\-sig\-tilbage/artikel/2627449\|title\=Nahids stop\-knap er defekt: Flerfoldig verdensmester kæmper sig tilbage\|date\=2018\-07\-13}}
Since she was 6 years she was also a dedicated dressage and jumping rider and warmblood horse breeder.
In 2005 to 2008 working as sailcoach for [Roland Gaebler](/wiki/Roland_Gaebler "Roland Gaebler") and Gunnar Struckmann in their last Olympic campaign 2008 in the Tornado class.
In May 2009 Nahid and Roland Gaebler starts to sail Tornado together, this team is now named Team Gaebler.
Together they fight to get the multihull and later the Tornado back on the olympic program.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thedailysail.com/dinghy/11/58593/0/nahid\-gaebler\-interview\|title\= Nahid Gaebler interview \- The Daily Sail\|author\=James Boyd\|work\=The Daily Sail}}
Tornado German Open Champion in 2009,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yacht.de/sport/news/gaebler\-gewinnt\-souveraen/a8391\.html\|title\=Gäbler gewinnt souverän \- YACHT.DE\|author\=Yacht Magazin\|work\=YACHT.de}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailinganarchy.de/html/sa\-08\-2009\.html\|title\=August 2009\|work\=sailinganarchy.de}} 2011,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.lsc.de/lsc\-news/43\-news\-2011/358\-wind\-sonne\-und\-ein\-zufriedener\-roland\-gaebler.html \|title\=Wind, Sonne und ein zufriedener Roland Gäbler \|access\-date\=2014\-05\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223456/http://www.lsc.de/lsc\-news/43\-news\-2011/358\-wind\-sonne\-und\-ein\-zufriedener\-roland\-gaebler.html \|archive\-date\=2014\-05\-08 \|url\-status\=dead }} 2014,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tornado\-class.org/2014\-torbole\-trophy\-and\-german\-open/\|title\=2014 Torbole Trophy and German Open\|author\=Andrew Dowley\|work\=International Tornado Class Association\|date\=14 September 2014 }} 2015{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nrv.de/aktuell/news/artikel/news///team\-gaebler\-gewinnt\-german\-open\-im\-tornado/\|title\=Team Gäbler gewinnt German Open im Tornado\|work\=nrv.de\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726091025/http://www.nrv.de/aktuell/news/artikel/news///team\-gaebler\-gewinnt\-german\-open\-im\-tornado/\|archive\-date\=2015\-07\-26\|url\-status\=dead}} and in 2016\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tornado\-class.org/2016\-german\-championship\-final\-day/\|title\=2016 German championship final day\|date\=May 2016 }}
Tornado German Open Mixed Champion in 2010\-2011, 2013\-2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tornado\-class.org/2013\-german\-national\-championships/\|title\=2013 German National Championships\|author\=Andrew Dowley\|work\=International Tornado Class Association\|date\=7 July 2013 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scff.de/news\-idm.htm\|title\=IDM Tornado 2013\|work\=scff.de\|access\-date\=2014\-05\-08\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709084929/http://www.scff.de/news\-idm.htm\|archive\-date\=2014\-07\-09\|url\-status\=dead}}
Open Tornado European Champion in 2013{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vorarlbergernachrichten.at/sport/2013/05/21/ein\-wurdiger\-titeltrager.vn\|title\=Ein würdiger Titelträger\|work\=Vorarlberger Nachrichten}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/169603/Tornado\-Europeans\-at\-Lake\-Constance\-overall\|title\=2013 Tornado European Championships at Lake Constance Overall\|work\=Yachts and Yachting Online}}{{cite web\|url\=http://sailracewin.blogspot.dk/2013/05/team\-gaebler\-double\-european\-champions.html\|title\=SailRaceWin: Team Gaebler : Double European Champions in Tornado (Open \& Mixed divisions)\|work\=sailracewin.blogspot.dk\|date\=22 May 2013 }} and 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/183530/Tornado\-Europeans\-overall\|title\=Tornado Europeans at Lake Lipno, Czech Republic \- Overall\|work\=Yachts and Yachting Online}}
Open Tornado Vice European Champion in 2010,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/gaeblers\-werden\-vize\-europameister/a9793\.html\|title\=Gäblers werden Vize\-Europameister \- YACHT.DE\|author\=Yacht Magazin\|work\=YACHT.de}} 2011,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/ehepaar\-gaebler\-ist\-nicht\-zu\-bremsen/a64281\.html\|title\=Ehepaar Gäbler ist nicht zu bremsen \- YACHT.DE\|author\=Yacht Magazin\|work\=YACHT.de}} 2012, 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yacht.de/sport/news/em\-titel\-nr\-13\-fuer\-tornado\-ass\-gaebler/a90419\.html\|title\=EM\-Titel Nr. 13 für Tornado\-Ass Gäbler \- YACHT.DE\|author\=Yacht Magazin\|work\=YACHT.de}}
Tornado Mixed European Champion in 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tornado\-class.org/category/events/european\-championships/\|title\=European Championships Archives \- International Tornado Class Association\|work\=International Tornado Class Association}} and in 2015\.
Open Tornado World Champion in 2010 in Travemünde, Germany.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailing.org/news/9451\.php\|title\=News \& Features \- ISAF \- World Sailing \- Official Site : Roland and Nahid Gaebler Crowned 2010 Tornado World Champions\|work\=sailing.org}}[Tornado World Championships](/wiki/Tornado_World_Championships "Tornado World Championships"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.travemuende\-aktuell.de/aktuell/nachrichten\_14562\-Viertes\_TornadoWMGold\_fuer\_Gaebler.htm\|title\=Travemünde Aktuell Viertes Tornado\-WM\-Gold für Gäbler\|author\=Travemünde Aktuell\|work\=travemuende\-aktuell.de}} Nahid and [Roland Gaebler](/wiki/Roland_Gaebler "Roland Gaebler") writes history and become the first mix team to win a World Championship on a catamaran, and Nahid was the first woman in history to win a World Championship on a catamaran.
Open Tornado Vice World Champion in 2011,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/slalom\-durch\-einen\-schrottplatz/a63973\.html\|title\="Slalom durch einen Schrottplatz" \- YACHT.DE\|author\=Yacht Magazin\|work\=YACHT.de}} 2012,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/ehepaar\-gaebler\-weltmeister\-im\-tornado/a9592\.html\|title\=Ehepaar Gäbler Weltmeister im Tornado \- YACHT.DE\|author\=Yacht Magazin\|work\=YACHT.de}} 2013{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/172586/Tornado\-Worlds\-at\-Ibiza\-day\-1\|title\=Tornado World Championships at Club Nautico Santa Eularia, Ibiza \- Day 1\|work\=Yachts and Yachting Online}} and 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yacht.de/sport/news/ehepaar\-gaebler\-rast\-zum\-jubilaeumstitel/a101321\.html\|title\="Ehepaar Gäbler rast zum Jubiläumstitel" \- YACHT.DE\|author\=Yacht Magazin\|work\=YACHT.de}}
Open Tornado 3\. place World Championship in 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailing\-news.com/0\-0\-2528\-1\-tornado\~\~world\~championship\~2014\~\~perth\~aus.html\|title\=Sailing News \- Tornado \- World Championship 2014 \- Perth AUS\|work\=sailing\-news.com\|access\-date\=2015\-07\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726105759/http://www.sailing\-news.com/0\-0\-2528\-1\-tornado\~\~world\~championship\~2014\~\~perth\~aus.html\|archive\-date\=2015\-07\-26\|url\-status\=dead}}
Tornado Mixed Global Champion in 2010, 2011, 2012,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/165969/Tornado\-worlds\-at\-Lake\-Garda\-overall\|title\=Tornado World Championships at Circolo Vela Torbole \- Overall\|work\=Yachts and Yachting Online}} 2013,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tornado\-class.org/2013\-tornado\-world\-championships\-final\-day/\|title\=2013 Tornado World Championships \- Final Day \- International Tornado Class Association\|author\=Andrew Dowley\|work\=International Tornado Class Association\|date\=6 October 2013 }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.demotix.com/news/2876038/tornado\-class\-world\-championship\-reaches\-its\-last\-day\#media\-2875369 \|title\=Tornado class world championship reaches its last day \|access\-date\=2014\-05\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629074409/http://www.demotix.com/news/2876038/tornado\-class\-world\-championship\-reaches\-its\-last\-day\#media\-2875369 \|archive\-date\=2014\-06\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} 2014{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/180778/Tornado\-Worlds\-at\-Perth\-overall\|title\="Tornado Worlds at Perth overall" \- Yacht and Yachting Online\|author\=Andrew Dowley\|work\=Yachts and Yachting Online}} and 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.letelegramme.fr/morbihan/carnac/tornado\-les\-grecs\-gardent\-leur\-titre\-14\-09\-2015\-10773259\.php?xtor\=EREC\-85\-%5BPartageFB%5D\-20150920\-%5Barticle%5D\|title\="Tornado. Les Grecs gardent leur titre" \- Le Telegramme\|author\=Le Telegramme\|work\=Le Telegramme\|date\=14 September 2015 }}
Hurricane 5\.9 British Champion 2013 and Best Mix Team 2013 {{cite web\|url\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/172481/Hurricane\-59\-Nationals\-in\-Weymouth\|title\=Hurricane 5\.9 Nationals at the Weymouth Portland Sailing Academy\|work\=Yachts and Yachting Online}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sailweb.co.uk/multihull/12766/hurricane\-5\.9\-class\-championships\-at\-weymouth\|title\=Sailweb \- multihull \- Hurricane 5\.9 Class Championships at Weymouth\|work\=www.sailweb.co.uk}} together with skipper John Ready in Weymouth, Great Britain.
Winner of the Euro\-Cup Tornado 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.catsailingnews.com/2015/06/tornado\-german\-open\-swiss\-austrian.html\|title\=Tornado German Open, Swiss \& Austrian Nationals 2015 \- Catamaran Racing, News \& Design\|work\=Catamaran Racing, News \& Design\|date\=2 June 2015 }} Winner of the [Kiel Week](/wiki/Kiel_Week "Kiel Week") Tornado 2012 in the Audi Sailing Arena, Kiel, Germany.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stockmaritime.com/wiki/content.php?action2\=on\&action3\=news\_search\&id2\=1559\&id4\=3560\|title\=Tornado Mixed Teams segelten am schnellsten in der Audi Sailing Arena bei der Kieler Woche 2012\|work\=stockmaritime.com}} Winner of the Travemünder Week in Tornado in Travemünde, Germany in 2009,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.travemuende\-aktuell.de/aktuell/nachrichten\_13262\-Ehepaar\_Gaebler\_gab\_sich\_keine\_Bloesse.htm\|title\=Travemünde Aktuell Ehepaar Gäbler gab sich keine Blöße\|author\=Travemünde Aktuell\|work\=travemuende\-aktuell.de}} 2010 and 2012\.
Winner of the Blue Ribbon of Round Fehmarn in 2010\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.segeln\-magazin.de/team\-gaebler\-siegt\-bei\-flens\-super\-sail\-rund\-fehmarn/611\|title\=Team Gäbler siegt bei Flens Super Sail Rund Fehmarn\|work\=Segeln.de\|access\-date\=2014\-05\-08\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223957/http://www.segeln\-magazin.de/team\-gaebler\-siegt\-bei\-flens\-super\-sail\-rund\-fehmarn/611\|archive\-date\=2014\-05\-08\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.segel\-filme.de/regatta/flens\-super\-sail\-tour\-fehmarn\-rund/\|title\=Flens Super Sail Tour – Fehmarn Rund\|work\=segel\-filme.de\|date\=11 August 2010 }}
Winner of the Blue Ribbon race Gorla under 30 foot in 2011 {{cite web\|url\=http://segelreporter.com/regatta/international/gorla\-sach\-sieg\-mit\-neuem\-m32\-gaebler\-mit\-m2\-kat\-knapp\-dahinter\-mirsky\-testet\-m32/\|title\=Sach\-Sieg mit M32 bei Gardasee\-Gorla. Gäbler knapp dahinter \- SegelReporter\|work\=segelreporter.com\|date\=9 September 2011 }} on Ventilo M2 (28 foot catamaran) as mainsailtrimmer and tactician with the boatowner Rolf Hufnagel.
7th place overall at the Blue Ribbon race 47\. Kékszalag 2015{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.kekszalag.hu/site/assets/files/1114/abszolut\_0709\_1300\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2015\-07\-25 \|archive\-date\=2015\-07\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726074720/http://www.kekszalag.hu/site/assets/files/1114/abszolut\_0709\_1300\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} at lake Balaton, Hungary with the catamaran Ventilo M2 (28 foot catamaran) from Rolf Hufnagel.
She was tactician on *Team Extreme* with skipper Roland Gaebler on their [Extreme 40](/wiki/Extreme_40 "Extreme 40") in the [Extreme Sailing Series](/wiki/Extreme_Sailing_Series "Extreme Sailing Series") in Cowes and Almeria{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/team\-gaebler\-platz\-3\-im\-finalrennen/a65161\.html\|title\=Team Gaebler: Platz 3\. im Finalrennen! \- YACHT.DE\|author\=Yacht Magazin\|work\=YACHT.de}} event in 2011\.
In 2013, she and Roland Gaebler becomes part of the German national Olympic team at Sailing Team Germany for the Nacra 17 catamaran class.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.sailing\-team\-germany.de/nationalmannschaft\-astg/en/athletes/top\-team/toni\-wilhelm/\|title\=German Sailing Team \- die Deutsche Segel\-Nationalmannschaft\|date\=12 May 2024 }} In the new Olympic [Nacra 17](/wiki/Nacra_17 "Nacra 17") mixed catamaran class, Nahid and [Allan Nørregaard](/wiki/Allan_N%C3%B8rregaard "Allan Nørregaard") were placed number 27\. (2\.in the silver fleet) in the World Championship in Den Haag in 2013\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.baadmagasinet.dk/nyheder/nyheder/kapsejlads/19596\-allan\-norregaard\-til\-vm\-i\-nacra\-17/page/allekommentarer\|title \= Fejl: Siden er ikke fundet\| date\=9 January 2009 }}{{cite web\|url\=http://segelreporter.com/regatta/nacra\-17\-kampagne\-nahid\-gaebler\-plant\-mit\-49er\-star\-nrregard/\|title\=Nahid Gaebler plant Nacra 17 Kampagne mit 49er star Nørregaard\|author\=Karsten Kemmling\|work\=segelreporter.de\|date\=10 July 2013 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://segelreporter.com/regatta/nacra\-17\-mixed\-wm\-f18\-meister\-holt\-nacra\-titel\-ordentliche\-gaebler\-premiere/\|title \= Nacra 17 Mixed WM: F18 Meister holt Nacra Titel – ordentliche Gäbler Premiere \| SegelReporter\| date\=28 July 2013 }}
|
[
"Results\n-------",
"Danish champion ([DGI](/wiki/Danske_Gymnastik-_%26_Idr%C3%A6tsforeninger \"Danske Gymnastik- & Idrætsforeninger\")\\-Landsmester) in short distance 50 meter freestyle swimming and vice Danish champion in 100 meter backstroke swimming. In 2018 she again wins gold at the Danish Championship DOM\\-L Masters in 100 m Backstroke, 50 m and 100 m Freestyle.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.jv.dk/navneaabenraa/Nahids\\-stop\\-knap\\-er\\-defekt\\-Flerfoldig\\-verdensmester\\-kaemper\\-sig\\-tilbage/artikel/2627449\\|title\\=Nahids stop\\-knap er defekt: Flerfoldig verdensmester kæmper sig tilbage\\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-13}}\nSince she was 6 years she was also a dedicated dressage and jumping rider and warmblood horse breeder.",
"In 2005 to 2008 working as sailcoach for [Roland Gaebler](/wiki/Roland_Gaebler \"Roland Gaebler\") and Gunnar Struckmann in their last Olympic campaign 2008 in the Tornado class.",
"In May 2009 Nahid and Roland Gaebler starts to sail Tornado together, this team is now named Team Gaebler. \nTogether they fight to get the multihull and later the Tornado back on the olympic program.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thedailysail.com/dinghy/11/58593/0/nahid\\-gaebler\\-interview\\|title\\= Nahid Gaebler interview \\- The Daily Sail\\|author\\=James Boyd\\|work\\=The Daily Sail}}",
"Tornado German Open Champion in 2009,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yacht.de/sport/news/gaebler\\-gewinnt\\-souveraen/a8391\\.html\\|title\\=Gäbler gewinnt souverän \\- YACHT.DE\\|author\\=Yacht Magazin\\|work\\=YACHT.de}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailinganarchy.de/html/sa\\-08\\-2009\\.html\\|title\\=August 2009\\|work\\=sailinganarchy.de}} 2011,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lsc.de/lsc\\-news/43\\-news\\-2011/358\\-wind\\-sonne\\-und\\-ein\\-zufriedener\\-roland\\-gaebler.html \\|title\\=Wind, Sonne und ein zufriedener Roland Gäbler \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223456/http://www.lsc.de/lsc\\-news/43\\-news\\-2011/358\\-wind\\-sonne\\-und\\-ein\\-zufriedener\\-roland\\-gaebler.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} 2014,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tornado\\-class.org/2014\\-torbole\\-trophy\\-and\\-german\\-open/\\|title\\=2014 Torbole Trophy and German Open\\|author\\=Andrew Dowley\\|work\\=International Tornado Class Association\\|date\\=14 September 2014 }} 2015{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nrv.de/aktuell/news/artikel/news///team\\-gaebler\\-gewinnt\\-german\\-open\\-im\\-tornado/\\|title\\=Team Gäbler gewinnt German Open im Tornado\\|work\\=nrv.de\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726091025/http://www.nrv.de/aktuell/news/artikel/news///team\\-gaebler\\-gewinnt\\-german\\-open\\-im\\-tornado/\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and in 2016\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tornado\\-class.org/2016\\-german\\-championship\\-final\\-day/\\|title\\=2016 German championship final day\\|date\\=May 2016 }}",
"Tornado German Open Mixed Champion in 2010\\-2011, 2013\\-2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tornado\\-class.org/2013\\-german\\-national\\-championships/\\|title\\=2013 German National Championships\\|author\\=Andrew Dowley\\|work\\=International Tornado Class Association\\|date\\=7 July 2013 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scff.de/news\\-idm.htm\\|title\\=IDM Tornado 2013\\|work\\=scff.de\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-08\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709084929/http://www.scff.de/news\\-idm.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Open Tornado European Champion in 2013{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vorarlbergernachrichten.at/sport/2013/05/21/ein\\-wurdiger\\-titeltrager.vn\\|title\\=Ein würdiger Titelträger\\|work\\=Vorarlberger Nachrichten}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/169603/Tornado\\-Europeans\\-at\\-Lake\\-Constance\\-overall\\|title\\=2013 Tornado European Championships at Lake Constance Overall\\|work\\=Yachts and Yachting Online}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sailracewin.blogspot.dk/2013/05/team\\-gaebler\\-double\\-european\\-champions.html\\|title\\=SailRaceWin: Team Gaebler : Double European Champions in Tornado (Open \\& Mixed divisions)\\|work\\=sailracewin.blogspot.dk\\|date\\=22 May 2013 }} and 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/183530/Tornado\\-Europeans\\-overall\\|title\\=Tornado Europeans at Lake Lipno, Czech Republic \\- Overall\\|work\\=Yachts and Yachting Online}}",
"Open Tornado Vice European Champion in 2010,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/gaeblers\\-werden\\-vize\\-europameister/a9793\\.html\\|title\\=Gäblers werden Vize\\-Europameister \\- YACHT.DE\\|author\\=Yacht Magazin\\|work\\=YACHT.de}} 2011,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/ehepaar\\-gaebler\\-ist\\-nicht\\-zu\\-bremsen/a64281\\.html\\|title\\=Ehepaar Gäbler ist nicht zu bremsen \\- YACHT.DE\\|author\\=Yacht Magazin\\|work\\=YACHT.de}} 2012, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yacht.de/sport/news/em\\-titel\\-nr\\-13\\-fuer\\-tornado\\-ass\\-gaebler/a90419\\.html\\|title\\=EM\\-Titel Nr. 13 für Tornado\\-Ass Gäbler \\- YACHT.DE\\|author\\=Yacht Magazin\\|work\\=YACHT.de}}",
"Tornado Mixed European Champion in 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tornado\\-class.org/category/events/european\\-championships/\\|title\\=European Championships Archives \\- International Tornado Class Association\\|work\\=International Tornado Class Association}} and in 2015\\.",
"Open Tornado World Champion in 2010 in Travemünde, Germany.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailing.org/news/9451\\.php\\|title\\=News \\& Features \\- ISAF \\- World Sailing \\- Official Site : Roland and Nahid Gaebler Crowned 2010 Tornado World Champions\\|work\\=sailing.org}}[Tornado World Championships](/wiki/Tornado_World_Championships \"Tornado World Championships\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.travemuende\\-aktuell.de/aktuell/nachrichten\\_14562\\-Viertes\\_TornadoWMGold\\_fuer\\_Gaebler.htm\\|title\\=Travemünde Aktuell Viertes Tornado\\-WM\\-Gold für Gäbler\\|author\\=Travemünde Aktuell\\|work\\=travemuende\\-aktuell.de}} Nahid and [Roland Gaebler](/wiki/Roland_Gaebler \"Roland Gaebler\") writes history and become the first mix team to win a World Championship on a catamaran, and Nahid was the first woman in history to win a World Championship on a catamaran.",
"Open Tornado Vice World Champion in 2011,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/slalom\\-durch\\-einen\\-schrottplatz/a63973\\.html\\|title\\=\"Slalom durch einen Schrottplatz\" \\- YACHT.DE\\|author\\=Yacht Magazin\\|work\\=YACHT.de}} 2012,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/ehepaar\\-gaebler\\-weltmeister\\-im\\-tornado/a9592\\.html\\|title\\=Ehepaar Gäbler Weltmeister im Tornado \\- YACHT.DE\\|author\\=Yacht Magazin\\|work\\=YACHT.de}} 2013{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/172586/Tornado\\-Worlds\\-at\\-Ibiza\\-day\\-1\\|title\\=Tornado World Championships at Club Nautico Santa Eularia, Ibiza \\- Day 1\\|work\\=Yachts and Yachting Online}} and 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yacht.de/sport/news/ehepaar\\-gaebler\\-rast\\-zum\\-jubilaeumstitel/a101321\\.html\\|title\\=\"Ehepaar Gäbler rast zum Jubiläumstitel\" \\- YACHT.DE\\|author\\=Yacht Magazin\\|work\\=YACHT.de}}",
"Open Tornado 3\\. place World Championship in 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailing\\-news.com/0\\-0\\-2528\\-1\\-tornado\\~\\~world\\~championship\\~2014\\~\\~perth\\~aus.html\\|title\\=Sailing News \\- Tornado \\- World Championship 2014 \\- Perth AUS\\|work\\=sailing\\-news.com\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726105759/http://www.sailing\\-news.com/0\\-0\\-2528\\-1\\-tornado\\~\\~world\\~championship\\~2014\\~\\~perth\\~aus.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Tornado Mixed Global Champion in 2010, 2011, 2012,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/165969/Tornado\\-worlds\\-at\\-Lake\\-Garda\\-overall\\|title\\=Tornado World Championships at Circolo Vela Torbole \\- Overall\\|work\\=Yachts and Yachting Online}} 2013,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tornado\\-class.org/2013\\-tornado\\-world\\-championships\\-final\\-day/\\|title\\=2013 Tornado World Championships \\- Final Day \\- International Tornado Class Association\\|author\\=Andrew Dowley\\|work\\=International Tornado Class Association\\|date\\=6 October 2013 }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.demotix.com/news/2876038/tornado\\-class\\-world\\-championship\\-reaches\\-its\\-last\\-day\\#media\\-2875369 \\|title\\=Tornado class world championship reaches its last day \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629074409/http://www.demotix.com/news/2876038/tornado\\-class\\-world\\-championship\\-reaches\\-its\\-last\\-day\\#media\\-2875369 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-06\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} 2014{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/180778/Tornado\\-Worlds\\-at\\-Perth\\-overall\\|title\\=\"Tornado Worlds at Perth overall\" \\- Yacht and Yachting Online\\|author\\=Andrew Dowley\\|work\\=Yachts and Yachting Online}} and 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.letelegramme.fr/morbihan/carnac/tornado\\-les\\-grecs\\-gardent\\-leur\\-titre\\-14\\-09\\-2015\\-10773259\\.php?xtor\\=EREC\\-85\\-%5BPartageFB%5D\\-20150920\\-%5Barticle%5D\\|title\\=\"Tornado. Les Grecs gardent leur titre\" \\- Le Telegramme\\|author\\=Le Telegramme\\|work\\=Le Telegramme\\|date\\=14 September 2015 }}",
"Hurricane 5\\.9 British Champion 2013 and Best Mix Team 2013 {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yachtsandyachting.com/news/172481/Hurricane\\-59\\-Nationals\\-in\\-Weymouth\\|title\\=Hurricane 5\\.9 Nationals at the Weymouth Portland Sailing Academy\\|work\\=Yachts and Yachting Online}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailweb.co.uk/multihull/12766/hurricane\\-5\\.9\\-class\\-championships\\-at\\-weymouth\\|title\\=Sailweb \\- multihull \\- Hurricane 5\\.9 Class Championships at Weymouth\\|work\\=www.sailweb.co.uk}} together with skipper John Ready in Weymouth, Great Britain.",
"Winner of the Euro\\-Cup Tornado 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.catsailingnews.com/2015/06/tornado\\-german\\-open\\-swiss\\-austrian.html\\|title\\=Tornado German Open, Swiss \\& Austrian Nationals 2015 \\- Catamaran Racing, News \\& Design\\|work\\=Catamaran Racing, News \\& Design\\|date\\=2 June 2015 }} Winner of the [Kiel Week](/wiki/Kiel_Week \"Kiel Week\") Tornado 2012 in the Audi Sailing Arena, Kiel, Germany.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stockmaritime.com/wiki/content.php?action2\\=on\\&action3\\=news\\_search\\&id2\\=1559\\&id4\\=3560\\|title\\=Tornado Mixed Teams segelten am schnellsten in der Audi Sailing Arena bei der Kieler Woche 2012\\|work\\=stockmaritime.com}} Winner of the Travemünder Week in Tornado in Travemünde, Germany in 2009,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.travemuende\\-aktuell.de/aktuell/nachrichten\\_13262\\-Ehepaar\\_Gaebler\\_gab\\_sich\\_keine\\_Bloesse.htm\\|title\\=Travemünde Aktuell Ehepaar Gäbler gab sich keine Blöße\\|author\\=Travemünde Aktuell\\|work\\=travemuende\\-aktuell.de}} 2010 and 2012\\.",
"Winner of the Blue Ribbon of Round Fehmarn in 2010\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.segeln\\-magazin.de/team\\-gaebler\\-siegt\\-bei\\-flens\\-super\\-sail\\-rund\\-fehmarn/611\\|title\\=Team Gäbler siegt bei Flens Super Sail Rund Fehmarn\\|work\\=Segeln.de\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-08\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508223957/http://www.segeln\\-magazin.de/team\\-gaebler\\-siegt\\-bei\\-flens\\-super\\-sail\\-rund\\-fehmarn/611\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-08\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.segel\\-filme.de/regatta/flens\\-super\\-sail\\-tour\\-fehmarn\\-rund/\\|title\\=Flens Super Sail Tour – Fehmarn Rund\\|work\\=segel\\-filme.de\\|date\\=11 August 2010 }}",
"Winner of the Blue Ribbon race Gorla under 30 foot in 2011 {{cite web\\|url\\=http://segelreporter.com/regatta/international/gorla\\-sach\\-sieg\\-mit\\-neuem\\-m32\\-gaebler\\-mit\\-m2\\-kat\\-knapp\\-dahinter\\-mirsky\\-testet\\-m32/\\|title\\=Sach\\-Sieg mit M32 bei Gardasee\\-Gorla. Gäbler knapp dahinter \\- SegelReporter\\|work\\=segelreporter.com\\|date\\=9 September 2011 }} on Ventilo M2 (28 foot catamaran) as mainsailtrimmer and tactician with the boatowner Rolf Hufnagel.",
"7th place overall at the Blue Ribbon race 47\\. Kékszalag 2015{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.kekszalag.hu/site/assets/files/1114/abszolut\\_0709\\_1300\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-07\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726074720/http://www.kekszalag.hu/site/assets/files/1114/abszolut\\_0709\\_1300\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} at lake Balaton, Hungary with the catamaran Ventilo M2 (28 foot catamaran) from Rolf Hufnagel.",
"She was tactician on *Team Extreme* with skipper Roland Gaebler on their [Extreme 40](/wiki/Extreme_40 \"Extreme 40\") in the [Extreme Sailing Series](/wiki/Extreme_Sailing_Series \"Extreme Sailing Series\") in Cowes and Almeria{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yacht.de//sport/news/team\\-gaebler\\-platz\\-3\\-im\\-finalrennen/a65161\\.html\\|title\\=Team Gaebler: Platz 3\\. im Finalrennen! \\- YACHT.DE\\|author\\=Yacht Magazin\\|work\\=YACHT.de}} event in 2011\\.",
"In 2013, she and Roland Gaebler becomes part of the German national Olympic team at Sailing Team Germany for the Nacra 17 catamaran class.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sailing\\-team\\-germany.de/nationalmannschaft\\-astg/en/athletes/top\\-team/toni\\-wilhelm/\\|title\\=German Sailing Team \\- die Deutsche Segel\\-Nationalmannschaft\\|date\\=12 May 2024 }} In the new Olympic [Nacra 17](/wiki/Nacra_17 \"Nacra 17\") mixed catamaran class, Nahid and [Allan Nørregaard](/wiki/Allan_N%C3%B8rregaard \"Allan Nørregaard\") were placed number 27\\. (2\\.in the silver fleet) in the World Championship in Den Haag in 2013\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.baadmagasinet.dk/nyheder/nyheder/kapsejlads/19596\\-allan\\-norregaard\\-til\\-vm\\-i\\-nacra\\-17/page/allekommentarer\\|title \\= Fejl: Siden er ikke fundet\\| date\\=9 January 2009 }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://segelreporter.com/regatta/nacra\\-17\\-kampagne\\-nahid\\-gaebler\\-plant\\-mit\\-49er\\-star\\-nrregard/\\|title\\=Nahid Gaebler plant Nacra 17 Kampagne mit 49er star Nørregaard\\|author\\=Karsten Kemmling\\|work\\=segelreporter.de\\|date\\=10 July 2013 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://segelreporter.com/regatta/nacra\\-17\\-mixed\\-wm\\-f18\\-meister\\-holt\\-nacra\\-titel\\-ordentliche\\-gaebler\\-premiere/\\|title \\= Nacra 17 Mixed WM: F18 Meister holt Nacra Titel – ordentliche Gäbler Premiere \\| SegelReporter\\| date\\=28 July 2013 }}",
""
] |
Reasons for Beach Advisories
----------------------------
### Enterococcus
Enterococcus is a large genus of lactic acid phylum Firmicutes{{refn\|group\=nt\|Firmicutes are a phylum of bacteria, in which most have Gram\-positive cell wall structure. Many firmicutes are resistant to desiccation and are able to survive extreme conditions.}} Fecal enterococci inhabit gastrointestinal tract of animals. Therefore, having abnormally high indicators of fecal enterococcus in bodies of water correlates directly to fecal contamination (Domingo et al., 2003\). Domingo also suggests that using the TaqMan\-based approach{{refn\|group\=nt\|Taq\-man is a chemistry formulation that is used to test the presence of certain bacteria, including enterococcus in large bodies of water.}} can detect Enterococcus in environmental waters. This method may be performed in the span of a few hours, making it an efficient system that local governments may rely on, while issuing a beach advisory. Another method to detect large numbers of enterococcus in water is an agar\-based growth media incubated under standard aerobic conditions. While conducting various tests involving selective as well as non\-selective methods, cultures of enterococcus are isolated in brass and earthen vessels for up to 48 hours (Chhibber et al., 2007\). Enterococcus may cause an array of illnesses, varying from cellulitis, prostatitis, diverticulitis, urinary tract infections (UTI), endocarditis as well intra\-abdominal infections (Bush, 2013\).
### Cellulitis
The Mayo Clinic defines cellulitis as a common but potentially serious bacterial skin infection (2015\). Symptoms of cellulitis include skin swelling, tenderness, redness and skin feeling hot. Cellulitis does not usually spread from person to person, but may enter the body by cracks or breaks in the skin. Cellulitis usually appears on the lower parts of the legs but may spread anywhere on the body. Cellulitis begins by affecting merely the surface of the skin, but may migrate to the tissues, affecting lymph nodes and eventually the bloodstream. If left untreated, the spreading infection may become life\-threatening. It is crucial that one seeks medical treatment if the previously mentioned symptoms occur.
### Prostatitis
Enterococcus may also cause prostatitis. Prostatitis is the swelling and inflammation of the prostate gland that is located below men's bladders. Prostatitis can cause painful or difficult urination. Other symptoms may also include pain in the groin, pelvic area and flu\-like symptoms. It is important to seek medical attention immediately once experiencing one or more of the symptoms. Prostatitis may be treated by taking antibiotics, but left untreated may cause medical complications concerning the prostate.
### Diverticulitis
Diverticula are small pouches that form in the lining of the digestive system, generally in the lower part of the large intestine. Although there are a small number of implications, there may be swelling of one or more of the pouches. This may lead to infections and can cause extreme abdominal pain, fever, nausea and irregular bowel movements (Mayo Clinic, 2015\). Simply resting and taking antibiotics can treat diverticulitis, although serious cases may require surgery.
### Escherichia coli (E. coli)
*Escherichia coli*, or *E. coli* is a bacterium that can be found in many warm\-blooded animals, which includes, humans, livestock, wildlife and birds (government of Manitoba). Escherichia coli does not usually cause illness by itself, but when it contaminates large numbers, the level of illness raises. E. coli is expelled into the environment via fecal matter. According to the Public Health Agency of Canada (2015\), drinking contaminated water or drinking contaminated food may contract E. coli infections. E. coli may also be spread from one person to another. Symptoms may include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting and severe stomach cramps. Symptoms may appear anywhere from 3 to 10 days after ingestion of the bacteria.
There has been a study in Manitoba concerning the elevated E. coli numbers in Lake Winnipeg. The Interim Report of the Manitoba Water Stewardship, 2009 explains reasons for elevated Escherichia coli in Lake Winnipeg Beaches (Williamson et al., 2009\). The Interim Report shows the correlation of high counts of Escherichia coli in the Lake with large discharge of sewage from the City of Winnipeg, run\-offs from livestock operations into Lake Winnipeg. The lake had issued countless amounts of beach advisories to the public once it was noticed that irregular amounts of E. coli was found in the water. Studies had proved that the high number of E. coli in bathing water was partially due to wind\-induced water level changes and that the majority of it originated from animal sources as opposed to human activity.
### Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
A Urinary Tract Infection is an infection that involves any part of the urinary system, being the kidneys, urethra, bladder, or ureters. Although women are more susceptible to getting UTI's, men may also develop them. The infection causes pain while urinating, the urge to urinate often, and pelvic pain. UTIs may be caused by Escherichia coli, which as mentioned above, may be found in bodies of water at the time of beach advisories. Generally, UTIs can be treated with antibiotics that are prescribed by a doctor.
|
[
"Reasons for Beach Advisories\n----------------------------",
"### Enterococcus",
"Enterococcus is a large genus of lactic acid phylum Firmicutes{{refn\\|group\\=nt\\|Firmicutes are a phylum of bacteria, in which most have Gram\\-positive cell wall structure. Many firmicutes are resistant to desiccation and are able to survive extreme conditions.}} Fecal enterococci inhabit gastrointestinal tract of animals. Therefore, having abnormally high indicators of fecal enterococcus in bodies of water correlates directly to fecal contamination (Domingo et al., 2003\\). Domingo also suggests that using the TaqMan\\-based approach{{refn\\|group\\=nt\\|Taq\\-man is a chemistry formulation that is used to test the presence of certain bacteria, including enterococcus in large bodies of water.}} can detect Enterococcus in environmental waters. This method may be performed in the span of a few hours, making it an efficient system that local governments may rely on, while issuing a beach advisory. Another method to detect large numbers of enterococcus in water is an agar\\-based growth media incubated under standard aerobic conditions. While conducting various tests involving selective as well as non\\-selective methods, cultures of enterococcus are isolated in brass and earthen vessels for up to 48 hours (Chhibber et al., 2007\\). Enterococcus may cause an array of illnesses, varying from cellulitis, prostatitis, diverticulitis, urinary tract infections (UTI), endocarditis as well intra\\-abdominal infections (Bush, 2013\\).",
"### Cellulitis",
"The Mayo Clinic defines cellulitis as a common but potentially serious bacterial skin infection (2015\\). Symptoms of cellulitis include skin swelling, tenderness, redness and skin feeling hot. Cellulitis does not usually spread from person to person, but may enter the body by cracks or breaks in the skin. Cellulitis usually appears on the lower parts of the legs but may spread anywhere on the body. Cellulitis begins by affecting merely the surface of the skin, but may migrate to the tissues, affecting lymph nodes and eventually the bloodstream. If left untreated, the spreading infection may become life\\-threatening. It is crucial that one seeks medical treatment if the previously mentioned symptoms occur.",
"### Prostatitis",
"Enterococcus may also cause prostatitis. Prostatitis is the swelling and inflammation of the prostate gland that is located below men's bladders. Prostatitis can cause painful or difficult urination. Other symptoms may also include pain in the groin, pelvic area and flu\\-like symptoms. It is important to seek medical attention immediately once experiencing one or more of the symptoms. Prostatitis may be treated by taking antibiotics, but left untreated may cause medical complications concerning the prostate.",
"### Diverticulitis",
"Diverticula are small pouches that form in the lining of the digestive system, generally in the lower part of the large intestine. Although there are a small number of implications, there may be swelling of one or more of the pouches. This may lead to infections and can cause extreme abdominal pain, fever, nausea and irregular bowel movements (Mayo Clinic, 2015\\). Simply resting and taking antibiotics can treat diverticulitis, although serious cases may require surgery.",
"### Escherichia coli (E. coli)",
"*Escherichia coli*, or *E. coli* is a bacterium that can be found in many warm\\-blooded animals, which includes, humans, livestock, wildlife and birds (government of Manitoba). Escherichia coli does not usually cause illness by itself, but when it contaminates large numbers, the level of illness raises. E. coli is expelled into the environment via fecal matter. According to the Public Health Agency of Canada (2015\\), drinking contaminated water or drinking contaminated food may contract E. coli infections. E. coli may also be spread from one person to another. Symptoms may include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting and severe stomach cramps. Symptoms may appear anywhere from 3 to 10 days after ingestion of the bacteria.",
"There has been a study in Manitoba concerning the elevated E. coli numbers in Lake Winnipeg. The Interim Report of the Manitoba Water Stewardship, 2009 explains reasons for elevated Escherichia coli in Lake Winnipeg Beaches (Williamson et al., 2009\\). The Interim Report shows the correlation of high counts of Escherichia coli in the Lake with large discharge of sewage from the City of Winnipeg, run\\-offs from livestock operations into Lake Winnipeg. The lake had issued countless amounts of beach advisories to the public once it was noticed that irregular amounts of E. coli was found in the water. Studies had proved that the high number of E. coli in bathing water was partially due to wind\\-induced water level changes and that the majority of it originated from animal sources as opposed to human activity.",
"### Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)",
"A Urinary Tract Infection is an infection that involves any part of the urinary system, being the kidneys, urethra, bladder, or ureters. Although women are more susceptible to getting UTI's, men may also develop them. The infection causes pain while urinating, the urge to urinate often, and pelvic pain. UTIs may be caused by Escherichia coli, which as mentioned above, may be found in bodies of water at the time of beach advisories. Generally, UTIs can be treated with antibiotics that are prescribed by a doctor.",
""
] |
Fission products decay and burnup
---------------------------------
One of the common [fission products](/wiki/Fission_product "Fission product") is [135Te](/wiki/Tellurium-135 "Tellurium-135"), which undergoes [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay "Beta decay") with [half\-life](/wiki/Half-life "Half-life") of 19 seconds to [135I](/wiki/Iodine-135 "Iodine-135"). 135I itself is a weak neutron absorber. It builds up in the reactor in the rate proportional to the rate of fission, which is proportional to the reactor thermal power. 135I undergoes beta decay with half\-life of 6\.57 hours to [135Xe](/wiki/Xenon-135 "Xenon-135"). The yield of 135Xe for uranium fission is 6\.3%; about 95% of 135Xe originates from decay of 135I.
135Xe is the most powerful known [neutron absorber](/wiki/Neutron_absorber "Neutron absorber"), with a [cross section](/wiki/Neutron_cross-section "Neutron cross-section") for [thermal neutrons](/wiki/Thermal_neutron "Thermal neutron") of 2\.6×106 [barns](/wiki/Barn_%28unit%29 "Barn (unit)"),{{cite book
\|first\=Weston M.\|last\=Stacey
\|year\=2007
\|title\=Nuclear Reactor Physics
\|page\=213
\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=y1UgcgVSXSkC\&pg\=PA213
\|publisher\=Wiley\-VCH
\|isbn\=978\-3\-527\-40679\-1
}} so it acts as a "[poison](/wiki/Nuclear_poison "Nuclear poison")" that can slow or stop the [chain reaction](/wiki/Chain_reaction "Chain reaction") after a period of operation. This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project "Manhattan Project") for [plutonium](/wiki/Plutonium "Plutonium") production. As a result, the designers made provisions in the design to increase the reactor's [reactivity](/wiki/Reactivity_%28nuclear%29 "Reactivity (nuclear)") (the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of [nuclear fuel](/wiki/Nuclear_fuel "Nuclear fuel")).{{cite web\|author\=Staff \|url\=http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/hanford\_operational.htm \|title\=Hanford Becomes Operational \|work\=The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History \|publisher\=U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources \|accessdate\=2013\-03\-12 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014114829/http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/hanford\_operational.htm \|archivedate\=October 14, 2010 }}
135Xe reactor poisoning played a major role in the [Chernobyl disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster%23Conditions_prior_to_the_accident "Chernobyl disaster#Conditions prior to the accident").{{cite book
\|title\=Modern Physics: An Introductory Text\|year\=2000
\|first\=Jeremy I.\|last\=Pfeffer
\|author2\=Nir, Shlomo
\|pages\=421 ff
\|publisher\=Imperial College Press
\|isbn\=1\-86094\-250\-4\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KmMYWP56t98C\&pg\=PA421
}}
By [neutron capture](/wiki/Neutron_capture "Neutron capture"), 135Xe is transformed ("burned") to [136Xe](/wiki/Xenon-136 "Xenon-136"), which is effectively{{efn\|\[\[Isotopes of xenon\#Xenon\-136\|Xenon\-136]] undergoes \[\[double beta decay]] with an extremely long half\-life of 2\.165×1021 years.}} stable and does not significantly absorb neutrons.
The burn rate is proportional to the [neutron flux](/wiki/Neutron_flux "Neutron flux"), which is proportional to the reactor power; a reactor running at twice the power will have twice the xenon burn rate. The production rate is also proportional to reactor power, but due to the half\-life time of 135I, this rate depends on the *average* power over the past several hours.
As a result, a reactor operating at constant power has a fixed steady\-state equilibrium concentration, but when *lowering* reactor power, the 135Xe concentration can increase enough to effectively shut down the reactor. Without enough neutrons to offset their absorption by 135Xe, nor to burn the built\-up xenon, the reactor has to be kept in shutdown state for 1–2 days until enough of the 135Xe decays.
135Xe beta\-decays with half\-life of 9\.2 hours to [135Cs](/wiki/Caesium-135 "Caesium-135"); a poisoned core will spontaneously recover after several half\-lives. After about 3 days of shutdown, the core can be assumed to be free of 135Xe, without it introducing errors into the reactivity calculations.
The inability of the reactor to be restarted in such state is called **xenon precluded start up** or **dropping into an iodine pit**; the duration of this situation is known as **xenon dead time**, **poison outage**, or **iodine pit depth**. Due to the risk of such situations, in the early Soviet nuclear industry, many servicing operations were performed on running reactors, as downtimes longer than an hour led to xenon buildup that could keep the reactor offline for significant time, lower the production of [239Pu](/wiki/Plutonium-239 "Plutonium-239"), required for nuclear weapons, and would lead to investigations and punishment of the reactor operators.{{cite book
\|title\=The History of the Soviet Atomic Industry
\|first\=Arkadii\|last\=Kruglov
\|date\=15 August 2002\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=oSriY07qvdIC\&q\=%22iodine\+pit%22\&pg\=PA57
\|pages\=57, 60
\|publisher\=CRC Press \|isbn\=0\-41526\-970\-9
}}
### Xenon\-135 oscillations
The interdependence of 135Xe buildup and the neutron flux can lead to periodic power fluctuations. In large reactors, with little neutron flux coupling between their regions, flux nonuniformities can lead to formation of **xenon oscillations**, periodic local variations of reactor power moving through the core with a period of about 15 hours. A local variation of neutron flux causes increased burnup of 135Xe and production of 135I, depletion of 135Xe increases the reactivity in the core region. The local power density can change by a factor of three or more, while the average power of the reactor stays more or less unchanged. Strong negative [temperature coefficient](/wiki/Temperature_coefficient "Temperature coefficient") of reactivity causes [damping](/wiki/Damping_ratio "Damping ratio") of these oscillations, and is a desired reactor design feature.{{cite book \|title\=Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory \|volume\=2 of 2 \|page\=39 \|chapter\=Xenon\-135 Oscillations \|url\=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2014/ph241/alnoaimi2/docs/Nuclear\-Volume2\.pdf \|chapter\-url\=http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1019v2/css/h1019v2\_63\.htm \|date\=January 1993 \|publisher\=U.S. Department of Energy \|id\=DOE\-HDBK\-1019/2\-93 \|accessdate\=2014\-08\-21
}}
### Iodine pit behavior
[thumb\|right\|400px\|Development of (1\) concentration of 135Xe and (2\) reactor [reactivity](/wiki/Reactivity_%28nuclear%29 "Reactivity (nuclear)") after reactor shutdown. (Until shutdown the [neutron flux](/wiki/Neutron_flux "Neutron flux") was {{nobr\|φ {{\=}} 10{{sup\|18}} neutrons/m2s}}.)](/wiki/File:Reactor_shutdown_xe_chart_en.png "Reactor shutdown xe chart en.png")
The reactivity of the reactor after the shutdown first decreases, then increases again, having a shape of a pit; this gave the "iodine pit" its name. The degree of poisoning, and the depth of the pit and the corresponding duration of the outage, depends on the [neutron flux](/wiki/Neutron_flux "Neutron flux") before the shutdown. Iodine pit behavior is not observed in reactors with neutron flux density below 5×1016 neutrons m−2s−1, as the 135Xe is primarily removed by decay instead of neutron capture. As the core reactivity reserve is usually limited to 10% of Dk/k, thermal power reactors tend to use neutron flux at most about 5×1013 neutrons m−2s−1 to avoid restart problems after shutdown.
The concentration changes of 135Xe in the reactor core after its [shutdown](/wiki/Shutdown_%28nuclear_reactor%29 "Shutdown (nuclear reactor)") is determined by the short\-term [power history](/wiki/Power_history "Power history") of the reactor (which determines the initial concentrations of 135I and 135Xe), and then by the half\-life differences of the isotopes governing the rates of its production and removal; if the activity of 135I is higher than activity of 135Xe, the concentration of 135Xe will rise, and vice versa.
During reactor operation at a given power level, a [secular equilibrium](/wiki/Secular_equilibrium "Secular equilibrium") is established within 40–50 hours, when the production rate of iodine\-135, its decay to xenon\-135, and its burning to xenon\-136 and decay to caesium\-135 are keeping the xenon\-135 amount in the reactor constant at a given power level.
The equilibrium concentration of 135I is proportional to the neutron flux φ. The equilibrium concentration of 135Xe, however, depends very little on neutron flux for φ \> 1017 neutrons m−2s−1.
Increase of the reactor power, and the increase of neutron flux, causes a rise in production of 135I and consumption of 135Xe. At first, the concentration of xenon decreases, then slowly increases again to a new equilibrium level as now excess 135I decays. During typical power increases from 50 to 100%, the 135Xe concentration falls for about 3 hours.[Xenon decay transient graph](http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1019v2/css/h1019v2_64.htm)
Decrease of the reactor power lowers production of new 135I, but also lowers the burn rate of 135Xe. For a while 135Xe builds up, governed by the amount of available 135I, then its concentration decreases again to an equilibrium for the given reactor power level. The peak concentration of 135Xe occurs after about 11\.1 hours after power decrease, and the equilibrium is reached after about 50 hours. A total shutdown of the reactor is an extreme case of power decrease.{{cite book\| title \= DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory Volume 2\| date \= January 1993\| publisher \= U.S. Department of Energy\| url \= http://www.hss.doe.gov/nuclearsafety/techstds/docs/handbook/h1019v2\.pdf\| accessdate \= 2013\-03\-12\| url\-status \= dead\| archiveurl \= https://web.archive.org/web/20121109194948/http://www.hss.doe.gov/nuclearsafety/techstds/docs/handbook/h1019v2\.pdf\| archivedate \= 2012\-11\-09\| pages\=35–42}}
|
[
"Fission products decay and burnup\n---------------------------------",
"One of the common [fission products](/wiki/Fission_product \"Fission product\") is [135Te](/wiki/Tellurium-135 \"Tellurium-135\"), which undergoes [beta decay](/wiki/Beta_decay \"Beta decay\") with [half\\-life](/wiki/Half-life \"Half-life\") of 19 seconds to [135I](/wiki/Iodine-135 \"Iodine-135\"). 135I itself is a weak neutron absorber. It builds up in the reactor in the rate proportional to the rate of fission, which is proportional to the reactor thermal power. 135I undergoes beta decay with half\\-life of 6\\.57 hours to [135Xe](/wiki/Xenon-135 \"Xenon-135\"). The yield of 135Xe for uranium fission is 6\\.3%; about 95% of 135Xe originates from decay of 135I.",
"135Xe is the most powerful known [neutron absorber](/wiki/Neutron_absorber \"Neutron absorber\"), with a [cross section](/wiki/Neutron_cross-section \"Neutron cross-section\") for [thermal neutrons](/wiki/Thermal_neutron \"Thermal neutron\") of 2\\.6×106 [barns](/wiki/Barn_%28unit%29 \"Barn (unit)\"),{{cite book \n \\|first\\=Weston M.\\|last\\=Stacey\n \\|year\\=2007\n \\|title\\=Nuclear Reactor Physics\n \\|page\\=213\n \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=y1UgcgVSXSkC\\&pg\\=PA213\n \\|publisher\\=Wiley\\-VCH\n \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-527\\-40679\\-1\n}} so it acts as a \"[poison](/wiki/Nuclear_poison \"Nuclear poison\")\" that can slow or stop the [chain reaction](/wiki/Chain_reaction \"Chain reaction\") after a period of operation. This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project \"Manhattan Project\") for [plutonium](/wiki/Plutonium \"Plutonium\") production. As a result, the designers made provisions in the design to increase the reactor's [reactivity](/wiki/Reactivity_%28nuclear%29 \"Reactivity (nuclear)\") (the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of [nuclear fuel](/wiki/Nuclear_fuel \"Nuclear fuel\")).{{cite web\\|author\\=Staff \\|url\\=http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/hanford\\_operational.htm \\|title\\=Hanford Becomes Operational \\|work\\=The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History \\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Energy, Office of History and Heritage Resources \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-03\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014114829/http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/hanford\\_operational.htm \\|archivedate\\=October 14, 2010 }}\n135Xe reactor poisoning played a major role in the [Chernobyl disaster](/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster%23Conditions_prior_to_the_accident \"Chernobyl disaster#Conditions prior to the accident\").{{cite book\n \\|title\\=Modern Physics: An Introductory Text\\|year\\=2000\n \\|first\\=Jeremy I.\\|last\\=Pfeffer \n \\|author2\\=Nir, Shlomo\n \\|pages\\=421 ff\n \\|publisher\\=Imperial College Press\n \\|isbn\\=1\\-86094\\-250\\-4\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KmMYWP56t98C\\&pg\\=PA421\n}}",
"By [neutron capture](/wiki/Neutron_capture \"Neutron capture\"), 135Xe is transformed (\"burned\") to [136Xe](/wiki/Xenon-136 \"Xenon-136\"), which is effectively{{efn\\|\\[\\[Isotopes of xenon\\#Xenon\\-136\\|Xenon\\-136]] undergoes \\[\\[double beta decay]] with an extremely long half\\-life of 2\\.165×1021 years.}} stable and does not significantly absorb neutrons.",
"The burn rate is proportional to the [neutron flux](/wiki/Neutron_flux \"Neutron flux\"), which is proportional to the reactor power; a reactor running at twice the power will have twice the xenon burn rate. The production rate is also proportional to reactor power, but due to the half\\-life time of 135I, this rate depends on the *average* power over the past several hours.",
"As a result, a reactor operating at constant power has a fixed steady\\-state equilibrium concentration, but when *lowering* reactor power, the 135Xe concentration can increase enough to effectively shut down the reactor. Without enough neutrons to offset their absorption by 135Xe, nor to burn the built\\-up xenon, the reactor has to be kept in shutdown state for 1–2 days until enough of the 135Xe decays.",
"135Xe beta\\-decays with half\\-life of 9\\.2 hours to [135Cs](/wiki/Caesium-135 \"Caesium-135\"); a poisoned core will spontaneously recover after several half\\-lives. After about 3 days of shutdown, the core can be assumed to be free of 135Xe, without it introducing errors into the reactivity calculations.",
"The inability of the reactor to be restarted in such state is called **xenon precluded start up** or **dropping into an iodine pit**; the duration of this situation is known as **xenon dead time**, **poison outage**, or **iodine pit depth**. Due to the risk of such situations, in the early Soviet nuclear industry, many servicing operations were performed on running reactors, as downtimes longer than an hour led to xenon buildup that could keep the reactor offline for significant time, lower the production of [239Pu](/wiki/Plutonium-239 \"Plutonium-239\"), required for nuclear weapons, and would lead to investigations and punishment of the reactor operators.{{cite book\n \\|title\\=The History of the Soviet Atomic Industry\n \\|first\\=Arkadii\\|last\\=Kruglov\n \\|date\\=15 August 2002\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oSriY07qvdIC\\&q\\=%22iodine\\+pit%22\\&pg\\=PA57\n \\|pages\\=57, 60\n \\|publisher\\=CRC Press \\|isbn\\=0\\-41526\\-970\\-9\n}}",
"### Xenon\\-135 oscillations",
"The interdependence of 135Xe buildup and the neutron flux can lead to periodic power fluctuations. In large reactors, with little neutron flux coupling between their regions, flux nonuniformities can lead to formation of **xenon oscillations**, periodic local variations of reactor power moving through the core with a period of about 15 hours. A local variation of neutron flux causes increased burnup of 135Xe and production of 135I, depletion of 135Xe increases the reactivity in the core region. The local power density can change by a factor of three or more, while the average power of the reactor stays more or less unchanged. Strong negative [temperature coefficient](/wiki/Temperature_coefficient \"Temperature coefficient\") of reactivity causes [damping](/wiki/Damping_ratio \"Damping ratio\") of these oscillations, and is a desired reactor design feature.{{cite book \\|title\\=Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory \\|volume\\=2 of 2 \\|page\\=39 \\|chapter\\=Xenon\\-135 Oscillations \\|url\\=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2014/ph241/alnoaimi2/docs/Nuclear\\-Volume2\\.pdf \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1019v2/css/h1019v2\\_63\\.htm \\|date\\=January 1993 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Energy \\|id\\=DOE\\-HDBK\\-1019/2\\-93 \\|accessdate\\=2014\\-08\\-21 \n}}",
"### Iodine pit behavior",
"[thumb\\|right\\|400px\\|Development of (1\\) concentration of 135Xe and (2\\) reactor [reactivity](/wiki/Reactivity_%28nuclear%29 \"Reactivity (nuclear)\") after reactor shutdown. (Until shutdown the [neutron flux](/wiki/Neutron_flux \"Neutron flux\") was {{nobr\\|φ {{\\=}} 10{{sup\\|18}} neutrons/m2s}}.)](/wiki/File:Reactor_shutdown_xe_chart_en.png \"Reactor shutdown xe chart en.png\")\nThe reactivity of the reactor after the shutdown first decreases, then increases again, having a shape of a pit; this gave the \"iodine pit\" its name. The degree of poisoning, and the depth of the pit and the corresponding duration of the outage, depends on the [neutron flux](/wiki/Neutron_flux \"Neutron flux\") before the shutdown. Iodine pit behavior is not observed in reactors with neutron flux density below 5×1016 neutrons m−2s−1, as the 135Xe is primarily removed by decay instead of neutron capture. As the core reactivity reserve is usually limited to 10% of Dk/k, thermal power reactors tend to use neutron flux at most about 5×1013 neutrons m−2s−1 to avoid restart problems after shutdown.",
"The concentration changes of 135Xe in the reactor core after its [shutdown](/wiki/Shutdown_%28nuclear_reactor%29 \"Shutdown (nuclear reactor)\") is determined by the short\\-term [power history](/wiki/Power_history \"Power history\") of the reactor (which determines the initial concentrations of 135I and 135Xe), and then by the half\\-life differences of the isotopes governing the rates of its production and removal; if the activity of 135I is higher than activity of 135Xe, the concentration of 135Xe will rise, and vice versa.",
"During reactor operation at a given power level, a [secular equilibrium](/wiki/Secular_equilibrium \"Secular equilibrium\") is established within 40–50 hours, when the production rate of iodine\\-135, its decay to xenon\\-135, and its burning to xenon\\-136 and decay to caesium\\-135 are keeping the xenon\\-135 amount in the reactor constant at a given power level.",
"The equilibrium concentration of 135I is proportional to the neutron flux φ. The equilibrium concentration of 135Xe, however, depends very little on neutron flux for φ \\> 1017 neutrons m−2s−1.",
"Increase of the reactor power, and the increase of neutron flux, causes a rise in production of 135I and consumption of 135Xe. At first, the concentration of xenon decreases, then slowly increases again to a new equilibrium level as now excess 135I decays. During typical power increases from 50 to 100%, the 135Xe concentration falls for about 3 hours.[Xenon decay transient graph](http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1019v2/css/h1019v2_64.htm)",
"Decrease of the reactor power lowers production of new 135I, but also lowers the burn rate of 135Xe. For a while 135Xe builds up, governed by the amount of available 135I, then its concentration decreases again to an equilibrium for the given reactor power level. The peak concentration of 135Xe occurs after about 11\\.1 hours after power decrease, and the equilibrium is reached after about 50 hours. A total shutdown of the reactor is an extreme case of power decrease.{{cite book\\| title \\= DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory Volume 2\\| date \\= January 1993\\| publisher \\= U.S. Department of Energy\\| url \\= http://www.hss.doe.gov/nuclearsafety/techstds/docs/handbook/h1019v2\\.pdf\\| accessdate \\= 2013\\-03\\-12\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archiveurl \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121109194948/http://www.hss.doe.gov/nuclearsafety/techstds/docs/handbook/h1019v2\\.pdf\\| archivedate \\= 2012\\-11\\-09\\| pages\\=35–42}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early career
Unmukt Chand scored 499 runs during his first stint with the Delhi U\-19 team. The 499 runs include 2 centuries and 1 half\-century. His outstanding performance in the U\-19s gave him a place in the [Delhi senior team](/wiki/Delhi_cricket_team "Delhi cricket team"). He scored 151 runs on a seaming track against a seasoned Railways attack in the [2010\-11 Ranji Trophy](/wiki/Ranji_Trophy_2010-11 "Ranji Trophy 2010-11"). That year he also scored two half\-centuries against [Mumbai](/wiki/Delhi_cricket_team "Delhi cricket team") and [Saurashtra](/wiki/Saurashtra_cricket_team "Saurashtra cricket team"). He scored 400 runs in five matches. He played in the Vinoo Mankad Trophy and the Cooch Behar Trophy at the junior level.
### Captaincy
Unmukt Chand was named the captain of the Delhi U\-19 team{{cite news\|last\=TNN\|title\=Unmukt Chand to lead ACA Under\-19 team\|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/top\-stories/Unmukt\-Chand\-to\-lead\-DDCA\-Under\-19\-team/articleshow/10283581\.cms\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124121424/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011\-10\-09/top\-stories/30260085\_1\_unmukt\-chand\-probables\-ddca\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-date\=24 January 2014\|access\-date\=14 April 2013\|newspaper\=\[\[The Times of India]]\|date\=9 October 2011}} and the North Zone U\-19 team. He then went on to become the captain of the [India Under\-19 cricket team](/wiki/India_Under-19_cricket_team "India Under-19 cricket team") for the quadrangular series that was held in [Vishakhapatnam](/wiki/Vishakhapatnam "Vishakhapatnam"), India. The quadrangular series included the U\-19 teams from India, [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Under-19_cricket_team "Sri Lanka Under-19 cricket team"), [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_Under-19_cricket_team "West Indies Under-19 cricket team") and [Australia](/wiki/Australia_Under-19_cricket_team "Australia Under-19 cricket team"). He scored an unbeaten 122 against Sri Lanka and two fifties against Australia and West Indies.{{cite news\|last\=DNA Correspondent\|title\=India beat Sri Lanka to win Quadrangular Under\-19 Series\|url\=http://www.dnaindia.com/sport/1596954/report\-india\-beat\-sri\-lanka\-to\-win\-quadrangular\-under\-19\-series\|access\-date\=14 April 2013\|newspaper\=DNA\|date\=10 October 2011}} He ended the tournament with 336 runs from seven outings, just one behind Australia's [Cameron Bancroft](/wiki/Cameron_Bancroft_%28cricketer%29 "Cameron Bancroft (cricketer)"). He also participated in the [Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy](/wiki/Syed_Mushtaq_Ali_Trophy "Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy") later that season. Under his captaincy, India also won the U\-19 World Cup in Australia.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.sportstiger.com/unmukt\-chand\-all\-you\-need\-to\-know\-about\-former\-india\-u\-19\-world\-cup\-winning\-captain/ \|title\=Unmukt Chand\- All you need to know about former India U\-19 World Cup winning captain \|work\=SportsTiger \|access\-date\=8 August 2021}}
In April 2012, India U\-19 cricket team played a quadrangular series in Australia involving the hosts, along with [England](/wiki/England_Under-19_cricket_team "England Under-19 cricket team") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_Under-19_cricket_team "New Zealand Under-19 cricket team"). Batting at three, Chand scored an impressive 94 against England in the semi\-final to help India win the match by 63 runs. He followed it up with a blistering century against Australia in the final – an unbeaten 112, which included 9 fours and 6 sixes – to take India to an emphatic 7\-wicket victory. India won the tournament under Chand's captaincy, who ended with 281 runs from 5 matches, only six runs short of the tournament's highest run\-getter [Daniel Bell\-Drummond](/wiki/Daniel_Bell-Drummond "Daniel Bell-Drummond").
In June 2012, playing in the ACC Under\-19s Asia Cup, Chand rose to the occasion once again with 116 against Sri Lanka in the semi\-final, before scoring 121 against [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan_Under-19_cricket_team "Pakistan Under-19 cricket team") in the final. He won the [Man of the Match](/wiki/Man_of_the_match "Man of the match") award in both games. He was the highest run\-scorer in the tournament with 286 runs from 3 matches.
On 26 August 2012, Chand led the India U\-19s to victory in the [2012 ICC Under\-19 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2012_ICC_Under-19_Cricket_World_Cup "2012 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup") in Australia. His counterpart [William Bosisto's](/wiki/William_Bosisto "William Bosisto") half\-century had rescued Australia from 38 for 4 to a score of 225 in the final, but Chand's 130\-run stand with [Smit Patel](/wiki/Smit_Patel "Smit Patel") ensured India won with more than two overs to spare, with Chand scoring a captain's knock of 111\* in 130 balls which consisted of 6 sixes and 7 fours to defeat Australia.[India U\-19 team wins the third World Cup under the captaincy of Unmukt Chand](http://sportsbongo.blogspot.in/2012/08/cricket-india-lifts-u-19-world-cup.html)
On 3 March 2013, Chand scored 116 for Delhi in the [Vijay Hazare Trophy](/wiki/Vijay_Hazare_Trophy "Vijay Hazare Trophy") final against [Assam](/wiki/Assam_cricket_team "Assam cricket team") to show his knack for scoring big hundreds in tournament finals. Delhi went on to win the game by 95 runs and the title for the first time.
### IPL career
Unmukt made his IPL debut in 2011 for Delhi Daredevils {{Cite web \|title\=DC squad players profile \|url\=https://www.iplt20\.com/teams/DC/squad\-details/60}}but is mostly recognised for incident in 2013 when he got clean bowled for a first ball duck by [Brett Lee](/wiki/Brett_Lee "Brett Lee") in the season opener against the [Kolkata Knight Riders](/wiki/Kolkata_Knight_Riders "Kolkata Knight Riders"). He was purchased by the [Rajasthan Royals](/wiki/Rajasthan_Royals "Rajasthan Royals") during the IPL 7 Auction. He was picked up by the [Mumbai Indians](/wiki/Mumbai_Indians "Mumbai Indians") in the 2015 season, where he won his first [IPL](/wiki/Indian_Premier_League "Indian Premier League") title, despite not playing in most of the games.
### Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy 2012–13
{{Main\|2012–13 Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy}}
Unmukt scored 321 runs at an average of 35\.66 with a strike rate reaching 140 for Delhi, where was the highest run\-scorer. He scored back\-to\-back centuries, first against Kerala where he scored 105 off 67 balls, and then against Gujarat, scoring 125 off just 63 deliveries. Delhi was upset by Odisha in the semi\-finals, where he failed to score.
### Minor League Cricket
Unmukt made his MiLC debut on 14 August 2021, where he was bowled for naught off 3 deliveries.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/unmukt\-chand\-inks\-multi\-year\-deal\-with\-major\-league\-cricket\-101628920472121\.html \|work\=\[\[Hindustan Times]] \|date\=14 August 2021 \|title\=Unmukt Chand inks multi\-year deal with Major League Cricket \|access\-date\=1 November 2021}} Unmukt topped the runs scorers list for 2021 in the competition with 612 runs from 16 innings as he led his team, the [Silicon Valley Strikers](/wiki/Silicon_Valley_Strikers "Silicon Valley Strikers"), to the championship title.{{Cite web\|title\='Liberated' Indian star on the verge of BBL history\|url\=https://www.cricket.com.au/news/feature/unmukt\-chand\-first\-india\-mens\-bbl\-player\-melbourne\-renegades\-retires\-bcci\-competitions\-signs\-in\-usa/2021\-12\-07\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-23\|website\=cricket.com.au\|language\=en}} He transferred over to the Atlanta Lightning for the 2023 season.{{cite web\|url\=https://cricbuzz.com/cricket\-news/127470/minor\-league\-cricket\-season\-3\-gets\-underway\-after\-mlcs\-success\-cricbuzzcom \|first\=Smit \|last\=Patel \|website\=\[\[Cricbuzz]] \|date\=August 11, 2023 \|title\=Minor League Cricket Season 3 gets underway after MLC's success \|access\-date\=September 11, 2023}}
### Big Bash League
Unmukt made his BBL debut for the [Melbourne Renegades](/wiki/Melbourne_Renegades "Melbourne Renegades") on 18 January 2022, becoming the first Indian male to play in the [Big Bash](/wiki/Big_Bash_League "Big Bash League").{{Cite web\|title\=Unmukt Chand becomes first Indian to play in a Big Bash League {{!}} Sports\-Games\|url\=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/sports\-games/1887265\-unmukt\-chand\-becomes\-first\-indian\-to\-play\-in\-big\-bash\-league\|access\-date\=2022\-01\-23\|website\=Devdiscourse\|language\=en}}
### Major League Cricket
Unmukt was signed by the Los Angeles Knight Riders in the player draft, ahead of the inaugural Major League Cricket season.
### Bangladesh Premier League
In November 2022, Ummukt was selected to play for the [Chattogram Challengers](/wiki/Chattogram_Challengers "Chattogram Challengers"), following the [players' draft](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Bangladesh_Premier_League_players%27_draft "2022–23 Bangladesh Premier League players' draft") for the [2022–23 Bangladesh Premier League](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Bangladesh_Premier_League "2022–23 Bangladesh Premier League").{{Cite web \|title\=After BBL, Unmukt Chand set for BPL stint \|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/bpl\-2022\-23\-after\-bbl\-former\-india\-under\-19\-captain\-unmukt\-chand\-set\-for\-bpl\-stint\-1346125 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-31 \|work\=ESPNcricinfo}} He became the first Indian to feature in the [Bangladesh Premier League](/wiki/Bangladesh_Premier_League "Bangladesh Premier League").{{Cite web \|title\=Unmukt Chand roped in by Chattogram Challengers in BPL draft \|url\=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket\-news/124592/unmukt\-chand\-roped\-in\-by\-chattogram\-challengers\-in\-bpl\-draft \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-31 \|website\=Cricbuzz \|date\=23 November 2022 \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=Unmukt Chand registers for Bangladesh Premier League 2023 draft: One of the best tournaments in world \|url\=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/unmukt\-chand\-registers\-for\-bangladesh\-premier\-league\-2023\-draft\-one\-of\-the\-best\-tournaments\-in\-world\-2298853\-2022\-11\-18 \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-31 \|website\=India Today \|date\=18 November 2022 \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early career",
"Unmukt Chand scored 499 runs during his first stint with the Delhi U\\-19 team. The 499 runs include 2 centuries and 1 half\\-century. His outstanding performance in the U\\-19s gave him a place in the [Delhi senior team](/wiki/Delhi_cricket_team \"Delhi cricket team\"). He scored 151 runs on a seaming track against a seasoned Railways attack in the [2010\\-11 Ranji Trophy](/wiki/Ranji_Trophy_2010-11 \"Ranji Trophy 2010-11\"). That year he also scored two half\\-centuries against [Mumbai](/wiki/Delhi_cricket_team \"Delhi cricket team\") and [Saurashtra](/wiki/Saurashtra_cricket_team \"Saurashtra cricket team\"). He scored 400 runs in five matches. He played in the Vinoo Mankad Trophy and the Cooch Behar Trophy at the junior level.",
"### Captaincy",
"Unmukt Chand was named the captain of the Delhi U\\-19 team{{cite news\\|last\\=TNN\\|title\\=Unmukt Chand to lead ACA Under\\-19 team\\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/top\\-stories/Unmukt\\-Chand\\-to\\-lead\\-DDCA\\-Under\\-19\\-team/articleshow/10283581\\.cms\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124121424/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011\\-10\\-09/top\\-stories/30260085\\_1\\_unmukt\\-chand\\-probables\\-ddca\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2014\\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2013\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Times of India]]\\|date\\=9 October 2011}} and the North Zone U\\-19 team. He then went on to become the captain of the [India Under\\-19 cricket team](/wiki/India_Under-19_cricket_team \"India Under-19 cricket team\") for the quadrangular series that was held in [Vishakhapatnam](/wiki/Vishakhapatnam \"Vishakhapatnam\"), India. The quadrangular series included the U\\-19 teams from India, [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Under-19_cricket_team \"Sri Lanka Under-19 cricket team\"), [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_Under-19_cricket_team \"West Indies Under-19 cricket team\") and [Australia](/wiki/Australia_Under-19_cricket_team \"Australia Under-19 cricket team\"). He scored an unbeaten 122 against Sri Lanka and two fifties against Australia and West Indies.{{cite news\\|last\\=DNA Correspondent\\|title\\=India beat Sri Lanka to win Quadrangular Under\\-19 Series\\|url\\=http://www.dnaindia.com/sport/1596954/report\\-india\\-beat\\-sri\\-lanka\\-to\\-win\\-quadrangular\\-under\\-19\\-series\\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2013\\|newspaper\\=DNA\\|date\\=10 October 2011}} He ended the tournament with 336 runs from seven outings, just one behind Australia's [Cameron Bancroft](/wiki/Cameron_Bancroft_%28cricketer%29 \"Cameron Bancroft (cricketer)\"). He also participated in the [Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy](/wiki/Syed_Mushtaq_Ali_Trophy \"Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy\") later that season. Under his captaincy, India also won the U\\-19 World Cup in Australia.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sportstiger.com/unmukt\\-chand\\-all\\-you\\-need\\-to\\-know\\-about\\-former\\-india\\-u\\-19\\-world\\-cup\\-winning\\-captain/ \\|title\\=Unmukt Chand\\- All you need to know about former India U\\-19 World Cup winning captain \\|work\\=SportsTiger \\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2021}}",
"In April 2012, India U\\-19 cricket team played a quadrangular series in Australia involving the hosts, along with [England](/wiki/England_Under-19_cricket_team \"England Under-19 cricket team\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_Under-19_cricket_team \"New Zealand Under-19 cricket team\"). Batting at three, Chand scored an impressive 94 against England in the semi\\-final to help India win the match by 63 runs. He followed it up with a blistering century against Australia in the final – an unbeaten 112, which included 9 fours and 6 sixes – to take India to an emphatic 7\\-wicket victory. India won the tournament under Chand's captaincy, who ended with 281 runs from 5 matches, only six runs short of the tournament's highest run\\-getter [Daniel Bell\\-Drummond](/wiki/Daniel_Bell-Drummond \"Daniel Bell-Drummond\").",
"In June 2012, playing in the ACC Under\\-19s Asia Cup, Chand rose to the occasion once again with 116 against Sri Lanka in the semi\\-final, before scoring 121 against [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan_Under-19_cricket_team \"Pakistan Under-19 cricket team\") in the final. He won the [Man of the Match](/wiki/Man_of_the_match \"Man of the match\") award in both games. He was the highest run\\-scorer in the tournament with 286 runs from 3 matches.",
"On 26 August 2012, Chand led the India U\\-19s to victory in the [2012 ICC Under\\-19 Cricket World Cup](/wiki/2012_ICC_Under-19_Cricket_World_Cup \"2012 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup\") in Australia. His counterpart [William Bosisto's](/wiki/William_Bosisto \"William Bosisto\") half\\-century had rescued Australia from 38 for 4 to a score of 225 in the final, but Chand's 130\\-run stand with [Smit Patel](/wiki/Smit_Patel \"Smit Patel\") ensured India won with more than two overs to spare, with Chand scoring a captain's knock of 111\\* in 130 balls which consisted of 6 sixes and 7 fours to defeat Australia.[India U\\-19 team wins the third World Cup under the captaincy of Unmukt Chand](http://sportsbongo.blogspot.in/2012/08/cricket-india-lifts-u-19-world-cup.html)",
"On 3 March 2013, Chand scored 116 for Delhi in the [Vijay Hazare Trophy](/wiki/Vijay_Hazare_Trophy \"Vijay Hazare Trophy\") final against [Assam](/wiki/Assam_cricket_team \"Assam cricket team\") to show his knack for scoring big hundreds in tournament finals. Delhi went on to win the game by 95 runs and the title for the first time.",
"### IPL career",
"Unmukt made his IPL debut in 2011 for Delhi Daredevils {{Cite web \\|title\\=DC squad players profile \\|url\\=https://www.iplt20\\.com/teams/DC/squad\\-details/60}}but is mostly recognised for incident in 2013 when he got clean bowled for a first ball duck by [Brett Lee](/wiki/Brett_Lee \"Brett Lee\") in the season opener against the [Kolkata Knight Riders](/wiki/Kolkata_Knight_Riders \"Kolkata Knight Riders\"). He was purchased by the [Rajasthan Royals](/wiki/Rajasthan_Royals \"Rajasthan Royals\") during the IPL 7 Auction. He was picked up by the [Mumbai Indians](/wiki/Mumbai_Indians \"Mumbai Indians\") in the 2015 season, where he won his first [IPL](/wiki/Indian_Premier_League \"Indian Premier League\") title, despite not playing in most of the games.",
"### Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy 2012–13",
"{{Main\\|2012–13 Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy}}\nUnmukt scored 321 runs at an average of 35\\.66 with a strike rate reaching 140 for Delhi, where was the highest run\\-scorer. He scored back\\-to\\-back centuries, first against Kerala where he scored 105 off 67 balls, and then against Gujarat, scoring 125 off just 63 deliveries. Delhi was upset by Odisha in the semi\\-finals, where he failed to score.",
"### Minor League Cricket",
"Unmukt made his MiLC debut on 14 August 2021, where he was bowled for naught off 3 deliveries.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/unmukt\\-chand\\-inks\\-multi\\-year\\-deal\\-with\\-major\\-league\\-cricket\\-101628920472121\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[Hindustan Times]] \\|date\\=14 August 2021 \\|title\\=Unmukt Chand inks multi\\-year deal with Major League Cricket \\|access\\-date\\=1 November 2021}} Unmukt topped the runs scorers list for 2021 in the competition with 612 runs from 16 innings as he led his team, the [Silicon Valley Strikers](/wiki/Silicon_Valley_Strikers \"Silicon Valley Strikers\"), to the championship title.{{Cite web\\|title\\='Liberated' Indian star on the verge of BBL history\\|url\\=https://www.cricket.com.au/news/feature/unmukt\\-chand\\-first\\-india\\-mens\\-bbl\\-player\\-melbourne\\-renegades\\-retires\\-bcci\\-competitions\\-signs\\-in\\-usa/2021\\-12\\-07\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-23\\|website\\=cricket.com.au\\|language\\=en}} He transferred over to the Atlanta Lightning for the 2023 season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://cricbuzz.com/cricket\\-news/127470/minor\\-league\\-cricket\\-season\\-3\\-gets\\-underway\\-after\\-mlcs\\-success\\-cricbuzzcom \\|first\\=Smit \\|last\\=Patel \\|website\\=\\[\\[Cricbuzz]] \\|date\\=August 11, 2023 \\|title\\=Minor League Cricket Season 3 gets underway after MLC's success \\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2023}}",
"### Big Bash League",
"Unmukt made his BBL debut for the [Melbourne Renegades](/wiki/Melbourne_Renegades \"Melbourne Renegades\") on 18 January 2022, becoming the first Indian male to play in the [Big Bash](/wiki/Big_Bash_League \"Big Bash League\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Unmukt Chand becomes first Indian to play in a Big Bash League {{!}} Sports\\-Games\\|url\\=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/sports\\-games/1887265\\-unmukt\\-chand\\-becomes\\-first\\-indian\\-to\\-play\\-in\\-big\\-bash\\-league\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-23\\|website\\=Devdiscourse\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Major League Cricket",
"Unmukt was signed by the Los Angeles Knight Riders in the player draft, ahead of the inaugural Major League Cricket season.",
"### Bangladesh Premier League",
"In November 2022, Ummukt was selected to play for the [Chattogram Challengers](/wiki/Chattogram_Challengers \"Chattogram Challengers\"), following the [players' draft](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Bangladesh_Premier_League_players%27_draft \"2022–23 Bangladesh Premier League players' draft\") for the [2022–23 Bangladesh Premier League](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Bangladesh_Premier_League \"2022–23 Bangladesh Premier League\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=After BBL, Unmukt Chand set for BPL stint \\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/bpl\\-2022\\-23\\-after\\-bbl\\-former\\-india\\-under\\-19\\-captain\\-unmukt\\-chand\\-set\\-for\\-bpl\\-stint\\-1346125 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-31 \\|work\\=ESPNcricinfo}} He became the first Indian to feature in the [Bangladesh Premier League](/wiki/Bangladesh_Premier_League \"Bangladesh Premier League\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Unmukt Chand roped in by Chattogram Challengers in BPL draft \\|url\\=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket\\-news/124592/unmukt\\-chand\\-roped\\-in\\-by\\-chattogram\\-challengers\\-in\\-bpl\\-draft \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-31 \\|website\\=Cricbuzz \\|date\\=23 November 2022 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Unmukt Chand registers for Bangladesh Premier League 2023 draft: One of the best tournaments in world \\|url\\=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/unmukt\\-chand\\-registers\\-for\\-bangladesh\\-premier\\-league\\-2023\\-draft\\-one\\-of\\-the\\-best\\-tournaments\\-in\\-world\\-2298853\\-2022\\-11\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-31 \\|website\\=India Today \\|date\\=18 November 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Around 24–25 September 2022, not long after the announcement of a [partial mobilisation of reservists](/wiki/2022_Russian_mobilization "2022 Russian mobilization") in Russia on 21 September, Sverdlin conceptualised the organisation as "Go by the Forest". On 26 September the organisation was announced, and by early October it was running.{{Cite web \|title\=Assistance to mobilization dodgers. A conversation with Idite Lesom founder Grigori Sverdlin \|url\=https://russiapost.info/society/lesom \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-06 \|website\=russiapost.info \|archive\-date\=2023\-12\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203163053/https://russiapost.info/society/lesom \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Gvindadze \|first\=Sandro \|date\=2023\-04\-22 \|title\=The Underground Network Helping Russians Escape The Draft \|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia\-georgia\-evading\-draft/32375122\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-06 \|work\=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2024\-03\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301103406/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia\-georgia\-evading\-draft/32375122\.html \|url\-status\=live }} A play on words, the organisation's name references the "covert nature of its work" while also resembling a [tongue\-in\-cheek](/wiki/Tongue-in-cheek "Tongue-in-cheek") remark similar to the Russian for "Get Lost". The name has also been variously translated to "Go to Hell" and "Take a Hike" by media sources.{{Cite news \|last\=Neshitov \|first\=Timofey \|date\=2023\-05\-04 \|title\=Deserting Putin: A Visit to the Soldiers Who Have Fled Russia's War \|url\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/deserting\-putin\-a\-visit\-to\-the\-soldiers\-who\-have\-fled\-russia\-s\-war\-a\-dfe15c86\-7462\-4006\-94ca\-eef2f847a42b \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-06 \|work\=Der Spiegel \|language\=en \|issn\=2195\-1349}} The ultimate goal of the organisation is "to help as many people as possible to avoid being involved in the bloody [Russian war in Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Russian invasion of Ukraine")"{{Cite web \|title\=Get Lost \|url\=https://iditelesom.org/en/ \|access\-date\=6 March 2024 \|website\=Idite Lesom \|archive\-date\=6 March 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306115927/https://iditelesom.org/en/ \|url\-status\=live }} and to "help the maximum number of people: the less of them that pull a trigger, the better."{{Quote box
\| title \= Sverdlin speaking to ''\[\[Current Time TV]]'' in 2022
\| quote \= {{center\|"...the core of the team was formed quickly, we found the money to start, then volunteers began to join us with great speed: I’ve been in charity for almost 20 years, but I’ve never seen a project have a hundred volunteers in the morning, and 350 in the evening."}}
\| align \= right
\| width \= 250px
}}
While the organisation was preparing to launch, they consulted with several other organisations, including activists from Belarus "who had gained experience in evacuations after the [2020 protests](/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Belarusian_protests "2020–2021 Belarusian protests")."
The organisation's core team is made up of six anti\-war Russians,{{Cite web \|title\=Russian deserters: The soldiers fleeing Vladimir Putin's army \|url\=https://news.sky.com/story/russian\-deserters\-the\-soldiers\-fleeing\-vladimir\-putins\-army\-13083247 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-07 \|website\=Sky News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2024\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307035848/https://news.sky.com/story/russian\-deserters\-the\-soldiers\-fleeing\-vladimir\-putins\-army\-13083247 \|url\-status\=live }} with those listed on its website being Sverdlin, Darya Berg, Anton Gorbatsevich and Ivan Chuviliayev. Berg is the head of the relief and evacuation department, Gorbatsevich is the direct help and evacuation coordinator and Chuviliayev is the Public Relations manager of the organisation.
Sverdlin expressed surprise at how quickly the organisation expanded after its founding. He said that three days after the organisation was founded, volunteers had received over 1,000 inquiries, including questions about both legally and illegally crossing the border, requests for psychological support and questions about how to safely surrender to Ukraine.
The exact number of volunteers and employees under the organisation is unknown, due to the need for anonymity to avoid potential repercussions.
### Desertions
In January 2023, there were 28 people who requested help with desertion. In January the following year, there were 284\. According to an estimate by Get Lost, approximately half of the potential deserters are those who signed contracts after the start of the war, including those forced to sign a contract. A further 10% are those who signed up before the war and another 30% are [mobilised reservists](/wiki/Mobilization "Mobilization").
In October 2023, Berg spoke with [*The Guardian*](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian") in regards to why some soldiers desert, saying "Some of those soldiers who are deserting now were injured in the fighting and don’t want to go back having seen the horror. Others are exhausted since they haven’t been rotated since the war started in Ukraine." Sverdlin, when speaking to [*The Moscow Times*](/wiki/The_Moscow_Times "The Moscow Times") in December that year, agreed with this, saying that most soldiers desert after being wounded and treated.{{Cite web \|last\=Times \|first\=The Moscow \|date\=2023\-12\-05 \|title\='War, Prison or Disability': Russian Military Desertions Surge \|url\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/12/05/war\-prison\-or\-disability\-russian\-military\-desertions\-surge\-a83319 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-06 \|website\=The Moscow Times \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2024\-03\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308103932/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/12/05/war\-prison\-or\-disability\-russian\-military\-desertions\-surge\-a83319 \|url\-status\=live }} In March 2024 Sverdlin also concurred that a common reason for desertion was a lack of rotations. Berg also said that many of the messages that Get Lost receives are from women, relatives of soldiers who are trying to help them escape.
On 20 December 2023, it was reported that Dmitry Setrakov, a Russian soldier who had deserted from his unit in Ukraine, was abducted by members of the [Military Police of Russia](/wiki/Military_Police_%28Russia%29 "Military Police (Russia)") disguised as soldiers of the [Armed Forces of Armenia](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Armenia "Armed Forces of Armenia") on either 6 or 7 December in [Gyumri](/wiki/Gyumri "Gyumri"), [Armenia](/wiki/Armenia "Armenia"), then transferred to the [Russian military base](/wiki/Russian_102nd_Military_Base "Russian 102nd Military Base") there.{{Cite news \|last\=Bulghadarian \|first\=Naira \|date\=2023\-12\-20 \|title\=Russian Soldier Who Fled To Armenia Found In Custody In Russia \|url\=https://www.azatutyun.am/a/32740575\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-07 \|work\=«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան \|language\=hy \|archive\-date\=2024\-01\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106060730/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/32740575\.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Vincent \|first\=Faustine \|date\=22 December 2023 \|title\=Russian war deserter forced to return after detention in Armenia \|url\=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/12/22/russian\-war\-deserter\-forced\-to\-return\-after\-detention\-in\-armenia\_6367490\_4\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240307155703/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/12/22/russian\-war\-deserter\-forced\-to\-return\-after\-detention\-in\-armenia\_6367490\_4\.html \|archive\-date\=7 March 2024 \|access\-date\=7 March 2024 \|work\=Le Monde \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Barseghyan \|first\=Arshaluys \|date\=2023\-12\-20 \|title\=Russia reportedly transfers 'kidnapped' deserter from Armenia to Rostov \|url\=https://oc\-media.org/russia\-reportedly\-transfers\-kidnapped\-deserter\-from\-armenia\-to\-rostov/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-07 \|website\=OC Media \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2024\-03\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302104345/https://oc\-media.org/russia\-reportedly\-transfers\-kidnapped\-deserter\-from\-armenia\-to\-rostov/ \|url\-status\=live }} From there he was forcibly repatriated to [Rostov\-on\-Don](/wiki/Rostov-on-Don "Rostov-on-Don"), Russia on 19 December to face criminal charges. This marked the first time that someone Get Lost had helped was forcibly returned to Russia.
When asked by [Novaya Gazeta Europe](/wiki/Novaya_Gazeta "Novaya Gazeta") why Russia made such an effort to catch him, Sverdlin said "He really is just a regular conscript. Setrakov’s case is probably just a coincidence. They were hardly chasing a specific person. I don’t think anyone went to Armenia just to pursue him. He was most likely kidnapped by people stationed at one of the Russian military bases in Armenia, in Gyumri or [Yerevan](/wiki/Yerevan "Yerevan"). It was illegal, of course."
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Around 24–25 September 2022, not long after the announcement of a [partial mobilisation of reservists](/wiki/2022_Russian_mobilization \"2022 Russian mobilization\") in Russia on 21 September, Sverdlin conceptualised the organisation as \"Go by the Forest\". On 26 September the organisation was announced, and by early October it was running.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Assistance to mobilization dodgers. A conversation with Idite Lesom founder Grigori Sverdlin \\|url\\=https://russiapost.info/society/lesom \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-06 \\|website\\=russiapost.info \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203163053/https://russiapost.info/society/lesom \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gvindadze \\|first\\=Sandro \\|date\\=2023\\-04\\-22 \\|title\\=The Underground Network Helping Russians Escape The Draft \\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia\\-georgia\\-evading\\-draft/32375122\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-06 \\|work\\=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301103406/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia\\-georgia\\-evading\\-draft/32375122\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A play on words, the organisation's name references the \"covert nature of its work\" while also resembling a [tongue\\-in\\-cheek](/wiki/Tongue-in-cheek \"Tongue-in-cheek\") remark similar to the Russian for \"Get Lost\". The name has also been variously translated to \"Go to Hell\" and \"Take a Hike\" by media sources.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Neshitov \\|first\\=Timofey \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-04 \\|title\\=Deserting Putin: A Visit to the Soldiers Who Have Fled Russia's War \\|url\\=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/deserting\\-putin\\-a\\-visit\\-to\\-the\\-soldiers\\-who\\-have\\-fled\\-russia\\-s\\-war\\-a\\-dfe15c86\\-7462\\-4006\\-94ca\\-eef2f847a42b \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-06 \\|work\\=Der Spiegel \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=2195\\-1349}} The ultimate goal of the organisation is \"to help as many people as possible to avoid being involved in the bloody [Russian war in Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Russian invasion of Ukraine\")\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Get Lost \\|url\\=https://iditelesom.org/en/ \\|access\\-date\\=6 March 2024 \\|website\\=Idite Lesom \\|archive\\-date\\=6 March 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306115927/https://iditelesom.org/en/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and to \"help the maximum number of people: the less of them that pull a trigger, the better.\"{{Quote box\n\\| title \\= Sverdlin speaking to ''\\[\\[Current Time TV]]'' in 2022\n\\| quote \\= {{center\\|\"...the core of the team was formed quickly, we found the money to start, then volunteers began to join us with great speed: I’ve been in charity for almost 20 years, but I’ve never seen a project have a hundred volunteers in the morning, and 350 in the evening.\"}}\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| width \\= 250px\n}}",
"While the organisation was preparing to launch, they consulted with several other organisations, including activists from Belarus \"who had gained experience in evacuations after the [2020 protests](/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Belarusian_protests \"2020–2021 Belarusian protests\").\"",
"The organisation's core team is made up of six anti\\-war Russians,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Russian deserters: The soldiers fleeing Vladimir Putin's army \\|url\\=https://news.sky.com/story/russian\\-deserters\\-the\\-soldiers\\-fleeing\\-vladimir\\-putins\\-army\\-13083247 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-07 \\|website\\=Sky News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307035848/https://news.sky.com/story/russian\\-deserters\\-the\\-soldiers\\-fleeing\\-vladimir\\-putins\\-army\\-13083247 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} with those listed on its website being Sverdlin, Darya Berg, Anton Gorbatsevich and Ivan Chuviliayev. Berg is the head of the relief and evacuation department, Gorbatsevich is the direct help and evacuation coordinator and Chuviliayev is the Public Relations manager of the organisation.",
"Sverdlin expressed surprise at how quickly the organisation expanded after its founding. He said that three days after the organisation was founded, volunteers had received over 1,000 inquiries, including questions about both legally and illegally crossing the border, requests for psychological support and questions about how to safely surrender to Ukraine.",
"The exact number of volunteers and employees under the organisation is unknown, due to the need for anonymity to avoid potential repercussions.",
"### Desertions",
"In January 2023, there were 28 people who requested help with desertion. In January the following year, there were 284\\. According to an estimate by Get Lost, approximately half of the potential deserters are those who signed contracts after the start of the war, including those forced to sign a contract. A further 10% are those who signed up before the war and another 30% are [mobilised reservists](/wiki/Mobilization \"Mobilization\").",
"In October 2023, Berg spoke with [*The Guardian*](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\") in regards to why some soldiers desert, saying \"Some of those soldiers who are deserting now were injured in the fighting and don’t want to go back having seen the horror. Others are exhausted since they haven’t been rotated since the war started in Ukraine.\" Sverdlin, when speaking to [*The Moscow Times*](/wiki/The_Moscow_Times \"The Moscow Times\") in December that year, agreed with this, saying that most soldiers desert after being wounded and treated.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Times \\|first\\=The Moscow \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-05 \\|title\\='War, Prison or Disability': Russian Military Desertions Surge \\|url\\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/12/05/war\\-prison\\-or\\-disability\\-russian\\-military\\-desertions\\-surge\\-a83319 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-06 \\|website\\=The Moscow Times \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308103932/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/12/05/war\\-prison\\-or\\-disability\\-russian\\-military\\-desertions\\-surge\\-a83319 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In March 2024 Sverdlin also concurred that a common reason for desertion was a lack of rotations. Berg also said that many of the messages that Get Lost receives are from women, relatives of soldiers who are trying to help them escape.",
"On 20 December 2023, it was reported that Dmitry Setrakov, a Russian soldier who had deserted from his unit in Ukraine, was abducted by members of the [Military Police of Russia](/wiki/Military_Police_%28Russia%29 \"Military Police (Russia)\") disguised as soldiers of the [Armed Forces of Armenia](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Armenia \"Armed Forces of Armenia\") on either 6 or 7 December in [Gyumri](/wiki/Gyumri \"Gyumri\"), [Armenia](/wiki/Armenia \"Armenia\"), then transferred to the [Russian military base](/wiki/Russian_102nd_Military_Base \"Russian 102nd Military Base\") there.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Bulghadarian \\|first\\=Naira \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-20 \\|title\\=Russian Soldier Who Fled To Armenia Found In Custody In Russia \\|url\\=https://www.azatutyun.am/a/32740575\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-07 \\|work\\=«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան \\|language\\=hy \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106060730/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/32740575\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Vincent \\|first\\=Faustine \\|date\\=22 December 2023 \\|title\\=Russian war deserter forced to return after detention in Armenia \\|url\\=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/12/22/russian\\-war\\-deserter\\-forced\\-to\\-return\\-after\\-detention\\-in\\-armenia\\_6367490\\_4\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240307155703/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/12/22/russian\\-war\\-deserter\\-forced\\-to\\-return\\-after\\-detention\\-in\\-armenia\\_6367490\\_4\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=7 March 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2024 \\|work\\=Le Monde \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Barseghyan \\|first\\=Arshaluys \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-20 \\|title\\=Russia reportedly transfers 'kidnapped' deserter from Armenia to Rostov \\|url\\=https://oc\\-media.org/russia\\-reportedly\\-transfers\\-kidnapped\\-deserter\\-from\\-armenia\\-to\\-rostov/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-07 \\|website\\=OC Media \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302104345/https://oc\\-media.org/russia\\-reportedly\\-transfers\\-kidnapped\\-deserter\\-from\\-armenia\\-to\\-rostov/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} From there he was forcibly repatriated to [Rostov\\-on\\-Don](/wiki/Rostov-on-Don \"Rostov-on-Don\"), Russia on 19 December to face criminal charges. This marked the first time that someone Get Lost had helped was forcibly returned to Russia.",
"When asked by [Novaya Gazeta Europe](/wiki/Novaya_Gazeta \"Novaya Gazeta\") why Russia made such an effort to catch him, Sverdlin said \"He really is just a regular conscript. Setrakov’s case is probably just a coincidence. They were hardly chasing a specific person. I don’t think anyone went to Armenia just to pursue him. He was most likely kidnapped by people stationed at one of the Russian military bases in Armenia, in Gyumri or [Yerevan](/wiki/Yerevan \"Yerevan\"). It was illegal, of course.\"",
""
] |
Voter attitudes and electoral barriers for LGBTQ\+ candidates
-------------------------------------------------------------
There has been little formal research on voter attitudes towards LGBTQ\+ candidates.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Magni \|first1\=Gabriele \|last2\=Reynolds \|first2\=Andrew \|date\=October 2021 \|title\=Voter Preferences and the Political Underrepresentation of Minority Groups: Lesbian, Gay, and Transgender Candidates in Advanced Democracies \|journal\=Journal of Politics \|volume\=83 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=1205, 1207, 1210 \|doi\=10\.1086/712142 \|s2cid\=225106727 \|issn\=0022\-3816 \|via\=The University of Chicago Press Journals}}
A 2021 study by political scientists Gabriele Magni and [Andrew Reynolds](/wiki/Andrew_Reynolds_%28political_scientist%29 "Andrew Reynolds (political scientist)") investigated voter attitudes towards a candidate based on their sexual orientation and gender identity in advanced democracies. They found that the United States had the greatest voter penalties towards LGBT candidates of the three countries investigated (U.S., UK, and New Zealand). The researchers conducted surveys through a [conjoint experiment](/wiki/Conjoint_analysis "Conjoint analysis") of over 1,800 Americans to measure their attitudes toward candidate characteristics in a hypothetical election.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Magni \|first1\=Gabriele \|last2\=Reynolds \|first2\=Andrew \|date\=October 2021 \|title\=Voter Preferences and the Political Underrepresentation of Minority Groups: Lesbian, Gay, and Transgender Candidates in Advanced Democracies \|journal\=Journal of Politics \|volume\=83 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=1205, 1207, 1210 \|doi\=10\.1086/712142 \|s2cid\=225106727 \|issn\=0022\-3816 \|via\=The University of Chicago Press Journals}}
Overall, gay and lesbian candidates face a 6\.7 percentage point penalty compared to their heterosexual counterparts while transgender candidates face an 11 percentage point penalty. The study also found that LGBTQ\+ candidates of ethnic minorities face no further penalty, other than Black gay candidates who face an additional 3\.6 percentage point penalty for their sexual orientation. Additionally, voters favor candidates with more political experience, which the researchers say disadvantages LGBTQ\+ candidates because they are less likely to have this experience.
The study found that there is a wide variation in attitudes towards LGBT candidates based on different voter demographics. Partisanship was a clear indicator, as the penalty for gay candidates between Republican and Democratic voters differed by 8\.4 percentage points. Republicans significantly penalized gay candidates by 14\.8 percentage points.
Political ideology represents a stronger indicator of voter attitudes, as progressives did not penalize gay or lesbian candidates at all, while conservatives strongly penalized them by 17\.2 percentage points. Moreover, people with LGBT family members or friends did not penalize gay candidates, and LGBT voters favor gay candidates by nine or 10 percentage points.
Nonreligious voters did not penalize gay candidates, but religious ones (those who regularly attended religious services) significantly penalized them by 12 percentage points.
Transgender candidates were more strongly penalized across all of the voter subgroups. The differences between the subgroups were less distinct for transgender candidates. Progressives and LGBT voters represent the only groups who did not penalize transgender candidates and even sometimes favored them, while conservatives significantly penalized them by 16 to 18 percentage points. Democrats penalized transgender candidates by six percentage points, while Republicans penalized them by 19 percentage points. Voters with LGBT friends and family penalized transgender candidates by five percentage points. Religious voters penalize transgender candidates by the highest margin (18 percentage points).
The study also looked at the reasons for these voter biases. They explained that the primary biases were explained by outright prejudice, electability, and perceptions of the candidates as liberal. The most prominent explanation for bias against gay and transgender candidates was the worry of electability, accounting for 52% and 57% of the voters' justifications for gay and transgender candidates respectively. Outright prejudice was responsible for 32% of the effects of voter bias, while perceptions of gay and transgender candidates as more liberal accounted for 9% of the concerns about gay candidates, and 6% for transgender candidates.
|
[
"Voter attitudes and electoral barriers for LGBTQ\\+ candidates\n-------------------------------------------------------------",
"There has been little formal research on voter attitudes towards LGBTQ\\+ candidates.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Magni \\|first1\\=Gabriele \\|last2\\=Reynolds \\|first2\\=Andrew \\|date\\=October 2021 \\|title\\=Voter Preferences and the Political Underrepresentation of Minority Groups: Lesbian, Gay, and Transgender Candidates in Advanced Democracies \\|journal\\=Journal of Politics \\|volume\\=83 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=1205, 1207, 1210 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/712142 \\|s2cid\\=225106727 \\|issn\\=0022\\-3816 \\|via\\=The University of Chicago Press Journals}}",
"A 2021 study by political scientists Gabriele Magni and [Andrew Reynolds](/wiki/Andrew_Reynolds_%28political_scientist%29 \"Andrew Reynolds (political scientist)\") investigated voter attitudes towards a candidate based on their sexual orientation and gender identity in advanced democracies. They found that the United States had the greatest voter penalties towards LGBT candidates of the three countries investigated (U.S., UK, and New Zealand). The researchers conducted surveys through a [conjoint experiment](/wiki/Conjoint_analysis \"Conjoint analysis\") of over 1,800 Americans to measure their attitudes toward candidate characteristics in a hypothetical election.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Magni \\|first1\\=Gabriele \\|last2\\=Reynolds \\|first2\\=Andrew \\|date\\=October 2021 \\|title\\=Voter Preferences and the Political Underrepresentation of Minority Groups: Lesbian, Gay, and Transgender Candidates in Advanced Democracies \\|journal\\=Journal of Politics \\|volume\\=83 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=1205, 1207, 1210 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/712142 \\|s2cid\\=225106727 \\|issn\\=0022\\-3816 \\|via\\=The University of Chicago Press Journals}}",
"Overall, gay and lesbian candidates face a 6\\.7 percentage point penalty compared to their heterosexual counterparts while transgender candidates face an 11 percentage point penalty. The study also found that LGBTQ\\+ candidates of ethnic minorities face no further penalty, other than Black gay candidates who face an additional 3\\.6 percentage point penalty for their sexual orientation. Additionally, voters favor candidates with more political experience, which the researchers say disadvantages LGBTQ\\+ candidates because they are less likely to have this experience.",
"The study found that there is a wide variation in attitudes towards LGBT candidates based on different voter demographics. Partisanship was a clear indicator, as the penalty for gay candidates between Republican and Democratic voters differed by 8\\.4 percentage points. Republicans significantly penalized gay candidates by 14\\.8 percentage points.",
"Political ideology represents a stronger indicator of voter attitudes, as progressives did not penalize gay or lesbian candidates at all, while conservatives strongly penalized them by 17\\.2 percentage points. Moreover, people with LGBT family members or friends did not penalize gay candidates, and LGBT voters favor gay candidates by nine or 10 percentage points.",
"Nonreligious voters did not penalize gay candidates, but religious ones (those who regularly attended religious services) significantly penalized them by 12 percentage points.",
"Transgender candidates were more strongly penalized across all of the voter subgroups. The differences between the subgroups were less distinct for transgender candidates. Progressives and LGBT voters represent the only groups who did not penalize transgender candidates and even sometimes favored them, while conservatives significantly penalized them by 16 to 18 percentage points. Democrats penalized transgender candidates by six percentage points, while Republicans penalized them by 19 percentage points. Voters with LGBT friends and family penalized transgender candidates by five percentage points. Religious voters penalize transgender candidates by the highest margin (18 percentage points).",
"The study also looked at the reasons for these voter biases. They explained that the primary biases were explained by outright prejudice, electability, and perceptions of the candidates as liberal. The most prominent explanation for bias against gay and transgender candidates was the worry of electability, accounting for 52% and 57% of the voters' justifications for gay and transgender candidates respectively. Outright prejudice was responsible for 32% of the effects of voter bias, while perceptions of gay and transgender candidates as more liberal accounted for 9% of the concerns about gay candidates, and 6% for transgender candidates.",
""
] |
Rainbow waves (2018–2023\)
--------------------------
### 2018 election rainbow wave
The term "rainbow wave" was coined in the 2018 midterms, as a result of the unprecedented number of candidates and elects. During this cycle, there were over 600 openly LGBTQ\+ candidates running for office,{{Cite web \|title\=Results 2018 \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/about/past\-elections/results2018/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402024443/https://victoryfund.org/about/past\-elections/results2018/ \|url\-status\=live }} 432 on the ballot, and 244 winners. Twenty\-two openly LGBTQ\+ candidates ran for party seats in Congress, representing an increase of 340% since 2010\. Close to 195 candidates ran for state legislatures across 43 states.{{Cite web \|last\=Parker \|first\=Annise \|date\=November 5, 2018 \|title\=The Rainbow Wave Could Cover Red States Like Alaska, Kansas, Indiana \|url\=https://www.advocate.com/commentary/2018/11/05/rainbow\-wave\-could\-cover\-red\-states\-alaska\-kansas\-indiana \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=www.advocate.com \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024151/https://www.advocate.com/commentary/2018/11/05/rainbow\-wave\-could\-cover\-red\-states\-alaska\-kansas\-indiana \|url\-status\=live }} Moreover, a record number of [transgender women](/wiki/Transgender_women "Transgender women") ran for office,{{Cite news \|last\=Epstein \|first\=Kayla \|date\=August 9, 2018 \|title\=In 2018, transgender women are running for governor, Congress and more \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\-fix/wp/2018/08/09/transgender\-women\-are\-trying\-to\-usher\-in\-a\-rainbow\-wave\-running\-for\-governor\-congress\-and\-more/ \|access\-date\=March 26, 2023 \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|archive\-date\=February 18, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218023314/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\-fix/wp/2018/08/09/transgender\-women\-are\-trying\-to\-usher\-in\-a\-rainbow\-wave\-running\-for\-governor\-congress\-and\-more/ \|url\-status\=live }} including Democrat [Christine Hallquist](/wiki/Christine_Hallquist "Christine Hallquist"), the first transgender person to become a majority party's nominee for governor.{{Cite web \|last\=Taylor \|first\=Jessica \|date\=August 14, 2018 \|title\=Vermont Democrat Christine Hallquist Is First Transgender Nominee For Governor \|url\=https://www.npr.org/2018/08/14/638708321/vermont\-democrats\-make\-history\-by\-nominating\-transgender\-woman\-for\-governor \|access\-date\=March 26, 2022 \|website\=NPR \|archive\-date\=January 21, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121161405/https://www.npr.org/2018/08/14/638708321/vermont\-democrats\-make\-history\-by\-nominating\-transgender\-woman\-for\-governor \|url\-status\=live }}
Of the 432 LGBTQ\+ candidates on the ballot, 10 of 28 federal candidates were elected, and 26 of the 34 judicial candidates were elected. In the state legislature, 110 of 197 LGBTQ\+ candidates were elected, while statewide, six of 11 were elected. On the local level, 80 of 142 candidates were elected and 10 of 16 LGBTQ\+ mayoral candidates were elected.
Prior to the 2018 election, there were seven openly LGBTQ\+ congresspeople (six House representatives and one senator), which increased to 10 after the election (eight House representatives and two senators).{{Cite web \|last\=Schaeffer \|first\=Katherine \|title\=118th Congress breaks record for lesbian, gay and bisexual representation \|url\=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact\-tank/2023/01/11/118th\-congress\-breaks\-record\-for\-lesbian\-gay\-and\-bisexual\-representation/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Pew Research Center \|date\=11 January 2023 \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317190209/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact\-tank/2023/01/11/118th\-congress\-breaks\-record\-for\-lesbian\-gay\-and\-bisexual\-representation/ \|url\-status\=live }} Additionally, in 2018, there were 119 openly LGBTQ\+ state legislators, increasing to 148 after the election. Pre\-election, seven states had never elected an LGBTQ\+ candidate to their state legislatures, which decreased to four, as Indiana and Nebraska each elected their first LGBTQ\+ state legislative member.{{Cite news \|date\=April 2019 \|title\=2018 Annual Report: A Rainbow Wave \|pages\=5 \|work\=Victory Fund \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2019/04/VictoryFund\_Annual\-Report\_2018\_NoSponsors\_DIGITAL.pdf \|access\-date\=March 26, 2022 \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308162618/https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2019/04/VictoryFund\_Annual\-Report\_2018\_NoSponsors\_DIGITAL.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} Additionally, four LGBTQ\+ candidates ran for governor, two of which won.{{Cite web \|last\=Moreau \|first\=Julie \|date\=November 7, 2018 \|title\=Over 150 LGBTQ candidates claim victory in midterm elections \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/over\-100\-lgbtq\-candidates\-claim\-victory\-midterm\-elections\-n933646 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=NBC News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024152/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/over\-100\-lgbtq\-candidates\-claim\-victory\-midterm\-elections\-n933646 \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Notable 2018 LGBTQ\+ elected officials
[thumb\|Governor Jared Polis' official portrait from when he was a House representative for Colorado's 2nd congressional district.](/wiki/File:Jared_Polis_official_photo.jpg "Jared Polis official photo.jpg")
* **[Kyrsten Sinema](/wiki/Kyrsten_Sinema "Kyrsten Sinema")** (D) was elected as a senator for Arizona, becoming the first openly bisexual person to be a United States senator and the first female Arizona senator.{{Cite web \|last\=Fitzsimons \|first\=Tim \|date\=November 13, 2018 \|title\=Kyrsten Sinema makes history as first bisexual member of U.S. Senate \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/kyrsten\-sinema\-makes\-history\-first\-bisexual\-member\-u\-s\-senate\-n935816 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=NBC News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2022\-01\-31 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131145842/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/kyrsten\-sinema\-makes\-history\-first\-bisexual\-member\-u\-s\-senate\-n935816 \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Jared Polis](/wiki/Jared_Polis "Jared Polis")** (D), formerly a five\-term democratic representative from Colorado, became the first openly gay man to become governor in the United States when he was elected the governor of Colorado.{{Cite web \|date\=November 6, 2018 \|title\=Colorado voters elect Jared Polis, nation's first openly gay governor \|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/colorado\-jared\-polis\-nations\-first\-openly\-gay\-governor\-elected\-today\-2018\-11\-06/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=CBS News \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024153/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/colorado\-jared\-polis\-nations\-first\-openly\-gay\-governor\-elected\-today\-2018\-11\-06/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Sharice Davids](/wiki/Sharice_Davids "Sharice Davids")** (D) was elected Democratic representative of Kansas' third congressional district, becoming Congress' first lesbian Native American and first Native American woman member.{{Cite web \|last\=Nilsen \|first\=Ella \|date\=2018\-11\-06 \|title\=Democrat Sharice Davids just beat Rep. Kevin Yoder in a key Kansas House race \|url\=https://www.vox.com/2018/11/6/18049882/kansas\-election\-results\-sharice\-davids\-native\-american \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Vox \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024154/https://www.vox.com/2018/11/6/18049882/kansas\-election\-results\-sharice\-davids\-native\-american \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Chris Pappas](/wiki/Chris_Pappas_%28American_politician%29 "Chris Pappas (American politician)")** (D) was elected as House representative for New Hampshire's first congressional district, becoming the state's first openly gay member of Congress.{{Cite web \|last\=Hofacker \|first\=Cat \|title\=Meet the LGBTQ candidates who made history in 2018 \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/08/lgbtq\-candidates\-2018\-midterms/1918237002/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=USA TODAY \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024152/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/08/lgbtq\-candidates\-2018\-midterms/1918237002/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Angie Craig](/wiki/Angie_Craig "Angie Craig")** (D), elected as House representative of Minnesota's second congressional district, became the state's first openly LGBTQ\+ congressperson.{{Cite web \|last\=Gaudiano \|first\=Nicole \|date\=November 7, 2018 \|title\=Midterm results 2018: How Trump's 2016 election set the stage for the female wave \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/in\-depth/news/politics/elections/2018/11/07/elections\-results\-2018\-how\-trumps\-2016\-win\-inspired\-female\-wave/1864792002/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=USA Today \|language\=en\-us \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024154/https://www.usatoday.com/in\-depth/news/politics/elections/2018/11/07/elections\-results\-2018\-how\-trumps\-2016\-win\-inspired\-female\-wave/1864792002/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Malcolm Kenyatta](/wiki/Malcolm_Kenyatta "Malcolm Kenyatta")** (D) was elected to Pennsylvania's statehouse, becoming the first openly gay person of color to hold such a seat in the state.{{Cite web \|last\=Chinchilla \|first\=Rudy \|date\=November 11, 2018 \|title\=Malcolm Kenyatta Becomes First Openly Gay Person of Color to Join Pennsylvania Statehouse \|url\=https://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/local/pennsylvania\-district\-first\-lgbtq\-representative/181438/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=NBC10 Philadelphia \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024152/https://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/local/pennsylvania\-district\-first\-lgbtq\-representative/181438/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Kate Brown](/wiki/Kate_Brown "Kate Brown")** (D), who became the first openly bisexual governor in 2015, was reelected as Oregon's governor.{{Cite web \|last\=Daniels \|first\=Jeff \|date\=November 6, 2018 \|title\=Oregon's Democratic Gov. Kate Brown wins re\-election against GOP challenger Knute Buehler: NBC News \|url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/11/06/oregons\-democratic\-gov\-kate\-brown\-wins\-re\-election.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=CNBC \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024151/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/11/06/oregons\-democratic\-gov\-kate\-brown\-wins\-re\-election.html \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Tammy Baldwin](/wiki/Tammy_Baldwin "Tammy Baldwin")** (D), the first openly LGBTQ\+ senator, was reelected as a senator representing Wisconsin.{{Cite web \|last\=Yglesias \|first\=Matthew \|date\=2018\-11\-06 \|title\=Tammy Baldwin reelected to US Senate: a progressive champion wins in Wisconsin \|url\=https://www.vox.com/2018/11/6/18056378/election\-results\-wisconsin\-tammy\-baldwin\-winner \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Vox \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024151/https://www.vox.com/2018/11/6/18056378/election\-results\-wisconsin\-tammy\-baldwin\-winner \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Sean Patrick Maloney](/wiki/Sean_Patrick_Maloney "Sean Patrick Maloney")** (D), New York's first openly gay congressperson, was reelected as House representative for the state's 18th congressional district.{{Cite web \|last\=Hofacker \|first\=Cat \|date\=November 8, 2018 \|title\=Meet the LGBTQ candidates who made history in 2018 \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/08/lgbtq\-candidates\-2018\-midterms/1918237002/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=USA TODAY \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024152/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/08/lgbtq\-candidates\-2018\-midterms/1918237002/ \|url\-status\=live }}
### 2019 election rainbow wave
In 2019, of 382 openly LGBTQ\+ candidates, 200 candidates were on the ballot and 170 won their races.{{Cite web \|last\=Keith \|first\=Jarod \|date\=November 6, 2019 \|title\=144 Out LGBTQ Candidates Won Elected Office So Far in 2019; Most Ever in Odd\-Numbered Election Year \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/news/144\-out\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-elected\-office\-so\-far\-in\-2019\-most\-ever\-in\-odd\-numbered\-election\-year/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024155/https://victoryfund.org/news/144\-out\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-elected\-office\-so\-far\-in\-2019\-most\-ever\-in\-odd\-numbered\-election\-year/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite news \|title\=2019 Annual Report \|pages\=6 \|work\=Victory Fund \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\_Annual\-Report\_2019\_DIGITAL.pdf \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402045156/https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\_Annual\-Report\_2019\_DIGITAL.pdf \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-02}} [LGBTQ Victory Fund](/wiki/LGBTQ_Victory_Fund "LGBTQ Victory Fund") data from November 6, 2019, found that of these 382 candidates, 40% were from states that ranked at low or negative equality levels, of which 35\.5% won. About 83% of the LGBTQ\+ candidates were Democrats with a 40\.3% success rate, while 2\.4% were Republican with a 33\.3% success rate. The Victory Fund endorsed 178 candidates of which 117 won: five in state legislatures, nine mayors, 102 local officials, and one judicial elect.{{Cite web \|title\=Results 2019 \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/about/past\-elections/results2019/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327031719/https://victoryfund.org/about/past\-elections/results2019/ \|url\-status\=live }}
The 2019 LGBTQ\+ candidate pool represented 29\.1% people of color, of which 34\.2% won. Transgender women had the highest win rate, as 56\.3% (nine) of the 16 transgender female candidates won. None of the three transgender male candidates won their races, while one of the three [gender non\-conforming](/wiki/Gender_non-conforming "Gender non-conforming"), and two of the five [non\-binary](/wiki/Non-binary_gender "Non-binary gender") candidates won. Thirty\-eight percent (78\) of the 205 gay candidates, 44\.6% (33\) of the 73 lesbian candidates, 41\.7% (10\) of the 24 bisexual candidates, and 40% (10\) of the 25 queer candidates, were elected. Among other progressions in LGBTQ\+ representation in 2019, the number of lesbian mayors in major cities doubled, as three were elected (in Chicago, Illinois; Tampa, Florida; and Madison, Wisconsin).{{Cite news \|title\=2019 Annual Report \|pages\=3 \|work\=Victory Fund \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\_Annual\-Report\_2019\_DIGITAL.pdf \|access\-date\=March 26, 2023 \|archive\-date\=March 27, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327031733/https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\_Annual\-Report\_2019\_DIGITAL.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Notable 2019 LGBTQ\+ elected officials
[thumb\|275x275px\|Mayor of Chicago Lori Lightfoot (center) in the 2019 Chicago Pride Parade.](/wiki/File:Lori_Lightfoot_-_Chicago_Pride_Parade_2019.jpg "Lori Lightfoot - Chicago Pride Parade 2019.jpg")
* **[Danica Roem](/wiki/Danica_Roem "Danica Roem")** (D), elected in 2017 as the first openly transgender official in statewide office, was reelected as House delegate for Virginia's 13th District.{{Cite news \|date\=2019\-11\-05 \|title\=2019 Virginia General Election Results \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/05/us/elections/results\-virginia\-general\-elections.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/05/us/elections/results\-virginia\-general\-elections.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Fitzsimons \|first\=Tim \|date\=November 6, 2019 \|title\=Rainbow Wave 2\.0: Nearly 100 LGBTQ candidates claim victory in Tuesday's elections \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/rainbow\-wave\-2\-0\-nearly\-100\-lgbtq\-candidates\-claim\-victory\-n1077886 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-26 \|website\=NBC News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/rainbow\-wave\-2\-0\-nearly\-100\-lgbtq\-candidates\-claim\-victory\-n1077886 \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Lori Lightfoot](/wiki/Lori_Lightfoot "Lori Lightfoot")** (D) became the "highest\-ranking LGBTQ\+ mayor" in United States history, as she was elected the mayor of Chicago with 73% of the vote, and was one of the two overall top\-ranking mayoral elects (of 12\) in the election.{{Cite news \|title\=2019 Annual Report \|pages\=4 \|work\=Victory Fund \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\_Annual\-Report\_2019\_DIGITAL.pdf \|access\-date\=March 26, 2023 \|archive\-date\=March 27, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327031733/https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\_Annual\-Report\_2019\_DIGITAL.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} Her election made Chicago the largest city to ever elect an openly gay mayor and a Black female mayor.{{Cite web \|last\=Stewart \|first\=Emily \|date\=2019\-04\-02 \|title\=Chicago just elected a black, openly LGBTQ woman as mayor \|url\=https://www.vox.com/policy\-and\-politics/2019/4/2/18292865/chicago\-mayor\-election\-results\-lori\-lightfoot \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Vox \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.vox.com/policy\-and\-politics/2019/4/2/18292865/chicago\-mayor\-election\-results\-lori\-lightfoot \|url\-status\=live }}
* **N.J. Akbar** (D) was elected to the Akron, Ohio Board of Education, becoming one of the first gay, Black, and Muslim people in United States public office.
### 2020 election rainbow wave
In the 2020 midterm election, 1,006 openly LGBTQ\+ candidates ran for political office and 782 were on the general election ballot, of which 334 won. This represented a 42\.7% success rate.{{Cite web \|last\=Keith \|first\=Jarod \|title\=334 Out LGBTQ Candidates Won Elected Office So Far in 2020; Most Ever in Any Election Year \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/news/334\-out\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-elected\-office\-so\-far\-in\-2020\-most\-ever\-in\-any\-election\-year/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024155/https://victoryfund.org/news/334\-out\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-elected\-office\-so\-far\-in\-2020\-most\-ever\-in\-any\-election\-year/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Moreau \|first\=Julie \|date\=December 10, 2020 \|title\=Record number of LGBTQ candidates won in November, new data reveals \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/record\-number\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-november\-new\-data\-reveals\-n1250718 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024153/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/record\-number\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-november\-new\-data\-reveals\-n1250718 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=NBC News \|language\=en}} The election also showed a 41% increase in LGBTQ\+ candidates from 2018\. The 2020 midterms had more LGBTQ\+ candidates and LGBTQ\+ elects than any other United States election prior.{{Cite news \|title\=2020 Annual Report: An Unprecedented Year \|pages\=4 \|work\=Victory Fund \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2021/03/Victory\-Fund\-Annual\-Report\_2020\_Digital\-ND.pdf \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-23 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402073636/https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2021/03/Victory\-Fund\-Annual\-Report\_2020\_Digital\-ND.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
According to a [Victory Fund](/wiki/LGBTQ_Victory_Fund "LGBTQ Victory Fund") report, of the 782 candidates on the ballot, there were 63 federal candidates and nine elects, 10 statewide candidates and zero elects, 327 state legislative candidates and 139 elects, 37 judicial candidates and 21 elects, 20 mayoral candidates and five elects, and 325 local candidates and 160 elects.
The 2020 LGBTQ\+ candidate pool had 35\.7% people of color, 37\.1% of which won their seats. There were six transgender men, 38 transgender women, four gender nonconforming, and 13 genderqueer/nonbinary candidates. Nearly 37% of the transgender candidates were elected. Gay candidates represented the largest portion of the candidate pool with 391 candidates and a 41\.5% success rate. Lesbian candidates had the highest success rate, with 172 candidates and 55\.2% elects. One\-third of the 72 bisexual candidates, 35% of the 17 pansexual candidates, 40% of the 55 queer candidates, and none of the two asexual candidates won.
More LGBTQ\+ candidates won seats in Congress than any other year, with nine LGBTQ\+ congressional elects, including all of the seven incumbents up for election. After the election, the 117th Congress had nine openly LGBTQ\+ House representatives and two senators. Moreover, before 2020, there were four transgender state representatives, and after the election, there were nine. Among transgender, nonbinary, and gender\-nonconforming state candidates, eight were elected.{{Cite web \|last\=Bauer \|first\=Sydney \|date\=November 6, 2020 \|title\=Transgender representation to nearly double in state legislatures \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/transgender\-representation\-nearly\-double\-state\-legislatures\-n1246426 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-26 \|website\=NBC News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310042443/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/transgender\-representation\-nearly\-double\-state\-legislatures\-n1246426 \|url\-status\=live }} Moreover, Delaware and Tennessee elected their first LGBTQ\+ state senators: State Senators Sarah McBride and Marie Pinkney in Delaware, and State Representative Eric Morrison in Delaware; and State Representatives Torrey Harris and Eddie Mannis in Tennessee.{{Cite news \|title\=2020 Annual Report: An Unprecedented Year \|pages\=5 \|work\=Victory Fund \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2021/03/Victory\-Fund\-Annual\-Report\_2020\_Digital\-ND.pdf \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-23 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402073636/https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2021/03/Victory\-Fund\-Annual\-Report\_2020\_Digital\-ND.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Notable 2020 LGBTQ\+ elected officials
[thumb\|Sarah McBride from an event in 2018\.](/wiki/File:2018.03.20_Sarah_McBride_and_Rep_Joe_Kennedy%2C_Politics_and_Prose%2C_Washington%2C_DC_USA_4126_%2839136958250%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "2018.03.20 Sarah McBride and Rep Joe Kennedy, Politics and Prose, Washington, DC USA 4126 (39136958250) (cropped).jpg")
* **[Sarah McBride](/wiki/Sarah_McBride "Sarah McBride")** (D) was elected as a Delaware state senator, becoming the first openly transgender state senator in United States history and the United States' highest\-ranking transgender official.{{Cite web \|last\=McCarthy \|first\=Kelly \|date\=November 4, 2020 \|title\=2020 election brought notable firsts for LGBTQ candidates \|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/2020\-election\-brought\-notable\-firsts\-lgbtq\-candidates/story?id\=74019639 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=ABC News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/2020\-election\-brought\-notable\-firsts\-lgbtq\-candidates/story?id\=74019639 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=North \|first\=Anna \|date\=2020\-11\-04 \|title\=The number of trans state lawmakers nearly doubled Tuesday night \|url\=https://www.vox.com/2020/11/4/21549645/trans\-lgbtq\-election\-2020\-byers\-mcbride\-kansas \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Vox \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.vox.com/2020/11/4/21549645/trans\-lgbtq\-election\-2020\-byers\-mcbride\-kansas \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Kim Jackson](/wiki/Kim_Jackson_%28politician%29 "Kim Jackson (politician)")** (D) was elected to the Georgia State Senate,{{Cite news \|date\=2020\-11\-03 \|title\=Georgia Election Results \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/11/03/us/elections/results\-georgia.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=2020\-11\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116033308/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/11/03/us/elections/results\-georgia.html \|url\-status\=live }} becoming the state's first LGBTQ\+ senator and one of three of the United States' LGBTQ\+ Black female state senators.
* **[Stephanie Byers](/wiki/Stephanie_Byers "Stephanie Byers")** (D) was elected as the Kansas House representative for District 86,{{Cite web \|title\=Stephanie Byers \|url\=https://ballotpedia.org/Stephanie\_Byers \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Ballotpedia \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://ballotpedia.org/Stephanie\_Byers \|url\-status\=live }} becoming the first transgender state lawmaker of color in U.S. history{{Cite news \|last1\=McDaniel \|first1\=Piper \|last2\=Garcia \|first2\=David \|date\=November 9, 2020 \|title\=Trans And Nonbinary Candidates Set Record Wins In Red And Blue States \|work\=NPR \|url\=https://www.npr.org/2020/11/09/931819214/trans\-and\-nonbinary\-candidates\-set\-record\-wins\-in\-red\-and\-blue\-states \|access\-date\=April 23, 2023 \|archive\-date\=April 14, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414070855/https://www.npr.org/2020/11/09/931819214/trans\-and\-nonbinary\-candidates\-set\-record\-wins\-in\-red\-and\-blue\-states \|url\-status\=live }} and Kansas' first transgender statewide official.{{Cite web \|last\=Gilchrist \|first\=Tracy E. \|date\=November 4, 2020 \|title\=Stephanie Byers Wins to Become Kansas's 1st Trans Elected Official \|url\=https://www.advocate.com/politics/2020/11/03/stephanie\-byers\-wins\-become\-kansass\-1st\-trans\-elected\-official \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-26 \|website\=www.advocate.com \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2020\-11\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20201110190948/https://www.advocate.com/politics/2020/11/03/stephanie\-byers\-wins\-become\-kansass\-1st\-trans\-elected\-official \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Mauree Turner](/wiki/Mauree_Turner "Mauree Turner")** (D) became the first non\-binary lawmaker in the United States and the first practicing Muslim in the Oklahoma legislature,{{Cite news \|last\=Armus \|first\=Teo \|date\=November 5, 2020 \|title\=A Muslim millennial was elected the country's first out nonbinary lawmaker — in Oklahoma \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/11/05/non\-binary\-oklahoma\-first\-elected/ \|access\-date\=April 23, 2023 \|archive\-date\=January 18, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118151215/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/11/05/non\-binary\-oklahoma\-first\-elected/ \|url\-status\=live }} as they were elected as the Oklahoma House representative for District 88\.{{Cite web \|title\=Mauree Turner \|url\=https://ballotpedia.org/Mauree\_Turner \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Ballotpedia \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165208/https://ballotpedia.org/Mauree\_Turner \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Joshua Query](/wiki/Joshua_Query "Joshua Query")** (D) was originally elected to the New Hampshire State House of Representatives District Hillsborough 39 in 2018 and came out as gender nonconforming during their term. They were reelected in 2020, becoming the first gender\-nonconforming state legislator.{{Cite web \|title\=Joshua Query \|url\=https://ballotpedia.org/Joshua\_Query \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Ballotpedia \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165208/https://ballotpedia.org/Joshua\_Query \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Moreau \|first\=Julie \|date\=November 12, 2020 \|title\='A win for all of us': Over 220 LGBTQ candidates celebrate election victories \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/win\-all\-us\-over\-220\-lgbtq\-candidates\-celebrate\-election\-victories\-n1247551 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=NBC News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-13 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013171253/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\-out/win\-all\-us\-over\-220\-lgbtq\-candidates\-celebrate\-election\-victories\-n1247551 \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Ritchie Torres](/wiki/Ritchie_Torres "Ritchie Torres")** (D) became the first Black and Latinx LGBTQ\+ congressperson and one of two of the first Black LGBTQ\+ congresspeople when he was elected as the House representative of New York's 15th Congressional District.{{Cite web \|title\=New York House election results 2020: Live results and polls \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020\-elections/new\-york\-house\-results \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=www.nbcnews.com \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020\-elections/new\-york\-house\-results \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Mondaire Jones](/wiki/Mondaire_Jones "Mondaire Jones")** (D) became one of two of the first Black LGBTQ\+ congresspeople when he was elected to the House of Representatives for New York's 17th Congressional District.{{Cite web \|title\=Mondaire Jones \|url\=https://ballotpedia.org/Mondaire\_Jones \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Ballotpedia \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://ballotpedia.org/Mondaire\_Jones \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Todd Gloria](/wiki/Todd_Gloria "Todd Gloria")** (D) was elected mayor of San Diego, California, becoming their first LGBTQ\+ mayor and first mayor of color.{{Cite news \|last\=Cowan \|first\=Jill \|date\=2020\-11\-12 \|title\=A Conversation With Todd Gloria, San Diego's Mayor\-Elect \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/12/us/san\-diego\-mayor\-todd\-gloria.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/12/us/san\-diego\-mayor\-todd\-gloria.html \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Pete Buttigieg](/wiki/Pete_Buttigieg "Pete Buttigieg")** (D), the United States' first openly gay major presidential candidate, won Iowa's presidential primary election, becoming the first openly gay person to win a state primary.{{Cite news \|last1\=Epstein \|first1\=Reid J. \|last2\=Gabriel \|first2\=Trip \|date\=2020\-03\-01 \|title\=Pete Buttigieg Drops Out of Democratic Presidential Race \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/us/politics/pete\-buttigieg\-drops\-out.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=2020\-06\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605051749/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/us/politics/pete\-buttigieg\-drops\-out.html \|url\-status\=live }}
### 2021 election rainbow wave
In the 2021 rainbow wave, 430 openly LGBTQ\+ candidates ran for public office of which 237 made the ballot and 184 won.{{Cite web \|last\=Keith \|first\=Jarod \|title\=184 LGBTQ Candidates Won Elected Office in 2021 \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/news/184\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-elected\-office\-in\-2021/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024153/https://victoryfund.org/news/184\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-elected\-office\-in\-2021/ \|url\-status\=live }} According to the [Victory Fund](/wiki/LGBTQ_Victory_Fund "LGBTQ Victory Fund")'s November 16, 2021 report, the [2021 United States elections](/wiki/2021_United_States_elections "2021 United States elections") represented an 18\.5% increase in candidacy from 2019 and more LGBTQ\+ candidates won than any other odd\-numbered election in United States history.{{Cite web \|title\=Out on the Trail 2021 \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/out\-on\-the\-trail\-2021/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165210/https://victoryfund.org/out\-on\-the\-trail\-2021/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US}} Moreover, it brought the total number of LGBTQ\+ elected officials from 995 to 1038, marking the first time this number exceeded 1000 LGBTQ\+ individuals. Overall, the LGBTQ\+ candidates in the 2021 elections had a 46% success rate.
Of the 430 openly LGBTQ\+ candidates, there were three federal candidates and zero elects, three statewide candidates and zero elects, 20 state legislative candidates and six elects, seven judicial candidates and five elects, 41 mayoral candidates and 16 elects, and 356 local candidates and 157 elects. Of the 430 candidates, 37% were people of color, a five percent increase from 2019\.{{Cite web \|last\=Jackson \|first\=David \|title\='Rainbow wave': A record number of LGBTQ candidates are running for office in 2021 \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2021/10/26/lgbt\-politicians\-running\-office\-hits\-new\-off\-year\-record\-2021/6171384001/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=USA TODAY \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2021/10/26/lgbt\-politicians\-running\-office\-hits\-new\-off\-year\-record\-2021/6171384001/ \|url\-status\=live }} This proportion represented the most racially diverse LGBTQ\+ candidate pool in United States history and a significantly higher percentage of candidates of color than the general election pool. The LGBTQ\+ candidates of color in this election had a 37% success rate.
Of all of the sexual orientations, gay male candidates represented the highest number of candidates, with 192 candidates winning at a rate of 49\.4%. Lesbian candidates had the highest success rate of any other sexual orientation, as 60% of the 60 candidates were elected. However, there was a 7\.3% decrease in gay male candidacy and a 19% decrease in lesbian candidacy from 2019\. Forty\-five percent of the 41 bisexual and 23\.1% of the 13 pansexual candidates were elected. Additionally, transgender women had the highest win rate of any other gender identity, with 63\.2% of the 21 transgender women candidates elected. More nonbinary and queer people ran for office than ever before, with 27\.8% of 19 nonbinary candidates and 34\.6% of 59 queer candidates winning their elections.
#### Notable 2021 elected officials
* **Xander Orenstein** (D) was elected to the Allegheny County Magisterial District Court in Pennsylvania, becoming the first nonbinary judicial elected official.{{Cite web \|last\=Yurcaba \|first\=Jo \|date\=November 3, 2021 \|title\=After election, more than 1,000 LGBTQ officials will serve in the U.S. \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc\-out/out\-politics\-and\-policy/election\-1000\-lgbtq\-officials\-will\-serve\-us\-rcna4465 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-26 \|website\=NBC News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165207/https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc\-out/out\-politics\-and\-policy/election\-1000\-lgbtq\-officials\-will\-serve\-us\-rcna4465 \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Don Guardian](/wiki/Don_Guardian "Don Guardian")** (R) was elected to the New Jersey General Assembly, which previously had no LGBTQ\+ legislators, as the first Republican LGBTQ\+ state lawmaker.
* **Jalen McKee\-Rodriguez** (Nonpartisan) was elected as a representative for District 2 of the San Antonio City Council, becoming the first Black gay man elected to office in Texas.{{Cite web \|last\= \|title\=Jalen McKee\-Rodriguez \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/candidate/jalen\-mckee\-rodriguez/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165216/https://victoryfund.org/candidate/jalen\-mckee\-rodriguez/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Kristin Richardson Jordan](/wiki/Kristin_Richardson_Jordan "Kristin Richardson Jordan")** (D), elected to represent New York's 9th District,{{Cite web \|title\=Kristin Richardson Jordan \|url\=https://ballotpedia.org/Kristin\_Richardson\_Jordan \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Ballotpedia \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165212/https://ballotpedia.org/Kristin\_Richardson\_Jordan \|url\-status\=live }} and **[Crystal Hudson](/wiki/Crystal_Hudson "Crystal Hudson")** elected to represent District 35, became the first two Black LGBTQ\+ women on the New York City council.{{Cite news \|last1\=Gold \|first1\=Michael \|last2\=Zraick \|first2\=Karen \|date\=2021\-11\-04 \|title\=N.Y. City Council Sees Historic Changes, and Republicans Gain Ground \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/04/nyregion/city\-council\-republicans\-nyc.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/04/nyregion/city\-council\-republicans\-nyc.html \|url\-status\=live }}
* **Dion Manley** (Nonpartisan) became the first transgender elected official in Ohio when he was elected to the Gahanna Jefferson School Board.{{Cite news \|title\=2021 Annual Report \|pages\=6 \|work\=Victory Fund \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/01/Victory\-Annual\-Report\_2021\_FUND\-DIGITAL.pdf \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-23 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165211/https://victoryfund.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/01/Victory\-Annual\-Report\_2021\_FUND\-DIGITAL.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|title\=Dion Manley \|url\=https://ballotpedia.org/Dion\_Manley \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-03 \|website\=Ballotpedia \|language\=en}}
### 2022 election rainbow wave
The 2022 midterm elections became the biggest rainbow wave in United States history with an unprecedented 1,065 overall candidates, a 5\.9% increase from the 2020 elections.{{Cite web \|title\=Out on the Trail 2022 Report \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/out\-on\-the\-trail\-2022/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Out on the Trail 2022 \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165207/https://victoryfund.org/out\-on\-the\-trail\-2022/ \|url\-status\=live }} Out of these candidates, 714 secured a spot on the ballot and 436 won, representing a 61% success rate.{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=November 10, 2022 \|title\=436 LGBTQ Candidates Won in the 2022 General Election, 100 More than in 2020; 60% Win Rate \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/news/436\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-in\-the\-2022\-general\-election\-100\-more\-than\-in\-2020\-60\-win\-rate/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315105341/https://victoryfund.org/news/436\-lgbtq\-candidates\-won\-in\-the\-2022\-general\-election\-100\-more\-than\-in\-2020\-60\-win\-rate/ \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-15 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US}} For the first time, there were LGBTQ\+ candidates on the ballot in every state and the District of Columbia.{{Cite news \|last\=Branigin \|first\=Anne \|date\=November 11, 2022 \|title\=A 'rainbow wave' of candidates made history. What's next for them? \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/11/11/lgbtq\-midterms\-2022\-candidates/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119081000/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/11/11/lgbtq\-midterms\-2022\-candidates/ \|archive\-date\=November 19, 2022 \|access\-date\=March 26, 2023}}
Congress now has the most lesbian, gay, and bisexual members in United States history. Prior to the 2022 midterms, there were nine House representatives and two senators, and after, there were 11 House representatives and two senators. Of the 11 House representatives, seven are incumbents and four are new elects.
The 2022 midterms represented the most diverse LGBTQ\+ candidate pool of any election, with 38\.2% candidates of color, a 7\.3% increase from the 2020 election and a 9\.5% increase from the 2018 midterms. For the first time, more Black LGBTQ\+ candidates than Latinx LGBTQ\+ candidates ran for office.
An unprecedented number of non\-[cisgender](/wiki/Cisgender "Cisgender") candidates ran for office, representing 13\.9% of the overall candidate pool, a 6% increase from 2020 and a 4\.8% increase from 2018\. The number of nonbinary candidates more than tripled since 2020 with 54 nonbinary candidates in the 2022 election, in contrast to 17 in 2020 and four in 2018\. Eighteen of the 37 transgender candidates won, making a 49% success rate, and 13 of the 24 nonbinary candidates won, making a 54% success rate.
Gay men represented the largest portion of the candidacy, representing 55% of the candidate pool, paralleling trends from other elections. Queer\-identifying candidates grew from 4\.3% of the candidacy in 2018 and 6\.8% of the candidacy in 2020, to 11\.2% of candidates in 2022\. Additionally, 18\.2% of the candidates were lesbian and 11\.2% were bisexual.
#### Notable LGBTQ\+ elected officials
* **[Maura Healey](/wiki/Maura_Healey "Maura Healey")** (D), former Massachusetts' attorney general, was elected as the state's governor, becoming one of two of the United States' first lesbian governors.{{Cite news \|agency\=The Associated Press \|date\=2022\-11\-08 \|title\=Maura Healey is first woman and first out gay person elected Massachusetts governor \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=The Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/us\-news/2022/nov/08/maura\-healey\-massachusetts\-governor \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|issn\=0261\-3077 \|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401102520/https://www.theguardian.com/us\-news/2022/nov/08/maura\-healey\-massachusetts\-governor \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Tina Kotek](/wiki/Tina_Kotek "Tina Kotek")** (D), previously the United States' first lesbian speaker of a state House, was elected as Oregon's governor, becoming one of two of the first lesbian governors in United States history.{{Cite web \|last\=Edelman \|first\=Adam \|title\=Democrat Tina Kotek wins Oregon governor's race, beating Republican Christine Drazan \|url\=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2022\-election/democrat\-tina\-kotek\-wins\-oregon\-governors\-race\-beating\-republican\-chri\-rcna55388 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=NBC News \|date\=11 November 2022 \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024156/https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2022\-election/democrat\-tina\-kotek\-wins\-oregon\-governors\-race\-beating\-republican\-chri\-rcna55388 \|url\-status\=live }}
* [thumb\|Office portrait of House Representative George Santos.](/wiki/File:Rep._George_Santos_Official_Portrait.jpg "Rep. George Santos Official Portrait.jpg")**[George Santos](/wiki/George_Santos "George Santos")** (R) was elected as House representative of New York's 3rd congressional district, becoming the first openly gay Republican congressperson. His election was also the first general election in which two major party nominees were LGBTQ\+ and opposed one another.{{Cite web \|last\=Metzger \|first\=Bryan \|date\=November 9, 2022 \|title\=A gay Republican who said Trump was 'at his full awesomeness' on January 6 is headed to Congress \|url\=https://www.businessinsider.com/george\-santos\-elected\-gay\-lgbtq\-trump\-republican\-january\-6\-2022\-11 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=Business Insider \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-01\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105173108/https://www.businessinsider.com/george\-santos\-elected\-gay\-lgbtq\-trump\-republican\-january\-6\-2022\-11 \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Erick Russell](/wiki/Erick_Russell "Erick Russell")** (D) became the first Black LGBTQ\+ person elected to statewide office in the United States when he was elected as the Connecticut state Treasurer.{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=November 9, 2022 \|title\=Erick Russell Shatters Lavender Ceiling; First Black LGBTQ Person Ever Elected Statewide in U.S. History \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/news/erick\-russell\-shatters\-lavender\-ceiling\-first\-black\-lgbtq\-person\-ever\-elected\-statewide\-in\-u\-s\-history/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-26 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://victoryfund.org/news/erick\-russell\-shatters\-lavender\-ceiling\-first\-black\-lgbtq\-person\-ever\-elected\-statewide\-in\-u\-s\-history/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[James Roesener](/wiki/James_Roesener "James Roesener")** (D) was elected as representative of the 22nd District of the New Hampshire State House, becoming the first openly transgender man elected to a state legislature in the United States.{{Cite news \|last\=Treisman \|first\=Rachel \|date\=November 9, 2022 \|title\=James Roesener is the first out trans man elected to a U.S. state legislature \|work\=NPR \|url\=https://www.npr.org/2022/11/09/1135417129/new\-hampshire\-trans\-lawmaker\-james\-roesener \|access\-date\=April 23, 2023 \|archive\-date\=April 13, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413150234/https://www.npr.org/2022/11/09/1135417129/new\-hampshire\-trans\-lawmaker\-james\-roesener \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Leigh Finke](/wiki/Leigh_Finke "Leigh Finke")** ([DFL](/wiki/Minnesota_Democratic%E2%80%93Farmer%E2%80%93Labor_Party "Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party")) was elected as Minnesota state House representative of their 66A congressional district, becoming the first transgender legislator of the Minnesota House.{{Cite web \|last\=Duxter \|first\=Adam \|date\=November 9, 2022 \|title\=Leigh Finke to become first transgender legislator in Minnesota House \|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/leigh\-finke\-to\-become\-first\-transgender\-legislator\-in\-minnesota\-house/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=www.cbsnews.com \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308093238/https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/leigh\-finke\-to\-become\-first\-transgender\-legislator\-in\-minnesota\-house/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Zooey Zephyr](/wiki/Zooey_Zephyr "Zooey Zephyr")** (D) became the first transgender state legislator in Montana when she was elected to the Montana House's 100th congressional district.{{Cite web \|last\=Alfonseca \|first\=Kiara \|date\=November 23, 2022 \|title\=1st trans Montana legislator celebrates win with heartwarming story \|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trans\-montana\-legislator\-celebrates\-win\-heartwarming\-story/story?id\=93409613 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=ABC News \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165208/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trans\-montana\-legislator\-celebrates\-win\-heartwarming\-story/story?id\=93409613 \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[SJ Howell](/wiki/SJ_Howell "SJ Howell")** (D) became the first nonbinary state legislator in Montana when they were elected to the Montana House's 95th congressional district.{{Cite web \|last\=Riley \|first\=John \|date\=2022\-11\-10 \|title\=First openly trans and non\-binary candidates elected to Montana Legislature \|url\=https://www.ktvh.com/news/first\-openly\-trans\-and\-non\-binary\-candidates\-elected\-to\-montana\-legislature \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=KTVH \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165207/https://www.ktvh.com/news/first\-openly\-trans\-and\-non\-binary\-candidates\-elected\-to\-montana\-legislature \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Jennie Armstrong](/wiki/Jennifer_Armstrong_%28politician%29 "Jennifer Armstrong (politician)")** (D), elected to represent Alaska's 16th state House District, and **[Andrew Gray](/wiki/Andrew_Gray_%28politician%29 "Andrew Gray (politician)")**, elected to represent Alaska's 20th state House District, became the first LGBTQ\+ state legislators in Alaska. Previous to the election, Alaska was one of four states with no LGBTQ\+ lawmakers.{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=November 9, 2022 \|title\=Jennie Armstrong and Andrew Gray Shatter Lavender Ceilings; First LGBTQ People Ever Elected to the Alaska State Legislature \|url\=https://victoryfund.org/news/jennie\-armstrong\-and\-andrew\-gray\-shatter\-lavender\-ceilings\-first\-lgbtq\-people\-ever\-elected\-to\-the\-alaska\-state\-legislature/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|website\=LGBTQ\+ Victory Fund \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165207/https://victoryfund.org/news/jennie\-armstrong\-and\-andrew\-gray\-shatter\-lavender\-ceilings\-first\-lgbtq\-people\-ever\-elected\-to\-the\-alaska\-state\-legislature/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Eric Sorensen](/wiki/Eric_Sorensen_%28politician%29 "Eric Sorensen (politician)")** (D) became the first LGBTQ\+ congressperson from Illinois when he was elected to the House of Representatives for District 17 of Illinois.{{Cite news \|last\=Bustillo \|first\=Ximena \|date\=November 10, 2022 \|title\=Democrat Eric Sorensen's win keeps Illinois House seat with Democrats \|work\=NPR \|url\=https://www.npr.org/2022/11/10/1131319975/illinois\-house\-esther\-joy\-king\-sorenson\-results \|access\-date\=April 23, 2023 \|archive\-date\=April 9, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409225405/https://www.npr.org/2022/11/10/1131319975/illinois\-house\-esther\-joy\-king\-sorenson\-results \|url\-status\=live }}
* **[Becca Balint](/wiki/Becca_Balint "Becca Balint")** (D) was elected to the House of Representatives to represent Vermont's first congressional district, becoming the state's first openly gay and first woman to be elected to Congress.{{Cite news \|last\=Shivaram \|first\=Deepa \|date\=November 8, 2022 \|title\=Vermont ends streak as the last state to send a woman to Congress \|work\=NPR \|url\=https://www.npr.org/2022/11/08/1134352130/vermont\-balint\-election\-day\-results\-2022 \|access\-date\=March 26, 2023 \|archive\-date\=November 10, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110170400/https://www.npr.org/2022/11/08/1134352130/vermont\-balint\-election\-day\-results\-2022 \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Rainbow waves (2018–2023\\)\n--------------------------",
"### 2018 election rainbow wave",
"The term \"rainbow wave\" was coined in the 2018 midterms, as a result of the unprecedented number of candidates and elects. During this cycle, there were over 600 openly LGBTQ\\+ candidates running for office,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Results 2018 \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/about/past\\-elections/results2018/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402024443/https://victoryfund.org/about/past\\-elections/results2018/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} 432 on the ballot, and 244 winners. Twenty\\-two openly LGBTQ\\+ candidates ran for party seats in Congress, representing an increase of 340% since 2010\\. Close to 195 candidates ran for state legislatures across 43 states.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Parker \\|first\\=Annise \\|date\\=November 5, 2018 \\|title\\=The Rainbow Wave Could Cover Red States Like Alaska, Kansas, Indiana \\|url\\=https://www.advocate.com/commentary/2018/11/05/rainbow\\-wave\\-could\\-cover\\-red\\-states\\-alaska\\-kansas\\-indiana \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=www.advocate.com \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024151/https://www.advocate.com/commentary/2018/11/05/rainbow\\-wave\\-could\\-cover\\-red\\-states\\-alaska\\-kansas\\-indiana \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Moreover, a record number of [transgender women](/wiki/Transgender_women \"Transgender women\") ran for office,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Epstein \\|first\\=Kayla \\|date\\=August 9, 2018 \\|title\\=In 2018, transgender women are running for governor, Congress and more \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\\-fix/wp/2018/08/09/transgender\\-women\\-are\\-trying\\-to\\-usher\\-in\\-a\\-rainbow\\-wave\\-running\\-for\\-governor\\-congress\\-and\\-more/ \\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2023 \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|archive\\-date\\=February 18, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218023314/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the\\-fix/wp/2018/08/09/transgender\\-women\\-are\\-trying\\-to\\-usher\\-in\\-a\\-rainbow\\-wave\\-running\\-for\\-governor\\-congress\\-and\\-more/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} including Democrat [Christine Hallquist](/wiki/Christine_Hallquist \"Christine Hallquist\"), the first transgender person to become a majority party's nominee for governor.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Taylor \\|first\\=Jessica \\|date\\=August 14, 2018 \\|title\\=Vermont Democrat Christine Hallquist Is First Transgender Nominee For Governor \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2018/08/14/638708321/vermont\\-democrats\\-make\\-history\\-by\\-nominating\\-transgender\\-woman\\-for\\-governor \\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2022 \\|website\\=NPR \\|archive\\-date\\=January 21, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121161405/https://www.npr.org/2018/08/14/638708321/vermont\\-democrats\\-make\\-history\\-by\\-nominating\\-transgender\\-woman\\-for\\-governor \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Of the 432 LGBTQ\\+ candidates on the ballot, 10 of 28 federal candidates were elected, and 26 of the 34 judicial candidates were elected. In the state legislature, 110 of 197 LGBTQ\\+ candidates were elected, while statewide, six of 11 were elected. On the local level, 80 of 142 candidates were elected and 10 of 16 LGBTQ\\+ mayoral candidates were elected.",
"Prior to the 2018 election, there were seven openly LGBTQ\\+ congresspeople (six House representatives and one senator), which increased to 10 after the election (eight House representatives and two senators).{{Cite web \\|last\\=Schaeffer \\|first\\=Katherine \\|title\\=118th Congress breaks record for lesbian, gay and bisexual representation \\|url\\=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact\\-tank/2023/01/11/118th\\-congress\\-breaks\\-record\\-for\\-lesbian\\-gay\\-and\\-bisexual\\-representation/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Pew Research Center \\|date\\=11 January 2023 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317190209/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact\\-tank/2023/01/11/118th\\-congress\\-breaks\\-record\\-for\\-lesbian\\-gay\\-and\\-bisexual\\-representation/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Additionally, in 2018, there were 119 openly LGBTQ\\+ state legislators, increasing to 148 after the election. Pre\\-election, seven states had never elected an LGBTQ\\+ candidate to their state legislatures, which decreased to four, as Indiana and Nebraska each elected their first LGBTQ\\+ state legislative member.{{Cite news \\|date\\=April 2019 \\|title\\=2018 Annual Report: A Rainbow Wave \\|pages\\=5 \\|work\\=Victory Fund \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/04/VictoryFund\\_Annual\\-Report\\_2018\\_NoSponsors\\_DIGITAL.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308162618/https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2019/04/VictoryFund\\_Annual\\-Report\\_2018\\_NoSponsors\\_DIGITAL.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Additionally, four LGBTQ\\+ candidates ran for governor, two of which won.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Moreau \\|first\\=Julie \\|date\\=November 7, 2018 \\|title\\=Over 150 LGBTQ candidates claim victory in midterm elections \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/over\\-100\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-claim\\-victory\\-midterm\\-elections\\-n933646 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024152/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/over\\-100\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-claim\\-victory\\-midterm\\-elections\\-n933646 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Notable 2018 LGBTQ\\+ elected officials",
"[thumb\\|Governor Jared Polis' official portrait from when he was a House representative for Colorado's 2nd congressional district.](/wiki/File:Jared_Polis_official_photo.jpg \"Jared Polis official photo.jpg\")\n* **[Kyrsten Sinema](/wiki/Kyrsten_Sinema \"Kyrsten Sinema\")** (D) was elected as a senator for Arizona, becoming the first openly bisexual person to be a United States senator and the first female Arizona senator.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fitzsimons \\|first\\=Tim \\|date\\=November 13, 2018 \\|title\\=Kyrsten Sinema makes history as first bisexual member of U.S. Senate \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/kyrsten\\-sinema\\-makes\\-history\\-first\\-bisexual\\-member\\-u\\-s\\-senate\\-n935816 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-31 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131145842/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/kyrsten\\-sinema\\-makes\\-history\\-first\\-bisexual\\-member\\-u\\-s\\-senate\\-n935816 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Jared Polis](/wiki/Jared_Polis \"Jared Polis\")** (D), formerly a five\\-term democratic representative from Colorado, became the first openly gay man to become governor in the United States when he was elected the governor of Colorado.{{Cite web \\|date\\=November 6, 2018 \\|title\\=Colorado voters elect Jared Polis, nation's first openly gay governor \\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/colorado\\-jared\\-polis\\-nations\\-first\\-openly\\-gay\\-governor\\-elected\\-today\\-2018\\-11\\-06/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=CBS News \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024153/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/colorado\\-jared\\-polis\\-nations\\-first\\-openly\\-gay\\-governor\\-elected\\-today\\-2018\\-11\\-06/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Sharice Davids](/wiki/Sharice_Davids \"Sharice Davids\")** (D) was elected Democratic representative of Kansas' third congressional district, becoming Congress' first lesbian Native American and first Native American woman member.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nilsen \\|first\\=Ella \\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=Democrat Sharice Davids just beat Rep. Kevin Yoder in a key Kansas House race \\|url\\=https://www.vox.com/2018/11/6/18049882/kansas\\-election\\-results\\-sharice\\-davids\\-native\\-american \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Vox \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024154/https://www.vox.com/2018/11/6/18049882/kansas\\-election\\-results\\-sharice\\-davids\\-native\\-american \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Chris Pappas](/wiki/Chris_Pappas_%28American_politician%29 \"Chris Pappas (American politician)\")** (D) was elected as House representative for New Hampshire's first congressional district, becoming the state's first openly gay member of Congress.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hofacker \\|first\\=Cat \\|title\\=Meet the LGBTQ candidates who made history in 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/08/lgbtq\\-candidates\\-2018\\-midterms/1918237002/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=USA TODAY \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024152/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/08/lgbtq\\-candidates\\-2018\\-midterms/1918237002/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Angie Craig](/wiki/Angie_Craig \"Angie Craig\")** (D), elected as House representative of Minnesota's second congressional district, became the state's first openly LGBTQ\\+ congressperson.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gaudiano \\|first\\=Nicole \\|date\\=November 7, 2018 \\|title\\=Midterm results 2018: How Trump's 2016 election set the stage for the female wave \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/in\\-depth/news/politics/elections/2018/11/07/elections\\-results\\-2018\\-how\\-trumps\\-2016\\-win\\-inspired\\-female\\-wave/1864792002/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=USA Today \\|language\\=en\\-us \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024154/https://www.usatoday.com/in\\-depth/news/politics/elections/2018/11/07/elections\\-results\\-2018\\-how\\-trumps\\-2016\\-win\\-inspired\\-female\\-wave/1864792002/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Malcolm Kenyatta](/wiki/Malcolm_Kenyatta \"Malcolm Kenyatta\")** (D) was elected to Pennsylvania's statehouse, becoming the first openly gay person of color to hold such a seat in the state.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Chinchilla \\|first\\=Rudy \\|date\\=November 11, 2018 \\|title\\=Malcolm Kenyatta Becomes First Openly Gay Person of Color to Join Pennsylvania Statehouse \\|url\\=https://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/local/pennsylvania\\-district\\-first\\-lgbtq\\-representative/181438/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=NBC10 Philadelphia \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024152/https://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/local/pennsylvania\\-district\\-first\\-lgbtq\\-representative/181438/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Kate Brown](/wiki/Kate_Brown \"Kate Brown\")** (D), who became the first openly bisexual governor in 2015, was reelected as Oregon's governor.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Daniels \\|first\\=Jeff \\|date\\=November 6, 2018 \\|title\\=Oregon's Democratic Gov. Kate Brown wins re\\-election against GOP challenger Knute Buehler: NBC News \\|url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/11/06/oregons\\-democratic\\-gov\\-kate\\-brown\\-wins\\-re\\-election.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=CNBC \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024151/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/11/06/oregons\\-democratic\\-gov\\-kate\\-brown\\-wins\\-re\\-election.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Tammy Baldwin](/wiki/Tammy_Baldwin \"Tammy Baldwin\")** (D), the first openly LGBTQ\\+ senator, was reelected as a senator representing Wisconsin.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Yglesias \\|first\\=Matthew \\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=Tammy Baldwin reelected to US Senate: a progressive champion wins in Wisconsin \\|url\\=https://www.vox.com/2018/11/6/18056378/election\\-results\\-wisconsin\\-tammy\\-baldwin\\-winner \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Vox \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024151/https://www.vox.com/2018/11/6/18056378/election\\-results\\-wisconsin\\-tammy\\-baldwin\\-winner \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Sean Patrick Maloney](/wiki/Sean_Patrick_Maloney \"Sean Patrick Maloney\")** (D), New York's first openly gay congressperson, was reelected as House representative for the state's 18th congressional district.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hofacker \\|first\\=Cat \\|date\\=November 8, 2018 \\|title\\=Meet the LGBTQ candidates who made history in 2018 \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/08/lgbtq\\-candidates\\-2018\\-midterms/1918237002/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=USA TODAY \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024152/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/08/lgbtq\\-candidates\\-2018\\-midterms/1918237002/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### 2019 election rainbow wave",
"In 2019, of 382 openly LGBTQ\\+ candidates, 200 candidates were on the ballot and 170 won their races.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keith \\|first\\=Jarod \\|date\\=November 6, 2019 \\|title\\=144 Out LGBTQ Candidates Won Elected Office So Far in 2019; Most Ever in Odd\\-Numbered Election Year \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/news/144\\-out\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-elected\\-office\\-so\\-far\\-in\\-2019\\-most\\-ever\\-in\\-odd\\-numbered\\-election\\-year/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024155/https://victoryfund.org/news/144\\-out\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-elected\\-office\\-so\\-far\\-in\\-2019\\-most\\-ever\\-in\\-odd\\-numbered\\-election\\-year/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite news \\|title\\=2019 Annual Report \\|pages\\=6 \\|work\\=Victory Fund \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\\_Annual\\-Report\\_2019\\_DIGITAL.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402045156/https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\\_Annual\\-Report\\_2019\\_DIGITAL.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02}} [LGBTQ Victory Fund](/wiki/LGBTQ_Victory_Fund \"LGBTQ Victory Fund\") data from November 6, 2019, found that of these 382 candidates, 40% were from states that ranked at low or negative equality levels, of which 35\\.5% won. About 83% of the LGBTQ\\+ candidates were Democrats with a 40\\.3% success rate, while 2\\.4% were Republican with a 33\\.3% success rate. The Victory Fund endorsed 178 candidates of which 117 won: five in state legislatures, nine mayors, 102 local officials, and one judicial elect.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Results 2019 \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/about/past\\-elections/results2019/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327031719/https://victoryfund.org/about/past\\-elections/results2019/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The 2019 LGBTQ\\+ candidate pool represented 29\\.1% people of color, of which 34\\.2% won. Transgender women had the highest win rate, as 56\\.3% (nine) of the 16 transgender female candidates won. None of the three transgender male candidates won their races, while one of the three [gender non\\-conforming](/wiki/Gender_non-conforming \"Gender non-conforming\"), and two of the five [non\\-binary](/wiki/Non-binary_gender \"Non-binary gender\") candidates won. Thirty\\-eight percent (78\\) of the 205 gay candidates, 44\\.6% (33\\) of the 73 lesbian candidates, 41\\.7% (10\\) of the 24 bisexual candidates, and 40% (10\\) of the 25 queer candidates, were elected. Among other progressions in LGBTQ\\+ representation in 2019, the number of lesbian mayors in major cities doubled, as three were elected (in Chicago, Illinois; Tampa, Florida; and Madison, Wisconsin).{{Cite news \\|title\\=2019 Annual Report \\|pages\\=3 \\|work\\=Victory Fund \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\\_Annual\\-Report\\_2019\\_DIGITAL.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 27, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327031733/https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\\_Annual\\-Report\\_2019\\_DIGITAL.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Notable 2019 LGBTQ\\+ elected officials",
"[thumb\\|275x275px\\|Mayor of Chicago Lori Lightfoot (center) in the 2019 Chicago Pride Parade.](/wiki/File:Lori_Lightfoot_-_Chicago_Pride_Parade_2019.jpg \"Lori Lightfoot - Chicago Pride Parade 2019.jpg\")\n* **[Danica Roem](/wiki/Danica_Roem \"Danica Roem\")** (D), elected in 2017 as the first openly transgender official in statewide office, was reelected as House delegate for Virginia's 13th District.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-05 \\|title\\=2019 Virginia General Election Results \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/05/us/elections/results\\-virginia\\-general\\-elections.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/05/us/elections/results\\-virginia\\-general\\-elections.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fitzsimons \\|first\\=Tim \\|date\\=November 6, 2019 \\|title\\=Rainbow Wave 2\\.0: Nearly 100 LGBTQ candidates claim victory in Tuesday's elections \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/rainbow\\-wave\\-2\\-0\\-nearly\\-100\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-claim\\-victory\\-n1077886 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-26 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/rainbow\\-wave\\-2\\-0\\-nearly\\-100\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-claim\\-victory\\-n1077886 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Lori Lightfoot](/wiki/Lori_Lightfoot \"Lori Lightfoot\")** (D) became the \"highest\\-ranking LGBTQ\\+ mayor\" in United States history, as she was elected the mayor of Chicago with 73% of the vote, and was one of the two overall top\\-ranking mayoral elects (of 12\\) in the election.{{Cite news \\|title\\=2019 Annual Report \\|pages\\=4 \\|work\\=Victory Fund \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\\_Annual\\-Report\\_2019\\_DIGITAL.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 27, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327031733/https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/01/VictoryFund\\_Annual\\-Report\\_2019\\_DIGITAL.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Her election made Chicago the largest city to ever elect an openly gay mayor and a Black female mayor.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Stewart \\|first\\=Emily \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-02 \\|title\\=Chicago just elected a black, openly LGBTQ woman as mayor \\|url\\=https://www.vox.com/policy\\-and\\-politics/2019/4/2/18292865/chicago\\-mayor\\-election\\-results\\-lori\\-lightfoot \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Vox \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.vox.com/policy\\-and\\-politics/2019/4/2/18292865/chicago\\-mayor\\-election\\-results\\-lori\\-lightfoot \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **N.J. Akbar** (D) was elected to the Akron, Ohio Board of Education, becoming one of the first gay, Black, and Muslim people in United States public office.",
"### 2020 election rainbow wave",
"In the 2020 midterm election, 1,006 openly LGBTQ\\+ candidates ran for political office and 782 were on the general election ballot, of which 334 won. This represented a 42\\.7% success rate.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keith \\|first\\=Jarod \\|title\\=334 Out LGBTQ Candidates Won Elected Office So Far in 2020; Most Ever in Any Election Year \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/news/334\\-out\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-elected\\-office\\-so\\-far\\-in\\-2020\\-most\\-ever\\-in\\-any\\-election\\-year/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024155/https://victoryfund.org/news/334\\-out\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-elected\\-office\\-so\\-far\\-in\\-2020\\-most\\-ever\\-in\\-any\\-election\\-year/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Moreau \\|first\\=Julie \\|date\\=December 10, 2020 \\|title\\=Record number of LGBTQ candidates won in November, new data reveals \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/record\\-number\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-november\\-new\\-data\\-reveals\\-n1250718 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024153/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/record\\-number\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-november\\-new\\-data\\-reveals\\-n1250718 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en}} The election also showed a 41% increase in LGBTQ\\+ candidates from 2018\\. The 2020 midterms had more LGBTQ\\+ candidates and LGBTQ\\+ elects than any other United States election prior.{{Cite news \\|title\\=2020 Annual Report: An Unprecedented Year \\|pages\\=4 \\|work\\=Victory Fund \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2021/03/Victory\\-Fund\\-Annual\\-Report\\_2020\\_Digital\\-ND.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-23 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402073636/https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2021/03/Victory\\-Fund\\-Annual\\-Report\\_2020\\_Digital\\-ND.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"According to a [Victory Fund](/wiki/LGBTQ_Victory_Fund \"LGBTQ Victory Fund\") report, of the 782 candidates on the ballot, there were 63 federal candidates and nine elects, 10 statewide candidates and zero elects, 327 state legislative candidates and 139 elects, 37 judicial candidates and 21 elects, 20 mayoral candidates and five elects, and 325 local candidates and 160 elects.",
"The 2020 LGBTQ\\+ candidate pool had 35\\.7% people of color, 37\\.1% of which won their seats. There were six transgender men, 38 transgender women, four gender nonconforming, and 13 genderqueer/nonbinary candidates. Nearly 37% of the transgender candidates were elected. Gay candidates represented the largest portion of the candidate pool with 391 candidates and a 41\\.5% success rate. Lesbian candidates had the highest success rate, with 172 candidates and 55\\.2% elects. One\\-third of the 72 bisexual candidates, 35% of the 17 pansexual candidates, 40% of the 55 queer candidates, and none of the two asexual candidates won.",
"More LGBTQ\\+ candidates won seats in Congress than any other year, with nine LGBTQ\\+ congressional elects, including all of the seven incumbents up for election. After the election, the 117th Congress had nine openly LGBTQ\\+ House representatives and two senators. Moreover, before 2020, there were four transgender state representatives, and after the election, there were nine. Among transgender, nonbinary, and gender\\-nonconforming state candidates, eight were elected.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bauer \\|first\\=Sydney \\|date\\=November 6, 2020 \\|title\\=Transgender representation to nearly double in state legislatures \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/transgender\\-representation\\-nearly\\-double\\-state\\-legislatures\\-n1246426 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-26 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310042443/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/transgender\\-representation\\-nearly\\-double\\-state\\-legislatures\\-n1246426 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Moreover, Delaware and Tennessee elected their first LGBTQ\\+ state senators: State Senators Sarah McBride and Marie Pinkney in Delaware, and State Representative Eric Morrison in Delaware; and State Representatives Torrey Harris and Eddie Mannis in Tennessee.{{Cite news \\|title\\=2020 Annual Report: An Unprecedented Year \\|pages\\=5 \\|work\\=Victory Fund \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2021/03/Victory\\-Fund\\-Annual\\-Report\\_2020\\_Digital\\-ND.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-23 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402073636/https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2021/03/Victory\\-Fund\\-Annual\\-Report\\_2020\\_Digital\\-ND.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Notable 2020 LGBTQ\\+ elected officials",
"[thumb\\|Sarah McBride from an event in 2018\\.](/wiki/File:2018.03.20_Sarah_McBride_and_Rep_Joe_Kennedy%2C_Politics_and_Prose%2C_Washington%2C_DC_USA_4126_%2839136958250%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"2018.03.20 Sarah McBride and Rep Joe Kennedy, Politics and Prose, Washington, DC USA 4126 (39136958250) (cropped).jpg\")\n* **[Sarah McBride](/wiki/Sarah_McBride \"Sarah McBride\")** (D) was elected as a Delaware state senator, becoming the first openly transgender state senator in United States history and the United States' highest\\-ranking transgender official.{{Cite web \\|last\\=McCarthy \\|first\\=Kelly \\|date\\=November 4, 2020 \\|title\\=2020 election brought notable firsts for LGBTQ candidates \\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/2020\\-election\\-brought\\-notable\\-firsts\\-lgbtq\\-candidates/story?id\\=74019639 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=ABC News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/2020\\-election\\-brought\\-notable\\-firsts\\-lgbtq\\-candidates/story?id\\=74019639 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=North \\|first\\=Anna \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-04 \\|title\\=The number of trans state lawmakers nearly doubled Tuesday night \\|url\\=https://www.vox.com/2020/11/4/21549645/trans\\-lgbtq\\-election\\-2020\\-byers\\-mcbride\\-kansas \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Vox \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.vox.com/2020/11/4/21549645/trans\\-lgbtq\\-election\\-2020\\-byers\\-mcbride\\-kansas \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"* **[Kim Jackson](/wiki/Kim_Jackson_%28politician%29 \"Kim Jackson (politician)\")** (D) was elected to the Georgia State Senate,{{Cite news \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-03 \\|title\\=Georgia Election Results \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/11/03/us/elections/results\\-georgia.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116033308/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/11/03/us/elections/results\\-georgia.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} becoming the state's first LGBTQ\\+ senator and one of three of the United States' LGBTQ\\+ Black female state senators.\n* **[Stephanie Byers](/wiki/Stephanie_Byers \"Stephanie Byers\")** (D) was elected as the Kansas House representative for District 86,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Stephanie Byers \\|url\\=https://ballotpedia.org/Stephanie\\_Byers \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Ballotpedia \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://ballotpedia.org/Stephanie\\_Byers \\|url\\-status\\=live }} becoming the first transgender state lawmaker of color in U.S. history{{Cite news \\|last1\\=McDaniel \\|first1\\=Piper \\|last2\\=Garcia \\|first2\\=David \\|date\\=November 9, 2020 \\|title\\=Trans And Nonbinary Candidates Set Record Wins In Red And Blue States \\|work\\=NPR \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2020/11/09/931819214/trans\\-and\\-nonbinary\\-candidates\\-set\\-record\\-wins\\-in\\-red\\-and\\-blue\\-states \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 14, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414070855/https://www.npr.org/2020/11/09/931819214/trans\\-and\\-nonbinary\\-candidates\\-set\\-record\\-wins\\-in\\-red\\-and\\-blue\\-states \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and Kansas' first transgender statewide official.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gilchrist \\|first\\=Tracy E. \\|date\\=November 4, 2020 \\|title\\=Stephanie Byers Wins to Become Kansas's 1st Trans Elected Official \\|url\\=https://www.advocate.com/politics/2020/11/03/stephanie\\-byers\\-wins\\-become\\-kansass\\-1st\\-trans\\-elected\\-official \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-26 \\|website\\=www.advocate.com \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20201110190948/https://www.advocate.com/politics/2020/11/03/stephanie\\-byers\\-wins\\-become\\-kansass\\-1st\\-trans\\-elected\\-official \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Mauree Turner](/wiki/Mauree_Turner \"Mauree Turner\")** (D) became the first non\\-binary lawmaker in the United States and the first practicing Muslim in the Oklahoma legislature,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Armus \\|first\\=Teo \\|date\\=November 5, 2020 \\|title\\=A Muslim millennial was elected the country's first out nonbinary lawmaker — in Oklahoma \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/11/05/non\\-binary\\-oklahoma\\-first\\-elected/ \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 18, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118151215/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/11/05/non\\-binary\\-oklahoma\\-first\\-elected/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} as they were elected as the Oklahoma House representative for District 88\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mauree Turner \\|url\\=https://ballotpedia.org/Mauree\\_Turner \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Ballotpedia \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165208/https://ballotpedia.org/Mauree\\_Turner \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Joshua Query](/wiki/Joshua_Query \"Joshua Query\")** (D) was originally elected to the New Hampshire State House of Representatives District Hillsborough 39 in 2018 and came out as gender nonconforming during their term. They were reelected in 2020, becoming the first gender\\-nonconforming state legislator.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Joshua Query \\|url\\=https://ballotpedia.org/Joshua\\_Query \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Ballotpedia \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165208/https://ballotpedia.org/Joshua\\_Query \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Moreau \\|first\\=Julie \\|date\\=November 12, 2020 \\|title\\='A win for all of us': Over 220 LGBTQ candidates celebrate election victories \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/win\\-all\\-us\\-over\\-220\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-celebrate\\-election\\-victories\\-n1247551 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-13 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013171253/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc\\-out/win\\-all\\-us\\-over\\-220\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-celebrate\\-election\\-victories\\-n1247551 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Ritchie Torres](/wiki/Ritchie_Torres \"Ritchie Torres\")** (D) became the first Black and Latinx LGBTQ\\+ congressperson and one of two of the first Black LGBTQ\\+ congresspeople when he was elected as the House representative of New York's 15th Congressional District.{{Cite web \\|title\\=New York House election results 2020: Live results and polls \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020\\-elections/new\\-york\\-house\\-results \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=www.nbcnews.com \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020\\-elections/new\\-york\\-house\\-results \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Mondaire Jones](/wiki/Mondaire_Jones \"Mondaire Jones\")** (D) became one of two of the first Black LGBTQ\\+ congresspeople when he was elected to the House of Representatives for New York's 17th Congressional District.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mondaire Jones \\|url\\=https://ballotpedia.org/Mondaire\\_Jones \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Ballotpedia \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://ballotpedia.org/Mondaire\\_Jones \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Todd Gloria](/wiki/Todd_Gloria \"Todd Gloria\")** (D) was elected mayor of San Diego, California, becoming their first LGBTQ\\+ mayor and first mayor of color.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Cowan \\|first\\=Jill \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-12 \\|title\\=A Conversation With Todd Gloria, San Diego's Mayor\\-Elect \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/12/us/san\\-diego\\-mayor\\-todd\\-gloria.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/12/us/san\\-diego\\-mayor\\-todd\\-gloria.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Pete Buttigieg](/wiki/Pete_Buttigieg \"Pete Buttigieg\")** (D), the United States' first openly gay major presidential candidate, won Iowa's presidential primary election, becoming the first openly gay person to win a state primary.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Epstein \\|first1\\=Reid J. \\|last2\\=Gabriel \\|first2\\=Trip \\|date\\=2020\\-03\\-01 \\|title\\=Pete Buttigieg Drops Out of Democratic Presidential Race \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/us/politics/pete\\-buttigieg\\-drops\\-out.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605051749/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/us/politics/pete\\-buttigieg\\-drops\\-out.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### 2021 election rainbow wave",
"In the 2021 rainbow wave, 430 openly LGBTQ\\+ candidates ran for public office of which 237 made the ballot and 184 won.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keith \\|first\\=Jarod \\|title\\=184 LGBTQ Candidates Won Elected Office in 2021 \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/news/184\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-elected\\-office\\-in\\-2021/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024153/https://victoryfund.org/news/184\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-elected\\-office\\-in\\-2021/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} According to the [Victory Fund](/wiki/LGBTQ_Victory_Fund \"LGBTQ Victory Fund\")'s November 16, 2021 report, the [2021 United States elections](/wiki/2021_United_States_elections \"2021 United States elections\") represented an 18\\.5% increase in candidacy from 2019 and more LGBTQ\\+ candidates won than any other odd\\-numbered election in United States history.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Out on the Trail 2021 \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/out\\-on\\-the\\-trail\\-2021/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165210/https://victoryfund.org/out\\-on\\-the\\-trail\\-2021/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Moreover, it brought the total number of LGBTQ\\+ elected officials from 995 to 1038, marking the first time this number exceeded 1000 LGBTQ\\+ individuals. Overall, the LGBTQ\\+ candidates in the 2021 elections had a 46% success rate.",
"Of the 430 openly LGBTQ\\+ candidates, there were three federal candidates and zero elects, three statewide candidates and zero elects, 20 state legislative candidates and six elects, seven judicial candidates and five elects, 41 mayoral candidates and 16 elects, and 356 local candidates and 157 elects. Of the 430 candidates, 37% were people of color, a five percent increase from 2019\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Jackson \\|first\\=David \\|title\\='Rainbow wave': A record number of LGBTQ candidates are running for office in 2021 \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2021/10/26/lgbt\\-politicians\\-running\\-office\\-hits\\-new\\-off\\-year\\-record\\-2021/6171384001/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=USA TODAY \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2021/10/26/lgbt\\-politicians\\-running\\-office\\-hits\\-new\\-off\\-year\\-record\\-2021/6171384001/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} This proportion represented the most racially diverse LGBTQ\\+ candidate pool in United States history and a significantly higher percentage of candidates of color than the general election pool. The LGBTQ\\+ candidates of color in this election had a 37% success rate.",
"Of all of the sexual orientations, gay male candidates represented the highest number of candidates, with 192 candidates winning at a rate of 49\\.4%. Lesbian candidates had the highest success rate of any other sexual orientation, as 60% of the 60 candidates were elected. However, there was a 7\\.3% decrease in gay male candidacy and a 19% decrease in lesbian candidacy from 2019\\. Forty\\-five percent of the 41 bisexual and 23\\.1% of the 13 pansexual candidates were elected. Additionally, transgender women had the highest win rate of any other gender identity, with 63\\.2% of the 21 transgender women candidates elected. More nonbinary and queer people ran for office than ever before, with 27\\.8% of 19 nonbinary candidates and 34\\.6% of 59 queer candidates winning their elections.",
"#### Notable 2021 elected officials",
"* **Xander Orenstein** (D) was elected to the Allegheny County Magisterial District Court in Pennsylvania, becoming the first nonbinary judicial elected official.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Yurcaba \\|first\\=Jo \\|date\\=November 3, 2021 \\|title\\=After election, more than 1,000 LGBTQ officials will serve in the U.S. \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc\\-out/out\\-politics\\-and\\-policy/election\\-1000\\-lgbtq\\-officials\\-will\\-serve\\-us\\-rcna4465 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-26 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165207/https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc\\-out/out\\-politics\\-and\\-policy/election\\-1000\\-lgbtq\\-officials\\-will\\-serve\\-us\\-rcna4465 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Don Guardian](/wiki/Don_Guardian \"Don Guardian\")** (R) was elected to the New Jersey General Assembly, which previously had no LGBTQ\\+ legislators, as the first Republican LGBTQ\\+ state lawmaker.\n* **Jalen McKee\\-Rodriguez** (Nonpartisan) was elected as a representative for District 2 of the San Antonio City Council, becoming the first Black gay man elected to office in Texas.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|title\\=Jalen McKee\\-Rodriguez \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/candidate/jalen\\-mckee\\-rodriguez/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165216/https://victoryfund.org/candidate/jalen\\-mckee\\-rodriguez/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Kristin Richardson Jordan](/wiki/Kristin_Richardson_Jordan \"Kristin Richardson Jordan\")** (D), elected to represent New York's 9th District,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kristin Richardson Jordan \\|url\\=https://ballotpedia.org/Kristin\\_Richardson\\_Jordan \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Ballotpedia \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165212/https://ballotpedia.org/Kristin\\_Richardson\\_Jordan \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and **[Crystal Hudson](/wiki/Crystal_Hudson \"Crystal Hudson\")** elected to represent District 35, became the first two Black LGBTQ\\+ women on the New York City council.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Gold \\|first1\\=Michael \\|last2\\=Zraick \\|first2\\=Karen \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-04 \\|title\\=N.Y. City Council Sees Historic Changes, and Republicans Gain Ground \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/04/nyregion/city\\-council\\-republicans\\-nyc.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/04/nyregion/city\\-council\\-republicans\\-nyc.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **Dion Manley** (Nonpartisan) became the first transgender elected official in Ohio when he was elected to the Gahanna Jefferson School Board.{{Cite news \\|title\\=2021 Annual Report \\|pages\\=6 \\|work\\=Victory Fund \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/01/Victory\\-Annual\\-Report\\_2021\\_FUND\\-DIGITAL.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-23 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165211/https://victoryfund.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/01/Victory\\-Annual\\-Report\\_2021\\_FUND\\-DIGITAL.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Dion Manley \\|url\\=https://ballotpedia.org/Dion\\_Manley \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-03 \\|website\\=Ballotpedia \\|language\\=en}}",
"### 2022 election rainbow wave",
"The 2022 midterm elections became the biggest rainbow wave in United States history with an unprecedented 1,065 overall candidates, a 5\\.9% increase from the 2020 elections.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Out on the Trail 2022 Report \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/out\\-on\\-the\\-trail\\-2022/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Out on the Trail 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165207/https://victoryfund.org/out\\-on\\-the\\-trail\\-2022/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Out of these candidates, 714 secured a spot on the ballot and 436 won, representing a 61% success rate.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=November 10, 2022 \\|title\\=436 LGBTQ Candidates Won in the 2022 General Election, 100 More than in 2020; 60% Win Rate \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/news/436\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-in\\-the\\-2022\\-general\\-election\\-100\\-more\\-than\\-in\\-2020\\-60\\-win\\-rate/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315105341/https://victoryfund.org/news/436\\-lgbtq\\-candidates\\-won\\-in\\-the\\-2022\\-general\\-election\\-100\\-more\\-than\\-in\\-2020\\-60\\-win\\-rate/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-15 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US}} For the first time, there were LGBTQ\\+ candidates on the ballot in every state and the District of Columbia.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Branigin \\|first\\=Anne \\|date\\=November 11, 2022 \\|title\\=A 'rainbow wave' of candidates made history. What's next for them? \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/11/11/lgbtq\\-midterms\\-2022\\-candidates/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119081000/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/11/11/lgbtq\\-midterms\\-2022\\-candidates/ \\|archive\\-date\\=November 19, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2023}}",
"Congress now has the most lesbian, gay, and bisexual members in United States history. Prior to the 2022 midterms, there were nine House representatives and two senators, and after, there were 11 House representatives and two senators. Of the 11 House representatives, seven are incumbents and four are new elects.",
"The 2022 midterms represented the most diverse LGBTQ\\+ candidate pool of any election, with 38\\.2% candidates of color, a 7\\.3% increase from the 2020 election and a 9\\.5% increase from the 2018 midterms. For the first time, more Black LGBTQ\\+ candidates than Latinx LGBTQ\\+ candidates ran for office.",
"An unprecedented number of non\\-[cisgender](/wiki/Cisgender \"Cisgender\") candidates ran for office, representing 13\\.9% of the overall candidate pool, a 6% increase from 2020 and a 4\\.8% increase from 2018\\. The number of nonbinary candidates more than tripled since 2020 with 54 nonbinary candidates in the 2022 election, in contrast to 17 in 2020 and four in 2018\\. Eighteen of the 37 transgender candidates won, making a 49% success rate, and 13 of the 24 nonbinary candidates won, making a 54% success rate.",
"Gay men represented the largest portion of the candidacy, representing 55% of the candidate pool, paralleling trends from other elections. Queer\\-identifying candidates grew from 4\\.3% of the candidacy in 2018 and 6\\.8% of the candidacy in 2020, to 11\\.2% of candidates in 2022\\. Additionally, 18\\.2% of the candidates were lesbian and 11\\.2% were bisexual.",
"#### Notable LGBTQ\\+ elected officials",
"* **[Maura Healey](/wiki/Maura_Healey \"Maura Healey\")** (D), former Massachusetts' attorney general, was elected as the state's governor, becoming one of two of the United States' first lesbian governors.{{Cite news \\|agency\\=The Associated Press \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-08 \\|title\\=Maura Healey is first woman and first out gay person elected Massachusetts governor \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/us\\-news/2022/nov/08/maura\\-healey\\-massachusetts\\-governor \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401102520/https://www.theguardian.com/us\\-news/2022/nov/08/maura\\-healey\\-massachusetts\\-governor \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Tina Kotek](/wiki/Tina_Kotek \"Tina Kotek\")** (D), previously the United States' first lesbian speaker of a state House, was elected as Oregon's governor, becoming one of two of the first lesbian governors in United States history.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Edelman \\|first\\=Adam \\|title\\=Democrat Tina Kotek wins Oregon governor's race, beating Republican Christine Drazan \\|url\\=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2022\\-election/democrat\\-tina\\-kotek\\-wins\\-oregon\\-governors\\-race\\-beating\\-republican\\-chri\\-rcna55388 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=NBC News \\|date\\=11 November 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327024156/https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2022\\-election/democrat\\-tina\\-kotek\\-wins\\-oregon\\-governors\\-race\\-beating\\-republican\\-chri\\-rcna55388 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* [thumb\\|Office portrait of House Representative George Santos.](/wiki/File:Rep._George_Santos_Official_Portrait.jpg \"Rep. George Santos Official Portrait.jpg\")**[George Santos](/wiki/George_Santos \"George Santos\")** (R) was elected as House representative of New York's 3rd congressional district, becoming the first openly gay Republican congressperson. His election was also the first general election in which two major party nominees were LGBTQ\\+ and opposed one another.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Metzger \\|first\\=Bryan \\|date\\=November 9, 2022 \\|title\\=A gay Republican who said Trump was 'at his full awesomeness' on January 6 is headed to Congress \\|url\\=https://www.businessinsider.com/george\\-santos\\-elected\\-gay\\-lgbtq\\-trump\\-republican\\-january\\-6\\-2022\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=Business Insider \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105173108/https://www.businessinsider.com/george\\-santos\\-elected\\-gay\\-lgbtq\\-trump\\-republican\\-january\\-6\\-2022\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Erick Russell](/wiki/Erick_Russell \"Erick Russell\")** (D) became the first Black LGBTQ\\+ person elected to statewide office in the United States when he was elected as the Connecticut state Treasurer.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=November 9, 2022 \\|title\\=Erick Russell Shatters Lavender Ceiling; First Black LGBTQ Person Ever Elected Statewide in U.S. History \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/news/erick\\-russell\\-shatters\\-lavender\\-ceiling\\-first\\-black\\-lgbtq\\-person\\-ever\\-elected\\-statewide\\-in\\-u\\-s\\-history/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-26 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165206/https://victoryfund.org/news/erick\\-russell\\-shatters\\-lavender\\-ceiling\\-first\\-black\\-lgbtq\\-person\\-ever\\-elected\\-statewide\\-in\\-u\\-s\\-history/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[James Roesener](/wiki/James_Roesener \"James Roesener\")** (D) was elected as representative of the 22nd District of the New Hampshire State House, becoming the first openly transgender man elected to a state legislature in the United States.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Treisman \\|first\\=Rachel \\|date\\=November 9, 2022 \\|title\\=James Roesener is the first out trans man elected to a U.S. state legislature \\|work\\=NPR \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2022/11/09/1135417129/new\\-hampshire\\-trans\\-lawmaker\\-james\\-roesener \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 13, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413150234/https://www.npr.org/2022/11/09/1135417129/new\\-hampshire\\-trans\\-lawmaker\\-james\\-roesener \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Leigh Finke](/wiki/Leigh_Finke \"Leigh Finke\")** ([DFL](/wiki/Minnesota_Democratic%E2%80%93Farmer%E2%80%93Labor_Party \"Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party\")) was elected as Minnesota state House representative of their 66A congressional district, becoming the first transgender legislator of the Minnesota House.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Duxter \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=November 9, 2022 \\|title\\=Leigh Finke to become first transgender legislator in Minnesota House \\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/leigh\\-finke\\-to\\-become\\-first\\-transgender\\-legislator\\-in\\-minnesota\\-house/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=www.cbsnews.com \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308093238/https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/leigh\\-finke\\-to\\-become\\-first\\-transgender\\-legislator\\-in\\-minnesota\\-house/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Zooey Zephyr](/wiki/Zooey_Zephyr \"Zooey Zephyr\")** (D) became the first transgender state legislator in Montana when she was elected to the Montana House's 100th congressional district.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Alfonseca \\|first\\=Kiara \\|date\\=November 23, 2022 \\|title\\=1st trans Montana legislator celebrates win with heartwarming story \\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trans\\-montana\\-legislator\\-celebrates\\-win\\-heartwarming\\-story/story?id\\=93409613 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=ABC News \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165208/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trans\\-montana\\-legislator\\-celebrates\\-win\\-heartwarming\\-story/story?id\\=93409613 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[SJ Howell](/wiki/SJ_Howell \"SJ Howell\")** (D) became the first nonbinary state legislator in Montana when they were elected to the Montana House's 95th congressional district.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Riley \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=2022\\-11\\-10 \\|title\\=First openly trans and non\\-binary candidates elected to Montana Legislature \\|url\\=https://www.ktvh.com/news/first\\-openly\\-trans\\-and\\-non\\-binary\\-candidates\\-elected\\-to\\-montana\\-legislature \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=KTVH \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165207/https://www.ktvh.com/news/first\\-openly\\-trans\\-and\\-non\\-binary\\-candidates\\-elected\\-to\\-montana\\-legislature \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Jennie Armstrong](/wiki/Jennifer_Armstrong_%28politician%29 \"Jennifer Armstrong (politician)\")** (D), elected to represent Alaska's 16th state House District, and **[Andrew Gray](/wiki/Andrew_Gray_%28politician%29 \"Andrew Gray (politician)\")**, elected to represent Alaska's 20th state House District, became the first LGBTQ\\+ state legislators in Alaska. Previous to the election, Alaska was one of four states with no LGBTQ\\+ lawmakers.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=November 9, 2022 \\|title\\=Jennie Armstrong and Andrew Gray Shatter Lavender Ceilings; First LGBTQ People Ever Elected to the Alaska State Legislature \\|url\\=https://victoryfund.org/news/jennie\\-armstrong\\-and\\-andrew\\-gray\\-shatter\\-lavender\\-ceilings\\-first\\-lgbtq\\-people\\-ever\\-elected\\-to\\-the\\-alaska\\-state\\-legislature/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|website\\=LGBTQ\\+ Victory Fund \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165207/https://victoryfund.org/news/jennie\\-armstrong\\-and\\-andrew\\-gray\\-shatter\\-lavender\\-ceilings\\-first\\-lgbtq\\-people\\-ever\\-elected\\-to\\-the\\-alaska\\-state\\-legislature/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Eric Sorensen](/wiki/Eric_Sorensen_%28politician%29 \"Eric Sorensen (politician)\")** (D) became the first LGBTQ\\+ congressperson from Illinois when he was elected to the House of Representatives for District 17 of Illinois.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Bustillo \\|first\\=Ximena \\|date\\=November 10, 2022 \\|title\\=Democrat Eric Sorensen's win keeps Illinois House seat with Democrats \\|work\\=NPR \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2022/11/10/1131319975/illinois\\-house\\-esther\\-joy\\-king\\-sorenson\\-results \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 9, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409225405/https://www.npr.org/2022/11/10/1131319975/illinois\\-house\\-esther\\-joy\\-king\\-sorenson\\-results \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* **[Becca Balint](/wiki/Becca_Balint \"Becca Balint\")** (D) was elected to the House of Representatives to represent Vermont's first congressional district, becoming the state's first openly gay and first woman to be elected to Congress.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Shivaram \\|first\\=Deepa \\|date\\=November 8, 2022 \\|title\\=Vermont ends streak as the last state to send a woman to Congress \\|work\\=NPR \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2022/11/08/1134352130/vermont\\-balint\\-election\\-day\\-results\\-2022 \\|access\\-date\\=March 26, 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 10, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110170400/https://www.npr.org/2022/11/08/1134352130/vermont\\-balint\\-election\\-day\\-results\\-2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}"
] |
Formation and World War II
--------------------------
The 357th Rifle Division began forming in August 1941 in the [Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Udmurt_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic") of the [Ural Military District](/wiki/Ural_Military_District "Ural Military District").Walter S. Dunn, Jr., *Stalin's Keys to Victory*, Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA, 2006, p. 78 Its order of battle was as follows:
* 1188th Rifle Regiment
* 1190th Rifle Regiment
* 1192nd Rifle Regiment
* 923rd Artillery Regiment
* 640th Sapper Battalion
* 219th Antitank Battalion
* 422nd Reconnaissance Company
* 377th Signal CompanyCharles C. Sharp, *"Red Tide", Soviet Rifle Divisions Formed From June to December 1941, Soviet Order of Battle World War II, Vol. IX*, Nafziger, 1996, p. 92
On the first day of September Colonel Dmitry Kirshev was assigned to command of the division, a post he would hold until February 14 1942\. The division was assigned to [39th Army](/wiki/39th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "39th Army (Soviet Union)") while it was still forming, but by the time it reached the front it had been reassigned to [22nd Army](/wiki/22nd_Army_%28Russia%29 "22nd Army (Russia)") in the [Kalinin Front](/wiki/Kalinin_Front "Kalinin Front"). By the end of January 1942, it was back in 39th Army.Sharp, *"Red Tide"*, p. 92
### Battles of Rzhev
During this period, the armies of Kalinin Front were deeply outflanking Army Group Center from the north, carving out the [Toropets](/wiki/Toropets "Toropets") salient to the north and west of German [9th Army's](/wiki/9th_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 "9th Army (Wehrmacht)") positions in the [Rzhev salient](/wiki/Rzhev_salient "Rzhev salient"). During the rest of the winter the 39th Army was tasked with driving westwards to encircle and destroy these enemy forces in conjunction with [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28Soviet_Union%29 "Western Front (Soviet Union)") attacking from the east.John Erickson, *The Road to Stalingrad*, George Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd., London, UK, 1975, p. 326 In the event, difficult terrain and supply shortages, plus desperate German resistance, frustrated this plan. On February 15 1942, Colonel Kirshev was replaced in command by Colonel Aleksandr Lvovich Kronik.
On July 2 Army Group Center launched Operation Seydlitz to finally liquidate this threat to its rear. On July 6 the corridor from Kalinin Front to its besieged 39th and 22nd Armies was cut at the village of Pushkari, north of Belyi, which encircled the 357th along with several others. Over the following weeks individuals, small groups, and even some formed and armed subunits managed to make their way through the encirclement lines, but despite this 39th Army reported 582 killed, 269 wounded and the enormous total of 22,749 missing in action in the month of July. 39th Army had to be reformed on the basis of the [58th Army](/wiki/58th_Army_%28Russia%29 "58th Army (Russia)") headquarters.Svetlana Gerasimova, *The Rzhev Slaughterhouse*, ed. \& trans. S. Britton, Helion \& Co., Ltd., Solihull, UK, 2013, pp. 59\-61, 69 While enough of the division survived this ordeal to avoid being disbanded, by August 1 its remnants were in the [Moscow Military District](/wiki/Moscow_Military_District "Moscow Military District") for rebuilding, which went on into September.[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1942](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1942.pdf), p. 158
### Battle of Velikiye Luki
By October 1 the division had been sufficiently rebuilt that it was assigned to the [Moscow Defence Zone](/wiki/Moscow_Defence_Zone "Moscow Defence Zone").[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1942](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1942.pdf), p. 197 On October 13 Kalinin Front received orders that several formations would be transferred to its command, in the buildup to the forthcoming [Operation Mars](/wiki/Operation_Mars "Operation Mars"). Among these was the [5th Guards Rifle Corps](/wiki/5th_Guards_Rifle_Corps "5th Guards Rifle Corps") to reinforce [43rd Army](/wiki/43rd_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "43rd Army (Soviet Union)"). The 357th was directed to begin loading onto trains at [Naro\-Fominsk](/wiki/Naro-Fominsk "Naro-Fominsk") on October 15;Gerasimova, *Rzhev Slaughterhouse*, p. 213David M. Glantz, *After Stalingrad*, Helion \& Co., Ltd., Solihull, UK, 2009, p. 52 however it is listed as still being in the Moscow Zone on November 1\.[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1942](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1942.pdf), p. 219 The division arrived in 43rd Army later that month where it was assigned to 5th Guards Corps, but was soon sent, with its Corps, to reinforce [3rd Shock Army](/wiki/3rd_Shock_Army "3rd Shock Army"), which launched an offensive to retake [Velikiye Luki](/wiki/Velikiye_Luki "Velikiye Luki") and [Novosokolniki](/wiki/Novosokolniki "Novosokolniki") on November 25\.Glantz, *After Stalingrad*, p. 446[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1942](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1942.pdf), p. 234 The 357th was described at this time as being at full strength for equipment and personnel, and that one in four (25 percent) were Party members or [Komsomols](/wiki/Komsomol "Komsomol"). The division's Deputy for Political Affairs was senior Battalion Commissar V. A. Belov.[http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08\.html](http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08.html) (In Russian, retrieved Apr. 29, 2018\)
Major General [Afanasy Beloborodov](/wiki/Afanasy_Beloborodov "Afanasy Beloborodov") 5th Guards Corps was to take the leading role in the offensive. After forcing a crossing of the [Lovat River](/wiki/Lovat_River "Lovat River") and bypassing Velikiye Luki to the southwest, its objective was to cut the rail lines from Velikiye Luki to [Nevel](/wiki/Nevel_%28town%29 "Nevel (town)") and Velikiye Luki to Novosokolniki, and to link up with other forces of 3rd Shock advancing from the northeast to encircle the city. The 357th was to then storm the city from the west while [9th Guards Rifle Division](/wiki/9th_Guards_Rifle_Division "9th Guards Rifle Division") continued the advance on Novosokolniki. [46th Guards Rifle Division](/wiki/46th_Guards_Rifle_Division "46th Guards Rifle Division"), on the left flank, was to cover the other two divisions against counterattacks from the southwest. On the eve of the offensive, forward detachments of all three divisions crossed the Lovat, suppressed the German advanced positions along the west bank, and then advanced to their main line along the Nevel railway; this reconnaissance\-in\-force both revealed much of the enemy fire plan and put artillery observers in position to direct fire against it in the opening preparation. As reinforcement, the 357th was assigned the 27th Tank Regiment and, as it was intended to attack a fortified city, it also got one battalion of the 358th Guards Artillery Regiment, consisting of 12 [152mm howitzers](/wiki/152_mm_howitzer_M1938_%28M-10%29 "152 mm howitzer M1938 (M-10)"). Altogether, with its own assets and the divisional and regimental artillery, the Corps had about 45 barrels per kilometre on the breakthrough front. The Lovat is not wide (25 to 60 metres) but has a fast current, steep banks, and few good approaches.
The night of November 24 was foggy, which hindered German illumination flares as the Soviet forward detachments crossed the river and entered no\-mans\-land and the German advanced posts fell back to their main position. By 0800 hrs. on November 25 the Corps had seized a bridgehead of about 14 square kilometres, and the 1192nd Rifle Regiment had advanced to the village of Peschanka. However, the supporting tanks had fallen behind during the night approach. The fog lifted after 1000 hrs., allowing the 30\-minute artillery preparation to begin. The infantry attack began at 1100 hrs., but developed slowly because the enemy fire system could not be fully suppressed. As the 1192nd attacked Peschanka it came under flanking fire from height 158\.1 and the village of Gorushka, which slowed its progress. Later in the day, [Katyusha](/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher "Katyusha rocket launcher") rocket volleys suppressed the German fire enough that the 357th was able to enter Gorushka, while the 9th Guards seized height 158\.1\. This last was a serious loss to the enemy line. Meanwhile, the 508th Guards Rifle Regiment of the 46th Guards found a gap in the main German line, and over the next day exploited into the depth of their defense.[http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08\.html](http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08.html) (In Russian, retrieved Apr. 30, 2018\) Note this source mis\-numbers the regiment as the 1092nd.
While the Guards divisions created an outer encirclement of Velikiye Luki, the 357th moved as planned to cut the road and railroad immediately west of the city, beginning an inner encirclement, while still facing resistance from elements of the 251st and 257th Infantry Regiments of the [83rd Infantry Division](/wiki/83rd_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "83rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)"), backed by rocket artillery and some armor. On the night of November 26/27 the first German reserves were identified, from the [20th Motorized Division](/wiki/20th_Panzergrenadier_Division "20th Panzergrenadier Division") and the 138th Regiment of [3rd Mountain Division](/wiki/3rd_Mountain_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "3rd Mountain Division (Wehrmacht)"). After painful progress through November 27, at 1500 hrs. Colonel Kronik was able to report that his troops had reached the Velikiye Luki \- Novosokolniki road, sealed the Vorobetzkaya exit, and was attacking height 164\.9\. The division continued to make progress on the 28th, reaching out to the [381st Rifle Division](/wiki/381st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "381st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") which was advancing from the north. By the end of the day this was accomplished, while the 9th Guards had completed the outer encirclement. This produced an inner pocket of the Velikiye Luki garrison, and an outer pocket of the remaining defending forces, mainly the two regiments of 83rd Infantry and the 138th Mountain Regiment, which were holding out in and around the village of Shiripino.[http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08\.html](http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08.html) (In Russian, retrieved Aug. 17, 2018\)
It was clear to the Soviet command that the Germans would soon attempt to relieve the besieged city, which lay about 15km from their lines, by first breaking through to the Shiripino group (holding a pocket about 4 \- 4\.5km in length) before covering the remaining distance. The top priority for the Soviets was to eliminate the pocket. Army General [Georgy Zhukov](/wiki/Georgy_Zhukov "Georgy Zhukov") arrived, along with Kalinin Front's chief of artillery General N. M. Khlebnikov, and insisted on assessing the situation from Colonel Kronik's observation post, despite the fact it was under fire from two sides. The attack began on the evening of December 2, with 12 Soviet battalions including the full 1188th Rifle Regiment and the divisional training battalion. However, just as the artillery preparation was to begin, word arrived that the expected German relief attempt had begun; the lines of the 508th Guards Rifle Regiment had been penetrated and by morning the attackers reached the pocket, but the Soviet commanders on the ground organized counterattacks to prevent any further advance. The battle continued and at noon the 357th's training battalion captured Shiripino, while Major M. Ye. Kheifets' 1188th Regiment took Shelkovo. Although the German command was successful in evacuating some of its encircled troops, it was unable to hold its ground, and when the lines stabilized the distance to Velikiye Luki had barely lessened.[http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/09\.html](http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/09.html) (In Russian, retrieved Sep. 13, 2018\)
In anticipation of a further German effort to relieve Velikiye Luki, the 357th was transferred to the direct command of 3rd Shock Army on December 10\. During the remainder of the month the division, along with the [257th Rifle Division](/wiki/257th_Rifle_Division_%28November_1941_formation%29 "257th Rifle Division (November 1941 formation)") and the [8th Estonian Rifle Corps](/wiki/8th_Estonian_Rifle_Corps "8th Estonian Rifle Corps"), with significant assistance from corps\- and army\-level artillery, gradually ground down the city garrison. The encircled troops were reliant entirely on air\-dropped supplies, and as the new year began were hanging on in the old fortress (*Kreml*) west of the river and in and around the railway station east of it.
Another German thrust to break through to the city began in early January 1943, and reached to within 8km of the *Kreml* before being halted. Two more desperate efforts were made on January 10 and the night of January 14/15, the last of which provided cover for a breakout from the *Kreml* position; only about 150 officers and men managed to reach friendly lines. The following day the rest of the garrison surrendered, bringing the battle to a close.{{Cite web\|url\=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/20234/20\-2343\.htm\|title \= Chapter 3}}
On February 22, Colonel Kronik was promoted to the rank of Major General. He remained in command until October 14, when he was given command of the [178th Rifle Division](/wiki/178th_Rifle_Division "178th Rifle Division"), which was also in 3rd Shock Army.[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1943](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1943.pdf), p. 245 He was replaced by the previous commander of the 178th, Major General Aleksandr Kudryavtsev, who held this post for the duration of the war.
### Battle of Nevel
The 3rd Shock Army did not see much action through the spring and summer of 1943, and many of the reinforcements it had received for Velikiye Luki were reassigned. By September it was reduced to five rifle divisions (including the 357th) with an average strength of 5,000 \- 6,000 men each; three rifle brigades; one tank brigade; seven assorted artillery regiments; and two field fortified regions. During that month Lt. General [K. N. Galitsky](/wiki/Kuzma_Galitsky "Kuzma Galitsky") was ordered to plan for an offensive in the direction of Nevel. This was mainly intended as a diversion to draw German reserves away from a larger offensive on [Vitebsk](/wiki/Vitebsk "Vitebsk") by the rest of Kalinin Front and most of Western Front. The operation was to begin at 0500 hrs. on October 6 with a reconnaissance in force. The 357th was in the first echelon on a 4km attack front with the [28th Rifle Division](/wiki/28th_Rifle_Division "28th Rifle Division") to its south.Glantz, *Battles for Belorussia*, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 2016, pp. 37\-38
This reconnaissance was followed by a ninety\-minute artillery preparation beginning at 0840, then bombing strikes. The infantry assault began at 1000, directly at the boundary between Army Groups North and Center. While the German [263rd Infantry Division](/wiki/263rd_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "263rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)") contained the 357th's attack, to the south the [2nd Luftwaffe Field Division](/wiki/2nd_Luftwaffe_Field_Division "2nd Luftwaffe Field Division") was unexpectedly routed by the 28th Rifle Division. The Luftwaffe division had been decimated during its first battles during [Operation Mars](/wiki/Operation_Mars "Operation Mars") nearly a year earlier,Kevin C. Ruffner, *Luftwaffe Field Divisions 1941\-45*, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 1990, p. 12 and had never completely recovered. The 28th penetrated the German's first defensive position by noon, and poured through the gap, followed by the 54 tanks of the 78th Tank Brigade, a truck\-mounted regiment of the [21st Guards Rifle Division](/wiki/21st_Guards_Rifle_Division "21st Guards Rifle Division"), an anti\-tank and a howitzer artillery regiment. The city of Nevel, 25km in the German rear, was liberated off the march by the end of the day. Galitsky ordered the 357th, the 46th Guards Rifle Division, and the 100th and 31st Rifle Brigades, into the breach, and by October 10 a salient 25km deep and roughly the same distance wide was separating the two German army groups. The 357th was holding a sector east of Lake Iban, roughly along the Velikiye Luki \- Nevel railway.Glantz, *Belorussia*, pp. 39\-41
### Polotsk\-Vitebsk Operation
Later in October the division was reassigned to the [60th Rifle Corps](/wiki/60th_Rifle_Corps "60th Rifle Corps") in [4th Shock Army](/wiki/4th_Shock_Army "4th Shock Army"),[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1943](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1943.pdf), p. 274 in the renamed [1st Baltic (former Kalinin) Front](/wiki/1st_Baltic_Front "1st Baltic Front"). A new operation was planned to further exploit the breakthrough at Nevel after a pause for rest and regrouping. 4th Shock was tasked with driving to the southwest and south after making a breakthrough, threatening [Polotsk](/wiki/Polotsk "Polotsk") and Vitebsk respectively and also threatening to encircle much of [3rd Panzer Army](/wiki/3rd_Panzer_Army "3rd Panzer Army").Glantz, *Belorussia*, pp. 125\-26
3rd and 4th Shock Armies, over the course of five days, made heavy attacks which dented 3rd Panzer Army's defenses before beginning the full offensive on November 2\. 60th Rifle Corps, backed by the 143rd Tank Brigade formed 4th Shock's assault group, facing the German [87th Infantry Division](/wiki/87th_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "87th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)") and (a sign of their tremendous shortage of manpower) the partly reorganized 2nd Luftwaffe on a 10km\-wide sector 16km south of Nevel. The Corps soon penetrated the German defenses to a depth of roughly 10km, at which point the [2nd Guards Rifle Corps](/wiki/2nd_Guards_Rifle_Corps "2nd Guards Rifle Corps") was committed into the gap. Over the following weeks this Corps advanced south toward Gorodok while 60th Corps moved along the railway from Nevel toward Polotsk. By the end of the month the 357th had advanced with its Corps as much as 90km and had liberated more than 500 villages, while Hitler raged in his headquarters about the *Schweinerei* (filthy mess) around Nevel and ordered several attempts to seal off the breakthrough, none of which succeeded. However, 60th Corps remained 26km short of Polotsk, facing Combat Group von Gottberg (several composite battalions) and the [211th Infantry Division](/wiki/211th_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "211th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)").Glantz, *Belorussia*, pp. 125\-26, 129\-30, 140Earl Ziemke, *Stalingrad to Berlin*, Center of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D.C., 1968, pp. 203\-06
While most of the forces of 1st Baltic Front battled for [Gorodok](/wiki/Haradok "Haradok") in December, and later attempted to liberate Vitebsk into January and February 1944, the 357th, with most of 60th Corps, remained on the defense along the same line.Glantz, *Belorussia*, pp. 217, 280
### Operation Bagration
In June the division was reassigned to the [1st Rifle Corps](/wiki/1st_Rifle_Corps "1st Rifle Corps") in [43rd Army](/wiki/43rd_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "43rd Army (Soviet Union)"), still in 1st Baltic Front, and was in positions north of the German salient at Vitebsk. Following a very heavy artillery barrage lasting 20 minutes at dawn on June 22, assault companies of the division, in concert with those of six other divisions, attacked the positions of the German [252nd Infantry Division](/wiki/252nd_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 "252nd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)") and [Corps Detachment D](/wiki/Corps_Detachment_D "Corps Detachment D") on a 20 km front, breaking through to the second defense line by noon. The following day the division assisted in the envelopment of Corps Detachment D's positions in Shumilino, advancing in second echelon behind its Corps\-mates, the [179th](/wiki/179th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "179th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)") and [306th Rifle Divisions](/wiki/306th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 "306th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)"). The 1st Corps reached the [Dvina River](/wiki/Western_Dvina_River "Western Dvina River") by evening. From here, it was ordered westward, and reached [Beshenkovichi](/wiki/Beshenkovichi "Beshenkovichi") by the end of June 25\. By the 27th it had reached [Lepel](/wiki/Lepel "Lepel"), against scattered German resistance.Dunn, *Soviet Blitzkrieg*, Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA, 2008, pp. 95, 102, 104, 106, 109
### Baltic Campaign
Along with its Army, in the following months the 357th advanced into the "Baltic Gap" between Army Groups North and Center, driving towards [Riga](/wiki/Riga "Riga") and the Baltic coast. On July 6 it was past the Lithuanian border and was fighting on the outskirts of [Švenčionys](/wiki/%C5%A0ven%C4%8Dionys "Švenčionys"). Sgt. Aleksei Golubkov was an observer for the division's 923rd Artillery Regiment. Over the course of two hours he received three wounds while repairing breaks in his [field telephone](/wiki/Field_telephone "Field telephone") lines. Finally the German forces were reduced to holding a church, surrounded by a wall. Golubkov, assisted by a soldier named Nikolaiev, made a hidden advance to outflank the wall and suppressed the enemy fire, killing or wounding 18 German soldiers, and allowing the infantry to storm the building. In the process, Golubkov was mortally wounded by grenade fragments. For his gallantry, Sergeant Golubkov was posthumously named a [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union "Hero of the Soviet Union") on March 24 1945\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.warheroes.ru/hero/hero.asp?Hero\_id\=5463\|title \= Голубков Алексей Константинович}} By the beginning of August the 357th had advanced as far as [Kupiškis](/wiki/Kupi%C5%A1kis "Kupiškis"), moving generally northwest in the direction of [Riga](/wiki/Riga "Riga"). Two weeks later it had reached the Latvian border southeast of [Bauska](/wiki/Bauska "Bauska"), which 43rd Army liberated over the coming weeks.*Baltic Gap*, Multi\-Man Publishing, Inc., Millersville, MD, 2009, pp. 14, 21, 28
On October 22 the division was recognized for its role in the liberation of Riga with the award of the [Order of Suvorov](/wiki/Order_of_Suvorov "Order of Suvorov").{{Sfn\|Affairs Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Soviet Union\|1967\|p\=517}} In January 1945, the 357th moved with its 1st Rifle Corps to the [51st Army](/wiki/51st_Army_%28Russia%29 "51st Army (Russia)"), and then shifted with the 51st Army to [2nd Baltic Front](/wiki/2nd_Baltic_Front "2nd Baltic Front") in February. From March onward the division was part of the Courland Group, keeping guard over the remnants of the former Army Group North in its pocket on the coast of Latvia. When the war ended it was still in 1st Rifle Corps, which was now in the [1st Shock Army](/wiki/1st_Shock_Army "1st Shock Army").
|
[
"Formation and World War II\n--------------------------",
"The 357th Rifle Division began forming in August 1941 in the [Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Udmurt_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\") of the [Ural Military District](/wiki/Ural_Military_District \"Ural Military District\").Walter S. Dunn, Jr., *Stalin's Keys to Victory*, Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA, 2006, p. 78 Its order of battle was as follows:\n* 1188th Rifle Regiment\n* 1190th Rifle Regiment\n* 1192nd Rifle Regiment\n* 923rd Artillery Regiment\n* 640th Sapper Battalion\n* 219th Antitank Battalion\n* 422nd Reconnaissance Company\n* 377th Signal CompanyCharles C. Sharp, *\"Red Tide\", Soviet Rifle Divisions Formed From June to December 1941, Soviet Order of Battle World War II, Vol. IX*, Nafziger, 1996, p. 92",
"On the first day of September Colonel Dmitry Kirshev was assigned to command of the division, a post he would hold until February 14 1942\\. The division was assigned to [39th Army](/wiki/39th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"39th Army (Soviet Union)\") while it was still forming, but by the time it reached the front it had been reassigned to [22nd Army](/wiki/22nd_Army_%28Russia%29 \"22nd Army (Russia)\") in the [Kalinin Front](/wiki/Kalinin_Front \"Kalinin Front\"). By the end of January 1942, it was back in 39th Army.Sharp, *\"Red Tide\"*, p. 92",
"### Battles of Rzhev",
"During this period, the armies of Kalinin Front were deeply outflanking Army Group Center from the north, carving out the [Toropets](/wiki/Toropets \"Toropets\") salient to the north and west of German [9th Army's](/wiki/9th_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"9th Army (Wehrmacht)\") positions in the [Rzhev salient](/wiki/Rzhev_salient \"Rzhev salient\"). During the rest of the winter the 39th Army was tasked with driving westwards to encircle and destroy these enemy forces in conjunction with [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"Western Front (Soviet Union)\") attacking from the east.John Erickson, *The Road to Stalingrad*, George Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd., London, UK, 1975, p. 326 In the event, difficult terrain and supply shortages, plus desperate German resistance, frustrated this plan. On February 15 1942, Colonel Kirshev was replaced in command by Colonel Aleksandr Lvovich Kronik.",
"On July 2 Army Group Center launched Operation Seydlitz to finally liquidate this threat to its rear. On July 6 the corridor from Kalinin Front to its besieged 39th and 22nd Armies was cut at the village of Pushkari, north of Belyi, which encircled the 357th along with several others. Over the following weeks individuals, small groups, and even some formed and armed subunits managed to make their way through the encirclement lines, but despite this 39th Army reported 582 killed, 269 wounded and the enormous total of 22,749 missing in action in the month of July. 39th Army had to be reformed on the basis of the [58th Army](/wiki/58th_Army_%28Russia%29 \"58th Army (Russia)\") headquarters.Svetlana Gerasimova, *The Rzhev Slaughterhouse*, ed. \\& trans. S. Britton, Helion \\& Co., Ltd., Solihull, UK, 2013, pp. 59\\-61, 69 While enough of the division survived this ordeal to avoid being disbanded, by August 1 its remnants were in the [Moscow Military District](/wiki/Moscow_Military_District \"Moscow Military District\") for rebuilding, which went on into September.[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1942](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1942.pdf), p. 158",
"### Battle of Velikiye Luki",
"By October 1 the division had been sufficiently rebuilt that it was assigned to the [Moscow Defence Zone](/wiki/Moscow_Defence_Zone \"Moscow Defence Zone\").[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1942](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1942.pdf), p. 197 On October 13 Kalinin Front received orders that several formations would be transferred to its command, in the buildup to the forthcoming [Operation Mars](/wiki/Operation_Mars \"Operation Mars\"). Among these was the [5th Guards Rifle Corps](/wiki/5th_Guards_Rifle_Corps \"5th Guards Rifle Corps\") to reinforce [43rd Army](/wiki/43rd_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"43rd Army (Soviet Union)\"). The 357th was directed to begin loading onto trains at [Naro\\-Fominsk](/wiki/Naro-Fominsk \"Naro-Fominsk\") on October 15;Gerasimova, *Rzhev Slaughterhouse*, p. 213David M. Glantz, *After Stalingrad*, Helion \\& Co., Ltd., Solihull, UK, 2009, p. 52 however it is listed as still being in the Moscow Zone on November 1\\.[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1942](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1942.pdf), p. 219 The division arrived in 43rd Army later that month where it was assigned to 5th Guards Corps, but was soon sent, with its Corps, to reinforce [3rd Shock Army](/wiki/3rd_Shock_Army \"3rd Shock Army\"), which launched an offensive to retake [Velikiye Luki](/wiki/Velikiye_Luki \"Velikiye Luki\") and [Novosokolniki](/wiki/Novosokolniki \"Novosokolniki\") on November 25\\.Glantz, *After Stalingrad*, p. 446[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1942](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1942.pdf), p. 234 The 357th was described at this time as being at full strength for equipment and personnel, and that one in four (25 percent) were Party members or [Komsomols](/wiki/Komsomol \"Komsomol\"). The division's Deputy for Political Affairs was senior Battalion Commissar V. A. Belov.[http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08\\.html](http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08.html) (In Russian, retrieved Apr. 29, 2018\\)",
"Major General [Afanasy Beloborodov](/wiki/Afanasy_Beloborodov \"Afanasy Beloborodov\") 5th Guards Corps was to take the leading role in the offensive. After forcing a crossing of the [Lovat River](/wiki/Lovat_River \"Lovat River\") and bypassing Velikiye Luki to the southwest, its objective was to cut the rail lines from Velikiye Luki to [Nevel](/wiki/Nevel_%28town%29 \"Nevel (town)\") and Velikiye Luki to Novosokolniki, and to link up with other forces of 3rd Shock advancing from the northeast to encircle the city. The 357th was to then storm the city from the west while [9th Guards Rifle Division](/wiki/9th_Guards_Rifle_Division \"9th Guards Rifle Division\") continued the advance on Novosokolniki. [46th Guards Rifle Division](/wiki/46th_Guards_Rifle_Division \"46th Guards Rifle Division\"), on the left flank, was to cover the other two divisions against counterattacks from the southwest. On the eve of the offensive, forward detachments of all three divisions crossed the Lovat, suppressed the German advanced positions along the west bank, and then advanced to their main line along the Nevel railway; this reconnaissance\\-in\\-force both revealed much of the enemy fire plan and put artillery observers in position to direct fire against it in the opening preparation. As reinforcement, the 357th was assigned the 27th Tank Regiment and, as it was intended to attack a fortified city, it also got one battalion of the 358th Guards Artillery Regiment, consisting of 12 [152mm howitzers](/wiki/152_mm_howitzer_M1938_%28M-10%29 \"152 mm howitzer M1938 (M-10)\"). Altogether, with its own assets and the divisional and regimental artillery, the Corps had about 45 barrels per kilometre on the breakthrough front. The Lovat is not wide (25 to 60 metres) but has a fast current, steep banks, and few good approaches.",
"The night of November 24 was foggy, which hindered German illumination flares as the Soviet forward detachments crossed the river and entered no\\-mans\\-land and the German advanced posts fell back to their main position. By 0800 hrs. on November 25 the Corps had seized a bridgehead of about 14 square kilometres, and the 1192nd Rifle Regiment had advanced to the village of Peschanka. However, the supporting tanks had fallen behind during the night approach. The fog lifted after 1000 hrs., allowing the 30\\-minute artillery preparation to begin. The infantry attack began at 1100 hrs., but developed slowly because the enemy fire system could not be fully suppressed. As the 1192nd attacked Peschanka it came under flanking fire from height 158\\.1 and the village of Gorushka, which slowed its progress. Later in the day, [Katyusha](/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher \"Katyusha rocket launcher\") rocket volleys suppressed the German fire enough that the 357th was able to enter Gorushka, while the 9th Guards seized height 158\\.1\\. This last was a serious loss to the enemy line. Meanwhile, the 508th Guards Rifle Regiment of the 46th Guards found a gap in the main German line, and over the next day exploited into the depth of their defense.[http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08\\.html](http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08.html) (In Russian, retrieved Apr. 30, 2018\\) Note this source mis\\-numbers the regiment as the 1092nd.",
"While the Guards divisions created an outer encirclement of Velikiye Luki, the 357th moved as planned to cut the road and railroad immediately west of the city, beginning an inner encirclement, while still facing resistance from elements of the 251st and 257th Infantry Regiments of the [83rd Infantry Division](/wiki/83rd_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"83rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\"), backed by rocket artillery and some armor. On the night of November 26/27 the first German reserves were identified, from the [20th Motorized Division](/wiki/20th_Panzergrenadier_Division \"20th Panzergrenadier Division\") and the 138th Regiment of [3rd Mountain Division](/wiki/3rd_Mountain_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"3rd Mountain Division (Wehrmacht)\"). After painful progress through November 27, at 1500 hrs. Colonel Kronik was able to report that his troops had reached the Velikiye Luki \\- Novosokolniki road, sealed the Vorobetzkaya exit, and was attacking height 164\\.9\\. The division continued to make progress on the 28th, reaching out to the [381st Rifle Division](/wiki/381st_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"381st Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\") which was advancing from the north. By the end of the day this was accomplished, while the 9th Guards had completed the outer encirclement. This produced an inner pocket of the Velikiye Luki garrison, and an outer pocket of the remaining defending forces, mainly the two regiments of 83rd Infantry and the 138th Mountain Regiment, which were holding out in and around the village of Shiripino.[http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08\\.html](http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/08.html) (In Russian, retrieved Aug. 17, 2018\\)",
"It was clear to the Soviet command that the Germans would soon attempt to relieve the besieged city, which lay about 15km from their lines, by first breaking through to the Shiripino group (holding a pocket about 4 \\- 4\\.5km in length) before covering the remaining distance. The top priority for the Soviets was to eliminate the pocket. Army General [Georgy Zhukov](/wiki/Georgy_Zhukov \"Georgy Zhukov\") arrived, along with Kalinin Front's chief of artillery General N. M. Khlebnikov, and insisted on assessing the situation from Colonel Kronik's observation post, despite the fact it was under fire from two sides. The attack began on the evening of December 2, with 12 Soviet battalions including the full 1188th Rifle Regiment and the divisional training battalion. However, just as the artillery preparation was to begin, word arrived that the expected German relief attempt had begun; the lines of the 508th Guards Rifle Regiment had been penetrated and by morning the attackers reached the pocket, but the Soviet commanders on the ground organized counterattacks to prevent any further advance. The battle continued and at noon the 357th's training battalion captured Shiripino, while Major M. Ye. Kheifets' 1188th Regiment took Shelkovo. Although the German command was successful in evacuating some of its encircled troops, it was unable to hold its ground, and when the lines stabilized the distance to Velikiye Luki had barely lessened.[http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/09\\.html](http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/beloborodov2/09.html) (In Russian, retrieved Sep. 13, 2018\\)",
"In anticipation of a further German effort to relieve Velikiye Luki, the 357th was transferred to the direct command of 3rd Shock Army on December 10\\. During the remainder of the month the division, along with the [257th Rifle Division](/wiki/257th_Rifle_Division_%28November_1941_formation%29 \"257th Rifle Division (November 1941 formation)\") and the [8th Estonian Rifle Corps](/wiki/8th_Estonian_Rifle_Corps \"8th Estonian Rifle Corps\"), with significant assistance from corps\\- and army\\-level artillery, gradually ground down the city garrison. The encircled troops were reliant entirely on air\\-dropped supplies, and as the new year began were hanging on in the old fortress (*Kreml*) west of the river and in and around the railway station east of it.",
"Another German thrust to break through to the city began in early January 1943, and reached to within 8km of the *Kreml* before being halted. Two more desperate efforts were made on January 10 and the night of January 14/15, the last of which provided cover for a breakout from the *Kreml* position; only about 150 officers and men managed to reach friendly lines. The following day the rest of the garrison surrendered, bringing the battle to a close.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/20234/20\\-2343\\.htm\\|title \\= Chapter 3}}",
"On February 22, Colonel Kronik was promoted to the rank of Major General. He remained in command until October 14, when he was given command of the [178th Rifle Division](/wiki/178th_Rifle_Division \"178th Rifle Division\"), which was also in 3rd Shock Army.[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1943](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1943.pdf), p. 245 He was replaced by the previous commander of the 178th, Major General Aleksandr Kudryavtsev, who held this post for the duration of the war.",
"### Battle of Nevel",
"The 3rd Shock Army did not see much action through the spring and summer of 1943, and many of the reinforcements it had received for Velikiye Luki were reassigned. By September it was reduced to five rifle divisions (including the 357th) with an average strength of 5,000 \\- 6,000 men each; three rifle brigades; one tank brigade; seven assorted artillery regiments; and two field fortified regions. During that month Lt. General [K. N. Galitsky](/wiki/Kuzma_Galitsky \"Kuzma Galitsky\") was ordered to plan for an offensive in the direction of Nevel. This was mainly intended as a diversion to draw German reserves away from a larger offensive on [Vitebsk](/wiki/Vitebsk \"Vitebsk\") by the rest of Kalinin Front and most of Western Front. The operation was to begin at 0500 hrs. on October 6 with a reconnaissance in force. The 357th was in the first echelon on a 4km attack front with the [28th Rifle Division](/wiki/28th_Rifle_Division \"28th Rifle Division\") to its south.Glantz, *Battles for Belorussia*, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 2016, pp. 37\\-38",
"This reconnaissance was followed by a ninety\\-minute artillery preparation beginning at 0840, then bombing strikes. The infantry assault began at 1000, directly at the boundary between Army Groups North and Center. While the German [263rd Infantry Division](/wiki/263rd_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"263rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\") contained the 357th's attack, to the south the [2nd Luftwaffe Field Division](/wiki/2nd_Luftwaffe_Field_Division \"2nd Luftwaffe Field Division\") was unexpectedly routed by the 28th Rifle Division. The Luftwaffe division had been decimated during its first battles during [Operation Mars](/wiki/Operation_Mars \"Operation Mars\") nearly a year earlier,Kevin C. Ruffner, *Luftwaffe Field Divisions 1941\\-45*, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, 1990, p. 12 and had never completely recovered. The 28th penetrated the German's first defensive position by noon, and poured through the gap, followed by the 54 tanks of the 78th Tank Brigade, a truck\\-mounted regiment of the [21st Guards Rifle Division](/wiki/21st_Guards_Rifle_Division \"21st Guards Rifle Division\"), an anti\\-tank and a howitzer artillery regiment. The city of Nevel, 25km in the German rear, was liberated off the march by the end of the day. Galitsky ordered the 357th, the 46th Guards Rifle Division, and the 100th and 31st Rifle Brigades, into the breach, and by October 10 a salient 25km deep and roughly the same distance wide was separating the two German army groups. The 357th was holding a sector east of Lake Iban, roughly along the Velikiye Luki \\- Nevel railway.Glantz, *Belorussia*, pp. 39\\-41",
"### Polotsk\\-Vitebsk Operation",
"Later in October the division was reassigned to the [60th Rifle Corps](/wiki/60th_Rifle_Corps \"60th Rifle Corps\") in [4th Shock Army](/wiki/4th_Shock_Army \"4th Shock Army\"),[Combat Composition of the Soviet Army, 1943](http://www.soldat.ru/files/f/boevojsostavsa1943.pdf), p. 274 in the renamed [1st Baltic (former Kalinin) Front](/wiki/1st_Baltic_Front \"1st Baltic Front\"). A new operation was planned to further exploit the breakthrough at Nevel after a pause for rest and regrouping. 4th Shock was tasked with driving to the southwest and south after making a breakthrough, threatening [Polotsk](/wiki/Polotsk \"Polotsk\") and Vitebsk respectively and also threatening to encircle much of [3rd Panzer Army](/wiki/3rd_Panzer_Army \"3rd Panzer Army\").Glantz, *Belorussia*, pp. 125\\-26",
"3rd and 4th Shock Armies, over the course of five days, made heavy attacks which dented 3rd Panzer Army's defenses before beginning the full offensive on November 2\\. 60th Rifle Corps, backed by the 143rd Tank Brigade formed 4th Shock's assault group, facing the German [87th Infantry Division](/wiki/87th_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"87th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\") and (a sign of their tremendous shortage of manpower) the partly reorganized 2nd Luftwaffe on a 10km\\-wide sector 16km south of Nevel. The Corps soon penetrated the German defenses to a depth of roughly 10km, at which point the [2nd Guards Rifle Corps](/wiki/2nd_Guards_Rifle_Corps \"2nd Guards Rifle Corps\") was committed into the gap. Over the following weeks this Corps advanced south toward Gorodok while 60th Corps moved along the railway from Nevel toward Polotsk. By the end of the month the 357th had advanced with its Corps as much as 90km and had liberated more than 500 villages, while Hitler raged in his headquarters about the *Schweinerei* (filthy mess) around Nevel and ordered several attempts to seal off the breakthrough, none of which succeeded. However, 60th Corps remained 26km short of Polotsk, facing Combat Group von Gottberg (several composite battalions) and the [211th Infantry Division](/wiki/211th_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"211th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\").Glantz, *Belorussia*, pp. 125\\-26, 129\\-30, 140Earl Ziemke, *Stalingrad to Berlin*, Center of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D.C., 1968, pp. 203\\-06",
"While most of the forces of 1st Baltic Front battled for [Gorodok](/wiki/Haradok \"Haradok\") in December, and later attempted to liberate Vitebsk into January and February 1944, the 357th, with most of 60th Corps, remained on the defense along the same line.Glantz, *Belorussia*, pp. 217, 280",
"### Operation Bagration",
"In June the division was reassigned to the [1st Rifle Corps](/wiki/1st_Rifle_Corps \"1st Rifle Corps\") in [43rd Army](/wiki/43rd_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"43rd Army (Soviet Union)\"), still in 1st Baltic Front, and was in positions north of the German salient at Vitebsk. Following a very heavy artillery barrage lasting 20 minutes at dawn on June 22, assault companies of the division, in concert with those of six other divisions, attacked the positions of the German [252nd Infantry Division](/wiki/252nd_Infantry_Division_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"252nd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)\") and [Corps Detachment D](/wiki/Corps_Detachment_D \"Corps Detachment D\") on a 20 km front, breaking through to the second defense line by noon. The following day the division assisted in the envelopment of Corps Detachment D's positions in Shumilino, advancing in second echelon behind its Corps\\-mates, the [179th](/wiki/179th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"179th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\") and [306th Rifle Divisions](/wiki/306th_Rifle_Division_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"306th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)\"). The 1st Corps reached the [Dvina River](/wiki/Western_Dvina_River \"Western Dvina River\") by evening. From here, it was ordered westward, and reached [Beshenkovichi](/wiki/Beshenkovichi \"Beshenkovichi\") by the end of June 25\\. By the 27th it had reached [Lepel](/wiki/Lepel \"Lepel\"), against scattered German resistance.Dunn, *Soviet Blitzkrieg*, Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA, 2008, pp. 95, 102, 104, 106, 109",
"### Baltic Campaign",
"Along with its Army, in the following months the 357th advanced into the \"Baltic Gap\" between Army Groups North and Center, driving towards [Riga](/wiki/Riga \"Riga\") and the Baltic coast. On July 6 it was past the Lithuanian border and was fighting on the outskirts of [Švenčionys](/wiki/%C5%A0ven%C4%8Dionys \"Švenčionys\"). Sgt. Aleksei Golubkov was an observer for the division's 923rd Artillery Regiment. Over the course of two hours he received three wounds while repairing breaks in his [field telephone](/wiki/Field_telephone \"Field telephone\") lines. Finally the German forces were reduced to holding a church, surrounded by a wall. Golubkov, assisted by a soldier named Nikolaiev, made a hidden advance to outflank the wall and suppressed the enemy fire, killing or wounding 18 German soldiers, and allowing the infantry to storm the building. In the process, Golubkov was mortally wounded by grenade fragments. For his gallantry, Sergeant Golubkov was posthumously named a [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Hero of the Soviet Union\") on March 24 1945\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.warheroes.ru/hero/hero.asp?Hero\\_id\\=5463\\|title \\= Голубков Алексей Константинович}} By the beginning of August the 357th had advanced as far as [Kupiškis](/wiki/Kupi%C5%A1kis \"Kupiškis\"), moving generally northwest in the direction of [Riga](/wiki/Riga \"Riga\"). Two weeks later it had reached the Latvian border southeast of [Bauska](/wiki/Bauska \"Bauska\"), which 43rd Army liberated over the coming weeks.*Baltic Gap*, Multi\\-Man Publishing, Inc., Millersville, MD, 2009, pp. 14, 21, 28",
"On October 22 the division was recognized for its role in the liberation of Riga with the award of the [Order of Suvorov](/wiki/Order_of_Suvorov \"Order of Suvorov\").{{Sfn\\|Affairs Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Soviet Union\\|1967\\|p\\=517}} In January 1945, the 357th moved with its 1st Rifle Corps to the [51st Army](/wiki/51st_Army_%28Russia%29 \"51st Army (Russia)\"), and then shifted with the 51st Army to [2nd Baltic Front](/wiki/2nd_Baltic_Front \"2nd Baltic Front\") in February. From March onward the division was part of the Courland Group, keeping guard over the remnants of the former Army Group North in its pocket on the coast of Latvia. When the war ended it was still in 1st Rifle Corps, which was now in the [1st Shock Army](/wiki/1st_Shock_Army \"1st Shock Army\").",
""
] |
FAA identifier
--------------
The [Federal Aviation Administration](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration "Federal Aviation Administration") location identifier (FAA LID) is a three\- to five\-character alphanumeric code identifying aviation\-related facilities inside the United States, though some codes are reserved for, and are managed by other entities.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/7350\.9\_w\_Change\_1\_Loc\_Id.pdf\|title\=Location Identifiers, Order JO 7350\.9F\|date\=26 May 2016\|publisher\=Federal Aviation Administration\|access\-date\=2016\-08\-20}}{{rp\|§1–2\-1}}
For nearly all major airports, the assigned identifiers are alphabetic three\-letter codes, such as ORD for Chicago O’Hare International Airport. Minor airfields are typically assigned a mix of alphanumeric characters, such as 8N2 for [Skydive Chicago Airport](/wiki/Skydive_Chicago_Airport "Skydive Chicago Airport") and 0B5 for [Turners Falls Airport](/wiki/Turners_Falls_Airport "Turners Falls Airport"). Private airfields are assigned a four\-character identifier, such as 1CA9 for Los Angeles County Fire Department Heliport. The location identifiers are coordinated with the [Transport Canada](/wiki/Transport_Canada "Transport Canada") Identifiers described below.
In general, the FAA has authority to assign all three\-letter identifiers (except those beginning with the letters K, N, W, and Y), all three\- and four\-character alphanumeric identifiers, and five\-letter identifiers for the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") and its jurisdictions. The [Department of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy "United States Department of the Navy") assigns three\-letter identifiers beginning with the letter N for the exclusive use of that department. Transport Canada assigns three\-character identifiers beginning with Y. The block beginning with letter Q is under international telecommunications jurisdiction, but is used internally by FAA Technical Operations to identify National Airspace equipment not covered by any other identifying code system. The block beginning with Z identifies United States [Air Route Traffic Control Centers](/wiki/Area_control_center "Area control center").{{rp\|§1–2\-2}}
In practice, the assigned identifiers are not always consistent with the current "encoding" rules adopted by the FAA, nor are all the assigned identifiers distinct between the United States and Canada. The coding system has evolved over time, and to ensure safety and reduce ambiguity, many "legacy" codes have remained intact,{{rp\|§1–2–4}} even though they violate the currently ordered rules. For this reason, the FAA regularly publishes detailed listings of all codes it administers{{rp\|§6}}
### General assignment patterns
In general, three\-letter identifiers are assigned as radio call signs to aeronautical navigation aids; to airports with a staffed air traffic control facility or navigational aid within airport boundary; to airports that receive scheduled route air carrier or military airlift service, and to airports designated by the [United States Customs Service](/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service "United States Customs Service") as [airports of entry](/wiki/Airport_of_entry "Airport of entry"). Some of these identifiers are assigned to certain aviation weather reporting stations.
Most one\-digit, two\-letter identifiers have been assigned to aviation weather reporting and observation stations and special\-use locations. Some of these identifiers may be assigned to public\-use landing facilities within the United States and its jurisdictions, which do not meet the requirements for identifiers in the three\-letter series. In this identifier series, the digit is always in the first position of the three\-character combination.
Most one\-letter, two\-digit identifiers are assigned to public\-use landing facilities within the United States and its jurisdictions, which do not meet the requirements for identifiers in the three\-letter series. Some of these identifiers are also assigned to aviation weather reporting stations.
* One\-letter, two\-digit identifiers are keyed by the alphabetical letter. The letter may appear in the first, middle or last position in the combination of three characters. When the letter signifies an [air traffic control center](/wiki/Area_control_center "Area control center")'s area, the assignment will not change if the center's boundaries are realigned.
* Identifiers in this series which could conflict with the *Victor*, *Jet* or colored airway numbers are not assigned.
Two\-letter, two\-digit identifiers are assigned to private\-use landing facilities in the United States and its jurisdictions which do not meet the requirements for three\-character assignments. They are keyed by the [two\-letter Post Office](/wiki/List_of_U._S._postal_abbreviations "List of U. S. postal abbreviations") or supplemental abbreviation of the state with which they are associated. The two\-letter code appears in the first two, middle, or last two positions of the four\-character code.
The use of the FAA identifier system in meteorology ended in 1996 when airways reporting code was replaced by [METAR code](/wiki/METAR "METAR"). The METAR code is dependent wholly on the ICAO identifier system.
|
[
"FAA identifier\n--------------",
"The [Federal Aviation Administration](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration \"Federal Aviation Administration\") location identifier (FAA LID) is a three\\- to five\\-character alphanumeric code identifying aviation\\-related facilities inside the United States, though some codes are reserved for, and are managed by other entities.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/7350\\.9\\_w\\_Change\\_1\\_Loc\\_Id.pdf\\|title\\=Location Identifiers, Order JO 7350\\.9F\\|date\\=26 May 2016\\|publisher\\=Federal Aviation Administration\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-20}}{{rp\\|§1–2\\-1}}",
"For nearly all major airports, the assigned identifiers are alphabetic three\\-letter codes, such as ORD for Chicago O’Hare International Airport. Minor airfields are typically assigned a mix of alphanumeric characters, such as 8N2 for [Skydive Chicago Airport](/wiki/Skydive_Chicago_Airport \"Skydive Chicago Airport\") and 0B5 for [Turners Falls Airport](/wiki/Turners_Falls_Airport \"Turners Falls Airport\"). Private airfields are assigned a four\\-character identifier, such as 1CA9 for Los Angeles County Fire Department Heliport. The location identifiers are coordinated with the [Transport Canada](/wiki/Transport_Canada \"Transport Canada\") Identifiers described below.",
"In general, the FAA has authority to assign all three\\-letter identifiers (except those beginning with the letters K, N, W, and Y), all three\\- and four\\-character alphanumeric identifiers, and five\\-letter identifiers for the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and its jurisdictions. The [Department of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy \"United States Department of the Navy\") assigns three\\-letter identifiers beginning with the letter N for the exclusive use of that department. Transport Canada assigns three\\-character identifiers beginning with Y. The block beginning with letter Q is under international telecommunications jurisdiction, but is used internally by FAA Technical Operations to identify National Airspace equipment not covered by any other identifying code system. The block beginning with Z identifies United States [Air Route Traffic Control Centers](/wiki/Area_control_center \"Area control center\").{{rp\\|§1–2\\-2}}",
"In practice, the assigned identifiers are not always consistent with the current \"encoding\" rules adopted by the FAA, nor are all the assigned identifiers distinct between the United States and Canada. The coding system has evolved over time, and to ensure safety and reduce ambiguity, many \"legacy\" codes have remained intact,{{rp\\|§1–2–4}} even though they violate the currently ordered rules. For this reason, the FAA regularly publishes detailed listings of all codes it administers{{rp\\|§6}}",
"### General assignment patterns",
"In general, three\\-letter identifiers are assigned as radio call signs to aeronautical navigation aids; to airports with a staffed air traffic control facility or navigational aid within airport boundary; to airports that receive scheduled route air carrier or military airlift service, and to airports designated by the [United States Customs Service](/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service \"United States Customs Service\") as [airports of entry](/wiki/Airport_of_entry \"Airport of entry\"). Some of these identifiers are assigned to certain aviation weather reporting stations.",
"Most one\\-digit, two\\-letter identifiers have been assigned to aviation weather reporting and observation stations and special\\-use locations. Some of these identifiers may be assigned to public\\-use landing facilities within the United States and its jurisdictions, which do not meet the requirements for identifiers in the three\\-letter series. In this identifier series, the digit is always in the first position of the three\\-character combination.",
"Most one\\-letter, two\\-digit identifiers are assigned to public\\-use landing facilities within the United States and its jurisdictions, which do not meet the requirements for identifiers in the three\\-letter series. Some of these identifiers are also assigned to aviation weather reporting stations.",
"* One\\-letter, two\\-digit identifiers are keyed by the alphabetical letter. The letter may appear in the first, middle or last position in the combination of three characters. When the letter signifies an [air traffic control center](/wiki/Area_control_center \"Area control center\")'s area, the assignment will not change if the center's boundaries are realigned.\n* Identifiers in this series which could conflict with the *Victor*, *Jet* or colored airway numbers are not assigned.",
"Two\\-letter, two\\-digit identifiers are assigned to private\\-use landing facilities in the United States and its jurisdictions which do not meet the requirements for three\\-character assignments. They are keyed by the [two\\-letter Post Office](/wiki/List_of_U._S._postal_abbreviations \"List of U. S. postal abbreviations\") or supplemental abbreviation of the state with which they are associated. The two\\-letter code appears in the first two, middle, or last two positions of the four\\-character code.",
"The use of the FAA identifier system in meteorology ended in 1996 when airways reporting code was replaced by [METAR code](/wiki/METAR \"METAR\"). The METAR code is dependent wholly on the ICAO identifier system.",
""
] |
### General assignment patterns
In general, three\-letter identifiers are assigned as radio call signs to aeronautical navigation aids; to airports with a staffed air traffic control facility or navigational aid within airport boundary; to airports that receive scheduled route air carrier or military airlift service, and to airports designated by the [United States Customs Service](/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service "United States Customs Service") as [airports of entry](/wiki/Airport_of_entry "Airport of entry"). Some of these identifiers are assigned to certain aviation weather reporting stations.
Most one\-digit, two\-letter identifiers have been assigned to aviation weather reporting and observation stations and special\-use locations. Some of these identifiers may be assigned to public\-use landing facilities within the United States and its jurisdictions, which do not meet the requirements for identifiers in the three\-letter series. In this identifier series, the digit is always in the first position of the three\-character combination.
Most one\-letter, two\-digit identifiers are assigned to public\-use landing facilities within the United States and its jurisdictions, which do not meet the requirements for identifiers in the three\-letter series. Some of these identifiers are also assigned to aviation weather reporting stations.
* One\-letter, two\-digit identifiers are keyed by the alphabetical letter. The letter may appear in the first, middle or last position in the combination of three characters. When the letter signifies an [air traffic control center](/wiki/Area_control_center "Area control center")'s area, the assignment will not change if the center's boundaries are realigned.
* Identifiers in this series which could conflict with the *Victor*, *Jet* or colored airway numbers are not assigned.
Two\-letter, two\-digit identifiers are assigned to private\-use landing facilities in the United States and its jurisdictions which do not meet the requirements for three\-character assignments. They are keyed by the [two\-letter Post Office](/wiki/List_of_U._S._postal_abbreviations "List of U. S. postal abbreviations") or supplemental abbreviation of the state with which they are associated. The two\-letter code appears in the first two, middle, or last two positions of the four\-character code.
The use of the FAA identifier system in meteorology ended in 1996 when airways reporting code was replaced by [METAR code](/wiki/METAR "METAR"). The METAR code is dependent wholly on the ICAO identifier system.
|
[
"### General assignment patterns",
"In general, three\\-letter identifiers are assigned as radio call signs to aeronautical navigation aids; to airports with a staffed air traffic control facility or navigational aid within airport boundary; to airports that receive scheduled route air carrier or military airlift service, and to airports designated by the [United States Customs Service](/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service \"United States Customs Service\") as [airports of entry](/wiki/Airport_of_entry \"Airport of entry\"). Some of these identifiers are assigned to certain aviation weather reporting stations.",
"Most one\\-digit, two\\-letter identifiers have been assigned to aviation weather reporting and observation stations and special\\-use locations. Some of these identifiers may be assigned to public\\-use landing facilities within the United States and its jurisdictions, which do not meet the requirements for identifiers in the three\\-letter series. In this identifier series, the digit is always in the first position of the three\\-character combination.",
"Most one\\-letter, two\\-digit identifiers are assigned to public\\-use landing facilities within the United States and its jurisdictions, which do not meet the requirements for identifiers in the three\\-letter series. Some of these identifiers are also assigned to aviation weather reporting stations.",
"* One\\-letter, two\\-digit identifiers are keyed by the alphabetical letter. The letter may appear in the first, middle or last position in the combination of three characters. When the letter signifies an [air traffic control center](/wiki/Area_control_center \"Area control center\")'s area, the assignment will not change if the center's boundaries are realigned.\n* Identifiers in this series which could conflict with the *Victor*, *Jet* or colored airway numbers are not assigned.",
"Two\\-letter, two\\-digit identifiers are assigned to private\\-use landing facilities in the United States and its jurisdictions which do not meet the requirements for three\\-character assignments. They are keyed by the [two\\-letter Post Office](/wiki/List_of_U._S._postal_abbreviations \"List of U. S. postal abbreviations\") or supplemental abbreviation of the state with which they are associated. The two\\-letter code appears in the first two, middle, or last two positions of the four\\-character code.",
"The use of the FAA identifier system in meteorology ended in 1996 when airways reporting code was replaced by [METAR code](/wiki/METAR \"METAR\"). The METAR code is dependent wholly on the ICAO identifier system.",
""
] |
Plot
----
As [King Arthur](/wiki/King_Arthur "King Arthur") prepares for battle against his former friend, [Sir Lancelot](/wiki/Sir_Lancelot "Sir Lancelot"), with his son, [Mordred](/wiki/Mordred "Mordred"), raising an army against him back in England, he reflects on the sad circumstances which have led him to this situation.
He recalls the night of his marriage to [Guenevere](/wiki/Guenevere "Guenevere"). It is an arranged marriage, and he is afraid of what lies ahead ("I Wonder What the King is Doing Tonight"). Guenevere herself is worried about marrying a man she has never met and longs for the romantic life of a fought\-over maiden ("The Simple Joys of Maidenhood"). They converse, and as she does not know his true identity, she fantasizes about escaping with him. Arthur tells her what a wonderful place his kingdom is ("Camelot"). She finds herself drawn to him, but they are interrupted by his men and her entourage. Arthur's identity is revealed, and Guenevere gladly goes with him to be married.
Four years later, Arthur explores with Guenevere his idea for a Round Table that would seat all the noble knights of the realm, reflecting not only a crude type of democratic ideal, but also the political unification of England. Inspired by Arthur's ideas, the French Knight Lancelot makes his way to England with his squire Dap, boasting of his superior virtues ("C'est Moi"). Lancelot's prowess impresses Arthur, and they become friends; however, many of the knights instantly despise Lancelot for his self\-righteousness and boastfulness. Back in Camelot, Guinevere and the women frolic and gather flowers to celebrate the coming of spring ("The Lusty Month of May").
Guenevere, who initially dislikes Lancelot, incites three of the best knights to challenge him to a joust ("Then You May Take Me To The Fair"). Arthur ponders how distant Guenevere has become ("How to Handle a Woman"). Guenevere's plan goes awry as Lancelot easily defeats all three, critically wounding Sir [Dinadan](/wiki/Dinadan "Dinadan"). A horrified Lancelot pleads for Sir Dinadan to live, and as he lays hands on him, Dinadan miraculously recovers. Guenevere is so overwhelmed and humbled that her feelings for Lancelot begin to change. Despite his vows of celibacy, Lancelot falls in love with Guenevere.
Guinevere and Lancelot meet in secret to discuss their future. Lancelot vows that he should leave and never come back, but finds it impossible to consider leaving Guenevere ("If Ever I Would Leave You"). Arthur decides to rise above the scandal. [Mordred](/wiki/Mordred "Mordred"), Arthur's illegitimate son, arrives at Camelot determined to bring down the fellowship of the Round Table by stirring up trouble. All this takes its toll on Arthur's disposition, and Guenevere tries to cheer him up ("What Do the Simple Folk Do?") despite her conflicted emotions.
Mordred persuades Arthur to stay out hunting all night as a test, knowing that Lancelot will visit Guenevere in her bedchamber. Lancelot and Guenevere sing of their forbidden love and how wrong it has all gone ("I Loved You Once In Silence"). Mordred and several knights catch the lovers together. Lancelot escapes, but Guenevere is arrested. Thanks to Arthur's new civil court and trial by jury, she is sentenced to die by burning at the stake. Bound by his own law, Arthur cannot spare her. Preparations are made for Guenevere's burning ("Guenevere"), but Lancelot rescues her at the last minute, much to Arthur's relief.
On the eve of his battle with Lancelot, Arthur receives a surprise visit from Lancelot and Guenevere, at the edge of the woods, where she has taken residence at a convent. The three share an emotional farewell.
Prior to the battle, Arthur stumbles across a young boy named Tom, who espouses his commitment to Arthur's original ideal of "Not might 'makes' right, but might 'for' right." Arthur realizes that, although most of his plans have fallen through, the ideals of Camelot live on in this simple boy. He knights Tom and gives him his orders: run behind the lines and survive the battle, so that he can tell future generations about the legend of Camelot. Watching Tom leave, Arthur regains his hope for the future ("Camelot (reprise)").
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"As [King Arthur](/wiki/King_Arthur \"King Arthur\") prepares for battle against his former friend, [Sir Lancelot](/wiki/Sir_Lancelot \"Sir Lancelot\"), with his son, [Mordred](/wiki/Mordred \"Mordred\"), raising an army against him back in England, he reflects on the sad circumstances which have led him to this situation.",
"He recalls the night of his marriage to [Guenevere](/wiki/Guenevere \"Guenevere\"). It is an arranged marriage, and he is afraid of what lies ahead (\"I Wonder What the King is Doing Tonight\"). Guenevere herself is worried about marrying a man she has never met and longs for the romantic life of a fought\\-over maiden (\"The Simple Joys of Maidenhood\"). They converse, and as she does not know his true identity, she fantasizes about escaping with him. Arthur tells her what a wonderful place his kingdom is (\"Camelot\"). She finds herself drawn to him, but they are interrupted by his men and her entourage. Arthur's identity is revealed, and Guenevere gladly goes with him to be married.",
"Four years later, Arthur explores with Guenevere his idea for a Round Table that would seat all the noble knights of the realm, reflecting not only a crude type of democratic ideal, but also the political unification of England. Inspired by Arthur's ideas, the French Knight Lancelot makes his way to England with his squire Dap, boasting of his superior virtues (\"C'est Moi\"). Lancelot's prowess impresses Arthur, and they become friends; however, many of the knights instantly despise Lancelot for his self\\-righteousness and boastfulness. Back in Camelot, Guinevere and the women frolic and gather flowers to celebrate the coming of spring (\"The Lusty Month of May\").",
"Guenevere, who initially dislikes Lancelot, incites three of the best knights to challenge him to a joust (\"Then You May Take Me To The Fair\"). Arthur ponders how distant Guenevere has become (\"How to Handle a Woman\"). Guenevere's plan goes awry as Lancelot easily defeats all three, critically wounding Sir [Dinadan](/wiki/Dinadan \"Dinadan\"). A horrified Lancelot pleads for Sir Dinadan to live, and as he lays hands on him, Dinadan miraculously recovers. Guenevere is so overwhelmed and humbled that her feelings for Lancelot begin to change. Despite his vows of celibacy, Lancelot falls in love with Guenevere.",
"Guinevere and Lancelot meet in secret to discuss their future. Lancelot vows that he should leave and never come back, but finds it impossible to consider leaving Guenevere (\"If Ever I Would Leave You\"). Arthur decides to rise above the scandal. [Mordred](/wiki/Mordred \"Mordred\"), Arthur's illegitimate son, arrives at Camelot determined to bring down the fellowship of the Round Table by stirring up trouble. All this takes its toll on Arthur's disposition, and Guenevere tries to cheer him up (\"What Do the Simple Folk Do?\") despite her conflicted emotions.",
"Mordred persuades Arthur to stay out hunting all night as a test, knowing that Lancelot will visit Guenevere in her bedchamber. Lancelot and Guenevere sing of their forbidden love and how wrong it has all gone (\"I Loved You Once In Silence\"). Mordred and several knights catch the lovers together. Lancelot escapes, but Guenevere is arrested. Thanks to Arthur's new civil court and trial by jury, she is sentenced to die by burning at the stake. Bound by his own law, Arthur cannot spare her. Preparations are made for Guenevere's burning (\"Guenevere\"), but Lancelot rescues her at the last minute, much to Arthur's relief.",
"On the eve of his battle with Lancelot, Arthur receives a surprise visit from Lancelot and Guenevere, at the edge of the woods, where she has taken residence at a convent. The three share an emotional farewell.",
"Prior to the battle, Arthur stumbles across a young boy named Tom, who espouses his commitment to Arthur's original ideal of \"Not might 'makes' right, but might 'for' right.\" Arthur realizes that, although most of his plans have fallen through, the ideals of Camelot live on in this simple boy. He knights Tom and gives him his orders: run behind the lines and survive the battle, so that he can tell future generations about the legend of Camelot. Watching Tom leave, Arthur regains his hope for the future (\"Camelot (reprise)\").",
""
] |
Missions
--------
Around 1847, the association felt a great call to do missions. In 1851, Rev. William Steele and Rev. J. R. Ford engaged in missions under appointment of the Baptist Convention of Southern Illinois, the latter supplying eight churches. In 1853, Rev. J. R. Ford and Rev. Nathan Arnett were appointed missionaries, but on account of sickness served only a few days. In the fall of 1854, Rev. I. H. Elkin devoted part of his time as associational missionary.
The association adopted a resolution in 1858 endorsing the efforts of the Domestic Missions Society. The resolution states:
"We approve of the Domestic Missions Society formed within the bounds of our Association since its last meeting for the purpose of procuring more preaching in said bounds. We recommend the Executive Committee to make an effort to procure preaching at least two Sabbaths in each month in all the churches in our Association." A motion was passed in 1867 "that a brief history of some of the churches be written and published with the minutes." This was not carried out beyond one or two years.
In 1867, Missionary Elder J. R. Ford reported that he traveled 1,205 miles during the year, preached 155 sermons, baptized 19 converts, and collected $339\.80\. His entire salary of $500 was raised by the association.
During the annual meeting of 1868, the association addressed the question of recognizing baptisms from church candidates from other denominations.
"Shall we receive the baptism by ministers of other denominations when administered in accordance with our principles and practices? This question has been for years differently decided by different Baptist churches, and as every Gospel church has control of its own internal affairs, we think that as to the course to be pursued in the matter, the individual church should be the sole judge."
In 1870, there were but two Baptist Sunday Schools in the association. By 1871, seven thriving Sunday Schools were reported and a new Sunday School Convention held three engaging sessions that year.
In 1872, there were reported seven Sunday Schools, 41 officers and teachers, 396 students, and $96\.40 raised for all purposes. George M. Sanders was president of the convention and John Andereck, clerk.
At the meeting in 1875, several books were purchased from the Baptist Publication Society by friends and presented to J.C. Carter, W. R. Andereck, and J. Holloway. Prominent deceased associational lay members were honored at this meeting: James Joliff, John Carter, Samuel McClelland, James Chance, John Wright, Jeremiah Gilmore, William Craig, Asa Entrikin, Smuth Moore, W. R. Huey, J. R. Tolbert, and Isaac Andereck.
At the annual meeting of 1878, the following resolution was passed:
"Believing that the custom of electing pastors annually is unscriptural as well as a cause of much division in our churches, we recommend that such a practice be abolished, and that churches retain their pastors so long as they are useful."
Twenty years between 1861 and 1881, the following churches joined the association: Center Church, Collins Station, Patoka, Bethlehem, Vandalia, Wisetown, Shobonier, Good Hope, Liberty, and First Baptist Salem.
At the annual meeting in 1880, the association voted to reorganize itself as the [Centralia Baptist Association](/wiki/Centralia_Baptist_Association "Centralia Baptist Association") because of recent additions of churches south of [Centralia, Illinois](/wiki/Centralia%2C_Illinois "Centralia, Illinois").
|
[
"Missions\n--------",
"Around 1847, the association felt a great call to do missions. In 1851, Rev. William Steele and Rev. J. R. Ford engaged in missions under appointment of the Baptist Convention of Southern Illinois, the latter supplying eight churches. In 1853, Rev. J. R. Ford and Rev. Nathan Arnett were appointed missionaries, but on account of sickness served only a few days. In the fall of 1854, Rev. I. H. Elkin devoted part of his time as associational missionary.",
"The association adopted a resolution in 1858 endorsing the efforts of the Domestic Missions Society. The resolution states:",
"\"We approve of the Domestic Missions Society formed within the bounds of our Association since its last meeting for the purpose of procuring more preaching in said bounds. We recommend the Executive Committee to make an effort to procure preaching at least two Sabbaths in each month in all the churches in our Association.\" A motion was passed in 1867 \"that a brief history of some of the churches be written and published with the minutes.\" This was not carried out beyond one or two years.",
"In 1867, Missionary Elder J. R. Ford reported that he traveled 1,205 miles during the year, preached 155 sermons, baptized 19 converts, and collected $339\\.80\\. His entire salary of $500 was raised by the association.",
"During the annual meeting of 1868, the association addressed the question of recognizing baptisms from church candidates from other denominations.",
"\"Shall we receive the baptism by ministers of other denominations when administered in accordance with our principles and practices? This question has been for years differently decided by different Baptist churches, and as every Gospel church has control of its own internal affairs, we think that as to the course to be pursued in the matter, the individual church should be the sole judge.\"",
"In 1870, there were but two Baptist Sunday Schools in the association. By 1871, seven thriving Sunday Schools were reported and a new Sunday School Convention held three engaging sessions that year.",
"In 1872, there were reported seven Sunday Schools, 41 officers and teachers, 396 students, and $96\\.40 raised for all purposes. George M. Sanders was president of the convention and John Andereck, clerk.",
"At the meeting in 1875, several books were purchased from the Baptist Publication Society by friends and presented to J.C. Carter, W. R. Andereck, and J. Holloway. Prominent deceased associational lay members were honored at this meeting: James Joliff, John Carter, Samuel McClelland, James Chance, John Wright, Jeremiah Gilmore, William Craig, Asa Entrikin, Smuth Moore, W. R. Huey, J. R. Tolbert, and Isaac Andereck.",
"At the annual meeting of 1878, the following resolution was passed:",
"\"Believing that the custom of electing pastors annually is unscriptural as well as a cause of much division in our churches, we recommend that such a practice be abolished, and that churches retain their pastors so long as they are useful.\"",
"Twenty years between 1861 and 1881, the following churches joined the association: Center Church, Collins Station, Patoka, Bethlehem, Vandalia, Wisetown, Shobonier, Good Hope, Liberty, and First Baptist Salem.",
"At the annual meeting in 1880, the association voted to reorganize itself as the [Centralia Baptist Association](/wiki/Centralia_Baptist_Association \"Centralia Baptist Association\") because of recent additions of churches south of [Centralia, Illinois](/wiki/Centralia%2C_Illinois \"Centralia, Illinois\").",
""
] |
Interrogation modes
-------------------
Several different RF [communication protocols](/wiki/Communication_protocol "Communication protocol") have been standardized for aviation transponders:
| Militarymode | Civilianmode | Description |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Provides 2\-digit 5\-bit mission code (cockpit selectable)[NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO") [STANAG](/wiki/STANAG "STANAG") 4193 |
| 2 | Provides 4\-digit octal unit code (set on ground for fighters, can be changed in flight by transport aircraft) |
| 3 A Provides a 4\-digit octal identification code for the aircraft, set in the cockpit but assigned by the air traffic controller. Mode 3/A is often combined with Mode C to provide altitude information as well. |
| C Provides the aircraft's [pressure altitude](/wiki/Pressure_altitude "Pressure altitude") and is usually combined with Mode 3/A to provide a combination of a 4\-digit octal code and altitude as Mode 3 A/C, often referred to as Mode A and C |
| 4 | Provides a 3\-pulse reply, delay is based on the encrypted challenge |
| 5 | Provides a [cryptographically](/wiki/Cryptography "Cryptography") secured version of Mode S and [ADS\-B](/wiki/Automatic_Dependent_Surveillance-Broadcast "Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast") GPS position |
| S Provides multiple information formats to a selective interrogation. Each aircraft is assigned a fixed 24\-bit address.Peppler, I.L.: *From The Ground Up*, pages 238–239\. Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, Ottawa Ontario, Twenty Seventh Revised Edition, 1996\. {{ISBN\|0\-9690054\-9\-0}} |
Mode A and Mode C are implemented using [air traffic control radar beacon system](/wiki/Air_traffic_control_radar_beacon_system "Air traffic control radar beacon system") as the [physical layer](/wiki/Physical_layer "Physical layer"), whereas Mode S is implemented as a standalone backwards\-compatible protocol. ADS\-B can operate using Mode S\-ES or [Universal Access Transceiver](/wiki/Automatic_Dependent_Surveillance%E2%80%93Broadcast%23Universal_Access_Transceiver_%28UAT%29 "Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast#Universal Access Transceiver (UAT)") as its [transport layer](/wiki/Transport_layer "Transport layer"):{{cite web \|last1\=Burfeind \|first1\=Brandon C. \|title\=Interoperable ADS\-B Confidentiality \|url\=https://scholar.afit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\=4157\&context\=etd \|website\=Theses and Dissertations \|publisher\=Air Force Institute of Technology \|date\=2020 \|page\=10}}
| \+ |
| --- |
| | | ADS\-B | |
| Mode S\-ES | UAT |
| Mode A | Mode C | Mode S |
| ATCRBS | |
### Mode A
When the transponder receives an interrogation request, it broadcasts the configured transponder code (or "[squawk code](/wiki/Transponder_code "Transponder code")"). This is referred to as "Mode 3A" or more commonly, Mode A. A separate type of response called "Ident" can be initiated from the airplane by pressing a button on the transponder control panel.
### Mode A with Mode C
A Mode A transponder code response can be augmented by a [pressure altitude](/wiki/Pressure_altitude "Pressure altitude") response, which is then referred to as Mode C operation. Pressure altitude is obtained from an altitude encoder, either a separate self\-contained unit mounted in the aircraft or an integral part of the transponder. The altitude information is passed to the transponder using a modified form of the modified [Gray code](/wiki/Gray_code "Gray code") called a [Gillham code](/wiki/Gillham_code "Gillham code").
Mode A and C responses are used to help air traffic controllers identify a particular aircraft's position and altitude on a radar screen, in order to maintain separation.
### Mode S
{{See also\|Air traffic control radar beacon system\#Mode S}}
{{See also\|Secondary surveillance radar\#Mode S}}
Another mode called Mode S (Select) is designed to help avoiding overinterrogation of the transponder (having many radars in busy areas) and to allow automatic collision avoidance. Mode S transponders are compatible with Mode A and Mode C [Secondary Surveillance Radar](/wiki/Secondary_Surveillance_Radar "Secondary Surveillance Radar") (SSR) systems. This is the type of transponder that is used for TCAS or ACAS II ([Airborne Collision Avoidance System](/wiki/Airborne_Collision_Avoidance_System "Airborne Collision Avoidance System")) functions, and is required to implement the extended [squitter](/wiki/Squitter "Squitter") broadcast, one means of participating in [ADS\-B](/wiki/Automatic_dependent_surveillance-broadcast "Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast") systems. A TCAS\-equipped aircraft must have a Mode S transponder, but not all Mode S transponders include TCAS. Likewise, a Mode S transponder is required to implement 1090ES extended squitter ADS\-B Out, but there are other ways to implement ADS\-B Out (in the U.S. and China.) The format of Mode S messages is documented in ICAO Doc 9688, *Manual on Mode S Specific Services*.{{Cite book \| title \= Manual on Mode S Specific Services \| year \= 2004 \| edition \= 2nd \| isbn \= 92\-9194\-407\-6 \| publisher \= International Civil Aviation Organization \| url \= http://www.icao.int/isbn/Lists/Publications/DispForm.aspx?ID\=420 }}
#### Mode S features
Upon interrogation, Mode S transponders transmit information about the aircraft to the [SSR](/wiki/Secondary_Surveillance_Radar "Secondary Surveillance Radar") system, to [TCAS](/wiki/TCAS "TCAS") receivers on board aircraft and to the [ADS\-B](/wiki/ADS-B "ADS-B") SSR system. This information includes the [call sign](/wiki/List_of_airline_call_signs "List of airline call signs") of the aircraft and/or the aircraft's permanent ICAO 24\-bit address (which is represented for human interface purposes as six hexadecimal characters.) One of the hidden features of Mode S transponders is that they are backwards compatible; an aircraft equipped with a Mode S transponder can still be used to send replies to Mode A or C interrogations. This feature can be activated by a specific type of interrogation sequence called inter\-mode.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2016}}
##### ICAO 24\-bit address
Mode S equipped aircraft are assigned a unique ICAO 24\-bit address or (informally) Mode\-S "hex code" upon national registration and this address becomes a part of the aircraft's [Certificate of Registration](/wiki/Aircraft_registration "Aircraft registration"). Normally, the address is never changed, however, the transponders are reprogrammable and, occasionally, are moved from one aircraft to another (presumably for operational or cost purposes), either by maintenance or by changing the appropriate entry in the aircraft's [Flight management system](/wiki/Flight_management_system "Flight management system").
There are 16,777,214 (224\-2\) unique ICAO 24\-bit addresses (hex codes) available.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.caa.co.uk/default.aspx?catid\=810\&pagetype\=90\&pageid\=6907 \|title\=UK Civil Aviation Authority – "ICAO 24 bit Aircraft Addresses" \|publisher\=Caa.co.uk \|date\=2007\-10\-02 \|accessdate\=2013\-02\-07}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/public/standard\_page/modes\_tech\_overview.html \|title\=Eurocontrol – "Mode S Technical Overview" \|publisher\=Eurocontrol.int \|accessdate\=2013\-02\-07 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331041052/http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/public/standard\_page/modes\_tech\_overview.html \|archivedate\=2013\-03\-31 }} The ICAO 24\-bit address can be represented in three digital formats: [hexadecimal](/wiki/Hexadecimal "Hexadecimal"), [octal](/wiki/Octal "Octal"), and [binary](/wiki/Binary_numeral_system "Binary numeral system"). These addresses are used to provide a unique identity normally allocated to an individual aircraft or registration.
As an example, following is the ICAO 24\-bit address assigned to the [Shuttle Carrier Aircraft](/wiki/Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft "Shuttle Carrier Aircraft") with the [registration](/wiki/Aircraft_registration "Aircraft registration") N905NA:{{cite web\|author\=Ralf D. Kloth, DL4TA, Ludwigsburg, D.E. \|url\=http://www.kloth.net/radio/icao24lookup.php \|title\=Aircraft on HFDL \- ICAO 24 bit ID \|publisher\=Kloth.Net \|date\= \|accessdate\=2013\-02\-07}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.airframes.org/ \|title\=Aircraft Database \|website\=Airframes.org \|date\=2005\-08\-11 \|accessdate\=2013\-02\-07}}
* Hexadecimal: AC82EC
* Octal: 53101354
* Binary: 101011001000001011101100 *(Note: occasionally, spaces are added for visual clarity, thus 1010 1100 1000 0010 1110 1100 {[Hex](/wiki/Hexadecimal "Hexadecimal") [big endian](/wiki/Big_endian "Big endian")} and 001 101 110 100 000 100 110 101 {[Octal](/wiki/Octal "Octal") [little endian](/wiki/Little_endian "Little endian")})*
* Decimal: 11305708
These are all the same 24\-bit address of the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, represented in [different numeral systems](/wiki/Radix "Radix") (see above).
#### Issues with Mode S transponders
An issue with Mode S transponders arises when pilots enter the wrong [flight identity](/wiki/Call_sign "Call sign") code into the Mode S transponder.{{cite web\|url \= http://www.icao.int/icao/en/ro/apac/2005/ADSB\_ADSB\_TF3/ip13\.pdf\|title \= The Third Meeting of Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS\-B) Study and Implementation Task Force (ADS\-B TF/3\)
\|accessdate \= 2008\-03\-28\|author \= International Civil Aviation Organization\|date\=March 2005}} In this case, the capabilities of [ACAS II](/wiki/ACAS_II "ACAS II") and Mode S [SSR](/wiki/Secondary_surveillance_radar "Secondary surveillance radar") can be degraded.[Eurocontrol – Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) – ICAO 24\-Bit Aircraft Addresses and Aircraft Identification Reporting](http://www.icao.int/icao/en/ro/apac/2005/ADSB_ADSB_TF3/ip13.pdf) (in Minutes from The Third Meeting of the Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS\-B) Study and Implementation Task Force (ADS\-B TF/3\))
#### Extended squitter
{{See also\|Secondary surveillance radar\#Extended squitter}}
In 2009 the ICAO published an "extended" form of Mode S with more message formats to use with [ADS\-B](/wiki/ADS-B "ADS-B");{{Cite book \| title \= ICAO Doc 9871, Technical Provisions for Mode S and Extended Squitter \| isbn \= 978\-92\-9231\-117\-9 \| year \= 2008 \| author \= ICAO \| publisher \= International Civil Aviation Organization \| edition \= 1st \| url \= http://www.icao.int/isbn/Lists/Publications/DispForm.aspx?ID\=1129}} it was further refined in 2012\.{{Cite book \| title \= ICAO Doc 9871, Technical Provisions for Mode S and Extended Squitter \| isbn \= 978\-92\-9249\-042\-3 \| year \= 2012 \| author \= ICAO \| publisher \= International Civil Aviation Organization \| edition \= 2nd \| url \= http://www.icao.int/isbn/Lists/Publications/DispForm.aspx?ID\=2052 }} Countries implementing ADS\-B can require the use of either the extended squitter mode of a suitably\-equipped Mode S transponder, or the [UAT](/wiki/Automatic_dependent_surveillance_%E2%80%93_broadcast%23Universal_Access_Transceiver_%28UAT%29 "Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast#Universal Access Transceiver (UAT)") transponder on 978 MHz.
#### Use in meteorology
Mode\-S data has the potential to contain the aircraft's movement vectors in relation to the [Earth](/wiki/Earth "Earth") and its atmosphere. The difference between these two vectors is the wind acting on the aircraft.{{Cite journal \|last\=de Haan\|first\=S. \|date\=2011\|title\=High\-resolution wind and temperature observations from aircraft tracked by Mode\-S air traffic control radar \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1029/2010JD015264 \|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research \|volume\=116 \|issue\=D10\|doi\=10\.1029/2010JD015264 \|bibcode\=2011JGRD..11610111D \|issn\=2169\-897X}} Deriving winds (and temperatures from the [Mach number](/wiki/Mach_number "Mach number") and [true airspeed](/wiki/True_airspeed "True airspeed")) was developed simultaneously by [Siebren de Haan](/wiki/Siebren_de_Haan "Siebren de Haan") of the [KNMI](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Meteorological_Institute "Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute") and [Edmund Stone](/wiki/Edmund_Stone_%28physicist%29 "Edmund Stone (physicist)") of the [Met Office](/wiki/Met_Office "Met Office").{{Cite journal \|last\=Stone\|first\=E. K. \|date\=2016\|title\=A Network of Mode\-S Receivers for Routine Acquisition of Aircraft\-Derived Meteorological Data \|journal\=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology \|volume\=33 \|issue\=4\|pages\=757–768 \|doi\=10\.1175/JTECH\-D\-15\-0184\.1 \|issn\=0739\-0572\|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=2016JAtOT..33\..757S }} Over the UK the number of aircraft observations has increased from approximately 7500 per day from [AMDAR](/wiki/Aircraft_Meteorological_Data_Relay "Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay") to over 10 million per day. The Met Office together with KNMI and [FlightRadar24](/wiki/FlightRadar24 "FlightRadar24") are actively developing an expanded capability including data from every continent other than Antarctica.{{cite press release \|author\= \|title\=Expanding collection of weather data from aircraft \|url\=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/news/2023/expanding\-collection\-of\-weather\-data\-from\-aircraft \|agency\=Met Office \|date\=2023\-03\-21 \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-05}}
|
[
"Interrogation modes\n-------------------",
"Several different RF [communication protocols](/wiki/Communication_protocol \"Communication protocol\") have been standardized for aviation transponders:",
"",
"| Militarymode | Civilianmode | Description |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | Provides 2\\-digit 5\\-bit mission code (cockpit selectable)[NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") [STANAG](/wiki/STANAG \"STANAG\") 4193 |\n| 2 | Provides 4\\-digit octal unit code (set on ground for fighters, can be changed in flight by transport aircraft) |\n| 3 A Provides a 4\\-digit octal identification code for the aircraft, set in the cockpit but assigned by the air traffic controller. Mode 3/A is often combined with Mode C to provide altitude information as well. |\n| C Provides the aircraft's [pressure altitude](/wiki/Pressure_altitude \"Pressure altitude\") and is usually combined with Mode 3/A to provide a combination of a 4\\-digit octal code and altitude as Mode 3 A/C, often referred to as Mode A and C |\n| 4 | Provides a 3\\-pulse reply, delay is based on the encrypted challenge |\n| 5 | Provides a [cryptographically](/wiki/Cryptography \"Cryptography\") secured version of Mode S and [ADS\\-B](/wiki/Automatic_Dependent_Surveillance-Broadcast \"Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast\") GPS position |\n| S Provides multiple information formats to a selective interrogation. Each aircraft is assigned a fixed 24\\-bit address.Peppler, I.L.: *From The Ground Up*, pages 238–239\\. Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, Ottawa Ontario, Twenty Seventh Revised Edition, 1996\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-9690054\\-9\\-0}} |",
"Mode A and Mode C are implemented using [air traffic control radar beacon system](/wiki/Air_traffic_control_radar_beacon_system \"Air traffic control radar beacon system\") as the [physical layer](/wiki/Physical_layer \"Physical layer\"), whereas Mode S is implemented as a standalone backwards\\-compatible protocol. ADS\\-B can operate using Mode S\\-ES or [Universal Access Transceiver](/wiki/Automatic_Dependent_Surveillance%E2%80%93Broadcast%23Universal_Access_Transceiver_%28UAT%29 \"Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast#Universal Access Transceiver (UAT)\") as its [transport layer](/wiki/Transport_layer \"Transport layer\"):{{cite web \\|last1\\=Burfeind \\|first1\\=Brandon C. \\|title\\=Interoperable ADS\\-B Confidentiality \\|url\\=https://scholar.afit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article\\=4157\\&context\\=etd \\|website\\=Theses and Dissertations \\|publisher\\=Air Force Institute of Technology \\|date\\=2020 \\|page\\=10}}",
"| \\+ |\n| --- |\n| | | ADS\\-B | |\n| Mode S\\-ES | UAT |\n| Mode A | Mode C | Mode S |\n| ATCRBS | |",
"",
"### Mode A",
"When the transponder receives an interrogation request, it broadcasts the configured transponder code (or \"[squawk code](/wiki/Transponder_code \"Transponder code\")\"). This is referred to as \"Mode 3A\" or more commonly, Mode A. A separate type of response called \"Ident\" can be initiated from the airplane by pressing a button on the transponder control panel.",
"### Mode A with Mode C",
"A Mode A transponder code response can be augmented by a [pressure altitude](/wiki/Pressure_altitude \"Pressure altitude\") response, which is then referred to as Mode C operation. Pressure altitude is obtained from an altitude encoder, either a separate self\\-contained unit mounted in the aircraft or an integral part of the transponder. The altitude information is passed to the transponder using a modified form of the modified [Gray code](/wiki/Gray_code \"Gray code\") called a [Gillham code](/wiki/Gillham_code \"Gillham code\").",
"Mode A and C responses are used to help air traffic controllers identify a particular aircraft's position and altitude on a radar screen, in order to maintain separation.",
"### Mode S",
"{{See also\\|Air traffic control radar beacon system\\#Mode S}}\n{{See also\\|Secondary surveillance radar\\#Mode S}}",
"Another mode called Mode S (Select) is designed to help avoiding overinterrogation of the transponder (having many radars in busy areas) and to allow automatic collision avoidance. Mode S transponders are compatible with Mode A and Mode C [Secondary Surveillance Radar](/wiki/Secondary_Surveillance_Radar \"Secondary Surveillance Radar\") (SSR) systems. This is the type of transponder that is used for TCAS or ACAS II ([Airborne Collision Avoidance System](/wiki/Airborne_Collision_Avoidance_System \"Airborne Collision Avoidance System\")) functions, and is required to implement the extended [squitter](/wiki/Squitter \"Squitter\") broadcast, one means of participating in [ADS\\-B](/wiki/Automatic_dependent_surveillance-broadcast \"Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast\") systems. A TCAS\\-equipped aircraft must have a Mode S transponder, but not all Mode S transponders include TCAS. Likewise, a Mode S transponder is required to implement 1090ES extended squitter ADS\\-B Out, but there are other ways to implement ADS\\-B Out (in the U.S. and China.) The format of Mode S messages is documented in ICAO Doc 9688, *Manual on Mode S Specific Services*.{{Cite book \\| title \\= Manual on Mode S Specific Services \\| year \\= 2004 \\| edition \\= 2nd \\| isbn \\= 92\\-9194\\-407\\-6 \\| publisher \\= International Civil Aviation Organization \\| url \\= http://www.icao.int/isbn/Lists/Publications/DispForm.aspx?ID\\=420 }}",
"#### Mode S features",
"Upon interrogation, Mode S transponders transmit information about the aircraft to the [SSR](/wiki/Secondary_Surveillance_Radar \"Secondary Surveillance Radar\") system, to [TCAS](/wiki/TCAS \"TCAS\") receivers on board aircraft and to the [ADS\\-B](/wiki/ADS-B \"ADS-B\") SSR system. This information includes the [call sign](/wiki/List_of_airline_call_signs \"List of airline call signs\") of the aircraft and/or the aircraft's permanent ICAO 24\\-bit address (which is represented for human interface purposes as six hexadecimal characters.) One of the hidden features of Mode S transponders is that they are backwards compatible; an aircraft equipped with a Mode S transponder can still be used to send replies to Mode A or C interrogations. This feature can be activated by a specific type of interrogation sequence called inter\\-mode.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2016}}",
"##### ICAO 24\\-bit address",
"Mode S equipped aircraft are assigned a unique ICAO 24\\-bit address or (informally) Mode\\-S \"hex code\" upon national registration and this address becomes a part of the aircraft's [Certificate of Registration](/wiki/Aircraft_registration \"Aircraft registration\"). Normally, the address is never changed, however, the transponders are reprogrammable and, occasionally, are moved from one aircraft to another (presumably for operational or cost purposes), either by maintenance or by changing the appropriate entry in the aircraft's [Flight management system](/wiki/Flight_management_system \"Flight management system\").",
"There are 16,777,214 (224\\-2\\) unique ICAO 24\\-bit addresses (hex codes) available.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.caa.co.uk/default.aspx?catid\\=810\\&pagetype\\=90\\&pageid\\=6907 \\|title\\=UK Civil Aviation Authority – \"ICAO 24 bit Aircraft Addresses\" \\|publisher\\=Caa.co.uk \\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-02 \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-07}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/public/standard\\_page/modes\\_tech\\_overview.html \\|title\\=Eurocontrol – \"Mode S Technical Overview\" \\|publisher\\=Eurocontrol.int \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-07 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331041052/http://www.eurocontrol.int/msa/public/standard\\_page/modes\\_tech\\_overview.html \\|archivedate\\=2013\\-03\\-31 }} The ICAO 24\\-bit address can be represented in three digital formats: [hexadecimal](/wiki/Hexadecimal \"Hexadecimal\"), [octal](/wiki/Octal \"Octal\"), and [binary](/wiki/Binary_numeral_system \"Binary numeral system\"). These addresses are used to provide a unique identity normally allocated to an individual aircraft or registration.",
"As an example, following is the ICAO 24\\-bit address assigned to the [Shuttle Carrier Aircraft](/wiki/Shuttle_Carrier_Aircraft \"Shuttle Carrier Aircraft\") with the [registration](/wiki/Aircraft_registration \"Aircraft registration\") N905NA:{{cite web\\|author\\=Ralf D. Kloth, DL4TA, Ludwigsburg, D.E. \\|url\\=http://www.kloth.net/radio/icao24lookup.php \\|title\\=Aircraft on HFDL \\- ICAO 24 bit ID \\|publisher\\=Kloth.Net \\|date\\= \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-07}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.airframes.org/ \\|title\\=Aircraft Database \\|website\\=Airframes.org \\|date\\=2005\\-08\\-11 \\|accessdate\\=2013\\-02\\-07}}\n* Hexadecimal: AC82EC\n* Octal: 53101354\n* Binary: 101011001000001011101100 *(Note: occasionally, spaces are added for visual clarity, thus 1010 1100 1000 0010 1110 1100 {[Hex](/wiki/Hexadecimal \"Hexadecimal\") [big endian](/wiki/Big_endian \"Big endian\")} and 001 101 110 100 000 100 110 101 {[Octal](/wiki/Octal \"Octal\") [little endian](/wiki/Little_endian \"Little endian\")})*\n* Decimal: 11305708\nThese are all the same 24\\-bit address of the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, represented in [different numeral systems](/wiki/Radix \"Radix\") (see above).",
"#### Issues with Mode S transponders",
"An issue with Mode S transponders arises when pilots enter the wrong [flight identity](/wiki/Call_sign \"Call sign\") code into the Mode S transponder.{{cite web\\|url \\= http://www.icao.int/icao/en/ro/apac/2005/ADSB\\_ADSB\\_TF3/ip13\\.pdf\\|title \\= The Third Meeting of Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS\\-B) Study and Implementation Task Force (ADS\\-B TF/3\\)\n\\|accessdate \\= 2008\\-03\\-28\\|author \\= International Civil Aviation Organization\\|date\\=March 2005}} In this case, the capabilities of [ACAS II](/wiki/ACAS_II \"ACAS II\") and Mode S [SSR](/wiki/Secondary_surveillance_radar \"Secondary surveillance radar\") can be degraded.[Eurocontrol – Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) – ICAO 24\\-Bit Aircraft Addresses and Aircraft Identification Reporting](http://www.icao.int/icao/en/ro/apac/2005/ADSB_ADSB_TF3/ip13.pdf) (in Minutes from The Third Meeting of the Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS\\-B) Study and Implementation Task Force (ADS\\-B TF/3\\))",
"#### Extended squitter",
"{{See also\\|Secondary surveillance radar\\#Extended squitter}}",
"In 2009 the ICAO published an \"extended\" form of Mode S with more message formats to use with [ADS\\-B](/wiki/ADS-B \"ADS-B\");{{Cite book \\| title \\= ICAO Doc 9871, Technical Provisions for Mode S and Extended Squitter \\| isbn \\= 978\\-92\\-9231\\-117\\-9 \\| year \\= 2008 \\| author \\= ICAO \\| publisher \\= International Civil Aviation Organization \\| edition \\= 1st \\| url \\= http://www.icao.int/isbn/Lists/Publications/DispForm.aspx?ID\\=1129}} it was further refined in 2012\\.{{Cite book \\| title \\= ICAO Doc 9871, Technical Provisions for Mode S and Extended Squitter \\| isbn \\= 978\\-92\\-9249\\-042\\-3 \\| year \\= 2012 \\| author \\= ICAO \\| publisher \\= International Civil Aviation Organization \\| edition \\= 2nd \\| url \\= http://www.icao.int/isbn/Lists/Publications/DispForm.aspx?ID\\=2052 }} Countries implementing ADS\\-B can require the use of either the extended squitter mode of a suitably\\-equipped Mode S transponder, or the [UAT](/wiki/Automatic_dependent_surveillance_%E2%80%93_broadcast%23Universal_Access_Transceiver_%28UAT%29 \"Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast#Universal Access Transceiver (UAT)\") transponder on 978 MHz.",
"#### Use in meteorology",
"Mode\\-S data has the potential to contain the aircraft's movement vectors in relation to the [Earth](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") and its atmosphere. The difference between these two vectors is the wind acting on the aircraft.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=de Haan\\|first\\=S. \\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=High\\-resolution wind and temperature observations from aircraft tracked by Mode\\-S air traffic control radar \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1029/2010JD015264 \\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research \\|volume\\=116 \\|issue\\=D10\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2010JD015264 \\|bibcode\\=2011JGRD..11610111D \\|issn\\=2169\\-897X}} Deriving winds (and temperatures from the [Mach number](/wiki/Mach_number \"Mach number\") and [true airspeed](/wiki/True_airspeed \"True airspeed\")) was developed simultaneously by [Siebren de Haan](/wiki/Siebren_de_Haan \"Siebren de Haan\") of the [KNMI](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Meteorological_Institute \"Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute\") and [Edmund Stone](/wiki/Edmund_Stone_%28physicist%29 \"Edmund Stone (physicist)\") of the [Met Office](/wiki/Met_Office \"Met Office\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Stone\\|first\\=E. K. \\|date\\=2016\\|title\\=A Network of Mode\\-S Receivers for Routine Acquisition of Aircraft\\-Derived Meteorological Data \\|journal\\=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=757–768 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/JTECH\\-D\\-15\\-0184\\.1 \\|issn\\=0739\\-0572\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=2016JAtOT..33\\..757S }} Over the UK the number of aircraft observations has increased from approximately 7500 per day from [AMDAR](/wiki/Aircraft_Meteorological_Data_Relay \"Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay\") to over 10 million per day. The Met Office together with KNMI and [FlightRadar24](/wiki/FlightRadar24 \"FlightRadar24\") are actively developing an expanded capability including data from every continent other than Antarctica.{{cite press release \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Expanding collection of weather data from aircraft \\|url\\=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/news/2023/expanding\\-collection\\-of\\-weather\\-data\\-from\\-aircraft \\|agency\\=Met Office \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-21 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-05}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Benita's father, Mikołaj Gerwazy Bułhak, and mother, Helena Jeszczenko, considered themselves as [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people "Polish people"){{citation needed\|date\=May 2020}} and were planning to move to [Cracow](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków"), but when [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") broke out their plans were delayed. In 1920, the future actress and her family finally moved to the newly resurrected [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic"). In the late 1920s, Benita left for [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and graduated from the [Sacré Cœur School](/wiki/Ecole_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_%28Paris%29 "Ecole du Sacré-Cœur (Paris)"). After returning to Poland, she continued her education in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw"). Ina debuted on stage on 29 August 1931, with the Warsaw Theatre group Nowy Ananas ("New Pineapple"), in the show *Raj dla mężczyzn* (*Paradise for Men*). One year later she debuted in Ryszard Briske's film *Puszcza*. From then on she performed mainly in movies. Benita, however, also appeared on stage, mostly in Warsaw's [revues](/wiki/Revue "Revue"), such as *Cyrulik Warszawski* (1937\), *Wielka Rewia* (1938–39\), and *Ali Baba* (since spring 1939\).{{cite web\|title\=Ina Benita\|url\=http://filmpolski.pl/fp/index.php?osoba\=1180369\|publisher\=FilmPolski\|language\=Polish\|accessdate\=19 March 2016}}{{cite web\|title\=Ina Benita\|url\=http://www.filmweb.pl/person/Ina\+Benita\-64184\|publisher\=FilmWeb\|language\=Polish\|accessdate\=19 March 2016}}
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), in [German\-occupied Poland](/wiki/German-occupied_Poland "German-occupied Poland"), Benita played in German\-sponsored theaters, which resulted in allegations of collaboration with the [Nazis](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany"). However, during the German occupation, she worked undercover for the counterintelligence services of the Polish resistance \- [Home Army](/wiki/Home_Army "Home Army").{{cite web\|title\=Ina Benita i jej długa droga do Ameryki. Nieznane powojenne losy słynnej aktorki\|url\=https://histmag.org/Ina\-Benita\-i\-jej\-dluga\-droga\-do\-Ameryki.\-Nieznane\-powojenne\-losy\-slynnej\-aktorki\-18522\|publisher\=histmag.org\|language\=Polish\|accessdate\=1 August 2022}} Sometime in 1943 she began a relationship with an [Austrian](/wiki/Austrians "Austrians") [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") officer (his name remains uncertain—according to some sources he was Otto Haver, with whom she left for [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"). In the summer of 1943 Benita's partial\-[Jewish](/wiki/Jews "Jews") ancestry (she had a Jewish grandmother from the father's side) came to the attention of [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo "Gestapo"), and both her and her lover were accused of ["Rassenschande"](/wiki/Miscegenation_in_Germany "Miscegenation in Germany")—a crime against racial purity—which, under German laws in occupied Polish territory, meant a death sentence. However, most certainly due to the backstage pressures from Benita's German admirers, they were judged according to the laws governing in Vienna at the time, and he was sent to the [Eastern Front](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 "Eastern Front (World War II)") instead, Benita was presumably imprisoned in Warsaw's high security *[Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo "Gestapo")* prison [Pawiak](/wiki/Pawiak_prison "Pawiak prison"). However, the name "Otto Haver" does not appear either in the address books of the city of Vienna or in the registers of Wehrmacht officers. However according to new research his actual name very likely could be spelled as *Otto Hauer*.Bułhak, Janina – Ina Benita", *Ilustrowany Tygodnik Polski,* Retrieved 16 May 2017\.
The reports of the [ZWZ](/wiki/ZWZ "ZWZ")\-AK show that from autumn 1942 to March 1943 Benita was associated or befriended with Gerhard Ludwig Manzel, head of the *Presse Department*, and then *Musik und Theater* in the *Propaganda Department* for [General Government](/wiki/General_Government "General Government"). In March 1943, for releasing Polish prisoners through the mediation of the actress, Manzel was sent to the eastern front as a punishment, but he managed to escape and return to Warsaw.
In the spring of 1943, Ina Benita begun relationship with Hans Georg Pasch \- a German underground activist, opposed to the Nazis, who helped prosecuted Poles and Polish Jews. At the beginning of 1944, they were both arrested and imprisoned in Pawiak, most likely in connection with their underground activity. On April 7, 1944, in the female ward of Pawiak, "Serbia", the artist gave birth to a son, Tadeusz Michał, whose father was Pasch. The man later confirmed paternity with an appropriate document dated June 21, 1945\. The actress was released from prison on July 31, 1944\. She was last seen in Poland in August 1944 during the Warsaw Uprising, when she was descending into the sewers with her four\-month\-old baby.
She and Tadeusz allegedly went down a sewage canal and drowned. For many years the exact date and place of her death remained undetermined. This version, however, was overturned, the documents released in November 2018{{citation needed\|date\=March 2019}} by the Pasch family which show that at the end of the war, in April 1945, she and her son fled to [Hohegeiß](/wiki/Hohegei%C3%9F "Hohegeiß") in [Goslar](/wiki/Goslar "Goslar"), [Lower Saxony](/wiki/Lower_Saxony "Lower Saxony"), where in June that year she married her lover Hans Georg Pasch and adopted the name *Inna Pasch*. The couple had one more child—daughter Rita Anna, born on July 28, 1945, and died three days later. On November 15, 1945, Ina's husband was murdered. Shortly thereafter, in the summer of 1946 or 1947, she decided to leave Hohegeiß and moved to [France](/wiki/France "France"), where she married an American, Lloyd Fraser Scudder. On July 25, 1950, in [Nice](/wiki/Nice "Nice") her second son, John, was born. Ina (as Ina Scudder) then moved with her new family to [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco "Morocco"), [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria "Algeria") and ultimately, in June 1960, to the [U.S.](/wiki/United_States "United States") She settled in [Cumberland County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Cumberland_County%2C_Pennsylvania "Cumberland County, Pennsylvania"), where she died in 1984\.
The sons of Hans Georg Pasch from the previous marriage and the half\-brothers of Tadeusz Michał Pasch were [Ingo Pasch](/wiki/Ingo_Pa%C5%A1 "Ingo Paš"), minister in the first democratic government of [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia") (1990–1992\) and his twin brother [Boris Pasch](/wiki/Boris_Pasch "Boris Pasch"), a Slovenian diplomat in Berlin, both born in 1941\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Benita's father, Mikołaj Gerwazy Bułhak, and mother, Helena Jeszczenko, considered themselves as [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\"){{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2020}} and were planning to move to [Cracow](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"), but when [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") broke out their plans were delayed. In 1920, the future actress and her family finally moved to the newly resurrected [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\"). In the late 1920s, Benita left for [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and graduated from the [Sacré Cœur School](/wiki/Ecole_du_Sacr%C3%A9-C%C5%93ur_%28Paris%29 \"Ecole du Sacré-Cœur (Paris)\"). After returning to Poland, she continued her education in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\"). Ina debuted on stage on 29 August 1931, with the Warsaw Theatre group Nowy Ananas (\"New Pineapple\"), in the show *Raj dla mężczyzn* (*Paradise for Men*). One year later she debuted in Ryszard Briske's film *Puszcza*. From then on she performed mainly in movies. Benita, however, also appeared on stage, mostly in Warsaw's [revues](/wiki/Revue \"Revue\"), such as *Cyrulik Warszawski* (1937\\), *Wielka Rewia* (1938–39\\), and *Ali Baba* (since spring 1939\\).{{cite web\\|title\\=Ina Benita\\|url\\=http://filmpolski.pl/fp/index.php?osoba\\=1180369\\|publisher\\=FilmPolski\\|language\\=Polish\\|accessdate\\=19 March 2016}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Ina Benita\\|url\\=http://www.filmweb.pl/person/Ina\\+Benita\\-64184\\|publisher\\=FilmWeb\\|language\\=Polish\\|accessdate\\=19 March 2016}}",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), in [German\\-occupied Poland](/wiki/German-occupied_Poland \"German-occupied Poland\"), Benita played in German\\-sponsored theaters, which resulted in allegations of collaboration with the [Nazis](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\"). However, during the German occupation, she worked undercover for the counterintelligence services of the Polish resistance \\- [Home Army](/wiki/Home_Army \"Home Army\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Ina Benita i jej długa droga do Ameryki. Nieznane powojenne losy słynnej aktorki\\|url\\=https://histmag.org/Ina\\-Benita\\-i\\-jej\\-dluga\\-droga\\-do\\-Ameryki.\\-Nieznane\\-powojenne\\-losy\\-slynnej\\-aktorki\\-18522\\|publisher\\=histmag.org\\|language\\=Polish\\|accessdate\\=1 August 2022}} Sometime in 1943 she began a relationship with an [Austrian](/wiki/Austrians \"Austrians\") [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") officer (his name remains uncertain—according to some sources he was Otto Haver, with whom she left for [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"). In the summer of 1943 Benita's partial\\-[Jewish](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") ancestry (she had a Jewish grandmother from the father's side) came to the attention of [Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo \"Gestapo\"), and both her and her lover were accused of [\"Rassenschande\"](/wiki/Miscegenation_in_Germany \"Miscegenation in Germany\")—a crime against racial purity—which, under German laws in occupied Polish territory, meant a death sentence. However, most certainly due to the backstage pressures from Benita's German admirers, they were judged according to the laws governing in Vienna at the time, and he was sent to the [Eastern Front](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 \"Eastern Front (World War II)\") instead, Benita was presumably imprisoned in Warsaw's high security *[Gestapo](/wiki/Gestapo \"Gestapo\")* prison [Pawiak](/wiki/Pawiak_prison \"Pawiak prison\"). However, the name \"Otto Haver\" does not appear either in the address books of the city of Vienna or in the registers of Wehrmacht officers. However according to new research his actual name very likely could be spelled as *Otto Hauer*.Bułhak, Janina – Ina Benita\", *Ilustrowany Tygodnik Polski,* Retrieved 16 May 2017\\.",
"The reports of the [ZWZ](/wiki/ZWZ \"ZWZ\")\\-AK show that from autumn 1942 to March 1943 Benita was associated or befriended with Gerhard Ludwig Manzel, head of the *Presse Department*, and then *Musik und Theater* in the *Propaganda Department* for [General Government](/wiki/General_Government \"General Government\"). In March 1943, for releasing Polish prisoners through the mediation of the actress, Manzel was sent to the eastern front as a punishment, but he managed to escape and return to Warsaw.",
"In the spring of 1943, Ina Benita begun relationship with Hans Georg Pasch \\- a German underground activist, opposed to the Nazis, who helped prosecuted Poles and Polish Jews. At the beginning of 1944, they were both arrested and imprisoned in Pawiak, most likely in connection with their underground activity. On April 7, 1944, in the female ward of Pawiak, \"Serbia\", the artist gave birth to a son, Tadeusz Michał, whose father was Pasch. The man later confirmed paternity with an appropriate document dated June 21, 1945\\. The actress was released from prison on July 31, 1944\\. She was last seen in Poland in August 1944 during the Warsaw Uprising, when she was descending into the sewers with her four\\-month\\-old baby.",
"She and Tadeusz allegedly went down a sewage canal and drowned. For many years the exact date and place of her death remained undetermined. This version, however, was overturned, the documents released in November 2018{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2019}} by the Pasch family which show that at the end of the war, in April 1945, she and her son fled to [Hohegeiß](/wiki/Hohegei%C3%9F \"Hohegeiß\") in [Goslar](/wiki/Goslar \"Goslar\"), [Lower Saxony](/wiki/Lower_Saxony \"Lower Saxony\"), where in June that year she married her lover Hans Georg Pasch and adopted the name *Inna Pasch*. The couple had one more child—daughter Rita Anna, born on July 28, 1945, and died three days later. On November 15, 1945, Ina's husband was murdered. Shortly thereafter, in the summer of 1946 or 1947, she decided to leave Hohegeiß and moved to [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), where she married an American, Lloyd Fraser Scudder. On July 25, 1950, in [Nice](/wiki/Nice \"Nice\") her second son, John, was born. Ina (as Ina Scudder) then moved with her new family to [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco \"Morocco\"), [Algeria](/wiki/Algeria \"Algeria\") and ultimately, in June 1960, to the [U.S.](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") She settled in [Cumberland County, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Cumberland_County%2C_Pennsylvania \"Cumberland County, Pennsylvania\"), where she died in 1984\\.",
"The sons of Hans Georg Pasch from the previous marriage and the half\\-brothers of Tadeusz Michał Pasch were [Ingo Pasch](/wiki/Ingo_Pa%C5%A1 \"Ingo Paš\"), minister in the first democratic government of [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia \"Slovenia\") (1990–1992\\) and his twin brother [Boris Pasch](/wiki/Boris_Pasch \"Boris Pasch\"), a Slovenian diplomat in Berlin, both born in 1941\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
A Boston couple, Gail and Tom Hartman, are having marital problems, mostly due to Tom, an [architect](/wiki/Architect "Architect"), spending so much time working. Gail, a history teacher and former river guide, is taking their son, Roarke, on a rafting trip down the [Salmon River](/wiki/Salmon_River_%28Idaho%29 "Salmon River (Idaho)") in Idaho, along with their dog, Maggie. Their daughter, Willa, is staying behind with Gail's parents in Idaho. Tom, who had remained in Boston, unexpectedly joins them at the last minute. As they are setting off, they meet three other rafters, Wade, Terry, and Frank, who appear to be friendly.
The Hartmans catch up with the trio during a day break, and notice that Frank is no longer with Wade and Terry. They explain that he hiked out after an argument. Unfortunately, he was their guide, and Wade and Terry lack any rafting experience. Gail offers to guide them down the rest of the river. Before getting back on the water, Maggie wanders off and becomes curious about something in the brush farther up the canyon. Tom fetches her before she uncovers it, and they return to the raft.
After a day's rafting, they make camp for the night, but Tom continues working on his [architectural project](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 "Rendering (computer graphics)"), disappointing Roarke, who feels neglected. They are joined by Wade and Terry, who help celebrate Roarke's birthday that night. After Wade begins acting suspiciously, Gail agrees with Tom that they should part ways with him and Terry. Their plans are upended when Wade and Terry shove off first with Roarke aboard their raft. Wade, showing off to Roarke, reveals they have a gun. During a rest stop, Gail and Tom attempt to take off with Roarke before Wade and Terry notice. That fails, and Wade pulls the gun on Tom. As they struggle, Maggie runs off into the bushes. Gail then realizes that Wade and Terry committed a recently reported robbery and have killed Frank, who was wounded during the robbery and was slowing them down.
The Hartmans are forced down the river at gunpoint before setting up camp for the night. During the night, Tom tries and fails to wrestle the gun away from Terry. Tom runs into the river with Wade chasing him, but he escapes. Wade lies, telling Gail and Roarke that Tom is dead. The next day they run into a ranger, Johnny, who knows that Gail intends to run the Gauntlet, and warns her not to try. Wade shoots him and throws his body into the rapids.
Unbeknownst to anyone, Tom, who finds Maggie, is racing on foot along the canyon rim to get ahead of the raft. After a harrowing ride, the group makes it through the Gauntlet. Tom reappears, and flips the raft. As he struggles with Terry, Gail is able to get the gun. She shoots and kills Wade while Tom subdues Terry. A helicopter with rangers aboard arrives, and they arrest Terry. Gail and Tom share a kiss by the rapids. The film ends with the Hartmans in embrace.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"A Boston couple, Gail and Tom Hartman, are having marital problems, mostly due to Tom, an [architect](/wiki/Architect \"Architect\"), spending so much time working. Gail, a history teacher and former river guide, is taking their son, Roarke, on a rafting trip down the [Salmon River](/wiki/Salmon_River_%28Idaho%29 \"Salmon River (Idaho)\") in Idaho, along with their dog, Maggie. Their daughter, Willa, is staying behind with Gail's parents in Idaho. Tom, who had remained in Boston, unexpectedly joins them at the last minute. As they are setting off, they meet three other rafters, Wade, Terry, and Frank, who appear to be friendly.",
"The Hartmans catch up with the trio during a day break, and notice that Frank is no longer with Wade and Terry. They explain that he hiked out after an argument. Unfortunately, he was their guide, and Wade and Terry lack any rafting experience. Gail offers to guide them down the rest of the river. Before getting back on the water, Maggie wanders off and becomes curious about something in the brush farther up the canyon. Tom fetches her before she uncovers it, and they return to the raft.",
"After a day's rafting, they make camp for the night, but Tom continues working on his [architectural project](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Rendering (computer graphics)\"), disappointing Roarke, who feels neglected. They are joined by Wade and Terry, who help celebrate Roarke's birthday that night. After Wade begins acting suspiciously, Gail agrees with Tom that they should part ways with him and Terry. Their plans are upended when Wade and Terry shove off first with Roarke aboard their raft. Wade, showing off to Roarke, reveals they have a gun. During a rest stop, Gail and Tom attempt to take off with Roarke before Wade and Terry notice. That fails, and Wade pulls the gun on Tom. As they struggle, Maggie runs off into the bushes. Gail then realizes that Wade and Terry committed a recently reported robbery and have killed Frank, who was wounded during the robbery and was slowing them down.",
"The Hartmans are forced down the river at gunpoint before setting up camp for the night. During the night, Tom tries and fails to wrestle the gun away from Terry. Tom runs into the river with Wade chasing him, but he escapes. Wade lies, telling Gail and Roarke that Tom is dead. The next day they run into a ranger, Johnny, who knows that Gail intends to run the Gauntlet, and warns her not to try. Wade shoots him and throws his body into the rapids.",
"Unbeknownst to anyone, Tom, who finds Maggie, is racing on foot along the canyon rim to get ahead of the raft. After a harrowing ride, the group makes it through the Gauntlet. Tom reappears, and flips the raft. As he struggles with Terry, Gail is able to get the gun. She shoots and kills Wade while Tom subdues Terry. A helicopter with rangers aboard arrives, and they arrest Terry. Gail and Tom share a kiss by the rapids. The film ends with the Hartmans in embrace.",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1798, the firm of James Daly \& Co. was established as a rectifying distillery and wine merchants at a premises on Blarney St., Cork. In 1820, this was relocated to 32 John Street. As some sources state that the John distillery was established in 1807, and it is known that a William Lyons ran a distillery on John Street in the early 1800s, it is possible that Daly purchased an existing distillery on John Street.
In 1822, James Daly's nephew John Murray joined the partnership.{{Cite web\|url\=http://corkgen.org/publicgenealogy/cork/potpourri/corkancestors.com/1850sCorkcity.htm\|title\=CORK CITY 1850 \- 58: Reports, Notices \& the Workhouse\|website\=corkgen.org\|access\-date\=12 January 2017}} In 1828, the distillery is reported to have an output of 87,874 gallons of spirit.{{Cite book\|title\=Accounts and Papers: Eighteen Volumes: related to Customs and Excise, Imports and Exports, Shipping and Trade\|year\=1832}} However, in 1833, output of only 39,000 gallons per annum was reported, which was low compared with some of the Irish distillers of the era; for instance, at that time [Murphy's Distillery](/wiki/Old_Midleton_Distillery "Old Midleton Distillery") in nearby [Midleton](/wiki/Midleton "Midleton"), had an output of over 400,000 gallons per annum.
On James Daly's death, in 1850, the partnership, which at that point had consisted of James Daly, Maurice Murray (John Murray's son) and George Waters, was dissolved, with Maurice Murray taking sole ownership of the distillery, which continued to trade as James Daly \& Co. After leaving the partnership, George Waters went on to purchase and run the nearby [Green distillery](/wiki/The_Green_Distillery "The Green Distillery").
In 1853, Murray rebuilt and significantly extended the distillery, expanding onto neighbouring streets. By the late 1860s, the distillery had grown to occupy 3 acres, consisting of a brewhouse, distillery and maltings on John Street; granaries on Leitrim Street; and eight bonded warehouses scattered across John Street, Leitrim Street and Watercourse Road. According to accounts from the time, whiskey from the distillery, some of which was aged for seven years or more, was mainly exported "to the colonies". In particular, it was said that in Australia the whiskey sold at a premium to other whiskeys.
A well respected member of the Irish distilling industry at the time, the distillery's owner Maurice Murray, conducted significant correspondence with [William Ewart Gladstone](/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone "William Ewart Gladstone"), the then British [Chancellor of the Exchequer](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer "Chancellor of the Exchequer"), on behalf of the Irish distillers, with regard to the duties placed on Irish whiskey.
In 1867, Daly's Distillery, was absorbed into [Cork Distilleries Company](/wiki/Cork_Distilleries_Company "Cork Distilleries Company") (CDC), in an amalgamation of five Cork distilleries. As the smallest of the five distilleries, Daly's closed soon after the amalgamation, in 1869\. Following its closure, Maurice Murray is known to have continued to work for the CDC at the [North Mall Distillery](/wiki/North_Mall_Distillery "North Mall Distillery"), along with his son Daly Murray.{{Cite book\|title\=Dublin, Cork and South of Ireland: A Literary, Commercial, and Social Review\|publisher\=Stratten \& Stratten\|year\=1892\|location\=London\|pages\=157}}
The main distillery buildings later became part of Shaw's Flour Mill, while other buildings were incorporated into the nearby [Murphy's Brewery](/wiki/Murphy%27s_Brewery "Murphy's Brewery"), which was run by relatives of James Murphy of the Midleton Distillery, who was the driving force behind the establishment of the Cork Distilleries Company. One of the distillery buildings, now named "the Mill", is still visible on 32 Lower John Street, Cork.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1798, the firm of James Daly \\& Co. was established as a rectifying distillery and wine merchants at a premises on Blarney St., Cork. In 1820, this was relocated to 32 John Street. As some sources state that the John distillery was established in 1807, and it is known that a William Lyons ran a distillery on John Street in the early 1800s, it is possible that Daly purchased an existing distillery on John Street.",
"In 1822, James Daly's nephew John Murray joined the partnership.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://corkgen.org/publicgenealogy/cork/potpourri/corkancestors.com/1850sCorkcity.htm\\|title\\=CORK CITY 1850 \\- 58: Reports, Notices \\& the Workhouse\\|website\\=corkgen.org\\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2017}} In 1828, the distillery is reported to have an output of 87,874 gallons of spirit.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Accounts and Papers: Eighteen Volumes: related to Customs and Excise, Imports and Exports, Shipping and Trade\\|year\\=1832}} However, in 1833, output of only 39,000 gallons per annum was reported, which was low compared with some of the Irish distillers of the era; for instance, at that time [Murphy's Distillery](/wiki/Old_Midleton_Distillery \"Old Midleton Distillery\") in nearby [Midleton](/wiki/Midleton \"Midleton\"), had an output of over 400,000 gallons per annum.",
"On James Daly's death, in 1850, the partnership, which at that point had consisted of James Daly, Maurice Murray (John Murray's son) and George Waters, was dissolved, with Maurice Murray taking sole ownership of the distillery, which continued to trade as James Daly \\& Co. After leaving the partnership, George Waters went on to purchase and run the nearby [Green distillery](/wiki/The_Green_Distillery \"The Green Distillery\").",
"In 1853, Murray rebuilt and significantly extended the distillery, expanding onto neighbouring streets. By the late 1860s, the distillery had grown to occupy 3 acres, consisting of a brewhouse, distillery and maltings on John Street; granaries on Leitrim Street; and eight bonded warehouses scattered across John Street, Leitrim Street and Watercourse Road. According to accounts from the time, whiskey from the distillery, some of which was aged for seven years or more, was mainly exported \"to the colonies\". In particular, it was said that in Australia the whiskey sold at a premium to other whiskeys.",
"A well respected member of the Irish distilling industry at the time, the distillery's owner Maurice Murray, conducted significant correspondence with [William Ewart Gladstone](/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone \"William Ewart Gladstone\"), the then British [Chancellor of the Exchequer](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer \"Chancellor of the Exchequer\"), on behalf of the Irish distillers, with regard to the duties placed on Irish whiskey.",
"In 1867, Daly's Distillery, was absorbed into [Cork Distilleries Company](/wiki/Cork_Distilleries_Company \"Cork Distilleries Company\") (CDC), in an amalgamation of five Cork distilleries. As the smallest of the five distilleries, Daly's closed soon after the amalgamation, in 1869\\. Following its closure, Maurice Murray is known to have continued to work for the CDC at the [North Mall Distillery](/wiki/North_Mall_Distillery \"North Mall Distillery\"), along with his son Daly Murray.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Dublin, Cork and South of Ireland: A Literary, Commercial, and Social Review\\|publisher\\=Stratten \\& Stratten\\|year\\=1892\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=157}}",
"The main distillery buildings later became part of Shaw's Flour Mill, while other buildings were incorporated into the nearby [Murphy's Brewery](/wiki/Murphy%27s_Brewery \"Murphy's Brewery\"), which was run by relatives of James Murphy of the Midleton Distillery, who was the driving force behind the establishment of the Cork Distilleries Company. One of the distillery buildings, now named \"the Mill\", is still visible on 32 Lower John Street, Cork.",
""
] |
History and background
----------------------
On March 5, 2009, shortly after his appointment as the first [Federal Chief Information Officer](/wiki/Federal_Chief_Information_Officer_of_the_United_States "Federal Chief Information Officer of the United States"), [Vivek Kundra](/wiki/Vivek_Kundra "Vivek Kundra") announced the creation of Data.gov.{{cite web\|url \= http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/03/05/the\-nations\-new\-chief\-information\-officer\-speaks/\|title \= The Nation's New Chief Information Officer Speaks\|accessdate \= 2009\-04\-30\|last \= Hansell\|first \= Saul\|date \= 2009\-03\-05\|work \= The New York Times}} The website is managed and hosted by the [U.S. General Services Administration](/wiki/General_Services_Administration "General Services Administration"), [Technology Transformation Services](/wiki/General_Services_Administration%23Technology_Transformation_Services "General Services Administration#Technology Transformation Services").{{cite web\|title\=Who developed Data.gov?\|url\=https://www.data.gov/about\|website\=Data.gov\|publisher\=U.S. General Services Administration}}
The site introduced the philosophy of digital [open data](/wiki/Open_data "Open data") to the U.S. Federal government, an approach which according to the book *Democratizing Data* will have benefits for states including "rebuilding confidence in government and business".{{cite web\|accessdate \= 16 April 2011\|url \= http://techinsider.nextgov.com/2009/04/kundras\_ideas\_shape\_book.php\|title \= Kundra's Ideas Shape Book\|author \= Aliya Sternstein\|date \= 1 April 2009\|work \= nextgov (Tech Insider)\|publisher \= \[\[National Journal Group]]\|format \= blog posting\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20170220013831/http://www.nextgov.com/technology\-news/tech\-insider/2009/04/kundras\-ideas\-shape\-book/52397/\|archive\-date \= 20 February 2017\|url\-status \= dead}}
Data.gov has grown from 47 datasets at launch to over 370,000 datasets. [Jeanne Holm](/wiki/Jeanne_M._Holm_%28NASA%29 "Jeanne M. Holm (NASA)"), Chief Knowledge Architect for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ([NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA")), was the Evangelist and knowledge architect for Data.gov,{{cite web\|url \= https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2010/05/sneak\-peek\-the\-obama\-administrations\-redesigned\-datagov/all/1\|title \= Sneak Peek: Obama Administration's Redesigned data.gov.\|accessdate \= 2010\-05\-20\|last \= Van Buskirk\|first \= Eliot\|date \= 2010\-05\-19\|work \= Wired Epicenter}} [James Hendler](/wiki/James_Hendler "James Hendler"), an [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence "Artificial intelligence") researcher at [Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute](/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute "Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute"), was at the time named the "Internet Web Expert" and tasked with helping Data.gov exploit advanced Web technologies.
Data.gov was one of the first efforts to create an [open data](/wiki/Open_data "Open data") ecosystem—using data as the basis for connecting government agencies, researchers, businesses, and civil society. [Communities of practice](/wiki/Community_of_practice "Community of practice") were created around key topics such as [climate](/wiki/Climate "Climate"), providing a way for researchers to ask for data and to coordinate work across government agencies. By the end of 2010, most Federal agencies had published data on Data.gov. In November 2010, the Data.gov team hosted the first [International Open Government Data Conference](/wiki/International_Open_Government_Data_Conference "International Open Government Data Conference") with 10 nations participating to expand the principles of open data. This conference grew to become the International Open Data Conference.
By 2012, open data from Data.gov was regularly used by civil society and business. Community led efforts like [hackathons](/wiki/Hackathon "Hackathon") from [Code for America](/wiki/Code_for_America "Code for America") and events such as the National Day of Civic Hacking, relied on government data provided by Data.gov. The Gov Lab created the Open Data 500{{Cite web \|title\=The Governance Lab \|url\=https://thegovlab.org/project/project\-open\-data\-500\-global\-network \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-07 \|website\=thegovlab.org \|language\=en}} to showcase businesses built on open data provided by Data.gov. To ensure open data's sustainability, President Obama created an executive order on "Making Open and Machine Readable the New Default for Government Information" to formalize Data.gov as the permanent repository for open government data.{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-05\-09 \|title\=Executive Order \-\- Making Open and Machine Readable the New Default for Government Information \|url\=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the\-press\-office/2013/05/09/executive\-order\-making\-open\-and\-machine\-readable\-new\-default\-government\- \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-08 \|website\=whitehouse.gov \|language\=en}}
[McKinsey \& Company](/wiki/McKinsey_%26_Company "McKinsey & Company") published research{{Cite web \|title\=How government can promote open data {{!}} McKinsey \|url\=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public\-and\-social\-sector/our\-insights/how\-government\-can\-promote\-open\-data \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-07 \|website\=www.mckinsey.com}} showing that open data contributed $3 trillion to the U.S. economy. Two of the biggest datasets for economic impact have been [global positioning satellite](/wiki/Global_Positioning_System "Global Positioning System") data from the U.S. Space Force and weather data from the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service "National Weather Service"). By 2014, all 175 Federal agencies and 77 other organizations had published data on the site, in both human understandable and machine\-readable formats and with open [APIs](/wiki/API "API").{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-05\-20 \|title\=Five Years of Open Data—Making a Difference \|url\=https://www.data.gov/meta/five\-years\-open\-data\-making\-difference/ \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-08 \|website\=Data.gov \|language\=en\-US}}
On January 14, 2019, the OPEN Government Data Act, as part of the [Foundations for Evidence Based Policymaking Act](https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/4174/text#toc-H8E449FBAEFA34E45A6F1F20EFB13ED95), became [law](/wiki/Law "Law"). The OPEN Government Data Act makes Data.gov a requirement in statute, rather than a policy. It requires federal agencies to publish their information online as open data, using standardized, machine\-readable data formats, with their metadata included in the Data.gov catalog. Data.gov is working with an expanded group of federal agencies to include their datasets in Data.gov as they implement the new law.
### Open Government Directive
The U.S. Open Government Directive of December 8, 2009, required that all agencies post at least three high\-value data sets online and register them on Data.gov within 45 days.{{cite news\|last\=Orszag\|first\=Peter R.\|title\=Open Government Directive\|url\=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/open/documents/open\-government\-directive\|newspaper\=Executive Office of the President\|date\=8 December 2009\|authorlink\=Peter R. Orszag}}
### OPEN Government Data Act
The [Foundations for Evidence\-Based Policymaking Act of 2018 (“Evidence Act”)](https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/4174/text) signed into law on January 14, 2019, emphasizes collaboration and coordination to advance data and evidence\-building functions in the Federal Government by statutorily mandating Federal evidence\-building activities, open government data, and confidential information protection and statistical efficiency.
Title II of the Foundations for Evidence Based Policymaking Act, the OPEN Government Data Act, requires additional agencies to comply with the statute by providing access to free, open, and machine readable data.
Additionally, the Office of Management and Budget is required to collaborate with the Office of Government Information Services and the Administrator of General Services to develop and maintain an online repository of tools, best practices, and schema standards to facilitate the adoption of open data practices across the Federal Government.
|
[
"History and background\n----------------------",
"On March 5, 2009, shortly after his appointment as the first [Federal Chief Information Officer](/wiki/Federal_Chief_Information_Officer_of_the_United_States \"Federal Chief Information Officer of the United States\"), [Vivek Kundra](/wiki/Vivek_Kundra \"Vivek Kundra\") announced the creation of Data.gov.{{cite web\\|url \\= http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/03/05/the\\-nations\\-new\\-chief\\-information\\-officer\\-speaks/\\|title \\= The Nation's New Chief Information Officer Speaks\\|accessdate \\= 2009\\-04\\-30\\|last \\= Hansell\\|first \\= Saul\\|date \\= 2009\\-03\\-05\\|work \\= The New York Times}} The website is managed and hosted by the [U.S. General Services Administration](/wiki/General_Services_Administration \"General Services Administration\"), [Technology Transformation Services](/wiki/General_Services_Administration%23Technology_Transformation_Services \"General Services Administration#Technology Transformation Services\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Who developed Data.gov?\\|url\\=https://www.data.gov/about\\|website\\=Data.gov\\|publisher\\=U.S. General Services Administration}}",
"The site introduced the philosophy of digital [open data](/wiki/Open_data \"Open data\") to the U.S. Federal government, an approach which according to the book *Democratizing Data* will have benefits for states including \"rebuilding confidence in government and business\".{{cite web\\|accessdate \\= 16 April 2011\\|url \\= http://techinsider.nextgov.com/2009/04/kundras\\_ideas\\_shape\\_book.php\\|title \\= Kundra's Ideas Shape Book\\|author \\= Aliya Sternstein\\|date \\= 1 April 2009\\|work \\= nextgov (Tech Insider)\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[National Journal Group]]\\|format \\= blog posting\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20170220013831/http://www.nextgov.com/technology\\-news/tech\\-insider/2009/04/kundras\\-ideas\\-shape\\-book/52397/\\|archive\\-date \\= 20 February 2017\\|url\\-status \\= dead}}",
"Data.gov has grown from 47 datasets at launch to over 370,000 datasets. [Jeanne Holm](/wiki/Jeanne_M._Holm_%28NASA%29 \"Jeanne M. Holm (NASA)\"), Chief Knowledge Architect for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ([NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")), was the Evangelist and knowledge architect for Data.gov,{{cite web\\|url \\= https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2010/05/sneak\\-peek\\-the\\-obama\\-administrations\\-redesigned\\-datagov/all/1\\|title \\= Sneak Peek: Obama Administration's Redesigned data.gov.\\|accessdate \\= 2010\\-05\\-20\\|last \\= Van Buskirk\\|first \\= Eliot\\|date \\= 2010\\-05\\-19\\|work \\= Wired Epicenter}} [James Hendler](/wiki/James_Hendler \"James Hendler\"), an [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence \"Artificial intelligence\") researcher at [Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute](/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute \"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute\"), was at the time named the \"Internet Web Expert\" and tasked with helping Data.gov exploit advanced Web technologies.",
"Data.gov was one of the first efforts to create an [open data](/wiki/Open_data \"Open data\") ecosystem—using data as the basis for connecting government agencies, researchers, businesses, and civil society. [Communities of practice](/wiki/Community_of_practice \"Community of practice\") were created around key topics such as [climate](/wiki/Climate \"Climate\"), providing a way for researchers to ask for data and to coordinate work across government agencies. By the end of 2010, most Federal agencies had published data on Data.gov. In November 2010, the Data.gov team hosted the first [International Open Government Data Conference](/wiki/International_Open_Government_Data_Conference \"International Open Government Data Conference\") with 10 nations participating to expand the principles of open data. This conference grew to become the International Open Data Conference.",
"By 2012, open data from Data.gov was regularly used by civil society and business. Community led efforts like [hackathons](/wiki/Hackathon \"Hackathon\") from [Code for America](/wiki/Code_for_America \"Code for America\") and events such as the National Day of Civic Hacking, relied on government data provided by Data.gov. The Gov Lab created the Open Data 500{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Governance Lab \\|url\\=https://thegovlab.org/project/project\\-open\\-data\\-500\\-global\\-network \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-07 \\|website\\=thegovlab.org \\|language\\=en}} to showcase businesses built on open data provided by Data.gov. To ensure open data's sustainability, President Obama created an executive order on \"Making Open and Machine Readable the New Default for Government Information\" to formalize Data.gov as the permanent repository for open government data.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-05\\-09 \\|title\\=Executive Order \\-\\- Making Open and Machine Readable the New Default for Government Information \\|url\\=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the\\-press\\-office/2013/05/09/executive\\-order\\-making\\-open\\-and\\-machine\\-readable\\-new\\-default\\-government\\- \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-08 \\|website\\=whitehouse.gov \\|language\\=en}}",
"[McKinsey \\& Company](/wiki/McKinsey_%26_Company \"McKinsey & Company\") published research{{Cite web \\|title\\=How government can promote open data {{!}} McKinsey \\|url\\=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public\\-and\\-social\\-sector/our\\-insights/how\\-government\\-can\\-promote\\-open\\-data \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-07 \\|website\\=www.mckinsey.com}} showing that open data contributed $3 trillion to the U.S. economy. Two of the biggest datasets for economic impact have been [global positioning satellite](/wiki/Global_Positioning_System \"Global Positioning System\") data from the U.S. Space Force and weather data from the [National Weather Service](/wiki/National_Weather_Service \"National Weather Service\"). By 2014, all 175 Federal agencies and 77 other organizations had published data on the site, in both human understandable and machine\\-readable formats and with open [APIs](/wiki/API \"API\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-05\\-20 \\|title\\=Five Years of Open Data—Making a Difference \\|url\\=https://www.data.gov/meta/five\\-years\\-open\\-data\\-making\\-difference/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-08 \\|website\\=Data.gov \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"On January 14, 2019, the OPEN Government Data Act, as part of the [Foundations for Evidence Based Policymaking Act](https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/4174/text#toc-H8E449FBAEFA34E45A6F1F20EFB13ED95), became [law](/wiki/Law \"Law\"). The OPEN Government Data Act makes Data.gov a requirement in statute, rather than a policy. It requires federal agencies to publish their information online as open data, using standardized, machine\\-readable data formats, with their metadata included in the Data.gov catalog. Data.gov is working with an expanded group of federal agencies to include their datasets in Data.gov as they implement the new law.",
"### Open Government Directive",
"The U.S. Open Government Directive of December 8, 2009, required that all agencies post at least three high\\-value data sets online and register them on Data.gov within 45 days.{{cite news\\|last\\=Orszag\\|first\\=Peter R.\\|title\\=Open Government Directive\\|url\\=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/open/documents/open\\-government\\-directive\\|newspaper\\=Executive Office of the President\\|date\\=8 December 2009\\|authorlink\\=Peter R. Orszag}}",
"### OPEN Government Data Act",
"The [Foundations for Evidence\\-Based Policymaking Act of 2018 (“Evidence Act”)](https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/4174/text) signed into law on January 14, 2019, emphasizes collaboration and coordination to advance data and evidence\\-building functions in the Federal Government by statutorily mandating Federal evidence\\-building activities, open government data, and confidential information protection and statistical efficiency.",
"Title II of the Foundations for Evidence Based Policymaking Act, the OPEN Government Data Act, requires additional agencies to comply with the statute by providing access to free, open, and machine readable data.",
"Additionally, the Office of Management and Budget is required to collaborate with the Office of Government Information Services and the Administrator of General Services to develop and maintain an online repository of tools, best practices, and schema standards to facilitate the adoption of open data practices across the Federal Government.",
""
] |
Illness and decline
-------------------
[Morell Mackenzie, whose treatment of Frederick caused controversy\|thumb\|upright\|right](/wiki/File:Morell_Mackenzie_2.jpg "Morell Mackenzie 2.jpg")
Frederick had been a heavy smoker for many years.Röhl 1998, pp. 645–646\. At a ball held by William on 31 January 1887, a guest reported the Crown Prince "was so hoarse that he could hardly say a word." His hoarseness continued through February, and was diagnosed as a thickening of the mucous membrane over the vocal cords, caused by "a chronic laryngeal catarrh." On 7 February, Frederick consulted a doctor, Karl Gerhardt, who scraped a wire across the membrane for 10 days in an attempt to remove thickened tissue. After the procedure proved unsuccessful, Gerhardt cauterised the left vocal cord with an electric wire on 15 March in an attempt to remove what was then thought to be a [vocal fold nodule](/wiki/Vocal_fold_nodule "Vocal fold nodule"). Due to Frederick's highly inflamed throat, Gerhardt was unable to remove the entire growth. After several cauterisations, and with no signs of improvement, Frederick and his wife went to the spa of [Bad Ems](/wiki/Bad_Ems "Bad Ems"), where he drank the mineral waters and underwent a regimen of gargles and inhaling fresh air, with no effect.
On 17 May, Gerhardt and other doctors, including [Ernst von Bergmann](/wiki/Ernst_von_Bergmann "Ernst von Bergmann"), diagnosed the growth as [laryngeal cancer](/wiki/Laryngeal_cancer "Laryngeal cancer"). Bergmann recommended consulting a leading British cancer specialist, [Morell Mackenzie](/wiki/Morell_Mackenzie "Morell Mackenzie"); he also recommended a [thyrotomy](/wiki/Thyrotomy "Thyrotomy") to gain better access to the inside of the larynx, followed by the complete removal of the larynx – a total [laryngectomy](/wiki/Laryngectomy "Laryngectomy") – if the situation proved serious. While Victoria was informed of the need for an immediate operation, Frederick was not told. Despite the tentative diagnosis of cancer, the doctors hoped the growth would prove to be a benign [epithelioma](/wiki/Epithelioma "Epithelioma"). A room on the top floor of the Crown Prince's palace was then equipped as an operating theatre, but Bergmann elected to put the operation on hold until Mackenzie could provide his assessment.Röhl 1998, pp. 647–648\. Mackenzie arrived in Berlin on 20 May, but after examining Frederick recommended a [biopsy](/wiki/Biopsy "Biopsy") of the growth to determine whether or not it was malignant. He conducted the biopsy the following morning, after which he sent tissue samples to the distinguished pathologist [Rudolf Virchow](/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow "Rudolf Virchow") for microscopic examination. When Virchow was unable to detect any cancerous cells despite several separate analyses, Mackenzie declared his opposition to a laryngectomy being performed, as he felt it would be invariably fatal, and said he would assume charge of the case. He gave his assurance that Frederick would fully recover "in a few months."Röhl 1998, pp. 649–650\. While Gerhardt and Physician\-General August Wegner concurred with Mackenzie, Bergmann and his colleague Adalbert Tobold held to their original diagnosis of cancer. In addition to Mackenzie's opinion, Bismarck strongly opposed any major operation on Frederick's throat, and pressed the Kaiser to veto it. On 9 June, Mackenzie again biopsied the growth and sent the samples to Virchow, who reported the following day that he was again unable to detect any signs of cancer.
On 13 June, the Crown Prince left Potsdam for London to attend his mother\-in\-law's Golden Jubilee and to consult Mackenzie. He never saw his father alive again. He was accompanied by Victoria and their three younger daughters, along with Gerhardt; on 29 June, Mackenzie reported that he had successfully operated at his Harley Street clinic, and had removed "*nearly* the entire growth."Röhl 1998, p. 654\. Frederick spent July with his family at [Norris Castle](/wiki/Norris_Castle "Norris Castle") on the [Isle of Wight](/wiki/Isle_of_Wight "Isle of Wight"). However, when Frederick visited Mackenzie's office on 2 August for a follow\-up examination, the growth had reappeared, necessitating its cauterisation the same day, and again on 8 August – an ominous indication that it was indeed malignant. Felix Semon, a distinguished German throat specialist with a practice in England, and who had been closely following Frederick's case, submitted a report to the German Foreign Secretary in which he strongly criticised Mackenzie's cauterisations, and gave his opinion that the growth, if not malignant, was suspect, and should continue to be biopsied and examined.Röhl 1998, pp. 656–657\. On 9 August, Frederick travelled to [Braemar](/wiki/Braemar "Braemar") in the Scottish Highlands with Dr. Mark Hovell, a senior surgeon at the Throat Hospital in London. Although a further examination by Mackenzie on 20 August revealed no sign of a recurrent growth, Frederick said he had the "constant feeling" of something "not right inside"; nonetheless, he asked Queen Victoria to knight Mackenzie, who duly received a knighthood in September.Röhl 1998, pp. 658–659\.
Despite the operations on his throat and having taken the sea air at [Cowes](/wiki/Cowes "Cowes"), Frederick remained hoarse and was advised by Mackenzie to spend the coming winter on the [Italian Riviera](/wiki/Italian_Riviera "Italian Riviera"). In August, following reports that his father was gravely ill, he considered returning to Germany, but was dissuaded by his wife, and went to [Toblach](/wiki/Toblach "Toblach") in [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol "South Tyrol") with his family, where Victoria had rented a house.Röhl 1998, pp. 659–662\. He arrived in Toblach on 7 September, exhausted and hoarse. Concerned by Frederick's lack of visible improvement after a brief meeting with Frederick in Munich, [Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg](/wiki/Philipp%2C_Prince_of_Eulenburg "Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg"), consulted the distinguished [laryngologist](/wiki/Laryngologist "Laryngologist") [Max Joseph Oertel](/wiki/Max_Joseph_Oertel "Max Joseph Oertel"), who urged a drastic and thorough operation on Frederick's throat, and said he suspected a benign tumour which could soon become malignant.Röhl 1998, pp. 662–663\. By this time, Mackenzie's treatment of Frederick was generating strong criticism. After a fortnight in Toblach, Mackenzie arrived to reexamine Frederick, who had continued to suffer from colds and hoarseness; in public, however, the doctor remained largely unconcerned, and attributed the hoarseness to a "momentary chill." However, he recommended that Frederick should leave Toblach for [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice"), to be followed by Victoria. The weather soon turned cold, and Frederick's throat caused him pain, for which he received cocaine injections.Röhl 1998, pp. 664–666\.
[thumb\|right\|Professor Ernst von Bergmann, who attended to Frederick throughout his illness](/wiki/File:Ernst_von_Bergmann_1.jpg "Ernst von Bergmann 1.jpg")
Upon arriving in Venice, Frederick again caught cold; privately, Mackenzie was growing seriously concerned, having observed a continued tendency for Frederick's throat and larynx to swell. He forbade Frederick from speaking at any length, noting that if the Crown Prince insisted on speaking and contracted further colds, he could give him no more than three months to live. At the beginning of October, Victoria noted that "Fritz's throat is giving no cause for fresh anxiety \& he really does take a little more care and speaks a little less."Röhl 1998, pp. 671–673\. On 6 October, Frederick, his family and Mackenzie left for a villa at [Baveno](/wiki/Baveno "Baveno") on the shore of [Lake Maggiore](/wiki/Lake_Maggiore "Lake Maggiore"), with Mackenzie leaving Baveno on 8 October, after predicting Frederick's recovery "in 3 or 4 months," wrote Victoria. Their elder son Wilhelm joined them at Baveno on 17 October for Frederick's 56th birthday the following day. At the end of October, Frederick's condition abruptly worsened, with Victoria writing to her mother on 2 November that Frederick's throat was again inflamed, but not due to any cold, and that he was "very hoarse again" and easily became depressed about his health. General [Alfred von Waldersee](/wiki/Alfred_von_Waldersee "Alfred von Waldersee") observed that Frederick's health had grave implications as if William died soon and his son succeeded, "a new Kaiser who is not allowed to speak is a virtual impossibility, quite apart from the fact that we desperately need a highly energetic one." His son Wilhelm reported to [Albert, King of Saxony](/wiki/Albert%2C_King_of_Saxony "Albert, King of Saxony") that his father was frequently short\-tempered and melancholic, though his voice appeared to have slightly improved, and that Frederick's throat was being treated by "blowing in a powder twice a day to soothe the larynx."
On 3 November, Frederick and his entourage departed for [San Remo](/wiki/Sanremo "Sanremo"). At San Remo two days later, on 5 November, Frederick entirely lost his voice and experienced severe pain throughout his throat.Röhl 1998, pp. 690–691\. Upon examination, Dr. Hovell discovered a new growth under the left vocal cord; when the news reached William and the German government, it caused great consternation. The following day, Mackenzie issued a bulletin stating that while there was no immediate danger to the Crown Prince, his illness had "unfortunately taken an unfavourable turn," and that he had requested advice from other specialists, including the Austrian professor of laryngology [Leopold Schrötter](/wiki/Leopold_von_Schr%C3%B6tter "Leopold von Schrötter") and Dr. Hermann Krause of Berlin. On 9 November, Schrötter and Krause diagnosed the new growth as malignant, and said it was unlikely Frederick could live another year. All the doctors in attendance, including Mackenzie, now concluded that Frederick's disease was indeed laryngeal cancer, as new lesions had appeared on the right side of the larynx, and that an immediate and total laryngectomy was required to save his life; Moritz Schmidt, one of the doctors, subsequently said that the earlier growths found in May had also been cancerous.Röhl 1998, pp. 694–697\. Frederick was devastated by the news, bursting into tears upon being informed by Mackenzie and crying, "To think I should have such a horrid disgusting illness ... I had so hoped to have been of use to my country. Why is Heaven so cruel to me? What have I done to be thus stricken and condemned?"Pakula, p. 448\. Even at this stage, however, Frederick, in a private discussion with his wife, decided against the laryngectomy as it was itself highly risky. He sent his doctors a written statement that he would remain in Italy and would only submit to a [tracheotomy](/wiki/Tracheotomy "Tracheotomy") if he was at risk of suffocating due to his condition. The news was greeted with shock in Berlin and generated further hatred against Victoria, now seen as a domineering "foreigner" who was manipulating her husband. Some politicians suggested that Frederick be made to relinquish his position in the line of succession in favour of his son Wilhelm, but Bismarck firmly stated that Frederick would succeed his ailing father "whether he is ill or not, \[and] whether the K\[aiser] is then unable permanently to perform his duties," would then be determined per the relevant provisions of the Prussian Constitution.Röhl 1998, pp. 702–705\. Despite the renewed diagnosis of cancer, Frederick's condition appeared to improve after 5 November, and he became more optimistic; through January 1888 there remained some hope that the diagnosis was incorrect. Both Frederick and Victoria retained their faith in Mackenzie, who re\-examined Frederick's throat several times in December and gave a good prognosis, again doubting whether the growths had been cancerous.Röhl 1998, pp. 699–701\.
[thumb\|left\|250px\|Photograph of Crown Prince Frederick, {{circa\|1887}}](/wiki/File:Photo_-_Kronprinz_Friedrich_Wilhelm_-_Ottomar_Ansch%C3%BCtz_-1887.jpg "Photo - Kronprinz Friedrich Wilhelm - Ottomar Anschütz -1887.jpg")
On 26 December 1887, Frederick wrote that his "chronic catarrh" appeared to be taking "a turn for the better", and that "a further bond has been forged between our people and myself; may God preserve it by giving me, when I resume my duties, the capacity to prove myself worthy of the great trust that has been shown me!" A week later, however, on 5 January 1888, his hoarseness and the swelling under his left vocal cord returned, with the previously unaffected right side of his throat becoming inflamed.Röhl 1998, pp. 773–777\. He ran high fevers and began coughing violently, with his breathing becoming more laboured. The doctors diagnosed [perichondritis](/wiki/Perichondritis "Perichondritis"), an infection of the throat membrane. Frederick again became unable to speak, and suffered violent headaches and insomnia. On 29 January, Mackenzie returned to San Remo from a trip to Spain, and after examining his patient recommended an immediate tracheotomy.Röhl 1998, pp. 778–782\. The operation was conducted at 4 p.m. on 8 February, by which time Frederick was continually suffering from insomnia and "embarrassing bouts of suffocation". A [tracheal tube](/wiki/Tracheal_tube "Tracheal tube") was fitted to allow Frederick to breathe;Sinclair, p. 204\. for the remainder of his life he was unable to speak and often communicated through writing.Dorpalen, p. 27\. During the operation, Bergmann almost killed Frederick by missing the incision in the [trachea](/wiki/Trachea "Trachea") and forcing the cannula into the wrong place.Mackenzie, pp. 200–201\. Frederick started to cough and bleed, and Bergmann placed his forefinger into the wound to enlarge it. The bleeding subsided after two hours, but Bergmann's actions resulted in an [abscess](/wiki/Abscess "Abscess") in Frederick's neck, producing [pus](/wiki/Pus "Pus") which would give Frederick discomfort for the remaining months of his life. Later, Frederick would ask "Why did Bergmann put his finger in my throat?" and complain that "Bergmann ill\-treated \[me]".
Even after the tracheotomy, Frederick continued to run high fevers and suffered from headaches and insomnia. His violent coughing continued, bringing up bloody [sputum](/wiki/Sputum "Sputum"). Apart from Mackenzie, the other doctors, led by Bergmann, now held the firm opinion that the Crown Prince's disease was cancer and that it had possibly spread to his lungs. The diagnosis of laryngeal cancer was conclusively confirmed on 6 March, when the [anatomist](/wiki/Anatomist "Anatomist") Professor [Wilhelm Waldeyer](/wiki/Wilhelm_Waldeyer "Wilhelm Waldeyer"), who had come to San Remo, examined Frederick's sputum under a microscope and confirmed the presence of "so\-called cancroid bodies...from a cancerous new growth" in the larynx. He further said that there were no signs of any growths in the lungs. Though it finally settled the question, Waldeyer's diagnosis threw all of Mackenzie's treatment of Frederick into doubt. The diagnosis and treatment of Frederick's fatal illness caused some medical controversy well into the next century.Westman, pp. 20–21\.
|
[
"Illness and decline\n-------------------",
"[Morell Mackenzie, whose treatment of Frederick caused controversy\\|thumb\\|upright\\|right](/wiki/File:Morell_Mackenzie_2.jpg \"Morell Mackenzie 2.jpg\")\nFrederick had been a heavy smoker for many years.Röhl 1998, pp. 645–646\\. At a ball held by William on 31 January 1887, a guest reported the Crown Prince \"was so hoarse that he could hardly say a word.\" His hoarseness continued through February, and was diagnosed as a thickening of the mucous membrane over the vocal cords, caused by \"a chronic laryngeal catarrh.\" On 7 February, Frederick consulted a doctor, Karl Gerhardt, who scraped a wire across the membrane for 10 days in an attempt to remove thickened tissue. After the procedure proved unsuccessful, Gerhardt cauterised the left vocal cord with an electric wire on 15 March in an attempt to remove what was then thought to be a [vocal fold nodule](/wiki/Vocal_fold_nodule \"Vocal fold nodule\"). Due to Frederick's highly inflamed throat, Gerhardt was unable to remove the entire growth. After several cauterisations, and with no signs of improvement, Frederick and his wife went to the spa of [Bad Ems](/wiki/Bad_Ems \"Bad Ems\"), where he drank the mineral waters and underwent a regimen of gargles and inhaling fresh air, with no effect.",
"On 17 May, Gerhardt and other doctors, including [Ernst von Bergmann](/wiki/Ernst_von_Bergmann \"Ernst von Bergmann\"), diagnosed the growth as [laryngeal cancer](/wiki/Laryngeal_cancer \"Laryngeal cancer\"). Bergmann recommended consulting a leading British cancer specialist, [Morell Mackenzie](/wiki/Morell_Mackenzie \"Morell Mackenzie\"); he also recommended a [thyrotomy](/wiki/Thyrotomy \"Thyrotomy\") to gain better access to the inside of the larynx, followed by the complete removal of the larynx – a total [laryngectomy](/wiki/Laryngectomy \"Laryngectomy\") – if the situation proved serious. While Victoria was informed of the need for an immediate operation, Frederick was not told. Despite the tentative diagnosis of cancer, the doctors hoped the growth would prove to be a benign [epithelioma](/wiki/Epithelioma \"Epithelioma\"). A room on the top floor of the Crown Prince's palace was then equipped as an operating theatre, but Bergmann elected to put the operation on hold until Mackenzie could provide his assessment.Röhl 1998, pp. 647–648\\. Mackenzie arrived in Berlin on 20 May, but after examining Frederick recommended a [biopsy](/wiki/Biopsy \"Biopsy\") of the growth to determine whether or not it was malignant. He conducted the biopsy the following morning, after which he sent tissue samples to the distinguished pathologist [Rudolf Virchow](/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow \"Rudolf Virchow\") for microscopic examination. When Virchow was unable to detect any cancerous cells despite several separate analyses, Mackenzie declared his opposition to a laryngectomy being performed, as he felt it would be invariably fatal, and said he would assume charge of the case. He gave his assurance that Frederick would fully recover \"in a few months.\"Röhl 1998, pp. 649–650\\. While Gerhardt and Physician\\-General August Wegner concurred with Mackenzie, Bergmann and his colleague Adalbert Tobold held to their original diagnosis of cancer. In addition to Mackenzie's opinion, Bismarck strongly opposed any major operation on Frederick's throat, and pressed the Kaiser to veto it. On 9 June, Mackenzie again biopsied the growth and sent the samples to Virchow, who reported the following day that he was again unable to detect any signs of cancer.",
"On 13 June, the Crown Prince left Potsdam for London to attend his mother\\-in\\-law's Golden Jubilee and to consult Mackenzie. He never saw his father alive again. He was accompanied by Victoria and their three younger daughters, along with Gerhardt; on 29 June, Mackenzie reported that he had successfully operated at his Harley Street clinic, and had removed \"*nearly* the entire growth.\"Röhl 1998, p. 654\\. Frederick spent July with his family at [Norris Castle](/wiki/Norris_Castle \"Norris Castle\") on the [Isle of Wight](/wiki/Isle_of_Wight \"Isle of Wight\"). However, when Frederick visited Mackenzie's office on 2 August for a follow\\-up examination, the growth had reappeared, necessitating its cauterisation the same day, and again on 8 August – an ominous indication that it was indeed malignant. Felix Semon, a distinguished German throat specialist with a practice in England, and who had been closely following Frederick's case, submitted a report to the German Foreign Secretary in which he strongly criticised Mackenzie's cauterisations, and gave his opinion that the growth, if not malignant, was suspect, and should continue to be biopsied and examined.Röhl 1998, pp. 656–657\\. On 9 August, Frederick travelled to [Braemar](/wiki/Braemar \"Braemar\") in the Scottish Highlands with Dr. Mark Hovell, a senior surgeon at the Throat Hospital in London. Although a further examination by Mackenzie on 20 August revealed no sign of a recurrent growth, Frederick said he had the \"constant feeling\" of something \"not right inside\"; nonetheless, he asked Queen Victoria to knight Mackenzie, who duly received a knighthood in September.Röhl 1998, pp. 658–659\\.",
"Despite the operations on his throat and having taken the sea air at [Cowes](/wiki/Cowes \"Cowes\"), Frederick remained hoarse and was advised by Mackenzie to spend the coming winter on the [Italian Riviera](/wiki/Italian_Riviera \"Italian Riviera\"). In August, following reports that his father was gravely ill, he considered returning to Germany, but was dissuaded by his wife, and went to [Toblach](/wiki/Toblach \"Toblach\") in [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol \"South Tyrol\") with his family, where Victoria had rented a house.Röhl 1998, pp. 659–662\\. He arrived in Toblach on 7 September, exhausted and hoarse. Concerned by Frederick's lack of visible improvement after a brief meeting with Frederick in Munich, [Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg](/wiki/Philipp%2C_Prince_of_Eulenburg \"Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg\"), consulted the distinguished [laryngologist](/wiki/Laryngologist \"Laryngologist\") [Max Joseph Oertel](/wiki/Max_Joseph_Oertel \"Max Joseph Oertel\"), who urged a drastic and thorough operation on Frederick's throat, and said he suspected a benign tumour which could soon become malignant.Röhl 1998, pp. 662–663\\. By this time, Mackenzie's treatment of Frederick was generating strong criticism. After a fortnight in Toblach, Mackenzie arrived to reexamine Frederick, who had continued to suffer from colds and hoarseness; in public, however, the doctor remained largely unconcerned, and attributed the hoarseness to a \"momentary chill.\" However, he recommended that Frederick should leave Toblach for [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\"), to be followed by Victoria. The weather soon turned cold, and Frederick's throat caused him pain, for which he received cocaine injections.Röhl 1998, pp. 664–666\\.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Professor Ernst von Bergmann, who attended to Frederick throughout his illness](/wiki/File:Ernst_von_Bergmann_1.jpg \"Ernst von Bergmann 1.jpg\")\nUpon arriving in Venice, Frederick again caught cold; privately, Mackenzie was growing seriously concerned, having observed a continued tendency for Frederick's throat and larynx to swell. He forbade Frederick from speaking at any length, noting that if the Crown Prince insisted on speaking and contracted further colds, he could give him no more than three months to live. At the beginning of October, Victoria noted that \"Fritz's throat is giving no cause for fresh anxiety \\& he really does take a little more care and speaks a little less.\"Röhl 1998, pp. 671–673\\. On 6 October, Frederick, his family and Mackenzie left for a villa at [Baveno](/wiki/Baveno \"Baveno\") on the shore of [Lake Maggiore](/wiki/Lake_Maggiore \"Lake Maggiore\"), with Mackenzie leaving Baveno on 8 October, after predicting Frederick's recovery \"in 3 or 4 months,\" wrote Victoria. Their elder son Wilhelm joined them at Baveno on 17 October for Frederick's 56th birthday the following day. At the end of October, Frederick's condition abruptly worsened, with Victoria writing to her mother on 2 November that Frederick's throat was again inflamed, but not due to any cold, and that he was \"very hoarse again\" and easily became depressed about his health. General [Alfred von Waldersee](/wiki/Alfred_von_Waldersee \"Alfred von Waldersee\") observed that Frederick's health had grave implications as if William died soon and his son succeeded, \"a new Kaiser who is not allowed to speak is a virtual impossibility, quite apart from the fact that we desperately need a highly energetic one.\" His son Wilhelm reported to [Albert, King of Saxony](/wiki/Albert%2C_King_of_Saxony \"Albert, King of Saxony\") that his father was frequently short\\-tempered and melancholic, though his voice appeared to have slightly improved, and that Frederick's throat was being treated by \"blowing in a powder twice a day to soothe the larynx.\"",
"On 3 November, Frederick and his entourage departed for [San Remo](/wiki/Sanremo \"Sanremo\"). At San Remo two days later, on 5 November, Frederick entirely lost his voice and experienced severe pain throughout his throat.Röhl 1998, pp. 690–691\\. Upon examination, Dr. Hovell discovered a new growth under the left vocal cord; when the news reached William and the German government, it caused great consternation. The following day, Mackenzie issued a bulletin stating that while there was no immediate danger to the Crown Prince, his illness had \"unfortunately taken an unfavourable turn,\" and that he had requested advice from other specialists, including the Austrian professor of laryngology [Leopold Schrötter](/wiki/Leopold_von_Schr%C3%B6tter \"Leopold von Schrötter\") and Dr. Hermann Krause of Berlin. On 9 November, Schrötter and Krause diagnosed the new growth as malignant, and said it was unlikely Frederick could live another year. All the doctors in attendance, including Mackenzie, now concluded that Frederick's disease was indeed laryngeal cancer, as new lesions had appeared on the right side of the larynx, and that an immediate and total laryngectomy was required to save his life; Moritz Schmidt, one of the doctors, subsequently said that the earlier growths found in May had also been cancerous.Röhl 1998, pp. 694–697\\. Frederick was devastated by the news, bursting into tears upon being informed by Mackenzie and crying, \"To think I should have such a horrid disgusting illness ... I had so hoped to have been of use to my country. Why is Heaven so cruel to me? What have I done to be thus stricken and condemned?\"Pakula, p. 448\\. Even at this stage, however, Frederick, in a private discussion with his wife, decided against the laryngectomy as it was itself highly risky. He sent his doctors a written statement that he would remain in Italy and would only submit to a [tracheotomy](/wiki/Tracheotomy \"Tracheotomy\") if he was at risk of suffocating due to his condition. The news was greeted with shock in Berlin and generated further hatred against Victoria, now seen as a domineering \"foreigner\" who was manipulating her husband. Some politicians suggested that Frederick be made to relinquish his position in the line of succession in favour of his son Wilhelm, but Bismarck firmly stated that Frederick would succeed his ailing father \"whether he is ill or not, \\[and] whether the K\\[aiser] is then unable permanently to perform his duties,\" would then be determined per the relevant provisions of the Prussian Constitution.Röhl 1998, pp. 702–705\\. Despite the renewed diagnosis of cancer, Frederick's condition appeared to improve after 5 November, and he became more optimistic; through January 1888 there remained some hope that the diagnosis was incorrect. Both Frederick and Victoria retained their faith in Mackenzie, who re\\-examined Frederick's throat several times in December and gave a good prognosis, again doubting whether the growths had been cancerous.Röhl 1998, pp. 699–701\\.\n[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|Photograph of Crown Prince Frederick, {{circa\\|1887}}](/wiki/File:Photo_-_Kronprinz_Friedrich_Wilhelm_-_Ottomar_Ansch%C3%BCtz_-1887.jpg \"Photo - Kronprinz Friedrich Wilhelm - Ottomar Anschütz -1887.jpg\")\nOn 26 December 1887, Frederick wrote that his \"chronic catarrh\" appeared to be taking \"a turn for the better\", and that \"a further bond has been forged between our people and myself; may God preserve it by giving me, when I resume my duties, the capacity to prove myself worthy of the great trust that has been shown me!\" A week later, however, on 5 January 1888, his hoarseness and the swelling under his left vocal cord returned, with the previously unaffected right side of his throat becoming inflamed.Röhl 1998, pp. 773–777\\. He ran high fevers and began coughing violently, with his breathing becoming more laboured. The doctors diagnosed [perichondritis](/wiki/Perichondritis \"Perichondritis\"), an infection of the throat membrane. Frederick again became unable to speak, and suffered violent headaches and insomnia. On 29 January, Mackenzie returned to San Remo from a trip to Spain, and after examining his patient recommended an immediate tracheotomy.Röhl 1998, pp. 778–782\\. The operation was conducted at 4 p.m. on 8 February, by which time Frederick was continually suffering from insomnia and \"embarrassing bouts of suffocation\". A [tracheal tube](/wiki/Tracheal_tube \"Tracheal tube\") was fitted to allow Frederick to breathe;Sinclair, p. 204\\. for the remainder of his life he was unable to speak and often communicated through writing.Dorpalen, p. 27\\. During the operation, Bergmann almost killed Frederick by missing the incision in the [trachea](/wiki/Trachea \"Trachea\") and forcing the cannula into the wrong place.Mackenzie, pp. 200–201\\. Frederick started to cough and bleed, and Bergmann placed his forefinger into the wound to enlarge it. The bleeding subsided after two hours, but Bergmann's actions resulted in an [abscess](/wiki/Abscess \"Abscess\") in Frederick's neck, producing [pus](/wiki/Pus \"Pus\") which would give Frederick discomfort for the remaining months of his life. Later, Frederick would ask \"Why did Bergmann put his finger in my throat?\" and complain that \"Bergmann ill\\-treated \\[me]\".",
"Even after the tracheotomy, Frederick continued to run high fevers and suffered from headaches and insomnia. His violent coughing continued, bringing up bloody [sputum](/wiki/Sputum \"Sputum\"). Apart from Mackenzie, the other doctors, led by Bergmann, now held the firm opinion that the Crown Prince's disease was cancer and that it had possibly spread to his lungs. The diagnosis of laryngeal cancer was conclusively confirmed on 6 March, when the [anatomist](/wiki/Anatomist \"Anatomist\") Professor [Wilhelm Waldeyer](/wiki/Wilhelm_Waldeyer \"Wilhelm Waldeyer\"), who had come to San Remo, examined Frederick's sputum under a microscope and confirmed the presence of \"so\\-called cancroid bodies...from a cancerous new growth\" in the larynx. He further said that there were no signs of any growths in the lungs. Though it finally settled the question, Waldeyer's diagnosis threw all of Mackenzie's treatment of Frederick into doubt. The diagnosis and treatment of Frederick's fatal illness caused some medical controversy well into the next century.Westman, pp. 20–21\\.",
""
] |
Definition
----------
[LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology stands for [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian"), [gay](/wiki/Gay "Gay"), [bisexual](/wiki/Bisexuality "Bisexuality"), [trans](/wiki/Transgender "Transgender") and [queer](/wiki/Queer "Queer") psychology. This list is not inclusive to all people within the community and the plus represents other identities not covered within the acronym. In the past this field was known as lesbian and gay psychology.Clarke, V., \& Peel, E. (Eds.). (2007\). *Out in psychology: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and queer perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley. Now it also includes bisexual and transgender identities and behaviors. In addition, the "Q" stands for queer which includes [sexual identities](/wiki/Sexual_identity "Sexual identity") and [behaviors](/wiki/Sexual_behaviour "Sexual behaviour") that go beyond traditional sex and gender labels, roles, and expectations.Peel, E. (2014\). LGBTQ\+ psychology. In T. Thomas (Ed.), *Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology.* doi:10\.1007/978\-1\-4614\-5583\-7\_171
The word "queer" was historically a slur used towards people within the community.{{cite encyclopedia \| year \=2014 \| title \= queer \| encyclopedia \= Oxford English Dictionary \| publisher \= Oxford University Press}}{{cite encyclopedia\| year \=2014 \| title \= queer \| encyclopedia \= Merriam\-Webster \| publisher \= Encyclopædia Britannica \| url\=http://www.merriam\-webster.com/dictionary/queer}} Those who identify as queer today have reclaimed this label as self\-identification.{{cn\|reason\=placeholder\|date\=April 2024}} However, due to the traditional use of the word, many people in the LGBTQ community continue to reject this label.{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/182552895\|title\=That's revolting! : queer strategies for resisting assimilation\|date\=2008\|publisher\=Soft Skull Press\|others\=Sycamore, Mattilda Bernstein.\|isbn\=978\-1\-59376\-195\-0\|edition\=New rev. and expanded\|location\=Brooklyn\|oclc\=182552895}} Some of the identities that fall under the term queer are aromantic, [demi\-sexual](/wiki/Demisexual "Demisexual"), [asexual](/wiki/Asexuality "Asexuality"), [non\-binary](/wiki/Non-binary_gender "Non-binary gender"), [agender](/wiki/Non-binary_gender "Non-binary gender"), [genderfluid](/wiki/Non-binary_gender "Non-binary gender"), [genderqueer](/wiki/Genderqueer "Genderqueer"), [pansexual](/wiki/Pansexual_pride_flag "Pansexual pride flag"), [intersex](/wiki/Intersex "Intersex"), [genderqueer](/wiki/Genderqueer "Genderqueer"), etc.
The names for this field are different in different parts of the world. In the UK and US, the acronym [LGBTQ\+](/wiki/LGBTQ%2B "LGBTQ+") is widely used. The terms '[lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian")', '[gay](/wiki/Gay "Gay")', '[bisexual](/wiki/Bisexuality "Bisexuality")', '[trans](/wiki/Transgender "Transgender")' and '[queer](/wiki/Queer "Queer")' are not used all around the world and definitions vary.
Apart from the terms above, there are other words and phrases that are used to define [sexuality](/wiki/Sexuality "Sexuality") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). These words and phrases typically come from [western cultures](/wiki/Western_culture "Western culture"). In contrast, in non\-western cultures, the range of sexual and gender identities and practices are labelled and categorized using different languages, which naturally also involve different concepts compared to Western ones.
It is concerned with the study of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals' [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality "Human sexuality") – [sexual identities](/wiki/Sexual_identity "Sexual identity") and [behaviors](/wiki/Sexual_behaviour "Sexual behaviour") – thereby validating their unique identities and experiences. This research focus is affirmative for [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ "LGBTQ") individuals, as it challenges prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and discriminatory policies and practices towards the [LGBTQ community](/wiki/LGBTQ_community "LGBTQ community").Herek, G. M. (2004\). Beyond "homophobia": Thinking about sexual stigma and prejudice in the twenty\-first century. *Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 1*(2\), 6–24\.Herek, G. M. (2009\). Hate crimes and stigma\-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. *Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24*, 54–74\.
It also includes the study of [heterosexuality](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality") – other\-sex romantic attraction, preferences and behaviors, as well as [heteronormativity](/wiki/Heteronormativity "Heteronormativity") – the traditional view of [heterosexuality](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality") being the universal norm.Meyer, D. (2017\). The disregarding of heteronormativity: Emphasizing a happy queer adulthood and localizing anti\-queer violence to adolescent schools. *Sexual Resilience and Social Policy, 14*(3\), 331–344\. doi:10\.1007/s13178\-016\-0272\-7 This line of research aims to understand [heterosexuality](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality") from a psychological perspective, with the additional goal of challenging [heterosexuality](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality") as the norm in the field of psychology and in society as a whole.
The overall goal of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology is to raise awareness of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ "LGBTQ") issues in scholarly work and psychological research. In raising this awareness, [LGBT\+](/wiki/LGBT%2B "LGBT+") psychology aims to be one of the fields in which inclusive, non\-[heterosexist](/wiki/Heterosexism "Heterosexism"), non\-[genderist](/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people "Discrimination against non-binary people") approaches are applied in psychological research and practice. These approaches reject the notion that heterosexuality is the 'default' and acknowledge a spectrum of genders outside of the traditional binary, allowing for more inclusive and accurate research. In line with [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology being an inclusive field of study and practice, it welcomes scholars or professionals from any branch of psychology with an interest in [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") research.
### Umbrella Terms
The 'Q' in [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") is an umbrella term for identities or sexualities that do not fall within lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender identities. For example, the term non\-binary is used to house many identities within the LGBTQ community. Non\-binary is a term that is used to define identities that do not fall within the traditional gender binary. This means that any identities that do not classify as male or female would technically fall within the non\-binary umbrella term. Identities that are usually associated with the non\-binary umbrella term are genderqueer, agender, intersex, etc. Transgender is also an umbrella term for any identities that do not identify as the genders that they were assigned at birth. Non\-binary can also be used within the transgender umbrella term.{{Citation\|last1\=Mckendry\|first1\=Stephanie\|title\=Trans Inclusive Higher Education: Strategies to Support Trans, Non\-Binary and Gender Diverse Students and Staff\|date\=2020\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1007/978\-3\-030\-43593\-6\_11\|work\=Strategies for Supporting Inclusion and Diversity in the Academy\|pages\=201–221\|place\=Cham\|publisher\=Springer International Publishing\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-07\|last2\=Lawrence\|first2\=Matson\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-030\-43593\-6\_11\|isbn\=978\-3\-030\-43592\-9\|s2cid\=218963121}}
|
[
"Definition\n----------",
"[LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology stands for [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\"), [gay](/wiki/Gay \"Gay\"), [bisexual](/wiki/Bisexuality \"Bisexuality\"), [trans](/wiki/Transgender \"Transgender\") and [queer](/wiki/Queer \"Queer\") psychology. This list is not inclusive to all people within the community and the plus represents other identities not covered within the acronym. In the past this field was known as lesbian and gay psychology.Clarke, V., \\& Peel, E. (Eds.). (2007\\). *Out in psychology: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and queer perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley. Now it also includes bisexual and transgender identities and behaviors. In addition, the \"Q\" stands for queer which includes [sexual identities](/wiki/Sexual_identity \"Sexual identity\") and [behaviors](/wiki/Sexual_behaviour \"Sexual behaviour\") that go beyond traditional sex and gender labels, roles, and expectations.Peel, E. (2014\\). LGBTQ\\+ psychology. In T. Thomas (Ed.), *Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology.* doi:10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-4614\\-5583\\-7\\_171",
"The word \"queer\" was historically a slur used towards people within the community.{{cite encyclopedia \\| year \\=2014 \\| title \\= queer \\| encyclopedia \\= Oxford English Dictionary \\| publisher \\= Oxford University Press}}{{cite encyclopedia\\| year \\=2014 \\| title \\= queer \\| encyclopedia \\= Merriam\\-Webster \\| publisher \\= Encyclopædia Britannica \\| url\\=http://www.merriam\\-webster.com/dictionary/queer}} Those who identify as queer today have reclaimed this label as self\\-identification.{{cn\\|reason\\=placeholder\\|date\\=April 2024}} However, due to the traditional use of the word, many people in the LGBTQ community continue to reject this label.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/182552895\\|title\\=That's revolting! : queer strategies for resisting assimilation\\|date\\=2008\\|publisher\\=Soft Skull Press\\|others\\=Sycamore, Mattilda Bernstein.\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59376\\-195\\-0\\|edition\\=New rev. and expanded\\|location\\=Brooklyn\\|oclc\\=182552895}} Some of the identities that fall under the term queer are aromantic, [demi\\-sexual](/wiki/Demisexual \"Demisexual\"), [asexual](/wiki/Asexuality \"Asexuality\"), [non\\-binary](/wiki/Non-binary_gender \"Non-binary gender\"), [agender](/wiki/Non-binary_gender \"Non-binary gender\"), [genderfluid](/wiki/Non-binary_gender \"Non-binary gender\"), [genderqueer](/wiki/Genderqueer \"Genderqueer\"), [pansexual](/wiki/Pansexual_pride_flag \"Pansexual pride flag\"), [intersex](/wiki/Intersex \"Intersex\"), [genderqueer](/wiki/Genderqueer \"Genderqueer\"), etc.",
"The names for this field are different in different parts of the world. In the UK and US, the acronym [LGBTQ\\+](/wiki/LGBTQ%2B \"LGBTQ+\") is widely used. The terms '[lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\")', '[gay](/wiki/Gay \"Gay\")', '[bisexual](/wiki/Bisexuality \"Bisexuality\")', '[trans](/wiki/Transgender \"Transgender\")' and '[queer](/wiki/Queer \"Queer\")' are not used all around the world and definitions vary.",
"Apart from the terms above, there are other words and phrases that are used to define [sexuality](/wiki/Sexuality \"Sexuality\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). These words and phrases typically come from [western cultures](/wiki/Western_culture \"Western culture\"). In contrast, in non\\-western cultures, the range of sexual and gender identities and practices are labelled and categorized using different languages, which naturally also involve different concepts compared to Western ones.",
"It is concerned with the study of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals' [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality \"Human sexuality\") – [sexual identities](/wiki/Sexual_identity \"Sexual identity\") and [behaviors](/wiki/Sexual_behaviour \"Sexual behaviour\") – thereby validating their unique identities and experiences. This research focus is affirmative for [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ \"LGBTQ\") individuals, as it challenges prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and discriminatory policies and practices towards the [LGBTQ community](/wiki/LGBTQ_community \"LGBTQ community\").Herek, G. M. (2004\\). Beyond \"homophobia\": Thinking about sexual stigma and prejudice in the twenty\\-first century. *Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 1*(2\\), 6–24\\.Herek, G. M. (2009\\). Hate crimes and stigma\\-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. *Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24*, 54–74\\.",
"It also includes the study of [heterosexuality](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\") – other\\-sex romantic attraction, preferences and behaviors, as well as [heteronormativity](/wiki/Heteronormativity \"Heteronormativity\") – the traditional view of [heterosexuality](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\") being the universal norm.Meyer, D. (2017\\). The disregarding of heteronormativity: Emphasizing a happy queer adulthood and localizing anti\\-queer violence to adolescent schools. *Sexual Resilience and Social Policy, 14*(3\\), 331–344\\. doi:10\\.1007/s13178\\-016\\-0272\\-7 This line of research aims to understand [heterosexuality](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\") from a psychological perspective, with the additional goal of challenging [heterosexuality](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\") as the norm in the field of psychology and in society as a whole.",
"The overall goal of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology is to raise awareness of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ \"LGBTQ\") issues in scholarly work and psychological research. In raising this awareness, [LGBT\\+](/wiki/LGBT%2B \"LGBT+\") psychology aims to be one of the fields in which inclusive, non\\-[heterosexist](/wiki/Heterosexism \"Heterosexism\"), non\\-[genderist](/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people \"Discrimination against non-binary people\") approaches are applied in psychological research and practice. These approaches reject the notion that heterosexuality is the 'default' and acknowledge a spectrum of genders outside of the traditional binary, allowing for more inclusive and accurate research. In line with [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology being an inclusive field of study and practice, it welcomes scholars or professionals from any branch of psychology with an interest in [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") research.",
"### Umbrella Terms",
"The 'Q' in [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") is an umbrella term for identities or sexualities that do not fall within lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender identities. For example, the term non\\-binary is used to house many identities within the LGBTQ community. Non\\-binary is a term that is used to define identities that do not fall within the traditional gender binary. This means that any identities that do not classify as male or female would technically fall within the non\\-binary umbrella term. Identities that are usually associated with the non\\-binary umbrella term are genderqueer, agender, intersex, etc. Transgender is also an umbrella term for any identities that do not identify as the genders that they were assigned at birth. Non\\-binary can also be used within the transgender umbrella term.{{Citation\\|last1\\=Mckendry\\|first1\\=Stephanie\\|title\\=Trans Inclusive Higher Education: Strategies to Support Trans, Non\\-Binary and Gender Diverse Students and Staff\\|date\\=2020\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-030\\-43593\\-6\\_11\\|work\\=Strategies for Supporting Inclusion and Diversity in the Academy\\|pages\\=201–221\\|place\\=Cham\\|publisher\\=Springer International Publishing\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-07\\|last2\\=Lawrence\\|first2\\=Matson\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-030\\-43593\\-6\\_11\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-030\\-43592\\-9\\|s2cid\\=218963121}}",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|333px\|[Alfred Kinsey](/wiki/Alfred_Kinsey "Alfred Kinsey"), sexologist and early sex researcher\|alt\=Landscape photo showing researcher Alfred Kinsey with two unidentified women in a library](/wiki/File:Alfred_Kinsey_%285493900781%29.jpg "Alfred Kinsey (5493900781).jpg")
### Sexology
[Sexology](/wiki/Sexology "Sexology") is a part of the historical foundation upon which [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology was built. The work of early sexologists, in particular those who contributed to the establishment of [sexology](/wiki/Sexology "Sexology") as a scientific field of [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality "Human sexuality") and [gender ambiguity](/wiki/Androgyny "Androgyny"), is highly relevant and seminal to the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ "LGBTQ") psychology.
As previously mentioned, [sexology](/wiki/Sexology "Sexology") is a scientific field of study focusing on [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality "Human sexuality") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity"). In the field of [sexology](/wiki/Sexology "Sexology"), a broad classification spectrum known as inversion, is used to define [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality"). On this spectrum, early sexologists included both '[same\-sex sexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality")' and 'cross\-gender identification' as belonging to this all\-inclusive category. More contemporary sexology researchers conceptualize and categorize [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality "Human sexuality") and [gender diversity](/wiki/Gender_diversity "Gender diversity") separately. In terms of [LGB](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") sexualities, this would fall under [sexual diversity](/wiki/Sexual_diversity "Sexual diversity"). As for [transsexuality](/wiki/Transsexual "Transsexual"), this would be placed under [gender diversity](/wiki/Gender_diversity "Gender diversity"). Important figures in this field include [Magnus Hirschfeld](/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld "Magnus Hirschfeld") and [Karl\-Heinrich Ulrichs](/wiki/Karl_Heinrich_Ulrichs "Karl Heinrich Ulrichs").
### The historical emergence of 'gay affirmative' psychology
Gay affirmative psychology was first established in the 1970s. It was founded with the mission of 1\) challenging the idea and view of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") as a [mental illness](/wiki/Mental_disorder "Mental disorder") and 2\) affirming the normal and healthy psychological functioning of [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") individuals by dispelling beliefs and attitudes of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") being associated with [mental illness](/wiki/Mental_disorder "Mental disorder").Brown, L. S. (1989\). New voices, new visions: Toward a lesbian/gay paradigm for psychology. *Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13*(4\), 445–458\. There has been a lot of stigma surrounding the [LGBTQ community](/wiki/LGBT_community "LGBT community") which may result in feelings of self\-hate. Gay affirmative therapy has been implemented with the purpose of combatting the influence that LGBTQ oppression may have had on the individuals in the community.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Moradi\|first1\=Bonnie\|last2\=Budge\|first2\=Stephanie L.\|date\=November 2018\|title\=Engaging in LGBQ\+ affirmative psychotherapies with all clients: Defining themes and practices: MORADI and BUDGE\|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1002/jclp.22687\|journal\=Journal of Clinical Psychology\|language\=en\|volume\=74\|issue\=11\|pages\=2028–2042\|doi\=10\.1002/jclp.22687\|pmid\=30238455\|s2cid\=52307706}}
Following this field's mission, most of the research conducted in this area has naturally looked at the pathologization of homosexuality. In relation to this, much attention has also been placed on [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality") and cis\-gender (i.e. non\-trans) individuals' lived experiences.
In the 1980s, the name *gay affirmative psychology* changed to lesbian and gay psychology to denote that this branch of psychology spanned both the lives and experiences of [gay men](/wiki/Human_male_sexuality "Human male sexuality") and [lesbian women](/wiki/Lesbian_women "Lesbian women").Clarke, V., \& Peel, E. (2007\). From lesbian and gay psychology to LGBTQ\+ psychologies: A journey into the unknown (or unknownable)? In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley. Later on, additional terms were included in the name of this field. Variations of LGB, LGBTQ, LGBTQ\+ or LGBTQIA\+ are used to refer to the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology.
Due to the variation in the terminology to define this field, it has led to significant discussion and debate regarding which term is the most inclusive of all individuals. Though there continues to be ongoing debate surrounding the terminology used to define the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology, this in fact highlights the field's concern over the diversity in [human sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality "Human sexuality") and gender orientation. Further, the various letters within the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") acronym indicates the diversity and variation in the scope of research that is conducted within the field – namely the types of research questions and the types of methodological approaches used to address these questions.
Traditionally, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology has largely focused on researching the experiences of [gay men](/wiki/Human_male_sexuality "Human male sexuality") and [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian") women meeting the following criteria:Riggs, D. W. (2007\). Recognizing race in LGBTQ\+ psychology: Power, privilege and complicity. In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley.
1. Young
2. Caucasian
3. Middle\-class
4. Healthy
5. Residing in urban areas
Individuals may benefit from gay affirmative therapy if their therapist shares the same experience as them, but there may be a bias alongside having a therapist that is a part of the LGBTQ community. Heterosexual therapists may also hold stigma or not have the knowledge to be able to properly handle a client that belongs to the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") community.{{Cite journal\|last\=Harrison\|first\=Nigel\|date\=February 2000\|title\=Gay affirmative therapy: A critical analysis of the literature\|url\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\.1080/030698800109600\|journal\=British Journal of Guidance \& Counselling\|language\=en\|volume\=28\|issue\=1\|pages\=37–53\|doi\=10\.1080/030698800109600\|s2cid\=144277256\|issn\=0306\-9885}}
The scope of research within the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology has been somewhat lacking in breadth and diversity due to most of the observations regarding LGBTQ psychology to be based in behavioral research. In the past, a majority of the research done on LGBTQ psychology used physical observations and has since expanded to include psychological research.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bailey\|first1\=J. Michael\|last2\=Gaulin\|first2\=Steven\|last3\=Agyei\|first3\=Yvonne\|last4\=Gladue\|first4\=Brian A.\|date\=1994\|title\=Effects of gender and sexual orientation on evolutionarily relevant aspects of human mating psychology.\|url\=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi\=10\.1037/0022\-3514\.66\.6\.1081\|journal\=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology\|language\=en\|volume\=66\|issue\=6\|pages\=1081–1093\|doi\=10\.1037/0022\-3514\.66\.6\.1081\|pmid\=8046578\|issn\=1939\-1315}} Recently, sociocultural psychologists such as Chana Etengoff, Eric M. Rodriguez and Tyler G. Lefevor have begun to explore how sexual and gender identities intersect with other minoritized identities such as religious identities (e.g., LDS, Muslim, Christian).{{Cite journal \|last1\=Etengoff \|first1\=Chana \|last2\=Lefevor \|first2\=Tyler G \|date\=2021\-08\-01 \|title\=Sexual prejudice, sexism, and religion \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X20301779 \|journal\=Current Opinion in Psychology \|language\=en \|volume\=40 \|pages\=45–50 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.copsyc.2020\.08\.024 \|issn\=2352\-250X}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Etengoff \|first1\=Chana \|last2\=Rodriguez \|first2\=Eric M. \|date\=2021\-06\-07 \|title\=Incorporating Transformative Intersectional Psychology (TIP) into Our Understanding of LGBTQ Muslims' Lived Experiences, Challenges, and Growth \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/00918369\.2021\.1888582 \|journal\=Journal of Homosexuality \|volume\=68 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=1075–1082 \|doi\=10\.1080/00918369\.2021\.1888582 \|issn\=0091\-8369 \|pmid\=33629927}} [Mitchell L. Walker](/wiki/Mitchell_L._Walker "Mitchell L. Walker"),{{cite news\|last\=Curzon\|first\=David\|title\=Gay Spirit: Myth and Meaning by Mark Thompson\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1987\-07\-26\-bk\-1600\-story.html\|access\-date\=January 23, 2013\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=July 26, 1987}} [Don Kilhefner](/wiki/Don_Kilhefner "Don Kilhefner"){{cite web \|last1\=Bernadicou \|first1\=August \|title\=Don Kilhefner \|url\=https://www.augustnation.com/don\-kilhefner \|website\=August Nation \|publisher\=The LGBTQ History Project \|access\-date\=2019\-05\-29 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930210223/https://www.augustnation.com/don\-kilhefner \|url\-status\=dead }} and [Douglas Sadownick](/wiki/Douglas_Sadownick "Douglas Sadownick"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/fashion/lgbt\-therapy\-antioch\-university.html \|title\=The Couch in Rainbow Colors: ‘L.G.B.T.\-Affirming’ Therapy \|last\=Schwartz \|first\=Casey \|date\=July 13, 2016 \|publisher\=\[\[New York Times]] \|access\-date\=March 18, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718165128/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/fashion/lgbt\-therapy\-antioch\-university.html \|archive\-date\=2016\-07\-18 \|quote\=Started in 2006, Antioch’s program is, to its leaders’ knowledge, the country’s first and only graduate\-level L.G.B.T.\-affirming clinical psychology specialization. }} seem to do it too.
Overall, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology is a sub\-discipline of psychology that incorporates multiple perspectives and approaches regarding the populations of study, topics of research, and the theories and methodologies that inform the ways in which this research is carried out.]
### Mental health
{{See also\|Mental health inequality}}
[LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals experience a significant amount of stigma and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") at various stages of their lives. Often this [stigmatization](/wiki/Stigmatization "Stigmatization") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") persists throughout their lifetime. Specific acts of [stigmatization](/wiki/Stigmatization "Stigmatization") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") against [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals include physical and [sexual harassment](/wiki/Sexual_harassment "Sexual harassment"). [Hate crimes](/wiki/Hate_crime "Hate crime") are also included.Bohan, J. (1996\). *Psychology and sexual orientation: Coming to terms.* New York: Routledge. These negative experiences put [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals' physical and emotional well\-being at risk. As a result of these experiences, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals typically experience a higher frequency of [mental health](/wiki/Mental_health "Mental health") issues compared to those who do not belong to the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") population.Amadio, D. M., \& Chung, Y. B. (2004\). Internalized homophobia and substance use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons. *Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services: Issues in Practice, Policy and Research, 17*(1\), 83–101\. More than half of the LGBTQ\+ community have depression and a little less than half have PTSD or anxiety disorder.{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-03\-19 \|title\=Mental health challenges in the LGBTQ community \|url\=https://www.healthpartners.com/blog/mental\-health\-in\-the\-lgbtq\-community/ \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-30 \|website\=HealthPartners Blog \|language\=en\-US}}
The following list shows the different mental health issues that LGBTQ individuals may experience:
* [Anxiety](/wiki/Anxiety "Anxiety")
* [Depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 "Depression (mood)")
* [Obsessive\-compulsive disorder](/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder "Obsessive–compulsive disorder")
* [Phobic disorder](/wiki/Phobia "Phobia")
* [Trauma](/wiki/Psychological_trauma "Psychological trauma")
* [Substance abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse "Substance abuse")
* [Self\-harming](/wiki/Self-harm "Self-harm") behaviors
* Suicidal tendencies and [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide")
The list above is by no means complete or exhaustive, rather it shows the range and severity of the issues that [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals often experience. These issues usually result from a combination of negative experiences and a perpetual difficulty accepting their [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") identity in an anti\-LGBT society.{{Cite journal\|title\=Emerging issues in research on lesbians' and gay men's mental health: Does sexual orientation really matter?\|url\=https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi\=10\.1037/0003\-066X.56\.11\.931\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-19\|journal\=American Psychologist\|year \= 2001\|doi\=10\.1037/0003\-066x.56\.11\.931\|last1 \= Cochran\|first1 \= Susan D.\|volume \= 56\|issue \= 11\|pages \= 931–947\|pmid \= 11785169}}
[thumb](/wiki/File:Taunting_0001.jpg "Taunting 0001.jpg")
Suicidal tendencies and suicide [are serious issues for LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT_youth_vulnerability "LGBT youth vulnerability") youth. Compared to their non\-LGBT peers, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") youth typically engage in a higher rate (around 3 to 4 times higher) of [attempted suicides](/wiki/Suicide_attempt "Suicide attempt"). People who identify as transgender are almost nine times more likely to attempt suicide than a person who does not identify in that way. A reason the number of LGBTQ\+ community members who experience poor mental health is high is because it is found that many have had experiences where health care providers disrespected them. This causes one to postpone care or not return to a doctor again. Without professional help, symptoms of mental illness worsen.{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-03\-19 \|title\=Mental health challenges in the LGBTQ community \|url\=https://www.healthpartners.com/blog/mental\-health\-in\-the\-lgbtq\-community/ \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-24 \|website\=HealthPartners Blog \|language\=en\-US}} In school, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") youth have a higher likelihood of experiencing [verbal](/wiki/Verbal_abuse "Verbal abuse") and [physical abuse](/wiki/Physical_abuse "Physical abuse") due to their [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation"), [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") and [expression](/wiki/Gender_expression "Gender expression"). [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") youth quickly learn from these negative social experiences that they are more likely to receive negative judgment and treatment, and often rejection, from those around them. This becomes a vicious cycle in which [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") youths' self\-beliefs and self\-perceptions are negatively reinforced by society. Evidently, the high rates of mental health issues among [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") communities has been perpetuated, and continues to be so, by systemic prejudice and discrimination against [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals.Savin\-Williams, R. C.; Ream, G. L. (2003\). "Suicide attempts among sexual\-minority male youth". *Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology*. **32** (4\): 509–522\. doi:10\.1207/s15374424jccp3204\_3
Nevertheless, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals do not necessarily experience the same types of [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") or [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), nor do they respond in the same ways to [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") or [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"). What is common are the reasons leading to [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"). In the context of LGBT\-targeted [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), it broadly relates to [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") issues (e.g. LGB) or [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") issues (e.g. transgender). Our basic needs as human beings include being our true selves and being accepted for who we are. Feeling loved for who we are is an important aspect of a healthy mind. Due to discrimination, LGBTQ\+ individuals experience more stress and low self\-esteem.{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-03\-19 \|title\=Mental health challenges in the LGBTQ community \|url\=https://www.healthpartners.com/blog/mental\-health\-in\-the\-lgbtq\-community/ \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-24 \|website\=HealthPartners Blog \|language\=en\-US}} Systemic [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice "Prejudice") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination") leads to [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ "LGBTQ") individuals experiencing substantial amounts of stress on a long\-term basis. It also influences [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals to internally assimilate all the negativity they receive, emphasizing the differences they have with others. This, in turn, causes [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ "LGBTQ") individuals to experience guilt and shame regarding their identity, feelings and actions.{{Cite journal\|title\=Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence.\|year \= 2003\|doi\=10\.1037/0033\-2909\.129\.5\.674\|pmc\=2072932\|pmid\=12956539\|last1 \= Meyer\|first1 \= Ilan H.\|journal \= Psychological Bulletin\|volume \= 129\|issue \= 5\|pages \= 674–697}}
The [coming out](/wiki/Coming_out "Coming out") process involving [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals can also create a lot of added pressure from [family](/wiki/Family "Family"), peers and [society](/wiki/Society "Society"). This process is about [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals openly proclaiming their [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and/or [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") to others. In addition, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals also experience other negative outcomes, for example:
[Sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and/or [gender transition](/wiki/Transitioning_%28transgender%29 "Transitioning (transgender)")
[Internalized oppression](/wiki/Internalized_oppression "Internalized oppression") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation") and/or [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity")
* Exclusion and ostracization
* Removed or reduced [family](/wiki/Family "Family") or [social support](/wiki/Social_support "Social support")
* Facilitating [mental health](/wiki/Mental_health "Mental health") well\-being for [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals is a highly pertinent matter.
The main factors in promoting positive [mental health](/wiki/Mental_health "Mental health") for [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals are as follows:Monsen, J. J., \& Bayley, S. (2007\). Educational psychology practice with LGB youth in schools: Individual and institutional interventions. In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley.
* Presence of [family](/wiki/Family "Family") and [peer support](/wiki/Peer_support "Peer support"){{Cite journal\|last1\=Verrelli\|first1\=Stefano\|last2\=White\|first2\=Fiona\|last3\=Harvey\|first3\=Lauren\|last4\=Pulciani\|first4\=Michael\|date\=2019\|title\=Minority stress, social support, and the mental health of lesbian, gay, and bisexual Australians during the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey\|journal\=\[\[Australian Psychologist]]\|volume\=54\|issue\=4\|pages\=336–346\|doi\=10\.1111/ap.12380\|s2cid\=151125628}}
* Community\-based and workplace support
* Understanding, appropriate and positive feedback provided during the coming out process
* Defining, assessing and handling the social factors influencing [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") individuals' health outcomes
### Gender
In the past, a lot of LGBTQ studies were mainly based around the idea of sexuality, but more recently there have been more studies around the gender binary. As the community has become more inclusive and understanding of different identities over time, there has been an addition to the focus of LGBTQ psychology surrounding queer gender identities.{{Cite journal\|last\=Horne\|first\=Sharon G.\|date\=December 2020\|title\=The challenges and promises of transnational LGBTQ psychology: Somewhere over and under the rainbow.\|url\=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi\=10\.1037/amp0000791\|journal\=American Psychologist\|language\=en\|volume\=75\|issue\=9\|pages\=1358–1371\|doi\=10\.1037/amp0000791\|pmid\=33382317\|s2cid\=229930588\|issn\=1935\-990X}} Identities such as non\-binary, transgender and gender queer may have different experiences in their coming of age and may need guidance or therapy based in those specific experiences. People that have queer identities have different experiences than people who are of homosexuality and need resources that pertain to their specific issues or needs. For example, transgender people may go through hormone therapy or face oppression that is not the same as cisgendered people who are a part of the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") community.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|333px\\|[Alfred Kinsey](/wiki/Alfred_Kinsey \"Alfred Kinsey\"), sexologist and early sex researcher\\|alt\\=Landscape photo showing researcher Alfred Kinsey with two unidentified women in a library](/wiki/File:Alfred_Kinsey_%285493900781%29.jpg \"Alfred Kinsey (5493900781).jpg\")",
"### Sexology",
"[Sexology](/wiki/Sexology \"Sexology\") is a part of the historical foundation upon which [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology was built. The work of early sexologists, in particular those who contributed to the establishment of [sexology](/wiki/Sexology \"Sexology\") as a scientific field of [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality \"Human sexuality\") and [gender ambiguity](/wiki/Androgyny \"Androgyny\"), is highly relevant and seminal to the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ \"LGBTQ\") psychology.",
"As previously mentioned, [sexology](/wiki/Sexology \"Sexology\") is a scientific field of study focusing on [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality \"Human sexuality\") and [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\"). In the field of [sexology](/wiki/Sexology \"Sexology\"), a broad classification spectrum known as inversion, is used to define [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\"). On this spectrum, early sexologists included both '[same\\-sex sexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\")' and 'cross\\-gender identification' as belonging to this all\\-inclusive category. More contemporary sexology researchers conceptualize and categorize [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality \"Human sexuality\") and [gender diversity](/wiki/Gender_diversity \"Gender diversity\") separately. In terms of [LGB](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") sexualities, this would fall under [sexual diversity](/wiki/Sexual_diversity \"Sexual diversity\"). As for [transsexuality](/wiki/Transsexual \"Transsexual\"), this would be placed under [gender diversity](/wiki/Gender_diversity \"Gender diversity\"). Important figures in this field include [Magnus Hirschfeld](/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld \"Magnus Hirschfeld\") and [Karl\\-Heinrich Ulrichs](/wiki/Karl_Heinrich_Ulrichs \"Karl Heinrich Ulrichs\").",
"### The historical emergence of 'gay affirmative' psychology",
"Gay affirmative psychology was first established in the 1970s. It was founded with the mission of 1\\) challenging the idea and view of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") as a [mental illness](/wiki/Mental_disorder \"Mental disorder\") and 2\\) affirming the normal and healthy psychological functioning of [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") individuals by dispelling beliefs and attitudes of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") being associated with [mental illness](/wiki/Mental_disorder \"Mental disorder\").Brown, L. S. (1989\\). New voices, new visions: Toward a lesbian/gay paradigm for psychology. *Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13*(4\\), 445–458\\. There has been a lot of stigma surrounding the [LGBTQ community](/wiki/LGBT_community \"LGBT community\") which may result in feelings of self\\-hate. Gay affirmative therapy has been implemented with the purpose of combatting the influence that LGBTQ oppression may have had on the individuals in the community.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Moradi\\|first1\\=Bonnie\\|last2\\=Budge\\|first2\\=Stephanie L.\\|date\\=November 2018\\|title\\=Engaging in LGBQ\\+ affirmative psychotherapies with all clients: Defining themes and practices: MORADI and BUDGE\\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1002/jclp.22687\\|journal\\=Journal of Clinical Psychology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=74\\|issue\\=11\\|pages\\=2028–2042\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/jclp.22687\\|pmid\\=30238455\\|s2cid\\=52307706}}",
"Following this field's mission, most of the research conducted in this area has naturally looked at the pathologization of homosexuality. In relation to this, much attention has also been placed on [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\") and cis\\-gender (i.e. non\\-trans) individuals' lived experiences.",
"In the 1980s, the name *gay affirmative psychology* changed to lesbian and gay psychology to denote that this branch of psychology spanned both the lives and experiences of [gay men](/wiki/Human_male_sexuality \"Human male sexuality\") and [lesbian women](/wiki/Lesbian_women \"Lesbian women\").Clarke, V., \\& Peel, E. (2007\\). From lesbian and gay psychology to LGBTQ\\+ psychologies: A journey into the unknown (or unknownable)? In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley. Later on, additional terms were included in the name of this field. Variations of LGB, LGBTQ, LGBTQ\\+ or LGBTQIA\\+ are used to refer to the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology.",
"Due to the variation in the terminology to define this field, it has led to significant discussion and debate regarding which term is the most inclusive of all individuals. Though there continues to be ongoing debate surrounding the terminology used to define the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology, this in fact highlights the field's concern over the diversity in [human sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality \"Human sexuality\") and gender orientation. Further, the various letters within the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") acronym indicates the diversity and variation in the scope of research that is conducted within the field – namely the types of research questions and the types of methodological approaches used to address these questions.",
"Traditionally, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology has largely focused on researching the experiences of [gay men](/wiki/Human_male_sexuality \"Human male sexuality\") and [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\") women meeting the following criteria:Riggs, D. W. (2007\\). Recognizing race in LGBTQ\\+ psychology: Power, privilege and complicity. In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley.",
"1. Young\n2. Caucasian\n3. Middle\\-class\n4. Healthy\n5. Residing in urban areas",
"Individuals may benefit from gay affirmative therapy if their therapist shares the same experience as them, but there may be a bias alongside having a therapist that is a part of the LGBTQ community. Heterosexual therapists may also hold stigma or not have the knowledge to be able to properly handle a client that belongs to the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") community.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Harrison\\|first\\=Nigel\\|date\\=February 2000\\|title\\=Gay affirmative therapy: A critical analysis of the literature\\|url\\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\\.1080/030698800109600\\|journal\\=British Journal of Guidance \\& Counselling\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=28\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=37–53\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/030698800109600\\|s2cid\\=144277256\\|issn\\=0306\\-9885}}",
"The scope of research within the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology has been somewhat lacking in breadth and diversity due to most of the observations regarding LGBTQ psychology to be based in behavioral research. In the past, a majority of the research done on LGBTQ psychology used physical observations and has since expanded to include psychological research.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bailey\\|first1\\=J. Michael\\|last2\\=Gaulin\\|first2\\=Steven\\|last3\\=Agyei\\|first3\\=Yvonne\\|last4\\=Gladue\\|first4\\=Brian A.\\|date\\=1994\\|title\\=Effects of gender and sexual orientation on evolutionarily relevant aspects of human mating psychology.\\|url\\=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi\\=10\\.1037/0022\\-3514\\.66\\.6\\.1081\\|journal\\=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=66\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=1081–1093\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0022\\-3514\\.66\\.6\\.1081\\|pmid\\=8046578\\|issn\\=1939\\-1315}} Recently, sociocultural psychologists such as Chana Etengoff, Eric M. Rodriguez and Tyler G. Lefevor have begun to explore how sexual and gender identities intersect with other minoritized identities such as religious identities (e.g., LDS, Muslim, Christian).{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Etengoff \\|first1\\=Chana \\|last2\\=Lefevor \\|first2\\=Tyler G \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-01 \\|title\\=Sexual prejudice, sexism, and religion \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X20301779 \\|journal\\=Current Opinion in Psychology \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=40 \\|pages\\=45–50 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.copsyc.2020\\.08\\.024 \\|issn\\=2352\\-250X}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Etengoff \\|first1\\=Chana \\|last2\\=Rodriguez \\|first2\\=Eric M. \\|date\\=2021\\-06\\-07 \\|title\\=Incorporating Transformative Intersectional Psychology (TIP) into Our Understanding of LGBTQ Muslims' Lived Experiences, Challenges, and Growth \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/00918369\\.2021\\.1888582 \\|journal\\=Journal of Homosexuality \\|volume\\=68 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=1075–1082 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00918369\\.2021\\.1888582 \\|issn\\=0091\\-8369 \\|pmid\\=33629927}} [Mitchell L. Walker](/wiki/Mitchell_L._Walker \"Mitchell L. Walker\"),{{cite news\\|last\\=Curzon\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Gay Spirit: Myth and Meaning by Mark Thompson\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1987\\-07\\-26\\-bk\\-1600\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=January 23, 2013\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=July 26, 1987}} [Don Kilhefner](/wiki/Don_Kilhefner \"Don Kilhefner\"){{cite web \\|last1\\=Bernadicou \\|first1\\=August \\|title\\=Don Kilhefner \\|url\\=https://www.augustnation.com/don\\-kilhefner \\|website\\=August Nation \\|publisher\\=The LGBTQ History Project \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-29 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930210223/https://www.augustnation.com/don\\-kilhefner \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and [Douglas Sadownick](/wiki/Douglas_Sadownick \"Douglas Sadownick\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/fashion/lgbt\\-therapy\\-antioch\\-university.html \\|title\\=The Couch in Rainbow Colors: ‘L.G.B.T.\\-Affirming’ Therapy \\|last\\=Schwartz \\|first\\=Casey \\|date\\=July 13, 2016 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718165128/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/fashion/lgbt\\-therapy\\-antioch\\-university.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-18 \\|quote\\=Started in 2006, Antioch’s program is, to its leaders’ knowledge, the country’s first and only graduate\\-level L.G.B.T.\\-affirming clinical psychology specialization. }} seem to do it too.",
"Overall, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology is a sub\\-discipline of psychology that incorporates multiple perspectives and approaches regarding the populations of study, topics of research, and the theories and methodologies that inform the ways in which this research is carried out.]",
"### Mental health",
"{{See also\\|Mental health inequality}}\n[LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals experience a significant amount of stigma and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") at various stages of their lives. Often this [stigmatization](/wiki/Stigmatization \"Stigmatization\") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") persists throughout their lifetime. Specific acts of [stigmatization](/wiki/Stigmatization \"Stigmatization\") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") against [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals include physical and [sexual harassment](/wiki/Sexual_harassment \"Sexual harassment\"). [Hate crimes](/wiki/Hate_crime \"Hate crime\") are also included.Bohan, J. (1996\\). *Psychology and sexual orientation: Coming to terms.* New York: Routledge. These negative experiences put [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals' physical and emotional well\\-being at risk. As a result of these experiences, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals typically experience a higher frequency of [mental health](/wiki/Mental_health \"Mental health\") issues compared to those who do not belong to the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") population.Amadio, D. M., \\& Chung, Y. B. (2004\\). Internalized homophobia and substance use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons. *Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services: Issues in Practice, Policy and Research, 17*(1\\), 83–101\\. More than half of the LGBTQ\\+ community have depression and a little less than half have PTSD or anxiety disorder.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-19 \\|title\\=Mental health challenges in the LGBTQ community \\|url\\=https://www.healthpartners.com/blog/mental\\-health\\-in\\-the\\-lgbtq\\-community/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-30 \\|website\\=HealthPartners Blog \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"The following list shows the different mental health issues that LGBTQ individuals may experience:\n* [Anxiety](/wiki/Anxiety \"Anxiety\")\n* [Depression](/wiki/Depression_%28mood%29 \"Depression (mood)\")\n* [Obsessive\\-compulsive disorder](/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder \"Obsessive–compulsive disorder\")\n* [Phobic disorder](/wiki/Phobia \"Phobia\")\n* [Trauma](/wiki/Psychological_trauma \"Psychological trauma\")\n* [Substance abuse](/wiki/Substance_abuse \"Substance abuse\")\n* [Self\\-harming](/wiki/Self-harm \"Self-harm\") behaviors\n* Suicidal tendencies and [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\")\nThe list above is by no means complete or exhaustive, rather it shows the range and severity of the issues that [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals often experience. These issues usually result from a combination of negative experiences and a perpetual difficulty accepting their [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") identity in an anti\\-LGBT society.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=Emerging issues in research on lesbians' and gay men's mental health: Does sexual orientation really matter?\\|url\\=https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi\\=10\\.1037/0003\\-066X.56\\.11\\.931\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-19\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|year \\= 2001\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0003\\-066x.56\\.11\\.931\\|last1 \\= Cochran\\|first1 \\= Susan D.\\|volume \\= 56\\|issue \\= 11\\|pages \\= 931–947\\|pmid \\= 11785169}}",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:Taunting_0001.jpg \"Taunting 0001.jpg\")\nSuicidal tendencies and suicide [are serious issues for LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT_youth_vulnerability \"LGBT youth vulnerability\") youth. Compared to their non\\-LGBT peers, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") youth typically engage in a higher rate (around 3 to 4 times higher) of [attempted suicides](/wiki/Suicide_attempt \"Suicide attempt\"). People who identify as transgender are almost nine times more likely to attempt suicide than a person who does not identify in that way. A reason the number of LGBTQ\\+ community members who experience poor mental health is high is because it is found that many have had experiences where health care providers disrespected them. This causes one to postpone care or not return to a doctor again. Without professional help, symptoms of mental illness worsen.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-19 \\|title\\=Mental health challenges in the LGBTQ community \\|url\\=https://www.healthpartners.com/blog/mental\\-health\\-in\\-the\\-lgbtq\\-community/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=HealthPartners Blog \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In school, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") youth have a higher likelihood of experiencing [verbal](/wiki/Verbal_abuse \"Verbal abuse\") and [physical abuse](/wiki/Physical_abuse \"Physical abuse\") due to their [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\"), [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") and [expression](/wiki/Gender_expression \"Gender expression\"). [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") youth quickly learn from these negative social experiences that they are more likely to receive negative judgment and treatment, and often rejection, from those around them. This becomes a vicious cycle in which [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") youths' self\\-beliefs and self\\-perceptions are negatively reinforced by society. Evidently, the high rates of mental health issues among [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") communities has been perpetuated, and continues to be so, by systemic prejudice and discrimination against [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals.Savin\\-Williams, R. C.; Ream, G. L. (2003\\). \"Suicide attempts among sexual\\-minority male youth\". *Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology*. **32** (4\\): 509–522\\. doi:10\\.1207/s15374424jccp3204\\_3",
"Nevertheless, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals do not necessarily experience the same types of [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") or [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), nor do they respond in the same ways to [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") or [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"). What is common are the reasons leading to [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"). In the context of LGBT\\-targeted [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), it broadly relates to [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") issues (e.g. LGB) or [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") issues (e.g. transgender). Our basic needs as human beings include being our true selves and being accepted for who we are. Feeling loved for who we are is an important aspect of a healthy mind. Due to discrimination, LGBTQ\\+ individuals experience more stress and low self\\-esteem.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-19 \\|title\\=Mental health challenges in the LGBTQ community \\|url\\=https://www.healthpartners.com/blog/mental\\-health\\-in\\-the\\-lgbtq\\-community/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=HealthPartners Blog \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Systemic [prejudice](/wiki/Prejudice \"Prejudice\") and [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\") leads to [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ \"LGBTQ\") individuals experiencing substantial amounts of stress on a long\\-term basis. It also influences [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals to internally assimilate all the negativity they receive, emphasizing the differences they have with others. This, in turn, causes [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBTQ \"LGBTQ\") individuals to experience guilt and shame regarding their identity, feelings and actions.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence.\\|year \\= 2003\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0033\\-2909\\.129\\.5\\.674\\|pmc\\=2072932\\|pmid\\=12956539\\|last1 \\= Meyer\\|first1 \\= Ilan H.\\|journal \\= Psychological Bulletin\\|volume \\= 129\\|issue \\= 5\\|pages \\= 674–697}}",
"The [coming out](/wiki/Coming_out \"Coming out\") process involving [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals can also create a lot of added pressure from [family](/wiki/Family \"Family\"), peers and [society](/wiki/Society \"Society\"). This process is about [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals openly proclaiming their [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and/or [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") to others. In addition, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals also experience other negative outcomes, for example:",
"[Sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and/or [gender transition](/wiki/Transitioning_%28transgender%29 \"Transitioning (transgender)\")\n[Internalized oppression](/wiki/Internalized_oppression \"Internalized oppression\") of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\") and/or [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\")\n* Exclusion and ostracization\n* Removed or reduced [family](/wiki/Family \"Family\") or [social support](/wiki/Social_support \"Social support\")\n* Facilitating [mental health](/wiki/Mental_health \"Mental health\") well\\-being for [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals is a highly pertinent matter.\nThe main factors in promoting positive [mental health](/wiki/Mental_health \"Mental health\") for [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals are as follows:Monsen, J. J., \\& Bayley, S. (2007\\). Educational psychology practice with LGB youth in schools: Individual and institutional interventions. In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley.\n* Presence of [family](/wiki/Family \"Family\") and [peer support](/wiki/Peer_support \"Peer support\"){{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Verrelli\\|first1\\=Stefano\\|last2\\=White\\|first2\\=Fiona\\|last3\\=Harvey\\|first3\\=Lauren\\|last4\\=Pulciani\\|first4\\=Michael\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=Minority stress, social support, and the mental health of lesbian, gay, and bisexual Australians during the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Australian Psychologist]]\\|volume\\=54\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=336–346\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/ap.12380\\|s2cid\\=151125628}}\n* Community\\-based and workplace support\n* Understanding, appropriate and positive feedback provided during the coming out process\n* Defining, assessing and handling the social factors influencing [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") individuals' health outcomes",
"### Gender",
"In the past, a lot of LGBTQ studies were mainly based around the idea of sexuality, but more recently there have been more studies around the gender binary. As the community has become more inclusive and understanding of different identities over time, there has been an addition to the focus of LGBTQ psychology surrounding queer gender identities.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Horne\\|first\\=Sharon G.\\|date\\=December 2020\\|title\\=The challenges and promises of transnational LGBTQ psychology: Somewhere over and under the rainbow.\\|url\\=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi\\=10\\.1037/amp0000791\\|journal\\=American Psychologist\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=75\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=1358–1371\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/amp0000791\\|pmid\\=33382317\\|s2cid\\=229930588\\|issn\\=1935\\-990X}} Identities such as non\\-binary, transgender and gender queer may have different experiences in their coming of age and may need guidance or therapy based in those specific experiences. People that have queer identities have different experiences than people who are of homosexuality and need resources that pertain to their specific issues or needs. For example, transgender people may go through hormone therapy or face oppression that is not the same as cisgendered people who are a part of the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") community.",
""
] |
### The historical emergence of 'gay affirmative' psychology
Gay affirmative psychology was first established in the 1970s. It was founded with the mission of 1\) challenging the idea and view of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") as a [mental illness](/wiki/Mental_disorder "Mental disorder") and 2\) affirming the normal and healthy psychological functioning of [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") individuals by dispelling beliefs and attitudes of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality") being associated with [mental illness](/wiki/Mental_disorder "Mental disorder").Brown, L. S. (1989\). New voices, new visions: Toward a lesbian/gay paradigm for psychology. *Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13*(4\), 445–458\. There has been a lot of stigma surrounding the [LGBTQ community](/wiki/LGBT_community "LGBT community") which may result in feelings of self\-hate. Gay affirmative therapy has been implemented with the purpose of combatting the influence that LGBTQ oppression may have had on the individuals in the community.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Moradi\|first1\=Bonnie\|last2\=Budge\|first2\=Stephanie L.\|date\=November 2018\|title\=Engaging in LGBQ\+ affirmative psychotherapies with all clients: Defining themes and practices: MORADI and BUDGE\|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\.1002/jclp.22687\|journal\=Journal of Clinical Psychology\|language\=en\|volume\=74\|issue\=11\|pages\=2028–2042\|doi\=10\.1002/jclp.22687\|pmid\=30238455\|s2cid\=52307706}}
Following this field's mission, most of the research conducted in this area has naturally looked at the pathologization of homosexuality. In relation to this, much attention has also been placed on [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality") and cis\-gender (i.e. non\-trans) individuals' lived experiences.
In the 1980s, the name *gay affirmative psychology* changed to lesbian and gay psychology to denote that this branch of psychology spanned both the lives and experiences of [gay men](/wiki/Human_male_sexuality "Human male sexuality") and [lesbian women](/wiki/Lesbian_women "Lesbian women").Clarke, V., \& Peel, E. (2007\). From lesbian and gay psychology to LGBTQ\+ psychologies: A journey into the unknown (or unknownable)? In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley. Later on, additional terms were included in the name of this field. Variations of LGB, LGBTQ, LGBTQ\+ or LGBTQIA\+ are used to refer to the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology.
Due to the variation in the terminology to define this field, it has led to significant discussion and debate regarding which term is the most inclusive of all individuals. Though there continues to be ongoing debate surrounding the terminology used to define the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology, this in fact highlights the field's concern over the diversity in [human sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality "Human sexuality") and gender orientation. Further, the various letters within the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") acronym indicates the diversity and variation in the scope of research that is conducted within the field – namely the types of research questions and the types of methodological approaches used to address these questions.
Traditionally, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology has largely focused on researching the experiences of [gay men](/wiki/Human_male_sexuality "Human male sexuality") and [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian") women meeting the following criteria:Riggs, D. W. (2007\). Recognizing race in LGBTQ\+ psychology: Power, privilege and complicity. In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley.
1. Young
2. Caucasian
3. Middle\-class
4. Healthy
5. Residing in urban areas
Individuals may benefit from gay affirmative therapy if their therapist shares the same experience as them, but there may be a bias alongside having a therapist that is a part of the LGBTQ community. Heterosexual therapists may also hold stigma or not have the knowledge to be able to properly handle a client that belongs to the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") community.{{Cite journal\|last\=Harrison\|first\=Nigel\|date\=February 2000\|title\=Gay affirmative therapy: A critical analysis of the literature\|url\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\.1080/030698800109600\|journal\=British Journal of Guidance \& Counselling\|language\=en\|volume\=28\|issue\=1\|pages\=37–53\|doi\=10\.1080/030698800109600\|s2cid\=144277256\|issn\=0306\-9885}}
The scope of research within the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology has been somewhat lacking in breadth and diversity due to most of the observations regarding LGBTQ psychology to be based in behavioral research. In the past, a majority of the research done on LGBTQ psychology used physical observations and has since expanded to include psychological research.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Bailey\|first1\=J. Michael\|last2\=Gaulin\|first2\=Steven\|last3\=Agyei\|first3\=Yvonne\|last4\=Gladue\|first4\=Brian A.\|date\=1994\|title\=Effects of gender and sexual orientation on evolutionarily relevant aspects of human mating psychology.\|url\=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi\=10\.1037/0022\-3514\.66\.6\.1081\|journal\=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology\|language\=en\|volume\=66\|issue\=6\|pages\=1081–1093\|doi\=10\.1037/0022\-3514\.66\.6\.1081\|pmid\=8046578\|issn\=1939\-1315}} Recently, sociocultural psychologists such as Chana Etengoff, Eric M. Rodriguez and Tyler G. Lefevor have begun to explore how sexual and gender identities intersect with other minoritized identities such as religious identities (e.g., LDS, Muslim, Christian).{{Cite journal \|last1\=Etengoff \|first1\=Chana \|last2\=Lefevor \|first2\=Tyler G \|date\=2021\-08\-01 \|title\=Sexual prejudice, sexism, and religion \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X20301779 \|journal\=Current Opinion in Psychology \|language\=en \|volume\=40 \|pages\=45–50 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.copsyc.2020\.08\.024 \|issn\=2352\-250X}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Etengoff \|first1\=Chana \|last2\=Rodriguez \|first2\=Eric M. \|date\=2021\-06\-07 \|title\=Incorporating Transformative Intersectional Psychology (TIP) into Our Understanding of LGBTQ Muslims' Lived Experiences, Challenges, and Growth \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/00918369\.2021\.1888582 \|journal\=Journal of Homosexuality \|volume\=68 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=1075–1082 \|doi\=10\.1080/00918369\.2021\.1888582 \|issn\=0091\-8369 \|pmid\=33629927}} [Mitchell L. Walker](/wiki/Mitchell_L._Walker "Mitchell L. Walker"),{{cite news\|last\=Curzon\|first\=David\|title\=Gay Spirit: Myth and Meaning by Mark Thompson\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1987\-07\-26\-bk\-1600\-story.html\|access\-date\=January 23, 2013\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=July 26, 1987}} [Don Kilhefner](/wiki/Don_Kilhefner "Don Kilhefner"){{cite web \|last1\=Bernadicou \|first1\=August \|title\=Don Kilhefner \|url\=https://www.augustnation.com/don\-kilhefner \|website\=August Nation \|publisher\=The LGBTQ History Project \|access\-date\=2019\-05\-29 \|archive\-date\=2020\-09\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930210223/https://www.augustnation.com/don\-kilhefner \|url\-status\=dead }} and [Douglas Sadownick](/wiki/Douglas_Sadownick "Douglas Sadownick"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/fashion/lgbt\-therapy\-antioch\-university.html \|title\=The Couch in Rainbow Colors: ‘L.G.B.T.\-Affirming’ Therapy \|last\=Schwartz \|first\=Casey \|date\=July 13, 2016 \|publisher\=\[\[New York Times]] \|access\-date\=March 18, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718165128/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/fashion/lgbt\-therapy\-antioch\-university.html \|archive\-date\=2016\-07\-18 \|quote\=Started in 2006, Antioch’s program is, to its leaders’ knowledge, the country’s first and only graduate\-level L.G.B.T.\-affirming clinical psychology specialization. }} seem to do it too.
Overall, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") psychology is a sub\-discipline of psychology that incorporates multiple perspectives and approaches regarding the populations of study, topics of research, and the theories and methodologies that inform the ways in which this research is carried out.]
|
[
"### The historical emergence of 'gay affirmative' psychology",
"Gay affirmative psychology was first established in the 1970s. It was founded with the mission of 1\\) challenging the idea and view of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") as a [mental illness](/wiki/Mental_disorder \"Mental disorder\") and 2\\) affirming the normal and healthy psychological functioning of [homosexual](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") individuals by dispelling beliefs and attitudes of [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\") being associated with [mental illness](/wiki/Mental_disorder \"Mental disorder\").Brown, L. S. (1989\\). New voices, new visions: Toward a lesbian/gay paradigm for psychology. *Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13*(4\\), 445–458\\. There has been a lot of stigma surrounding the [LGBTQ community](/wiki/LGBT_community \"LGBT community\") which may result in feelings of self\\-hate. Gay affirmative therapy has been implemented with the purpose of combatting the influence that LGBTQ oppression may have had on the individuals in the community.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Moradi\\|first1\\=Bonnie\\|last2\\=Budge\\|first2\\=Stephanie L.\\|date\\=November 2018\\|title\\=Engaging in LGBQ\\+ affirmative psychotherapies with all clients: Defining themes and practices: MORADI and BUDGE\\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10\\.1002/jclp.22687\\|journal\\=Journal of Clinical Psychology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=74\\|issue\\=11\\|pages\\=2028–2042\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/jclp.22687\\|pmid\\=30238455\\|s2cid\\=52307706}}",
"Following this field's mission, most of the research conducted in this area has naturally looked at the pathologization of homosexuality. In relation to this, much attention has also been placed on [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\") and cis\\-gender (i.e. non\\-trans) individuals' lived experiences.",
"In the 1980s, the name *gay affirmative psychology* changed to lesbian and gay psychology to denote that this branch of psychology spanned both the lives and experiences of [gay men](/wiki/Human_male_sexuality \"Human male sexuality\") and [lesbian women](/wiki/Lesbian_women \"Lesbian women\").Clarke, V., \\& Peel, E. (2007\\). From lesbian and gay psychology to LGBTQ\\+ psychologies: A journey into the unknown (or unknownable)? In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley. Later on, additional terms were included in the name of this field. Variations of LGB, LGBTQ, LGBTQ\\+ or LGBTQIA\\+ are used to refer to the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology.",
"Due to the variation in the terminology to define this field, it has led to significant discussion and debate regarding which term is the most inclusive of all individuals. Though there continues to be ongoing debate surrounding the terminology used to define the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology, this in fact highlights the field's concern over the diversity in [human sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality \"Human sexuality\") and gender orientation. Further, the various letters within the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") acronym indicates the diversity and variation in the scope of research that is conducted within the field – namely the types of research questions and the types of methodological approaches used to address these questions.",
"Traditionally, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology has largely focused on researching the experiences of [gay men](/wiki/Human_male_sexuality \"Human male sexuality\") and [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\") women meeting the following criteria:Riggs, D. W. (2007\\). Recognizing race in LGBTQ\\+ psychology: Power, privilege and complicity. In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds.), *Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives.* Chichester, UK: Wiley.",
"1. Young\n2. Caucasian\n3. Middle\\-class\n4. Healthy\n5. Residing in urban areas",
"Individuals may benefit from gay affirmative therapy if their therapist shares the same experience as them, but there may be a bias alongside having a therapist that is a part of the LGBTQ community. Heterosexual therapists may also hold stigma or not have the knowledge to be able to properly handle a client that belongs to the [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") community.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Harrison\\|first\\=Nigel\\|date\\=February 2000\\|title\\=Gay affirmative therapy: A critical analysis of the literature\\|url\\=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10\\.1080/030698800109600\\|journal\\=British Journal of Guidance \\& Counselling\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=28\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=37–53\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/030698800109600\\|s2cid\\=144277256\\|issn\\=0306\\-9885}}",
"The scope of research within the field of [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology has been somewhat lacking in breadth and diversity due to most of the observations regarding LGBTQ psychology to be based in behavioral research. In the past, a majority of the research done on LGBTQ psychology used physical observations and has since expanded to include psychological research.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Bailey\\|first1\\=J. Michael\\|last2\\=Gaulin\\|first2\\=Steven\\|last3\\=Agyei\\|first3\\=Yvonne\\|last4\\=Gladue\\|first4\\=Brian A.\\|date\\=1994\\|title\\=Effects of gender and sexual orientation on evolutionarily relevant aspects of human mating psychology.\\|url\\=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi\\=10\\.1037/0022\\-3514\\.66\\.6\\.1081\\|journal\\=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=66\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=1081–1093\\|doi\\=10\\.1037/0022\\-3514\\.66\\.6\\.1081\\|pmid\\=8046578\\|issn\\=1939\\-1315}} Recently, sociocultural psychologists such as Chana Etengoff, Eric M. Rodriguez and Tyler G. Lefevor have begun to explore how sexual and gender identities intersect with other minoritized identities such as religious identities (e.g., LDS, Muslim, Christian).{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Etengoff \\|first1\\=Chana \\|last2\\=Lefevor \\|first2\\=Tyler G \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-01 \\|title\\=Sexual prejudice, sexism, and religion \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X20301779 \\|journal\\=Current Opinion in Psychology \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=40 \\|pages\\=45–50 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.copsyc.2020\\.08\\.024 \\|issn\\=2352\\-250X}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Etengoff \\|first1\\=Chana \\|last2\\=Rodriguez \\|first2\\=Eric M. \\|date\\=2021\\-06\\-07 \\|title\\=Incorporating Transformative Intersectional Psychology (TIP) into Our Understanding of LGBTQ Muslims' Lived Experiences, Challenges, and Growth \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/00918369\\.2021\\.1888582 \\|journal\\=Journal of Homosexuality \\|volume\\=68 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=1075–1082 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00918369\\.2021\\.1888582 \\|issn\\=0091\\-8369 \\|pmid\\=33629927}} [Mitchell L. Walker](/wiki/Mitchell_L._Walker \"Mitchell L. Walker\"),{{cite news\\|last\\=Curzon\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Gay Spirit: Myth and Meaning by Mark Thompson\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1987\\-07\\-26\\-bk\\-1600\\-story.html\\|access\\-date\\=January 23, 2013\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=July 26, 1987}} [Don Kilhefner](/wiki/Don_Kilhefner \"Don Kilhefner\"){{cite web \\|last1\\=Bernadicou \\|first1\\=August \\|title\\=Don Kilhefner \\|url\\=https://www.augustnation.com/don\\-kilhefner \\|website\\=August Nation \\|publisher\\=The LGBTQ History Project \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-29 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-09\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930210223/https://www.augustnation.com/don\\-kilhefner \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and [Douglas Sadownick](/wiki/Douglas_Sadownick \"Douglas Sadownick\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/fashion/lgbt\\-therapy\\-antioch\\-university.html \\|title\\=The Couch in Rainbow Colors: ‘L.G.B.T.\\-Affirming’ Therapy \\|last\\=Schwartz \\|first\\=Casey \\|date\\=July 13, 2016 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New York Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=March 18, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718165128/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/fashion/lgbt\\-therapy\\-antioch\\-university.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-18 \\|quote\\=Started in 2006, Antioch’s program is, to its leaders’ knowledge, the country’s first and only graduate\\-level L.G.B.T.\\-affirming clinical psychology specialization. }} seem to do it too.",
"Overall, [LGBTQ](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") psychology is a sub\\-discipline of psychology that incorporates multiple perspectives and approaches regarding the populations of study, topics of research, and the theories and methodologies that inform the ways in which this research is carried out.]",
""
] |
Eruption history
----------------
Aguilera erupted during the [Holocene](/wiki/Holocene "Holocene"), depositing tephra in the region of [Lago Argentino](/wiki/Lago_Argentino "Lago Argentino") and [Torres del Paine](/wiki/Torres_del_Paine "Torres del Paine").{{sfn\|Tonello\|Mancini\|Seppä\|2009\|p\=413}} The composition of rocks erupted by Aguilera are similar to these from Lautaro and Viedma, and the linkage of specific ash deposits to Aguilera is based mainly on geographical considerations.{{sfn\|Stern\|2008\|p\=441}} Other volcanoes have left tephra deposits in the wider region, including Cerro Hudson, Monte Burney and Reclus.
Evidence of possible eruptions at Aguilera include a 42,400 \- 51,747 years old {{convert\|70\|mm}} thick tephra from [Laguna Potrok Aike](/wiki/Laguna_Potrok_Aike "Laguna Potrok Aike"), two ash layers emplaced 5,700 and 5,150 years before present in the Vega Ñandú [mire](/wiki/Mire "Mire") in [Torres del Paine National Park](/wiki/Torres_del_Paine_National_Park "Torres del Paine National Park"), and a 5,500 years old tephra layer at various sites in and around Peninsula Avellaneda. A tephra layer found at archeological sites around [Lago Argentino](/wiki/Lago_Argentino "Lago Argentino") and deposited there 4,091 \- 4,566 years before present originated at Aguilera and probably disrupted local human communities. Farther away in [Antarctica](/wiki/Antarctica "Antarctica"), a tephra found in [Talos Dome](/wiki/Talos_Dome "Talos Dome") and deposited there 4,420 years before present may have originated at this volcano as well.
Another smaller eruption occurred at Aguilera after the A1 event and deposited ash in the [Lago Argentino](/wiki/Lago_Argentino "Lago Argentino") area; the date of its eruption is unknown.{{sfn\|Stern\|2008\|p\=450}} There are no known historical eruptions although an eruption reported in 1886 in the area may have occurred at Aguilera.
### A1 eruption
The major A1{{sfn\|Stern\|2008\|p\=449}} eruption occurred at Aguilera {{val\|3000\|100}} or {{val\|2978\|91\|104}} years ago. It deposited tephra east of the volcano as far south as the [Strait of Magellan](/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan "Strait of Magellan");{{sfn\|Stern\|2008\|p\=452}} other Aguilera tephras are less widespread. Its volume has been estimated to be between {{convert\|3\.6\|\-\|9\.5\|km3}},{{sfn\|Stern\|2008\|p\=452}} larger than the 1991 eruption of [Cerro Hudson](/wiki/Cerro_Hudson "Cerro Hudson"), reaching level 5 on the [volcanic explosivity index](/wiki/Volcanic_explosivity_index "Volcanic explosivity index").
Tephra deposits from this eruption have been found in the [Cordillera Baguales](/wiki/Cordillera_Baguales "Cordillera Baguales") ({{convert\|6\|\-\|8\|cm}} thickness),{{sfn\|Stern\|2008\|p\=445}} at [Gran Campo Nevado](/wiki/Gran_Campo_Nevado "Gran Campo Nevado") ({{convert\|1\.5\|mm}} thickness), [Lago Argentino](/wiki/Lago_Argentino "Lago Argentino") ({{convert\|6\|\-\|8\|cm}} thickness), [Lago Cardiel](/wiki/Lago_Cardiel "Lago Cardiel") ({{convert\|1\|cm}} thickness), [Lago Roca](/wiki/Lago_Roca "Lago Roca") ({{convert\|10\|cm}} thickness), [Lake Viedma](/wiki/Lake_Viedma "Lake Viedma") ({{convert\|2\|cm}} thickness), [Brunswick Peninsula](/wiki/Brunswick_Peninsula "Brunswick Peninsula") ({{convert\|1\|cm}} thickness), [Seno Skyring](/wiki/Seno_Skyring "Seno Skyring") ({{convert\|2\|cm}}), [Torres del Paine National Park](/wiki/Torres_del_Paine_National_Park "Torres del Paine National Park") ({{convert\|2\|\-\|3\|cm}} thickness){{sfn\|Stern\|2008\|p\=445}} and [Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego](/wiki/Isla_Grande_de_Tierra_del_Fuego "Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego") ({{convert\|1\|cm}} thickness). On Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego apparently the eruption did not substantially impact human populations. Chemicals derived from Aguilera tephra are found in [cave deposits](/wiki/Speleothem "Speleothem") close to Monte Burney. Furthermore, a 3,600 years old [sulfur dioxide](/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide "Sulfur dioxide")\-rich layer in [ice cores](/wiki/Ice_core "Ice core") from [Talos Dome](/wiki/Talos_Dome "Talos Dome"), [Antarctica](/wiki/Antarctica "Antarctica"), may have been produced by the Aguilera eruption.
|
[
"Eruption history\n----------------",
"Aguilera erupted during the [Holocene](/wiki/Holocene \"Holocene\"), depositing tephra in the region of [Lago Argentino](/wiki/Lago_Argentino \"Lago Argentino\") and [Torres del Paine](/wiki/Torres_del_Paine \"Torres del Paine\").{{sfn\\|Tonello\\|Mancini\\|Seppä\\|2009\\|p\\=413}} The composition of rocks erupted by Aguilera are similar to these from Lautaro and Viedma, and the linkage of specific ash deposits to Aguilera is based mainly on geographical considerations.{{sfn\\|Stern\\|2008\\|p\\=441}} Other volcanoes have left tephra deposits in the wider region, including Cerro Hudson, Monte Burney and Reclus.",
"Evidence of possible eruptions at Aguilera include a 42,400 \\- 51,747 years old {{convert\\|70\\|mm}} thick tephra from [Laguna Potrok Aike](/wiki/Laguna_Potrok_Aike \"Laguna Potrok Aike\"), two ash layers emplaced 5,700 and 5,150 years before present in the Vega Ñandú [mire](/wiki/Mire \"Mire\") in [Torres del Paine National Park](/wiki/Torres_del_Paine_National_Park \"Torres del Paine National Park\"), and a 5,500 years old tephra layer at various sites in and around Peninsula Avellaneda. A tephra layer found at archeological sites around [Lago Argentino](/wiki/Lago_Argentino \"Lago Argentino\") and deposited there 4,091 \\- 4,566 years before present originated at Aguilera and probably disrupted local human communities. Farther away in [Antarctica](/wiki/Antarctica \"Antarctica\"), a tephra found in [Talos Dome](/wiki/Talos_Dome \"Talos Dome\") and deposited there 4,420 years before present may have originated at this volcano as well.",
"Another smaller eruption occurred at Aguilera after the A1 event and deposited ash in the [Lago Argentino](/wiki/Lago_Argentino \"Lago Argentino\") area; the date of its eruption is unknown.{{sfn\\|Stern\\|2008\\|p\\=450}} There are no known historical eruptions although an eruption reported in 1886 in the area may have occurred at Aguilera.",
"### A1 eruption",
"The major A1{{sfn\\|Stern\\|2008\\|p\\=449}} eruption occurred at Aguilera {{val\\|3000\\|100}} or {{val\\|2978\\|91\\|104}} years ago. It deposited tephra east of the volcano as far south as the [Strait of Magellan](/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan \"Strait of Magellan\");{{sfn\\|Stern\\|2008\\|p\\=452}} other Aguilera tephras are less widespread. Its volume has been estimated to be between {{convert\\|3\\.6\\|\\-\\|9\\.5\\|km3}},{{sfn\\|Stern\\|2008\\|p\\=452}} larger than the 1991 eruption of [Cerro Hudson](/wiki/Cerro_Hudson \"Cerro Hudson\"), reaching level 5 on the [volcanic explosivity index](/wiki/Volcanic_explosivity_index \"Volcanic explosivity index\").",
"Tephra deposits from this eruption have been found in the [Cordillera Baguales](/wiki/Cordillera_Baguales \"Cordillera Baguales\") ({{convert\\|6\\|\\-\\|8\\|cm}} thickness),{{sfn\\|Stern\\|2008\\|p\\=445}} at [Gran Campo Nevado](/wiki/Gran_Campo_Nevado \"Gran Campo Nevado\") ({{convert\\|1\\.5\\|mm}} thickness), [Lago Argentino](/wiki/Lago_Argentino \"Lago Argentino\") ({{convert\\|6\\|\\-\\|8\\|cm}} thickness), [Lago Cardiel](/wiki/Lago_Cardiel \"Lago Cardiel\") ({{convert\\|1\\|cm}} thickness), [Lago Roca](/wiki/Lago_Roca \"Lago Roca\") ({{convert\\|10\\|cm}} thickness), [Lake Viedma](/wiki/Lake_Viedma \"Lake Viedma\") ({{convert\\|2\\|cm}} thickness), [Brunswick Peninsula](/wiki/Brunswick_Peninsula \"Brunswick Peninsula\") ({{convert\\|1\\|cm}} thickness), [Seno Skyring](/wiki/Seno_Skyring \"Seno Skyring\") ({{convert\\|2\\|cm}}), [Torres del Paine National Park](/wiki/Torres_del_Paine_National_Park \"Torres del Paine National Park\") ({{convert\\|2\\|\\-\\|3\\|cm}} thickness){{sfn\\|Stern\\|2008\\|p\\=445}} and [Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego](/wiki/Isla_Grande_de_Tierra_del_Fuego \"Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego\") ({{convert\\|1\\|cm}} thickness). On Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego apparently the eruption did not substantially impact human populations. Chemicals derived from Aguilera tephra are found in [cave deposits](/wiki/Speleothem \"Speleothem\") close to Monte Burney. Furthermore, a 3,600 years old [sulfur dioxide](/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide \"Sulfur dioxide\")\\-rich layer in [ice cores](/wiki/Ice_core \"Ice core\") from [Talos Dome](/wiki/Talos_Dome \"Talos Dome\"), [Antarctica](/wiki/Antarctica \"Antarctica\"), may have been produced by the Aguilera eruption.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 1921–2010: HFC Kennemerland
The club was founded on 1 January 1921 under the name **Wilhelmina**. Because this name was already used by another club, the club changed its name to HFC Kennemerland in December 1921\. The club grew quickly and because the club played on Saturdays, unusual in the region, the Haarlemsche Voetbalbond needed to start in the 1921–22 season a Saturday competition.
In 1941 a baseball division was added. In 1947 the club won a section championship in the [Vierde Klasse](/wiki/Vierde_Klasse "Vierde Klasse") of the KNVB. In 1949, the finale of the KNVB cup for amateurs was won and lost to IJmuiden. In 1950 the club was promoted to the [Derde Klasse](/wiki/Derde_Klasse "Derde Klasse").
On May 31, 1988 HFC Kennemerland played a practice match against the [Dutch national football team](/wiki/Dutch_national_football_team "Dutch national football team") that was preparing for the 1988 European Championship, which it would win. The Dutch team won 13\-2 against Kennemerland.
When the club decided to merge in 2010 with the new HFC Haarlem, the first squad of Kennemerland played in the Saturday [Tweede klasse](/wiki/Tweede_klasse "Tweede klasse").
### 2010: Merger with HFC Haarlem
On January 25, 2010, [HFC Haarlem](/wiki/HFC_Haarlem "HFC Haarlem") was declared bankrupt and was thus according to Dutch league rules excluded from the [2009–10 Eerste Divisie](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Eerste_Divisie "2009–10 Eerste Divisie").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.vi.nl/Nieuws\-item\-TS1/175345/Failliet\-Haarlem\-verdwijnt\-uit\-het\-betaald\-voetbal.htm \|title\=Failliet Haarlem verdwijnt uit het betaald voetbal\| archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128035801/http://www.vi.nl/Nieuws\-item\-TS1/175345/Failliet\-Haarlem\-verdwijnt\-uit\-het\-betaald\-voetbal.htm \|archivedate\=28 January 2010\|url\-status\=dead \|work\=Voetbal International \|language\=Dutch \|date\=25 January 2010}}
In February 2010, HFC Haarlem was reborn as an amateur club that acquired the naming and logo rights of the old team.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.webregio.nl/zuid\-kennemerland/sport/artikel/577538/nieuw\-hfc\-haarlem\-haarlem.aspx \|title\='Nieuw' HFC Haarlem \|work\=WebRegio.nl \|language\=Dutch \|access\-date\=13 April 2010 \|date\=22 February 2010}} The club began talks for a potential merger with HFC Kennemerland from the [Tweede Klasse](/wiki/Tweede_Klasse "Tweede Klasse").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.sportweek.nl/voetbal/132003/HFC\_Haarlem\_fuseert\_mogelijk\_met\_HFC\_Kennemerland \|title\=HFC Haarlem fuseert mogelijk met HFC Kennemerland \|work\=SportWeek.nl \|language\=Dutch \|access\-date\=13 April 2010 \|date\=4 March 2010}} It was announced that the merger was completed on April 27\. the new club was named **Haarlem\-Kennemerland FC**, and would play home games at [Haarlem Stadion](/wiki/Haarlem_Stadion "Haarlem Stadion"), thus aiming to continue some of the legacy of the old HFC Haarlem{{cite news \|url\=http://www.elfvoetbal.nl/nieuws/102701\_failliet\-haarlem\-fuseert\-met\-amateurclub\-kennemerland\|work\=elfVOETBAL \|language\=Dutch \|access\-date\=2 May 2010 \|date\=27 April 2010 \|title\=Failliet Haarlem fuseert met amateurclub Kennemerland}} on the license of HFC Kennemerland.
### Since 2010: Haarlem\-Kennemerland
in 2010–2011, Haarlem\-Kennemerland FC continued to play in the Tweede Klasse on the HFC Kennemerland license. It relegated to the Derde Klasse to return in 2012 to the Tweede Klasse. Also not for long, as Haarlem\-Kennemerland was relegated again in 2013, this time to follow by a second relegation to the [Vierde Klasse](/wiki/Vierde_Klasse "Vierde Klasse") in 2014\. Since 2014, Haarlem\-Kennemerland is a constant staple in the Vierde Klasse.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 1921–2010: HFC Kennemerland",
"The club was founded on 1 January 1921 under the name **Wilhelmina**. Because this name was already used by another club, the club changed its name to HFC Kennemerland in December 1921\\. The club grew quickly and because the club played on Saturdays, unusual in the region, the Haarlemsche Voetbalbond needed to start in the 1921–22 season a Saturday competition.",
"In 1941 a baseball division was added. In 1947 the club won a section championship in the [Vierde Klasse](/wiki/Vierde_Klasse \"Vierde Klasse\") of the KNVB. In 1949, the finale of the KNVB cup for amateurs was won and lost to IJmuiden. In 1950 the club was promoted to the [Derde Klasse](/wiki/Derde_Klasse \"Derde Klasse\").",
"On May 31, 1988 HFC Kennemerland played a practice match against the [Dutch national football team](/wiki/Dutch_national_football_team \"Dutch national football team\") that was preparing for the 1988 European Championship, which it would win. The Dutch team won 13\\-2 against Kennemerland.",
"When the club decided to merge in 2010 with the new HFC Haarlem, the first squad of Kennemerland played in the Saturday [Tweede klasse](/wiki/Tweede_klasse \"Tweede klasse\").",
"### 2010: Merger with HFC Haarlem",
"On January 25, 2010, [HFC Haarlem](/wiki/HFC_Haarlem \"HFC Haarlem\") was declared bankrupt and was thus according to Dutch league rules excluded from the [2009–10 Eerste Divisie](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Eerste_Divisie \"2009–10 Eerste Divisie\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.vi.nl/Nieuws\\-item\\-TS1/175345/Failliet\\-Haarlem\\-verdwijnt\\-uit\\-het\\-betaald\\-voetbal.htm \\|title\\=Failliet Haarlem verdwijnt uit het betaald voetbal\\| archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128035801/http://www.vi.nl/Nieuws\\-item\\-TS1/175345/Failliet\\-Haarlem\\-verdwijnt\\-uit\\-het\\-betaald\\-voetbal.htm \\|archivedate\\=28 January 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|work\\=Voetbal International \\|language\\=Dutch \\|date\\=25 January 2010}}",
"In February 2010, HFC Haarlem was reborn as an amateur club that acquired the naming and logo rights of the old team.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.webregio.nl/zuid\\-kennemerland/sport/artikel/577538/nieuw\\-hfc\\-haarlem\\-haarlem.aspx \\|title\\='Nieuw' HFC Haarlem \\|work\\=WebRegio.nl \\|language\\=Dutch \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2010 \\|date\\=22 February 2010}} The club began talks for a potential merger with HFC Kennemerland from the [Tweede Klasse](/wiki/Tweede_Klasse \"Tweede Klasse\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.sportweek.nl/voetbal/132003/HFC\\_Haarlem\\_fuseert\\_mogelijk\\_met\\_HFC\\_Kennemerland \\|title\\=HFC Haarlem fuseert mogelijk met HFC Kennemerland \\|work\\=SportWeek.nl \\|language\\=Dutch \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2010 \\|date\\=4 March 2010}} It was announced that the merger was completed on April 27\\. the new club was named **Haarlem\\-Kennemerland FC**, and would play home games at [Haarlem Stadion](/wiki/Haarlem_Stadion \"Haarlem Stadion\"), thus aiming to continue some of the legacy of the old HFC Haarlem{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.elfvoetbal.nl/nieuws/102701\\_failliet\\-haarlem\\-fuseert\\-met\\-amateurclub\\-kennemerland\\|work\\=elfVOETBAL \\|language\\=Dutch \\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2010 \\|date\\=27 April 2010 \\|title\\=Failliet Haarlem fuseert met amateurclub Kennemerland}} on the license of HFC Kennemerland.",
"### Since 2010: Haarlem\\-Kennemerland",
"in 2010–2011, Haarlem\\-Kennemerland FC continued to play in the Tweede Klasse on the HFC Kennemerland license. It relegated to the Derde Klasse to return in 2012 to the Tweede Klasse. Also not for long, as Haarlem\\-Kennemerland was relegated again in 2013, this time to follow by a second relegation to the [Vierde Klasse](/wiki/Vierde_Klasse \"Vierde Klasse\") in 2014\\. Since 2014, Haarlem\\-Kennemerland is a constant staple in the Vierde Klasse.",
""
] |
History
-------
Rainburn was founded by keyboardist Avik Chakravarty and vocalist/guitarist Vats Iyengar in 2011\. The duo was soon joined by drummer Praveen Kumar ([Blood \& Iron](/wiki/Blood_%26_Iron "Blood & Iron")) and bassist Jayaram Kasi.{{cite web \|title\=Band Bio \|url\=http://rainburn.com/the\-band/ \|website\=Rainburn official website \|accessdate\=16 February 2019}} Since its inception, the band has gone through a number of line\-up changes, apart from some financial bad times.
In 2012, they started to gig, first in their hometown of Bangalore, then in southern India. Also in that year, Jayaram left and was replaced by Shishir Gupta and the quartet recorded two demo songs, "End of Sleep" and "Listen Through the Noise".
In 2013, the band went through several successive line\-up changes: Avik left and was replaced by keyboardist Ashwin Ethiraj, but he quickly left too and the band decided to hire a second guitarist instead: Abhishek Prakash (ex\-[Groove Chutney](/wiki/Groove_Chutney "Groove Chutney")). He didn't last long either and quit the quartet as they were recording their debut EP, being replaced by Toshimoa Jamir.
Following a 2014 local release, they globally released their debut EP *[Canvas of Silence](/wiki/Canvas_of_Silence "Canvas of Silence")*, which was defined by *[The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu "The Hindu")* as "a brilliant blend of opposing Indo\-progressive tonalities that throb together in eclectic energy, exuding the band's vibrant take on music that is rooted and yet atmospheric". It was ranked as the 4th best 2015 progressive rock album by *[Classic Rock](/wiki/Classic_Rock_%28magazine%29 "Classic Rock (magazine)")*.{{cite web \|title\=This issue of Classic Rock Magazine went on the stands \[...] \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/photos/a.452404171494512/1199944253407163/?type\=3\&theater \|website\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \|publisher\=Facebook \|accessdate\=16 February 2019 \|date\=6 December 2016}} By that time, they were already thinking of a full\-length album.
In early 2015, the band faced another formation change: Toshimoa and Shishir left and were replaced by Vineet Gogoi and Allan Julius Fernandes, respectively. In July of that year, they co\-organized and co\-curated (with [Coshish](/wiki/Coshish "Coshish")) the progressive rock music festival Progworks.{{cite web \|last1\=Tagat \|first1\=Anurag \|title\=Insight 2017: Progressive rock and metal might just be the best bet for promoters and fans \|url\=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/insight\-2017\-progressive\-rock\-and\-metal\-might\-just\-be\-the\-best\-bet\-for\-promoters\-and\-fans\-3181576\.html \|website\=\[\[Firstpost]] \|publisher\=\[\[Reliance Industries]] \|accessdate\=16 February 2019 \|date\=1 January 2017}} In October, they were joined on stage by [Ted Leonard](/wiki/Ted_Leonard "Ted Leonard") ([Spock's Beard](/wiki/Spock%27s_Beard "Spock's Beard")) for an unplugged performance of "Refuge".
By 2016, Fernandes and Gogoi left and were replaced by Ravi Nair and Paraj Kumar Singh, respectively (the latter on a live basis only). In the following year, the band released its first music video, "Merchant of Dreams", a single coming from their then upcoming debut full\-length album, by then known as *The Anthropic Conceit* and expected to be funded by a campaign in [Fuel a Dream](/wiki/Fuel_a_Dream "Fuel a Dream") and succeeded by a tour.{{cite web \|last1\=Prabbhan \|first1\=Pooja \|title\='Burn'ing with passion! \|url\=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/music/071117/burning\-with\-passion.html \|website\=\[\[Deccan Chronicle]] \|publisher\=Deccan Chronicle Holdings Limited \|accessdate\=16 February 2019 \|date\=7 November 2017}} By 2018, however, the album was being promoted with a new title: *[Insignify](/wiki/Insignify "Insignify")*. It was elected one of the best 2018 Indian albums by *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone "Rolling Stone") India*.{{cite magazine \|last1\=Tagat \|first1\=Anurag \|last2\=Chakraborty \|first2\=Riddhi \|last3\=Britto \|first3\=David \|title\=Best Indian Albums of 2018 \|url\=http://rollingstoneindia.com/best\-indian\-albums\-2018/ \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]] India \|accessdate\=16 February 2019 \|date\=31 December 2018}}
In 2019, they released their second EP, *[Resignify](/wiki/Resignify "Resignify")*, consisting of acoustic versions of songs from their two previous releases.{{cite magazine \|last1\=Tagat \|first1\=Anurag \|title\=Rainburn On Why They Reimagined Their Songs for 'Resignify' EP \|url\=https://rollingstoneindia.com/rainburn\-on\-why\-they\-reimagined\-their\-songs\-for\-resignify\-ep/ \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]] India \|accessdate\=27 March 2020 \|date\=26 November 2019}}
In May 2020, the band announced on their Facebook page that two members had departed sometime late 2019\.{{cite web \|title\=📆: 2020 ... And then there were two. \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/2946519315416306 \|website\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \|publisher\=Facebook \|accessdate\=16 October 2020 \|date\=14 May 2020}} A few days later, they announced their new guitarist and backing vocalist, Saakallya Biswas.{{cite web \|title\=We're really happy to share with you the news... \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/2962299040505000 \|website\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \|publisher\=Facebook \|accessdate\=16 October 2020 \|date\=19 May 2020}} On 11 June, they officially announced that longtime drummer Praveen Kumar had left the band since late 2019\.{{cite web \|title\=People close to the band... \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/3023641281037442 \|website\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \|publisher\=Facebook \|accessdate\=16 October 2020 \|date\=11 June 2020}} On 9 September, they announced Neilroy Miranda as their new drummer.{{cite web \|title\=Alright, here's a HUGE announcement – the new drummer for Rainburn is Neilroy Miranda! \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/3284888731579361 \|website\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \|publisher\=Facebook \|accessdate\=16 October 2020 \|date\=9 September 2020}} On 2 February 2021, they announced the departure of longtime bassist Ravi Nair for personal reasons.{{cite web \|title\=Our bassist of four years, Ravi Nair, \[...] \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/3683642251704005 \|website\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \|publisher\=Facebook \|accessdate\=21 April 2021 \|date\=2 February 2021}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Rainburn was founded by keyboardist Avik Chakravarty and vocalist/guitarist Vats Iyengar in 2011\\. The duo was soon joined by drummer Praveen Kumar ([Blood \\& Iron](/wiki/Blood_%26_Iron \"Blood & Iron\")) and bassist Jayaram Kasi.{{cite web \\|title\\=Band Bio \\|url\\=http://rainburn.com/the\\-band/ \\|website\\=Rainburn official website \\|accessdate\\=16 February 2019}} Since its inception, the band has gone through a number of line\\-up changes, apart from some financial bad times.",
"In 2012, they started to gig, first in their hometown of Bangalore, then in southern India. Also in that year, Jayaram left and was replaced by Shishir Gupta and the quartet recorded two demo songs, \"End of Sleep\" and \"Listen Through the Noise\".",
"In 2013, the band went through several successive line\\-up changes: Avik left and was replaced by keyboardist Ashwin Ethiraj, but he quickly left too and the band decided to hire a second guitarist instead: Abhishek Prakash (ex\\-[Groove Chutney](/wiki/Groove_Chutney \"Groove Chutney\")). He didn't last long either and quit the quartet as they were recording their debut EP, being replaced by Toshimoa Jamir.",
"Following a 2014 local release, they globally released their debut EP *[Canvas of Silence](/wiki/Canvas_of_Silence \"Canvas of Silence\")*, which was defined by *[The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu \"The Hindu\")* as \"a brilliant blend of opposing Indo\\-progressive tonalities that throb together in eclectic energy, exuding the band's vibrant take on music that is rooted and yet atmospheric\". It was ranked as the 4th best 2015 progressive rock album by *[Classic Rock](/wiki/Classic_Rock_%28magazine%29 \"Classic Rock (magazine)\")*.{{cite web \\|title\\=This issue of Classic Rock Magazine went on the stands \\[...] \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/photos/a.452404171494512/1199944253407163/?type\\=3\\&theater \\|website\\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \\|publisher\\=Facebook \\|accessdate\\=16 February 2019 \\|date\\=6 December 2016}} By that time, they were already thinking of a full\\-length album.",
"In early 2015, the band faced another formation change: Toshimoa and Shishir left and were replaced by Vineet Gogoi and Allan Julius Fernandes, respectively. In July of that year, they co\\-organized and co\\-curated (with [Coshish](/wiki/Coshish \"Coshish\")) the progressive rock music festival Progworks.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Tagat \\|first1\\=Anurag \\|title\\=Insight 2017: Progressive rock and metal might just be the best bet for promoters and fans \\|url\\=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/insight\\-2017\\-progressive\\-rock\\-and\\-metal\\-might\\-just\\-be\\-the\\-best\\-bet\\-for\\-promoters\\-and\\-fans\\-3181576\\.html \\|website\\=\\[\\[Firstpost]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Reliance Industries]] \\|accessdate\\=16 February 2019 \\|date\\=1 January 2017}} In October, they were joined on stage by [Ted Leonard](/wiki/Ted_Leonard \"Ted Leonard\") ([Spock's Beard](/wiki/Spock%27s_Beard \"Spock's Beard\")) for an unplugged performance of \"Refuge\".",
"By 2016, Fernandes and Gogoi left and were replaced by Ravi Nair and Paraj Kumar Singh, respectively (the latter on a live basis only). In the following year, the band released its first music video, \"Merchant of Dreams\", a single coming from their then upcoming debut full\\-length album, by then known as *The Anthropic Conceit* and expected to be funded by a campaign in [Fuel a Dream](/wiki/Fuel_a_Dream \"Fuel a Dream\") and succeeded by a tour.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Prabbhan \\|first1\\=Pooja \\|title\\='Burn'ing with passion! \\|url\\=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/music/071117/burning\\-with\\-passion.html \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deccan Chronicle]] \\|publisher\\=Deccan Chronicle Holdings Limited \\|accessdate\\=16 February 2019 \\|date\\=7 November 2017}} By 2018, however, the album was being promoted with a new title: *[Insignify](/wiki/Insignify \"Insignify\")*. It was elected one of the best 2018 Indian albums by *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone \"Rolling Stone\") India*.{{cite magazine \\|last1\\=Tagat \\|first1\\=Anurag \\|last2\\=Chakraborty \\|first2\\=Riddhi \\|last3\\=Britto \\|first3\\=David \\|title\\=Best Indian Albums of 2018 \\|url\\=http://rollingstoneindia.com/best\\-indian\\-albums\\-2018/ \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]] India \\|accessdate\\=16 February 2019 \\|date\\=31 December 2018}}",
"In 2019, they released their second EP, *[Resignify](/wiki/Resignify \"Resignify\")*, consisting of acoustic versions of songs from their two previous releases.{{cite magazine \\|last1\\=Tagat \\|first1\\=Anurag \\|title\\=Rainburn On Why They Reimagined Their Songs for 'Resignify' EP \\|url\\=https://rollingstoneindia.com/rainburn\\-on\\-why\\-they\\-reimagined\\-their\\-songs\\-for\\-resignify\\-ep/ \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]] India \\|accessdate\\=27 March 2020 \\|date\\=26 November 2019}}",
"In May 2020, the band announced on their Facebook page that two members had departed sometime late 2019\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=📆: 2020 ... And then there were two. \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/2946519315416306 \\|website\\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \\|publisher\\=Facebook \\|accessdate\\=16 October 2020 \\|date\\=14 May 2020}} A few days later, they announced their new guitarist and backing vocalist, Saakallya Biswas.{{cite web \\|title\\=We're really happy to share with you the news... \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/2962299040505000 \\|website\\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \\|publisher\\=Facebook \\|accessdate\\=16 October 2020 \\|date\\=19 May 2020}} On 11 June, they officially announced that longtime drummer Praveen Kumar had left the band since late 2019\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=People close to the band... \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/3023641281037442 \\|website\\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \\|publisher\\=Facebook \\|accessdate\\=16 October 2020 \\|date\\=11 June 2020}} On 9 September, they announced Neilroy Miranda as their new drummer.{{cite web \\|title\\=Alright, here's a HUGE announcement – the new drummer for Rainburn is Neilroy Miranda! \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/3284888731579361 \\|website\\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \\|publisher\\=Facebook \\|accessdate\\=16 October 2020 \\|date\\=9 September 2020}} On 2 February 2021, they announced the departure of longtime bassist Ravi Nair for personal reasons.{{cite web \\|title\\=Our bassist of four years, Ravi Nair, \\[...] \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/RainburnOfficial/posts/3683642251704005 \\|website\\=Rainburn's official Facebook page \\|publisher\\=Facebook \\|accessdate\\=21 April 2021 \\|date\\=2 February 2021}}",
""
] |
Thomas F. Gieryn
----------------
The original use of the term "boundary\-work" for these sorts of issues has been attributed to [Thomas F. Gieryn](/wiki/Thomas_F._Gieryn "Thomas F. Gieryn"),{{cite book\|last1\=Gieryn\|first1\=Thomas F.\|title\=Cultural Boundaries of Science\|date\=1999\|publisher\=The University of Chicago Press\|location\=Chicago\|isbn\=978\-0\-226\-29262\-5\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/culturalboundari0000gier/page/27 27]\|url\=https://archive.org/details/culturalboundari0000gier/page/27}} a [sociologist](/wiki/Sociology "Sociology"), who initially used it to discuss the [problem of demarcation](/wiki/Problem_of_demarcation "Problem of demarcation"), the philosophical difficulty of coming up with a rigorous delineation between what is "science" and what is "[non\-science](/wiki/Non-science "Non-science")".In 1999 Gieryn (1999a, p.5\) stated that the “boundary” concept he introduced in his 1983 paper had been suggested by a presentation by [Steve Woolgar](/wiki/Steve_Woolgar "Steve Woolgar") to a meeting of the [Society for the Social Studies of Science](/wiki/Society_for_the_Social_Studies_of_Science "Society for the Social Studies of Science") in November 1981\. He attributed the mature development of his ideas to the influences of (in order of publication) Geertz (1973\), Serres, (1982\), Geertz (1983\), Gilbert and Mulkay (1984\), Shapin and Schaffer (1985\), Yearley (1988\), Holmquest (1990\), Reichert (1992\), Abbot (1995\), Silber (1995\), McOmber (1996\), Taylor (1996\), Kerr, Cunningham\-Burley, and Amos (1997\), and Wolfe (1997\).
Gieryn defined boundary\-work as the "attribution of selected characteristics to \[an] institution of science (i.e., to its practitioners, methods, stock of knowledge, values and work organization) for purposes of constructing a social boundary that distinguishes some intellectual activities as \[outside that boundary]."{{cite journal\|last1\=Gieryn\|first1\=Thomas\|title\=Boundary\-work and the demarcation of science from non\-science: Strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists\|journal\=American Sociological Review\|date\=1983\|volume\=48\|issue\=6\|pages\=781–795\|url\=http://www3\.nd.edu/\~sskiles/boundaries/Gieryn%201983\.pdf\|doi\=10\.2307/2095325\|jstor\=2095325\|access\-date\=2015\-04\-18\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127105124/http://www3\.nd.edu/\~sskiles/boundaries/Gieryn%201983\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2016\-01\-27\|url\-status\=dead}} Gieryn suggests that [Philosophers](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science "Philosophy of science") and [sociologists of science](/wiki/Sociology_of_science "Sociology of science"), such as [Karl Popper](/wiki/Karl_Popper "Karl Popper") and [Robert K. Merton](/wiki/Robert_K._Merton "Robert K. Merton"), long struggled to come up with a criterion which would distinguish science as unique from other knowledge\-generating activities, but never were able to come up with one that was stable, transhistorical, or worked reliably.
Gieryn's 1983 paper on boundary\-work and demarcation emphasized that the very discussions of demarcation between science and non\-science were "ideological"; that there were strong stakes for scientists to erect such boundaries both in arguing for their own [objectivity](/wiki/Objectivity_%28science%29 "Objectivity (science)") and the need for autonomy.
Gieryn looked specifically at instances of boundary\-work in 19th\-century Britain, in which scientists attempted to characterize the [relationship between religion and science](/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science "Relationship between religion and science") as one of sharp distinction,See, in particular, Gieryn, T.F., "John Tyndall's Double Boundary\-Work: Science, Religion, and Mechanics in Victorian England", pp.37\-64 in Gieryn, T.F., *Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line*, University of Chicago Press, (Chicago), 1999\. and also looked at instances in which scientists attempted to argue that science and politics and/or ideology were inherently separate as well. Many other works{{which\|date\=August 2013}} by sociologists and historians have since looked at boundary\-work in many other situations, usually focusing on the [rhetoric](/wiki/Rhetoric "Rhetoric") of scientists (or their opponents) and their interpersonal and intersocial interactions.
Studies in boundary\-work have also focused on how individual scientific disciplines are created.See, for example, Yeates (2013\), esp. pp.93\-101, and 309\-349; (2018a), pp.6\-9, 24\-29, and 43\-44; (2018b), pp.80\-81, and 90\-91; (2018c), pp.145\-147, and 152\-154; and (2018d), pp.190\-191, 196\-197, and 200, for an account of the extended boundary\-work performed by [James Braid](/wiki/James_Braid_%28surgeon%29 "James Braid (surgeon)") in relation to the creation of the domain of hypnotism. Following the work of [Pierre Bourdieu](/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu "Pierre Bourdieu") on the "scientific field", many have looked at ways in which certain "objects" are able to bridge the erected boundaries because they satisfy the needs of multiple social groups ([boundary objects](/wiki/Boundary_object "Boundary object")).
|
[
"Thomas F. Gieryn\n----------------",
"The original use of the term \"boundary\\-work\" for these sorts of issues has been attributed to [Thomas F. Gieryn](/wiki/Thomas_F._Gieryn \"Thomas F. Gieryn\"),{{cite book\\|last1\\=Gieryn\\|first1\\=Thomas F.\\|title\\=Cultural Boundaries of Science\\|date\\=1999\\|publisher\\=The University of Chicago Press\\|location\\=Chicago\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-226\\-29262\\-5\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/culturalboundari0000gier/page/27 27]\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/culturalboundari0000gier/page/27}} a [sociologist](/wiki/Sociology \"Sociology\"), who initially used it to discuss the [problem of demarcation](/wiki/Problem_of_demarcation \"Problem of demarcation\"), the philosophical difficulty of coming up with a rigorous delineation between what is \"science\" and what is \"[non\\-science](/wiki/Non-science \"Non-science\")\".In 1999 Gieryn (1999a, p.5\\) stated that the “boundary” concept he introduced in his 1983 paper had been suggested by a presentation by [Steve Woolgar](/wiki/Steve_Woolgar \"Steve Woolgar\") to a meeting of the [Society for the Social Studies of Science](/wiki/Society_for_the_Social_Studies_of_Science \"Society for the Social Studies of Science\") in November 1981\\. He attributed the mature development of his ideas to the influences of (in order of publication) Geertz (1973\\), Serres, (1982\\), Geertz (1983\\), Gilbert and Mulkay (1984\\), Shapin and Schaffer (1985\\), Yearley (1988\\), Holmquest (1990\\), Reichert (1992\\), Abbot (1995\\), Silber (1995\\), McOmber (1996\\), Taylor (1996\\), Kerr, Cunningham\\-Burley, and Amos (1997\\), and Wolfe (1997\\).",
"Gieryn defined boundary\\-work as the \"attribution of selected characteristics to \\[an] institution of science (i.e., to its practitioners, methods, stock of knowledge, values and work organization) for purposes of constructing a social boundary that distinguishes some intellectual activities as \\[outside that boundary].\"{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Gieryn\\|first1\\=Thomas\\|title\\=Boundary\\-work and the demarcation of science from non\\-science: Strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists\\|journal\\=American Sociological Review\\|date\\=1983\\|volume\\=48\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=781–795\\|url\\=http://www3\\.nd.edu/\\~sskiles/boundaries/Gieryn%201983\\.pdf\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2095325\\|jstor\\=2095325\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-18\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127105124/http://www3\\.nd.edu/\\~sskiles/boundaries/Gieryn%201983\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-27\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Gieryn suggests that [Philosophers](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science \"Philosophy of science\") and [sociologists of science](/wiki/Sociology_of_science \"Sociology of science\"), such as [Karl Popper](/wiki/Karl_Popper \"Karl Popper\") and [Robert K. Merton](/wiki/Robert_K._Merton \"Robert K. Merton\"), long struggled to come up with a criterion which would distinguish science as unique from other knowledge\\-generating activities, but never were able to come up with one that was stable, transhistorical, or worked reliably.",
"Gieryn's 1983 paper on boundary\\-work and demarcation emphasized that the very discussions of demarcation between science and non\\-science were \"ideological\"; that there were strong stakes for scientists to erect such boundaries both in arguing for their own [objectivity](/wiki/Objectivity_%28science%29 \"Objectivity (science)\") and the need for autonomy.",
"Gieryn looked specifically at instances of boundary\\-work in 19th\\-century Britain, in which scientists attempted to characterize the [relationship between religion and science](/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science \"Relationship between religion and science\") as one of sharp distinction,See, in particular, Gieryn, T.F., \"John Tyndall's Double Boundary\\-Work: Science, Religion, and Mechanics in Victorian England\", pp.37\\-64 in Gieryn, T.F., *Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line*, University of Chicago Press, (Chicago), 1999\\. and also looked at instances in which scientists attempted to argue that science and politics and/or ideology were inherently separate as well. Many other works{{which\\|date\\=August 2013}} by sociologists and historians have since looked at boundary\\-work in many other situations, usually focusing on the [rhetoric](/wiki/Rhetoric \"Rhetoric\") of scientists (or their opponents) and their interpersonal and intersocial interactions.",
"Studies in boundary\\-work have also focused on how individual scientific disciplines are created.See, for example, Yeates (2013\\), esp. pp.93\\-101, and 309\\-349; (2018a), pp.6\\-9, 24\\-29, and 43\\-44; (2018b), pp.80\\-81, and 90\\-91; (2018c), pp.145\\-147, and 152\\-154; and (2018d), pp.190\\-191, 196\\-197, and 200, for an account of the extended boundary\\-work performed by [James Braid](/wiki/James_Braid_%28surgeon%29 \"James Braid (surgeon)\") in relation to the creation of the domain of hypnotism. Following the work of [Pierre Bourdieu](/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu \"Pierre Bourdieu\") on the \"scientific field\", many have looked at ways in which certain \"objects\" are able to bridge the erected boundaries because they satisfy the needs of multiple social groups ([boundary objects](/wiki/Boundary_object \"Boundary object\")).",
""
] |
Career
------
Lavender served from 1964 to 1968 in the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") and completed his service as a Captain, serving at [Whiteman Air Force Base](/wiki/Whiteman_Air_Force_Base "Whiteman Air Force Base") in [Warrensburg, Missouri](/wiki/Warrensburg%2C_Missouri "Warrensburg, Missouri"), where he was a Personnel Casualty Officer, and in Izmir, Turkey, as part of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). After completing military service, Lavender began his doctoral studies and earned a Ph.D. in sociology in 1972 from the [University of Maryland, College Park](/wiki/University_of_Maryland%2C_College_Park "University of Maryland, College Park"),{{cite web\|url\=http://sephardic.fiu.edu/journal/March%202009/Lavender\_W08\.htm \|title\=Journal for the Study of Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629154735/http://sephardic.fiu.edu/journal/March%202009/Lavender\_W08\.htm \|archivedate\=2010\-06\-29 }} with a doctoral dissertation on generational changes in Jewish identity.
A prolific author, Lavender wrote dozens of books and academic articles, mostly about ethnicity and Sephardic Jews, as well as other scholarly publications including journal articles, reference book/encyclopedia articles, book reviews, or research reports, on a wide variety of sociology\-related topics. In addition to his books listed below, among his major publications linking multiple areas of interest (Jews, Latins, ethnicity, political sociology) are *A History of Jewish and Hispanic Interaction in Miami\-Dade County* (published by the [American Jewish Committee](/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee "American Jewish Committee")) and *Jews, Hispanics, Blacks, and Others in Miami Beach: An Ethnically Divided City or a Cosmopolitan Multiethnic City?*, a monograph published by the Institute for Public Policy and Citizenship Studies at [Florida International University](/wiki/Florida_International_University "Florida International University") to which the answer was *Cosmopolitan Multiethnic City*. In 1977, Lavender published a collection of studies on non\-mainstream Jewish people in the United States, *A Coat of Many Colors*.Marshall Sklare, *Understanding American Jewry* (1982\), p. 67\. {{as of\|2014}}, he was completing a seventh book, *Early Social Life in Miami Beach: From Mangroves and Mosquitoes to Mansions and Millionaires*. He also was selected to write the article on Judaism for the Encyclopedia of Sociology, and to write seven articles on the relationship between anthropology and DNA for the *Encyclopedia of Anthropology*. Lavender argued that since Sephardic Jews constitute a separate group, they should be granted the same attention bestowed on other ethnic groups.Aviva Ben\-Ur, *Sephardic Jews in America: A Diasporic History* (2009\), p. 4\.
On six occasions, Lavender was honored (Distinguished Citizen Award, Key to the City, Certificate of Appreciation) for his civic activities in [Miami Beach](/wiki/Miami_Beach%2C_Florida "Miami Beach, Florida"). Lavender also maintained close ties to [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina "Charleston, South Carolina")], his second home, where he lived part\-time, had many relatives and friends, visited frequently, had been a speaker at the historic (founded in the 1740s) [Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim Synagogue](/wiki/Kahal_Kadosh_Beth_Elohim_Synagogue "Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim Synagogue"), conducted extensive research at the Huguenot Society, and was involved with the International Huguenot Conference held in Charleston in 1997\.
### Civic and political activities
Lavender also was active in civic and political affairs, serving as advisor to [Miami Beach](/wiki/Miami_Beach%2C_Florida "Miami Beach, Florida") mayor Seymour Gelber, vice\-chair and commissioner of the Miami Beach Housing Authority, chairperson of city's Homeless Committee, and as a member of the city's Safety Committee. He served on the board of directors of the Jewish Genealogical Society of Greater Miami, and conducted extensive genealogical research. An academic and personal area of interest, used in genealogical and historical research, was DNA. His strongest personal genetic matches were in Spain, especially among the [chuetas](/wiki/Chuetas "Chuetas") (Marranos) of the island of [Mallorca](/wiki/Mallorca "Mallorca"). His direct paternal ancestor, Benjamin Lavender, settled in the Sumter, Turbeville, New Zion areas of South Carolina c. 1790, and among Lavender's later presentations was "Where in the World are Benjamin Lavender’s Distant Male Cousins?" ("¿Donde Están en el Mundo los Primos Distantes de Benjamin Lavenda?"), presented in Turbeville, S.C., in August 2010\. With thirteen Y\-chromosome markers, the answers were, in order, Italy (especially Marche); Cologne, Germany; Central Portugal; the United States (4 European background, 2 Hispanic background, and 1 African background), Brazil (especially Rio Grande Do Sul), and Warsaw, Poland.
Lavender was also a frequent speaker to academic, civic, and genealogical groups, with frequent presentations about the Sephardic Jews of Spain and Portugal, and their descendants in North America and South America. Recent presentations have included "The Secret Jews of Brazil." Other favorite topics include Miami Beach history, political behavior, and DNA, and recent presentations include "The Secret Society of Moses according to Flavio Barbiero." His academic visits included Portugal, Spain, and Israel.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Lavender served from 1964 to 1968 in the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") and completed his service as a Captain, serving at [Whiteman Air Force Base](/wiki/Whiteman_Air_Force_Base \"Whiteman Air Force Base\") in [Warrensburg, Missouri](/wiki/Warrensburg%2C_Missouri \"Warrensburg, Missouri\"), where he was a Personnel Casualty Officer, and in Izmir, Turkey, as part of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). After completing military service, Lavender began his doctoral studies and earned a Ph.D. in sociology in 1972 from the [University of Maryland, College Park](/wiki/University_of_Maryland%2C_College_Park \"University of Maryland, College Park\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sephardic.fiu.edu/journal/March%202009/Lavender\\_W08\\.htm \\|title\\=Journal for the Study of Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629154735/http://sephardic.fiu.edu/journal/March%202009/Lavender\\_W08\\.htm \\|archivedate\\=2010\\-06\\-29 }} with a doctoral dissertation on generational changes in Jewish identity.",
"A prolific author, Lavender wrote dozens of books and academic articles, mostly about ethnicity and Sephardic Jews, as well as other scholarly publications including journal articles, reference book/encyclopedia articles, book reviews, or research reports, on a wide variety of sociology\\-related topics. In addition to his books listed below, among his major publications linking multiple areas of interest (Jews, Latins, ethnicity, political sociology) are *A History of Jewish and Hispanic Interaction in Miami\\-Dade County* (published by the [American Jewish Committee](/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee \"American Jewish Committee\")) and *Jews, Hispanics, Blacks, and Others in Miami Beach: An Ethnically Divided City or a Cosmopolitan Multiethnic City?*, a monograph published by the Institute for Public Policy and Citizenship Studies at [Florida International University](/wiki/Florida_International_University \"Florida International University\") to which the answer was *Cosmopolitan Multiethnic City*. In 1977, Lavender published a collection of studies on non\\-mainstream Jewish people in the United States, *A Coat of Many Colors*.Marshall Sklare, *Understanding American Jewry* (1982\\), p. 67\\. {{as of\\|2014}}, he was completing a seventh book, *Early Social Life in Miami Beach: From Mangroves and Mosquitoes to Mansions and Millionaires*. He also was selected to write the article on Judaism for the Encyclopedia of Sociology, and to write seven articles on the relationship between anthropology and DNA for the *Encyclopedia of Anthropology*. Lavender argued that since Sephardic Jews constitute a separate group, they should be granted the same attention bestowed on other ethnic groups.Aviva Ben\\-Ur, *Sephardic Jews in America: A Diasporic History* (2009\\), p. 4\\.",
"On six occasions, Lavender was honored (Distinguished Citizen Award, Key to the City, Certificate of Appreciation) for his civic activities in [Miami Beach](/wiki/Miami_Beach%2C_Florida \"Miami Beach, Florida\"). Lavender also maintained close ties to [Charleston, South Carolina](/wiki/Charleston%2C_South_Carolina \"Charleston, South Carolina\")], his second home, where he lived part\\-time, had many relatives and friends, visited frequently, had been a speaker at the historic (founded in the 1740s) [Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim Synagogue](/wiki/Kahal_Kadosh_Beth_Elohim_Synagogue \"Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim Synagogue\"), conducted extensive research at the Huguenot Society, and was involved with the International Huguenot Conference held in Charleston in 1997\\.",
"### Civic and political activities",
"Lavender also was active in civic and political affairs, serving as advisor to [Miami Beach](/wiki/Miami_Beach%2C_Florida \"Miami Beach, Florida\") mayor Seymour Gelber, vice\\-chair and commissioner of the Miami Beach Housing Authority, chairperson of city's Homeless Committee, and as a member of the city's Safety Committee. He served on the board of directors of the Jewish Genealogical Society of Greater Miami, and conducted extensive genealogical research. An academic and personal area of interest, used in genealogical and historical research, was DNA. His strongest personal genetic matches were in Spain, especially among the [chuetas](/wiki/Chuetas \"Chuetas\") (Marranos) of the island of [Mallorca](/wiki/Mallorca \"Mallorca\"). His direct paternal ancestor, Benjamin Lavender, settled in the Sumter, Turbeville, New Zion areas of South Carolina c. 1790, and among Lavender's later presentations was \"Where in the World are Benjamin Lavender’s Distant Male Cousins?\" (\"¿Donde Están en el Mundo los Primos Distantes de Benjamin Lavenda?\"), presented in Turbeville, S.C., in August 2010\\. With thirteen Y\\-chromosome markers, the answers were, in order, Italy (especially Marche); Cologne, Germany; Central Portugal; the United States (4 European background, 2 Hispanic background, and 1 African background), Brazil (especially Rio Grande Do Sul), and Warsaw, Poland.",
"Lavender was also a frequent speaker to academic, civic, and genealogical groups, with frequent presentations about the Sephardic Jews of Spain and Portugal, and their descendants in North America and South America. Recent presentations have included \"The Secret Jews of Brazil.\" Other favorite topics include Miami Beach history, political behavior, and DNA, and recent presentations include \"The Secret Society of Moses according to Flavio Barbiero.\" His academic visits included Portugal, Spain, and Israel.",
""
] |
Life
----
The only mention of Chresimus in ancient sources comes from a fragment of [Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi](/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Frugi_%28consul_133_BC%29 "Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (consul 133 BC)"), who was consul in 133 BC, and notably an enemy of [Tiberius Gracchus](/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus "Tiberius Gracchus"). Piso probably wrote a history called *Annales* in at least seven books, which he started after his [censorship](/wiki/Roman_censor "Roman censor") in 120\.M. P. Pobjoy, in Cornell (ed.), *Fragments of the Roman Historians*, pp. 230–239\.
The consensus among historians is to identify the Spurius Postumius Albinus mentioned in the fragment with the [consul of 186 BC](/wiki/Spurius_Postumius_Albinus_%28consul_186_BC%29 "Spurius Postumius Albinus (consul 186 BC)"), who was likely aedile in 191 BC, the most probable date of Chresimus' trial.Münzer, *RE*, vol. 43, col. 930, 931 (Postumius 49\), thinks that Albinus should be identified with the [consul of 174](/wiki/Spurius_Postumius_Albinus_Paullulus "Spurius Postumius Albinus Paullulus"), and dates his aedileship from 185 BC.Broughton, vol. I, p. 353\. Piso's source for the trial might have been [Aulus Postumius Albinus](/wiki/Aulus_Postumius_Albinus_%28consul_151_BC%29 "Aulus Postumius Albinus (consul 151 BC)"), consul in 151 BC, and author of a Roman history in Greek. However, Gary Forsythe pointed out that Albinus' history was principally focused to the Greek world and urban matters and would not have dealt with Chresimus' story. Instead, he suggests that Piso could have found about Chresimus from [oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition "Oral tradition") among his family, because the [Postumii Albini](/wiki/Postumia_gens%23Postumii_Albi_et_Albini "Postumia gens#Postumii Albi et Albini") and the [Calpurnii Pisones](/wiki/Calpurnia_gens "Calpurnia gens") were closely linked politically throughout the second century BC.Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, pp. 263, 264, 380\.
[thumb\|*Caius Furius Cressinus Accused of Sorcery*, [Nicolas\-Guy Brenet](/wiki/Nicolas-Guy_Brenet "Nicolas-Guy Brenet"), 1777 ([Musée des Augustins](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Augustins "Musée des Augustins"), [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse "Toulouse"))](/wiki/File:Nicolas_Guy_Brenet%2C_%22Caius_Furius_Cressinus_accuse_de_sortilege%22%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Augustins_%282004_1_130%29.jpg "Nicolas Guy Brenet, ")
Chresimus was a Greek man, likely captured as slave during a war waged by the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic") in the Greek east.Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, p. 376\.Graf, *Magic in the Ancient World*, p. 63\. He was later freed by a member of the [gens](/wiki/Gens "Gens") [Furia](/wiki/Furia_%28gens%29 "Furia (gens)"), from whom he took his *[nomen](/wiki/Nomen_%28Roman_name%29 "Nomen (Roman name)")* – Furius. His *[cognomen](/wiki/Cognomen "Cognomen")* – Chresimus – means frugal and is the Greek equivalent of the *[agnomen](/wiki/Agnomen "Agnomen")* of Piso (nicknamed Frugi).Cicero, *[Tusculanae Disputationes](/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes "Tusculanae Disputationes")*, iii. 16\.Cornell (ed.), *Fragments of the Roman Historians*, vol. III, p. 213\. No explanation is given on this coincidence. Chresimus later held a farm and in turn became a slave owner.Bradley, *Cambridge World History of Slavery*, pp. 378, 379\.
Because Chresimus yielded much better harvests from a smaller land than his neighbours, they began to envy him, then sue him for magically poisoning (*veneficia*) their crops during the night.Graf, *Magic in the Ancient World*, p. 62\.Collins, *Magic in the Ancient Greek World*, pp. 143–145, who points that Chresimus was sued for using magic, not just potions.Teitel Paule, "Qvae Saga, Qvis Magvs", p. 746\. Chresimus was prosecuted under a provision in the [Law of the Twelve Tables](/wiki/Twelve_Tables "Twelve Tables") which punished by death, or the loss of citizenship, anybody convicted of using magic to take away the fertility of someone else's soil. It is the only known trial where this law played a role. Chresimus' neighbours were probably much richer than him, and they sued him to get rid of a newcomer that could have challenged the social order. Due to his Greek origin, Chresimus may also have been the victim of his neighbours' xenophobia, who denounced him to Albinus, the [curule aedile](/wiki/Aedile "Aedile") – equivalent of a [prosecutor](/wiki/Prosecutor "Prosecutor") – who decided to charge him before the [Centuriate Assembly](/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly "Centuriate Assembly").Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, pp. 380, 381\. Albinus was known to be a firm conservative opposed to [Hellenism](/wiki/Philhellenism "Philhellenism") and religious innovations, like his contemporary [Cato the Censor](/wiki/Cato_the_Elder "Cato the Elder").Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, p. 381–383\. As consul in 186, Albinus was the leading authority in the famous [Bacchanalia Case](/wiki/Bacchanalia "Bacchanalia"), a Greek cult of [Bacchus](/wiki/Dionysus "Dionysus") in Southern Italy, which triggered a religious scandal and prompted Albinus to spend his entire consulship suppressing the worship.Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, pp. 381, 382\.
The trial took place on the [Forum](/wiki/Roman_Forum "Roman Forum"), before the other members of Chresimus' [tribe](/wiki/Roman_tribe "Roman tribe") and with Albinus presiding.Graf, *Magic in the Ancient World*, p. 64\. Chresimus brought his farming equipment and his own slaves in order to present himself as more hard\-working than his neighbours. Chresimus was thus unanimously acquitted and reintegrated in his tribe.
The story of Chresimus is similar to two other moralizing fragments of Piso's work, especially the story of [Gnaeus Flavius](/wiki/Gnaeus_Flavius_%28jurist%29 "Gnaeus Flavius (jurist)") (the son of a freedman that became aedile).Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, p. 383\.Cornell (ed.), *Fragments of the Roman Historians*, vol. II, pp. 321, 323\. Piso apparently advocated a "benevolent paternalism" towards slaves as well as personal austerity from nobles in order to reduce social tensions. Piso's remark of Chresimus' well\-dressed slaves also fits in this narrative.Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, pp. 383, 384\.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"The only mention of Chresimus in ancient sources comes from a fragment of [Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi](/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Frugi_%28consul_133_BC%29 \"Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (consul 133 BC)\"), who was consul in 133 BC, and notably an enemy of [Tiberius Gracchus](/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus \"Tiberius Gracchus\"). Piso probably wrote a history called *Annales* in at least seven books, which he started after his [censorship](/wiki/Roman_censor \"Roman censor\") in 120\\.M. P. Pobjoy, in Cornell (ed.), *Fragments of the Roman Historians*, pp. 230–239\\.",
"The consensus among historians is to identify the Spurius Postumius Albinus mentioned in the fragment with the [consul of 186 BC](/wiki/Spurius_Postumius_Albinus_%28consul_186_BC%29 \"Spurius Postumius Albinus (consul 186 BC)\"), who was likely aedile in 191 BC, the most probable date of Chresimus' trial.Münzer, *RE*, vol. 43, col. 930, 931 (Postumius 49\\), thinks that Albinus should be identified with the [consul of 174](/wiki/Spurius_Postumius_Albinus_Paullulus \"Spurius Postumius Albinus Paullulus\"), and dates his aedileship from 185 BC.Broughton, vol. I, p. 353\\. Piso's source for the trial might have been [Aulus Postumius Albinus](/wiki/Aulus_Postumius_Albinus_%28consul_151_BC%29 \"Aulus Postumius Albinus (consul 151 BC)\"), consul in 151 BC, and author of a Roman history in Greek. However, Gary Forsythe pointed out that Albinus' history was principally focused to the Greek world and urban matters and would not have dealt with Chresimus' story. Instead, he suggests that Piso could have found about Chresimus from [oral tradition](/wiki/Oral_tradition \"Oral tradition\") among his family, because the [Postumii Albini](/wiki/Postumia_gens%23Postumii_Albi_et_Albini \"Postumia gens#Postumii Albi et Albini\") and the [Calpurnii Pisones](/wiki/Calpurnia_gens \"Calpurnia gens\") were closely linked politically throughout the second century BC.Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, pp. 263, 264, 380\\.\n[thumb\\|*Caius Furius Cressinus Accused of Sorcery*, [Nicolas\\-Guy Brenet](/wiki/Nicolas-Guy_Brenet \"Nicolas-Guy Brenet\"), 1777 ([Musée des Augustins](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Augustins \"Musée des Augustins\"), [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse \"Toulouse\"))](/wiki/File:Nicolas_Guy_Brenet%2C_%22Caius_Furius_Cressinus_accuse_de_sortilege%22%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Augustins_%282004_1_130%29.jpg \"Nicolas Guy Brenet, \")",
"Chresimus was a Greek man, likely captured as slave during a war waged by the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\") in the Greek east.Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, p. 376\\.Graf, *Magic in the Ancient World*, p. 63\\. He was later freed by a member of the [gens](/wiki/Gens \"Gens\") [Furia](/wiki/Furia_%28gens%29 \"Furia (gens)\"), from whom he took his *[nomen](/wiki/Nomen_%28Roman_name%29 \"Nomen (Roman name)\")* – Furius. His *[cognomen](/wiki/Cognomen \"Cognomen\")* – Chresimus – means frugal and is the Greek equivalent of the *[agnomen](/wiki/Agnomen \"Agnomen\")* of Piso (nicknamed Frugi).Cicero, *[Tusculanae Disputationes](/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes \"Tusculanae Disputationes\")*, iii. 16\\.Cornell (ed.), *Fragments of the Roman Historians*, vol. III, p. 213\\. No explanation is given on this coincidence. Chresimus later held a farm and in turn became a slave owner.Bradley, *Cambridge World History of Slavery*, pp. 378, 379\\.",
"Because Chresimus yielded much better harvests from a smaller land than his neighbours, they began to envy him, then sue him for magically poisoning (*veneficia*) their crops during the night.Graf, *Magic in the Ancient World*, p. 62\\.Collins, *Magic in the Ancient Greek World*, pp. 143–145, who points that Chresimus was sued for using magic, not just potions.Teitel Paule, \"Qvae Saga, Qvis Magvs\", p. 746\\. Chresimus was prosecuted under a provision in the [Law of the Twelve Tables](/wiki/Twelve_Tables \"Twelve Tables\") which punished by death, or the loss of citizenship, anybody convicted of using magic to take away the fertility of someone else's soil. It is the only known trial where this law played a role. Chresimus' neighbours were probably much richer than him, and they sued him to get rid of a newcomer that could have challenged the social order. Due to his Greek origin, Chresimus may also have been the victim of his neighbours' xenophobia, who denounced him to Albinus, the [curule aedile](/wiki/Aedile \"Aedile\") – equivalent of a [prosecutor](/wiki/Prosecutor \"Prosecutor\") – who decided to charge him before the [Centuriate Assembly](/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly \"Centuriate Assembly\").Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, pp. 380, 381\\. Albinus was known to be a firm conservative opposed to [Hellenism](/wiki/Philhellenism \"Philhellenism\") and religious innovations, like his contemporary [Cato the Censor](/wiki/Cato_the_Elder \"Cato the Elder\").Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, p. 381–383\\. As consul in 186, Albinus was the leading authority in the famous [Bacchanalia Case](/wiki/Bacchanalia \"Bacchanalia\"), a Greek cult of [Bacchus](/wiki/Dionysus \"Dionysus\") in Southern Italy, which triggered a religious scandal and prompted Albinus to spend his entire consulship suppressing the worship.Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, pp. 381, 382\\.",
"The trial took place on the [Forum](/wiki/Roman_Forum \"Roman Forum\"), before the other members of Chresimus' [tribe](/wiki/Roman_tribe \"Roman tribe\") and with Albinus presiding.Graf, *Magic in the Ancient World*, p. 64\\. Chresimus brought his farming equipment and his own slaves in order to present himself as more hard\\-working than his neighbours. Chresimus was thus unanimously acquitted and reintegrated in his tribe.",
"The story of Chresimus is similar to two other moralizing fragments of Piso's work, especially the story of [Gnaeus Flavius](/wiki/Gnaeus_Flavius_%28jurist%29 \"Gnaeus Flavius (jurist)\") (the son of a freedman that became aedile).Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, p. 383\\.Cornell (ed.), *Fragments of the Roman Historians*, vol. II, pp. 321, 323\\. Piso apparently advocated a \"benevolent paternalism\" towards slaves as well as personal austerity from nobles in order to reduce social tensions. Piso's remark of Chresimus' well\\-dressed slaves also fits in this narrative.Forsythe, *Calpurnius*, pp. 383, 384\\.",
""
] |
Game play
---------
Four contestants competed on each episode of *Hit Man* in a quiz based on memory and instant recall.{{cite book \|last1\=Baber \|first1\=David \|title\=Television Game Show Hosts: Biographies of 32 Stars \|date\=2009 \|publisher\=McFarland \& Co \|isbn\=9780786445738 \|page\=251 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=u7fwCQAAQBAJ\&dq\=%22hit\+man%22\+game\+show\&pg\=PA251 \|access\-date\=26 March 2020}} One was either a returning champion or champion\-designate, with the other three were challengers who competed for the right to face him/her in the second round. The winner of each game played the bonus round,
known as the Triple Crown, for a top prize of $10,000\.
### Round 1
The three challengers watched a short film narrated by Tomarken. Film topics varied widely and included biographies, behind\-the\-scenes features about specific movies, professions, hobbies, etc. The film was also shown to the returning champion offstage, since the subject matter would also be used for the Triple Crown.
After the film ended, Tomarken asked the challengers a series of toss\-up questions about its content. Each correct answer moved the challenger one step up a five\-step ladder behind him/her, while a miss put the question out of play and froze him/her out of the next one. The first challenger to give five correct answers won $300 and sat out the rest of the round, and the second to do so won $200\. These two challengers advanced to the second round; the third one was eliminated from the game and received consolation prizes.
### Round 2
The champion joined the two remaining challengers onstage, and all three contestants were shown a second film and asked a series of toss\-up questions about it. The object this time for all three contestants was to defend a series of hit men assigned to them. The champion was given seven hit men, with the first place challenger from the first round receiving four and the second place challenger receiving three.
Each toss\-up was played as a head\-to\-head showdown between the champion and one of the challengers, starting with the winner of the first round. Answering a question correctly caused the opposing contestant to lose a hit man, while answering incorrectly cost the contestant that did so one of his/her own. Each challenger played against the champion until they lost a hit man. Any player who lost all their hit men was eliminated. If either challenger lost all of their hit men, they were eliminated from the game and play continued with the champion and the remaining challenger.
Play continued until the champion had eliminated all seven of his/her opponents’ hit men or until he/she had lost all seven of his/hers. The champion retained in the former case; in the latter case, the challenger that was in control when the champion’s seventh and last hit man was eliminated became the champion.
### Triple Crown
[thumb\|A contestant about to start the Triple Crown bonus round.](/wiki/Image:Hit_Man_game_show_Triple_Crown.png "Hit Man game show Triple Crown.png")
The champion faced a board of eight columns that contained varying numbers of circles. Two columns each had two, three, and four circles, while one column had one circle and one had five circles. The champion turned his/her back to the board, and the columns were scrambled.
The champion had 60 seconds to answer questions based on the day's two films, without turning to face the board. He/she chose a column, and Tomarken began to ask questions. Each correct answer placed a money man in one circle, but a pass or incorrect answer forced the champion to choose a new one. He/she was never told how many answers were needed to fill a chosen column until it had been successfully filled and/or the end of the round. The champion won $1,000 for each of the first two columns filled, or $10,000 for filling three.
Champions remained on the show until they were defeated in the second round of the main game or had played the Triple Crown five times.
|
[
"Game play\n---------",
"Four contestants competed on each episode of *Hit Man* in a quiz based on memory and instant recall.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Baber \\|first1\\=David \\|title\\=Television Game Show Hosts: Biographies of 32 Stars \\|date\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=McFarland \\& Co \\|isbn\\=9780786445738 \\|page\\=251 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=u7fwCQAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=%22hit\\+man%22\\+game\\+show\\&pg\\=PA251 \\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2020}} One was either a returning champion or champion\\-designate, with the other three were challengers who competed for the right to face him/her in the second round. The winner of each game played the bonus round,\nknown as the Triple Crown, for a top prize of $10,000\\.",
"### Round 1",
"The three challengers watched a short film narrated by Tomarken. Film topics varied widely and included biographies, behind\\-the\\-scenes features about specific movies, professions, hobbies, etc. The film was also shown to the returning champion offstage, since the subject matter would also be used for the Triple Crown.",
"After the film ended, Tomarken asked the challengers a series of toss\\-up questions about its content. Each correct answer moved the challenger one step up a five\\-step ladder behind him/her, while a miss put the question out of play and froze him/her out of the next one. The first challenger to give five correct answers won $300 and sat out the rest of the round, and the second to do so won $200\\. These two challengers advanced to the second round; the third one was eliminated from the game and received consolation prizes.",
"### Round 2",
"The champion joined the two remaining challengers onstage, and all three contestants were shown a second film and asked a series of toss\\-up questions about it. The object this time for all three contestants was to defend a series of hit men assigned to them. The champion was given seven hit men, with the first place challenger from the first round receiving four and the second place challenger receiving three.",
"Each toss\\-up was played as a head\\-to\\-head showdown between the champion and one of the challengers, starting with the winner of the first round. Answering a question correctly caused the opposing contestant to lose a hit man, while answering incorrectly cost the contestant that did so one of his/her own. Each challenger played against the champion until they lost a hit man. Any player who lost all their hit men was eliminated. If either challenger lost all of their hit men, they were eliminated from the game and play continued with the champion and the remaining challenger.",
"Play continued until the champion had eliminated all seven of his/her opponents’ hit men or until he/she had lost all seven of his/hers. The champion retained in the former case; in the latter case, the challenger that was in control when the champion’s seventh and last hit man was eliminated became the champion.",
"### Triple Crown",
"[thumb\\|A contestant about to start the Triple Crown bonus round.](/wiki/Image:Hit_Man_game_show_Triple_Crown.png \"Hit Man game show Triple Crown.png\")\nThe champion faced a board of eight columns that contained varying numbers of circles. Two columns each had two, three, and four circles, while one column had one circle and one had five circles. The champion turned his/her back to the board, and the columns were scrambled.",
"The champion had 60 seconds to answer questions based on the day's two films, without turning to face the board. He/she chose a column, and Tomarken began to ask questions. Each correct answer placed a money man in one circle, but a pass or incorrect answer forced the champion to choose a new one. He/she was never told how many answers were needed to fill a chosen column until it had been successfully filled and/or the end of the round. The champion won $1,000 for each of the first two columns filled, or $10,000 for filling three.",
"Champions remained on the show until they were defeated in the second round of the main game or had played the Triple Crown five times.",
""
] |
Civilian journalists killed in the line of duty
-----------------------------------------------
Eighteen journalists and media workers are listed by the [Committee to Protect Journalists](/wiki/Committee_to_Protect_Journalists "Committee to Protect Journalists")'s database {{as of\|2022\|June\|1\|lc\=yes}} as having been killed in the Russo\-Ukrainian War—seven in the [war in Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas_%282014%E2%80%932022%29 "War in Donbas (2014–2022)") in 2014–2015,{{Cite web \|title\=8 Journalists and Media Workers Killed in Ukraine between 2014 and 2015 \|url\=https://cpj.org/data/killed/2022/?status\=Killed\&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D\=Confirmed\&motiveUnconfirmed%5B%5D\=Unconfirmed\&type%5B%5D\=Journalist\&type%5B%5D\=Media%20Worker\&cc\_fips%5B%5D\=UP\&start\_year\=2014\&end\_year\=2015\&group\_by\=location \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319032803/https://cpj.org/data/killed/2022/?status\=Killed\&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D\=Confirmed\&motiveUnconfirmed%5B%5D\=Unconfirmed\&type%5B%5D\=Journalist\&type%5B%5D\=Media%20Worker\&cc\_fips%5B%5D\=UP\&start\_year\=2022\&end\_year\=2022\&group\_by\=location \|archive\-date\=19 March 2022 \|access\-date\=18 March 2022 \|author\=\[\[Committee to Protect Journalists]] \|language\=en\-US}} *Note*: List includes one journalist killed outside the context of the war. ten in the full\-scale [Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine").{{Cite web \|last\=Committee to Protect Journalists \|title\=10 Journalists and Media Workers Killed in Ukraine in 2022 \|url\=https://cpj.org/data/killed/2022/?status\=Killed\&cc\_fips%5B%5D\=UP\&start\_year\=2022\&end\_year\=2022\&group\_by\=location \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426071436/https://cpj.org/data/killed/2022/?status\=Killed\&cc\_fips%5B%5D\=UP\&start\_year\=2022\&end\_year\=2022\&group\_by\=location \|archive\-date\=26 April 2022 \|access\-date\=26 April 2022 \|language\=en\-US}} As of 11 October 2024, at least 18 civilian journalists have been killed in the line of duty according to the [National Union of Journalists of Ukraine](/wiki/National_Union_of_Journalists_of_Ukraine "National Union of Journalists of Ukraine").{{cite news \|url\=https://nsju.org/novini/arman\-soldin\-stav\-14\-ym\-mediapraczivnykom\-shho\-zagynuv\-pry\-vykonanni\-profesijnyh\-obovyazkiv/ \|title\=Список журналістів, які загинули від початку повномасштабної російської агресії (оновлено) \|trans\-title\=List of journalists who have died since the beginning of full\-scale Russian aggression (updated) \|language\=uk \|work\=\[\[National Union of Journalists of Ukraine\|Національна спілка журналістів України (НСЖУ)]] (nsju.org) \|date\=11 October 2024 \|access\-date\=15 October 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.is/znVtW \|archive\-date\=11 October 2024}}
| Name and nationality | Profession | Employer | Date of death | Killed by | Cause of death |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{flagicon\|Italy}} [Andrea Rocchelli](/wiki/Andrea_Rocchelli "Andrea Rocchelli") | [Photojournalist](/wiki/Photojournalist "Photojournalist") | *Cesura* | 24 May 2014 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} [Armed Forces of Ukraine](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine "Armed Forces of Ukraine") | Shelling |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} [Andrei Mironov](/wiki/Andrei_Mironov_%28activist%29 "Andrei Mironov (activist)") | Interpreter and [fixer](/wiki/Fixer_%28person%29 "Fixer (person)") | (Freelance) |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} [Igor Kornelyuk](/wiki/Igor_Kornelyuk_%28journalist%29 "Igor Kornelyuk (journalist)") | [Correspondent](/wiki/Correspondent "Correspondent") | [VGTRK](/wiki/VGTRK "VGTRK") | 17 June 2014 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shelling |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} [Anton Voloshin](/wiki/Anton_Voloshin "Anton Voloshin") | [Sound engineer](/wiki/Sound_engineer "Sound engineer") |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} [Anatoly Klyan](/wiki/Anatoly_Klyan "Anatoly Klyan") | [Camera operator](/wiki/Camera_operator "Camera operator") | [Channel One](/wiki/Channel_One_%28Russia%29 "Channel One (Russia)") | 30 June 2014 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shot |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} [Andrey Stenin](/wiki/Andrey_Stenin "Andrey Stenin") | Photojournalist | Several news agencies | Disappeared 5 August 2014Body found 3 September 2014 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Unclear; body found in burnt\-out car |
| {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} [Serhiy Nikolayev](/wiki/Serhiy_Nikolayev "Serhiy Nikolayev") | Photojournalist | *[Segodnya](/wiki/Segodnya "Segodnya")* | 28 February 2015 | *Disputed*: {{flagicon\|Donetsk People's Republic}} [Donbas People's Militia](/wiki/Donbas_People%27s_Militia "Donbas People's Militia") or {{nowrap\|{{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed}} Forces of Ukraine | Shelling |
| {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Yevhenii Sakun | Photojournalist and correspondent | {{ill\|Live (Ukrainian TV channel)\|uk\|Live (телеканал)\|lt\=Live}}; [EFE](/wiki/EFE "EFE") | 1 March 2022 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} [Russian Armed Forces](/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces "Russian Armed Forces") | Airstrike |
| {{flagicon\|United States}} [Brent Renaud](/wiki/Brent_Renaud "Brent Renaud") | [Documentarian](/wiki/Documentarian "Documentarian") | (Independent) | 13 March 2022 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Shot |
| {{flagicon\|Ireland}} Pierre Zakrzewski | Photojournalist | [Fox News](/wiki/Fox_News "Fox News") | 14 March 2022 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Shot |
| {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Oleksandra Kuvshynova | Fixer |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} [Oksana Baulina](/wiki/Oksana_Baulina "Oksana Baulina") | Correspondent | *[The Insider](/wiki/The_Insider_%28website%29 "The Insider (website)")* | 23 March 2022 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Rocket strike |
| {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} [Maks Levin](/wiki/Maks_Levin "Maks Levin") | Photojournalist | [LB.ua](/wiki/LB.ua "LB.ua") | Disappeared 13 March 2022Body found 1 April 2022 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Shot |
| {{flagicon\|Lithuania}} [Mantas Kvedaravičius](/wiki/Mantas_Kvedaravi%C4%8Dius "Mantas Kvedaravičius") | Documentarian | (Independent) | 2 April 2022 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Shot (alleged) |
| {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Roman Zhuk | Photographer | (Independent) | 26 May 2022 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | |
| {{flagicon\|France}} Frédéric Leclerc\-Imhoff | [Camera operator](/wiki/Camera_operator "Camera operator") | [BFM TV](/wiki/BFM_TV "BFM TV") | 30 May 2022 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces (alleged) | Shelling |
| {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} [Bohdan Bitik](/wiki/Bohdan_Bitik "Bohdan Bitik") | Producer | [La Repubblica](/wiki/La_Repubblica "La Repubblica") | 26 April 2023 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces (alleged) | Shot by Sniper |
| {{flagicon\|France}} [Arman Soldin](/wiki/Arman_Soldin "Arman Soldin") | Reporter, video coordinator | [Agence France\-Presse](/wiki/Agence_France-Presse "Agence France-Presse") | 9 May 2023 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Rocket attack |
| {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} [Victoria Amelina](/wiki/Victoria_Amelina "Victoria Amelina") | Writer and journalist | (Independent) | 1 July 2023 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | [Rocket attack](/wiki/2023_Kramatorsk_restaurant_missile_strike "2023 Kramatorsk restaurant missile strike") |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} Rostislav Zhuravlev | Journalist | [RIA Novosti](/wiki/RIA_Novosti "RIA Novosti") | 22 July 2023 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shelling; cluster bombing (alleged by Russia) |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} Boris Maksudov | Journalist | [Rossiya 24](/wiki/Rossiya_24 "Rossiya 24") | 23 November 2023 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shelling; drone strike (alleged by Russia) |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} Semyon Eremin | Journalist | [Izvestia](/wiki/Izvestia "Izvestia") | 19 April 2024 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Drone strike (alleged by Russia) |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} Valery Kozhin | Cameraman | [NTV](/wiki/NTV_%28Russia%29 "NTV (Russia)") | 13 June 2024 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shelling (alleged by Russia) |
| {{flagicon\|Russia}} Nikita Tsitsagi | Correspondent | [NEWS.ru](/wiki/NEWS.ru "NEWS.ru") | 15 June 2024 | {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Drone strike (alleged by Russia) |
| {{flagicon\|UK}} Richard Evans | Safety advisor | [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters") | 25 August 2024 | {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Missile strike (alleged by Ukraine) |
### Andrea Rocchelli and Andrei Mironov
[thumb\|left\|Andrei Mironov\|upright\=0\.75\|alt\=caption](/wiki/File:Andrei_Mironov.jpeg "Andrei Mironov.jpeg")
Italian photojournalist [Andrea Rocchelli](/wiki/Andrea_Rocchelli "Andrea Rocchelli") and Russian journalist and activist [Andrei Mironov](/wiki/Andrei_Mironov_%28activist%29 "Andrei Mironov (activist)"), who was serving as Rocchelli's [fixer](/wiki/Fixer_%28journalism%29 "Fixer (journalism)") and interpreter,{{Cite news \|date\=25 July 2017 \|title\=Who killed Andrea Rocchelli? \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[Euronews]] \|url\=https://www.euronews.com/2017/07/25/who\-killed\-andrea\-rocchelli \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}{{Cite news \|last1\=Lally \|first1\=Kathy \|last2\=Englund \|first2\=Will \|author\-link2\=Will Englund \|date\=30 May 2014 \|title\=Remembering Andrei Mironov, the interpreter who tried to save Russia \|language\=en\-US \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/remembering\-andrei\-mironov\-the\-interpreter\-who\-tried\-to\-save\-russia/2014/05/30/664acbda\-e5c9\-11e3\-a86b\-362fd5443d19\_story.html \|access\-date\=16 March 2022 \|issn\=0190\-8286}} were killed on 24 May 2014 near the city of [Slovyansk](/wiki/Slovyansk "Slovyansk"). The two men, plus French reporter William Roguelon, and a local driver were fired at on the way to their car. Roguelon stated that they were then targeted with 40 to 60 [mortars](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 "Mortar (weapon)").{{Cite news \|date\=1 October 2014 \|title\=Французький фотограф поранений під Слов'янськом \|trans\-title\=French photographer wounded near Slavyansk \|author\=\[\[Institute of Mass Information]] \|url\=https://imi.org.ua/news/44401\-frantsuzkiy\-fotograf\-poraneniy\-pid\-slovyanskom.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001032140/https://imi.org.ua/news/44401\-frantsuzkiy\-fotograf\-poraneniy\-pid\-slovyanskom.html \|archive\-date\=1 October 2014}}{{Cite news \|date\=26 May 2014 \|title\=Italian journalist and Russian fixer killed in eastern Ukraine \|language\=en \|author\=\[\[Reporters Without Borders]] \|url\=https://rsf.org/en/news/italian\-journalist\-and\-russian\-fixer\-killed\-eastern\-ukraine \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}
In July 2019, an Italian court convicted [Vitalii Markiv](/wiki/Vitalii_Markiv "Vitalii Markiv"), an Italian\-Ukrainian [dual citizen](/wiki/Dual_citizen "Dual citizen") and an officer in the [National Guard of Ukraine](/wiki/National_Guard_of_Ukraine "National Guard of Ukraine"), of directing the strike that killed Rocchelli and Mironov.{{Cite news \|last\=Englund \|first\=Will \|date\=27 January 2020 \|title\=Who killed two journalists in Ukraine? And why? \|language\=en \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine/2020/01/27/who\-killed\-two\-journalists\-ukraine\-why/ \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} Markiv's conviction was overturned in November 2020,{{Cite news \|date\=4 November 2020 \|title\=Ukrainian Ex\-Fighter Acquitted In 2014 Killing Of Italian Journalist Returns To Kyiv \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[Radio Free Europe]] \|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukrainian\-ex\-fighter\-acquitted\-in\-2014\-killing\-of\-italian\-journalist\-returns\-to\-kyiv/30930248\.html \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} a decision made final by the [Supreme Court of Cassation](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cassation_%28Italy%29 "Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)") in December 2021\.{{Cite news \|date\=9 December 2021 \|title\=Італійський суд остаточно виправдав нацгвардійця Марківа \|language\=uk,ru \|trans\-title\=Italian court finally acquitted Markiv of the National Guard \|work\=\[\[Ukrayinska Pravda]] \|url\=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/12/9/7316860/ \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}
### Igor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin
{{Main\|Deaths of Igor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin}}
Igor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin, correspondent and [sound engineer](/wiki/Sound_engineer "Sound engineer") respectively for Russian state\-owned broadcasting company [VGTRK](/wiki/VGTRK "VGTRK"),{{Cite web \|title\=Igor Kornelyuk \|url\=https://cpj.org/data/people/igor\-kornelyuk/ \|access\-date\=16 March 2022 \|author\=Committee to Protect Journalists \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Committee to Protect Journalists \|title\=Anton Voloshin \|url\=https://www.cpj.org/killed/2014/anton\-voloshin.php \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} [were struck](/wiki/Deaths_of_Igor_Kornelyuk_and_Anton_Voloshin "Deaths of Igor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin") by Ukrainian [mortar shells](/wiki/Mortar_shells "Mortar shells") on 17 June 2014 while filming a separatist roadblock{{Cite news \|date\=17 June 2014 \|title\=Russian reporter killed by mortar attack in eastern Ukraine \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[Reuters]] \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk\-ukraine\-crisis\-journalist\-idUKKBN0ES1J920140617 \|access\-date\=18 March 2022}} in [Metalist](/wiki/Metalist%2C_Slovianoserbsk_Raion "Metalist, Slovianoserbsk Raion"), Slovianoserbsk Raion. Voloshin died instantly, while Kornelyuk died later that day.
Both men were posthumously awarded the Russian [Order of Courage](/wiki/Order_of_Courage_%28Russia%29 "Order of Courage (Russia)") by [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin").{{Cite web \|date\=20 June 2014 \|title\=Executive Order on awarding the Order of Courage to VGTRK journalists Anton Voloshin and Igor Kornelyuk \|url\=http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/45946 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319040453/http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/45946 \|archive\-date\=19 March 2022 \|website\=Office of the President of Russia}}
[Nadiya Savchenko](/wiki/Nadiya_Savchenko "Nadiya Savchenko"), a Ukrainian army helicopter pilot, was captured by separatists the same day and was accused of directing the mortar strike.{{cite news \| url\=http://www.newyorker.com/news/news\-desk/nadiya\-savchenko\-gives\-russia\-the\-finger \| title\=Nadiya Savchenko Gives Russia the Finger \| magazine\=\[\[The New Yorker]] \| date\=10 March 2016 \| access\-date\=24 March 2022 \| author\=Gessen, Masha}} She claimed that she had rather been captured an hour before the attack.{{cite news\|last1\=Dzhanpoladova\|first1\=Natalia\|last2\=Gostev\|first2\=Aleksandr\|newspaper\=Радио Свобода \|script\-title\=ru:Алиби Надежды Савченко\|trans\-title\=Nadezhda Savchenko's alibi\|language\=ru\|url\=https://www.svoboda.org/a/26748995\.html\|agency\=\[\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\|Radio Liberty]]\|date\=17 December 2014\|access\-date\=24 March 2022}} Savchenko was convicted by a Russian court on 21 March 2016,{{cite news\|url\=http://tass.ru/en/world/863897 \|title\=Ukrainian army ex\-pilot found guilty of death of Russian journalists near Lugansk — court \|publisher\=Tass.ru \|date\=21 March 2016 \|access\-date\=25 July 2017}} in what [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") characterized as a "flawed, deeply politicized trial".{{Cite web \|date\=21 March 2016 \|title\=Russia: Nadiya Savchenko must get a retrial after 'deeply politicized' guilty verdict \|url\=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/03/russia\-nadiya\-savchenko\-must\-get\-a\-retrial\-after\-deeply\-politicized\-guilty\-verdict/ \|access\-date\=24 March 2022 \|website\=\[\[Amnesty International]] \|language\=en}} She was [pardoned](/wiki/Presidential_pardon "Presidential pardon") by Vladimir Putin as a result of a [prisoner swap](/wiki/Prisoner_swap "Prisoner swap") for two Russian soldiers two months later.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/26/world/europe/ukraine\-russia\-prisoner\-swap.html?\_r\=0 \|title\=Ukrainian Pilot, Nadiya Savchenko, Is Exchanged for 2 Russian Prisoners \|date\=25 May 2016 \|access\-date\= 22 March 2022 \|work\=The New York Times}}
### Anatoly Klyan
{{Main\|Death of Anatoly Klyan}}
Anatoly Klyan, a [camera operator](/wiki/Camera_operator "Camera operator") for Russian [Channel One](/wiki/Channel_One_Russia "Channel One Russia"), [was killed](/wiki/Death_of_Anatoly_Klyan "Death of Anatoly Klyan") by Ukrainian soldiers while traveling with a group of protesting soldiers' mothers on 30 June 2014 in [Donetsk Oblast](/wiki/Donetsk_Oblast "Donetsk Oblast").{{Cite news \|date\=30 June 2014 \|title\=Russian journalist killed in Ukraine as gunmen fire on media bus \|work\=\[\[The Guardian]] \|agency\=\[\[The Associated Press]] \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/30/russian\-journalist\-dead\-cameraman\-ukraine\-avidiivka \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}{{Cite news \|last\=Culzac \|first\=Natasha \|date\=30 June 2014 \|title\=Anatoly Klyan death: Russian cameraman fatally shot in Ukraine 'by government forces' \|work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/anatoly\-klyan\-death\-russian\-cameraman\-fatally\-shot\-in\-ukraine\-by\-government\-forces\-9574289\.html \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} The trip had been organized by separatists and the driver was wearing [camouflage](/wiki/Camouflage_%28military%29 "Camouflage (military)"). Klyan continued to film the attack until he grew too weak.
### Andrey Stenin
{{Main\|Death of Andrey Stenin}}
Andrey Stenin, a Russian [photojournalist](/wiki/Photojournalist "Photojournalist") and correspondent for several Russian and international news agencies, disappeared on 5 August 2014 while embedded with Russian\-backed forces in Donetsk.{{Cite news \|last\=Greenslade \|first\=Roy \|author\-link\=Roy Greenslade \|date\=11 August 2014 \|title\=Russian agency photographer goes missing in Ukraine \|work\=The Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/media/greenslade/2014/aug/11/journalist\-safety\-ukraine \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} He was confirmed dead on 3 September 2014\.{{Cite news \|last\=Committee to Protect Journalists \|date\=3 September 2014 \|title\=Russian photojournalist Andrei Stenin killed in Ukraine \|url\=https://cpj.org/2014/09/missing\-russian\-photojournalist\-confirmed\-killed\-i.php \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}
Stenin's body was found in a burnt\-out car alongside [Donetsk People's Republic](/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic "Donetsk People's Republic") militia Information Corps members Sergei Korenchenkov and Andrei Vyachalo (*see* {{slink\|\|Sergei Korenchenkov and Andrei Vyachalo}}). Their deaths were not announced until ten days after his. *The Interpreter* magazine, a publication of the Institute of Modern Russia, suggested that Russia was trying to obscure the connection between Stenin and militia members. Ukrainian journalist {{Ill\|Yuriy Butusov\|uk\|Бутусов Юрій Євгенович}} described Stenin as a "[zampolit](/wiki/Zampolit "Zampolit") of [Strelkov](/wiki/Igor_Girkin "Igor Girkin")" rather than a journalist.
Stenin was posthumously awarded the Order of Courage by Vladimir Putin.{{cite web\|title\=Andrei Stenin has been posthumously awarded the Order of Courage\|date\=5 September 2014 \|url\=http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/22908\|publisher\=Russian Presidential Executive Office\|accessdate\=19 March 2022}}
### Serhiy Nikolayev
[Serhiy Nikolayev](/wiki/Serhiy_Nikolayev "Serhiy Nikolayev"), a photojournalist with the Ukrainian newspaper *[Segodnya](/wiki/Segodnya "Segodnya")*, died along with soldier Mykola "Tank" Flerko during the shelling of the village of [Pisky](/wiki/Pisky%2C_Yasynuvata_Raion "Pisky, Yasynuvata Raion") on 28 February 2015\.{{Cite news \|date\=28 February 2015 \|title\=News photographer from Segodnya newspaper killed by shell in Pisky \|agency\=\[\[Ukrainian Independent Information Agency]] \|url\=http://www.unian.info/war/1049972\-news\-photographer\-from\-segodnya\-newspaper\-killed\-by\-shell\-in\-pisky.html \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} Nikolayev was wearing a [bulletproof vest](/wiki/Bulletproof_vest "Bulletproof vest") marked "PRESS".{{Cite news \|last\=Reporters Without Borders \|date\=28 February 2015 \|title\=Ukrainian photographer killed near Donetsk \|url\=http://en.rsf.org/ukraine\-summary\-of\-attacks\-on\-media\-11\-09\-2014,46265\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017073842/http://en.rsf.org/ukraine\-summary\-of\-attacks\-on\-media\-11\-09\-2014,46265\.html \|archive\-date\=17 October 2015 \|accessdate\=20 October 2015}} Both sides in the war blamed each other.{{Cite news \|date\=1 March 2015 \|title\=Ukraine's pro\-Russia rebels claim to withdraw, Kyiv skeptical \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=\[\[Deutsche Welle]] \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/ukraines\-pro\-russia\-rebels\-claim\-to\-withdraw\-kyiv\-skeptical/a\-18288141 \|access\-date\=18 March 2022}}
Nikolayev had previously been attacked by the [Berkut](/wiki/Berkut_%28special_police_force%29 "Berkut (special police force)") special police while reporting on the [Euromaidan](/wiki/Euromaidan "Euromaidan") demonstrations in 2013\. After his death he was awarded the title *[Hero of Ukraine](/wiki/Hero_of_Ukraine "Hero of Ukraine")* by [Petro Poroshenko](/wiki/Petro_Poroshenko "Petro Poroshenko").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.slavaukraine.net/en/news/heroes\-glory/2846\-sergey\-nikolaev\-photographer\-of\-the\-newspaper\-today\-was\-awarded\-the\-title\-of\-national\-hero\-of\-ukraine\-posthumously.html \|title\=Sergey Nikolaev, photographer of the newspaper "Today" was awarded the title of "national Hero of Ukraine (posthumously) \|work\=Slava Ukraine \|language\=en,uk,fr}}
### Yevhenii Sakun
[thumb\|right\|The strike on the Kyiv TV Tower\|alt\=An orange ball of flame erupts toward the base of a white metal lattice tower. Dark gray smoke plumes upward.](/wiki/File:Rocket_strike_on_Kyiv_TV_Tower%2C_1_March_2022.webm "Rocket strike on Kyiv TV Tower, 1 March 2022.webm")
{{further\|Kyiv TV Tower\#2022 missile strike}}
Yevhenii Sakun {{bracket\|\[\[:ca:Ievheni Sakun\|ca]]}},{{refn\|group\=bio\|{{langx\|uk\|Євгеній Сакун}},{{Cite news \|last\=Hainey \|first\=Fionnula \|date\=2 March 2022 \|title\=Cameraman one of five killed in Kyiv TV tower missile strike \|language\=en \|url\=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/world\-news/killed\-war\-just\-doing\-job\-23268186 \|work\=\[\[Manchester Evening News]]\|access\-date\=18 March 2022}} also transliterated {{transliteration\|uk\|Evgeny Sakin}}{{Cite news \|last\=Marlowe \|first\=Lara \|author\-link\=Lara Marlowe \|date\=12 March 2022 \|title\=Death in Ukraine: 'It is better to be the widow of a hero than the wife of a coward' \|language\=en \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/life\-and\-style/people/death\-in\-ukraine\-it\-is\-better\-to\-be\-the\-widow\-of\-a\-hero\-than\-the\-wife\-of\-a\-coward\-1\.4822643 \|access\-date\=17 March 2022}}}} a photojournalist for Ukrainian TV channel {{ill\|Live (Ukrainian TV channel)\|uk\|Live (телеканал)\|lt\=Live}} and correspondent with [EFE](/wiki/EFE "EFE"), was killed by an attack on the [Kyiv TV Tower](/wiki/Kyiv_TV_Tower "Kyiv TV Tower") on 1 March 2022,{{Cite news \|date\=3 March 2022 \|title\=Ukraine: Cameraman Yevhenii Sakun killed in TV tower bombing \|author\=\[\[International Federation of Journalists]] \|url\=https://www.ifj.org/media\-centre/news/detail/category/press\-releases/article/ukraine\-cameraman\-yevhenii\-sakun\-killed\-in\-tv\-tower\-bombing.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=13 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303152441/https://www.ifj.org/media\-centre/news/detail/category/press\-releases/article/ukraine\-cameraman\-yevhenii\-sakun\-killed\-in\-tv\-tower\-bombing.html \|archive\-date\=3 March 2022}} in what [Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders "Reporters Without Borders") described as a "precision strike" on the facility.{{Cite news \|date\=5 March 2022 \|title\=RSF refers Russian strikes on four Ukrainian TV towers to International Criminal Court \|language\=en \|author\=Reporters Without Borders \|url\=https://rsf.org/en/news/rsf\-refers\-russian\-strikes\-four\-ukrainian\-tv\-towers\-international\-criminal\-court \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}
### Brent Renaud
[Brent Renaud](/wiki/Brent_Renaud "Brent Renaud"), a [Peabody Award](/wiki/Peabody_Award "Peabody Award")\-winning documentary filmmaker and journalist who previously worked for *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, was shot dead by Russian soldiers while at a [checkpoint](/wiki/Security_checkpoint "Security checkpoint") in [Irpin](/wiki/Irpin "Irpin") on 13 March 2022\.{{cite news \| last1\= Bowman \| first1\= Verity \| title\= US journalist Brent Renaud 'killed in Ukraine' \| date\= 13 March 2022 \|newspaper\= \[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \| url\= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world\-news/2022/03/13/us\-journalist\-brent\-renaud\-killed\-ukraine/ \|access\-date\= 13 March 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313140110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world\-news/2022/03/13/us\-journalist\-brent\-renaud\-killed\-ukraine \|archive\-date\= 13 March 2022 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|date\=13 March 2022 \|title\=Acclaimed filmmaker Brent Renaud shot, killed in Ukraine \|language\=en \|agency\=The Associated Press \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/brent\-renaud\-obituary\-russia\-ukraine\-bd0aa404e1b64dbdc464b6660fd280af \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} Renaud, who was known for his work depicting refugees and deportees, had been filming evacuating refugees,{{Cite news \|last\=Traub \|first\=Alex \|date\=13 March 2022 \|title\=Brent Renaud, Crusading Filmmaker, Is Killed at 50 \|language\=en\-US \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/13/obituaries/brent\-renaud\-dead.html \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} according to his colleague {{ill\|Juan Arredondo (journalist)\|ca\|Juan Arredondo\|lt\=Juan Arredondo}}.{{Cite news \|date\=13 March 2022 \|title\='They started shooting at us' – US journalist's colleague \|language\=en\-gb \|work\=\[\[BBC News]] \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world\-europe\-60717902?ns\_mchannel\=social\&ns\_source\=twitter\&ns\_campaign\=bbc\_live\&ns\_linkname\=622e038aec502b53cd481fd6%26%27They%20started%20shooting%20at%20us%27%20\-%20US%20journalist%27s%20colleague%262022\-03\-13T14%3A52%3A50\.176Z\&ns\_fee\=0\&pinned\_post\_locator\=urn:asset:64993541\-b8ae\-4291\-8961\-338493a3a579\&pinned\_post\_asset\_id\=622e038aec502b53cd481fd6\&pinned\_post\_type\=share \|access\-date\=13 March 2022}}
### Pierre Zakrzewski and Oleksandra Kuvshynova
Pierre "Zak" Zakrzewski {{bracket\|\[\[:fr:Pierre Zakrzewski\|fr]]}},{{refn\|group\=bio\|Zakrzewski ({{ipac\-en\|'\|z\|æ\|k\|ʃ\|ɛ\|v\|s\|k\|i:}} {{respell\|ZAK\|shev\|skee}}{{Cite news \|title\=Fox News mourns Pierre Zakrzewski and Oleksandra Kuvshynova \|language\=en \|work\=\[\[Fox News]] \|via\=YouTube \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=lFbXcFiKgfU \|date\=15 March 2022 \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}) was born in August 1966 in Paris to a French mother and Polish father. He was raised in Ireland.{{Cite news \|last\=Clarke \|first\=Vivienne \|date\=16 March 2022 \|title\=Pierre Zakrzewski was a 'free spirit' who was adored by his family, say brothers \|language\=en \|newspaper\=\[\[The Irish Times]] \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish\-news/pierre\-zakrzewski\-was\-a\-free\-spirit\-who\-was\-adored\-by\-his\-family\-say\-brothers\-1\.4828461 \|access\-date\=25 March 2022}}}} an Irish photojournalist working for [Fox News](/wiki/Fox_News "Fox News"), and Oleksandra "Sasha" Kuvshynova {{bracket\|\[\[:uk:Кувшинова Олександра\|uk]]}},{{refn\|group\=bio\|Kuvshynova ({{langx\|uk\|Олександра Кувшинова\|links\=no}},{{Cite news \|last\=Гришина \|first\=Даша \|date\=15 March 2022 \|title\=Під Києвом вбили молоду українську журналістку \|trans\-title\=A young Ukrainian journalist was killed near Kyiv \|language\=uk \|work\=Вечірній Київ \|url\=https://vechirniy.kyiv.ua/news/62942/ \|access\-date\=18 March 2022}} also transliterated {{transliteration\|uk\|Kuvshinova}}) was 24 at the time of her death.}} a Ukrainian [freelancer](/wiki/Freelancer "Freelancer") working with Fox, were killed on 14 March 2022 when their vehicle came under fire in [Horenka](/wiki/Horenka%2C_Bucha_Raion%2C_Kyiv_Oblast "Horenka, Bucha Raion, Kyiv Oblast"), [Kyiv Oblast](/wiki/Kyiv_Oblast "Kyiv Oblast").{{Cite news \|date\=15 March 2022 \|title\=Two journalists killed in attack while reporting in Ukraine \|work\=\[\[ITV News]] \|url\=https://www.itv.com/news/2022\-03\-15/fox\-news\-cameraman\-pierre\-zakrzewski\-killed\-in\-attack\-while\-reporting\-in\-ukraine \|access\-date\=13 March 2022}}{{cite news\|url\=https://www.thejournal.ie/fox\-news\-cameraman\-killed\-ukraine\-5711972\-Mar2022/\|title\=Taoiseach pays tribute to Irish citizen killed while reporting for Fox News near Kyiv\|author\=\|date\=3 March 2022 \|access\-date\=13 March 2022\|work\=\[\[TheJournal.ie]]}} British journalist [Benjamin Hall](/wiki/Benjamin_Hall_%28journalist%29 "Benjamin Hall (journalist)"), also of Fox, was wounded in the same attack.{{Cite news \|date\=14 March 2022 \|title\=British journalist hospitalised in Ukraine while reporting for Fox News \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=ITV News \|url\=https://www.itv.com/news/2022\-03\-14/british\-journalist\-hospitalised\-in\-ukraine\-while\-reporting\-for\-fox\-news \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}
Zakrzewski had worked as a freelancer for some years, but had "with mixed feelings" moved to Fox partly because it was too dangerous to work in conflict areas without the support of a media organization. He had worked for Fox in the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War"), [War in Afghanistan](/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_%282001%E2%80%932021%29 "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)"), and [Syrian civil war](/wiki/Syrian_civil_war "Syrian civil war"),{{Cite news \|date\=15 March 2022 \|title\=Fox News' Pierre Zakrzewski and Oleksandra Kuvshinova killed in Kyiv \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=BBC News \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\-us\-canada\-60756503 \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}} and had received Fox's "Unsung Hero" employee award for his role in evacuating Afghan freelancers and their families after the [U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan](/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Afghanistan_%282020%E2%80%932021%29 "Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)").{{Cite news \|last1\=Wallace \|first1\=Danielle \|last2\=Norman \|first2\=Greg \|date\=15 March 2022 \|title\=Fox News cameraman Pierre Zakrzewski killed in Ukraine \|language\=en\-US \|work\=Fox News \|url\=https://www.foxnews.com/world/fox\-news\-cameraman\-pierre\-zakrzewski\-killed\-ukraine \|access\-date\=18 March 2022}} Shortly before his death, he had found an abandoned infant on the streets of Kyiv and brought it to a hospital.
Kuvshynova had been guiding Fox crews and assisting with newsgathering.{{Cite news \|last\=Wulfsohn \|first\=Joseph \|date\=15 March 2022 \|title\=Ukrainian journalist Oleksandra 'Sasha' Kuvshinova assisting Fox News in Ukraine killed in attack \|language\=en\-US \|work\=Fox News \|url\=https://www.foxnews.com/media/ukrainian\-journalist\-oleksandra\-kuvshinova\-killed\-attack \|access\-date\=16 March 2022}}
Killings of Oleksandra Kuvshynova and Pierre Zakrzewski{{Cite web \|date\=15 March 2022 \|title\=Attack on Fox News team in Ukraine kills journalists Pierre Zakrzewski, Oleksandra Kuvshynova; correspondent Benjamin Hall injured \|url\=https://cpj.org/2022/03/attack\-on\-fox\-news\-team\-in\-ukraine\-kills\-journalists\-pierre\-zakrzewski\-oleksandra\-kuvshynova\-correspondent\-benjamin\-hall\-injured/ \|access\-date\=17 June 2023 \|website\=Committee to Protect Journalists}} were condemned by the Director\-General of the UNESCO [Audrey Azoulay](/wiki/Audrey_Azoulay "Audrey Azoulay") in a press\-release published on 15 March.{{Cite web \|date\=15 March 2022 \|title\=Director\-General condemns killing of journalists Oleksandra Kuvshynova and Pierre Zakrzewski in Ukraine \|url\=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/director\-general\-condemns\-killing\-journalists\-oleksandra\-kuvshynova\-and\-pierre\-zakrzewski\-ukraine \|access\-date\=17 June 2023 \|website\=UNESCO}} According to global monitoring on the [safety of journalists](/wiki/Safety_of_journalists "Safety of journalists") by the Observatory of Killed Journalists, their killings bring to 7 the number killed in Ukraine in 2022\.{{Cite web \|title\=Observatory of Killed Journalists \|url\=https://www.unesco.org/en/safety\-journalists/observatory?hub\=72609 \|access\-date\=17 June 2023 \|website\=UNESCO}}
### Oksana Baulina
[thumb\|Oksana Baulina](/wiki/File:Oksana_Baulina_in_court-3_%28cropped%29.jpg "Oksana Baulina in court-3 (cropped).jpg")
[Oksana Baulina](/wiki/Oksana_Baulina "Oksana Baulina"),{{refn\|group\=bio\|Oksana Viktorovna Baulina ({{langx\|ru\|link\=no\|Оксана Викторовна Баулина}}){{Cite news \|last\=Бондарь \|first\=Григорий \|date\=24 March 2022 \|title\=Гибель российской журналистки в Киеве: в МВД рассказали детали \|trans\-title\=The death of a Russian journalist in Kyiv: the Ministry of Internal Affairs gave the details \|language\=ru \|agency\=Ukrainian Independent Information Agency \|url\=https://www.unian.net/war/gibel\-rossiyskoy\-zhurnalistki\-v\-kieve\-v\-mvd\-rasskazali\-detali\-novosti\-kieva\-11757766\.html \|access\-date\=25 March 2022}} was born 1 November 1979 in \[\[Krasnoyarsk Krai]], Russia.{{Cite news \|date\=24 February 2022 \|title\=Guerra in Ucraina, uccisa durante un bombardamento a Kiev la giornalista russa Oksana Baulina \|trans\-title\=War in Ukraine, Russian journalist Oksana Baulina killed during a bombing in Kiev \|language\=IT \|work\=\[\[TgCom24]] \|url\=https://www.tgcom24\.mediaset.it/mondo/guerra\-in\-ucraina\-uccisa\-durante\-un\-bombardamento\-a\-kiev\-la\-giornalista\-russa\-oksana\-baulina\_47814556\-202202k.shtml \|access\-date\=25 March 2022}}}} a Russian journalist for the independent investigative website *[The Insider](/wiki/The_Insider_%28website%29 "The Insider (website)")*, was killed in the [Podilskyi District](/wiki/Podilskyi_District "Podilskyi District") of Kyiv on 23 March 2022 by Russian shelling. She had been filming the site of a Russian rocket strike on a shopping center. Another civilian was killed in the same attack.{{cite news \|title\=Russia\-Ukraine war latest news: Evidence of Russian war crimes in Ukraine, says US; concern for trapped Chernihiv residents – live \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/23/russia\-ukraine\-war\-humanitarian\-convoy\-seized\-near\-mariupol\-says\-zelenskiy\-as\-he\-decries\-constant\-bombing\-of\-city?page\=with:block\-623b6b708f08d422c5d5c0e4\#block\-623b6b708f08d422c5d5c0e4 \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=23 March 2022 \|accessdate\=23 March 2022}}
Baulina, once a [fashion editor](/wiki/Fashion_journalism "Fashion journalism") at *[Time Out Moscow](/wiki/Time_Out_Moscow "Time Out Moscow")*, became an activist with [Alexei Navalny](/wiki/Alexei_Navalny "Alexei Navalny")'s [Anti\-Corruption Foundation](/wiki/Anti-Corruption_Foundation "Anti-Corruption Foundation") in 2016\.{{Cite news \|last\=Kovalev \|first\=Alexey \|author\-link\=Alexey Kovalev (journalist) \|date\=25 March 2022 \|title\=Oksana Baulina, Fashion Editor\-Turned\-Kremlin Scourge, Killed in Kyiv \|language\=en\-US \|work\=\[\[Foreign Policy]] \|url\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/03/25/oksana\-baulina\-russia\-journalist\-killed\-ukraine\-war\-putin/ \|access\-date\=2 April 2022}} She emigrated to Poland shortly before the organization was branded extremist by the Russian government. Before the invasion, she was based in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw"),{{cite news \|title\='У нее хватало сил переживать за всех нас. И она люто ненавидела режим' \|trans\-title\="She had the strength to worry about all of us. And she fiercely hated the regime" \|url\=https://holod.media/2022/03/24/oksana\-baulina/ \|work\=Holod \|date\=24 March 2022 \|language\=ru \|accessdate\=23 March 2022}} and during the invasion had reported from [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv "Kyiv") and [Lviv](/wiki/Lviv "Lviv"). Her final work included interviews with Russian [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war "Prisoners of war"), whom she let call home using her cell phone.
### Maks Levin
[Maks Levin](/wiki/Maks_Levin "Maks Levin"), a Ukrainian photojournalist working for the media outlet [LB.ua](/wiki/LB.ua "LB.ua"), went missing on 13 March 2022 and was found dead near the village of [Huta\-Mezhyhirska](/wiki/Huta-Mezhyhirska "Huta-Mezhyhirska") in Kyiv Oblast on 1 April 2022\. According to the [Ukrainian Prosecutor General's Office](/wiki/Prosecutor_General_of_Ukraine "Prosecutor General of Ukraine"), he was fatally shot twice by Russian soldiers while wearing a press jacket.{{cite news \|title\=Missing Ukrainian Photojournalist Levin Found Dead Near Kyiv \|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine\-war\-photographer\-levin\-killed/31782629\.html \|access\-date\=2 April 2022 \|agency\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty \|date\=2 April 2022 \|language\=en}} Levin had worked with [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters"), the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC"), and the [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press"), among other news organizations. Most of his documentary projects were related to the war in Ukraine.{{cite news \|title\=Documentary photographer, photojournalist Maks Levin found dead in Kyiv region \|url\=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\-ato/3446547\-documentary\-photographer\-photojournalist\-maks\-levin\-found\-dead\-in\-kyiv\-region.html \|access\-date\=2 April 2022 \|agency\=Ukrinform \|date\=2 April 2022 \|language\=en}}
Levin disappeared along with Oleksiy Chernyshov, another Ukrainian journalist, who was found dead on 1 April 2022\.{{Cite news \|last\=Specia \|first\=Megan \|date\=2 April 2022 \|title\=A Ukrainian photojournalist who went missing near Kyiv is found dead. \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/02/world/europe/ukraine\-photojournalist\-maks\-levin\-dead.html \|access\-date\=2 April 2022 \|issn\=0362\-4331}}{{Cite news \|last\=Institute for Mass Information \|date\=2 April 2022 \|title\=Фотожурналіста Макса Левіна вбили російські військові — прокуратура \|trans\-title\=Photojournalist Max Levin was killed by the Russian military – the prosecutor's office \|language\=uk\-UA \|url\=https://imi.org.ua/news/fotozhurnalista\-maksa\-levina\-vbyly\-rosijski\-vijskovi\-prokuratura\-i44794 \|access\-date\=2 April 2022}}
A report from *[Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders "Reporters Without Borders")* concluded that the evidence they were murdered by Russian forces was overwhelming.{{Cite web \|date\=22 June 2022 \|title\=Exclusive RSF investigation into the death of Maks Levin: 'Information and evidence collected indicates this Ukrainian journalist was executed.' \|url\=https://rsf.org/en/exclusive\-rsf\-investigation\-death\-maks\-levin\-information\-and\-evidence\-collected\-indicates \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-23 \|website\=\[\[Reporters Without Borders]] \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-06\-22 \|editor\-last\=Goller \|editor\-first\=Howard \|title\=Ukrainian photographer and friend were 'executed in cold blood' – report \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian\-troops\-executed\-photographer\-ukraine\-press\-group\-says\-2022\-06\-22/ \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-23 \|website\=\[\[Reuters]] \|language\=en \|publication\-place\=Paris}}
### Mantas Kvedaravičius
[Mantas Kvedaravičius](/wiki/Mantas_Kvedaravi%C4%8Dius "Mantas Kvedaravičius"), a Lithuanian documentary film director, was killed on 2 April 2022 while trying to leave the besieged city of [Mariupol](/wiki/Mariupol "Mariupol"), the life of which he had documented for many years.{{cite news \|date\=3 April 2022 \|title\=Lithuanian documentary maker Kvedaravicius killed in Ukraine's Mariupol \|language\=en \|work\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/lithuanian\-documentary\-film\-director\-kvedaravicius\-killed\-ukraines\-mariupol\-2022\-04\-03/ \|access\-date\=3 April 2022}} According to the Russian film director [Vitaly Mansky](/wiki/Vitaly_Mansky "Vitaly Mansky"), Kvedaravičius "died with a camera in his hand".{{cite news \|title\=Lithuanian filmmaker Mantas Kvedaravičius killed in Ukraine \|url\=https://www.lrt.lt/en/news\-in\-english/19/1661062/lithuanian\-filmmaker\-marius\-kvedaravicius\-killed\-in\-ukraine \|access\-date\=3 April 2022 \|work\=LRT.lt \|agency\=Lietuvos nacionalinis radijas ir televizija \|date\=3 April 2022 \|language\=en}} [Lyudmyla Denisova](/wiki/Lyudmyla_Denisova "Lyudmyla Denisova"), Ukraine's [ombudsperson](/wiki/Ombudsperson "Ombudsperson") for human rights, alleged that Kvedaravičius "was taken prisoner by '[rashists](/wiki/Rashists "Rashists")', who later shot him. The occupiers threw the director's body out into the street". Kvedaravičius's widow reported that two days after his death a Russian soldier had led her to his body. She said that he had been shot in the stomach, but there was "no blood on the ground" and no bullet hole in the clothes he was wearing.{{cite news \|last1\=Sytas \|first1\=Andrius \|title\=Fiancée of Lithuanian director Kvedaravicius leaves Ukraine with his body \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/fiance\-lithuanian\-director\-kvedaravicius\-leaves\-ukraine\-with\-his\-body\-2022\-04\-26/ \|access\-date\=26 April 2022 \|work\=Reuters \|date\=26 April 2022 \|language\=en}}
Kvedaravičius had earlier worked to document torture and forced disappearances in Russia's [North Caucasus](/wiki/North_Caucasus "North Caucasus") region. His 2011 documentary about war\-ravaged [Chechnya](/wiki/Chechnya "Chechnya") was awarded an [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") prize.
### Frédéric Leclerc\-Imhoff
On 30 May 2022, French President [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron "Emmanuel Macron") announced the death of French journalist {{ill\|Frédéric Leclerc\-Imhoff\|fr}}, working for the media [BFM TV](/wiki/BFM_TV "BFM TV"). He was the victim of a shrapnel wound while following a humanitarian operation in [Luhansk Oblast](/wiki/Luhansk_Oblast "Luhansk Oblast").{{Cite news \|last1\=Breeden \|first1\=Aurelien \|last2\=Gall \|first2\=Carlotta \|date\=2022\-05\-30 \|title\=A French journalist is killed by shrapnel in eastern Ukraine. \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/30/world/europe/french\-journalist\-killed\-ukraine.html \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-31 \|issn\=0362\-4331}}{{Cite news \|last\=Perrier \|first\=Guillaume \|date\=2022\-05\-30 \|title\=Un journaliste français tué en Ukraine \|language\=fr \|trans\-title\=French journalist killed in Ukraine \|work\=\[\[Le Point]] \|url\=https://www.lepoint.fr/monde/un\-journaliste\-francais\-tue\-en\-ukraine\-30\-05\-2022\-2477614\_24\.php \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530153441/https://www.lepoint.fr/monde/un\-journaliste\-francais\-tue\-en\-ukraine\-30\-05\-2022\-2477614\_24\.php \|archive\-date\=2022\-05\-30}} The French Minister of Foreign Affairs, [Catherine Colonna](/wiki/Catherine_Colonna "Catherine Colonna"), stated that he had died as the result of a Russian action.{{Cite tweet\|number\=1531290881055244288\|user\=MinColonna\|title\=Je suis profondément attristée \& choquée par la mort de notre compatriote Frédéric Leclerc Imhoff, tué par un bombardement russe sur une opération humanitaire alors qu'il exerçait son devoir d'informer. Toutes mes pensées vont à sa famille, à ses collègues et aux journalistes. \|trans\-title\=I am deeply saddened \& shocked by the death of our compatriot Frédéric Leclerc Imhoff, killed by a Russian bombardment on a humanitarian operation while exercising his duty to inform. All my thoughts are with his family, colleagues and journalists. \|author\=\[\[Catherine Colonna]]\|date\=2022\-05\-30\|language\=fr\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20220530154551/https://twitter.com/MinColonna/status/1531290881055244288\|archive\-date\=2022\-05\-30}}
### Arman Soldin
On 9 May 2023, [Arman Soldin](/wiki/Arman_Soldin "Arman Soldin") and his team were near [Chasiv Yar](/wiki/Chasiv_Yar "Chasiv Yar"), Donetsk Oblast, together with a detachment of Ukrainian soldiers. Soldin was killed by a rocket which exploded near the place he was lying, nobody else was injured.{{cite news \|date\=9 May 2023 \|title\=AFP journalist killed by rocket fire in eastern Ukraine \|work\=\[\[Le Monde]] \|url\=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/05/09/afp\-journalist\-killed\-by\-rocket\-fire\-in\-eastern\-ukraine\_6026058\_4\.html}} Soldin was 32\.{{cite news \|last1\=Harding \|first1\=Luke \|authorlink\=Luke Harding \|title\=French journalist killed in Russian rocket strike in Ukraine \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/09/french\-journalist\-killed\-in\-russian\-rocket\-strike\-in\-ukraine \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=9 May 2023}}{{cite news \|title\=Arman Soldin, from Sarajevo to reporting on Ukraine front lines \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/live\-news/20230509\-arman\-soldin\-from\-sarajevo\-to\-reporting\-on\-ukraine\-front\-lines \|work\=France 24 \|date\=9 May 2023}} Soldin worked with [Agence France\-Presse](/wiki/Agence_France-Presse "Agence France-Presse") since 2015, in Rome, then in London, and since 2020 again in Rome. As the Russian invasion started in February 2022, he was immediately sent to Ukraine with the Agence France\-Presse team to cover the invasion. He was later rotated, against his wishes,{{cite news \|title\=Ukraine: When things fall apart \|url\=https://correspondent.afp.com/ukraine\-when\-things\-fall\-apart \|work\=Agence France\-Presse \|date\=24 March 2022}} but returned to Ukraine in September 2022, working as a video coordinator.
### Boris Maksudov
Maksudov was claimed by Russia to have been targeted along with other journalists and his film crew by a combined Ukrainian artillery and drone attack in Zaporizhzhia Oblast. According to his own unreleased video shots from that day he did not wear neither "PRESS" helmet nor same vest, making him indistinguishable from regular Russian combat troops.{{Cite news \|title\=Top Russian Propagandist Killed on Ukraine Frontlines \|work\=Top Russian Propagandist Killed on Ukraine Frontlines, Solovyov Confirms \|url\=https://www.newsweek.com/boris\-maksudov\-russian\-state\-tv\-reporter\-killed\-ukraine\-1846346}} He died of his injuries the following day.{{Cite news \|date\= 23 November 2023 \|url\= https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian\-journalist\-killed\-by\-shrapnel\-ukrainian\-drone\-strike\-state\-tv\-2023\-11\-23/ \|title\= Russian journalist killed by shrapnel from Ukrainian drone strike – state TV \|work\=Reuters \|access\-date\= 23 November 2023}}
### Semyon Eremin
Eremin was reported by his employer to have been killed in a drone strike during an attack on his film crew on their way from a reporting trip to the frontline village of [Pryiutne](/wiki/Pryiutne "Pryiutne"), Zaporizhzhia Oblast. He had previously covered the [Siege of Mariupol](/wiki/Siege_of_Mariupol "Siege of Mariupol") and other battles in Donetsk Oblast.{{Cite news \|date\=20 April 2024 \|url\= https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/04/20/russian\-newspaper\-says\-correspondent\-killed\-in\-ukraine\-a84909 \|title\=Russian Newspaper Says Correspondent Killed in Ukraine \|work\=The Moscow Times \|access\-date\=20 April 2024}}
### Valery Kozhin
Kozhin was reported by his employer to have been killed from injuries sustained during a shelling attack on his film crew near [Horlivka](/wiki/Horlivka "Horlivka"), Donetsk Oblast. His companion, TV journalist Alexey Ivliev, lost an arm in the attack.{{Cite news \|date\=14 June 2024 \|url\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/06/14/russia\-probes\-death\-of\-ntv\-cameraman\-killed\-in\-occupied\-ukraine\-a85412 \|title\=Russia Probes Death of NTV Cameraman Killed in Occupied Ukraine \|work\=The Moscow Times \|access\-date\=14 June 2024}}
### Nikita Tsitsagi
Tsitsagi was reported by his employer to have been killed in a drone attack in the vicinity of a monastery near [Vuhledar](/wiki/Vuhledar "Vuhledar"), Donetsk Oblast.{{Cite news \|date\=16 June 2024 \|url\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/06/16/russian\-journalist\-killed\-in\-ukrainian\-drone\-strike\-a85431 \|title\=Russian Journalist Killed in Ukrainian Drone Strike \|work\=The Moscow Times \|access\-date\=16 June 2024}}
### Richard Evans
Evans was killed after the hotel were his team was staying in was struck in [Kramatorsk](/wiki/Kramatorsk "Kramatorsk"), Donetsk Oblast. Two other Reuters staff were injured.{{Cite news \|date\=26 August 2024 \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c2l1py9g4r8o \|title\=British man killed in missile strike in Ukraine \|work\=BBC \|access\-date\=26 August 2024}}
|
[
"Civilian journalists killed in the line of duty\n-----------------------------------------------",
"Eighteen journalists and media workers are listed by the [Committee to Protect Journalists](/wiki/Committee_to_Protect_Journalists \"Committee to Protect Journalists\")'s database {{as of\\|2022\\|June\\|1\\|lc\\=yes}} as having been killed in the Russo\\-Ukrainian War—seven in the [war in Donbas](/wiki/War_in_Donbas_%282014%E2%80%932022%29 \"War in Donbas (2014–2022)\") in 2014–2015,{{Cite web \\|title\\=8 Journalists and Media Workers Killed in Ukraine between 2014 and 2015 \\|url\\=https://cpj.org/data/killed/2022/?status\\=Killed\\&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D\\=Confirmed\\&motiveUnconfirmed%5B%5D\\=Unconfirmed\\&type%5B%5D\\=Journalist\\&type%5B%5D\\=Media%20Worker\\&cc\\_fips%5B%5D\\=UP\\&start\\_year\\=2014\\&end\\_year\\=2015\\&group\\_by\\=location \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319032803/https://cpj.org/data/killed/2022/?status\\=Killed\\&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D\\=Confirmed\\&motiveUnconfirmed%5B%5D\\=Unconfirmed\\&type%5B%5D\\=Journalist\\&type%5B%5D\\=Media%20Worker\\&cc\\_fips%5B%5D\\=UP\\&start\\_year\\=2022\\&end\\_year\\=2022\\&group\\_by\\=location \\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2022 \\|author\\=\\[\\[Committee to Protect Journalists]] \\|language\\=en\\-US}} *Note*: List includes one journalist killed outside the context of the war. ten in the full\\-scale [Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022](/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Committee to Protect Journalists \\|title\\=10 Journalists and Media Workers Killed in Ukraine in 2022 \\|url\\=https://cpj.org/data/killed/2022/?status\\=Killed\\&cc\\_fips%5B%5D\\=UP\\&start\\_year\\=2022\\&end\\_year\\=2022\\&group\\_by\\=location \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426071436/https://cpj.org/data/killed/2022/?status\\=Killed\\&cc\\_fips%5B%5D\\=UP\\&start\\_year\\=2022\\&end\\_year\\=2022\\&group\\_by\\=location \\|archive\\-date\\=26 April 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=26 April 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} As of 11 October 2024, at least 18 civilian journalists have been killed in the line of duty according to the [National Union of Journalists of Ukraine](/wiki/National_Union_of_Journalists_of_Ukraine \"National Union of Journalists of Ukraine\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://nsju.org/novini/arman\\-soldin\\-stav\\-14\\-ym\\-mediapraczivnykom\\-shho\\-zagynuv\\-pry\\-vykonanni\\-profesijnyh\\-obovyazkiv/ \\|title\\=Список журналістів, які загинули від початку повномасштабної російської агресії (оновлено) \\|trans\\-title\\=List of journalists who have died since the beginning of full\\-scale Russian aggression (updated) \\|language\\=uk \\|work\\=\\[\\[National Union of Journalists of Ukraine\\|Національна спілка журналістів України (НСЖУ)]] (nsju.org) \\|date\\=11 October 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.is/znVtW \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2024}}",
"",
"| Name and nationality | Profession | Employer | Date of death | Killed by | Cause of death |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{flagicon\\|Italy}} [Andrea Rocchelli](/wiki/Andrea_Rocchelli \"Andrea Rocchelli\") | [Photojournalist](/wiki/Photojournalist \"Photojournalist\") | *Cesura* | 24 May 2014 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} [Armed Forces of Ukraine](/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine \"Armed Forces of Ukraine\") | Shelling |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} [Andrei Mironov](/wiki/Andrei_Mironov_%28activist%29 \"Andrei Mironov (activist)\") | Interpreter and [fixer](/wiki/Fixer_%28person%29 \"Fixer (person)\") | (Freelance) |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} [Igor Kornelyuk](/wiki/Igor_Kornelyuk_%28journalist%29 \"Igor Kornelyuk (journalist)\") | [Correspondent](/wiki/Correspondent \"Correspondent\") | [VGTRK](/wiki/VGTRK \"VGTRK\") | 17 June 2014 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shelling |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} [Anton Voloshin](/wiki/Anton_Voloshin \"Anton Voloshin\") | [Sound engineer](/wiki/Sound_engineer \"Sound engineer\") |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} [Anatoly Klyan](/wiki/Anatoly_Klyan \"Anatoly Klyan\") | [Camera operator](/wiki/Camera_operator \"Camera operator\") | [Channel One](/wiki/Channel_One_%28Russia%29 \"Channel One (Russia)\") | 30 June 2014 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shot |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} [Andrey Stenin](/wiki/Andrey_Stenin \"Andrey Stenin\") | Photojournalist | Several news agencies | Disappeared 5 August 2014Body found 3 September 2014 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Unclear; body found in burnt\\-out car |\n| {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} [Serhiy Nikolayev](/wiki/Serhiy_Nikolayev \"Serhiy Nikolayev\") | Photojournalist | *[Segodnya](/wiki/Segodnya \"Segodnya\")* | 28 February 2015 | *Disputed*: {{flagicon\\|Donetsk People's Republic}} [Donbas People's Militia](/wiki/Donbas_People%27s_Militia \"Donbas People's Militia\") or {{nowrap\\|{{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed}} Forces of Ukraine | Shelling |\n| {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Yevhenii Sakun | Photojournalist and correspondent | {{ill\\|Live (Ukrainian TV channel)\\|uk\\|Live (телеканал)\\|lt\\=Live}}; [EFE](/wiki/EFE \"EFE\") | 1 March 2022 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} [Russian Armed Forces](/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces \"Russian Armed Forces\") | Airstrike |\n| {{flagicon\\|United States}} [Brent Renaud](/wiki/Brent_Renaud \"Brent Renaud\") | [Documentarian](/wiki/Documentarian \"Documentarian\") | (Independent) | 13 March 2022 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Shot |\n| {{flagicon\\|Ireland}} Pierre Zakrzewski | Photojournalist | [Fox News](/wiki/Fox_News \"Fox News\") | 14 March 2022 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Shot |\n| {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Oleksandra Kuvshynova | Fixer |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} [Oksana Baulina](/wiki/Oksana_Baulina \"Oksana Baulina\") | Correspondent | *[The Insider](/wiki/The_Insider_%28website%29 \"The Insider (website)\")* | 23 March 2022 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Rocket strike |\n| {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} [Maks Levin](/wiki/Maks_Levin \"Maks Levin\") | Photojournalist | [LB.ua](/wiki/LB.ua \"LB.ua\") | Disappeared 13 March 2022Body found 1 April 2022 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Shot |\n| {{flagicon\\|Lithuania}} [Mantas Kvedaravičius](/wiki/Mantas_Kvedaravi%C4%8Dius \"Mantas Kvedaravičius\") | Documentarian | (Independent) | 2 April 2022 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Shot (alleged) |\n| {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Roman Zhuk | Photographer | (Independent) | 26 May 2022 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | |\n| {{flagicon\\|France}} Frédéric Leclerc\\-Imhoff | [Camera operator](/wiki/Camera_operator \"Camera operator\") | [BFM TV](/wiki/BFM_TV \"BFM TV\") | 30 May 2022 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces (alleged) | Shelling |\n| {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} [Bohdan Bitik](/wiki/Bohdan_Bitik \"Bohdan Bitik\") | Producer | [La Repubblica](/wiki/La_Repubblica \"La Repubblica\") | 26 April 2023 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces (alleged) | Shot by Sniper |\n| {{flagicon\\|France}} [Arman Soldin](/wiki/Arman_Soldin \"Arman Soldin\") | Reporter, video coordinator | [Agence France\\-Presse](/wiki/Agence_France-Presse \"Agence France-Presse\") | 9 May 2023 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Rocket attack |\n| {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} [Victoria Amelina](/wiki/Victoria_Amelina \"Victoria Amelina\") | Writer and journalist | (Independent) | 1 July 2023 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | [Rocket attack](/wiki/2023_Kramatorsk_restaurant_missile_strike \"2023 Kramatorsk restaurant missile strike\") |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Rostislav Zhuravlev | Journalist | [RIA Novosti](/wiki/RIA_Novosti \"RIA Novosti\") | 22 July 2023 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shelling; cluster bombing (alleged by Russia) |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Boris Maksudov | Journalist | [Rossiya 24](/wiki/Rossiya_24 \"Rossiya 24\") | 23 November 2023 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shelling; drone strike (alleged by Russia) |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Semyon Eremin | Journalist | [Izvestia](/wiki/Izvestia \"Izvestia\") | 19 April 2024 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Drone strike (alleged by Russia) |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Valery Kozhin | Cameraman | [NTV](/wiki/NTV_%28Russia%29 \"NTV (Russia)\") | 13 June 2024 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Shelling (alleged by Russia) |\n| {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Nikita Tsitsagi | Correspondent | [NEWS.ru](/wiki/NEWS.ru \"NEWS.ru\") | 15 June 2024 | {{flagicon\\|Ukraine}} Armed Forces of Ukraine | Drone strike (alleged by Russia) |\n| {{flagicon\\|UK}} Richard Evans | Safety advisor | [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\") | 25 August 2024 | {{flagicon\\|Russia}} Russian Armed Forces | Missile strike (alleged by Ukraine) |",
"### Andrea Rocchelli and Andrei Mironov",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Andrei Mironov\\|upright\\=0\\.75\\|alt\\=caption](/wiki/File:Andrei_Mironov.jpeg \"Andrei Mironov.jpeg\")\nItalian photojournalist [Andrea Rocchelli](/wiki/Andrea_Rocchelli \"Andrea Rocchelli\") and Russian journalist and activist [Andrei Mironov](/wiki/Andrei_Mironov_%28activist%29 \"Andrei Mironov (activist)\"), who was serving as Rocchelli's [fixer](/wiki/Fixer_%28journalism%29 \"Fixer (journalism)\") and interpreter,{{Cite news \\|date\\=25 July 2017 \\|title\\=Who killed Andrea Rocchelli? \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[Euronews]] \\|url\\=https://www.euronews.com/2017/07/25/who\\-killed\\-andrea\\-rocchelli \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Lally \\|first1\\=Kathy \\|last2\\=Englund \\|first2\\=Will \\|author\\-link2\\=Will Englund \\|date\\=30 May 2014 \\|title\\=Remembering Andrei Mironov, the interpreter who tried to save Russia \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/remembering\\-andrei\\-mironov\\-the\\-interpreter\\-who\\-tried\\-to\\-save\\-russia/2014/05/30/664acbda\\-e5c9\\-11e3\\-a86b\\-362fd5443d19\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022 \\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}} were killed on 24 May 2014 near the city of [Slovyansk](/wiki/Slovyansk \"Slovyansk\"). The two men, plus French reporter William Roguelon, and a local driver were fired at on the way to their car. Roguelon stated that they were then targeted with 40 to 60 [mortars](/wiki/Mortar_%28weapon%29 \"Mortar (weapon)\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=1 October 2014 \\|title\\=Французький фотограф поранений під Слов'янськом \\|trans\\-title\\=French photographer wounded near Slavyansk \\|author\\=\\[\\[Institute of Mass Information]] \\|url\\=https://imi.org.ua/news/44401\\-frantsuzkiy\\-fotograf\\-poraneniy\\-pid\\-slovyanskom.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001032140/https://imi.org.ua/news/44401\\-frantsuzkiy\\-fotograf\\-poraneniy\\-pid\\-slovyanskom.html \\|archive\\-date\\=1 October 2014}}{{Cite news \\|date\\=26 May 2014 \\|title\\=Italian journalist and Russian fixer killed in eastern Ukraine \\|language\\=en \\|author\\=\\[\\[Reporters Without Borders]] \\|url\\=https://rsf.org/en/news/italian\\-journalist\\-and\\-russian\\-fixer\\-killed\\-eastern\\-ukraine \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}",
"In July 2019, an Italian court convicted [Vitalii Markiv](/wiki/Vitalii_Markiv \"Vitalii Markiv\"), an Italian\\-Ukrainian [dual citizen](/wiki/Dual_citizen \"Dual citizen\") and an officer in the [National Guard of Ukraine](/wiki/National_Guard_of_Ukraine \"National Guard of Ukraine\"), of directing the strike that killed Rocchelli and Mironov.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Englund \\|first\\=Will \\|date\\=27 January 2020 \\|title\\=Who killed two journalists in Ukraine? And why? \\|language\\=en \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine/2020/01/27/who\\-killed\\-two\\-journalists\\-ukraine\\-why/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} Markiv's conviction was overturned in November 2020,{{Cite news \\|date\\=4 November 2020 \\|title\\=Ukrainian Ex\\-Fighter Acquitted In 2014 Killing Of Italian Journalist Returns To Kyiv \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[Radio Free Europe]] \\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukrainian\\-ex\\-fighter\\-acquitted\\-in\\-2014\\-killing\\-of\\-italian\\-journalist\\-returns\\-to\\-kyiv/30930248\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} a decision made final by the [Supreme Court of Cassation](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cassation_%28Italy%29 \"Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)\") in December 2021\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=9 December 2021 \\|title\\=Італійський суд остаточно виправдав нацгвардійця Марківа \\|language\\=uk,ru \\|trans\\-title\\=Italian court finally acquitted Markiv of the National Guard \\|work\\=\\[\\[Ukrayinska Pravda]] \\|url\\=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/12/9/7316860/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}",
"### Igor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin",
"{{Main\\|Deaths of Igor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin}}\nIgor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin, correspondent and [sound engineer](/wiki/Sound_engineer \"Sound engineer\") respectively for Russian state\\-owned broadcasting company [VGTRK](/wiki/VGTRK \"VGTRK\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Igor Kornelyuk \\|url\\=https://cpj.org/data/people/igor\\-kornelyuk/ \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022 \\|author\\=Committee to Protect Journalists \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Committee to Protect Journalists \\|title\\=Anton Voloshin \\|url\\=https://www.cpj.org/killed/2014/anton\\-voloshin.php \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} [were struck](/wiki/Deaths_of_Igor_Kornelyuk_and_Anton_Voloshin \"Deaths of Igor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin\") by Ukrainian [mortar shells](/wiki/Mortar_shells \"Mortar shells\") on 17 June 2014 while filming a separatist roadblock{{Cite news \\|date\\=17 June 2014 \\|title\\=Russian reporter killed by mortar attack in eastern Ukraine \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk\\-ukraine\\-crisis\\-journalist\\-idUKKBN0ES1J920140617 \\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2022}} in [Metalist](/wiki/Metalist%2C_Slovianoserbsk_Raion \"Metalist, Slovianoserbsk Raion\"), Slovianoserbsk Raion. Voloshin died instantly, while Kornelyuk died later that day.",
"Both men were posthumously awarded the Russian [Order of Courage](/wiki/Order_of_Courage_%28Russia%29 \"Order of Courage (Russia)\") by [Vladimir Putin](/wiki/Vladimir_Putin \"Vladimir Putin\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=20 June 2014 \\|title\\=Executive Order on awarding the Order of Courage to VGTRK journalists Anton Voloshin and Igor Kornelyuk \\|url\\=http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/45946 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319040453/http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/45946 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2022 \\|website\\=Office of the President of Russia}}",
"[Nadiya Savchenko](/wiki/Nadiya_Savchenko \"Nadiya Savchenko\"), a Ukrainian army helicopter pilot, was captured by separatists the same day and was accused of directing the mortar strike.{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.newyorker.com/news/news\\-desk/nadiya\\-savchenko\\-gives\\-russia\\-the\\-finger \\| title\\=Nadiya Savchenko Gives Russia the Finger \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[The New Yorker]] \\| date\\=10 March 2016 \\| access\\-date\\=24 March 2022 \\| author\\=Gessen, Masha}} She claimed that she had rather been captured an hour before the attack.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Dzhanpoladova\\|first1\\=Natalia\\|last2\\=Gostev\\|first2\\=Aleksandr\\|newspaper\\=Радио Свобода \\|script\\-title\\=ru:Алиби Надежды Савченко\\|trans\\-title\\=Nadezhda Savchenko's alibi\\|language\\=ru\\|url\\=https://www.svoboda.org/a/26748995\\.html\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\\|Radio Liberty]]\\|date\\=17 December 2014\\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2022}} Savchenko was convicted by a Russian court on 21 March 2016,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://tass.ru/en/world/863897 \\|title\\=Ukrainian army ex\\-pilot found guilty of death of Russian journalists near Lugansk — court \\|publisher\\=Tass.ru \\|date\\=21 March 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=25 July 2017}} in what [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International \"Amnesty International\") characterized as a \"flawed, deeply politicized trial\".{{Cite web \\|date\\=21 March 2016 \\|title\\=Russia: Nadiya Savchenko must get a retrial after 'deeply politicized' guilty verdict \\|url\\=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/03/russia\\-nadiya\\-savchenko\\-must\\-get\\-a\\-retrial\\-after\\-deeply\\-politicized\\-guilty\\-verdict/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 March 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Amnesty International]] \\|language\\=en}} She was [pardoned](/wiki/Presidential_pardon \"Presidential pardon\") by Vladimir Putin as a result of a [prisoner swap](/wiki/Prisoner_swap \"Prisoner swap\") for two Russian soldiers two months later.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/26/world/europe/ukraine\\-russia\\-prisoner\\-swap.html?\\_r\\=0 \\|title\\=Ukrainian Pilot, Nadiya Savchenko, Is Exchanged for 2 Russian Prisoners \\|date\\=25 May 2016 \\|access\\-date\\= 22 March 2022 \\|work\\=The New York Times}}",
"### Anatoly Klyan",
"{{Main\\|Death of Anatoly Klyan}}\nAnatoly Klyan, a [camera operator](/wiki/Camera_operator \"Camera operator\") for Russian [Channel One](/wiki/Channel_One_Russia \"Channel One Russia\"), [was killed](/wiki/Death_of_Anatoly_Klyan \"Death of Anatoly Klyan\") by Ukrainian soldiers while traveling with a group of protesting soldiers' mothers on 30 June 2014 in [Donetsk Oblast](/wiki/Donetsk_Oblast \"Donetsk Oblast\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=30 June 2014 \\|title\\=Russian journalist killed in Ukraine as gunmen fire on media bus \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[The Associated Press]] \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/30/russian\\-journalist\\-dead\\-cameraman\\-ukraine\\-avidiivka \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Culzac \\|first\\=Natasha \\|date\\=30 June 2014 \\|title\\=Anatoly Klyan death: Russian cameraman fatally shot in Ukraine 'by government forces' \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/anatoly\\-klyan\\-death\\-russian\\-cameraman\\-fatally\\-shot\\-in\\-ukraine\\-by\\-government\\-forces\\-9574289\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} The trip had been organized by separatists and the driver was wearing [camouflage](/wiki/Camouflage_%28military%29 \"Camouflage (military)\"). Klyan continued to film the attack until he grew too weak.",
"### Andrey Stenin",
"{{Main\\|Death of Andrey Stenin}}\nAndrey Stenin, a Russian [photojournalist](/wiki/Photojournalist \"Photojournalist\") and correspondent for several Russian and international news agencies, disappeared on 5 August 2014 while embedded with Russian\\-backed forces in Donetsk.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Greenslade \\|first\\=Roy \\|author\\-link\\=Roy Greenslade \\|date\\=11 August 2014 \\|title\\=Russian agency photographer goes missing in Ukraine \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/media/greenslade/2014/aug/11/journalist\\-safety\\-ukraine \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} He was confirmed dead on 3 September 2014\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Committee to Protect Journalists \\|date\\=3 September 2014 \\|title\\=Russian photojournalist Andrei Stenin killed in Ukraine \\|url\\=https://cpj.org/2014/09/missing\\-russian\\-photojournalist\\-confirmed\\-killed\\-i.php \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}",
"Stenin's body was found in a burnt\\-out car alongside [Donetsk People's Republic](/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic \"Donetsk People's Republic\") militia Information Corps members Sergei Korenchenkov and Andrei Vyachalo (*see* {{slink\\|\\|Sergei Korenchenkov and Andrei Vyachalo}}). Their deaths were not announced until ten days after his. *The Interpreter* magazine, a publication of the Institute of Modern Russia, suggested that Russia was trying to obscure the connection between Stenin and militia members. Ukrainian journalist {{Ill\\|Yuriy Butusov\\|uk\\|Бутусов Юрій Євгенович}} described Stenin as a \"[zampolit](/wiki/Zampolit \"Zampolit\") of [Strelkov](/wiki/Igor_Girkin \"Igor Girkin\")\" rather than a journalist.",
"Stenin was posthumously awarded the Order of Courage by Vladimir Putin.{{cite web\\|title\\=Andrei Stenin has been posthumously awarded the Order of Courage\\|date\\=5 September 2014 \\|url\\=http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/22908\\|publisher\\=Russian Presidential Executive Office\\|accessdate\\=19 March 2022}}",
"### Serhiy Nikolayev",
"[Serhiy Nikolayev](/wiki/Serhiy_Nikolayev \"Serhiy Nikolayev\"), a photojournalist with the Ukrainian newspaper *[Segodnya](/wiki/Segodnya \"Segodnya\")*, died along with soldier Mykola \"Tank\" Flerko during the shelling of the village of [Pisky](/wiki/Pisky%2C_Yasynuvata_Raion \"Pisky, Yasynuvata Raion\") on 28 February 2015\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=28 February 2015 \\|title\\=News photographer from Segodnya newspaper killed by shell in Pisky \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Ukrainian Independent Information Agency]] \\|url\\=http://www.unian.info/war/1049972\\-news\\-photographer\\-from\\-segodnya\\-newspaper\\-killed\\-by\\-shell\\-in\\-pisky.html \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} Nikolayev was wearing a [bulletproof vest](/wiki/Bulletproof_vest \"Bulletproof vest\") marked \"PRESS\".{{Cite news \\|last\\=Reporters Without Borders \\|date\\=28 February 2015 \\|title\\=Ukrainian photographer killed near Donetsk \\|url\\=http://en.rsf.org/ukraine\\-summary\\-of\\-attacks\\-on\\-media\\-11\\-09\\-2014,46265\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017073842/http://en.rsf.org/ukraine\\-summary\\-of\\-attacks\\-on\\-media\\-11\\-09\\-2014,46265\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=17 October 2015 \\|accessdate\\=20 October 2015}} Both sides in the war blamed each other.{{Cite news \\|date\\=1 March 2015 \\|title\\=Ukraine's pro\\-Russia rebels claim to withdraw, Kyiv skeptical \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=\\[\\[Deutsche Welle]] \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/ukraines\\-pro\\-russia\\-rebels\\-claim\\-to\\-withdraw\\-kyiv\\-skeptical/a\\-18288141 \\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2022}}",
"Nikolayev had previously been attacked by the [Berkut](/wiki/Berkut_%28special_police_force%29 \"Berkut (special police force)\") special police while reporting on the [Euromaidan](/wiki/Euromaidan \"Euromaidan\") demonstrations in 2013\\. After his death he was awarded the title *[Hero of Ukraine](/wiki/Hero_of_Ukraine \"Hero of Ukraine\")* by [Petro Poroshenko](/wiki/Petro_Poroshenko \"Petro Poroshenko\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.slavaukraine.net/en/news/heroes\\-glory/2846\\-sergey\\-nikolaev\\-photographer\\-of\\-the\\-newspaper\\-today\\-was\\-awarded\\-the\\-title\\-of\\-national\\-hero\\-of\\-ukraine\\-posthumously.html \\|title\\=Sergey Nikolaev, photographer of the newspaper \"Today\" was awarded the title of \"national Hero of Ukraine (posthumously) \\|work\\=Slava Ukraine \\|language\\=en,uk,fr}}",
"### Yevhenii Sakun",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The strike on the Kyiv TV Tower\\|alt\\=An orange ball of flame erupts toward the base of a white metal lattice tower. Dark gray smoke plumes upward.](/wiki/File:Rocket_strike_on_Kyiv_TV_Tower%2C_1_March_2022.webm \"Rocket strike on Kyiv TV Tower, 1 March 2022.webm\")\n{{further\\|Kyiv TV Tower\\#2022 missile strike}}\nYevhenii Sakun {{bracket\\|\\[\\[:ca:Ievheni Sakun\\|ca]]}},{{refn\\|group\\=bio\\|{{langx\\|uk\\|Євгеній Сакун}},{{Cite news \\|last\\=Hainey \\|first\\=Fionnula \\|date\\=2 March 2022 \\|title\\=Cameraman one of five killed in Kyiv TV tower missile strike \\|language\\=en \\|url\\=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/world\\-news/killed\\-war\\-just\\-doing\\-job\\-23268186 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Manchester Evening News]]\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2022}} also transliterated {{transliteration\\|uk\\|Evgeny Sakin}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Marlowe \\|first\\=Lara \\|author\\-link\\=Lara Marlowe \\|date\\=12 March 2022 \\|title\\=Death in Ukraine: 'It is better to be the widow of a hero than the wife of a coward' \\|language\\=en \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/life\\-and\\-style/people/death\\-in\\-ukraine\\-it\\-is\\-better\\-to\\-be\\-the\\-widow\\-of\\-a\\-hero\\-than\\-the\\-wife\\-of\\-a\\-coward\\-1\\.4822643 \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2022}}}} a photojournalist for Ukrainian TV channel {{ill\\|Live (Ukrainian TV channel)\\|uk\\|Live (телеканал)\\|lt\\=Live}} and correspondent with [EFE](/wiki/EFE \"EFE\"), was killed by an attack on the [Kyiv TV Tower](/wiki/Kyiv_TV_Tower \"Kyiv TV Tower\") on 1 March 2022,{{Cite news \\|date\\=3 March 2022 \\|title\\=Ukraine: Cameraman Yevhenii Sakun killed in TV tower bombing \\|author\\=\\[\\[International Federation of Journalists]] \\|url\\=https://www.ifj.org/media\\-centre/news/detail/category/press\\-releases/article/ukraine\\-cameraman\\-yevhenii\\-sakun\\-killed\\-in\\-tv\\-tower\\-bombing.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303152441/https://www.ifj.org/media\\-centre/news/detail/category/press\\-releases/article/ukraine\\-cameraman\\-yevhenii\\-sakun\\-killed\\-in\\-tv\\-tower\\-bombing.html \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2022}} in what [Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders \"Reporters Without Borders\") described as a \"precision strike\" on the facility.{{Cite news \\|date\\=5 March 2022 \\|title\\=RSF refers Russian strikes on four Ukrainian TV towers to International Criminal Court \\|language\\=en \\|author\\=Reporters Without Borders \\|url\\=https://rsf.org/en/news/rsf\\-refers\\-russian\\-strikes\\-four\\-ukrainian\\-tv\\-towers\\-international\\-criminal\\-court \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}",
"### Brent Renaud",
"[Brent Renaud](/wiki/Brent_Renaud \"Brent Renaud\"), a [Peabody Award](/wiki/Peabody_Award \"Peabody Award\")\\-winning documentary filmmaker and journalist who previously worked for *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, was shot dead by Russian soldiers while at a [checkpoint](/wiki/Security_checkpoint \"Security checkpoint\") in [Irpin](/wiki/Irpin \"Irpin\") on 13 March 2022\\.{{cite news \\| last1\\= Bowman \\| first1\\= Verity \\| title\\= US journalist Brent Renaud 'killed in Ukraine' \\| date\\= 13 March 2022 \\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\| url\\= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world\\-news/2022/03/13/us\\-journalist\\-brent\\-renaud\\-killed\\-ukraine/ \\|access\\-date\\= 13 March 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313140110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world\\-news/2022/03/13/us\\-journalist\\-brent\\-renaud\\-killed\\-ukraine \\|archive\\-date\\= 13 March 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|date\\=13 March 2022 \\|title\\=Acclaimed filmmaker Brent Renaud shot, killed in Ukraine \\|language\\=en \\|agency\\=The Associated Press \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/brent\\-renaud\\-obituary\\-russia\\-ukraine\\-bd0aa404e1b64dbdc464b6660fd280af \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} Renaud, who was known for his work depicting refugees and deportees, had been filming evacuating refugees,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Traub \\|first\\=Alex \\|date\\=13 March 2022 \\|title\\=Brent Renaud, Crusading Filmmaker, Is Killed at 50 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/13/obituaries/brent\\-renaud\\-dead.html \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} according to his colleague {{ill\\|Juan Arredondo (journalist)\\|ca\\|Juan Arredondo\\|lt\\=Juan Arredondo}}.{{Cite news \\|date\\=13 March 2022 \\|title\\='They started shooting at us' – US journalist's colleague \\|language\\=en\\-gb \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world\\-europe\\-60717902?ns\\_mchannel\\=social\\&ns\\_source\\=twitter\\&ns\\_campaign\\=bbc\\_live\\&ns\\_linkname\\=622e038aec502b53cd481fd6%26%27They%20started%20shooting%20at%20us%27%20\\-%20US%20journalist%27s%20colleague%262022\\-03\\-13T14%3A52%3A50\\.176Z\\&ns\\_fee\\=0\\&pinned\\_post\\_locator\\=urn:asset:64993541\\-b8ae\\-4291\\-8961\\-338493a3a579\\&pinned\\_post\\_asset\\_id\\=622e038aec502b53cd481fd6\\&pinned\\_post\\_type\\=share \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2022}}",
"### Pierre Zakrzewski and Oleksandra Kuvshynova",
"Pierre \"Zak\" Zakrzewski {{bracket\\|\\[\\[:fr:Pierre Zakrzewski\\|fr]]}},{{refn\\|group\\=bio\\|Zakrzewski ({{ipac\\-en\\|'\\|z\\|æ\\|k\\|ʃ\\|ɛ\\|v\\|s\\|k\\|i:}} {{respell\\|ZAK\\|shev\\|skee}}{{Cite news \\|title\\=Fox News mourns Pierre Zakrzewski and Oleksandra Kuvshynova \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox News]] \\|via\\=YouTube \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=lFbXcFiKgfU \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}) was born in August 1966 in Paris to a French mother and Polish father. He was raised in Ireland.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Clarke \\|first\\=Vivienne \\|date\\=16 March 2022 \\|title\\=Pierre Zakrzewski was a 'free spirit' who was adored by his family, say brothers \\|language\\=en \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish\\-news/pierre\\-zakrzewski\\-was\\-a\\-free\\-spirit\\-who\\-was\\-adored\\-by\\-his\\-family\\-say\\-brothers\\-1\\.4828461 \\|access\\-date\\=25 March 2022}}}} an Irish photojournalist working for [Fox News](/wiki/Fox_News \"Fox News\"), and Oleksandra \"Sasha\" Kuvshynova {{bracket\\|\\[\\[:uk:Кувшинова Олександра\\|uk]]}},{{refn\\|group\\=bio\\|Kuvshynova ({{langx\\|uk\\|Олександра Кувшинова\\|links\\=no}},{{Cite news \\|last\\=Гришина \\|first\\=Даша \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|title\\=Під Києвом вбили молоду українську журналістку \\|trans\\-title\\=A young Ukrainian journalist was killed near Kyiv \\|language\\=uk \\|work\\=Вечірній Київ \\|url\\=https://vechirniy.kyiv.ua/news/62942/ \\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2022}} also transliterated {{transliteration\\|uk\\|Kuvshinova}}) was 24 at the time of her death.}} a Ukrainian [freelancer](/wiki/Freelancer \"Freelancer\") working with Fox, were killed on 14 March 2022 when their vehicle came under fire in [Horenka](/wiki/Horenka%2C_Bucha_Raion%2C_Kyiv_Oblast \"Horenka, Bucha Raion, Kyiv Oblast\"), [Kyiv Oblast](/wiki/Kyiv_Oblast \"Kyiv Oblast\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|title\\=Two journalists killed in attack while reporting in Ukraine \\|work\\=\\[\\[ITV News]] \\|url\\=https://www.itv.com/news/2022\\-03\\-15/fox\\-news\\-cameraman\\-pierre\\-zakrzewski\\-killed\\-in\\-attack\\-while\\-reporting\\-in\\-ukraine \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2022}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.thejournal.ie/fox\\-news\\-cameraman\\-killed\\-ukraine\\-5711972\\-Mar2022/\\|title\\=Taoiseach pays tribute to Irish citizen killed while reporting for Fox News near Kyiv\\|author\\=\\|date\\=3 March 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2022\\|work\\=\\[\\[TheJournal.ie]]}} British journalist [Benjamin Hall](/wiki/Benjamin_Hall_%28journalist%29 \"Benjamin Hall (journalist)\"), also of Fox, was wounded in the same attack.{{Cite news \\|date\\=14 March 2022 \\|title\\=British journalist hospitalised in Ukraine while reporting for Fox News \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=ITV News \\|url\\=https://www.itv.com/news/2022\\-03\\-14/british\\-journalist\\-hospitalised\\-in\\-ukraine\\-while\\-reporting\\-for\\-fox\\-news \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}",
"Zakrzewski had worked as a freelancer for some years, but had \"with mixed feelings\" moved to Fox partly because it was too dangerous to work in conflict areas without the support of a media organization. He had worked for Fox in the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\"), [War in Afghanistan](/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_%282001%E2%80%932021%29 \"War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)\"), and [Syrian civil war](/wiki/Syrian_civil_war \"Syrian civil war\"),{{Cite news \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|title\\=Fox News' Pierre Zakrzewski and Oleksandra Kuvshinova killed in Kyiv \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=BBC News \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/world\\-us\\-canada\\-60756503 \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}} and had received Fox's \"Unsung Hero\" employee award for his role in evacuating Afghan freelancers and their families after the [U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan](/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Afghanistan_%282020%E2%80%932021%29 \"Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)\").{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Wallace \\|first1\\=Danielle \\|last2\\=Norman \\|first2\\=Greg \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|title\\=Fox News cameraman Pierre Zakrzewski killed in Ukraine \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=Fox News \\|url\\=https://www.foxnews.com/world/fox\\-news\\-cameraman\\-pierre\\-zakrzewski\\-killed\\-ukraine \\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2022}} Shortly before his death, he had found an abandoned infant on the streets of Kyiv and brought it to a hospital.",
"Kuvshynova had been guiding Fox crews and assisting with newsgathering.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Wulfsohn \\|first\\=Joseph \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|title\\=Ukrainian journalist Oleksandra 'Sasha' Kuvshinova assisting Fox News in Ukraine killed in attack \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=Fox News \\|url\\=https://www.foxnews.com/media/ukrainian\\-journalist\\-oleksandra\\-kuvshinova\\-killed\\-attack \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2022}}",
"Killings of Oleksandra Kuvshynova and Pierre Zakrzewski{{Cite web \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|title\\=Attack on Fox News team in Ukraine kills journalists Pierre Zakrzewski, Oleksandra Kuvshynova; correspondent Benjamin Hall injured \\|url\\=https://cpj.org/2022/03/attack\\-on\\-fox\\-news\\-team\\-in\\-ukraine\\-kills\\-journalists\\-pierre\\-zakrzewski\\-oleksandra\\-kuvshynova\\-correspondent\\-benjamin\\-hall\\-injured/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2023 \\|website\\=Committee to Protect Journalists}} were condemned by the Director\\-General of the UNESCO [Audrey Azoulay](/wiki/Audrey_Azoulay \"Audrey Azoulay\") in a press\\-release published on 15 March.{{Cite web \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|title\\=Director\\-General condemns killing of journalists Oleksandra Kuvshynova and Pierre Zakrzewski in Ukraine \\|url\\=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/director\\-general\\-condemns\\-killing\\-journalists\\-oleksandra\\-kuvshynova\\-and\\-pierre\\-zakrzewski\\-ukraine \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2023 \\|website\\=UNESCO}} According to global monitoring on the [safety of journalists](/wiki/Safety_of_journalists \"Safety of journalists\") by the Observatory of Killed Journalists, their killings bring to 7 the number killed in Ukraine in 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Observatory of Killed Journalists \\|url\\=https://www.unesco.org/en/safety\\-journalists/observatory?hub\\=72609 \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2023 \\|website\\=UNESCO}}",
"### Oksana Baulina",
"[thumb\\|Oksana Baulina](/wiki/File:Oksana_Baulina_in_court-3_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Oksana Baulina in court-3 (cropped).jpg\")\n[Oksana Baulina](/wiki/Oksana_Baulina \"Oksana Baulina\"),{{refn\\|group\\=bio\\|Oksana Viktorovna Baulina ({{langx\\|ru\\|link\\=no\\|Оксана Викторовна Баулина}}){{Cite news \\|last\\=Бондарь \\|first\\=Григорий \\|date\\=24 March 2022 \\|title\\=Гибель российской журналистки в Киеве: в МВД рассказали детали \\|trans\\-title\\=The death of a Russian journalist in Kyiv: the Ministry of Internal Affairs gave the details \\|language\\=ru \\|agency\\=Ukrainian Independent Information Agency \\|url\\=https://www.unian.net/war/gibel\\-rossiyskoy\\-zhurnalistki\\-v\\-kieve\\-v\\-mvd\\-rasskazali\\-detali\\-novosti\\-kieva\\-11757766\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=25 March 2022}} was born 1 November 1979 in \\[\\[Krasnoyarsk Krai]], Russia.{{Cite news \\|date\\=24 February 2022 \\|title\\=Guerra in Ucraina, uccisa durante un bombardamento a Kiev la giornalista russa Oksana Baulina \\|trans\\-title\\=War in Ukraine, Russian journalist Oksana Baulina killed during a bombing in Kiev \\|language\\=IT \\|work\\=\\[\\[TgCom24]] \\|url\\=https://www.tgcom24\\.mediaset.it/mondo/guerra\\-in\\-ucraina\\-uccisa\\-durante\\-un\\-bombardamento\\-a\\-kiev\\-la\\-giornalista\\-russa\\-oksana\\-baulina\\_47814556\\-202202k.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=25 March 2022}}}} a Russian journalist for the independent investigative website *[The Insider](/wiki/The_Insider_%28website%29 \"The Insider (website)\")*, was killed in the [Podilskyi District](/wiki/Podilskyi_District \"Podilskyi District\") of Kyiv on 23 March 2022 by Russian shelling. She had been filming the site of a Russian rocket strike on a shopping center. Another civilian was killed in the same attack.{{cite news \\|title\\=Russia\\-Ukraine war latest news: Evidence of Russian war crimes in Ukraine, says US; concern for trapped Chernihiv residents – live \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/23/russia\\-ukraine\\-war\\-humanitarian\\-convoy\\-seized\\-near\\-mariupol\\-says\\-zelenskiy\\-as\\-he\\-decries\\-constant\\-bombing\\-of\\-city?page\\=with:block\\-623b6b708f08d422c5d5c0e4\\#block\\-623b6b708f08d422c5d5c0e4 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=23 March 2022 \\|accessdate\\=23 March 2022}}",
"Baulina, once a [fashion editor](/wiki/Fashion_journalism \"Fashion journalism\") at *[Time Out Moscow](/wiki/Time_Out_Moscow \"Time Out Moscow\")*, became an activist with [Alexei Navalny](/wiki/Alexei_Navalny \"Alexei Navalny\")'s [Anti\\-Corruption Foundation](/wiki/Anti-Corruption_Foundation \"Anti-Corruption Foundation\") in 2016\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Kovalev \\|first\\=Alexey \\|author\\-link\\=Alexey Kovalev (journalist) \\|date\\=25 March 2022 \\|title\\=Oksana Baulina, Fashion Editor\\-Turned\\-Kremlin Scourge, Killed in Kyiv \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=\\[\\[Foreign Policy]] \\|url\\=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/03/25/oksana\\-baulina\\-russia\\-journalist\\-killed\\-ukraine\\-war\\-putin/ \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2022}} She emigrated to Poland shortly before the organization was branded extremist by the Russian government. Before the invasion, she was based in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\"),{{cite news \\|title\\='У нее хватало сил переживать за всех нас. И она люто ненавидела режим' \\|trans\\-title\\=\"She had the strength to worry about all of us. And she fiercely hated the regime\" \\|url\\=https://holod.media/2022/03/24/oksana\\-baulina/ \\|work\\=Holod \\|date\\=24 March 2022 \\|language\\=ru \\|accessdate\\=23 March 2022}} and during the invasion had reported from [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\") and [Lviv](/wiki/Lviv \"Lviv\"). Her final work included interviews with Russian [prisoners of war](/wiki/Prisoners_of_war \"Prisoners of war\"), whom she let call home using her cell phone.",
"### Maks Levin",
"[Maks Levin](/wiki/Maks_Levin \"Maks Levin\"), a Ukrainian photojournalist working for the media outlet [LB.ua](/wiki/LB.ua \"LB.ua\"), went missing on 13 March 2022 and was found dead near the village of [Huta\\-Mezhyhirska](/wiki/Huta-Mezhyhirska \"Huta-Mezhyhirska\") in Kyiv Oblast on 1 April 2022\\. According to the [Ukrainian Prosecutor General's Office](/wiki/Prosecutor_General_of_Ukraine \"Prosecutor General of Ukraine\"), he was fatally shot twice by Russian soldiers while wearing a press jacket.{{cite news \\|title\\=Missing Ukrainian Photojournalist Levin Found Dead Near Kyiv \\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine\\-war\\-photographer\\-levin\\-killed/31782629\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2022 \\|agency\\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty \\|date\\=2 April 2022 \\|language\\=en}} Levin had worked with [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\"), the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\"), and the [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\"), among other news organizations. Most of his documentary projects were related to the war in Ukraine.{{cite news \\|title\\=Documentary photographer, photojournalist Maks Levin found dead in Kyiv region \\|url\\=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric\\-ato/3446547\\-documentary\\-photographer\\-photojournalist\\-maks\\-levin\\-found\\-dead\\-in\\-kyiv\\-region.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2022 \\|agency\\=Ukrinform \\|date\\=2 April 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Levin disappeared along with Oleksiy Chernyshov, another Ukrainian journalist, who was found dead on 1 April 2022\\.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Specia \\|first\\=Megan \\|date\\=2 April 2022 \\|title\\=A Ukrainian photojournalist who went missing near Kyiv is found dead. \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/02/world/europe/ukraine\\-photojournalist\\-maks\\-levin\\-dead.html \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2022 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Institute for Mass Information \\|date\\=2 April 2022 \\|title\\=Фотожурналіста Макса Левіна вбили російські військові — прокуратура \\|trans\\-title\\=Photojournalist Max Levin was killed by the Russian military – the prosecutor's office \\|language\\=uk\\-UA \\|url\\=https://imi.org.ua/news/fotozhurnalista\\-maksa\\-levina\\-vbyly\\-rosijski\\-vijskovi\\-prokuratura\\-i44794 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2022}}",
"A report from *[Reporters Without Borders](/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders \"Reporters Without Borders\")* concluded that the evidence they were murdered by Russian forces was overwhelming.{{Cite web \\|date\\=22 June 2022 \\|title\\=Exclusive RSF investigation into the death of Maks Levin: 'Information and evidence collected indicates this Ukrainian journalist was executed.' \\|url\\=https://rsf.org/en/exclusive\\-rsf\\-investigation\\-death\\-maks\\-levin\\-information\\-and\\-evidence\\-collected\\-indicates \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Reporters Without Borders]] \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-22 \\|editor\\-last\\=Goller \\|editor\\-first\\=Howard \\|title\\=Ukrainian photographer and friend were 'executed in cold blood' – report \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian\\-troops\\-executed\\-photographer\\-ukraine\\-press\\-group\\-says\\-2022\\-06\\-22/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-23 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\|language\\=en \\|publication\\-place\\=Paris}}",
"### Mantas Kvedaravičius",
"[Mantas Kvedaravičius](/wiki/Mantas_Kvedaravi%C4%8Dius \"Mantas Kvedaravičius\"), a Lithuanian documentary film director, was killed on 2 April 2022 while trying to leave the besieged city of [Mariupol](/wiki/Mariupol \"Mariupol\"), the life of which he had documented for many years.{{cite news \\|date\\=3 April 2022 \\|title\\=Lithuanian documentary maker Kvedaravicius killed in Ukraine's Mariupol \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/lithuanian\\-documentary\\-film\\-director\\-kvedaravicius\\-killed\\-ukraines\\-mariupol\\-2022\\-04\\-03/ \\|access\\-date\\=3 April 2022}} According to the Russian film director [Vitaly Mansky](/wiki/Vitaly_Mansky \"Vitaly Mansky\"), Kvedaravičius \"died with a camera in his hand\".{{cite news \\|title\\=Lithuanian filmmaker Mantas Kvedaravičius killed in Ukraine \\|url\\=https://www.lrt.lt/en/news\\-in\\-english/19/1661062/lithuanian\\-filmmaker\\-marius\\-kvedaravicius\\-killed\\-in\\-ukraine \\|access\\-date\\=3 April 2022 \\|work\\=LRT.lt \\|agency\\=Lietuvos nacionalinis radijas ir televizija \\|date\\=3 April 2022 \\|language\\=en}} [Lyudmyla Denisova](/wiki/Lyudmyla_Denisova \"Lyudmyla Denisova\"), Ukraine's [ombudsperson](/wiki/Ombudsperson \"Ombudsperson\") for human rights, alleged that Kvedaravičius \"was taken prisoner by '[rashists](/wiki/Rashists \"Rashists\")', who later shot him. The occupiers threw the director's body out into the street\". Kvedaravičius's widow reported that two days after his death a Russian soldier had led her to his body. She said that he had been shot in the stomach, but there was \"no blood on the ground\" and no bullet hole in the clothes he was wearing.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Sytas \\|first1\\=Andrius \\|title\\=Fiancée of Lithuanian director Kvedaravicius leaves Ukraine with his body \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/fiance\\-lithuanian\\-director\\-kvedaravicius\\-leaves\\-ukraine\\-with\\-his\\-body\\-2022\\-04\\-26/ \\|access\\-date\\=26 April 2022 \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=26 April 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Kvedaravičius had earlier worked to document torture and forced disappearances in Russia's [North Caucasus](/wiki/North_Caucasus \"North Caucasus\") region. His 2011 documentary about war\\-ravaged [Chechnya](/wiki/Chechnya \"Chechnya\") was awarded an [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International \"Amnesty International\") prize.",
"### Frédéric Leclerc\\-Imhoff",
"On 30 May 2022, French President [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron \"Emmanuel Macron\") announced the death of French journalist {{ill\\|Frédéric Leclerc\\-Imhoff\\|fr}}, working for the media [BFM TV](/wiki/BFM_TV \"BFM TV\"). He was the victim of a shrapnel wound while following a humanitarian operation in [Luhansk Oblast](/wiki/Luhansk_Oblast \"Luhansk Oblast\").{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Breeden \\|first1\\=Aurelien \\|last2\\=Gall \\|first2\\=Carlotta \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-30 \\|title\\=A French journalist is killed by shrapnel in eastern Ukraine. \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/30/world/europe/french\\-journalist\\-killed\\-ukraine.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-31 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Perrier \\|first\\=Guillaume \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-30 \\|title\\=Un journaliste français tué en Ukraine \\|language\\=fr \\|trans\\-title\\=French journalist killed in Ukraine \\|work\\=\\[\\[Le Point]] \\|url\\=https://www.lepoint.fr/monde/un\\-journaliste\\-francais\\-tue\\-en\\-ukraine\\-30\\-05\\-2022\\-2477614\\_24\\.php \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530153441/https://www.lepoint.fr/monde/un\\-journaliste\\-francais\\-tue\\-en\\-ukraine\\-30\\-05\\-2022\\-2477614\\_24\\.php \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-30}} The French Minister of Foreign Affairs, [Catherine Colonna](/wiki/Catherine_Colonna \"Catherine Colonna\"), stated that he had died as the result of a Russian action.{{Cite tweet\\|number\\=1531290881055244288\\|user\\=MinColonna\\|title\\=Je suis profondément attristée \\& choquée par la mort de notre compatriote Frédéric Leclerc Imhoff, tué par un bombardement russe sur une opération humanitaire alors qu'il exerçait son devoir d'informer. Toutes mes pensées vont à sa famille, à ses collègues et aux journalistes. \\|trans\\-title\\=I am deeply saddened \\& shocked by the death of our compatriot Frédéric Leclerc Imhoff, killed by a Russian bombardment on a humanitarian operation while exercising his duty to inform. All my thoughts are with his family, colleagues and journalists. \\|author\\=\\[\\[Catherine Colonna]]\\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-30\\|language\\=fr\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20220530154551/https://twitter.com/MinColonna/status/1531290881055244288\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-30}}",
"### Arman Soldin",
"On 9 May 2023, [Arman Soldin](/wiki/Arman_Soldin \"Arman Soldin\") and his team were near [Chasiv Yar](/wiki/Chasiv_Yar \"Chasiv Yar\"), Donetsk Oblast, together with a detachment of Ukrainian soldiers. Soldin was killed by a rocket which exploded near the place he was lying, nobody else was injured.{{cite news \\|date\\=9 May 2023 \\|title\\=AFP journalist killed by rocket fire in eastern Ukraine \\|work\\=\\[\\[Le Monde]] \\|url\\=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/05/09/afp\\-journalist\\-killed\\-by\\-rocket\\-fire\\-in\\-eastern\\-ukraine\\_6026058\\_4\\.html}} Soldin was 32\\.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Harding \\|first1\\=Luke \\|authorlink\\=Luke Harding \\|title\\=French journalist killed in Russian rocket strike in Ukraine \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/09/french\\-journalist\\-killed\\-in\\-russian\\-rocket\\-strike\\-in\\-ukraine \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=9 May 2023}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Arman Soldin, from Sarajevo to reporting on Ukraine front lines \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/live\\-news/20230509\\-arman\\-soldin\\-from\\-sarajevo\\-to\\-reporting\\-on\\-ukraine\\-front\\-lines \\|work\\=France 24 \\|date\\=9 May 2023}} Soldin worked with [Agence France\\-Presse](/wiki/Agence_France-Presse \"Agence France-Presse\") since 2015, in Rome, then in London, and since 2020 again in Rome. As the Russian invasion started in February 2022, he was immediately sent to Ukraine with the Agence France\\-Presse team to cover the invasion. He was later rotated, against his wishes,{{cite news \\|title\\=Ukraine: When things fall apart \\|url\\=https://correspondent.afp.com/ukraine\\-when\\-things\\-fall\\-apart \\|work\\=Agence France\\-Presse \\|date\\=24 March 2022}} but returned to Ukraine in September 2022, working as a video coordinator.",
"### Boris Maksudov",
"Maksudov was claimed by Russia to have been targeted along with other journalists and his film crew by a combined Ukrainian artillery and drone attack in Zaporizhzhia Oblast. According to his own unreleased video shots from that day he did not wear neither \"PRESS\" helmet nor same vest, making him indistinguishable from regular Russian combat troops.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Top Russian Propagandist Killed on Ukraine Frontlines \\|work\\=Top Russian Propagandist Killed on Ukraine Frontlines, Solovyov Confirms \\|url\\=https://www.newsweek.com/boris\\-maksudov\\-russian\\-state\\-tv\\-reporter\\-killed\\-ukraine\\-1846346}} He died of his injuries the following day.{{Cite news \\|date\\= 23 November 2023 \\|url\\= https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian\\-journalist\\-killed\\-by\\-shrapnel\\-ukrainian\\-drone\\-strike\\-state\\-tv\\-2023\\-11\\-23/ \\|title\\= Russian journalist killed by shrapnel from Ukrainian drone strike – state TV \\|work\\=Reuters \\|access\\-date\\= 23 November 2023}}",
"### Semyon Eremin",
"Eremin was reported by his employer to have been killed in a drone strike during an attack on his film crew on their way from a reporting trip to the frontline village of [Pryiutne](/wiki/Pryiutne \"Pryiutne\"), Zaporizhzhia Oblast. He had previously covered the [Siege of Mariupol](/wiki/Siege_of_Mariupol \"Siege of Mariupol\") and other battles in Donetsk Oblast.{{Cite news \\|date\\=20 April 2024 \\|url\\= https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/04/20/russian\\-newspaper\\-says\\-correspondent\\-killed\\-in\\-ukraine\\-a84909 \\|title\\=Russian Newspaper Says Correspondent Killed in Ukraine \\|work\\=The Moscow Times \\|access\\-date\\=20 April 2024}}",
"### Valery Kozhin",
"Kozhin was reported by his employer to have been killed from injuries sustained during a shelling attack on his film crew near [Horlivka](/wiki/Horlivka \"Horlivka\"), Donetsk Oblast. His companion, TV journalist Alexey Ivliev, lost an arm in the attack.{{Cite news \\|date\\=14 June 2024 \\|url\\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/06/14/russia\\-probes\\-death\\-of\\-ntv\\-cameraman\\-killed\\-in\\-occupied\\-ukraine\\-a85412 \\|title\\=Russia Probes Death of NTV Cameraman Killed in Occupied Ukraine \\|work\\=The Moscow Times \\|access\\-date\\=14 June 2024}}",
"### Nikita Tsitsagi",
"Tsitsagi was reported by his employer to have been killed in a drone attack in the vicinity of a monastery near [Vuhledar](/wiki/Vuhledar \"Vuhledar\"), Donetsk Oblast.{{Cite news \\|date\\=16 June 2024 \\|url\\=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/06/16/russian\\-journalist\\-killed\\-in\\-ukrainian\\-drone\\-strike\\-a85431 \\|title\\=Russian Journalist Killed in Ukrainian Drone Strike \\|work\\=The Moscow Times \\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2024}}",
"### Richard Evans",
"Evans was killed after the hotel were his team was staying in was struck in [Kramatorsk](/wiki/Kramatorsk \"Kramatorsk\"), Donetsk Oblast. Two other Reuters staff were injured.{{Cite news \\|date\\=26 August 2024 \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c2l1py9g4r8o \\|title\\=British man killed in missile strike in Ukraine \\|work\\=BBC \\|access\\-date\\=26 August 2024}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Andrew Newmark was born on July 14, 1950, in [Port Chester, New York](/wiki/Port_Chester%2C_New_York "Port Chester, New York"), and raised primarily in the nearby suburb of [Mamaroneck](/wiki/Mamaroneck%2C_New_York "Mamaroneck, New York"). His mother was Bermudian and his father, Charles W. Newmark, was an Assistant District Attorney from 1938 to 1940 in New York City under District Attorney Thomas E. Dewey. His Father was [Russian\-Jewish](/wiki/Russian-Jewish "Russian-Jewish"). Taking up the drums at the age of nine, Newmark gradually honed his craft and was taking paid gigs at age 15\.{{YouTube\|sjXXSB1C4O8\|ANDY NEWMARK/Keef Trouble \- an interview}}. Retrieved 9\-2\-2013\. Visiting his mother's native Bermuda frequently throughout his youth, Newmark made the decision to move there at the age of 16\. Newmark played in the Bermuda Jam, a band that included guitarist Paul Muggleton.
One of his first gigs was recording with [Carly Simon](/wiki/Carly_Simon "Carly Simon") on her albums *[Anticipation](/wiki/Anticipation_%28Carly_Simon_album%29 "Anticipation (Carly Simon album)")* and *[No Secrets](/wiki/No_Secrets_%28Carly_Simon_album%29 "No Secrets (Carly Simon album)")*. These and other sessions segued into a more permanent role as a member of the [funk](/wiki/Funk "Funk") band [Sly and the Family Stone](/wiki/Sly_and_the_Family_Stone "Sly and the Family Stone") from 1972 to 1973\. Hired to replace Gerry Gibson, who had replaced founding member [Greg Errico](/wiki/Greg_Errico "Greg Errico"), Newmark was invited to audition for [Sly Stone](/wiki/Sly_Stone "Sly Stone") by saxophonist [Pat Rizzo](/wiki/Pat_Rizzo "Pat Rizzo").{{cite web\|title\= Drummerworld: Andy Newmark \|website\=Drummerworld \|url\=http://www.drummerworld.com/drummers/Andy\_Newmark.html}} Newmark went on to record one album, *[Fresh](/wiki/Fresh_%28Sly_and_the_Family_Stone_album%29 "Fresh (Sly and the Family Stone album)")* (1973\), as the Family Stone's drummer and performed with the band for two years in concert.
After leaving Family Stone in 1974, Newmark played drums for the first month of [George Harrison and Ravi Shankar's 1974 North American tour](/wiki/George_Harrison_and_Ravi_Shankar%27s_1974_North_American_tour "George Harrison and Ravi Shankar's 1974 North American tour"), and returned to session work, playing drums on [Gary Wright](/wiki/Gary_Wright "Gary Wright")'s 1975 album *[Dream Weaver](/wiki/The_Dream_Weaver "The Dream Weaver")*. [Gary Wright Dream Weaver](https://www.sessiondays.com/2020/10/1975-gary-wright-the-dream-weaver/) Retrieved 24 September 2022 He continued performing on Carly Simon's solo albums throughout the 1970s and again in the 1990s. Newmark has performed and recorded with [John Lennon](/wiki/John_Lennon "John Lennon"), [Cat Stevens](/wiki/Cat_Stevens "Cat Stevens"), [Joe Walsh](/wiki/Joe_Walsh "Joe Walsh"), [B.B. King](/wiki/B.B._King "B.B. King"), [Eric Clapton](/wiki/Eric_Clapton "Eric Clapton"), [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie "David Bowie"), [Roy Buchanan](/wiki/Roy_Buchanan "Roy Buchanan"), [Bryan Ferry](/wiki/Bryan_Ferry "Bryan Ferry"), [Dan Fogelberg](/wiki/Dan_Fogelberg "Dan Fogelberg"), [George Harrison](/wiki/George_Harrison "George Harrison"), [Rickie Lee Jones](/wiki/Rickie_Lee_Jones "Rickie Lee Jones"), [Patrick Moraz](/wiki/Patrick_Moraz "Patrick Moraz"), [Randy Newman](/wiki/Randy_Newman "Randy Newman"), [Pink Floyd](/wiki/Pink_Floyd "Pink Floyd"), [Roger Waters](/wiki/Roger_Waters "Roger Waters"), [David Gilmour](/wiki/David_Gilmour "David Gilmour"), [Murray Head](/wiki/Murray_Head "Murray Head"), [Keith Richards](/wiki/Keith_Richards "Keith Richards"), [Rod Stewart](/wiki/Rod_Stewart "Rod Stewart"), [Luther Vandross](/wiki/Luther_Vandross "Luther Vandross"), [Ronnie Wood](/wiki/Ronnie_Wood "Ronnie Wood"),{{cite web \| title\= Credits for "I've Got My Own Album To Do" (Ronnie Wood, 1974\)\|website\=Allmusic\|url\= {{Allmusic\|class\=album\|id\=r22253\|pure\_url\=yes}} \| access\-date\=2007\-04\-14}} [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music "Roxy Music"), [ABC](/wiki/ABC_%28band%29 "ABC (band)"), [Hue and Cry](/wiki/Hue_and_Cry_%28band%29 "Hue and Cry (band)"), [Laura Nyro](/wiki/Laura_Nyro "Laura Nyro"), [Nicolette Larson](/wiki/Nicolette_Larson "Nicolette Larson"), [Elkie Brooks](/wiki/Elkie_Brooks "Elkie Brooks"), [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 "Sting (musician)"), [Steve Winwood](/wiki/Steve_Winwood "Steve Winwood"),"Andy Newmark" by Rick Mattingly, Modern Drummer magazine, 8:2, Feb. 1984 [Nils Lofgren](/wiki/Nils_Lofgren "Nils Lofgren"), [George Benson](/wiki/George_Benson "George Benson"), and [Michael Franks](/wiki/Michael_Franks_%28musician%29 "Michael Franks (musician)").
In 1980, Newmark was the drummer on John Lennon's last album, *[Double Fantasy](/wiki/Double_Fantasy "Double Fantasy")*, as well as *[Milk and Honey](/wiki/Milk_and_Honey_%28album%29 "Milk and Honey (album)")* released in 1984\. He was the featured drummer on [Yoko Ono](/wiki/Yoko_Ono "Yoko Ono")'s *[Season of Glass](/wiki/Season_of_Glass_%28album%29 "Season of Glass (album)")* in 1981\. His connection with the *Double Fantasy* album was reprised in 2012 with his contributions to the *[Lennon Bermuda](/wiki/Lennon_Bermuda "Lennon Bermuda")* tribute album{{Cite web\|url\=http://doublefantasybermuda.com/artists.html\|title \= John Lennon Bermuda}} on several tracks, including those by [Paul Carrack](/wiki/Paul_Carrack "Paul Carrack"), [Bryan Ferry](/wiki/Bryan_Ferry "Bryan Ferry"), [Nils Lofgren](/wiki/Nils_Lofgren "Nils Lofgren"), and [Rocky and the Natives](/wiki/Rocky_and_the_Natives "Rocky and the Natives").
According to a 2006 *[Sound on Sound](/wiki/Sound_on_Sound "Sound on Sound")* magazine interview{{cite web\|title\= Recording David Gilmour's On an Island \|website\=Sound on Sound\|url\=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jul06/articles/andyjackson.htm \|access\-date\=2006\-06\-01}} with engineer [Andy Jackson](/wiki/Andy_Jackson_%28recording_engineer%29 "Andy Jackson (recording engineer)"), Newmark played drums on [David Gilmour](/wiki/David_Gilmour "David Gilmour")'s *[On an Island](/wiki/On_an_Island "On an Island")* album. Newmark also plays on several tracks on David Gilmour's 2015 solo album *[Rattle That Lock](/wiki/Rattle_That_Lock "Rattle That Lock")*.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Andrew Newmark was born on July 14, 1950, in [Port Chester, New York](/wiki/Port_Chester%2C_New_York \"Port Chester, New York\"), and raised primarily in the nearby suburb of [Mamaroneck](/wiki/Mamaroneck%2C_New_York \"Mamaroneck, New York\"). His mother was Bermudian and his father, Charles W. Newmark, was an Assistant District Attorney from 1938 to 1940 in New York City under District Attorney Thomas E. Dewey. His Father was [Russian\\-Jewish](/wiki/Russian-Jewish \"Russian-Jewish\"). Taking up the drums at the age of nine, Newmark gradually honed his craft and was taking paid gigs at age 15\\.{{YouTube\\|sjXXSB1C4O8\\|ANDY NEWMARK/Keef Trouble \\- an interview}}. Retrieved 9\\-2\\-2013\\. Visiting his mother's native Bermuda frequently throughout his youth, Newmark made the decision to move there at the age of 16\\. Newmark played in the Bermuda Jam, a band that included guitarist Paul Muggleton.",
"One of his first gigs was recording with [Carly Simon](/wiki/Carly_Simon \"Carly Simon\") on her albums *[Anticipation](/wiki/Anticipation_%28Carly_Simon_album%29 \"Anticipation (Carly Simon album)\")* and *[No Secrets](/wiki/No_Secrets_%28Carly_Simon_album%29 \"No Secrets (Carly Simon album)\")*. These and other sessions segued into a more permanent role as a member of the [funk](/wiki/Funk \"Funk\") band [Sly and the Family Stone](/wiki/Sly_and_the_Family_Stone \"Sly and the Family Stone\") from 1972 to 1973\\. Hired to replace Gerry Gibson, who had replaced founding member [Greg Errico](/wiki/Greg_Errico \"Greg Errico\"), Newmark was invited to audition for [Sly Stone](/wiki/Sly_Stone \"Sly Stone\") by saxophonist [Pat Rizzo](/wiki/Pat_Rizzo \"Pat Rizzo\").{{cite web\\|title\\= Drummerworld: Andy Newmark \\|website\\=Drummerworld \\|url\\=http://www.drummerworld.com/drummers/Andy\\_Newmark.html}} Newmark went on to record one album, *[Fresh](/wiki/Fresh_%28Sly_and_the_Family_Stone_album%29 \"Fresh (Sly and the Family Stone album)\")* (1973\\), as the Family Stone's drummer and performed with the band for two years in concert.",
"After leaving Family Stone in 1974, Newmark played drums for the first month of [George Harrison and Ravi Shankar's 1974 North American tour](/wiki/George_Harrison_and_Ravi_Shankar%27s_1974_North_American_tour \"George Harrison and Ravi Shankar's 1974 North American tour\"), and returned to session work, playing drums on [Gary Wright](/wiki/Gary_Wright \"Gary Wright\")'s 1975 album *[Dream Weaver](/wiki/The_Dream_Weaver \"The Dream Weaver\")*. [Gary Wright Dream Weaver](https://www.sessiondays.com/2020/10/1975-gary-wright-the-dream-weaver/) Retrieved 24 September 2022 He continued performing on Carly Simon's solo albums throughout the 1970s and again in the 1990s. Newmark has performed and recorded with [John Lennon](/wiki/John_Lennon \"John Lennon\"), [Cat Stevens](/wiki/Cat_Stevens \"Cat Stevens\"), [Joe Walsh](/wiki/Joe_Walsh \"Joe Walsh\"), [B.B. King](/wiki/B.B._King \"B.B. King\"), [Eric Clapton](/wiki/Eric_Clapton \"Eric Clapton\"), [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie \"David Bowie\"), [Roy Buchanan](/wiki/Roy_Buchanan \"Roy Buchanan\"), [Bryan Ferry](/wiki/Bryan_Ferry \"Bryan Ferry\"), [Dan Fogelberg](/wiki/Dan_Fogelberg \"Dan Fogelberg\"), [George Harrison](/wiki/George_Harrison \"George Harrison\"), [Rickie Lee Jones](/wiki/Rickie_Lee_Jones \"Rickie Lee Jones\"), [Patrick Moraz](/wiki/Patrick_Moraz \"Patrick Moraz\"), [Randy Newman](/wiki/Randy_Newman \"Randy Newman\"), [Pink Floyd](/wiki/Pink_Floyd \"Pink Floyd\"), [Roger Waters](/wiki/Roger_Waters \"Roger Waters\"), [David Gilmour](/wiki/David_Gilmour \"David Gilmour\"), [Murray Head](/wiki/Murray_Head \"Murray Head\"), [Keith Richards](/wiki/Keith_Richards \"Keith Richards\"), [Rod Stewart](/wiki/Rod_Stewart \"Rod Stewart\"), [Luther Vandross](/wiki/Luther_Vandross \"Luther Vandross\"), [Ronnie Wood](/wiki/Ronnie_Wood \"Ronnie Wood\"),{{cite web \\| title\\= Credits for \"I've Got My Own Album To Do\" (Ronnie Wood, 1974\\)\\|website\\=Allmusic\\|url\\= {{Allmusic\\|class\\=album\\|id\\=r22253\\|pure\\_url\\=yes}} \\| access\\-date\\=2007\\-04\\-14}} [Roxy Music](/wiki/Roxy_Music \"Roxy Music\"), [ABC](/wiki/ABC_%28band%29 \"ABC (band)\"), [Hue and Cry](/wiki/Hue_and_Cry_%28band%29 \"Hue and Cry (band)\"), [Laura Nyro](/wiki/Laura_Nyro \"Laura Nyro\"), [Nicolette Larson](/wiki/Nicolette_Larson \"Nicolette Larson\"), [Elkie Brooks](/wiki/Elkie_Brooks \"Elkie Brooks\"), [Sting](/wiki/Sting_%28musician%29 \"Sting (musician)\"), [Steve Winwood](/wiki/Steve_Winwood \"Steve Winwood\"),\"Andy Newmark\" by Rick Mattingly, Modern Drummer magazine, 8:2, Feb. 1984 [Nils Lofgren](/wiki/Nils_Lofgren \"Nils Lofgren\"), [George Benson](/wiki/George_Benson \"George Benson\"), and [Michael Franks](/wiki/Michael_Franks_%28musician%29 \"Michael Franks (musician)\").",
"In 1980, Newmark was the drummer on John Lennon's last album, *[Double Fantasy](/wiki/Double_Fantasy \"Double Fantasy\")*, as well as *[Milk and Honey](/wiki/Milk_and_Honey_%28album%29 \"Milk and Honey (album)\")* released in 1984\\. He was the featured drummer on [Yoko Ono](/wiki/Yoko_Ono \"Yoko Ono\")'s *[Season of Glass](/wiki/Season_of_Glass_%28album%29 \"Season of Glass (album)\")* in 1981\\. His connection with the *Double Fantasy* album was reprised in 2012 with his contributions to the *[Lennon Bermuda](/wiki/Lennon_Bermuda \"Lennon Bermuda\")* tribute album{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://doublefantasybermuda.com/artists.html\\|title \\= John Lennon Bermuda}} on several tracks, including those by [Paul Carrack](/wiki/Paul_Carrack \"Paul Carrack\"), [Bryan Ferry](/wiki/Bryan_Ferry \"Bryan Ferry\"), [Nils Lofgren](/wiki/Nils_Lofgren \"Nils Lofgren\"), and [Rocky and the Natives](/wiki/Rocky_and_the_Natives \"Rocky and the Natives\").",
"According to a 2006 *[Sound on Sound](/wiki/Sound_on_Sound \"Sound on Sound\")* magazine interview{{cite web\\|title\\= Recording David Gilmour's On an Island \\|website\\=Sound on Sound\\|url\\=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jul06/articles/andyjackson.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-06\\-01}} with engineer [Andy Jackson](/wiki/Andy_Jackson_%28recording_engineer%29 \"Andy Jackson (recording engineer)\"), Newmark played drums on [David Gilmour](/wiki/David_Gilmour \"David Gilmour\")'s *[On an Island](/wiki/On_an_Island \"On an Island\")* album. Newmark also plays on several tracks on David Gilmour's 2015 solo album *[Rattle That Lock](/wiki/Rattle_That_Lock \"Rattle That Lock\")*.",
""
] |
Theory of operation
-------------------
The quartz fiber dosimeter is a rugged form of a device called a Lauritsen [electroscope](/wiki/Electroscope "Electroscope").{{cite book
\| last \= Raj
\| first \= Baldev
\|author2\=Venkataramen B.
\| title \= Practical Radiography
\| publisher \= Alpha Science Int'l
\| date \= 2004
\| location \= UK
\| pages \= 162–163
\| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=lOCjakwiRWAC\&q\=radiation\+dosimeter\+electroscope
\| isbn \= 1\-84265\-188\-9}} It consists of a sealed air\-filled cylinder called an [ionization chamber](/wiki/Ionization_chamber "Ionization chamber"). Inside it is a metal electrode strip that is attached to a terminal on the end of the pen for recharging. The other end of the electrode has a delicate gold\-plated [quartz fiber](/wiki/Quartz_fiber "Quartz fiber") attached to it, which at rest lies parallel to the electrode. The ends of the chamber are transparent and the microscope is focused on the fiber.
During recharging, the charger applies a high [DC](/wiki/Direct_current "Direct current") voltage, usually around 150–200 volts, to the electrode, charging it with electrostatic charge. The quartz fiber, having the same charge, is repelled by the surface of the electrode due to the [coulomb force](/wiki/Coulomb_force "Coulomb force") and bends away from the electrode. After charging, the charge remains on the electrode because it is insulated.
When a particle of [ionizing radiation](/wiki/Ionizing_radiation "Ionizing radiation") passes through the chamber, it collides with molecules of air, knocking electrons off them and creating positively and negatively charged atoms ([ions](/wiki/Ion "Ion")) in the air. The ions of opposite charge are attracted to the electrode and neutralize some of the charge on it. The reduced charge on the electrode reduces the force on the fiber, causing it to move back toward the electrode. The position of the fiber can be read through the microscope. Behind the fiber is a scale graduated in units of radiation, with the zero point at the position of the fiber when it is fully charged.
Since each radiation particle allows a certain amount of charge to leak off the electrode, the position of the fiber at any time represents the cumulative radiation that has passed through the chamber since the last recharge. Recharging restores the charge that was lost and returns the fiber to its original deflected position.
The charger is a small box, usually powered by a battery. It contains an electronic circuit that steps the battery voltage up to the high voltage needed for charging. The box has a fixture that requires one to press the end of the dosimeter on the charging [electrode](/wiki/Electrode "Electrode"). Some chargers include a light to illuminate the measurement electrode, so that measurement, logging and recharging can occur with one routine motion.
Units with larger ranges are made by adding a [capacitor](/wiki/Capacitor "Capacitor") attached between the electrode and the case. The capacitor stores a larger amount of charge on the device for a given voltage on the electrode. Since each radiation particle allows a fixed amount of charge to escape, a larger number of radiation particles is required to move the fiber a given amount.
|
[
"Theory of operation\n-------------------",
"The quartz fiber dosimeter is a rugged form of a device called a Lauritsen [electroscope](/wiki/Electroscope \"Electroscope\").{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Raj\n \\| first \\= Baldev\n \\|author2\\=Venkataramen B.\n \\| title \\= Practical Radiography\n \\| publisher \\= Alpha Science Int'l \n \\| date \\= 2004\n \\| location \\= UK\n \\| pages \\= 162–163\n \\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lOCjakwiRWAC\\&q\\=radiation\\+dosimeter\\+electroscope\n \\| isbn \\= 1\\-84265\\-188\\-9}} It consists of a sealed air\\-filled cylinder called an [ionization chamber](/wiki/Ionization_chamber \"Ionization chamber\"). Inside it is a metal electrode strip that is attached to a terminal on the end of the pen for recharging. The other end of the electrode has a delicate gold\\-plated [quartz fiber](/wiki/Quartz_fiber \"Quartz fiber\") attached to it, which at rest lies parallel to the electrode. The ends of the chamber are transparent and the microscope is focused on the fiber.",
"During recharging, the charger applies a high [DC](/wiki/Direct_current \"Direct current\") voltage, usually around 150–200 volts, to the electrode, charging it with electrostatic charge. The quartz fiber, having the same charge, is repelled by the surface of the electrode due to the [coulomb force](/wiki/Coulomb_force \"Coulomb force\") and bends away from the electrode. After charging, the charge remains on the electrode because it is insulated.",
"When a particle of [ionizing radiation](/wiki/Ionizing_radiation \"Ionizing radiation\") passes through the chamber, it collides with molecules of air, knocking electrons off them and creating positively and negatively charged atoms ([ions](/wiki/Ion \"Ion\")) in the air. The ions of opposite charge are attracted to the electrode and neutralize some of the charge on it. The reduced charge on the electrode reduces the force on the fiber, causing it to move back toward the electrode. The position of the fiber can be read through the microscope. Behind the fiber is a scale graduated in units of radiation, with the zero point at the position of the fiber when it is fully charged.",
"Since each radiation particle allows a certain amount of charge to leak off the electrode, the position of the fiber at any time represents the cumulative radiation that has passed through the chamber since the last recharge. Recharging restores the charge that was lost and returns the fiber to its original deflected position.",
"The charger is a small box, usually powered by a battery. It contains an electronic circuit that steps the battery voltage up to the high voltage needed for charging. The box has a fixture that requires one to press the end of the dosimeter on the charging [electrode](/wiki/Electrode \"Electrode\"). Some chargers include a light to illuminate the measurement electrode, so that measurement, logging and recharging can occur with one routine motion.",
"Units with larger ranges are made by adding a [capacitor](/wiki/Capacitor \"Capacitor\") attached between the electrode and the case. The capacitor stores a larger amount of charge on the device for a given voltage on the electrode. Since each radiation particle allows a fixed amount of charge to escape, a larger number of radiation particles is required to move the fiber a given amount.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{main\|Naval warfare\|Naval history}}
{{more citations needed\|section\|date\=November 2018}}
Naval warfare developed when humans first fought from water\-borne vessels. Before the introduction of the [cannon](/wiki/Cannon "Cannon") and ships with enough capacity to carry them, navy warfare primarily involved ramming and boarding actions. In the time of [ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"), naval warfare centered on long, narrow vessels powered by banks of [oarsmen](/wiki/Watercraft_rowing "Watercraft rowing") (such as [triremes](/wiki/Trireme "Trireme") and [quinqueremes](/wiki/Quinquereme "Quinquereme")) designed to ram and sink enemy vessels or come alongside the enemy vessel so its occupants could be attacked hand\-to\-hand. Naval warfare continued in this vein through the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") until the cannon became commonplace and capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle.
In [ancient China](/wiki/History_of_China%23Ancient_China "History of China#Ancient China"), large naval battles were known since the [Qin dynasty](/wiki/Qin_dynasty "Qin dynasty") (*also see* [Battle of Red Cliffs](/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs "Battle of Red Cliffs"), 208\), employing the war [junk](/wiki/Junk_%28ship%29 "Junk (ship)") during the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty"). However, China's first official standing navy was not established until the [Southern Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty "Song dynasty") in the 12th century, a time when [gunpowder](/wiki/Gunpowder "Gunpowder") was a revolutionary new application to warfare.{{sfnp\|de Crespigny\|1990\|p\=264\|loc\="The engagement at the Red Cliffs took place in the winter of the 13th year of \[\[Jian'an (Eastern Han)\|Jian'an]], probably about the end of 208\."\|postscript\=}} The [Chola Dynasty](/wiki/Chola_Dynasty "Chola Dynasty") in [Southern India](/wiki/South_India "South India") had a navy composed of trade ships transporting armies overseas.{{cite book \|last\=Majumdar \|first\=Romesh Chandra \|author\-link\=R. C. Majumdar \|url\=https://archive.org/details/struggleforempir05bhar/page/250/mode/2up?q\= \|title\=The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume V: The Struggle for Empire \|publisher\=\[\[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]] \|year\=2001 \|location\=Mumbai}} The [Chola Navy](/wiki/Chola_Navy "Chola Navy") reached its peak under [Rajendra I](/wiki/Rajendra_I "Rajendra I"), and was most notably used in invasions of [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Chola_conquest_of_Anuradhapura "Chola conquest of Anuradhapura") and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia_campaign_of_Rajendra_I "South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I").[Kulke](/wiki/South-East_Asia_campaign_of_Rajendra_I%23Kulke "South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I#Kulke"), p. 212\.{{sfn\|Spencer\|1976\|p\=409}}
[Nusantaran](/wiki/Nusantara_%28archipelago%29 "Nusantara (archipelago)") [thalassocracies](/wiki/Thalassocracy "Thalassocracy") made extensive use of naval power and technologies. This enabled the seafaring local people (either Malays of [Srivijaya](/wiki/Srivijaya "Srivijaya") or Javanese of [Mataram](/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom "Mataram Kingdom")) to attack as far as the coast of [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania") and [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique") with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh, about 7,000 km to their West, in 945–946 AD.Kumar, Ann (2012\). 'Dominion Over Palm and Pine: Early Indonesia's Maritime Reach', in Geoff Wade (ed.), *Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past* (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 101–122\.{{rp\|110}}{{Cite book\|last\=Nugroho\|first\=Irawan Djoko\|title\=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim\|publisher\=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti\|year\=2011\|isbn\=978\-602\-9346\-00\-8}}{{Rp\|39}} In 1350 AD [Majapahit](/wiki/Majapahit "Majapahit") launched its largest military expedition, the invasion of [Pasai](/wiki/Samudera_Pasai_Sultanate "Samudera Pasai Sultanate"), with 400 large [jong](/wiki/Djong_%28ship%29 "Djong (ship)") and innumerable smaller vessels.Hill (June 1960\). "[Hikayat Raja\-Raja Pasai](/wiki/iarchive:Hikayat-raja-raja-pasai/page/2/mode/2up "Hikayat-raja-raja-pasai/page/2/mode/2up")". *Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society*. **33**: pp. 98 and 157: "Then he directed them to make ready all the equipment and munitions of war needed for an attack on the land of Pasai – about four hundred of the largest junks, and also many barges (malangbang) and galleys." See also Nugroho (2011\), pp. 270 and 286, quoting *Hikayat Raja\-Raja Pasai*, 3: 98: "*Sa\-telah itu, maka di\-suroh baginda musta'idkan segala kelengkapan dan segala alat senjata peperangan akan mendatangi negeri Pasai itu, sa\-kira\-kira empat ratus jong yang besar\-besar dan lain daripada itu banyak lagi daripada malangbang dan kelulus*." (After that, he is tasked by His Majesty to ready all the equipment and all weapons of war to come to that country of Pasai, about four hundred large jongs and other than that much more of malangbang and kelulus.) The second largest military expedition, invasion of [Singapura](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Singapura "Kingdom of Singapura") in 1398, Majapahit deployed 300 jong with no less than 200,000 men.Nugroho (2011\), pp. 271, 399–400, quoting *Sejarah Melayu*, 10\.4: 77: "... *maka bagindapun segera menyuruh berlengkap tiga ratus buah jung, lain dari pada itu kelulus, pelang, jongkong, tiada terbilang lagi*." (then His Majesty immediately ordered to equip three hundred jong, other than that kelulus, pelang, jongkong in uncountable numbers.)Leyden, John (1821\). *[Malay Annals: Translated from the Malay language](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.83132/page/n3/mode/2up?q=)*. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. [p. 86](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.83132/page/n101/mode/2up?q=): "The bitara immediately fitted out 300 junks together with the vessels calúlús, pelang, and jongkong in numbers beyond calculation, and embarked on board of them two Cati of Javans (200,000\). Then having set sail, they arrived at Singhapura, and immediately engaged in battle." The average jong used by Majapahit would be about 76\.18–79\.81 m [LOA](/wiki/Length_overall "Length overall"), carrying 600–700 men, with 1200–1400 tons [deadweight](/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage "Deadweight tonnage").{{Cite journal\|last\=Averoes\|first\=Muhammad\|date\=2022\|title\=Re\-Estimating the Size of Javanese Jong Ship\|journal\=HISTORIA: Jurnal Pendidik Dan Peneliti Sejarah\|volume\=5\|issue\=1\|pages\=57–64\| doi\=10\.17509/historia.v5i1\.39181 \| s2cid\=247335671 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/size\-of\-javanese\-jong \|doi\-access\=free}}{{Rp\|60–62}}
The mass and [deck](/wiki/Deck_%28ship%29 "Deck (ship)") space required to carry a large number of cannon made oar\-based propulsion impossible, and ships came to rely primarily on [sails](/wiki/Sail "Sail"). Warships were designed to carry increasing numbers of cannon and [naval tactics](/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Sail "Naval tactics in the Age of Sail") evolved to bring a ship's firepower to bear in a [broadside](/wiki/Broadside_%28naval%29 "Broadside (naval)"), with [ships\-of\-the\-line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line "Ship of the line") arranged in a [line of battle](/wiki/Line_of_battle "Line of battle").
The development of large capacity, sail\-powered ships carrying cannon led to a rapid expansion of [European](/wiki/Europe "Europe") navies, especially the [Spanish](/wiki/Spain "Spain") and [Portuguese](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") navies that dominated in the 16th and early 17th centuries, and helped propel the [age of exploration](/wiki/Age_of_exploration "Age of exploration") and [colonialism](/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism"). The repulsion of the [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada "Spanish Armada") (1588\) by the English fleet revolutionized naval warfare by the success of a guns\-only strategy and caused a major overhaul of the [Spanish Navy](/wiki/Spanish_Navy "Spanish Navy"), partly along [English](/wiki/England "England") lines, which resulted in even greater dominance by the Spanish. From the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch cannibalized the [Portuguese Empire](/wiki/Portuguese_Empire "Portuguese Empire") in the [East](/wiki/Eastern_hemisphere "Eastern hemisphere") and, with the immense wealth gained, challenged Spanish [hegemony](/wiki/Hegemony "Hegemony") at sea. From the 1620s, Dutch raiders seriously troubled Spanish shipping and, after a number of battles that went both ways, the [Dutch Navy](/wiki/Dutch_Navy "Dutch Navy") finally broke the long dominance of the Spanish Navy in the [Battle of the Downs](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs "Battle of the Downs") (1639\).
[England](/wiki/England "England") emerged as a major naval power in the mid\-17th century in the first [Anglo\-Dutch war](/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Wars "Anglo-Dutch Wars") with a technical victory. Successive decisive Dutch victories in the second and third Anglo\-Dutch Wars confirmed the Dutch mastery of the seas during the [Dutch Golden Age](/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age "Dutch Golden Age"), financed by the expansion of the [Dutch Empire](/wiki/Dutch_Empire "Dutch Empire"). The [French Navy](/wiki/French_Navy "French Navy") won some important victories near the end of the 17th century but a focus upon land forces led to the French Navy's relative neglect, which allowed the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") to emerge with an ever\-growing advantage in size and quality, especially in tactics and experience, from 1695\. As a response to growing naval influence of the navies of Portuguese, the warrior king of the Marathas, [Shivaji](/wiki/Shivaji "Shivaji") laid the foundation of the [Maratha navy](/wiki/Maratha_Navy "Maratha Navy") in 1654\.
Throughout the 18th century the Royal Navy gradually gained ascendancy over the French Navy, with victories in the [War of Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_Spanish_Succession "War of Spanish Succession") (1701–1714\), inconclusive battles in the [War of Austrian Succession](/wiki/War_of_Austrian_Succession "War of Austrian Succession") (1740–1748\), victories in the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War "Seven Years' War") (1754–1763\), a partial reversal during the [American War of Independence](/wiki/American_War_of_Independence "American War of Independence") (1775–1783\), and consolidation into uncontested supremacy during the 19th century from the [Battle of Trafalgar](/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar "Battle of Trafalgar") in 1805\. These conflicts saw the development and refinement of [tactics](/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Sail "Naval tactics in the Age of Sail") that came to be called the [line of battle](/wiki/Line_of_battle "Line of battle").
The next stage in the evolution of naval warfare was the introduction of [metal plating](/wiki/Armour "Armour") along the hull sides. The increased mass required steam\-powered engines, resulting in an arms race between armor and weapon thickness and firepower. The first armored vessels, the French {{ship\|French ironclad\|Gloire\|\|2}} and British {{HMS\|Warrior\|1860\|6}}, made wooden vessels obsolete. Another significant improvement came with the invention of the rotating turrets, which allowed the guns to be aimed independently of ship movement. The battle between {{ship\|CSS\|Virginia}} and {{USS\|Monitor}} during the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") (1861–1865\) is often cited as the beginning of this age of maritime conflict. The [Russian Navy](/wiki/Russian_Navy "Russian Navy") was considered the third strongest in the world on the eve of the [Russo\-Japanese War](/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War "Russo-Japanese War"), which turned to be a catastrophe for the Russian military in general and the Russian Navy in particular. Although neither party lacked courage, the Russians were defeated by the Japanese in the Battle of Port Arthur, which was the first time in warfare that mines were used for offensive purposes. The warships of the Baltic Fleet sent to the Far East were lost in the Battle of Tsushima. A further step change in naval firepower occurred when the United Kingdom launched {{HMS\|Dreadnought\|1906\|6}} in 1906, but [naval tactics](/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Steam "Naval tactics in the Age of Steam") still emphasized the line of battle.
[thumb\|A [German submarine *U\-995*](/wiki/German_submarine_U-995 "German submarine U-995") developed during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").](/wiki/File:U_995_Laboe.JPG "U 995 Laboe.JPG")
The first practical military [submarines](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine") were developed in the late 19th century and by the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") had proven to be a powerful arm of naval warfare. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany")'s submarine fleet of [U\-boats](/wiki/U-boat "U-boat") almost starved the United Kingdom into submission and inflicted [tremendous losses on U.S. coastal shipping](/wiki/Second_happy_time "Second happy time"). The {{ship\|German battleship\|Tirpitz}}, a [sister ship](/wiki/Sister_ship "Sister ship") of {{ship\|German battleship\|Bismarck\|\|2}}, was almost put out of action by miniature submarines known as [X\-Craft](/wiki/X-class_submarine "X-class submarine"). The X\-Craft severely damaged her and kept her in port for some months.
A major paradigm shift in naval warfare occurred with the introduction of the [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier"). First at [Taranto](/wiki/Battle_of_Taranto "Battle of Taranto") in 1940 and then at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") in 1941, the carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out of sight and range of surface vessels. The [Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf "Battle of Leyte Gulf") (1944\) was arguably the [largest naval battle in history](/wiki/Largest_naval_battle_in_history "Largest naval battle in history"); it was also the last battle in which battleships played a significant role. By the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the carrier had become the dominant force of naval warfare.
World War II also saw the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") become by far the largest naval power in the world. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") possessed over 70% of the world's total numbers and total tonnage of naval vessels of 1,000 tons or greater."Weighing the US Navy", *Defense \& Security Analysis*, Volume 17, Issue 3, December 2001, pp. 259–265\. Throughout the rest of the 20th century, the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") would maintain a tonnage greater than that of the next 17 largest navies combined. During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), the [Soviet Navy](/wiki/Soviet_Navy "Soviet Navy") became a significant armed force, with large numbers of large, heavily armed [ballistic missile submarines](/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine "Ballistic missile submarine") and extensive use of heavy, long\-ranged antisurface missiles to counter the numerous United States [carrier battle groups](/wiki/Carrier_battle_group "Carrier battle group"). Only two nations, the United States and [France](/wiki/France "France"), presently operate [CATOBAR](/wiki/CATOBAR "CATOBAR") carriers of any size, while [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), [China](/wiki/China "China") and [India](/wiki/India "India") operate sizeable [STOBAR](/wiki/STOBAR "STOBAR") carriers (although all three are originally of Russian design). The [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") is also operating two {{sclass\|Queen Elizabeth\|aircraft carrier\|0}} carriers, which are the largest [STOVL](/wiki/STOVL "STOVL") vessels in service, and India is currently building one aircraft carrier, {{INS\|Vikrant\|2013\|6}}, and considering another. France is also looking at a [new carrier](/wiki/French_aircraft_carrier_PA2 "French aircraft carrier PA2"), probably using a CATOBAR system and possibly based on the British *Queen Elizabeth* design.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{main\\|Naval warfare\\|Naval history}}\n{{more citations needed\\|section\\|date\\=November 2018}}",
"Naval warfare developed when humans first fought from water\\-borne vessels. Before the introduction of the [cannon](/wiki/Cannon \"Cannon\") and ships with enough capacity to carry them, navy warfare primarily involved ramming and boarding actions. In the time of [ancient Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") and the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"), naval warfare centered on long, narrow vessels powered by banks of [oarsmen](/wiki/Watercraft_rowing \"Watercraft rowing\") (such as [triremes](/wiki/Trireme \"Trireme\") and [quinqueremes](/wiki/Quinquereme \"Quinquereme\")) designed to ram and sink enemy vessels or come alongside the enemy vessel so its occupants could be attacked hand\\-to\\-hand. Naval warfare continued in this vein through the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") until the cannon became commonplace and capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle.",
"In [ancient China](/wiki/History_of_China%23Ancient_China \"History of China#Ancient China\"), large naval battles were known since the [Qin dynasty](/wiki/Qin_dynasty \"Qin dynasty\") (*also see* [Battle of Red Cliffs](/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs \"Battle of Red Cliffs\"), 208\\), employing the war [junk](/wiki/Junk_%28ship%29 \"Junk (ship)\") during the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\"). However, China's first official standing navy was not established until the [Southern Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty \"Song dynasty\") in the 12th century, a time when [gunpowder](/wiki/Gunpowder \"Gunpowder\") was a revolutionary new application to warfare.{{sfnp\\|de Crespigny\\|1990\\|p\\=264\\|loc\\=\"The engagement at the Red Cliffs took place in the winter of the 13th year of \\[\\[Jian'an (Eastern Han)\\|Jian'an]], probably about the end of 208\\.\"\\|postscript\\=}} The [Chola Dynasty](/wiki/Chola_Dynasty \"Chola Dynasty\") in [Southern India](/wiki/South_India \"South India\") had a navy composed of trade ships transporting armies overseas.{{cite book \\|last\\=Majumdar \\|first\\=Romesh Chandra \\|author\\-link\\=R. C. Majumdar \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/struggleforempir05bhar/page/250/mode/2up?q\\= \\|title\\=The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume V: The Struggle for Empire \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]] \\|year\\=2001 \\|location\\=Mumbai}} The [Chola Navy](/wiki/Chola_Navy \"Chola Navy\") reached its peak under [Rajendra I](/wiki/Rajendra_I \"Rajendra I\"), and was most notably used in invasions of [Sri Lanka](/wiki/Chola_conquest_of_Anuradhapura \"Chola conquest of Anuradhapura\") and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/South-East_Asia_campaign_of_Rajendra_I \"South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I\").[Kulke](/wiki/South-East_Asia_campaign_of_Rajendra_I%23Kulke \"South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I#Kulke\"), p. 212\\.{{sfn\\|Spencer\\|1976\\|p\\=409}}",
"[Nusantaran](/wiki/Nusantara_%28archipelago%29 \"Nusantara (archipelago)\") [thalassocracies](/wiki/Thalassocracy \"Thalassocracy\") made extensive use of naval power and technologies. This enabled the seafaring local people (either Malays of [Srivijaya](/wiki/Srivijaya \"Srivijaya\") or Javanese of [Mataram](/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom \"Mataram Kingdom\")) to attack as far as the coast of [Tanzania](/wiki/Tanzania \"Tanzania\") and [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique \"Mozambique\") with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh, about 7,000 km to their West, in 945–946 AD.Kumar, Ann (2012\\). 'Dominion Over Palm and Pine: Early Indonesia's Maritime Reach', in Geoff Wade (ed.), *Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past* (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 101–122\\.{{rp\\|110}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Nugroho\\|first\\=Irawan Djoko\\|title\\=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim\\|publisher\\=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti\\|year\\=2011\\|isbn\\=978\\-602\\-9346\\-00\\-8}}{{Rp\\|39}} In 1350 AD [Majapahit](/wiki/Majapahit \"Majapahit\") launched its largest military expedition, the invasion of [Pasai](/wiki/Samudera_Pasai_Sultanate \"Samudera Pasai Sultanate\"), with 400 large [jong](/wiki/Djong_%28ship%29 \"Djong (ship)\") and innumerable smaller vessels.Hill (June 1960\\). \"[Hikayat Raja\\-Raja Pasai](/wiki/iarchive:Hikayat-raja-raja-pasai/page/2/mode/2up \"Hikayat-raja-raja-pasai/page/2/mode/2up\")\". *Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society*. **33**: pp. 98 and 157: \"Then he directed them to make ready all the equipment and munitions of war needed for an attack on the land of Pasai – about four hundred of the largest junks, and also many barges (malangbang) and galleys.\" See also Nugroho (2011\\), pp. 270 and 286, quoting *Hikayat Raja\\-Raja Pasai*, 3: 98: \"*Sa\\-telah itu, maka di\\-suroh baginda musta'idkan segala kelengkapan dan segala alat senjata peperangan akan mendatangi negeri Pasai itu, sa\\-kira\\-kira empat ratus jong yang besar\\-besar dan lain daripada itu banyak lagi daripada malangbang dan kelulus*.\" (After that, he is tasked by His Majesty to ready all the equipment and all weapons of war to come to that country of Pasai, about four hundred large jongs and other than that much more of malangbang and kelulus.) The second largest military expedition, invasion of [Singapura](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Singapura \"Kingdom of Singapura\") in 1398, Majapahit deployed 300 jong with no less than 200,000 men.Nugroho (2011\\), pp. 271, 399–400, quoting *Sejarah Melayu*, 10\\.4: 77: \"... *maka bagindapun segera menyuruh berlengkap tiga ratus buah jung, lain dari pada itu kelulus, pelang, jongkong, tiada terbilang lagi*.\" (then His Majesty immediately ordered to equip three hundred jong, other than that kelulus, pelang, jongkong in uncountable numbers.)Leyden, John (1821\\). *[Malay Annals: Translated from the Malay language](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.83132/page/n3/mode/2up?q=)*. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. [p. 86](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.83132/page/n101/mode/2up?q=): \"The bitara immediately fitted out 300 junks together with the vessels calúlús, pelang, and jongkong in numbers beyond calculation, and embarked on board of them two Cati of Javans (200,000\\). Then having set sail, they arrived at Singhapura, and immediately engaged in battle.\" The average jong used by Majapahit would be about 76\\.18–79\\.81 m [LOA](/wiki/Length_overall \"Length overall\"), carrying 600–700 men, with 1200–1400 tons [deadweight](/wiki/Deadweight_tonnage \"Deadweight tonnage\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Averoes\\|first\\=Muhammad\\|date\\=2022\\|title\\=Re\\-Estimating the Size of Javanese Jong Ship\\|journal\\=HISTORIA: Jurnal Pendidik Dan Peneliti Sejarah\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=57–64\\| doi\\=10\\.17509/historia.v5i1\\.39181 \\| s2cid\\=247335671 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/size\\-of\\-javanese\\-jong \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{Rp\\|60–62}}",
"The mass and [deck](/wiki/Deck_%28ship%29 \"Deck (ship)\") space required to carry a large number of cannon made oar\\-based propulsion impossible, and ships came to rely primarily on [sails](/wiki/Sail \"Sail\"). Warships were designed to carry increasing numbers of cannon and [naval tactics](/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Sail \"Naval tactics in the Age of Sail\") evolved to bring a ship's firepower to bear in a [broadside](/wiki/Broadside_%28naval%29 \"Broadside (naval)\"), with [ships\\-of\\-the\\-line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line \"Ship of the line\") arranged in a [line of battle](/wiki/Line_of_battle \"Line of battle\").",
"The development of large capacity, sail\\-powered ships carrying cannon led to a rapid expansion of [European](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") navies, especially the [Spanish](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") and [Portuguese](/wiki/Portugal \"Portugal\") navies that dominated in the 16th and early 17th centuries, and helped propel the [age of exploration](/wiki/Age_of_exploration \"Age of exploration\") and [colonialism](/wiki/Colonialism \"Colonialism\"). The repulsion of the [Spanish Armada](/wiki/Spanish_Armada \"Spanish Armada\") (1588\\) by the English fleet revolutionized naval warfare by the success of a guns\\-only strategy and caused a major overhaul of the [Spanish Navy](/wiki/Spanish_Navy \"Spanish Navy\"), partly along [English](/wiki/England \"England\") lines, which resulted in even greater dominance by the Spanish. From the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch cannibalized the [Portuguese Empire](/wiki/Portuguese_Empire \"Portuguese Empire\") in the [East](/wiki/Eastern_hemisphere \"Eastern hemisphere\") and, with the immense wealth gained, challenged Spanish [hegemony](/wiki/Hegemony \"Hegemony\") at sea. From the 1620s, Dutch raiders seriously troubled Spanish shipping and, after a number of battles that went both ways, the [Dutch Navy](/wiki/Dutch_Navy \"Dutch Navy\") finally broke the long dominance of the Spanish Navy in the [Battle of the Downs](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs \"Battle of the Downs\") (1639\\).",
"[England](/wiki/England \"England\") emerged as a major naval power in the mid\\-17th century in the first [Anglo\\-Dutch war](/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Wars \"Anglo-Dutch Wars\") with a technical victory. Successive decisive Dutch victories in the second and third Anglo\\-Dutch Wars confirmed the Dutch mastery of the seas during the [Dutch Golden Age](/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age \"Dutch Golden Age\"), financed by the expansion of the [Dutch Empire](/wiki/Dutch_Empire \"Dutch Empire\"). The [French Navy](/wiki/French_Navy \"French Navy\") won some important victories near the end of the 17th century but a focus upon land forces led to the French Navy's relative neglect, which allowed the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") to emerge with an ever\\-growing advantage in size and quality, especially in tactics and experience, from 1695\\. As a response to growing naval influence of the navies of Portuguese, the warrior king of the Marathas, [Shivaji](/wiki/Shivaji \"Shivaji\") laid the foundation of the [Maratha navy](/wiki/Maratha_Navy \"Maratha Navy\") in 1654\\.",
"Throughout the 18th century the Royal Navy gradually gained ascendancy over the French Navy, with victories in the [War of Spanish Succession](/wiki/War_of_Spanish_Succession \"War of Spanish Succession\") (1701–1714\\), inconclusive battles in the [War of Austrian Succession](/wiki/War_of_Austrian_Succession \"War of Austrian Succession\") (1740–1748\\), victories in the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War \"Seven Years' War\") (1754–1763\\), a partial reversal during the [American War of Independence](/wiki/American_War_of_Independence \"American War of Independence\") (1775–1783\\), and consolidation into uncontested supremacy during the 19th century from the [Battle of Trafalgar](/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar \"Battle of Trafalgar\") in 1805\\. These conflicts saw the development and refinement of [tactics](/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Sail \"Naval tactics in the Age of Sail\") that came to be called the [line of battle](/wiki/Line_of_battle \"Line of battle\").",
"The next stage in the evolution of naval warfare was the introduction of [metal plating](/wiki/Armour \"Armour\") along the hull sides. The increased mass required steam\\-powered engines, resulting in an arms race between armor and weapon thickness and firepower. The first armored vessels, the French {{ship\\|French ironclad\\|Gloire\\|\\|2}} and British {{HMS\\|Warrior\\|1860\\|6}}, made wooden vessels obsolete. Another significant improvement came with the invention of the rotating turrets, which allowed the guns to be aimed independently of ship movement. The battle between {{ship\\|CSS\\|Virginia}} and {{USS\\|Monitor}} during the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") (1861–1865\\) is often cited as the beginning of this age of maritime conflict. The [Russian Navy](/wiki/Russian_Navy \"Russian Navy\") was considered the third strongest in the world on the eve of the [Russo\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War \"Russo-Japanese War\"), which turned to be a catastrophe for the Russian military in general and the Russian Navy in particular. Although neither party lacked courage, the Russians were defeated by the Japanese in the Battle of Port Arthur, which was the first time in warfare that mines were used for offensive purposes. The warships of the Baltic Fleet sent to the Far East were lost in the Battle of Tsushima. A further step change in naval firepower occurred when the United Kingdom launched {{HMS\\|Dreadnought\\|1906\\|6}} in 1906, but [naval tactics](/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Steam \"Naval tactics in the Age of Steam\") still emphasized the line of battle.\n[thumb\\|A [German submarine *U\\-995*](/wiki/German_submarine_U-995 \"German submarine U-995\") developed during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").](/wiki/File:U_995_Laboe.JPG \"U 995 Laboe.JPG\")\nThe first practical military [submarines](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") were developed in the late 19th century and by the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") had proven to be a powerful arm of naval warfare. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\")'s submarine fleet of [U\\-boats](/wiki/U-boat \"U-boat\") almost starved the United Kingdom into submission and inflicted [tremendous losses on U.S. coastal shipping](/wiki/Second_happy_time \"Second happy time\"). The {{ship\\|German battleship\\|Tirpitz}}, a [sister ship](/wiki/Sister_ship \"Sister ship\") of {{ship\\|German battleship\\|Bismarck\\|\\|2}}, was almost put out of action by miniature submarines known as [X\\-Craft](/wiki/X-class_submarine \"X-class submarine\"). The X\\-Craft severely damaged her and kept her in port for some months.",
"A major paradigm shift in naval warfare occurred with the introduction of the [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\"). First at [Taranto](/wiki/Battle_of_Taranto \"Battle of Taranto\") in 1940 and then at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") in 1941, the carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out of sight and range of surface vessels. The [Battle of Leyte Gulf](/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf \"Battle of Leyte Gulf\") (1944\\) was arguably the [largest naval battle in history](/wiki/Largest_naval_battle_in_history \"Largest naval battle in history\"); it was also the last battle in which battleships played a significant role. By the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the carrier had become the dominant force of naval warfare.",
"World War II also saw the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") become by far the largest naval power in the world. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") possessed over 70% of the world's total numbers and total tonnage of naval vessels of 1,000 tons or greater.\"Weighing the US Navy\", *Defense \\& Security Analysis*, Volume 17, Issue 3, December 2001, pp. 259–265\\. Throughout the rest of the 20th century, the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") would maintain a tonnage greater than that of the next 17 largest navies combined. During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), the [Soviet Navy](/wiki/Soviet_Navy \"Soviet Navy\") became a significant armed force, with large numbers of large, heavily armed [ballistic missile submarines](/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine \"Ballistic missile submarine\") and extensive use of heavy, long\\-ranged antisurface missiles to counter the numerous United States [carrier battle groups](/wiki/Carrier_battle_group \"Carrier battle group\"). Only two nations, the United States and [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), presently operate [CATOBAR](/wiki/CATOBAR \"CATOBAR\") carriers of any size, while [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\") and [India](/wiki/India \"India\") operate sizeable [STOBAR](/wiki/STOBAR \"STOBAR\") carriers (although all three are originally of Russian design). The [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") is also operating two {{sclass\\|Queen Elizabeth\\|aircraft carrier\\|0}} carriers, which are the largest [STOVL](/wiki/STOVL \"STOVL\") vessels in service, and India is currently building one aircraft carrier, {{INS\\|Vikrant\\|2013\\|6}}, and considering another. France is also looking at a [new carrier](/wiki/French_aircraft_carrier_PA2 \"French aircraft carrier PA2\"), probably using a CATOBAR system and possibly based on the British *Queen Elizabeth* design.",
""
] |
Traditions
----------
{{main\|Naval tradition}}
{{unreferenced section\|date\=November 2018}}
A basic tradition is that all ships commissioned in a navy are referred to as ships rather than vessels, with the exception of destroyers and submarines, which are known as boats. The prefix on a ship's name indicates that it is a commissioned ship.
An important tradition on board naval vessels of some nations has been the [ship's bell](/wiki/Ship%27s_bells "Ship's bells"). This was historically used to mark the passage of time, as warning devices in heavy fog, and for alarms and ceremonies.
The ship's captain, and more senior officers are "piped" aboard the ship using a [Boatswain's call](/wiki/Boatswain%27s_call "Boatswain's call").
In the United States, the [First Navy Jack](/wiki/First_Navy_Jack "First Navy Jack") is a flag that has the words, "Don't Tread on Me" on the flag.
By English tradition, ships have been referred to as a "she". However, it was long considered bad luck to permit women to sail on board naval vessels. To do so would invite a terrible storm that would wreck the ship. The only women that were welcomed on board were [figureheads](/wiki/Figurehead_%28object%29 "Figurehead (object)") mounted on the prow of the ship.
[Firing a cannon salute](/wiki/Gun_salute%23Naval_cannon_fire "Gun salute#Naval cannon fire") partially disarms the ship, so firing a cannon for no combat reason showed respect and trust. As the tradition evolved, the number of cannons fired became an indication of the rank of the official being saluted.
|
[
"Traditions\n----------",
"{{main\\|Naval tradition}}",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=November 2018}}",
"A basic tradition is that all ships commissioned in a navy are referred to as ships rather than vessels, with the exception of destroyers and submarines, which are known as boats. The prefix on a ship's name indicates that it is a commissioned ship.",
"An important tradition on board naval vessels of some nations has been the [ship's bell](/wiki/Ship%27s_bells \"Ship's bells\"). This was historically used to mark the passage of time, as warning devices in heavy fog, and for alarms and ceremonies.",
"The ship's captain, and more senior officers are \"piped\" aboard the ship using a [Boatswain's call](/wiki/Boatswain%27s_call \"Boatswain's call\").",
"In the United States, the [First Navy Jack](/wiki/First_Navy_Jack \"First Navy Jack\") is a flag that has the words, \"Don't Tread on Me\" on the flag.",
"By English tradition, ships have been referred to as a \"she\". However, it was long considered bad luck to permit women to sail on board naval vessels. To do so would invite a terrible storm that would wreck the ship. The only women that were welcomed on board were [figureheads](/wiki/Figurehead_%28object%29 \"Figurehead (object)\") mounted on the prow of the ship.",
"[Firing a cannon salute](/wiki/Gun_salute%23Naval_cannon_fire \"Gun salute#Naval cannon fire\") partially disarms the ship, so firing a cannon for no combat reason showed respect and trust. As the tradition evolved, the number of cannons fired became an indication of the rank of the official being saluted.",
""
] |
Naval organization
------------------
{{unreferenced section\|date\=November 2018}}
### Ships
{{main\|Naval ship}}
Historically, navy ships were primarily intended for warfare. They were designed to withstand damage and to inflict the same, but only carried munitions and supplies for the voyage (rather than merchant cargo). Often, other ships that were not built specifically for warfare, such as the [galleon](/wiki/Galleon "Galleon") or the armed merchant ships in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), did carry armaments. In more recent times, navy ships have become more specialized and have included supply ships, troop transports, repair ships, oil tankers and other logistics support ships as well as combat ships.
Modern navy combat ships are generally divided into seven main categories: [aircraft carriers](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier"), [cruisers](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser"), [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer"), [frigates](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate"), [corvettes](/wiki/Corvette "Corvette"), [submarines](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine"), and [amphibious assault ships](/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship "Amphibious assault ship"). There are also support and auxiliary ships, including the [oiler](/wiki/Navy_Oilers "Navy Oilers"), [minesweeper](/wiki/Minesweeper "Minesweeper"), [patrol boat](/wiki/Patrol_boat "Patrol boat"), hydrographic and oceanographic [survey ship](/wiki/Research_vessel "Research vessel") and [tender](/wiki/Ship%27s_tender "Ship's tender"). During the [age of sail](/wiki/Age_of_sail "Age of sail"), the ship categories were divided into the [ship of the line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line "Ship of the line"), frigate, and [sloop\-of\-war](/wiki/Sloop-of-war "Sloop-of-war").
Naval ship names are typically prefixed by an abbreviation indicating the national navy in which they serve. For a list of the prefixes used with ship names ([HMS](/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Ship "Her Majesty's Ship"), [USS](/wiki/United_States_Navy%23Ships "United States Navy#Ships"), [LÉ](/wiki/Long_%C3%89ireannach "Long Éireannach"), etc.) see [ship prefix](/wiki/Ship_prefix "Ship prefix").
Today's warships are significantly faster than in years past, thanks to much improved propulsion systems. Also, the efficiency of the engines has improved, in terms of fuel, and of how many sailors it takes to operate them. In World War II, ships needed to refuel very often. However, today ships can go on very long journeys without refueling. Also, in World War II, the engine room needed about a dozen sailors to work the many engines, however, today, only about four or five are needed (depending on the class of the ship). Today, naval strike groups on longer missions are always followed by a range of support and replenishment ships supplying them with anything from fuel and munitions, to medical treatment and postal services. This allows strike groups and combat ships to remain at sea for several months at a time.
### Boats
The term "boat" refers to small craft limited in their use by size and usually not capable of making lengthy independent voyages at sea. The old navy adage to differentiate between ships and boats is that boats are capable of being carried by ships. (Submarines by this rule are ships rather than boats, but are customarily referred to as boats reflecting their previous smaller size.)
Navies use many types of boat, ranging from {{convert\|9\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} dinghies to {{convert\|135\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} landing craft. They are powered by either diesel engines, out\-board gasoline engines, or waterjets. Most boats are built of aluminum, fiberglass, or steel. [Rigid\-hulled inflatable boats](/wiki/Rigid-hulled_inflatable_boat "Rigid-hulled inflatable boat") are also used.
[Patrol boats](/wiki/Patrol_boat "Patrol boat") are used for patrols of coastal areas, lakes and large rivers.
[Landing craft](/wiki/Landing_craft "Landing craft") are designed to carry troops, vehicles, or cargo from ship to shore under combat conditions, to unload, to withdraw from the beach, and to return to the ship. They are rugged, with powerful engines, and usually armed. There are many types in today's navies including [hovercraft](/wiki/Hovercraft "Hovercraft"). They will typically have a power\-operated bow ramp, a cargo well and after structures that house engine rooms, pilot houses, and stowage compartments. These boats are sometimes carried by larger ships.
Special operations craft are high\-speed craft used for insertion and extraction of special forces personnel and some may be transportable (and deployed) by air.
Boats used in non\-combat roles include lifeboats, mail boats, line handling boats, buoy boats, aircraft rescue boats, torpedo retrievers, explosive ordnance disposal craft, utility boats, dive boats, targets, and work boats. Boats are also used for survey work, tending divers, and minesweeping operations. Boats for carrying cargo and personnel are sometimes known as launches, gigs, barges or shore party boats.
### Units
Naval forces are typically arranged into units based on the number of ships included, a single ship being the smallest operational unit. Ships may be combined into [squadrons](/wiki/Squadron_%28naval%29 "Squadron (naval)") or [flotillas](/wiki/Flotilla "Flotilla"), which may be formed into [fleets](/wiki/Naval_fleet "Naval fleet"). The largest unit size may be the whole Navy or [Admiralty](/wiki/Admiralty_%28navy%29 "Admiralty (navy)").
A [task force](/wiki/Task_force "Task force") can be assembled using ships from different fleets for an operational task.
{{clear}}
### Personnel
Despite their acceptance in many areas of naval service, [female sailors](/wiki/Women_in_the_military "Women in the military") were not permitted to serve on board U.S. submarines until the U.S. Navy lifted the ban in April 2010\.{{cite web \|date\=1 June 2010 \|title\=The Associated Press: Biden notes big year, sub service for Navy women \|url\=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iIMxaTQ7lpX\-Ow6grVziJ7ZKeNpQD9FVUPKG3 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601135420/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iIMxaTQ7lpX\-Ow6grVziJ7ZKeNpQD9FVUPKG3 \|archive\-date\=1 June 2010}} The major reasons historically cited by the U.S. Navy were the extended duty tours and close conditions which afford almost no privacy. The United Kingdom's Royal Navy has had similar restrictions. Australia, Canada, Norway, and Spain previously opened submarine service to women sailors.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2001/0102\-09\.htm\|title\=NATO Review – Vol. 49 – No 2 – Summer 2001\|website\=NATO \|access\-date\=22 March 2021\|archive\-date\=28 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428215258/https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2001/0102\-09\.htm\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Ranks
{{main\|Naval officer ranks}}A navy will typically have two sets of ranks, one for [enlisted](/wiki/Enlisted_rank "Enlisted rank") personnel and one for [officers](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 "Officer (armed forces)").
Typical ranks for commissioned officers include the following, in ascending order ([Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") ranks are listed first on each line; USA ranks are listed second in those instances where they differ from Commonwealth ranks):
* [Midshipman](/wiki/Midshipman "Midshipman") / [Ensign](/wiki/Ensign_%28rank%29 "Ensign (rank)") / [Corvette Lieutenant](/wiki/Corvette_Lieutenant "Corvette Lieutenant")
* [Sub Lieutenant](/wiki/Sub_Lieutenant "Sub Lieutenant") / [Lieutenant Junior Grade](/wiki/Lieutenant_Junior_Grade "Lieutenant Junior Grade") / [Frigate Lieutenant](/wiki/Frigate_Lieutenant "Frigate Lieutenant")
* [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant "Lieutenant") (Commonwealth \& USA)/ [Ship\-of\-the\-Line Lieutenant](/wiki/Ship-of-the-Line_Lieutenant "Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant") / [Captain Lieutenant](/wiki/Captain_Lieutenant "Captain Lieutenant")
* [Lieutenant Commander](/wiki/Lieutenant_Commander "Lieutenant Commander") (Commonwealth \& USA)/ [Corvette Captain](/wiki/Corvette_Captain "Corvette Captain")
* [Commander](/wiki/Commander "Commander") (Commonwealth \& USA)/ [Frigate Captain](/wiki/Frigate_Captain "Frigate Captain")
* [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28naval%29 "Captain (naval)") (Commonwealth \& USA)/ [Ship\-of\-the\-Line Captain](/wiki/Ship-of-the-Line_Captain "Ship-of-the-Line Captain")
* [Commodore](/wiki/Commodore_%28rank%29 "Commodore (rank)") / [Flotilla Admiral](/wiki/Flotilla_Admiral "Flotilla Admiral") (in USA only: [Rear Admiral (lower half)](/wiki/Rear_Admiral_%28lower_half%29 "Rear Admiral (lower half)"))
* [Rear Admiral](/wiki/Rear_Admiral "Rear Admiral") (in USA only: [Rear Admiral (upper half)](/wiki/Rear_Admiral_%28upper_half%29 "Rear Admiral (upper half)"))
* [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_Admiral "Vice Admiral") (Commonwealth \& USA)
* [Admiral](/wiki/Admiral "Admiral") (Commonwealth \& USA)
* [Admiral of the Fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet "Admiral of the Fleet") (Commonwealth) / [Fleet Admiral](/wiki/Fleet_Admiral "Fleet Admiral") (USA) / [Grand Admiral](/wiki/Grand_Admiral "Grand Admiral")
"Flag officers" include any rank that includes the word "admiral" (or commodore in services other than the US Navy), and are generally in command of a [battle group](/wiki/Battleship_battle_group "Battleship battle group"), strike group or similar flotilla of ships, rather than a single ship or aspect of a ship. However, commodores can also be temporary or honorary positions. For example, during World War II, a Navy captain was assigned duty as a convoy commodore, which meant that he was still a captain, but in charge of all the merchant vessels in the convoy.
The most senior rank employed by a navy will tend to vary depending on the size of a navy and whether it is wartime or peacetime, for example, few people have ever held the rank of Fleet Admiral in the U.S. Navy, the chief of the [Royal Australian Navy](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy "Royal Australian Navy") holds the rank of Vice Admiral, and the chief of the [Irish Naval Service](/wiki/Irish_Naval_Service "Irish Naval Service") holds the rank of Commodore.
|
[
"Naval organization\n------------------",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=November 2018}}",
"### Ships",
"{{main\\|Naval ship}}\nHistorically, navy ships were primarily intended for warfare. They were designed to withstand damage and to inflict the same, but only carried munitions and supplies for the voyage (rather than merchant cargo). Often, other ships that were not built specifically for warfare, such as the [galleon](/wiki/Galleon \"Galleon\") or the armed merchant ships in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), did carry armaments. In more recent times, navy ships have become more specialized and have included supply ships, troop transports, repair ships, oil tankers and other logistics support ships as well as combat ships.",
"Modern navy combat ships are generally divided into seven main categories: [aircraft carriers](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\"), [cruisers](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\"), [destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\"), [frigates](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\"), [corvettes](/wiki/Corvette \"Corvette\"), [submarines](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\"), and [amphibious assault ships](/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship \"Amphibious assault ship\"). There are also support and auxiliary ships, including the [oiler](/wiki/Navy_Oilers \"Navy Oilers\"), [minesweeper](/wiki/Minesweeper \"Minesweeper\"), [patrol boat](/wiki/Patrol_boat \"Patrol boat\"), hydrographic and oceanographic [survey ship](/wiki/Research_vessel \"Research vessel\") and [tender](/wiki/Ship%27s_tender \"Ship's tender\"). During the [age of sail](/wiki/Age_of_sail \"Age of sail\"), the ship categories were divided into the [ship of the line](/wiki/Ship_of_the_line \"Ship of the line\"), frigate, and [sloop\\-of\\-war](/wiki/Sloop-of-war \"Sloop-of-war\").",
"Naval ship names are typically prefixed by an abbreviation indicating the national navy in which they serve. For a list of the prefixes used with ship names ([HMS](/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Ship \"Her Majesty's Ship\"), [USS](/wiki/United_States_Navy%23Ships \"United States Navy#Ships\"), [LÉ](/wiki/Long_%C3%89ireannach \"Long Éireannach\"), etc.) see [ship prefix](/wiki/Ship_prefix \"Ship prefix\").",
"Today's warships are significantly faster than in years past, thanks to much improved propulsion systems. Also, the efficiency of the engines has improved, in terms of fuel, and of how many sailors it takes to operate them. In World War II, ships needed to refuel very often. However, today ships can go on very long journeys without refueling. Also, in World War II, the engine room needed about a dozen sailors to work the many engines, however, today, only about four or five are needed (depending on the class of the ship). Today, naval strike groups on longer missions are always followed by a range of support and replenishment ships supplying them with anything from fuel and munitions, to medical treatment and postal services. This allows strike groups and combat ships to remain at sea for several months at a time.",
"### Boats",
"The term \"boat\" refers to small craft limited in their use by size and usually not capable of making lengthy independent voyages at sea. The old navy adage to differentiate between ships and boats is that boats are capable of being carried by ships. (Submarines by this rule are ships rather than boats, but are customarily referred to as boats reflecting their previous smaller size.)",
"Navies use many types of boat, ranging from {{convert\\|9\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} dinghies to {{convert\\|135\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} landing craft. They are powered by either diesel engines, out\\-board gasoline engines, or waterjets. Most boats are built of aluminum, fiberglass, or steel. [Rigid\\-hulled inflatable boats](/wiki/Rigid-hulled_inflatable_boat \"Rigid-hulled inflatable boat\") are also used.",
"[Patrol boats](/wiki/Patrol_boat \"Patrol boat\") are used for patrols of coastal areas, lakes and large rivers.",
"[Landing craft](/wiki/Landing_craft \"Landing craft\") are designed to carry troops, vehicles, or cargo from ship to shore under combat conditions, to unload, to withdraw from the beach, and to return to the ship. They are rugged, with powerful engines, and usually armed. There are many types in today's navies including [hovercraft](/wiki/Hovercraft \"Hovercraft\"). They will typically have a power\\-operated bow ramp, a cargo well and after structures that house engine rooms, pilot houses, and stowage compartments. These boats are sometimes carried by larger ships.",
"Special operations craft are high\\-speed craft used for insertion and extraction of special forces personnel and some may be transportable (and deployed) by air.",
"Boats used in non\\-combat roles include lifeboats, mail boats, line handling boats, buoy boats, aircraft rescue boats, torpedo retrievers, explosive ordnance disposal craft, utility boats, dive boats, targets, and work boats. Boats are also used for survey work, tending divers, and minesweeping operations. Boats for carrying cargo and personnel are sometimes known as launches, gigs, barges or shore party boats.",
"### Units",
"Naval forces are typically arranged into units based on the number of ships included, a single ship being the smallest operational unit. Ships may be combined into [squadrons](/wiki/Squadron_%28naval%29 \"Squadron (naval)\") or [flotillas](/wiki/Flotilla \"Flotilla\"), which may be formed into [fleets](/wiki/Naval_fleet \"Naval fleet\"). The largest unit size may be the whole Navy or [Admiralty](/wiki/Admiralty_%28navy%29 \"Admiralty (navy)\").",
"A [task force](/wiki/Task_force \"Task force\") can be assembled using ships from different fleets for an operational task.\n{{clear}}",
"### Personnel",
"Despite their acceptance in many areas of naval service, [female sailors](/wiki/Women_in_the_military \"Women in the military\") were not permitted to serve on board U.S. submarines until the U.S. Navy lifted the ban in April 2010\\.{{cite web \\|date\\=1 June 2010 \\|title\\=The Associated Press: Biden notes big year, sub service for Navy women \\|url\\=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iIMxaTQ7lpX\\-Ow6grVziJ7ZKeNpQD9FVUPKG3 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601135420/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iIMxaTQ7lpX\\-Ow6grVziJ7ZKeNpQD9FVUPKG3 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 June 2010}} The major reasons historically cited by the U.S. Navy were the extended duty tours and close conditions which afford almost no privacy. The United Kingdom's Royal Navy has had similar restrictions. Australia, Canada, Norway, and Spain previously opened submarine service to women sailors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2001/0102\\-09\\.htm\\|title\\=NATO Review – Vol. 49 – No 2 – Summer 2001\\|website\\=NATO \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=28 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428215258/https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2001/0102\\-09\\.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Ranks",
"{{main\\|Naval officer ranks}}A navy will typically have two sets of ranks, one for [enlisted](/wiki/Enlisted_rank \"Enlisted rank\") personnel and one for [officers](/wiki/Officer_%28armed_forces%29 \"Officer (armed forces)\").",
"Typical ranks for commissioned officers include the following, in ascending order ([Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") ranks are listed first on each line; USA ranks are listed second in those instances where they differ from Commonwealth ranks):\n* [Midshipman](/wiki/Midshipman \"Midshipman\") / [Ensign](/wiki/Ensign_%28rank%29 \"Ensign (rank)\") / [Corvette Lieutenant](/wiki/Corvette_Lieutenant \"Corvette Lieutenant\")\n* [Sub Lieutenant](/wiki/Sub_Lieutenant \"Sub Lieutenant\") / [Lieutenant Junior Grade](/wiki/Lieutenant_Junior_Grade \"Lieutenant Junior Grade\") / [Frigate Lieutenant](/wiki/Frigate_Lieutenant \"Frigate Lieutenant\")\n* [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant \"Lieutenant\") (Commonwealth \\& USA)/ [Ship\\-of\\-the\\-Line Lieutenant](/wiki/Ship-of-the-Line_Lieutenant \"Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant\") / [Captain Lieutenant](/wiki/Captain_Lieutenant \"Captain Lieutenant\")\n* [Lieutenant Commander](/wiki/Lieutenant_Commander \"Lieutenant Commander\") (Commonwealth \\& USA)/ [Corvette Captain](/wiki/Corvette_Captain \"Corvette Captain\")\n* [Commander](/wiki/Commander \"Commander\") (Commonwealth \\& USA)/ [Frigate Captain](/wiki/Frigate_Captain \"Frigate Captain\")\n* [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28naval%29 \"Captain (naval)\") (Commonwealth \\& USA)/ [Ship\\-of\\-the\\-Line Captain](/wiki/Ship-of-the-Line_Captain \"Ship-of-the-Line Captain\")\n* [Commodore](/wiki/Commodore_%28rank%29 \"Commodore (rank)\") / [Flotilla Admiral](/wiki/Flotilla_Admiral \"Flotilla Admiral\") (in USA only: [Rear Admiral (lower half)](/wiki/Rear_Admiral_%28lower_half%29 \"Rear Admiral (lower half)\"))\n* [Rear Admiral](/wiki/Rear_Admiral \"Rear Admiral\") (in USA only: [Rear Admiral (upper half)](/wiki/Rear_Admiral_%28upper_half%29 \"Rear Admiral (upper half)\"))\n* [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_Admiral \"Vice Admiral\") (Commonwealth \\& USA)\n* [Admiral](/wiki/Admiral \"Admiral\") (Commonwealth \\& USA)\n* [Admiral of the Fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet \"Admiral of the Fleet\") (Commonwealth) / [Fleet Admiral](/wiki/Fleet_Admiral \"Fleet Admiral\") (USA) / [Grand Admiral](/wiki/Grand_Admiral \"Grand Admiral\")",
"\"Flag officers\" include any rank that includes the word \"admiral\" (or commodore in services other than the US Navy), and are generally in command of a [battle group](/wiki/Battleship_battle_group \"Battleship battle group\"), strike group or similar flotilla of ships, rather than a single ship or aspect of a ship. However, commodores can also be temporary or honorary positions. For example, during World War II, a Navy captain was assigned duty as a convoy commodore, which meant that he was still a captain, but in charge of all the merchant vessels in the convoy.",
"The most senior rank employed by a navy will tend to vary depending on the size of a navy and whether it is wartime or peacetime, for example, few people have ever held the rank of Fleet Admiral in the U.S. Navy, the chief of the [Royal Australian Navy](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy \"Royal Australian Navy\") holds the rank of Vice Admiral, and the chief of the [Irish Naval Service](/wiki/Irish_Naval_Service \"Irish Naval Service\") holds the rank of Commodore.",
""
] |
Overview
--------
### Chassis
As with the Ford Granada, the Mercury Monarch shared its unibody chassis with its Ford Maverick/Mercury Comet predecessors. Based heavily on the first\-generation Ford Falcon from 1960, the design utilized coil spring front suspension with a leaf\-sprung live rear axle; due to its Falcon origins, the Monarch was also loosely mechanically related to the first\-generation Ford Mustang and Mercury Cougar.
The base engine was a [{{convert\|200\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}}](/wiki/Ford_straight-six_engine "Ford straight-six engine") inline six\-cylinder engine, with a {{convert\|250\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} [inline six](/wiki/Straight-6 "Straight-6") optional. [V8](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine") power came from one of two options: the {{convert\|302\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} or {{convert\|351\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} [Windsor](/wiki/Ford_Windsor_engine "Ford Windsor engine") engines.
### Body
Although originally developed to become a new Mercury Comet, the Mercury Monarch was differentiated from the Comet produced alongside it in a number of ways. Using the [Mercedes\-Benz 280](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_W114 "Mercedes-Benz W114") as a benchmark for its styling and interior packaging,{{Cite magazine \| ref \= JD74 \| url\=http://www.lincolnversailles.com/Granada/RT\_FG2\.htm \| via \= Lincoln Versailles Web Site \| title \= Technical Analysis: Ford Granada \& Mercury Monarch: The European influence was strong \| page \= 36 \| magazine \= \[\[Road \& Track]] \| first \= John \| last \= Dinkel \| date \= August 1974 }} the Monarch abandoned the [Coke bottle styling](/wiki/Coke_bottle_styling "Coke bottle styling") of the Comet for straighter\-edged body panels. In the front, the Monarch adapted much of the styling of Mercury's large full size Marquis (with the exception of single exposed headlights). While the roofline of the four\-door model was heavily influenced by Mercedes\-Benz, the two\-door was given its own roofline with vertical [opera windows](/wiki/Opera_window "Opera window"). The rear featured horizontal wrap\-around taillamps with amber reflectors and a color\-keyed decorative trim panel with a fuel filler door.
In 1978, the Monarch underwent an exterior facelift; the headlamps were converted from round to rectangular, with the turn signals moved under the headlamps. The taillamps were revised to all red lenses and the center rear trim panel was changed to a new design with an argent finish on base models or a matching red reflector on top trim levels.
On the inside, in contrast from other Lincoln\-Mercury cars, the Monarch was equipped with front bucket seats. While a feature associated with sporty cars at the time, the individual seats (from the [European Ford Granada](/wiki/Ford_Granada_%28Europe%29 "Ford Granada (Europe)")) were chosen for their support and range of adjustment. Unlike its fully instrumented European competitors, the wood\-trimmed dashboard of the Monarch was only equipped with three instruments – a speedometer, fuel gauge, and a clock – along with a suite of warning lights.[Dinkel, John (August 1974\)](/wiki/%23JD74 "#JD74"), [p. 39](http://www.lincolnversailles.com/Granada/RT_FG5.htm)
File:Mercury Monarch (9176751234\) (cropped).jpg\|1975\-1978 Mercury Monarch coupe
File:Mercury Monarch (9174540991\) (cropped).jpg\|1975\-1978 Mercury Monarch coupe
File:Nationale oldtimerdag Zandvoort 2010, 1979 MERCURY MONARCH, 58\-TP\-GS.JPG\|1978–1980 Mercury Monarch sedan
File:Mercury Monarch (4498148677\).jpg\|1978–1980 Mercury Monarch sedan
File:Mercury Monarch (9174536515\).jpg\|Grille and hood ornament
### Trim
At its launch, the Monarch was available in two trim levels: base and Ghia. For 1977, the two\-door coupe was produced in an S (Sports Coupe) trim. For 1978 and 1979, the ESS (European Sports Sedan) trim was available, distinguished by blacked\-out exterior trim.
#### Grand Monarch Ghia
[thumb\|right\|1975 Mercury Grand Monarch Ghia](/wiki/File:1975_Mercury_Monarch_GHIA%2C_Dutch_licence_registration_43-FV-BH.JPG "1975 Mercury Monarch GHIA, Dutch licence registration 43-FV-BH.JPG")
The **Mercury Grand Monarch Ghia** was offered from 1975 to 1976, marketed as the highest\-trim version of the Monarch. Adopting many features shared with the larger Marquis and [Grand Marquis](/wiki/Mercury_Grand_Marquis "Mercury Grand Marquis"), the Grand Monarch Ghia offered a sophisticated central hydraulic power system and four\-wheel disc brakes not used on the standard Monarch or Granada. According to the May 1976 edition of *[Car and Driver](/wiki/Car_and_Driver "Car and Driver")*, three out of five of Ford top executives, including [Henry Ford II](/wiki/Henry_Ford_II "Henry Ford II"), used the Mercury Grand Monarch Ghia as their personal car.
Other standard Grand Monarch Ghia features included:
* [Leather](/wiki/Leather "Leather") trim
* [Vinyl roof](/wiki/Vinyl_roof "Vinyl roof")
* [LCD](/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display "Liquid crystal display") [clock](/wiki/Clock "Clock")
* Leather\-wrapped [steering wheel](/wiki/Steering_wheel "Steering wheel")
* [Power steering](/wiki/Power_steering "Power steering")
* Dual map lights
* Illuminated visor vanity mirror (passenger side)
* 14\-inch [cast\-aluminum spoke wheels](/wiki/Alloy_wheels "Alloy wheels")
* [Solid\-state ignition](/wiki/Ignition_system%23Electronic_systems "Ignition system#Electronic systems")
* [Whitewall](/wiki/Whitewall "Whitewall") [steel\-belted radial tires](/wiki/Radial_tire "Radial tire")
* Reclining [bucket seats](/wiki/Bucket_seats "Bucket seats") with matching map pockets
* Plusher carpeting and soundproofing
[thumb\|1977 Lincoln Versailles (successor to Grand Monarch Ghia)](/wiki/File:1977_Lincoln_Versailles_sedan_%2817533947738%29.jpg "1977 Lincoln Versailles sedan (17533947738).jpg")
For 1977, the Grand Monarch Ghia was withdrawn and repackaged as the [Lincoln Versailles](/wiki/Lincoln_Versailles "Lincoln Versailles"). Intended as a response to the [Cadillac Seville](/wiki/Cadillac_Seville "Cadillac Seville"), the Versailles adopted much of the content of the Grand Monarch Ghia with a slightly restyled exterior. Among the most controversial examples of [badge engineering](/wiki/Rebadging "Rebadging") in the American automotive industry, the Lincoln Versailles was withdrawn during the 1980 model year.
|
[
"Overview\n--------",
"### Chassis",
"As with the Ford Granada, the Mercury Monarch shared its unibody chassis with its Ford Maverick/Mercury Comet predecessors. Based heavily on the first\\-generation Ford Falcon from 1960, the design utilized coil spring front suspension with a leaf\\-sprung live rear axle; due to its Falcon origins, the Monarch was also loosely mechanically related to the first\\-generation Ford Mustang and Mercury Cougar.",
"The base engine was a [{{convert\\|200\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}](/wiki/Ford_straight-six_engine \"Ford straight-six engine\") inline six\\-cylinder engine, with a {{convert\\|250\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} [inline six](/wiki/Straight-6 \"Straight-6\") optional. [V8](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\") power came from one of two options: the {{convert\\|302\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} or {{convert\\|351\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} [Windsor](/wiki/Ford_Windsor_engine \"Ford Windsor engine\") engines.",
"### Body",
"Although originally developed to become a new Mercury Comet, the Mercury Monarch was differentiated from the Comet produced alongside it in a number of ways. Using the [Mercedes\\-Benz 280](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_W114 \"Mercedes-Benz W114\") as a benchmark for its styling and interior packaging,{{Cite magazine \\| ref \\= JD74 \\| url\\=http://www.lincolnversailles.com/Granada/RT\\_FG2\\.htm \\| via \\= Lincoln Versailles Web Site \\| title \\= Technical Analysis: Ford Granada \\& Mercury Monarch: The European influence was strong \\| page \\= 36 \\| magazine \\= \\[\\[Road \\& Track]] \\| first \\= John \\| last \\= Dinkel \\| date \\= August 1974 }} the Monarch abandoned the [Coke bottle styling](/wiki/Coke_bottle_styling \"Coke bottle styling\") of the Comet for straighter\\-edged body panels. In the front, the Monarch adapted much of the styling of Mercury's large full size Marquis (with the exception of single exposed headlights). While the roofline of the four\\-door model was heavily influenced by Mercedes\\-Benz, the two\\-door was given its own roofline with vertical [opera windows](/wiki/Opera_window \"Opera window\"). The rear featured horizontal wrap\\-around taillamps with amber reflectors and a color\\-keyed decorative trim panel with a fuel filler door.",
"In 1978, the Monarch underwent an exterior facelift; the headlamps were converted from round to rectangular, with the turn signals moved under the headlamps. The taillamps were revised to all red lenses and the center rear trim panel was changed to a new design with an argent finish on base models or a matching red reflector on top trim levels.",
"On the inside, in contrast from other Lincoln\\-Mercury cars, the Monarch was equipped with front bucket seats. While a feature associated with sporty cars at the time, the individual seats (from the [European Ford Granada](/wiki/Ford_Granada_%28Europe%29 \"Ford Granada (Europe)\")) were chosen for their support and range of adjustment. Unlike its fully instrumented European competitors, the wood\\-trimmed dashboard of the Monarch was only equipped with three instruments – a speedometer, fuel gauge, and a clock – along with a suite of warning lights.[Dinkel, John (August 1974\\)](/wiki/%23JD74 \"#JD74\"), [p. 39](http://www.lincolnversailles.com/Granada/RT_FG5.htm)",
"",
"File:Mercury Monarch (9176751234\\) (cropped).jpg\\|1975\\-1978 Mercury Monarch coupe\nFile:Mercury Monarch (9174540991\\) (cropped).jpg\\|1975\\-1978 Mercury Monarch coupe\nFile:Nationale oldtimerdag Zandvoort 2010, 1979 MERCURY MONARCH, 58\\-TP\\-GS.JPG\\|1978–1980 Mercury Monarch sedan\nFile:Mercury Monarch (4498148677\\).jpg\\|1978–1980 Mercury Monarch sedan\nFile:Mercury Monarch (9174536515\\).jpg\\|Grille and hood ornament",
"",
"### Trim",
"At its launch, the Monarch was available in two trim levels: base and Ghia. For 1977, the two\\-door coupe was produced in an S (Sports Coupe) trim. For 1978 and 1979, the ESS (European Sports Sedan) trim was available, distinguished by blacked\\-out exterior trim.",
"#### Grand Monarch Ghia",
"[thumb\\|right\\|1975 Mercury Grand Monarch Ghia](/wiki/File:1975_Mercury_Monarch_GHIA%2C_Dutch_licence_registration_43-FV-BH.JPG \"1975 Mercury Monarch GHIA, Dutch licence registration 43-FV-BH.JPG\")\nThe **Mercury Grand Monarch Ghia** was offered from 1975 to 1976, marketed as the highest\\-trim version of the Monarch. Adopting many features shared with the larger Marquis and [Grand Marquis](/wiki/Mercury_Grand_Marquis \"Mercury Grand Marquis\"), the Grand Monarch Ghia offered a sophisticated central hydraulic power system and four\\-wheel disc brakes not used on the standard Monarch or Granada. According to the May 1976 edition of *[Car and Driver](/wiki/Car_and_Driver \"Car and Driver\")*, three out of five of Ford top executives, including [Henry Ford II](/wiki/Henry_Ford_II \"Henry Ford II\"), used the Mercury Grand Monarch Ghia as their personal car.",
"Other standard Grand Monarch Ghia features included:",
"* [Leather](/wiki/Leather \"Leather\") trim\n* [Vinyl roof](/wiki/Vinyl_roof \"Vinyl roof\")\n* [LCD](/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display \"Liquid crystal display\") [clock](/wiki/Clock \"Clock\")\n* Leather\\-wrapped [steering wheel](/wiki/Steering_wheel \"Steering wheel\")\n* [Power steering](/wiki/Power_steering \"Power steering\")\n* Dual map lights\n* Illuminated visor vanity mirror (passenger side)\n* 14\\-inch [cast\\-aluminum spoke wheels](/wiki/Alloy_wheels \"Alloy wheels\")\n* [Solid\\-state ignition](/wiki/Ignition_system%23Electronic_systems \"Ignition system#Electronic systems\")\n* [Whitewall](/wiki/Whitewall \"Whitewall\") [steel\\-belted radial tires](/wiki/Radial_tire \"Radial tire\")\n* Reclining [bucket seats](/wiki/Bucket_seats \"Bucket seats\") with matching map pockets\n* Plusher carpeting and soundproofing",
"[thumb\\|1977 Lincoln Versailles (successor to Grand Monarch Ghia)](/wiki/File:1977_Lincoln_Versailles_sedan_%2817533947738%29.jpg \"1977 Lincoln Versailles sedan (17533947738).jpg\")\nFor 1977, the Grand Monarch Ghia was withdrawn and repackaged as the [Lincoln Versailles](/wiki/Lincoln_Versailles \"Lincoln Versailles\"). Intended as a response to the [Cadillac Seville](/wiki/Cadillac_Seville \"Cadillac Seville\"), the Versailles adopted much of the content of the Grand Monarch Ghia with a slightly restyled exterior. Among the most controversial examples of [badge engineering](/wiki/Rebadging \"Rebadging\") in the American automotive industry, the Lincoln Versailles was withdrawn during the 1980 model year.",
""
] |
Races
-----
### Macau Grand Prix (1964–)
{{See also\|List of Macau Grand Prix winners}}
The title race was first held in 1954 as a [sports car](/wiki/Sports_car "Sports car") race. In 1961, it switched to [Formula Libre](/wiki/Formula_Libre "Formula Libre") regulations until 1974, when [Formula Pacific](/wiki/Formula_Pacific "Formula Pacific") became the rule. [1983](/wiki/1983_Macau_Grand_Prix "1983 Macau Grand Prix") was a start of the new era with the introduction of the [Formula 3](/wiki/Formula_Three "Formula Three"), which attracted drivers from European Formula 3 championships and the [Japanese Formula 3 Championship](/wiki/Japanese_Formula_3_Championship "Japanese Formula 3 Championship").
[2019](/wiki/2019_Macau_Grand_Prix "2019 Macau Grand Prix") introduced the [Dallara F3 2019](/wiki/Dallara_F3_2019 "Dallara F3 2019") machinery, with the entrants—all of them from the [FIA Formula 3 Championship](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_Championship "FIA Formula 3 Championship")—using equal cars and engines for the first time.
[thumb\|[Dallara F3 2019](/wiki/Dallara_F3_2019 "Dallara F3 2019") in the 70th Macau Grand Prix](/wiki/File:70th_MACAU_GRAND_PRIX_%28104%29.jpg "70th MACAU GRAND PRIX (104).jpg")
In [2020](/wiki/2020_Macau_Grand_Prix "2020 Macau Grand Prix"), [2021](/wiki/2021_Macau_Grand_Prix "2021 Macau Grand Prix") and [2022](/wiki/2022_Macau_Grand_Prix "2022 Macau Grand Prix"), the title race was run as a part of [China's Formula 4 championship](/wiki/F4_Chinese_Championship "F4 Chinese Championship") with exclusively local drivers and teams, as the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic") forced travel restrictions on international [FIA F3](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_Championship "FIA Formula 3 Championship") drivers and teams.
For 2024, the race returned to the 1983–2018 format of [Formula Regional](/wiki/Formula_Regional "Formula Regional") where drivers of various European, North American, and Asian Formula Regional championships are eligible to participate.
International and national series to include the race:
* 1977 – 1982: Formula Pacific Championship{{Which\|date\=September 2024}}
* 2004 – 2010: FIA Intercontinental Formula 3 Cup
* 2011: [FIA Formula 3 International Trophy](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_International_Trophy "FIA Formula 3 International Trophy") \& FIA Intercontinental Formula 3 Cup
* 2012 – 2014: FIA Intercontinental Formula 3 Cup
* 2015: FIA Formula 3 Intercontinental Cup
* 2016 – 2019: FIA Formula 3 World Cup
* 2020 – 2022: [F4 Chinese Championship](/wiki/F4_Chinese_Championship "F4 Chinese Championship")
* 2023: FIA Formula 3 World Cup
* 2024: FIA Formula Regional World Cup
### Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix (1967–)
{{Split section\|Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix \|discuss\=Talk:Macau Grand Prix\#Split/merge into other articles \|date\=April 2024}}
[thumb\|[Ian Lougher](/wiki/Ian_Lougher "Ian Lougher") at the [2006 Macau Grand Prix](/wiki/2006_Macau_Grand_Prix "2006 Macau Grand Prix")](/wiki/File:Ian_Lougher_at_the_40th_Macau_Motorcycle_Grand_Prix_in_2006.jpg "Ian Lougher at the 40th Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix in 2006.jpg")
Macau is a special event for motorcycle riders. The Motorcycle Grand Prix has featured notable top\-level riders, with winners of the race including MotoGP World Champion [Kevin Schwantz](/wiki/Kevin_Schwantz "Kevin Schwantz"), Superbike World Champion [Carl Fogarty](/wiki/Carl_Fogarty "Carl Fogarty"), notable MotoGP rider [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam "Ron Haslam") and Isle of Man legends [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)"), [Michael Dunlop](/wiki/Michael_Dunlop "Michael Dunlop"), and [John McGuinness](/wiki/John_McGuinness_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "John McGuinness (motorcycle racer)"). Because of the street circuit nature, the course is closer to the legendary British open\-road races than a regulation MotoGP circuit.
In 2014, the award\-winning documentary [Macau Gladiators](/wiki/Macau_Gladiators "Macau Gladiators") by German director [Andreas Knuffmann](/wiki/Andreas_Knuffmann "Andreas Knuffmann") appeared.*[Macao Gladiators](https://www.autentic-distribution.com/66/pid/186/Macao-Gladiators.htm)*, facts about the movie. The movie is about the 2013 edition of the Motorcycle Grand Prix and followed the Team of [Frank Heidger](/wiki/Frank_Heidger "Frank Heidger") with the German [Didier Grams](/wiki/Didier_Grams "Didier Grams") (8th place) and his Belgian teammate [Marc Fistette](/wiki/Marc_Fistette "Marc Fistette") (DNF).
| \+ Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix Winners |
| --- |
| Year | Motorcycle GP Winner | Bike | Tyres | Report |
| 1967 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Hiroshi Hasegawa](/wiki/Hiroshi_Hasegawa "Hiroshi Hasegawa") | [Yamaha RD56](/wiki/Yamaha_RD56 "Yamaha RD56") | | |
| 1968 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Hiroshi Hasegawa](/wiki/Hiroshi_Hasegawa "Hiroshi Hasegawa") | Yamaha 250 | | |
| 1969 | {{flagicon\|HKG\|1959}} [John MacDonald](/wiki/John_MacDonald_%28racing_driver%29 "John MacDonald (racing driver)") | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company "Yamaha Motor Company") | | |
| 1970 | {{flagicon\|IDN}} [Benny Hidayat](/wiki/Benny_Hidayat "Benny Hidayat") | [Yamaha YR1](/wiki/Yamaha_YR1 "Yamaha YR1") | | |
| 1971 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Akiyasu Motohashi](/wiki/Akiyasu_Motohashi "Akiyasu Motohashi") | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company "Yamaha Motor Company") | | |
| 1972 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} {{Interlanguage link\|Ikujiro Takai\|ja\|3\=隅谷守男}} | [Yamaha TR3](/wiki/Yamaha_R5 "Yamaha R5") | | |
| 1973 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} {{Interlanguage link\|Ken Araoka\|ja\|3\=安良岡健}} | [Suzuki RG500](/wiki/Suzuki_RG500 "Suzuki RG500") | | |
| 1974 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} {{Interlanguage link\|Hiroyuki Kawasaki\|ja\|3\=河崎裕之}} | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company "Yamaha Motor Company") | | |
| 1975 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Hideo Kanaya](/wiki/Hideo_Kanaya "Hideo Kanaya") | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company "Yamaha Motor Company") | | |
| 1976 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Chas Mortimer](/wiki/Chas_Mortimer "Chas Mortimer") | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company "Yamaha Motor Company") | | |
| 1977 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Mick Grant](/wiki/Mick_Grant "Mick Grant") | [Kawasaki KR750](/wiki/Kawasaki_KR750 "Kawasaki KR750") | | |
| 1978 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Sadao Asami](/wiki/Sadao_Asami "Sadao Asami") | [Yamaha TZ750](/wiki/Yamaha_TZ750 "Yamaha TZ750") | | |
| 1979 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Sadao Asami](/wiki/Sadao_Asami "Sadao Asami") | [Yamaha TZ750](/wiki/Yamaha_TZ750 "Yamaha TZ750") | | |
| 1980 | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Sadao Asami](/wiki/Sadao_Asami "Sadao Asami") | [Yamaha TZ750](/wiki/Yamaha_TZ750 "Yamaha TZ750") | | |
| 1981 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam "Ron Haslam") | [Honda RS1123](/wiki/Honda_RS1123 "Honda RS1123") | | |
| 1982 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam "Ron Haslam") | [Honda RS1123](/wiki/Honda_RS1123 "Honda RS1123") | | |
| 1983 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam "Ron Haslam") | [Honda NS500](/wiki/Honda_NS500 "Honda NS500") | | |
| 1984 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Mick Grant](/wiki/Mick_Grant "Mick Grant") | [Suzuki RGB500](/wiki/Suzuki_RGB500 "Suzuki RGB500") | | |
| 1985 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam "Ron Haslam") | [Honda RS500](/wiki/Honda_RS500 "Honda RS500") | Dunlop | |
| 1986 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam "Ron Haslam") | {{Ill\|Elf racing motorcycles\|lt\=Elf\-Honda 3\|fr\|Elf (constructeur de motos)\|de\|Elf\-Rennmaschine}} | Dunlop | |
| 1987 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam "Ron Haslam") | {{Ill\|Elf racing motorcycles\|lt\=ROC Elf\-Honda 4\|fr\|Elf (constructeur de motos)\|de\|Elf\-Rennmaschine}} | Michelin | |
| 1988 | {{flagicon\|USA}} [Kevin Schwantz](/wiki/Kevin_Schwantz "Kevin Schwantz") | [Suzuki RGV500](/wiki/Suzuki_RGV500 "Suzuki RGV500") | [Michelin](/wiki/Michelin "Michelin") | |
| 1989 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Robert Dunlop](/wiki/Robert_Dunlop "Robert Dunlop") | [Honda RC30](/wiki/Honda_RC30 "Honda RC30") | | |
| 1990 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Steve Hislop](/wiki/Steve_Hislop "Steve Hislop") | [Honda RC30](/wiki/Honda_RC30 "Honda RC30") | | |
| 1991 | {{flagicon\|BEL}} [Didier de Radiguès](/wiki/Didier_de_Radigu%C3%A8s "Didier de Radiguès") | [Suzuki RGV500](/wiki/Suzuki_RGV500 "Suzuki RGV500") | Dunlop | |
| 1992 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Carl Fogarty](/wiki/Carl_Fogarty "Carl Fogarty") | [Harris Yamaha 500](/wiki/Harris_Yamaha_500 "Harris Yamaha 500") | Dunlop | |
| 1993 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Steve Hislop](/wiki/Steve_Hislop "Steve Hislop") | [ROC Yamaha 500](/wiki/ROC_Yamaha_500 "ROC Yamaha 500") | | |
| 1994 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Steve Hislop](/wiki/Steve_Hislop "Steve Hislop") | [Harris Yamaha 500](/wiki/Harris_Yamaha_500 "Harris Yamaha 500") | | |
| 1995 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Mike Edwards](/wiki/Mike_Edwards_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Mike Edwards (motorcycle racer)") | [ROC Yamaha 500](/wiki/ROC_Yamaha_500 "ROC Yamaha 500") | Michelin | |
| 1996 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Phillip McCallen](/wiki/Phillip_McCallen "Phillip McCallen") | [Yamaha YZR500](/wiki/Yamaha_YZR500 "Yamaha YZR500") | Michelin | |
| 1997 | {{flagicon\|CHE}} {{Interlanguage link\|Andreas Hofmann (motorcycle racer)\|lt\=Andreas Hofmann\|de\|Andreas Hofmann (Rennfahrer)}} | [Kawasaki Ninja ZX\-7R](/wiki/Kawasaki_Ninja_ZX-7R "Kawasaki Ninja ZX-7R") | Michelin | |
| 1998 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | [Honda RVF750 RC45](/wiki/Honda_RVF750_RC45 "Honda RVF750 RC45") | | |
| 1999 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [David Jefferies](/wiki/David_Jefferies "David Jefferies") | [Yamaha YZF\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 "Yamaha YZF-R1") | | |
| 2000 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | [Yamaha YZF\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 "Yamaha YZF-R1") | [Dunlop](/wiki/Dunlop_Tyres "Dunlop Tyres") | |
| 2001 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [John McGuinness](/wiki/John_McGuinness_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "John McGuinness (motorcycle racer)") | [Honda CBR954RR](/wiki/Honda_Fireblade%232002_CBR954RR "Honda Fireblade#2002 CBR954RR") | Dunlop | |
| 2002 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | [Ducati 998](/wiki/Ducati_998 "Ducati 998") | Dunlop | |
| 2003 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | [Ducati 998](/wiki/Ducati_998 "Ducati 998") | Dunlop | |
| 2004 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR "Honda CBR1000RR") | Michelin | |
| 2005 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR "Honda CBR1000RR") | Michelin | |
| 2006 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Steve Plater](/wiki/Steve_Plater "Steve Plater") | [Yamaha YZF\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 "Yamaha YZF-R1") | Dunlop | |
| 2007 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Steve Plater](/wiki/Steve_Plater "Steve Plater") | [Yamaha YZF\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 "Yamaha YZF-R1") | Dunlop | |
| 2008 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Stuart Easton](/wiki/Stuart_Easton "Stuart Easton") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR "Honda CBR1000RR") | [Pirelli](/wiki/Pirelli "Pirelli") | |
| 2009 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Stuart Easton](/wiki/Stuart_Easton "Stuart Easton") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR "Honda CBR1000RR") | Pirelli | |
| 2010 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Stuart Easton](/wiki/Stuart_Easton "Stuart Easton") | [Kawasaki Ninja ZX\-10R](/wiki/Kawasaki_Ninja_ZX-10R "Kawasaki Ninja ZX-10R") | Pirelli | |
| 2011 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | [Ducati 1098](/wiki/Ducati_1098 "Ducati 1098") | Pirelli | |
| 2012 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR "Honda CBR1000RR") | Pirelli | |
| 2013 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Ian Hutchinson](/wiki/Ian_Hutchinson_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Ian Hutchinson (motorcycle racer)") | [Yamaha YZF\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 "Yamaha YZF-R1") | Dunlop | |
| 2014 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Stuart Easton](/wiki/Stuart_Easton "Stuart Easton") | [Kawasaki ZX\-10R](/wiki/Kawasaki_ZX-10R "Kawasaki ZX-10R") | [Metzeler](/wiki/Metzeler "Metzeler") | |
| 2015 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Peter Hickman](/wiki/Peter_Hickman "Peter Hickman") | [BMW S1000RR](/wiki/BMW_S1000RR "BMW S1000RR") | Dunlop | |
| 2016 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Peter Hickman](/wiki/Peter_Hickman "Peter Hickman") | [BMW S1000RR](/wiki/BMW_S1000RR "BMW S1000RR") | Metzeler | |
| 2017 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Glenn Irwin](/wiki/Glenn_Irwin "Glenn Irwin") | [Ducati 1199RS](/wiki/Ducati_1199 "Ducati 1199") | Metzeler | |
| 2018 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Peter Hickman](/wiki/Peter_Hickman "Peter Hickman") | [BMW S1000RR](/wiki/BMW_S1000RR "BMW S1000RR") | Dunlop | |
| 2019 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 "Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)") | {{Ill\|Honda RC213V\-S\|de\|4\=nl}} | Metzeler | |
| 2020–2021 | *Not held due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic")*{{cite news\|last\=Alladin\|first\=Unus\|title\=Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix cancelled as pandemic bites hard on showpiece two\-wheel race\|url\=https://www.scmp.com/sport/motorsport/article/3108976/macau\-motorcycle\-grand\-prix\-cancelled\-pandemic\-bites\-hard\|work\=\[\[South China Morning Post]]\|date\=8 November 2020\|access\-date\=23 June 2023}}{{cite web\|last\=Barstow\|first\=Ollie\|title\=Macau Grand Prix Motorcycle Race Left Off 2021 Schedule Again\|url\=https://www.visordown.com/news/general/macau\-grand\-prix\-motorcycle\-race\-left\-2021\-schedule\-again\|publisher\=Visordown\|date\=29 October 2021\|access\-date\=23 June 2023}} | | | | |
| 2022 | {{flagicon\|FIN}} {{Ill\|Erno Kostamo\|fi}} | [BMW S1000RR](/wiki/BMW_S1000RR "BMW S1000RR") | Metzeler | |
| 2023 | {{flagicon\|GBR}} [Peter Hickman](/wiki/Peter_Hickman "Peter Hickman") | BMW M1000RR | Dunlop | |
{{center\|Source:{{cite web\|title\=Motorcycle Grand Prix Winners\|url\=https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=motogp\&year\=1960\|publisher\=Macau Grand Prix Committee\|pages\=\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=motogp\&year\=1970 2], \[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=motogp\&year\=1980 3], \[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=motogp\&year\=1990 4], \[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=motogp\&year\=2000 5], \[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=motogp\&year\=2010 6], \[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=motogp\&year\=2020 7]\|access\-date\=23 June 2023}}}}
### Macau Guia Race (1972–)
{{Merge to \|Guia Race of Macau \|discuss\=Talk:Macau Grand Prix\#Split/merge into other articles \|section\=yes \|date\=April 2024 }}
{{main\|Guia Race of Macau}}
[thumb\|left\|[Franz Engstler](/wiki/Franz_Engstler "Franz Engstler") in action at the 2002 Guia Race](/wiki/File:No_29_Franz_Engstler_BMW_at_Lisboa.JPG "No 29 Franz Engstler BMW at Lisboa.JPG")
The first [Guia Race](/wiki/Macau_Guia_Race "Macau Guia Race") for touring cars was held in 1972\. The event was notable in that very few touring car races were held on street circuits at the time. From 2005 to 2014, the race became the final two rounds of the [FIA](/wiki/FIA "FIA") [World Touring Car Championship](/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Championship "World Touring Car Championship"). In 2015 and 2016, the category was replaced by the [TCR International Series](/wiki/TCR_International_Series "TCR International Series"). [WTCC](/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Championship "World Touring Car Championship") then returned as the Suncity Group Macau Guia Race in 2017\. From 2018 to 2019, the races were replaced by the new [FIA](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile "Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile") [World Touring Car Cup](/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Cup "World Touring Car Cup"). Since then, Macau had never held any rounds of the [WTCR](/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Cup "World Touring Car Cup") anymore due to the [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") pandemic. The Macau Guia Race was replaced by the [TCR Asia Challenge](/wiki/TCR_Asia_Challenge "TCR Asia Challenge") in 2022\. The local pandemic was over at the beginning of 2023, which made international racers and teams be able to compete there again. The 2023 [Macau Guia Race](/wiki/Macau_Guia_Race "Macau Guia Race") was held by the Kumho [TCR World Tour](/wiki/TCR_World_Tour "TCR World Tour").
Starting from 2008, the Macau Touring Car Cup was added in the calendar. It has been the final round of the [China Touring Car Championship](/wiki/China_Touring_Car_Championship "China Touring Car Championship") since 2022\.
* Held races (including title sponsors)
+ 1972 – 1993: Guia Race of Macau
+ 1994: Guia Race of Macau – Asia\-Pacific Touring Car Championship
+ 1995 – 1999: Guia Race of Macau
+ 2000: Guia Race – Asia Touring Car Series
+ 2001: STDM Guia Race
+ 2002 – 2003: SJM Guia Race
+ 2004: SJM Guia Race – Worldwide Touring Car
+ 2005: FIA WTCC LG – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by SJM
+ 2006: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by SJM
+ 2007: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau
+ 2008: FIA WTCC Canon – Guia Race of Macau
+ 2009: FIA WTCC Marriott – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by SJM
+ 2010 – 2012: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau Presented by SJM
+ 2013: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by Star River．Windsor Arch
+ 2014: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by Suncity Group
+ 2015 – 2016: Suncity Group Macau Guia Race 2\.0T
+ 2017: Suncity Group Macau Guia Race – FIA WTCC
+ 2018 – 2019: Suncity Group Macau Guia Race – FIA WTCR
+ 2020: Macau Guia Race
+ 2021: Galaxy Entertainment Macau Guia Race
+ 2022: Wynn Macau Guia Race – TCR Asia Challenge
+ 2023: Macau Guia Race – Kumho TCR World Tour
### Macau Touring Car Cup (2008–)
* Held races (including title sponsors)
+ 2008 – 2013: CTM Macau Touring Car Race
+ 2014 – 2017: CTM Macau Touring Car Cup
+ 2018 – 2019: FOOD4U Macau Touring Car Cup
+ 2020: Macau Touring Car Cup
+ 2021: Melco Macau Touring Car Cup
+ 2022: MGM Macau Touring Car Cup – China Touring Car Championship
+ 2023: Macau Touring Car Cup – China Touring Car Championship
### Macau GT Cup (2008–)
{{Split section\|Macau GT Cup \|discuss\=Talk:Macau Grand Prix\#Split/merge into other articles \|date\=April 2024}}
The Macau GT Cup was added in 2008, and has been one of the most important supporting races of the Grand Prix since then.
The FIA GT World Cup is a race for [GT3\-spec cars](/wiki/Group_GT3 "Group GT3"), organized by the [Stéphane Ratel Organisation](/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Ratel_Organisation "Stéphane Ratel Organisation") (SRO) and the [Automobile General Association Macau\-China](/wiki/Automobile_General_Association_Macau-China "Automobile General Association Macau-China") (AAMC). The event was confirmed by the [FIA](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile "Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile") at the [World Motor Sport Council](/wiki/FIA_World_Motor_Sport_Council "FIA World Motor Sport Council") in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva") on 20 March 2015\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.motorsport.com/gt/news/gt\-world\-cup\-in\-macau\-confirmed/?s\=1\&q\=fia\+gt\+world\+cup\|title\=GT World Cup in Macau confirmed\|work\=Motorsport.com\|publisher\=Smith, Sam\|date\=March 21, 2015\|access\-date\=November 22, 2015}} The winning driver of the event is the winning driver of the Main Race, but the award for the FIA GT World Cup for Manufacturers is presented to the manufacturer supplying the cars with a manufacturer entry with the highest number of points after addition of the points of its two best cars awarded according to the result of the Main Race.
[thumb\|[Lamborghini Gallardo GT3](/wiki/Lamborghini_Gallardo_GT3 "Lamborghini Gallardo GT3") in the 2010 Macau GT Cup](/wiki/File:2010_Macau_Grand_Prix_2839_%286708054227%29.jpg "2010 Macau Grand Prix 2839 (6708054227).jpg")
Starting in 2017, there is an age limit for drivers; drivers may be no older than 59 years 364 days, as bronze\-level drivers are prohibited from participation. (Under FIA driver grading rules, any driver over 60 is a bronze driver, regardless of his accomplishments).
In 2020 to 2022, the Macau GT Cups were not held by SRO as a part of FIA GT World Cup due to the local pandemic of [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19"). FIA GT World Cup returned in 2023\.
In 2018 the *Greater Bay Area Lotus Cup* was added to the GP events. This was a single make race with all competitors driving a [Lotus Exige](/wiki/Lotus_Exige "Lotus Exige"). The race was a joint promotion between Automobile General Association Macao\-China (AAMC), Hong Kong Automobile Association (HKAA) and Zhuhai Motorsports Association. The drivers were from Hong Kong, Macau and mainland China.{{cite news \|last1\=Marques \|first1\=Renato \|title\=Preview {{!}} Greater Bay Area Lotus Cup to make GP debut \|url\=https://macaudailytimes.com.mo/preview\-greater\-bay\-area\-lotus\-cup\-to\-make\-gp\-debut.html \|work\=\[\[Macau Daily Times]] \|date\=14 November 2018}}
Except the Macau GT Cup, the Greater Bay Area GT Cup has been on the calendar since 2019, which replaced the Greater Bay Area Lotus Cup. The race includes talented GT drivers mainly from the [Greater Bay Area](/wiki/Greater_Bay_Area "Greater Bay Area"). In 2023, it was separated as the GT3 and GT4 Cups.
* Held races (including title sponsors)
+ 2008 – 2010: Macau GT Cup
+ 2011: Windsor Arch Macau GT Cup
+ 2012 – 2013: City of Dreams Macau GT Cup
+ 2014: Macau GT Cup
+ 2015 – 2019: SJM Macau GT Cup – FIA GT World Cup
+ 2020: Macau GT Cup
+ 2021: Sands China Macau GT Cup
+ 2022: Galaxy Entertainment Macau GT Cup
+ 2023: Macau GT Cup – FIA GT World Cup
| \+ Winners | Year | Winning Driver | Winning Manufacturer | Car |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Macau GT Cup | | | |
| [2008](/wiki/2008_GT_Asia_Series "2008 GT Asia Series") | {{flagicon\|HKG}} [Darryl O'Young](/wiki/Darryl_O%27Young "Darryl O'Young") | *not applicable* | [Porsche 997 GT3](/wiki/Porsche_997_GT3 "Porsche 997 GT3") Cup |
| [2009](/wiki/2009_GT_Asia_Series "2009 GT Asia Series") | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Keita Sawa](/wiki/Keita_Sawa "Keita Sawa") | [Lamborghini Gallardo GT3](/wiki/Lamborghini_Gallardo_GT3 "Lamborghini Gallardo GT3") |
| [2010](/wiki/2010_GT_Asia_Series "2010 GT Asia Series") | {{flagicon\|JPN}} [Keita Sawa](/wiki/Keita_Sawa "Keita Sawa") | [Lamborghini Gallardo GT3](/wiki/Lamborghini_Gallardo_GT3 "Lamborghini Gallardo GT3") |
| [2011](/wiki/2011_GT_Asia_Series "2011 GT Asia Series") | {{flagicon\|CHE}} [Edoardo Mortara](/wiki/Edoardo_Mortara "Edoardo Mortara") | [Audi R8 LMS GT3](/wiki/Audi_R8_LMS_GT3 "Audi R8 LMS GT3") |
| [2012](/wiki/2012_GT_Asia_Series "2012 GT Asia Series") | {{flagicon\|CHE}} [Edoardo Mortara](/wiki/Edoardo_Mortara "Edoardo Mortara") | [Audi R8 LMS GT3](/wiki/Audi_R8_LMS_GT3 "Audi R8 LMS GT3") |
| [2013](/wiki/2013_GT_Asia_Series "2013 GT Asia Series") | {{flagicon\|CHE}} [Edoardo Mortara](/wiki/Edoardo_Mortara "Edoardo Mortara") | [Audi R8 LMS GT3](/wiki/Audi_R8_LMS_GT3 "Audi R8 LMS GT3") |
| [2014](/wiki/2014_GT_Asia_Series "2014 GT Asia Series") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [Maro Engel](/wiki/Maro_Engel "Maro Engel") | [Mercedes\-Benz SLS AMG](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_SLS_AMG "Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG") GT3 |
| FIA GT World Cup | | | |
| [2015](/wiki/2015_FIA_GT_World_Cup "2015 FIA GT World Cup") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [Maro Engel](/wiki/Maro_Engel "Maro Engel") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") | [Mercedes\-Benz SLS AMG](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_SLS_AMG "Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG") GT3 |
| [2016](/wiki/2016_FIA_GT_World_Cup "2016 FIA GT World Cup") | {{flagicon\|BEL}} [Laurens Vanthoor](/wiki/Laurens_Vanthoor "Laurens Vanthoor") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [Audi](/wiki/Audi "Audi"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.fia.com/news/fia\-gt\-world\-cup\-won\-driver\-his\-roof\|title\=FIA GT World Cup won by driver on his roof\|date\=20 November 2016}} | [Audi R8 LMS](/wiki/Audi_R8%23Second_generation_.282015.E2.80.93present.29 "Audi R8#Second generation .282015.E2.80.93present.29") |
| [2017](/wiki/2017_FIA_GT_World_Cup "2017 FIA GT World Cup") | {{flagicon\|CHE}} [Edoardo Mortara](/wiki/Edoardo_Mortara "Edoardo Mortara") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") | [Mercedes\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport "Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport") |
| [2018](/wiki/2018_FIA_GT_World_Cup "2018 FIA GT World Cup") | {{flagicon\|BRA}} [Augusto Farfus](/wiki/Augusto_Farfus "Augusto Farfus") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [BMW](/wiki/BMW "BMW") | [BMW M6 GT3](/wiki/BMW_Motorsport "BMW Motorsport") |
| [2019](/wiki/2019_FIA_GT_World_Cup "2019 FIA GT World Cup") | {{flagicon\|SUI}} [Raffaele Marciello](/wiki/Raffaele_Marciello "Raffaele Marciello") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") | [Mercedes\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport "Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport") |
| Macau GT Cup | | | |
| [2020](/wiki/2020_Macau_GT_Cup "2020 Macau GT Cup") | {{flagicon\|CHN}} [Ye Hongli](/wiki/Ye_Hongli "Ye Hongli") | *not applicable* | [Mercedes\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport "Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport") |
| [2021](/wiki/2021_Macau_GT_Cup "2021 Macau GT Cup") | {{flagicon\|HKG}} [Darryl O'Young](/wiki/Darryl_O%27Young "Darryl O'Young") | [Mercedes\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport "Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport") |
| [2022](/wiki/2022_Macau_GT_Cup "2022 Macau GT Cup") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [Maro Engel](/wiki/Maro_Engel "Maro Engel") | [Mercedes\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport "Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport") |
| FIA GT World Cup | | | |
| [2023](/wiki/2023_FIA_GT_World_Cup "2023 FIA GT World Cup") | {{flagicon\|SUI}} [Raffaele Marciello](/wiki/Raffaele_Marciello "Raffaele Marciello") | {{flagicon\|DEU}} [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") | [Mercedes\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport "Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport") |
{{center\|Source:{{cite web\|title\=Macau GT Cup Winners\|url\=https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=gt\&year\=2000\|publisher\=Macau Grand Prix Committee\|pages\=\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=gt\&year\=2010 2], \[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\-us/past\-winners?id\=gt\&year\=2020 3]\|access\-date\=23 June 2023}}}}
### Greater Bay Area GT Cup (2018–)
* Held races (including title sponsors)
+ 2018: Suncity Group Greater Bay Area Lotus Cup
+ 2019: Suncity Group Greater Bay Area GT Cup
+ 2020: Greater Bay Area GT Cup
+ 2021: MGM Greater Bay Area GT Cup
+ 2022: Melco Greater Bay Area GT Cup
+ 2023: Greater Bay Area GT Cup (GT3 \& GT4\)
|
[
"Races\n-----",
"### Macau Grand Prix (1964–)",
"{{See also\\|List of Macau Grand Prix winners}}\nThe title race was first held in 1954 as a [sports car](/wiki/Sports_car \"Sports car\") race. In 1961, it switched to [Formula Libre](/wiki/Formula_Libre \"Formula Libre\") regulations until 1974, when [Formula Pacific](/wiki/Formula_Pacific \"Formula Pacific\") became the rule. [1983](/wiki/1983_Macau_Grand_Prix \"1983 Macau Grand Prix\") was a start of the new era with the introduction of the [Formula 3](/wiki/Formula_Three \"Formula Three\"), which attracted drivers from European Formula 3 championships and the [Japanese Formula 3 Championship](/wiki/Japanese_Formula_3_Championship \"Japanese Formula 3 Championship\").",
"[2019](/wiki/2019_Macau_Grand_Prix \"2019 Macau Grand Prix\") introduced the [Dallara F3 2019](/wiki/Dallara_F3_2019 \"Dallara F3 2019\") machinery, with the entrants—all of them from the [FIA Formula 3 Championship](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_Championship \"FIA Formula 3 Championship\")—using equal cars and engines for the first time.",
"[thumb\\|[Dallara F3 2019](/wiki/Dallara_F3_2019 \"Dallara F3 2019\") in the 70th Macau Grand Prix](/wiki/File:70th_MACAU_GRAND_PRIX_%28104%29.jpg \"70th MACAU GRAND PRIX (104).jpg\")",
"In [2020](/wiki/2020_Macau_Grand_Prix \"2020 Macau Grand Prix\"), [2021](/wiki/2021_Macau_Grand_Prix \"2021 Macau Grand Prix\") and [2022](/wiki/2022_Macau_Grand_Prix \"2022 Macau Grand Prix\"), the title race was run as a part of [China's Formula 4 championship](/wiki/F4_Chinese_Championship \"F4 Chinese Championship\") with exclusively local drivers and teams, as the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\") forced travel restrictions on international [FIA F3](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_Championship \"FIA Formula 3 Championship\") drivers and teams.",
"For 2024, the race returned to the 1983–2018 format of [Formula Regional](/wiki/Formula_Regional \"Formula Regional\") where drivers of various European, North American, and Asian Formula Regional championships are eligible to participate.",
"International and national series to include the race:\n* 1977 – 1982: Formula Pacific Championship{{Which\\|date\\=September 2024}}\n* 2004 – 2010: FIA Intercontinental Formula 3 Cup\n* 2011: [FIA Formula 3 International Trophy](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_International_Trophy \"FIA Formula 3 International Trophy\") \\& FIA Intercontinental Formula 3 Cup\n* 2012 – 2014: FIA Intercontinental Formula 3 Cup\n* 2015: FIA Formula 3 Intercontinental Cup\n* 2016 – 2019: FIA Formula 3 World Cup\n* 2020 – 2022: [F4 Chinese Championship](/wiki/F4_Chinese_Championship \"F4 Chinese Championship\")\n* 2023: FIA Formula 3 World Cup\n* 2024: FIA Formula Regional World Cup",
"### Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix (1967–)",
"{{Split section\\|Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix \\|discuss\\=Talk:Macau Grand Prix\\#Split/merge into other articles \\|date\\=April 2024}}\n[thumb\\|[Ian Lougher](/wiki/Ian_Lougher \"Ian Lougher\") at the [2006 Macau Grand Prix](/wiki/2006_Macau_Grand_Prix \"2006 Macau Grand Prix\")](/wiki/File:Ian_Lougher_at_the_40th_Macau_Motorcycle_Grand_Prix_in_2006.jpg \"Ian Lougher at the 40th Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix in 2006.jpg\")\nMacau is a special event for motorcycle riders. The Motorcycle Grand Prix has featured notable top\\-level riders, with winners of the race including MotoGP World Champion [Kevin Schwantz](/wiki/Kevin_Schwantz \"Kevin Schwantz\"), Superbike World Champion [Carl Fogarty](/wiki/Carl_Fogarty \"Carl Fogarty\"), notable MotoGP rider [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam \"Ron Haslam\") and Isle of Man legends [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\"), [Michael Dunlop](/wiki/Michael_Dunlop \"Michael Dunlop\"), and [John McGuinness](/wiki/John_McGuinness_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"John McGuinness (motorcycle racer)\"). Because of the street circuit nature, the course is closer to the legendary British open\\-road races than a regulation MotoGP circuit.",
"In 2014, the award\\-winning documentary [Macau Gladiators](/wiki/Macau_Gladiators \"Macau Gladiators\") by German director [Andreas Knuffmann](/wiki/Andreas_Knuffmann \"Andreas Knuffmann\") appeared.*[Macao Gladiators](https://www.autentic-distribution.com/66/pid/186/Macao-Gladiators.htm)*, facts about the movie. The movie is about the 2013 edition of the Motorcycle Grand Prix and followed the Team of [Frank Heidger](/wiki/Frank_Heidger \"Frank Heidger\") with the German [Didier Grams](/wiki/Didier_Grams \"Didier Grams\") (8th place) and his Belgian teammate [Marc Fistette](/wiki/Marc_Fistette \"Marc Fistette\") (DNF).",
"",
"| \\+ Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix Winners |\n| --- |\n| Year | Motorcycle GP Winner | Bike | Tyres | Report |\n| 1967 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Hiroshi Hasegawa](/wiki/Hiroshi_Hasegawa \"Hiroshi Hasegawa\") | [Yamaha RD56](/wiki/Yamaha_RD56 \"Yamaha RD56\") | | |\n| 1968 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Hiroshi Hasegawa](/wiki/Hiroshi_Hasegawa \"Hiroshi Hasegawa\") | Yamaha 250 | | |\n| 1969 | {{flagicon\\|HKG\\|1959}} [John MacDonald](/wiki/John_MacDonald_%28racing_driver%29 \"John MacDonald (racing driver)\") | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company \"Yamaha Motor Company\") | | |\n| 1970 | {{flagicon\\|IDN}} [Benny Hidayat](/wiki/Benny_Hidayat \"Benny Hidayat\") | [Yamaha YR1](/wiki/Yamaha_YR1 \"Yamaha YR1\") | | |\n| 1971 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Akiyasu Motohashi](/wiki/Akiyasu_Motohashi \"Akiyasu Motohashi\") | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company \"Yamaha Motor Company\") | | |\n| 1972 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} {{Interlanguage link\\|Ikujiro Takai\\|ja\\|3\\=隅谷守男}} | [Yamaha TR3](/wiki/Yamaha_R5 \"Yamaha R5\") | | |\n| 1973 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} {{Interlanguage link\\|Ken Araoka\\|ja\\|3\\=安良岡健}} | [Suzuki RG500](/wiki/Suzuki_RG500 \"Suzuki RG500\") | | |\n| 1974 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} {{Interlanguage link\\|Hiroyuki Kawasaki\\|ja\\|3\\=河崎裕之}} | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company \"Yamaha Motor Company\") | | |\n| 1975 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Hideo Kanaya](/wiki/Hideo_Kanaya \"Hideo Kanaya\") | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company \"Yamaha Motor Company\") | | |\n| 1976 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Chas Mortimer](/wiki/Chas_Mortimer \"Chas Mortimer\") | [Yamaha](/wiki/Yamaha_Motor_Company \"Yamaha Motor Company\") | | |\n| 1977 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Mick Grant](/wiki/Mick_Grant \"Mick Grant\") | [Kawasaki KR750](/wiki/Kawasaki_KR750 \"Kawasaki KR750\") | | |\n| 1978 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Sadao Asami](/wiki/Sadao_Asami \"Sadao Asami\") | [Yamaha TZ750](/wiki/Yamaha_TZ750 \"Yamaha TZ750\") | | |\n| 1979 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Sadao Asami](/wiki/Sadao_Asami \"Sadao Asami\") | [Yamaha TZ750](/wiki/Yamaha_TZ750 \"Yamaha TZ750\") | | |\n| 1980 | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Sadao Asami](/wiki/Sadao_Asami \"Sadao Asami\") | [Yamaha TZ750](/wiki/Yamaha_TZ750 \"Yamaha TZ750\") | | |\n| 1981 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam \"Ron Haslam\") | [Honda RS1123](/wiki/Honda_RS1123 \"Honda RS1123\") | | |\n| 1982 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam \"Ron Haslam\") | [Honda RS1123](/wiki/Honda_RS1123 \"Honda RS1123\") | | |\n| 1983 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam \"Ron Haslam\") | [Honda NS500](/wiki/Honda_NS500 \"Honda NS500\") | | |\n| 1984 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Mick Grant](/wiki/Mick_Grant \"Mick Grant\") | [Suzuki RGB500](/wiki/Suzuki_RGB500 \"Suzuki RGB500\") | | |\n| 1985 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam \"Ron Haslam\") | [Honda RS500](/wiki/Honda_RS500 \"Honda RS500\") | Dunlop | |\n| 1986 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam \"Ron Haslam\") | {{Ill\\|Elf racing motorcycles\\|lt\\=Elf\\-Honda 3\\|fr\\|Elf (constructeur de motos)\\|de\\|Elf\\-Rennmaschine}} | Dunlop | |\n| 1987 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Ron Haslam](/wiki/Ron_Haslam \"Ron Haslam\") | {{Ill\\|Elf racing motorcycles\\|lt\\=ROC Elf\\-Honda 4\\|fr\\|Elf (constructeur de motos)\\|de\\|Elf\\-Rennmaschine}} | Michelin | |\n| 1988 | {{flagicon\\|USA}} [Kevin Schwantz](/wiki/Kevin_Schwantz \"Kevin Schwantz\") | [Suzuki RGV500](/wiki/Suzuki_RGV500 \"Suzuki RGV500\") | [Michelin](/wiki/Michelin \"Michelin\") | |\n| 1989 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Robert Dunlop](/wiki/Robert_Dunlop \"Robert Dunlop\") | [Honda RC30](/wiki/Honda_RC30 \"Honda RC30\") | | |\n| 1990 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Steve Hislop](/wiki/Steve_Hislop \"Steve Hislop\") | [Honda RC30](/wiki/Honda_RC30 \"Honda RC30\") | | |\n| 1991 | {{flagicon\\|BEL}} [Didier de Radiguès](/wiki/Didier_de_Radigu%C3%A8s \"Didier de Radiguès\") | [Suzuki RGV500](/wiki/Suzuki_RGV500 \"Suzuki RGV500\") | Dunlop | |\n| 1992 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Carl Fogarty](/wiki/Carl_Fogarty \"Carl Fogarty\") | [Harris Yamaha 500](/wiki/Harris_Yamaha_500 \"Harris Yamaha 500\") | Dunlop | |\n| 1993 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Steve Hislop](/wiki/Steve_Hislop \"Steve Hislop\") | [ROC Yamaha 500](/wiki/ROC_Yamaha_500 \"ROC Yamaha 500\") | | |\n| 1994 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Steve Hislop](/wiki/Steve_Hislop \"Steve Hislop\") | [Harris Yamaha 500](/wiki/Harris_Yamaha_500 \"Harris Yamaha 500\") | | |\n| 1995 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Mike Edwards](/wiki/Mike_Edwards_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Mike Edwards (motorcycle racer)\") | [ROC Yamaha 500](/wiki/ROC_Yamaha_500 \"ROC Yamaha 500\") | Michelin | |\n| 1996 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Phillip McCallen](/wiki/Phillip_McCallen \"Phillip McCallen\") | [Yamaha YZR500](/wiki/Yamaha_YZR500 \"Yamaha YZR500\") | Michelin | |\n| 1997 | {{flagicon\\|CHE}} {{Interlanguage link\\|Andreas Hofmann (motorcycle racer)\\|lt\\=Andreas Hofmann\\|de\\|Andreas Hofmann (Rennfahrer)}} | [Kawasaki Ninja ZX\\-7R](/wiki/Kawasaki_Ninja_ZX-7R \"Kawasaki Ninja ZX-7R\") | Michelin | |\n| 1998 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | [Honda RVF750 RC45](/wiki/Honda_RVF750_RC45 \"Honda RVF750 RC45\") | | |\n| 1999 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [David Jefferies](/wiki/David_Jefferies \"David Jefferies\") | [Yamaha YZF\\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 \"Yamaha YZF-R1\") | | |\n| 2000 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | [Yamaha YZF\\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 \"Yamaha YZF-R1\") | [Dunlop](/wiki/Dunlop_Tyres \"Dunlop Tyres\") | |\n| 2001 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [John McGuinness](/wiki/John_McGuinness_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"John McGuinness (motorcycle racer)\") | [Honda CBR954RR](/wiki/Honda_Fireblade%232002_CBR954RR \"Honda Fireblade#2002 CBR954RR\") | Dunlop | |\n| 2002 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | [Ducati 998](/wiki/Ducati_998 \"Ducati 998\") | Dunlop | |\n| 2003 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | [Ducati 998](/wiki/Ducati_998 \"Ducati 998\") | Dunlop | |\n| 2004 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR \"Honda CBR1000RR\") | Michelin | |\n| 2005 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR \"Honda CBR1000RR\") | Michelin | |\n| 2006 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Steve Plater](/wiki/Steve_Plater \"Steve Plater\") | [Yamaha YZF\\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 \"Yamaha YZF-R1\") | Dunlop | |\n| 2007 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Steve Plater](/wiki/Steve_Plater \"Steve Plater\") | [Yamaha YZF\\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 \"Yamaha YZF-R1\") | Dunlop | |\n| 2008 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Stuart Easton](/wiki/Stuart_Easton \"Stuart Easton\") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR \"Honda CBR1000RR\") | [Pirelli](/wiki/Pirelli \"Pirelli\") | |\n| 2009 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Stuart Easton](/wiki/Stuart_Easton \"Stuart Easton\") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR \"Honda CBR1000RR\") | Pirelli | |\n| 2010 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Stuart Easton](/wiki/Stuart_Easton \"Stuart Easton\") | [Kawasaki Ninja ZX\\-10R](/wiki/Kawasaki_Ninja_ZX-10R \"Kawasaki Ninja ZX-10R\") | Pirelli | |\n| 2011 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | [Ducati 1098](/wiki/Ducati_1098 \"Ducati 1098\") | Pirelli | |\n| 2012 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | [Honda CBR1000RR](/wiki/Honda_CBR1000RR \"Honda CBR1000RR\") | Pirelli | |\n| 2013 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Ian Hutchinson](/wiki/Ian_Hutchinson_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Ian Hutchinson (motorcycle racer)\") | [Yamaha YZF\\-R1](/wiki/Yamaha_YZF-R1 \"Yamaha YZF-R1\") | Dunlop | |\n| 2014 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Stuart Easton](/wiki/Stuart_Easton \"Stuart Easton\") | [Kawasaki ZX\\-10R](/wiki/Kawasaki_ZX-10R \"Kawasaki ZX-10R\") | [Metzeler](/wiki/Metzeler \"Metzeler\") | |\n| 2015 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Peter Hickman](/wiki/Peter_Hickman \"Peter Hickman\") | [BMW S1000RR](/wiki/BMW_S1000RR \"BMW S1000RR\") | Dunlop | |\n| 2016 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Peter Hickman](/wiki/Peter_Hickman \"Peter Hickman\") | [BMW S1000RR](/wiki/BMW_S1000RR \"BMW S1000RR\") | Metzeler | |\n| 2017 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Glenn Irwin](/wiki/Glenn_Irwin \"Glenn Irwin\") | [Ducati 1199RS](/wiki/Ducati_1199 \"Ducati 1199\") | Metzeler | |\n| 2018 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Peter Hickman](/wiki/Peter_Hickman \"Peter Hickman\") | [BMW S1000RR](/wiki/BMW_S1000RR \"BMW S1000RR\") | Dunlop | |\n| 2019 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Michael Rutter](/wiki/Michael_Rutter_%28motorcycle_racer%29 \"Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer)\") | {{Ill\\|Honda RC213V\\-S\\|de\\|4\\=nl}} | Metzeler | |\n| 2020–2021 | *Not held due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\")*{{cite news\\|last\\=Alladin\\|first\\=Unus\\|title\\=Macau Motorcycle Grand Prix cancelled as pandemic bites hard on showpiece two\\-wheel race\\|url\\=https://www.scmp.com/sport/motorsport/article/3108976/macau\\-motorcycle\\-grand\\-prix\\-cancelled\\-pandemic\\-bites\\-hard\\|work\\=\\[\\[South China Morning Post]]\\|date\\=8 November 2020\\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2023}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Barstow\\|first\\=Ollie\\|title\\=Macau Grand Prix Motorcycle Race Left Off 2021 Schedule Again\\|url\\=https://www.visordown.com/news/general/macau\\-grand\\-prix\\-motorcycle\\-race\\-left\\-2021\\-schedule\\-again\\|publisher\\=Visordown\\|date\\=29 October 2021\\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2023}} | | | | |\n| 2022 | {{flagicon\\|FIN}} {{Ill\\|Erno Kostamo\\|fi}} | [BMW S1000RR](/wiki/BMW_S1000RR \"BMW S1000RR\") | Metzeler | |\n| 2023 | {{flagicon\\|GBR}} [Peter Hickman](/wiki/Peter_Hickman \"Peter Hickman\") | BMW M1000RR | Dunlop | |",
"{{center\\|Source:{{cite web\\|title\\=Motorcycle Grand Prix Winners\\|url\\=https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=motogp\\&year\\=1960\\|publisher\\=Macau Grand Prix Committee\\|pages\\=\\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=motogp\\&year\\=1970 2], \\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=motogp\\&year\\=1980 3], \\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=motogp\\&year\\=1990 4], \\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=motogp\\&year\\=2000 5], \\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=motogp\\&year\\=2010 6], \\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=motogp\\&year\\=2020 7]\\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2023}}}}",
"### Macau Guia Race (1972–)",
"{{Merge to \\|Guia Race of Macau \\|discuss\\=Talk:Macau Grand Prix\\#Split/merge into other articles \\|section\\=yes \\|date\\=April 2024 }}\n{{main\\|Guia Race of Macau}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Franz Engstler](/wiki/Franz_Engstler \"Franz Engstler\") in action at the 2002 Guia Race](/wiki/File:No_29_Franz_Engstler_BMW_at_Lisboa.JPG \"No 29 Franz Engstler BMW at Lisboa.JPG\")",
"The first [Guia Race](/wiki/Macau_Guia_Race \"Macau Guia Race\") for touring cars was held in 1972\\. The event was notable in that very few touring car races were held on street circuits at the time. From 2005 to 2014, the race became the final two rounds of the [FIA](/wiki/FIA \"FIA\") [World Touring Car Championship](/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Championship \"World Touring Car Championship\"). In 2015 and 2016, the category was replaced by the [TCR International Series](/wiki/TCR_International_Series \"TCR International Series\"). [WTCC](/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Championship \"World Touring Car Championship\") then returned as the Suncity Group Macau Guia Race in 2017\\. From 2018 to 2019, the races were replaced by the new [FIA](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile \"Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile\") [World Touring Car Cup](/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Cup \"World Touring Car Cup\"). Since then, Macau had never held any rounds of the [WTCR](/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Cup \"World Touring Car Cup\") anymore due to the [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\") pandemic. The Macau Guia Race was replaced by the [TCR Asia Challenge](/wiki/TCR_Asia_Challenge \"TCR Asia Challenge\") in 2022\\. The local pandemic was over at the beginning of 2023, which made international racers and teams be able to compete there again. The 2023 [Macau Guia Race](/wiki/Macau_Guia_Race \"Macau Guia Race\") was held by the Kumho [TCR World Tour](/wiki/TCR_World_Tour \"TCR World Tour\").",
"Starting from 2008, the Macau Touring Car Cup was added in the calendar. It has been the final round of the [China Touring Car Championship](/wiki/China_Touring_Car_Championship \"China Touring Car Championship\") since 2022\\.",
"* Held races (including title sponsors)\n\t+ 1972 – 1993: Guia Race of Macau\n\t+ 1994: Guia Race of Macau – Asia\\-Pacific Touring Car Championship\n\t+ 1995 – 1999: Guia Race of Macau\n\t+ 2000: Guia Race – Asia Touring Car Series\n\t+ 2001: STDM Guia Race\n\t+ 2002 – 2003: SJM Guia Race\n\t+ 2004: SJM Guia Race – Worldwide Touring Car\n\t+ 2005: FIA WTCC LG – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by SJM\n\t+ 2006: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by SJM\n\t+ 2007: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau\n\t+ 2008: FIA WTCC Canon – Guia Race of Macau\n\t+ 2009: FIA WTCC Marriott – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by SJM\n\t+ 2010 – 2012: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau Presented by SJM\n\t+ 2013: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by Star River．Windsor Arch\n\t+ 2014: FIA WTCC – Guia Race of Macau – Presented by Suncity Group\n\t+ 2015 – 2016: Suncity Group Macau Guia Race 2\\.0T\n\t+ 2017: Suncity Group Macau Guia Race – FIA WTCC\n\t+ 2018 – 2019: Suncity Group Macau Guia Race – FIA WTCR\n\t+ 2020: Macau Guia Race\n\t+ 2021: Galaxy Entertainment Macau Guia Race\n\t+ 2022: Wynn Macau Guia Race – TCR Asia Challenge\n\t+ 2023: Macau Guia Race – Kumho TCR World Tour",
"### Macau Touring Car Cup (2008–)",
"* Held races (including title sponsors)\n\t+ 2008 – 2013: CTM Macau Touring Car Race\n\t+ 2014 – 2017: CTM Macau Touring Car Cup\n\t+ 2018 – 2019: FOOD4U Macau Touring Car Cup\n\t+ 2020: Macau Touring Car Cup\n\t+ 2021: Melco Macau Touring Car Cup\n\t+ 2022: MGM Macau Touring Car Cup – China Touring Car Championship\n\t+ 2023: Macau Touring Car Cup – China Touring Car Championship",
"### Macau GT Cup (2008–)",
"{{Split section\\|Macau GT Cup \\|discuss\\=Talk:Macau Grand Prix\\#Split/merge into other articles \\|date\\=April 2024}}\nThe Macau GT Cup was added in 2008, and has been one of the most important supporting races of the Grand Prix since then.",
"The FIA GT World Cup is a race for [GT3\\-spec cars](/wiki/Group_GT3 \"Group GT3\"), organized by the [Stéphane Ratel Organisation](/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Ratel_Organisation \"Stéphane Ratel Organisation\") (SRO) and the [Automobile General Association Macau\\-China](/wiki/Automobile_General_Association_Macau-China \"Automobile General Association Macau-China\") (AAMC). The event was confirmed by the [FIA](/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile \"Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile\") at the [World Motor Sport Council](/wiki/FIA_World_Motor_Sport_Council \"FIA World Motor Sport Council\") in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\") on 20 March 2015\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.motorsport.com/gt/news/gt\\-world\\-cup\\-in\\-macau\\-confirmed/?s\\=1\\&q\\=fia\\+gt\\+world\\+cup\\|title\\=GT World Cup in Macau confirmed\\|work\\=Motorsport.com\\|publisher\\=Smith, Sam\\|date\\=March 21, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2015}} The winning driver of the event is the winning driver of the Main Race, but the award for the FIA GT World Cup for Manufacturers is presented to the manufacturer supplying the cars with a manufacturer entry with the highest number of points after addition of the points of its two best cars awarded according to the result of the Main Race.\n[thumb\\|[Lamborghini Gallardo GT3](/wiki/Lamborghini_Gallardo_GT3 \"Lamborghini Gallardo GT3\") in the 2010 Macau GT Cup](/wiki/File:2010_Macau_Grand_Prix_2839_%286708054227%29.jpg \"2010 Macau Grand Prix 2839 (6708054227).jpg\")\nStarting in 2017, there is an age limit for drivers; drivers may be no older than 59 years 364 days, as bronze\\-level drivers are prohibited from participation. (Under FIA driver grading rules, any driver over 60 is a bronze driver, regardless of his accomplishments).",
"In 2020 to 2022, the Macau GT Cups were not held by SRO as a part of FIA GT World Cup due to the local pandemic of [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\"). FIA GT World Cup returned in 2023\\.",
"In 2018 the *Greater Bay Area Lotus Cup* was added to the GP events. This was a single make race with all competitors driving a [Lotus Exige](/wiki/Lotus_Exige \"Lotus Exige\"). The race was a joint promotion between Automobile General Association Macao\\-China (AAMC), Hong Kong Automobile Association (HKAA) and Zhuhai Motorsports Association. The drivers were from Hong Kong, Macau and mainland China.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Marques \\|first1\\=Renato \\|title\\=Preview {{!}} Greater Bay Area Lotus Cup to make GP debut \\|url\\=https://macaudailytimes.com.mo/preview\\-greater\\-bay\\-area\\-lotus\\-cup\\-to\\-make\\-gp\\-debut.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[Macau Daily Times]] \\|date\\=14 November 2018}}",
"Except the Macau GT Cup, the Greater Bay Area GT Cup has been on the calendar since 2019, which replaced the Greater Bay Area Lotus Cup. The race includes talented GT drivers mainly from the [Greater Bay Area](/wiki/Greater_Bay_Area \"Greater Bay Area\"). In 2023, it was separated as the GT3 and GT4 Cups.\n* Held races (including title sponsors)\n\t+ 2008 – 2010: Macau GT Cup\n\t+ 2011: Windsor Arch Macau GT Cup\n\t+ 2012 – 2013: City of Dreams Macau GT Cup\n\t+ 2014: Macau GT Cup\n\t+ 2015 – 2019: SJM Macau GT Cup – FIA GT World Cup\n\t+ 2020: Macau GT Cup\n\t+ 2021: Sands China Macau GT Cup\n\t+ 2022: Galaxy Entertainment Macau GT Cup\n\t+ 2023: Macau GT Cup – FIA GT World Cup",
"",
"| \\+ Winners | Year | Winning Driver | Winning Manufacturer | Car |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Macau GT Cup | | | |\n| [2008](/wiki/2008_GT_Asia_Series \"2008 GT Asia Series\") | {{flagicon\\|HKG}} [Darryl O'Young](/wiki/Darryl_O%27Young \"Darryl O'Young\") | *not applicable* | [Porsche 997 GT3](/wiki/Porsche_997_GT3 \"Porsche 997 GT3\") Cup |\n| [2009](/wiki/2009_GT_Asia_Series \"2009 GT Asia Series\") | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Keita Sawa](/wiki/Keita_Sawa \"Keita Sawa\") | [Lamborghini Gallardo GT3](/wiki/Lamborghini_Gallardo_GT3 \"Lamborghini Gallardo GT3\") |\n| [2010](/wiki/2010_GT_Asia_Series \"2010 GT Asia Series\") | {{flagicon\\|JPN}} [Keita Sawa](/wiki/Keita_Sawa \"Keita Sawa\") | [Lamborghini Gallardo GT3](/wiki/Lamborghini_Gallardo_GT3 \"Lamborghini Gallardo GT3\") |\n| [2011](/wiki/2011_GT_Asia_Series \"2011 GT Asia Series\") | {{flagicon\\|CHE}} [Edoardo Mortara](/wiki/Edoardo_Mortara \"Edoardo Mortara\") | [Audi R8 LMS GT3](/wiki/Audi_R8_LMS_GT3 \"Audi R8 LMS GT3\") |\n| [2012](/wiki/2012_GT_Asia_Series \"2012 GT Asia Series\") | {{flagicon\\|CHE}} [Edoardo Mortara](/wiki/Edoardo_Mortara \"Edoardo Mortara\") | [Audi R8 LMS GT3](/wiki/Audi_R8_LMS_GT3 \"Audi R8 LMS GT3\") |\n| [2013](/wiki/2013_GT_Asia_Series \"2013 GT Asia Series\") | {{flagicon\\|CHE}} [Edoardo Mortara](/wiki/Edoardo_Mortara \"Edoardo Mortara\") | [Audi R8 LMS GT3](/wiki/Audi_R8_LMS_GT3 \"Audi R8 LMS GT3\") |\n| [2014](/wiki/2014_GT_Asia_Series \"2014 GT Asia Series\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [Maro Engel](/wiki/Maro_Engel \"Maro Engel\") | [Mercedes\\-Benz SLS AMG](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_SLS_AMG \"Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG\") GT3 |\n| FIA GT World Cup | | | |\n| [2015](/wiki/2015_FIA_GT_World_Cup \"2015 FIA GT World Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [Maro Engel](/wiki/Maro_Engel \"Maro Engel\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") | [Mercedes\\-Benz SLS AMG](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_SLS_AMG \"Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG\") GT3 |\n| [2016](/wiki/2016_FIA_GT_World_Cup \"2016 FIA GT World Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|BEL}} [Laurens Vanthoor](/wiki/Laurens_Vanthoor \"Laurens Vanthoor\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [Audi](/wiki/Audi \"Audi\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fia.com/news/fia\\-gt\\-world\\-cup\\-won\\-driver\\-his\\-roof\\|title\\=FIA GT World Cup won by driver on his roof\\|date\\=20 November 2016}} | [Audi R8 LMS](/wiki/Audi_R8%23Second_generation_.282015.E2.80.93present.29 \"Audi R8#Second generation .282015.E2.80.93present.29\") |\n| [2017](/wiki/2017_FIA_GT_World_Cup \"2017 FIA GT World Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|CHE}} [Edoardo Mortara](/wiki/Edoardo_Mortara \"Edoardo Mortara\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") | [Mercedes\\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport \"Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport\") |\n| [2018](/wiki/2018_FIA_GT_World_Cup \"2018 FIA GT World Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|BRA}} [Augusto Farfus](/wiki/Augusto_Farfus \"Augusto Farfus\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [BMW](/wiki/BMW \"BMW\") | [BMW M6 GT3](/wiki/BMW_Motorsport \"BMW Motorsport\") |\n| [2019](/wiki/2019_FIA_GT_World_Cup \"2019 FIA GT World Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|SUI}} [Raffaele Marciello](/wiki/Raffaele_Marciello \"Raffaele Marciello\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") | [Mercedes\\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport \"Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport\") |\n| Macau GT Cup | | | |\n| [2020](/wiki/2020_Macau_GT_Cup \"2020 Macau GT Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|CHN}} [Ye Hongli](/wiki/Ye_Hongli \"Ye Hongli\") | *not applicable* | [Mercedes\\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport \"Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport\") |\n| [2021](/wiki/2021_Macau_GT_Cup \"2021 Macau GT Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|HKG}} [Darryl O'Young](/wiki/Darryl_O%27Young \"Darryl O'Young\") | [Mercedes\\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport \"Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport\") |\n| [2022](/wiki/2022_Macau_GT_Cup \"2022 Macau GT Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [Maro Engel](/wiki/Maro_Engel \"Maro Engel\") | [Mercedes\\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport \"Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport\") |\n| FIA GT World Cup | | | |\n| [2023](/wiki/2023_FIA_GT_World_Cup \"2023 FIA GT World Cup\") | {{flagicon\\|SUI}} [Raffaele Marciello](/wiki/Raffaele_Marciello \"Raffaele Marciello\") | {{flagicon\\|DEU}} [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") | [Mercedes\\-AMG GT3](/wiki/Mercedes-AMG_GT%23Motorsport \"Mercedes-AMG GT#Motorsport\") |",
"{{center\\|Source:{{cite web\\|title\\=Macau GT Cup Winners\\|url\\=https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=gt\\&year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Macau Grand Prix Committee\\|pages\\=\\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=gt\\&year\\=2010 2], \\[https://www.macau.grandprix.gov.mo/en/about\\-us/past\\-winners?id\\=gt\\&year\\=2020 3]\\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2023}}}}",
"### Greater Bay Area GT Cup (2018–)",
"* Held races (including title sponsors)\n\t+ 2018: Suncity Group Greater Bay Area Lotus Cup\n\t+ 2019: Suncity Group Greater Bay Area GT Cup\n\t+ 2020: Greater Bay Area GT Cup\n\t+ 2021: MGM Greater Bay Area GT Cup\n\t+ 2022: Melco Greater Bay Area GT Cup\n\t+ 2023: Greater Bay Area GT Cup (GT3 \\& GT4\\)"
] |
History
-------
The title was created for the first time in 1658 in favour of [Donough MacCarty, 2nd Viscount Muskerry](/wiki/Donough_MacCarty%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clancarty "Donough MacCarty, 1st Earl of Clancarty"), of the [MacCarthy of Muskerry](/wiki/MacCarthy_of_Muskerry "MacCarthy of Muskerry") dynasty. He had earlier represented [County Cork](/wiki/County_Cork_%28Parliament_of_Ireland_constituency%29 "County Cork (Parliament of Ireland constituency)") in the [Irish House of Commons](/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons "Irish House of Commons"). Lord Clancarty had already been created a baronet in the [Baronetage of Nova Scotia](/wiki/Baronetage_of_Nova_Scotia "Baronetage of Nova Scotia") in {{circa\|1638}}, before he succeeded his father in the [viscountcy](/wiki/Viscount "Viscount"). The title of Viscount Muskerry had been created in the Peerage of Ireland in 1628 for his father [Charles MacCarthy](/wiki/Charles_MacCarthy%2C_1st_Viscount_Muskerry "Charles MacCarthy, 1st Viscount Muskerry"). The first Earl [Donough MacCarty](/wiki/Donough_MacCarty%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clancarty "Donough MacCarty, 1st Earl of Clancarty") was succeeded by his grandson Charles, the second Earl; he was the son of [Charles MacCarty, Viscount Muskerry](/wiki/Charles_MacCarty%2C_Viscount_Muskerry "Charles MacCarty, Viscount Muskerry"), who was killed during the [Second Anglo\-Dutch War](/wiki/Second_Anglo-Dutch_War "Second Anglo-Dutch War"). Charles, Lord Clancarty died as an infant and was succeeded by his uncle [Callaghan MacCarty](/wiki/Callaghan_MacCarty%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Clancarty "Callaghan MacCarty, 3rd Earl of Clancarty"), the third Earl. On his death the titles passed to his son [Donough MacCarty](/wiki/Donough_MacCarty%2C_4th_Earl_of_Clancarty "Donough MacCarty, 4th Earl of Clancarty"), the fourth Earl. He supported [King James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England "James II of England") and was attainted in 1691, with his titles forfeited. His son and heir apparent [Robert MacCarty, Viscount Muskerry](/wiki/Robert_MacCarty%2C_Viscount_Muskerry "Robert MacCarty, Viscount Muskerry"), served as [Governor of Newfoundland](/wiki/Governor_of_Newfoundland "Governor of Newfoundland") but was excepted from the [Indemnity Act 1747](/wiki/Indemnity_Act_1747 "Indemnity Act 1747"), which pardoned [Jacobites](/wiki/Jacobitism "Jacobitism").
The title was created for a second time in 1803 in favour of [William Trench, 1st Viscount Dunlo](/wiki/William_Trench%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clancarty "William Trench, 1st Earl of Clancarty").{{London Gazette \|issue\=15561 \|date\=26 February 1803 \|page\=205}} He had previously represented [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway_%28Parliament_of_Ireland_constituency%29 "County Galway (Parliament of Ireland constituency)") in the Irish Parliament and had already been created Baron Kilconnel, of Garbally in the County of Galway, in 1797,{{London Gazette \|issue\=14064 \|date\=11 November 1797 \|page\=1081}} and Viscount Dunlo, of Dunlo and Ballinasloe in the Counties of [Galway](/wiki/Galway "Galway") and [Roscommon](/wiki/Roscommon "Roscommon"), in 1801\.{{London Gazette \|issue\=15326 \|date\=6 January 1801 \|page\=40}} These titles were in the Peerage of Ireland. Trench was a descendant of a daughter of the first Viscount Muskerry, hence his choice of title when elevated to an earldom in 1803\. Lord Clancarty had nineteen children and was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Earl. He was a prominent politician and diplomat. Lord Clancarty notably served as [President of the Board of Trade](/wiki/President_of_the_Board_of_Trade "President of the Board of Trade") and as [Ambassador to The Netherlands](/wiki/British_Ambassador_to_the_Netherlands "British Ambassador to the Netherlands") and sat in the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords "House of Lords") as an [Irish representative peer](/wiki/List_of_Irish_representative_peers "List of Irish representative peers") from 1808 to 1837\. In 1815 he was created Baron Trench, of Garbally in the County of Galway, in the [Peerage of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Peerage_of_the_United_Kingdom "Peerage of the United Kingdom"),{{London Gazette \|issue\=17040 \|date\=15 July 1815 \|page\=1425}} and in 1823 he was further honoured when he was made Viscount Clancarty, of the County of Cork, also in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.{{London Gazette \|issue\=17976 \|date\=18 November 1823 \|page\=1933}} On 8 July 1815 he was entered into the [Netherlands Nobility](/wiki/Dutch_nobility "Dutch nobility") by [King William I of the Netherlands](/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands "William I of the Netherlands") and granted by Royal Decree the title [Marquess of Heusden](/wiki/Marquess_of_Heusden "Marquess of Heusden") ([Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_language "Dutch language"): *Markies van Heusden*).[Hoge Raad van Adel, Wet op Adeldom: 1 Aug 1994, art.1, Royal Decree (K.B. nr. 14 of 1815 to *the count Clancarty*)](http://www.hogeraadvanadel.nl/adeldom_wetopdeadeldom.php) By law, the only other non\-Netherlander to have been entered into the Netherlands Nobility was another Irishman [Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington") by Royal Decree nr. 13 of 8 July 1815, being granted by [William I of the Netherlands](/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands "William I of the Netherlands") the title *[prins van Waterloo](/wiki/Prins_van_Waterloo "Prins van Waterloo")* in reference to his successes as a Field Marshal in ending Napoleon's [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days "Hundred Days") campaign the previous month on 18 June 1815 near a village in Belgium that shares the name of the title bestowed upon him. Richard Trench, 2nd Earl Clancarty, had replaced the Duke of Wellington as the United Kingdom's representative at the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna") during the last few weeks when the latter was forced to leave Vienna to face [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") during the [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days "Hundred Days") campaign. The city of Heusden lies on the [Meuse](/wiki/Meuse "Meuse") ({{lang\-nl\|Maas}}) in the Province of [North Brabant](/wiki/North_Brabant "North Brabant"), which borders modern\-day Belgium in the southern Netherlands.
Lord Clancarty's great\-grandson, [the fifth Earl](/wiki/William_Trench%2C_5th_Earl_of_Clancarty "William Trench, 5th Earl of Clancarty"), is notable for marrying an English music\-hall singer Belle Bilton (1867–1906\)[Portrait of Belle Bilton in 1889](http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?search=as&grp=1096%3BSingers&lDate=&LinkID=mp52913&rNo=0&role=sit), NPG. Retrieved 30 November 2008\. She was Isabel Maud Penrice Bilton (1867 – d 31 December 1906\) in July 1889 against the opposition of his father who sold off much of the estate in retaliation. ["The Earl of Clancarty Dead: Viscount Dunlo, husband of Belle Bilton, now takes the title"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1891/05/30/103311734.pdf)*New York Times* 30 May 1891\. Retrieved 30 November 2008\. According to the article, her husband then Viscount Dunlo attempted to divorce her for adultery in July 1890, but the couple were reconciled in August 1890\.["BELLE BILTON DEAD.; Ex\-Actress's Husband, Earl of Clancarty, Was Disowned for Wedding Her."](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9906E1DC1331E733A25752C0A9679C946697D6CF) *New York Times* 1 January 1907\. The Countess, who had enjoyed the title since 1891, died at Garbaldy Park, Ballinasloe, County Galway, Ireland. The article notes that the 4th Earl had left all the unentailed property away from his son, but that the entailed property was sufficient for the needs of the new Earl and Countess.["Countess of Clancarty"](http://listsearches.rootsweb.com/th/read/IRELAND-OLD-NEWS/2003-08/1059777395) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821153924/http://listsearches.rootsweb.com/th/read/IRELAND\-OLD\-NEWS/2003\-08/1059777395 \|date\=21 August 2016 }} *Washington Post* 10 January 1905\. Retrieved 30 November 2008\. This mentions the Countess suffering from cancer, and her popularity among the tenantry and landed gentry. It also contains details of the 4th Earl's will:
> When the will was opened it was found that \[the 4th Earl] had left everything he possibly could away from his oldest son and heir, with whom he had been at daggers drawn since the divorce suit. The possession of the entailed estates, however, was sufficient to relieve Lady Dunlo, who had now become Countess of Clancarty, from any further necessity of remaining on the stage. A lawsuit was started by the new earl to upset his father's will, and ultimately a compromise was effected, whereby he recovered much of the nonentailed residuary property of his father.
Lord and Lady Clancarty have now four sons, the oldest of them twins, and a girl of eleven years of age. Their eldest boy bears the name of Lord Kilconnel. The countess, I may add, is likewise Marshioness Huesden, in the Netherlands.
```
The fifth Earl's eldest son, the sixth Earl, died without surviving male issue and was succeeded by his younger brother, the seventh Earl (the fourth son of the first marriage of the fifth Earl). He died childless and was succeeded by his half-brother, the
```
[eighth Earl](/wiki/Brinsley_Trench%2C_8th_Earl_of_Clancarty "Brinsley Trench, 8th Earl of Clancarty"). He was a [ufologist](/wiki/Ufology "Ufology"). {{As of\|2017}} the titles are held by his nephew, who succeeded in 1995\. He is the only son of the Hon. Power Edward Ford Le Poer Trench, second son of the fifth Earl from his second marriage. The Earl of Clancarty sat in the House of Lords as *Viscount Clancarty* until the passing of the [House of Lords Act 1999](/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999 "House of Lords Act 1999") and was re\-elected as a [Cross\-Bench](/wiki/Cross-Bench "Cross-Bench") Peer on 23 June 2010\.[Viscount Clancarty, TheyWorkForYou House of Lords, UK.](https://www.theyworkforyou.com/peer/viscount_clancarty)[Address by the Viscount Clancarty to the UK House of Lords upon the *"great privilege to have been returned to your Lordships' House following the recent Cross\-Bench by\-election"* HL Deb 22 July 2010 c1108\.](https://www.theyworkforyou.com/lords/?id=2010-07-22a.1094.1&s=speaker%3A24991#g1108.0)
Several other members of the Trench family have gained distinction. Eyre Trench, brother of the first Earl, was a [Lieutenant\-General](/wiki/Lieutenant-General "Lieutenant-General") in the Army. The Most Reverend the Hon. [Power Trench](/wiki/Power_Trench "Power Trench"), third son of the first Earl, was [Archbishop of Tuam](/wiki/Church_of_Ireland_Archdiocese_of_Tuam "Church of Ireland Archdiocese of Tuam"). The Hon. [William Le Poer Trench](/wiki/William_Le_Poer_Trench_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 "William Le Poer Trench (Royal Navy officer)"), fourth son of the first Earl, was a [Rear\-Admiral](/wiki/Rear-Admiral "Rear-Admiral") in the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"). The Venerable the Hon. [Charles Le Poer Trench](/wiki/Charles_Le_Poer_Trench "Charles Le Poer Trench"), fifth son of the first Earl, was [Archdeacon](/wiki/Archdeacon "Archdeacon") of [Ardagh](/wiki/Ardagh%2C_County_Longford "Ardagh, County Longford"). His son Henry Luke Trench was a [Major\-General](/wiki/Major-General "Major-General") in the [Bengal Staff Corps](/wiki/Bengal_Staff_Corps "Bengal Staff Corps"). The Hon. Sir Robert Le Poer Trench, ninth son of the first Earl, was a [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Colonel (United Kingdom)") in the Army and a [Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath "Order of the Bath"). The Hon. [William Le Poer Trench](/wiki/William_Le_Poer_Trench "William Le Poer Trench"), third son of the third Earl, was a Colonel in the [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers "Royal Engineers") and briefly represented [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "County Galway (UK Parliament constituency)") in the [House of Commons](/wiki/British_House_of_Commons "British House of Commons").
The Trench family claims French [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot "Huguenot") descent,[Stirnet: Trench01](http://www.stirnet.com/HTML/genie/british/tt/trench01.htm#top) (subscription required to view without interruption) although a Scottish origin is possible. The [Barons Ashtown](/wiki/Baron_Ashtown "Baron Ashtown") are members of another branch of the family. [William Trench, 1st Earl of Clancarty](/wiki/William_Trench%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clancarty "William Trench, 1st Earl of Clancarty"), was the great\-grandson of Frederick Trench, whose brother the Very Reverend [John Trench](/wiki/John_Trench "John Trench") was the great\-grandfather of [Frederick Trench, 1st Baron Ashtown](/wiki/Frederick_Trench%2C_1st_Baron_Ashtown "Frederick Trench, 1st Baron Ashtown").
[Trench Town](/wiki/Trench_Town "Trench Town") in Jamaica gets its name from its previous designation as Trench Pen, 400 acres of land once used for livestock by Daniel Power Trench, an [Irish immigrant](/wiki/Irish_diaspora "Irish diaspora") of the 18th century (descendants of the Earls of Clancarty).
The family seat was [Garbally Court](/wiki/Garbally_College "Garbally College"), near [Ballinasloe](/wiki/Ballinasloe "Ballinasloe"), [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway "County Galway").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The title was created for the first time in 1658 in favour of [Donough MacCarty, 2nd Viscount Muskerry](/wiki/Donough_MacCarty%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clancarty \"Donough MacCarty, 1st Earl of Clancarty\"), of the [MacCarthy of Muskerry](/wiki/MacCarthy_of_Muskerry \"MacCarthy of Muskerry\") dynasty. He had earlier represented [County Cork](/wiki/County_Cork_%28Parliament_of_Ireland_constituency%29 \"County Cork (Parliament of Ireland constituency)\") in the [Irish House of Commons](/wiki/Irish_House_of_Commons \"Irish House of Commons\"). Lord Clancarty had already been created a baronet in the [Baronetage of Nova Scotia](/wiki/Baronetage_of_Nova_Scotia \"Baronetage of Nova Scotia\") in {{circa\\|1638}}, before he succeeded his father in the [viscountcy](/wiki/Viscount \"Viscount\"). The title of Viscount Muskerry had been created in the Peerage of Ireland in 1628 for his father [Charles MacCarthy](/wiki/Charles_MacCarthy%2C_1st_Viscount_Muskerry \"Charles MacCarthy, 1st Viscount Muskerry\"). The first Earl [Donough MacCarty](/wiki/Donough_MacCarty%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clancarty \"Donough MacCarty, 1st Earl of Clancarty\") was succeeded by his grandson Charles, the second Earl; he was the son of [Charles MacCarty, Viscount Muskerry](/wiki/Charles_MacCarty%2C_Viscount_Muskerry \"Charles MacCarty, Viscount Muskerry\"), who was killed during the [Second Anglo\\-Dutch War](/wiki/Second_Anglo-Dutch_War \"Second Anglo-Dutch War\"). Charles, Lord Clancarty died as an infant and was succeeded by his uncle [Callaghan MacCarty](/wiki/Callaghan_MacCarty%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Clancarty \"Callaghan MacCarty, 3rd Earl of Clancarty\"), the third Earl. On his death the titles passed to his son [Donough MacCarty](/wiki/Donough_MacCarty%2C_4th_Earl_of_Clancarty \"Donough MacCarty, 4th Earl of Clancarty\"), the fourth Earl. He supported [King James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England \"James II of England\") and was attainted in 1691, with his titles forfeited. His son and heir apparent [Robert MacCarty, Viscount Muskerry](/wiki/Robert_MacCarty%2C_Viscount_Muskerry \"Robert MacCarty, Viscount Muskerry\"), served as [Governor of Newfoundland](/wiki/Governor_of_Newfoundland \"Governor of Newfoundland\") but was excepted from the [Indemnity Act 1747](/wiki/Indemnity_Act_1747 \"Indemnity Act 1747\"), which pardoned [Jacobites](/wiki/Jacobitism \"Jacobitism\").",
"The title was created for a second time in 1803 in favour of [William Trench, 1st Viscount Dunlo](/wiki/William_Trench%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clancarty \"William Trench, 1st Earl of Clancarty\").{{London Gazette \\|issue\\=15561 \\|date\\=26 February 1803 \\|page\\=205}} He had previously represented [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway_%28Parliament_of_Ireland_constituency%29 \"County Galway (Parliament of Ireland constituency)\") in the Irish Parliament and had already been created Baron Kilconnel, of Garbally in the County of Galway, in 1797,{{London Gazette \\|issue\\=14064 \\|date\\=11 November 1797 \\|page\\=1081}} and Viscount Dunlo, of Dunlo and Ballinasloe in the Counties of [Galway](/wiki/Galway \"Galway\") and [Roscommon](/wiki/Roscommon \"Roscommon\"), in 1801\\.{{London Gazette \\|issue\\=15326 \\|date\\=6 January 1801 \\|page\\=40}} These titles were in the Peerage of Ireland. Trench was a descendant of a daughter of the first Viscount Muskerry, hence his choice of title when elevated to an earldom in 1803\\. Lord Clancarty had nineteen children and was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Earl. He was a prominent politician and diplomat. Lord Clancarty notably served as [President of the Board of Trade](/wiki/President_of_the_Board_of_Trade \"President of the Board of Trade\") and as [Ambassador to The Netherlands](/wiki/British_Ambassador_to_the_Netherlands \"British Ambassador to the Netherlands\") and sat in the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords \"House of Lords\") as an [Irish representative peer](/wiki/List_of_Irish_representative_peers \"List of Irish representative peers\") from 1808 to 1837\\. In 1815 he was created Baron Trench, of Garbally in the County of Galway, in the [Peerage of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Peerage_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Peerage of the United Kingdom\"),{{London Gazette \\|issue\\=17040 \\|date\\=15 July 1815 \\|page\\=1425}} and in 1823 he was further honoured when he was made Viscount Clancarty, of the County of Cork, also in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.{{London Gazette \\|issue\\=17976 \\|date\\=18 November 1823 \\|page\\=1933}} On 8 July 1815 he was entered into the [Netherlands Nobility](/wiki/Dutch_nobility \"Dutch nobility\") by [King William I of the Netherlands](/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands \"William I of the Netherlands\") and granted by Royal Decree the title [Marquess of Heusden](/wiki/Marquess_of_Heusden \"Marquess of Heusden\") ([Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_language \"Dutch language\"): *Markies van Heusden*).[Hoge Raad van Adel, Wet op Adeldom: 1 Aug 1994, art.1, Royal Decree (K.B. nr. 14 of 1815 to *the count Clancarty*)](http://www.hogeraadvanadel.nl/adeldom_wetopdeadeldom.php) By law, the only other non\\-Netherlander to have been entered into the Netherlands Nobility was another Irishman [Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington \"Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\") by Royal Decree nr. 13 of 8 July 1815, being granted by [William I of the Netherlands](/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands \"William I of the Netherlands\") the title *[prins van Waterloo](/wiki/Prins_van_Waterloo \"Prins van Waterloo\")* in reference to his successes as a Field Marshal in ending Napoleon's [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days \"Hundred Days\") campaign the previous month on 18 June 1815 near a village in Belgium that shares the name of the title bestowed upon him. Richard Trench, 2nd Earl Clancarty, had replaced the Duke of Wellington as the United Kingdom's representative at the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\") during the last few weeks when the latter was forced to leave Vienna to face [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") during the [Hundred Days](/wiki/Hundred_Days \"Hundred Days\") campaign. The city of Heusden lies on the [Meuse](/wiki/Meuse \"Meuse\") ({{lang\\-nl\\|Maas}}) in the Province of [North Brabant](/wiki/North_Brabant \"North Brabant\"), which borders modern\\-day Belgium in the southern Netherlands.",
"Lord Clancarty's great\\-grandson, [the fifth Earl](/wiki/William_Trench%2C_5th_Earl_of_Clancarty \"William Trench, 5th Earl of Clancarty\"), is notable for marrying an English music\\-hall singer Belle Bilton (1867–1906\\)[Portrait of Belle Bilton in 1889](http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?search=as&grp=1096%3BSingers&lDate=&LinkID=mp52913&rNo=0&role=sit), NPG. Retrieved 30 November 2008\\. She was Isabel Maud Penrice Bilton (1867 – d 31 December 1906\\) in July 1889 against the opposition of his father who sold off much of the estate in retaliation. [\"The Earl of Clancarty Dead: Viscount Dunlo, husband of Belle Bilton, now takes the title\"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1891/05/30/103311734.pdf)*New York Times* 30 May 1891\\. Retrieved 30 November 2008\\. According to the article, her husband then Viscount Dunlo attempted to divorce her for adultery in July 1890, but the couple were reconciled in August 1890\\.[\"BELLE BILTON DEAD.; Ex\\-Actress's Husband, Earl of Clancarty, Was Disowned for Wedding Her.\"](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9906E1DC1331E733A25752C0A9679C946697D6CF) *New York Times* 1 January 1907\\. The Countess, who had enjoyed the title since 1891, died at Garbaldy Park, Ballinasloe, County Galway, Ireland. The article notes that the 4th Earl had left all the unentailed property away from his son, but that the entailed property was sufficient for the needs of the new Earl and Countess.[\"Countess of Clancarty\"](http://listsearches.rootsweb.com/th/read/IRELAND-OLD-NEWS/2003-08/1059777395) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821153924/http://listsearches.rootsweb.com/th/read/IRELAND\\-OLD\\-NEWS/2003\\-08/1059777395 \\|date\\=21 August 2016 }} *Washington Post* 10 January 1905\\. Retrieved 30 November 2008\\. This mentions the Countess suffering from cancer, and her popularity among the tenantry and landed gentry. It also contains details of the 4th Earl's will: \n> When the will was opened it was found that \\[the 4th Earl] had left everything he possibly could away from his oldest son and heir, with whom he had been at daggers drawn since the divorce suit. The possession of the entailed estates, however, was sufficient to relieve Lady Dunlo, who had now become Countess of Clancarty, from any further necessity of remaining on the stage. A lawsuit was started by the new earl to upset his father's will, and ultimately a compromise was effected, whereby he recovered much of the nonentailed residuary property of his father.",
"",
"Lord and Lady Clancarty have now four sons, the oldest of them twins, and a girl of eleven years of age. Their eldest boy bears the name of Lord Kilconnel. The countess, I may add, is likewise Marshioness Huesden, in the Netherlands.",
"```\nThe fifth Earl's eldest son, the sixth Earl, died without surviving male issue and was succeeded by his younger brother, the seventh Earl (the fourth son of the first marriage of the fifth Earl). He died childless and was succeeded by his half-brother, the \n```",
"[eighth Earl](/wiki/Brinsley_Trench%2C_8th_Earl_of_Clancarty \"Brinsley Trench, 8th Earl of Clancarty\"). He was a [ufologist](/wiki/Ufology \"Ufology\"). {{As of\\|2017}} the titles are held by his nephew, who succeeded in 1995\\. He is the only son of the Hon. Power Edward Ford Le Poer Trench, second son of the fifth Earl from his second marriage. The Earl of Clancarty sat in the House of Lords as *Viscount Clancarty* until the passing of the [House of Lords Act 1999](/wiki/House_of_Lords_Act_1999 \"House of Lords Act 1999\") and was re\\-elected as a [Cross\\-Bench](/wiki/Cross-Bench \"Cross-Bench\") Peer on 23 June 2010\\.[Viscount Clancarty, TheyWorkForYou House of Lords, UK.](https://www.theyworkforyou.com/peer/viscount_clancarty)[Address by the Viscount Clancarty to the UK House of Lords upon the *\"great privilege to have been returned to your Lordships' House following the recent Cross\\-Bench by\\-election\"* HL Deb 22 July 2010 c1108\\.](https://www.theyworkforyou.com/lords/?id=2010-07-22a.1094.1&s=speaker%3A24991#g1108.0)",
"Several other members of the Trench family have gained distinction. Eyre Trench, brother of the first Earl, was a [Lieutenant\\-General](/wiki/Lieutenant-General \"Lieutenant-General\") in the Army. The Most Reverend the Hon. [Power Trench](/wiki/Power_Trench \"Power Trench\"), third son of the first Earl, was [Archbishop of Tuam](/wiki/Church_of_Ireland_Archdiocese_of_Tuam \"Church of Ireland Archdiocese of Tuam\"). The Hon. [William Le Poer Trench](/wiki/William_Le_Poer_Trench_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 \"William Le Poer Trench (Royal Navy officer)\"), fourth son of the first Earl, was a [Rear\\-Admiral](/wiki/Rear-Admiral \"Rear-Admiral\") in the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"). The Venerable the Hon. [Charles Le Poer Trench](/wiki/Charles_Le_Poer_Trench \"Charles Le Poer Trench\"), fifth son of the first Earl, was [Archdeacon](/wiki/Archdeacon \"Archdeacon\") of [Ardagh](/wiki/Ardagh%2C_County_Longford \"Ardagh, County Longford\"). His son Henry Luke Trench was a [Major\\-General](/wiki/Major-General \"Major-General\") in the [Bengal Staff Corps](/wiki/Bengal_Staff_Corps \"Bengal Staff Corps\"). The Hon. Sir Robert Le Poer Trench, ninth son of the first Earl, was a [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Colonel (United Kingdom)\") in the Army and a [Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath](/wiki/Order_of_the_Bath \"Order of the Bath\"). The Hon. [William Le Poer Trench](/wiki/William_Le_Poer_Trench \"William Le Poer Trench\"), third son of the third Earl, was a Colonel in the [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers \"Royal Engineers\") and briefly represented [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"County Galway (UK Parliament constituency)\") in the [House of Commons](/wiki/British_House_of_Commons \"British House of Commons\").",
"The Trench family claims French [Huguenot](/wiki/Huguenot \"Huguenot\") descent,[Stirnet: Trench01](http://www.stirnet.com/HTML/genie/british/tt/trench01.htm#top) (subscription required to view without interruption) although a Scottish origin is possible. The [Barons Ashtown](/wiki/Baron_Ashtown \"Baron Ashtown\") are members of another branch of the family. [William Trench, 1st Earl of Clancarty](/wiki/William_Trench%2C_1st_Earl_of_Clancarty \"William Trench, 1st Earl of Clancarty\"), was the great\\-grandson of Frederick Trench, whose brother the Very Reverend [John Trench](/wiki/John_Trench \"John Trench\") was the great\\-grandfather of [Frederick Trench, 1st Baron Ashtown](/wiki/Frederick_Trench%2C_1st_Baron_Ashtown \"Frederick Trench, 1st Baron Ashtown\").",
"[Trench Town](/wiki/Trench_Town \"Trench Town\") in Jamaica gets its name from its previous designation as Trench Pen, 400 acres of land once used for livestock by Daniel Power Trench, an [Irish immigrant](/wiki/Irish_diaspora \"Irish diaspora\") of the 18th century (descendants of the Earls of Clancarty).",
"The family seat was [Garbally Court](/wiki/Garbally_College \"Garbally College\"), near [Ballinasloe](/wiki/Ballinasloe \"Ballinasloe\"), [County Galway](/wiki/County_Galway \"County Galway\").",
""
] |
Ecology and habitat
-------------------
[thumb\|right\|[Stem](/wiki/Stipe_%28mycology%29 "Stipe (mycology)") of a *Leccinum* mushroom, showing the distinctive scabers](/wiki/File:Leccinum_stipe_96426.jpg "Leccinum stipe 96426.jpg")
The mushrooms of the Leccinum genus are found worldwide, on every continent except Antarctica. The genus was first proposed by Gray in 1821 based on Leccinum aurantiacum and as a generic scientific name for boletes, often found in Europe and North America. *Leccinum* species are generally found in the woodlands of [Eurasia](/wiki/Eurasia "Eurasia"), and North America, forming [ectomycorrhizal](/wiki/Ectomycorrhiza "Ectomycorrhiza") associations with trees.
Most *Leccinum* species are mycorrhizal specialists, associating with trees of a single genus. For example, *L. atrostipitatum* associate exclusively with plants of [*Betula*](/wiki/Birch "Birch") family that are colloquially known as birch trees. *L. vulpinum* are found only associated with the *[Pinaceae](/wiki/Pinaceae "Pinaceae")* or pine gumtree family. *[Leccinum aurantiacum](/wiki/Leccinum_aurantiacum "Leccinum aurantiacum")* is an exception, however, occurring in mycorrhizal association with [birch](/wiki/Birch "Birch"), [poplar](/wiki/Populus "Populus"), and [oak](/wiki/Oak "Oak"). Other species that form an exception to that rule, such as *L. quercinum* and *L. scabrum*, have been described as popular edible mushrooms in China.
Currently, the *Leccinum* genus comprises about 150 species, 118 of which have been identified in North America. Much of the important work in describing this genus has been carried out in Michigan, where 68 species have been described. In Central America, 12 species have been identified: 1 from [Belize](/wiki/Belize "Belize"), 8 from [Costa Rica](/wiki/Costa_Rica "Costa Rica"), and 3 from [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia").
In Europe, the *Leccinum* genus was originally divided into 4 sections: the 2 known sections of *L. sect. Luteoscabra* and *L. sect. Leccinum*, and the 2 newly proposed sections of *L. sect. Roseoscabra* and *L. sect. Eximia*. However, the former *L. sect. Scabra* has been merged to *L. sect. Leccinum*. Additionally, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that species of *L. sect. Luteoscabra*, *L. sect. Roseoscabra*, and *L. sect. Eximia* belong to divergent [monophyletic](/wiki/Monophyly "Monophyly") groups of Boletaceae and represent new genera. Thus, the *Leccinum* genus is restricted to the *Leccinum* section, meaning that there are 16 documented species in Europe.
In the Southern Hemisphere, 4 species of *Leccinum* have been reported, 1 from New Zealand and 3 from Australia. In Asia, 47 species have been identified: 6 from Malaysia, 10 from Japan, and 31 from China. Out of these 31 Chinese species, 12 have been ascertained to other genera, 8 were reported without specimen support, 11 and were reported with specimen citations. Out of these 11, only *L. subleucophaeum var. minimum* was unique to China. The other 10 share sufficient general morphological traits to species identified in Europe and North America to be considered the same species. However, even though the species do appear to overlap, they have evolved independently from their European and North American counterparts. Therefore, identification of the Chinese *Leccinum* species requires further confirmation.
|
[
"Ecology and habitat\n-------------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Stem](/wiki/Stipe_%28mycology%29 \"Stipe (mycology)\") of a *Leccinum* mushroom, showing the distinctive scabers](/wiki/File:Leccinum_stipe_96426.jpg \"Leccinum stipe 96426.jpg\")",
"The mushrooms of the Leccinum genus are found worldwide, on every continent except Antarctica. The genus was first proposed by Gray in 1821 based on Leccinum aurantiacum and as a generic scientific name for boletes, often found in Europe and North America. *Leccinum* species are generally found in the woodlands of [Eurasia](/wiki/Eurasia \"Eurasia\"), and North America, forming [ectomycorrhizal](/wiki/Ectomycorrhiza \"Ectomycorrhiza\") associations with trees.",
"Most *Leccinum* species are mycorrhizal specialists, associating with trees of a single genus. For example, *L. atrostipitatum* associate exclusively with plants of [*Betula*](/wiki/Birch \"Birch\") family that are colloquially known as birch trees. *L. vulpinum* are found only associated with the *[Pinaceae](/wiki/Pinaceae \"Pinaceae\")* or pine gumtree family. *[Leccinum aurantiacum](/wiki/Leccinum_aurantiacum \"Leccinum aurantiacum\")* is an exception, however, occurring in mycorrhizal association with [birch](/wiki/Birch \"Birch\"), [poplar](/wiki/Populus \"Populus\"), and [oak](/wiki/Oak \"Oak\"). Other species that form an exception to that rule, such as *L. quercinum* and *L. scabrum*, have been described as popular edible mushrooms in China.",
"Currently, the *Leccinum* genus comprises about 150 species, 118 of which have been identified in North America. Much of the important work in describing this genus has been carried out in Michigan, where 68 species have been described. In Central America, 12 species have been identified: 1 from [Belize](/wiki/Belize \"Belize\"), 8 from [Costa Rica](/wiki/Costa_Rica \"Costa Rica\"), and 3 from [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\").",
"In Europe, the *Leccinum* genus was originally divided into 4 sections: the 2 known sections of *L. sect. Luteoscabra* and *L. sect. Leccinum*, and the 2 newly proposed sections of *L. sect. Roseoscabra* and *L. sect. Eximia*. However, the former *L. sect. Scabra* has been merged to *L. sect. Leccinum*. Additionally, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that species of *L. sect. Luteoscabra*, *L. sect. Roseoscabra*, and *L. sect. Eximia* belong to divergent [monophyletic](/wiki/Monophyly \"Monophyly\") groups of Boletaceae and represent new genera. Thus, the *Leccinum* genus is restricted to the *Leccinum* section, meaning that there are 16 documented species in Europe.",
"In the Southern Hemisphere, 4 species of *Leccinum* have been reported, 1 from New Zealand and 3 from Australia. In Asia, 47 species have been identified: 6 from Malaysia, 10 from Japan, and 31 from China. Out of these 31 Chinese species, 12 have been ascertained to other genera, 8 were reported without specimen support, 11 and were reported with specimen citations. Out of these 11, only *L. subleucophaeum var. minimum* was unique to China. The other 10 share sufficient general morphological traits to species identified in Europe and North America to be considered the same species. However, even though the species do appear to overlap, they have evolved independently from their European and North American counterparts. Therefore, identification of the Chinese *Leccinum* species requires further confirmation.",
""
] |
Uses
----
Glow sticks are waterproof, do not use batteries, consume no oxygen, generate no or negligible heat, produce neither spark nor flame, can tolerate high pressures such as those found under water, are inexpensive, and are reasonably disposable. This makes them ideal as light sources and light markers by military forces, [campers](/wiki/Camping "Camping"), [spelunkers](/wiki/Caving "Caving"), and [recreational divers](/wiki/Recreational_diving "Recreational diving").{{cite journal \|author\=Davies, D \|title\=Diver location devices \|journal\=Journal of the South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society \|volume\=28 \|issue\=3 \|year\=1998 \|url\=http://archive.rubicon\-foundation.org/5968 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519022556/http://archive.rubicon\-foundation.org/5968 \|archive\-date\=2009\-05\-19 \|url\-status\=dead}}
### Entertainment
[thumb\|Glow sticks providing decor at a party](/wiki/Image:Mir%C3%B3OrKandinsky.JPG "MiróOrKandinsky.JPG")
Glowsticking is the use of glow sticks in dancing{{cite web \|url\=http://www.glowsticking.com/what\-is\-glowsticking.html \|title\=What Is Glowsticking? \|publisher\=Glowsticking.com \|date\=2009\-09\-19 \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128202223/http://glowsticking.com/what\-is\-glowsticking.html \|archive\-date\=2013\-01\-28 \|url\-status\=dead}} (such as in [glow poi](/wiki/Poi_%28performance_art%29%23Glow_poi "Poi (performance art)#Glow poi") and [wotagei](/wiki/Wotagei "Wotagei")). They are frequently used for entertainment at parties (in particular [raves](/wiki/Rave "Rave")), [concerts](/wiki/Concert "Concert"), and [dance clubs](/wiki/Nightclub "Nightclub"). They are used by [marching band](/wiki/Marching_band "Marching band") conductors for evening performances; glow sticks are also used in festivals and celebrations around the world. Glow sticks also serve multiple functions as toys, readily visible night\-time warnings to motorists, and luminous markings that enable parents to keep track of their children. Another use is for [balloon\-carried light effects](/wiki/Balloon-carried_light_effect "Balloon-carried light effect"). Glow sticks are also used to create special effects in low light photography and film.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ZgIwVQRzbaQ \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/ZgIwVQRzbaQ \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-12 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Jai Glow! PCD vs. Team Ef Em El \|publisher\=YouTube \|date\=2011\-02\-21 \|access\-date\=2012\-12\-21}}{{cbignore}}
The *[Guinness Book of Records](/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_Records "Guinness Book of Records")* recorded the world's largest glow stick was cracked at {{convert\|150\|m\|ftin}} tall. It was created by the [University of Wisconsin–Whitewater](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Whitewater "University of Wisconsin–Whitewater")'s Chemistry Department to celebrate the school's sesquicentennial, or 150th birthday in [Whitewater, Wisconsin](/wiki/Whitewater%2C_Wisconsin "Whitewater, Wisconsin") and cracked on 9 September 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world\-records/516124\-longest\-glowstick/\|title\=Largest glowstick\|publisher\=guinnessworldrecords.com\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-15}}
### Recreation and survival
Glow sticks are used for outdoor recreation, often used at night for marking. Scuba divers use diving\-rated glow sticks to mark themselves during night dives, and then can turn off bright diving lights. This is done to enable visibility of bioluminescent marine organisms, which cannot be seen while a bright dive light is illuminated. Glow sticks are used on backpacks, tent pegs, and on jackets during overnight camping expeditions. Often, glow sticks are recommended as an addition to [survival kits](/wiki/Survival_kit "Survival kit").
### Industry
There are specific industrial uses of glow sticks, which are often used as a light source in circumstances where electric lighting and LEDs are not best suited. For example, in the mining industry, glow sticks are required for emergency evacuation in the case of a gas leak. Use of an electric light source in this case may cause an unintended explosion. Chemiluminescence, the type of light used in glow sticks, is a "cold\-light" and does not use electricity, and will not cause a gas leak to ignite.
Glow sticks are also used worldwide in the marine industry, often used as fishing lures in long\-line, recreational, and commercial fishing, as well as for personnel safety.
### Military
Glow sticks are used by militaries, and occasionally also [police tactical units](/wiki/Police_tactical_unit "Police tactical unit"), as light sources during night operations or [close\-quarters combat](/wiki/Close-quarters_combat "Close-quarters combat") in dark areas. They are also used to mark secured areas or objects of note. When worn, they can be used to identify friendly soldiers during nighttime operations.{{Cite web \|last\=Rempfer \|first\=Kyle \|date\=2019\-02\-21 \|title\=Air Force labs develop and field chemlight replacement \|url\=https://www.airforcetimes.com/news/your\-air\-force/2019/02/21/air\-force\-labs\-develop\-and\-field\-chemlight\-replacement/ \|access\-date\=2021\-10\-04 \|website\=Air Force Times \|language\=en}}
### Emergency services
Glow sticks are used by [police](/wiki/Police "Police"), [fire](/wiki/Fire_department "Fire department"), and [emergency medical services](/wiki/Emergency_medical_services "Emergency medical services") as light sources, similar to their military applications. Often, emergency rescue crews will hand out glow sticks in order to keep track of people at night, who may not have access to their own lighting. Glow sticks are sometimes attached to [life vests](/wiki/Personal_flotation_device "Personal flotation device") and [lifeboats](/wiki/Lifeboat_%28shipboard%29 "Lifeboat (shipboard)") on passenger and commercial vessels, to ensure night time visibility.
Glow sticks are often part of emergency kits to provide basic lighting and provide ease of identification in dark areas. They can be found in emergency lighting kits in buildings, [public transportation](/wiki/Public_transport "Public transport") vehicles, and [subway stations](/wiki/Metro_station "Metro station").
|
[
"Uses\n----",
"Glow sticks are waterproof, do not use batteries, consume no oxygen, generate no or negligible heat, produce neither spark nor flame, can tolerate high pressures such as those found under water, are inexpensive, and are reasonably disposable. This makes them ideal as light sources and light markers by military forces, [campers](/wiki/Camping \"Camping\"), [spelunkers](/wiki/Caving \"Caving\"), and [recreational divers](/wiki/Recreational_diving \"Recreational diving\").{{cite journal \\|author\\=Davies, D \\|title\\=Diver location devices \\|journal\\=Journal of the South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society \\|volume\\=28 \\|issue\\=3 \\|year\\=1998 \\|url\\=http://archive.rubicon\\-foundation.org/5968 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519022556/http://archive.rubicon\\-foundation.org/5968 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-05\\-19 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Entertainment",
"[thumb\\|Glow sticks providing decor at a party](/wiki/Image:Mir%C3%B3OrKandinsky.JPG \"MiróOrKandinsky.JPG\")",
"Glowsticking is the use of glow sticks in dancing{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.glowsticking.com/what\\-is\\-glowsticking.html \\|title\\=What Is Glowsticking? \\|publisher\\=Glowsticking.com \\|date\\=2009\\-09\\-19 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128202223/http://glowsticking.com/what\\-is\\-glowsticking.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} (such as in [glow poi](/wiki/Poi_%28performance_art%29%23Glow_poi \"Poi (performance art)#Glow poi\") and [wotagei](/wiki/Wotagei \"Wotagei\")). They are frequently used for entertainment at parties (in particular [raves](/wiki/Rave \"Rave\")), [concerts](/wiki/Concert \"Concert\"), and [dance clubs](/wiki/Nightclub \"Nightclub\"). They are used by [marching band](/wiki/Marching_band \"Marching band\") conductors for evening performances; glow sticks are also used in festivals and celebrations around the world. Glow sticks also serve multiple functions as toys, readily visible night\\-time warnings to motorists, and luminous markings that enable parents to keep track of their children. Another use is for [balloon\\-carried light effects](/wiki/Balloon-carried_light_effect \"Balloon-carried light effect\"). Glow sticks are also used to create special effects in low light photography and film.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ZgIwVQRzbaQ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/ZgIwVQRzbaQ \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-12 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Jai Glow! PCD vs. Team Ef Em El \\|publisher\\=YouTube \\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-21 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-21}}{{cbignore}}",
"The *[Guinness Book of Records](/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_Records \"Guinness Book of Records\")* recorded the world's largest glow stick was cracked at {{convert\\|150\\|m\\|ftin}} tall. It was created by the [University of Wisconsin–Whitewater](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Whitewater \"University of Wisconsin–Whitewater\")'s Chemistry Department to celebrate the school's sesquicentennial, or 150th birthday in [Whitewater, Wisconsin](/wiki/Whitewater%2C_Wisconsin \"Whitewater, Wisconsin\") and cracked on 9 September 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world\\-records/516124\\-longest\\-glowstick/\\|title\\=Largest glowstick\\|publisher\\=guinnessworldrecords.com\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-15}}",
"### Recreation and survival",
"Glow sticks are used for outdoor recreation, often used at night for marking. Scuba divers use diving\\-rated glow sticks to mark themselves during night dives, and then can turn off bright diving lights. This is done to enable visibility of bioluminescent marine organisms, which cannot be seen while a bright dive light is illuminated. Glow sticks are used on backpacks, tent pegs, and on jackets during overnight camping expeditions. Often, glow sticks are recommended as an addition to [survival kits](/wiki/Survival_kit \"Survival kit\").",
"### Industry",
"There are specific industrial uses of glow sticks, which are often used as a light source in circumstances where electric lighting and LEDs are not best suited. For example, in the mining industry, glow sticks are required for emergency evacuation in the case of a gas leak. Use of an electric light source in this case may cause an unintended explosion. Chemiluminescence, the type of light used in glow sticks, is a \"cold\\-light\" and does not use electricity, and will not cause a gas leak to ignite.",
"Glow sticks are also used worldwide in the marine industry, often used as fishing lures in long\\-line, recreational, and commercial fishing, as well as for personnel safety.",
"### Military",
"Glow sticks are used by militaries, and occasionally also [police tactical units](/wiki/Police_tactical_unit \"Police tactical unit\"), as light sources during night operations or [close\\-quarters combat](/wiki/Close-quarters_combat \"Close-quarters combat\") in dark areas. They are also used to mark secured areas or objects of note. When worn, they can be used to identify friendly soldiers during nighttime operations.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rempfer \\|first\\=Kyle \\|date\\=2019\\-02\\-21 \\|title\\=Air Force labs develop and field chemlight replacement \\|url\\=https://www.airforcetimes.com/news/your\\-air\\-force/2019/02/21/air\\-force\\-labs\\-develop\\-and\\-field\\-chemlight\\-replacement/ \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-04 \\|website\\=Air Force Times \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Emergency services",
"Glow sticks are used by [police](/wiki/Police \"Police\"), [fire](/wiki/Fire_department \"Fire department\"), and [emergency medical services](/wiki/Emergency_medical_services \"Emergency medical services\") as light sources, similar to their military applications. Often, emergency rescue crews will hand out glow sticks in order to keep track of people at night, who may not have access to their own lighting. Glow sticks are sometimes attached to [life vests](/wiki/Personal_flotation_device \"Personal flotation device\") and [lifeboats](/wiki/Lifeboat_%28shipboard%29 \"Lifeboat (shipboard)\") on passenger and commercial vessels, to ensure night time visibility.",
"Glow sticks are often part of emergency kits to provide basic lighting and provide ease of identification in dark areas. They can be found in emergency lighting kits in buildings, [public transportation](/wiki/Public_transport \"Public transport\") vehicles, and [subway stations](/wiki/Metro_station \"Metro station\").",
""
] |
History
-------
### Origin and melody
[thumb\|227x227px](/wiki/File:Drunken_sailor.mid "Drunken sailor.mid")
The authorship and origin of the song are unknown, but it bears a resemblance with the traditional Irish folk song *[Óró sé do bheatha abhaile](/wiki/%C3%93r%C3%B3_s%C3%A9_do_bheatha_abhaile "Óró sé do bheatha abhaile")* due to its shared chord progression and use of repeated lyrics over melodic [sequences](/wiki/Sequence_%28music%29 "Sequence (music)"). [thumb\|Melody and first verse of "Drunken Sailor", culled from R. R. Terry's *The Shanty Book, Part One* (1921\). {{audio\|Drunken sailor.mid\|Play}}\|397x397px](/wiki/File:Drunken_sailor.png "Drunken sailor.png") It is in the [Dorian mode](/wiki/Dorian_mode%23Modern_Dorian_mode "Dorian mode#Modern Dorian mode").{{cite web \|title\=What Shall We Do With The Drunken Sailor by Irish Rovers Chords and Melody \|website\=Hooktheory \|url\=https://www.hooktheory.com/theorytab/view/irish\-rovers/what\-shall\-we\-do\-with\-the\-drunken\-sailor}}
### As a sea shanty
The song was sung to accompany certain work tasks aboard [sailing ships](/wiki/Sailing_ships "Sailing ships"), especially those that required a brisk walking pace. It is believed to originate in the early 19th century or earlier, during a period when ships' crews, especially those of military vessels, were large enough to permit hauling a rope whilst simply marching along the deck. With the advent of merchant packet and clipper ships and their smaller crews, which required different working methods, use of the shanty appears to have declined or shifted to other, minor tasks.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2009}}
The first published description of the shanty is found in an account of an 1839 whaling voyage out of [New London, Connecticut](/wiki/New_London%2C_Connecticut "New London, Connecticut"), to the Pacific Ocean.Hugill, Stan. 1961\. *Shanties from the Seven Seas.* London.{{pn\|date\=March 2024}} It was used as an example of a song that was "performed with very good effect when there is a long line of men hauling together". The tune was noted, along with these lyrics:
{{poemquote\|Ho! Ho! and up she rises.
Ho! Ho! and up she rises.
Ho! Ho! and up she rises,
Early in the morning.Olmsted, F. A. 1841\. ''Incidents of a Whaling Voyage''. New York: D. Appleton \& Co. pp. 115–116\.}}
Although this is the earliest discovered published mention, there is some indication that the shanty is at least as old as the 1820s. In [Eckstorm](/wiki/Fannie_Hardy_Eckstorm "Fannie Hardy Eckstorm") and [Smyth](/wiki/Mary_Winslow_Smyth "Mary Winslow Smyth")'s collection *Minstrelsy of Maine* (published 1927\), the editors note that one of their grandmothers, who sang the song, claimed to have heard it used during the task of [tacking](/wiki/Tacking_%28sailing%29 "Tacking (sailing)") on the [Penobscot River](/wiki/Penobscot_River "Penobscot River") "probably \[by the time of the editor's reportage] considerably over a hundred years ago".Eckstorm, Fannie Hardy and Mary Winslow Smyth. 1927\. *Minstrelsy of Maine: Folk\-songs and Ballads of the Woods and the Coast.* Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin.{{pn\|date\=March 2024}}
Despite these indications of the song's existence in the first half of the 19th century, references to it are rare. They include a reference in a work of fiction from 1855 in which a drunken female cook is portrayed singing,
{{poemquote\|Hee roar, up she rouses,
What shall we do with the drunken sailor?Dickens, Charles ed. 1855\. "Two Dinner Failures". ''Household Words'' No. 256 (15 September 1855\): 164–168\.}}
A five\-verse set of lyrics and tune were published in the third edition of Davis and Tozer's shanty collection, *Sailor Songs or 'Chanties{{'}}*.Davis, J. and Ferris Tozer. 1891\. *Sailor Songs or 'Chanties{{'}}*. Third edition (enlarged). Boosey \& Co.{{pn\|date\=March 2024}} However, the title did not appear in any of the other major shanty collections or articles of the 19th century.
When [John Masefield](/wiki/John_Masefield "John Masefield") next published the lyrics in 1906, he called it a "bastard variety" of shanty which was "seldom used"Masefield, John. 1906\. *A Sailor's Garland*. Methuen \& Co.{{pn\|date\=March 2024}}—an assertion supported by the lack of many earlier references. This style of shanty, called a "runaway chorus" by Masefield, and as a "[stamp and go](/wiki/Sea_shanty%23Stamp_and_go_shanty "Sea shanty#Stamp and go shanty")" or "walk away" shanty by others, was said to be used for tacking and which was sung in "quick time". The verses in Masefield's version asked what to do with a "drunken sailor", followed by a response, then followed by a question about a "drunken soldier", with an appropriate response.
Capt. W. B. Whall, a veteran English sailor of the 1860s–70s, was the next author to publish on "Drunken Sailor". He claimed that this was one of only two shanties that was sung in the British [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") (where singing at work was generally frowned upon). Moreover, the song had largely gone out of use as a "walk away" shanty when the size of ships' crews was reduced and it was no longer possible to use that working method.Whall, Captain W. B. 1910\. *Sea Songs and Shanties*. Brown, Son and Ferguson.{{pn\|date\=March 2024}} The lyrics given by Whall are essentially the same as those from Masefield: about a "drunken sailor", then a "drunken soldier". Significantly, he stated that these were the *only* lyrics, as evidently the task did not take long to complete.
{{poemquote\|Chorus: Hoorah! And up she rises \[three times, appears before each verse]
Early in the morning.
What shall we do with a drunken sailor? \[three times]
Early in the morning.
Put him in the \[\[longboat]] and make him bail her.
Early in the morning.
What shall we do with a drunken soldier?
Early in the morning.
Put him in the guardroom till he gets sober.
Early in the morning.}}
The above\-mentioned and other veteran sailorse.g. Williams, James H. "The Sailors' 'Chanties{{'"}}. *The Independent* (8 July 1909\):76–83\. characterized "Drunken Sailor" as a "walk away" shanty, thus providing a possible explanation for why it was not noted more often in the second half of the 19th century. Later sailors' recollections, however, attested that the song continued to be used as a shanty, but for other purposes. Richard Maitland, an American sailor of the 1870s, sang it for song collector [Alan Lomax](/wiki/Alan_Lomax "Alan Lomax") in 1939, when he explained,
> Now this is a song that's usually sang when men are walking away with the slack of a rope, generally when the iron ships are scrubbing their bottom. After an iron ship has been twelve months at sea, there's a quite a lot of [barnacles](/wiki/Barnacle "Barnacle") and grass grows onto her bottom. And generally, in the calm latitudes, up in the [horse latitudes](/wiki/Horse_latitudes "Horse latitudes") in the North Atlantic Ocean, usually they rig up a purchase for to scrub the bottom.Various Artists. 2004\. *American Sea Songs \& Shanties*. Duncan Emrich, ed. The Library of Congress, Archive of Folk Culture. Rounder, CD, 18964\-1519\-2\.
Another American sailor of the 1870s, [Frederick Pease Harlow](/wiki/Frederick_Pease_Harlow "Frederick Pease Harlow"), wrote in his shanty collection that "Drunken Sailor" could be used when hauling a halyard in "hand over hand" fashion to hoist the lighter sails.Harlow, Frederick Pease. 1962\. *Chanteying Aboard American Ships*. Barre, Mass.: Barre Publishing Co. This would be in contradistinction to the much more typical "halyards shanties", which were for heavier work with an entirely different sort of pacing and formal structure. Another author to ascribe a function, [Richard Runciman Terry](/wiki/Richard_Runciman_Terry "Richard Runciman Terry"), also said it could be used for "hand over hand" hauling. Terry was one of few writers, however, to also state the shanty was used for heaving the [windlass](/wiki/Windlass "Windlass") or [capstan](/wiki/Capstan_%28nautical%29 "Capstan (nautical)").Terry, Richard Runciman. 1921\. *The Shanty Book, Part I*. London: J. Curwen \& Sons.{{pn\|date\=March 2024}}
In 1906, [Percy Grainger](/wiki/Percy_Grainger "Percy Grainger") recorded Charles Rosher of London, England, singing "What shall we do with a drunken sailor", and the recording is available online via the [British Library Sound Archive](/wiki/British_Library_Sound_Archive "British Library Sound Archive").{{Cite web \|title\=What shall we do with a drunken sailor \- Percy Grainger ethnographic wax cylinders \- World and traditional music {{!}} British Library \- Sounds \|url\=https://sounds.bl.uk/World\-and\-traditional\-music/Percy\-Grainger\-Collection/025M\-1LL0010300XX\-0202V0 \|access\-date\=2020\-08\-22 \|website\=sounds.bl.uk}} The folklorist [James Madison Carpenter](/wiki/James_Madison_Carpenter "James Madison Carpenter") recorded several veteran sailors singing the song in the 1920s and 30s, which can be heard online courtesy of the [Vaughan Williams Memorial Library](/wiki/Vaughan_Williams_Memorial_Library "Vaughan Williams Memorial Library").{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\= \|title\=Versions of "Drunken Sailor" recorded by James Madison Carpenter \|url\=https://www.vwml.org/search?q\=rn322%20carpenter%20sound\&hasmedia\=1\&is\=1 \|archive\-url\= \|archive\-date\= \|access\-date\= \|website\=Vaughan Williams Memorial Library}}
### As a popular song
"Drunken Sailor" began its life as a popular song on land at least as early as the 1900s, by which time it had been adopted as repertoire for [glee](/wiki/Glee_%28music%29 "Glee (music)") singing at [Eton College](/wiki/Eton_College "Eton College").Malden, Charles Herbert. 1905\. *Recollections of an Eton Colleger: 1898–1902*. Eton College: Spotswood and Co. p. 73"Truthful James". 1902\. "Camp. A Prospect". *Eton College Chronicle* 977 (29 July 1902\): 137\. Elsewhere in England, by the 1910s, men had begun to sing it regularly at gatherings of the [Savage Club](/wiki/Savage_Club "Savage Club") of London.Bullen, Frank. T. and W. F. Arnold. 1914\. *Songs of Sea Labour*. London: Orpheus Music Publishing.
[thumb\|"Drunken Sailor Medley" by John Baltzell (1923\)\|278x278px](/wiki/File:Edison_51548_-_DrunkenSailorMedley.JPG "Edison 51548 - DrunkenSailorMedley.JPG")
The song became popular on land in America as well. A catalogue of "folk\-songs" from the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwest "Midwest") included it in 1915, where it was said to be sung while dancing "a sort of reel".Pound, Louise. 1915\. "Folk\-song of Nebraska and the Central West: A Syllabus". *Nebraska Academy of Sciences Publications* 9(3\). p. l152\. More evidence of lands\-folk's increasing familiarity with "Drunken Sailor" comes in the recording of a "Drunken Sailor Medley" (c. 1923\) by U.S. [old\-time](/wiki/Old-time_music "Old-time music") fiddler John Baltzell. Evidently, the tune's shared affinities with Anglo\-Irish\-American dance tunes helped it to become readapted as such as Baltzell included it among a set of [reels](/wiki/Reel_%28dance%29 "Reel (dance)").
Classical composers utilized the song in compositions. Australian composer [Percy Grainger](/wiki/Percy_Grainger "Percy Grainger") incorporated the song into his piece "Scotch Strathspey And Reel" (1924\). [Malcolm Arnold](/wiki/Malcolm_Arnold "Malcolm Arnold") used its melody in his *Three Shanties for Woodwind Quintet*, Op. 4 (1943\).
The glut of writings on sailors' songs and published collections that came starting in the 1920s supported a revival of interest in shanty\-singing for entertainment purposes on land. As such, R. R. Terry's very popular shanty collection, which had begun to serve as a resource for renditions of shanties on commercial recordings in the 1920s, was evidently used by the [Robert Shaw Chorale](/wiki/Robert_Shaw_Chorale "Robert Shaw Chorale") for their 1961 rendition.Robert Shaw Chorale. 1961\. *Sea Shanties*. Living Stereo. LP. The [Norman Luboff Choir](/wiki/Norman_Luboff_Choir "Norman Luboff Choir") recorded the song in 1959 with the uncharacteristic phrasing "What'll we do...?".Norman Luboff Choir, The. 1959\. *Songs of the British Isles*. Columbia. LP.
The song shares the same tune with a [Lent](/wiki/Lent "Lent") and [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter") [hymn](/wiki/Hymn "Hymn"), *We Have A King Who Rides A Donkey* which was written by [Fred Kaan](/wiki/Fred_Kaan "Fred Kaan"). {{Cite web \|url\=http://www.christianwebresources.co.uk/hymns/hymn/397/\# \|title \= 'We Have a King Who Rides a Donkey' Chords and Lyrics @ Christian Web Resources}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Origin and melody",
"[thumb\\|227x227px](/wiki/File:Drunken_sailor.mid \"Drunken sailor.mid\")\nThe authorship and origin of the song are unknown, but it bears a resemblance with the traditional Irish folk song *[Óró sé do bheatha abhaile](/wiki/%C3%93r%C3%B3_s%C3%A9_do_bheatha_abhaile \"Óró sé do bheatha abhaile\")* due to its shared chord progression and use of repeated lyrics over melodic [sequences](/wiki/Sequence_%28music%29 \"Sequence (music)\"). [thumb\\|Melody and first verse of \"Drunken Sailor\", culled from R. R. Terry's *The Shanty Book, Part One* (1921\\). {{audio\\|Drunken sailor.mid\\|Play}}\\|397x397px](/wiki/File:Drunken_sailor.png \"Drunken sailor.png\") It is in the [Dorian mode](/wiki/Dorian_mode%23Modern_Dorian_mode \"Dorian mode#Modern Dorian mode\").{{cite web \\|title\\=What Shall We Do With The Drunken Sailor by Irish Rovers Chords and Melody \\|website\\=Hooktheory \\|url\\=https://www.hooktheory.com/theorytab/view/irish\\-rovers/what\\-shall\\-we\\-do\\-with\\-the\\-drunken\\-sailor}}",
"### As a sea shanty",
"The song was sung to accompany certain work tasks aboard [sailing ships](/wiki/Sailing_ships \"Sailing ships\"), especially those that required a brisk walking pace. It is believed to originate in the early 19th century or earlier, during a period when ships' crews, especially those of military vessels, were large enough to permit hauling a rope whilst simply marching along the deck. With the advent of merchant packet and clipper ships and their smaller crews, which required different working methods, use of the shanty appears to have declined or shifted to other, minor tasks.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2009}}",
"The first published description of the shanty is found in an account of an 1839 whaling voyage out of [New London, Connecticut](/wiki/New_London%2C_Connecticut \"New London, Connecticut\"), to the Pacific Ocean.Hugill, Stan. 1961\\. *Shanties from the Seven Seas.* London.{{pn\\|date\\=March 2024}} It was used as an example of a song that was \"performed with very good effect when there is a long line of men hauling together\". The tune was noted, along with these lyrics:",
"{{poemquote\\|Ho! Ho! and up she rises.\nHo! Ho! and up she rises.\nHo! Ho! and up she rises,\nEarly in the morning.Olmsted, F. A. 1841\\. ''Incidents of a Whaling Voyage''. New York: D. Appleton \\& Co. pp. 115–116\\.}}",
"Although this is the earliest discovered published mention, there is some indication that the shanty is at least as old as the 1820s. In [Eckstorm](/wiki/Fannie_Hardy_Eckstorm \"Fannie Hardy Eckstorm\") and [Smyth](/wiki/Mary_Winslow_Smyth \"Mary Winslow Smyth\")'s collection *Minstrelsy of Maine* (published 1927\\), the editors note that one of their grandmothers, who sang the song, claimed to have heard it used during the task of [tacking](/wiki/Tacking_%28sailing%29 \"Tacking (sailing)\") on the [Penobscot River](/wiki/Penobscot_River \"Penobscot River\") \"probably \\[by the time of the editor's reportage] considerably over a hundred years ago\".Eckstorm, Fannie Hardy and Mary Winslow Smyth. 1927\\. *Minstrelsy of Maine: Folk\\-songs and Ballads of the Woods and the Coast.* Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin.{{pn\\|date\\=March 2024}}",
"Despite these indications of the song's existence in the first half of the 19th century, references to it are rare. They include a reference in a work of fiction from 1855 in which a drunken female cook is portrayed singing,\n{{poemquote\\|Hee roar, up she rouses,\nWhat shall we do with the drunken sailor?Dickens, Charles ed. 1855\\. \"Two Dinner Failures\". ''Household Words'' No. 256 (15 September 1855\\): 164–168\\.}}",
"A five\\-verse set of lyrics and tune were published in the third edition of Davis and Tozer's shanty collection, *Sailor Songs or 'Chanties{{'}}*.Davis, J. and Ferris Tozer. 1891\\. *Sailor Songs or 'Chanties{{'}}*. Third edition (enlarged). Boosey \\& Co.{{pn\\|date\\=March 2024}} However, the title did not appear in any of the other major shanty collections or articles of the 19th century.",
"When [John Masefield](/wiki/John_Masefield \"John Masefield\") next published the lyrics in 1906, he called it a \"bastard variety\" of shanty which was \"seldom used\"Masefield, John. 1906\\. *A Sailor's Garland*. Methuen \\& Co.{{pn\\|date\\=March 2024}}—an assertion supported by the lack of many earlier references. This style of shanty, called a \"runaway chorus\" by Masefield, and as a \"[stamp and go](/wiki/Sea_shanty%23Stamp_and_go_shanty \"Sea shanty#Stamp and go shanty\")\" or \"walk away\" shanty by others, was said to be used for tacking and which was sung in \"quick time\". The verses in Masefield's version asked what to do with a \"drunken sailor\", followed by a response, then followed by a question about a \"drunken soldier\", with an appropriate response.",
"Capt. W. B. Whall, a veteran English sailor of the 1860s–70s, was the next author to publish on \"Drunken Sailor\". He claimed that this was one of only two shanties that was sung in the British [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") (where singing at work was generally frowned upon). Moreover, the song had largely gone out of use as a \"walk away\" shanty when the size of ships' crews was reduced and it was no longer possible to use that working method.Whall, Captain W. B. 1910\\. *Sea Songs and Shanties*. Brown, Son and Ferguson.{{pn\\|date\\=March 2024}} The lyrics given by Whall are essentially the same as those from Masefield: about a \"drunken sailor\", then a \"drunken soldier\". Significantly, he stated that these were the *only* lyrics, as evidently the task did not take long to complete.",
"{{poemquote\\|Chorus: Hoorah! And up she rises \\[three times, appears before each verse]\nEarly in the morning.",
"What shall we do with a drunken sailor? \\[three times]\nEarly in the morning.",
"Put him in the \\[\\[longboat]] and make him bail her.\nEarly in the morning.",
"What shall we do with a drunken soldier?\nEarly in the morning.",
"Put him in the guardroom till he gets sober.\nEarly in the morning.}}",
"The above\\-mentioned and other veteran sailorse.g. Williams, James H. \"The Sailors' 'Chanties{{'\"}}. *The Independent* (8 July 1909\\):76–83\\. characterized \"Drunken Sailor\" as a \"walk away\" shanty, thus providing a possible explanation for why it was not noted more often in the second half of the 19th century. Later sailors' recollections, however, attested that the song continued to be used as a shanty, but for other purposes. Richard Maitland, an American sailor of the 1870s, sang it for song collector [Alan Lomax](/wiki/Alan_Lomax \"Alan Lomax\") in 1939, when he explained,",
"",
"> Now this is a song that's usually sang when men are walking away with the slack of a rope, generally when the iron ships are scrubbing their bottom. After an iron ship has been twelve months at sea, there's a quite a lot of [barnacles](/wiki/Barnacle \"Barnacle\") and grass grows onto her bottom. And generally, in the calm latitudes, up in the [horse latitudes](/wiki/Horse_latitudes \"Horse latitudes\") in the North Atlantic Ocean, usually they rig up a purchase for to scrub the bottom.Various Artists. 2004\\. *American Sea Songs \\& Shanties*. Duncan Emrich, ed. The Library of Congress, Archive of Folk Culture. Rounder, CD, 18964\\-1519\\-2\\.",
"Another American sailor of the 1870s, [Frederick Pease Harlow](/wiki/Frederick_Pease_Harlow \"Frederick Pease Harlow\"), wrote in his shanty collection that \"Drunken Sailor\" could be used when hauling a halyard in \"hand over hand\" fashion to hoist the lighter sails.Harlow, Frederick Pease. 1962\\. *Chanteying Aboard American Ships*. Barre, Mass.: Barre Publishing Co. This would be in contradistinction to the much more typical \"halyards shanties\", which were for heavier work with an entirely different sort of pacing and formal structure. Another author to ascribe a function, [Richard Runciman Terry](/wiki/Richard_Runciman_Terry \"Richard Runciman Terry\"), also said it could be used for \"hand over hand\" hauling. Terry was one of few writers, however, to also state the shanty was used for heaving the [windlass](/wiki/Windlass \"Windlass\") or [capstan](/wiki/Capstan_%28nautical%29 \"Capstan (nautical)\").Terry, Richard Runciman. 1921\\. *The Shanty Book, Part I*. London: J. Curwen \\& Sons.{{pn\\|date\\=March 2024}}",
"In 1906, [Percy Grainger](/wiki/Percy_Grainger \"Percy Grainger\") recorded Charles Rosher of London, England, singing \"What shall we do with a drunken sailor\", and the recording is available online via the [British Library Sound Archive](/wiki/British_Library_Sound_Archive \"British Library Sound Archive\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=What shall we do with a drunken sailor \\- Percy Grainger ethnographic wax cylinders \\- World and traditional music {{!}} British Library \\- Sounds \\|url\\=https://sounds.bl.uk/World\\-and\\-traditional\\-music/Percy\\-Grainger\\-Collection/025M\\-1LL0010300XX\\-0202V0 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-22 \\|website\\=sounds.bl.uk}} The folklorist [James Madison Carpenter](/wiki/James_Madison_Carpenter \"James Madison Carpenter\") recorded several veteran sailors singing the song in the 1920s and 30s, which can be heard online courtesy of the [Vaughan Williams Memorial Library](/wiki/Vaughan_Williams_Memorial_Library \"Vaughan Williams Memorial Library\").{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\= \\|title\\=Versions of \"Drunken Sailor\" recorded by James Madison Carpenter \\|url\\=https://www.vwml.org/search?q\\=rn322%20carpenter%20sound\\&hasmedia\\=1\\&is\\=1 \\|archive\\-url\\= \\|archive\\-date\\= \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Vaughan Williams Memorial Library}}",
"### As a popular song",
"\"Drunken Sailor\" began its life as a popular song on land at least as early as the 1900s, by which time it had been adopted as repertoire for [glee](/wiki/Glee_%28music%29 \"Glee (music)\") singing at [Eton College](/wiki/Eton_College \"Eton College\").Malden, Charles Herbert. 1905\\. *Recollections of an Eton Colleger: 1898–1902*. Eton College: Spotswood and Co. p. 73\"Truthful James\". 1902\\. \"Camp. A Prospect\". *Eton College Chronicle* 977 (29 July 1902\\): 137\\. Elsewhere in England, by the 1910s, men had begun to sing it regularly at gatherings of the [Savage Club](/wiki/Savage_Club \"Savage Club\") of London.Bullen, Frank. T. and W. F. Arnold. 1914\\. *Songs of Sea Labour*. London: Orpheus Music Publishing.",
"[thumb\\|\"Drunken Sailor Medley\" by John Baltzell (1923\\)\\|278x278px](/wiki/File:Edison_51548_-_DrunkenSailorMedley.JPG \"Edison 51548 - DrunkenSailorMedley.JPG\") \nThe song became popular on land in America as well. A catalogue of \"folk\\-songs\" from the [Midwest](/wiki/Midwest \"Midwest\") included it in 1915, where it was said to be sung while dancing \"a sort of reel\".Pound, Louise. 1915\\. \"Folk\\-song of Nebraska and the Central West: A Syllabus\". *Nebraska Academy of Sciences Publications* 9(3\\). p. l152\\. More evidence of lands\\-folk's increasing familiarity with \"Drunken Sailor\" comes in the recording of a \"Drunken Sailor Medley\" (c. 1923\\) by U.S. [old\\-time](/wiki/Old-time_music \"Old-time music\") fiddler John Baltzell. Evidently, the tune's shared affinities with Anglo\\-Irish\\-American dance tunes helped it to become readapted as such as Baltzell included it among a set of [reels](/wiki/Reel_%28dance%29 \"Reel (dance)\").",
"Classical composers utilized the song in compositions. Australian composer [Percy Grainger](/wiki/Percy_Grainger \"Percy Grainger\") incorporated the song into his piece \"Scotch Strathspey And Reel\" (1924\\). [Malcolm Arnold](/wiki/Malcolm_Arnold \"Malcolm Arnold\") used its melody in his *Three Shanties for Woodwind Quintet*, Op. 4 (1943\\).",
"The glut of writings on sailors' songs and published collections that came starting in the 1920s supported a revival of interest in shanty\\-singing for entertainment purposes on land. As such, R. R. Terry's very popular shanty collection, which had begun to serve as a resource for renditions of shanties on commercial recordings in the 1920s, was evidently used by the [Robert Shaw Chorale](/wiki/Robert_Shaw_Chorale \"Robert Shaw Chorale\") for their 1961 rendition.Robert Shaw Chorale. 1961\\. *Sea Shanties*. Living Stereo. LP. The [Norman Luboff Choir](/wiki/Norman_Luboff_Choir \"Norman Luboff Choir\") recorded the song in 1959 with the uncharacteristic phrasing \"What'll we do...?\".Norman Luboff Choir, The. 1959\\. *Songs of the British Isles*. Columbia. LP.",
"The song shares the same tune with a [Lent](/wiki/Lent \"Lent\") and [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\") [hymn](/wiki/Hymn \"Hymn\"), *We Have A King Who Rides A Donkey* which was written by [Fred Kaan](/wiki/Fred_Kaan \"Fred Kaan\"). {{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.christianwebresources.co.uk/hymns/hymn/397/\\# \\|title \\= 'We Have a King Who Rides a Donkey' Chords and Lyrics @ Christian Web Resources}}",
""
] |
Notable recordings and performances
-----------------------------------
The song has been widely recorded under a number of titles by a range of performers including Black Lagoon, [The King's Singers](/wiki/The_King%27s_Singers "The King's Singers"), [Pete Seeger](/wiki/Pete_Seeger "Pete Seeger"), The [Blaggards](/wiki/Blaggards "Blaggards"), [U.K. Subs](/wiki/U.K._Subs "U.K. Subs"), The Bolokos, [Malinda Kathleen Reese](/wiki/Malinda_Kathleen_Reese "Malinda Kathleen Reese"), [Nathan Evans](/wiki/Nathan_Evans_%28singer%29 "Nathan Evans (singer)") and most notably [The Irish Rovers](/wiki/The_Irish_Rovers "The Irish Rovers"). It also forms part of a contrapuntal section in the *[BBC Radio 4 UK Theme](/wiki/Radio_4_UK_Theme "Radio 4 UK Theme")* by [Fritz Spiegl](/wiki/Fritz_Spiegl "Fritz Spiegl"), in which it is played alongside "[Greensleeves](/wiki/Greensleeves "Greensleeves")". The song's accordion version is used in the [Nickelodeon](/wiki/Nickelodeon "Nickelodeon") TV series, *[SpongeBob SquarePants](/wiki/SpongeBob_SquarePants "SpongeBob SquarePants")*, often in scenes involving the [Krusty Krab](/wiki/Krusty_Krab "Krusty Krab"). Note that some versions sing "what *will* we do with the drunken sailor" instead of *shall*.
For over 50 years, the [Irish Rovers](/wiki/The_Irish_Rovers "The Irish Rovers") have played the song as their usual show closer. Several of their recordings of the song, sometimes under the name "Weigh, Hey and up She Rises", have gone viral on YouTube.{{cite news \|work\=Belfast News Letter \|date\=February 2012 \|title\=Irish Rovers Return with Titanic Tribute \|url\=http://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/regional/irish\-rovers\-return\-with\-titanic\-tribute\-1\-3557071 \|via\=newsletter.co.uk \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220210220/http://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/regional/irish\-rovers\-return\-with\-titanic\-tribute\-1\-3557071 \|archive\-date\=2014\-02\-20 }} As a response, the band released the 2012 album *Drunken Sailor*, which includes the title track and a prequel that tells the earlier life of the drunken sailor called "Whores and Hounds".{{cite web \|work\=Belfast Telegraph \|date\=February 2012 \|title\=Video: Irish Rovers release Titanic tribute song \|url\=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/video\-irish\-rovers\-release\-titanic\-tribute\-song\-28719763\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721230443/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/video\-irish\-rovers\-release\-titanic\-tribute\-song\-28719763\.html \|archive\-date\=21 July 2015 }}
An instrumental remix of the song is heard in the DS version of *[Rayman Raving Rabbids 2](/wiki/Rayman_Raving_Rabbids_2 "Rayman Raving Rabbids 2")*.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=vdgQh9cNxPU\&ab\_channel\=CLIPSwithSubtitles\| website\=\[\[YouTube]] \| title\=Rayman Raving Rabbids – the Drunken Sailor Remix \| date\=7 August 2008 }}
[Don Janse](/wiki/Don_Janse "Don Janse") produced an arrangement in the early 1960s which has been included in several choral music anthologies. The arrangement was first recorded by [The Idlers](/wiki/The_Idlers "The Idlers"), and has been performed by several collegiate groups over the years, including [the Yale Alley Cats](/wiki/The_Yale_Alley_Cats "The Yale Alley Cats").
[Pere Ubu](/wiki/Pere_Ubu "Pere Ubu")'s 1978 song "[Caligari's Mirror](/wiki/Dub_Housing "Dub Housing")" is a [post\-punk](/wiki/Post-punk "Post-punk") reworking of "Drunken Sailor".{{cite web\|last1\=Mason\|first1\=Stewart\|title\=Caligari's Mirror\|url\=http://www.allmusic.com/song/caligaris\-mirror\-mt0010726681\|publisher\=\[\[AllMusic]]\|access\-date\=January 21, 2020\|quote\=Almost certainly the most rocking song ever built around the old sea shanty 'What Do You Do with a Drunken Sailor', 'Caligari's Mirror' is a study in contrasts.}}
Canadian folk band [Great Big Sea](/wiki/Great_Big_Sea "Great Big Sea") recorded a cover of the song for their debut album *[Great Big Sea](/wiki/Great_Big_Sea_%28album%29 "Great Big Sea (album)")* in 1993 along with other [Newfoundland folk](/wiki/Music_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador "Music of Newfoundland and Labrador") songs.
A version of the song by [Captain Tractor](/wiki/Captain_Tractor "Captain Tractor") is featured in the soundtrack of the 1990s crime dramedy television show *[Due South](/wiki/Due_South "Due South")*.
In the 1998 film *[The Truman Show](/wiki/The_Truman_Show "The Truman Show")*, Truman Burbank (played by [Jim Carrey](/wiki/Jim_Carrey "Jim Carrey")) sings the shanty while piloting a boat through a storm near the end of the film.
LeperKhanz recorded a version of the song on their 2005 album *{{lang\|ga\|Tiocfaidh Ár Lá}}*.{{cn\|date\=October 2021}}
[Dwight Schrute](/wiki/Dwight_Schrute "Dwight Schrute") sings a refrain of this shanty while under the false impression he is piloting the boat in *[The Office](/wiki/The_Office_%28American_TV_series%29 "The Office (American TV series)")* (American version) episode "Booze Cruise".
The melody was also utilized by [NFL Films](/wiki/NFL_Films "NFL Films") composer [Sam Spence](/wiki/Sam_Spence "Sam Spence") for his track "Up as She Rises".{{Cite web \|last1\=Britt \|first1\=Russ \|last2\=Marketwatch \|date\=2015\-01\-28 \|title\=The 11 best over the top tunes from NFL films \|url\=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/the\-11\-best\-over\-the\-top\-nfl\-films\-tunes\-2015\-01\-28?siteid\=rss\&rss\=1 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-13 \|language\=en\-US}} This version is also used in the [season 6](/wiki/Everybody_Loves_Raymond_season_6 "Everybody Loves Raymond season 6") opening intro of *[Everybody Loves Raymond](/wiki/Everybody_Loves_Raymond "Everybody Loves Raymond")*.
[Tim Curry](/wiki/Tim_Curry "Tim Curry") sang a piece when playing [Long John Silver](/wiki/Long_John_Silver "Long John Silver") in the 1996 film *[Muppet Treasure Island](/wiki/Muppet_Treasure_Island "Muppet Treasure Island")*.
A version of the song appears in the 2012 stealth video\-game *[Dishonored](/wiki/Dishonored "Dishonored")*. The version is called "The Drunken Whaler", tying into the video game's fictional world, where whaling is a prominent and important industry. The verses in this version all result in the subject whaler's death, such as "feed him to the hungry rats for dinner" (a reference to the rat plague that was a major plot point in the title).
Another version of the song by Sean Dagher, Michiel Schrey, and Nils Brown appears in the 2013 action\-adventure video game *[Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag](/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed_IV:Black_Flag "Black Flag")*.
The British group [Lord Rockingham's XI](/wiki/Lord_Rockingham%27s_XI "Lord Rockingham's XI") used the tune as the basis for their instrumental "Long John".
The Russian band [Aquarium](/wiki/Aquarium_%28band%29 "Aquarium (band)") has a song called "What should we do with a drunken sailor?".
In [Ringo Starr](/wiki/Ringo_Starr "Ringo Starr")'s rendition of "[You're Sixteen](/wiki/You%27re_Sixteen "You're Sixteen")", Starr is heard singing the chorus of the song in the fade at the end.{{Cite web \|url\=https://genius.com/Ringo\-starr\-youre\-sixteen\-youre\-beautiful\-youre\-mine\-lyrics \|title\=Ringo Starr – You're Sixteen (You're Beautiful You're Mine)}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.lyricsondemand.com/r/ringostarrlyrics/youresixteenyourebeautifulyoureminelyrics.html \|title\=You're Sixteen (You're Beautiful You're Mine) Lyrics by Ringo Starr}}
The 2019 film *[Fisherman's Friends](/wiki/Fisherman%27s_Friends_%28film%29 "Fisherman's Friends (film)")*, based on a true story, features a Cornish group of fishermen who sing the song en route to hitting the pop charts and touring to this day. The song also features prominently in the end credits.
In *[The Wild Wild West](/wiki/The_Wild_Wild_West "The Wild Wild West")* episode "The Night of Miguelito's Revenge", [Michael Dunn](/wiki/Michael_Dunn_%28actor%29 "Michael Dunn (actor)") sings this song.{{cn\|reason\=IMDb is \[\[WP:RS/P\|not a reliable source]]\|date\=January 2024}}
In the video game *[Tiny Tina's Wonderlands](/wiki/Tiny_Tina%27s_Wonderlands "Tiny Tina's Wonderlands")*, the player will meet a skeleton pirate who sings a variation on the song. The words *drunken sailor* are replaced with rhyming phrases such as *funky whaler*.
German pop group [Dschinghis Khan](/wiki/Dschinghis_Khan "Dschinghis Khan") released a version on their 1981 album {{lang\|de\|\[\[Wir sitzen alle im selben Boot]]}}.
|
[
"Notable recordings and performances\n-----------------------------------",
"The song has been widely recorded under a number of titles by a range of performers including Black Lagoon, [The King's Singers](/wiki/The_King%27s_Singers \"The King's Singers\"), [Pete Seeger](/wiki/Pete_Seeger \"Pete Seeger\"), The [Blaggards](/wiki/Blaggards \"Blaggards\"), [U.K. Subs](/wiki/U.K._Subs \"U.K. Subs\"), The Bolokos, [Malinda Kathleen Reese](/wiki/Malinda_Kathleen_Reese \"Malinda Kathleen Reese\"), [Nathan Evans](/wiki/Nathan_Evans_%28singer%29 \"Nathan Evans (singer)\") and most notably [The Irish Rovers](/wiki/The_Irish_Rovers \"The Irish Rovers\"). It also forms part of a contrapuntal section in the *[BBC Radio 4 UK Theme](/wiki/Radio_4_UK_Theme \"Radio 4 UK Theme\")* by [Fritz Spiegl](/wiki/Fritz_Spiegl \"Fritz Spiegl\"), in which it is played alongside \"[Greensleeves](/wiki/Greensleeves \"Greensleeves\")\". The song's accordion version is used in the [Nickelodeon](/wiki/Nickelodeon \"Nickelodeon\") TV series, *[SpongeBob SquarePants](/wiki/SpongeBob_SquarePants \"SpongeBob SquarePants\")*, often in scenes involving the [Krusty Krab](/wiki/Krusty_Krab \"Krusty Krab\"). Note that some versions sing \"what *will* we do with the drunken sailor\" instead of *shall*.",
"For over 50 years, the [Irish Rovers](/wiki/The_Irish_Rovers \"The Irish Rovers\") have played the song as their usual show closer. Several of their recordings of the song, sometimes under the name \"Weigh, Hey and up She Rises\", have gone viral on YouTube.{{cite news \\|work\\=Belfast News Letter \\|date\\=February 2012 \\|title\\=Irish Rovers Return with Titanic Tribute \\|url\\=http://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/regional/irish\\-rovers\\-return\\-with\\-titanic\\-tribute\\-1\\-3557071 \\|via\\=newsletter.co.uk \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220210220/http://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/regional/irish\\-rovers\\-return\\-with\\-titanic\\-tribute\\-1\\-3557071 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-20 }} As a response, the band released the 2012 album *Drunken Sailor*, which includes the title track and a prequel that tells the earlier life of the drunken sailor called \"Whores and Hounds\".{{cite web \\|work\\=Belfast Telegraph \\|date\\=February 2012 \\|title\\=Video: Irish Rovers release Titanic tribute song \\|url\\=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/video\\-irish\\-rovers\\-release\\-titanic\\-tribute\\-song\\-28719763\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721230443/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/video\\-irish\\-rovers\\-release\\-titanic\\-tribute\\-song\\-28719763\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2015 }}",
"An instrumental remix of the song is heard in the DS version of *[Rayman Raving Rabbids 2](/wiki/Rayman_Raving_Rabbids_2 \"Rayman Raving Rabbids 2\")*.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=vdgQh9cNxPU\\&ab\\_channel\\=CLIPSwithSubtitles\\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\| title\\=Rayman Raving Rabbids – the Drunken Sailor Remix \\| date\\=7 August 2008 }}",
"[Don Janse](/wiki/Don_Janse \"Don Janse\") produced an arrangement in the early 1960s which has been included in several choral music anthologies. The arrangement was first recorded by [The Idlers](/wiki/The_Idlers \"The Idlers\"), and has been performed by several collegiate groups over the years, including [the Yale Alley Cats](/wiki/The_Yale_Alley_Cats \"The Yale Alley Cats\").",
"[Pere Ubu](/wiki/Pere_Ubu \"Pere Ubu\")'s 1978 song \"[Caligari's Mirror](/wiki/Dub_Housing \"Dub Housing\")\" is a [post\\-punk](/wiki/Post-punk \"Post-punk\") reworking of \"Drunken Sailor\".{{cite web\\|last1\\=Mason\\|first1\\=Stewart\\|title\\=Caligari's Mirror\\|url\\=http://www.allmusic.com/song/caligaris\\-mirror\\-mt0010726681\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[AllMusic]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 21, 2020\\|quote\\=Almost certainly the most rocking song ever built around the old sea shanty 'What Do You Do with a Drunken Sailor', 'Caligari's Mirror' is a study in contrasts.}}",
"Canadian folk band [Great Big Sea](/wiki/Great_Big_Sea \"Great Big Sea\") recorded a cover of the song for their debut album *[Great Big Sea](/wiki/Great_Big_Sea_%28album%29 \"Great Big Sea (album)\")* in 1993 along with other [Newfoundland folk](/wiki/Music_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador \"Music of Newfoundland and Labrador\") songs.",
"A version of the song by [Captain Tractor](/wiki/Captain_Tractor \"Captain Tractor\") is featured in the soundtrack of the 1990s crime dramedy television show *[Due South](/wiki/Due_South \"Due South\")*.",
"In the 1998 film *[The Truman Show](/wiki/The_Truman_Show \"The Truman Show\")*, Truman Burbank (played by [Jim Carrey](/wiki/Jim_Carrey \"Jim Carrey\")) sings the shanty while piloting a boat through a storm near the end of the film.",
"LeperKhanz recorded a version of the song on their 2005 album *{{lang\\|ga\\|Tiocfaidh Ár Lá}}*.{{cn\\|date\\=October 2021}}",
"[Dwight Schrute](/wiki/Dwight_Schrute \"Dwight Schrute\") sings a refrain of this shanty while under the false impression he is piloting the boat in *[The Office](/wiki/The_Office_%28American_TV_series%29 \"The Office (American TV series)\")* (American version) episode \"Booze Cruise\".",
"The melody was also utilized by [NFL Films](/wiki/NFL_Films \"NFL Films\") composer [Sam Spence](/wiki/Sam_Spence \"Sam Spence\") for his track \"Up as She Rises\".{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Britt \\|first1\\=Russ \\|last2\\=Marketwatch \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-28 \\|title\\=The 11 best over the top tunes from NFL films \\|url\\=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/the\\-11\\-best\\-over\\-the\\-top\\-nfl\\-films\\-tunes\\-2015\\-01\\-28?siteid\\=rss\\&rss\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-13 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} This version is also used in the [season 6](/wiki/Everybody_Loves_Raymond_season_6 \"Everybody Loves Raymond season 6\") opening intro of *[Everybody Loves Raymond](/wiki/Everybody_Loves_Raymond \"Everybody Loves Raymond\")*.",
"[Tim Curry](/wiki/Tim_Curry \"Tim Curry\") sang a piece when playing [Long John Silver](/wiki/Long_John_Silver \"Long John Silver\") in the 1996 film *[Muppet Treasure Island](/wiki/Muppet_Treasure_Island \"Muppet Treasure Island\")*.",
"A version of the song appears in the 2012 stealth video\\-game *[Dishonored](/wiki/Dishonored \"Dishonored\")*. The version is called \"The Drunken Whaler\", tying into the video game's fictional world, where whaling is a prominent and important industry. The verses in this version all result in the subject whaler's death, such as \"feed him to the hungry rats for dinner\" (a reference to the rat plague that was a major plot point in the title).",
"Another version of the song by Sean Dagher, Michiel Schrey, and Nils Brown appears in the 2013 action\\-adventure video game *[Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag](/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed_IV:Black_Flag \"Black Flag\")*.",
"The British group [Lord Rockingham's XI](/wiki/Lord_Rockingham%27s_XI \"Lord Rockingham's XI\") used the tune as the basis for their instrumental \"Long John\".",
"The Russian band [Aquarium](/wiki/Aquarium_%28band%29 \"Aquarium (band)\") has a song called \"What should we do with a drunken sailor?\".",
"In [Ringo Starr](/wiki/Ringo_Starr \"Ringo Starr\")'s rendition of \"[You're Sixteen](/wiki/You%27re_Sixteen \"You're Sixteen\")\", Starr is heard singing the chorus of the song in the fade at the end.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://genius.com/Ringo\\-starr\\-youre\\-sixteen\\-youre\\-beautiful\\-youre\\-mine\\-lyrics \\|title\\=Ringo Starr – You're Sixteen (You're Beautiful You're Mine)}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.lyricsondemand.com/r/ringostarrlyrics/youresixteenyourebeautifulyoureminelyrics.html \\|title\\=You're Sixteen (You're Beautiful You're Mine) Lyrics by Ringo Starr}}",
"The 2019 film *[Fisherman's Friends](/wiki/Fisherman%27s_Friends_%28film%29 \"Fisherman's Friends (film)\")*, based on a true story, features a Cornish group of fishermen who sing the song en route to hitting the pop charts and touring to this day. The song also features prominently in the end credits.",
"In *[The Wild Wild West](/wiki/The_Wild_Wild_West \"The Wild Wild West\")* episode \"The Night of Miguelito's Revenge\", [Michael Dunn](/wiki/Michael_Dunn_%28actor%29 \"Michael Dunn (actor)\") sings this song.{{cn\\|reason\\=IMDb is \\[\\[WP:RS/P\\|not a reliable source]]\\|date\\=January 2024}}",
"In the video game *[Tiny Tina's Wonderlands](/wiki/Tiny_Tina%27s_Wonderlands \"Tiny Tina's Wonderlands\")*, the player will meet a skeleton pirate who sings a variation on the song. The words *drunken sailor* are replaced with rhyming phrases such as *funky whaler*.",
"German pop group [Dschinghis Khan](/wiki/Dschinghis_Khan \"Dschinghis Khan\") released a version on their 1981 album {{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Wir sitzen alle im selben Boot]]}}.",
""
] |
Background
----------
So long as a computer network runs entirely over physical hardware and cabling, it is a physical network. As such it can be protected by physical *firewalls and fire walls alike*; the first and most important protection for a physical computer network always was and remains a physical, locked, flame\-resistant door.["Physical network security key to fighting low\-tech threats"](http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/news/article/0,289142,sid7_gci1347565,00.html#) Morisey, Michael. SearchNetworking.com, Feb 2009\.["Physical Network Security"](http://www.skullbox.net/physicalnetworksecurity.php) Rodriguez, Erik. Skullbox.com May 2005\. Since the inception of the Internet this was the case, and structural fire walls and network firewalls were for a long time both necessary and sufficient.
Since about 1998 there has been an explosive increase in the use of [virtual machines](/wiki/Virtual_machine "Virtual machine") (VM) in addition to — sometimes instead of — physical machines to offer many kinds of computer and communications services on [local area networks](/wiki/LAN "LAN") and over the broader Internet. The advantages of virtual machines are well explored elsewhere.["The Pros and Cons of Virtual Machines in the Datacenter"](http://www.devx.com/vmspecialreport/Article/30383) Chao, Wellie, DevX.com Jan 2006["Transform your Business with Virtualization"](http://www.vmware.com/virtualization/virtual-machine.html), Vmware Virtualization Basics
Virtual machines can operate in isolation (for example as a guest operating system on a personal computer) or under a unified virtualized environment overseen by a supervisory [virtual machine monitor](/wiki/Virtual_machine_monitor "Virtual machine monitor") or "[hypervisor](/wiki/Hypervisor "Hypervisor")" process. In the case where many virtual machines operate under the same virtualized environment they might be connected together via a [virtual network](/wiki/Virtual_network "Virtual network") consisting of [virtualized network switches](/wiki/Virtual_switch "Virtual switch") between machines and [virtualized network interfaces](/wiki/Virtual_Interface "Virtual Interface") within machines. The resulting [virtual network](/wiki/Virtual_network "Virtual network") could then implement traditional network protocols (for example [TCP](/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol "Transmission Control Protocol")) or virtual network provisioning such as [VLAN](/wiki/VLAN "VLAN") or [VPN](/wiki/VPN "VPN"), though the latter while useful for their own reasons are in no way required.
There is a continued perception that virtual machines are inherently secure because they are seen as "[sandboxed](/wiki/Sandbox_%28computer_security%29 "Sandbox (computer security)")" within the host operating system.["Does a sandbox or virtual machine help protect your privacy?"](http://ask-leo.com/does_a_sandbox_or_virtual_machine_help_protect_your_privacy.html) Notenboom, Leo. Oct 2008["Virtual machine security threat levels; don’t believe the hype"](http://searchservervirtualization.techtarget.com/news/article/0,289142,sid94_gci1273735,00.html) Botelho, Bridget. IT Knowledge Exchange. Nov 2008["Meditations on a virtually secure world"](http://searchenterpriselinux.techtarget.com/tip/Meditations-on-a-virtually-secure-world) Korelc, Justin and Ed Tittel. SearchEnterpriseLinux.com Apr 2006 It is often believed that the host, in like manner, is secured against exploitation from the virtual machine itself["Core Security Technologies Discovers Critical Vulnerability In Vmware's Desktop Virtualization Software"](http://www.coresecurity.com/content/vulnerability-vmware) Core Security Technologies, Feb 2008 and that the host is no threat to the virtual machine because it is a physical asset protected by traditional physical and network security. Even when this is not explicitly assumed, early testing of virtual infrastructures often proceeds in isolated lab environments where security is not as a rule an immediate concern, or security may only come to the fore when the same solution is moving into production or onto a [computer cloud](/wiki/Cloud_computing "Cloud computing"), where suddenly virtual machines of different trust levels may wind up on the same virtual network running across any number of physical hosts.
Because they are true networks, virtual networks may end up suffering the same kinds of vulnerabilities long associated with a physical network, some of which being:
* Users on machines within the virtual network have access to all other machines on the same virtual network.
* Compromising or misappropriating one virtual machine on a virtual network is sufficient to provide a platform for additional attacks against other machines on the same network segment.
* If a virtual network is internetworked to the physical network or broader Internet then machines on the virtual network might have access to external resources (and external exploits) that could leave them open to exploitation.
* Network traffic that passes directly between machines without passing through security devices is unmonitored.
The problems created by the near invisibility of between\-virtual machine (VM\-to\-VM) traffic on a virtual network are exactly like those found in physical networks, complicated by the fact that the packets may be moving entirely inside the hardware of a single physical host:
* Because the virtual network traffic may never leave the physical host hardware, security administrators cannot observe VM\-to\-VM traffic, cannot intercept it, and so cannot know what that traffic is for.
* Logging of VM\-to\-VM network activity within a single host and verification of virtual machine access for regulatory compliance purposes becomes difficult.
* Inappropriate uses of virtual network resources and bandwidth consumption VM\-to\-VM are difficult to discover or rectify.
* Unusual or inappropriate services running on or within the virtual network could go undetected.
There are security issues known only in virtualized environments that wreak havoc with physical security measures and practices, and some of these are touted as actual advantages of virtual machine technology over physical machines:["A Survey on Virtual Machine Security"](http://www.tml.tkk.fi/Publications/C/25/papers/Reuben_final.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220062136/http://www.tml.tkk.fi/Publications/C/25/papers/Reuben\_final.pdf \|date\=2012\-02\-20 }} Reuben, JS. Helsinki University of Technology, undated
* VMs can be deliberately (or unexpectedly) migrated between trusted and untrusted virtualized environments where migration is enabled.
* VMs and/or virtual storage volumes can be easily cloned and the clone made to run on any part of the virtualized environment, including a [DMZ](/wiki/DMZ_%28computing%29 "DMZ (computing)").
* Many companies use their purchasing or IT departments as the IT security lead agency, applying security measures at the time a physical machine is taken from the box and initialized. Since virtual machines can be created in a few minutes by any authorized user and set running without a paper trail, they can in these cases bypass established "first boot" IT security practices.
* VMs have no physical reality leaving not a trace of their creation nor (in larger virtualized installations) of their continued existence. They can be as easily destroyed as well, leaving nearly no digital signature and absolutely no physical evidence whatsoever.
In addition to the network traffic visibility issues and uncoordinated VM sprawl, a rogue VM using just the virtual network, switches and interfaces (all of which run in a process on the host physical hardware) can potentially break the network as could any physical machine on a physical network — and in the usual ways — though now by consuming host CPU cycles it can additionally bring down the entire virtualized environment and all the other VMs with it simply by overpowering the host physical resources the rest of the virtualized environment depend upon.
This was likely to become a problem, but it was perceived within the industry as a well understood problem and one potentially open to traditional measures and responses.["IT Audit for the Virtual Environment"](http://www.sans.org/reading_room/analysts_program/VMware_ITAudit_Sep09.pdf) SANS.org, Dec 2009["POWER5 Virtualization: How to work with VLANs using the IBM Virtual I/O Server"](http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/systems/library/es-pwr5-virtualvlan/index.html) IBM Inc. Nov 2008["Secure Virtual Networks"](http://redmondmag.com/articles/2009/02/01/secure-virtual-networks.aspx) Wettern, Joern. Redmondmag.com Feb 2009["Why Hyper\-V virtual networks are less secure than physical networks"](http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com.au/articles/36232-Why-Hyper-V-virtual-networks-are-less-secure-than-physical-networks) Shields, Greg. TechTarget SearchNetworking, Oct 2009
### Virtual firewalls
One method to secure, log and monitor VM\-to\-VM traffic involved routing the virtualized network traffic out of the virtual network and onto the physical network via VLANs, and hence into a physical firewall already present to provide security and compliance services for the physical network. The VLAN traffic could be monitored and filtered by the physical firewall and then passed back into the virtual network (if deemed legitimate for that purpose) and on to the target virtual machine.
Not surprisingly, LAN managers, security experts and network security vendors began to wonder if it might be more efficient to keep the traffic entirely within the virtualized environment and secure it from there.["Security considerations for virtual environments"](http://news.cnet.com/8301-13846_3-10395695-62.html) Rosenberg, David. Cnet News Nov 2009["Software\-Based Access Management Protects Mixed Networks of Virtual and Physical Machines without Complex Rule Sets and High IT Overhead"](http://www.apani.com/News-Info/Alternative-to-Hardware-based-Firewalls-and-VLANs.html) Apani Inc. Aug 2008["Secure Virtualized Hosting"](http://static2.altornetworks.com/docs/Hosting.pdf) Altor Networks Inc.["Best Practices for Securing Virtual Networks"](http://vmblog.com/archive/2008/03/26/best-practices-for-securing-virtual-networks-part-one-of-three.aspx) Moore, Hezi. March 2008 vmblog.com
A virtual firewall then is a firewall service or appliance running entirely within a virtualised environment — even as another virtual machine, but just as readily within the hypervisor itself — providing the usual packet filtering and monitoring that a physical firewall provides. The VF can be installed as a traditional software firewall on a guest VM already running within the virtualized environment; or it can be a purpose\-built [virtual security appliance](/wiki/Virtual_security_appliance "Virtual security appliance") designed with virtual network security in mind; or it can be a [virtual switch](/wiki/Virtual_switch "Virtual switch") with additional security capabilities; or it can be a managed kernel process running within the host hypervisor that sits atop all VM activity.
The current direction in virtual firewall technology is a combination of security\-capable virtual switches,[Introduction to the Nexus 1000V](http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/ps9902/index.html). Cisco Inc. and virtual security appliances. Some virtual firewalls integrate additional networking functions such as site\-to\-site and remote access VPN, QoS, URL filtering and more.["VMsafe APIs reassure wary IT security professionals"](http://go4idm.blogspot.com/2009/08/vmsafe-apis-reassure-wary-it-security.html) Lukkad, VJ. Identity and Access Management Blog. Aug 2009["Should I have a Firewall for my Virtual World?"](http://www.vminformer.com/tag/virtual-firewall/) VMInformer.[Case Study: Winsert Inc.](http://www.vmware.com/appliances/directory/uploaded_files/AltorNetworksCaseStudy-Winsert.pdf)
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"So long as a computer network runs entirely over physical hardware and cabling, it is a physical network. As such it can be protected by physical *firewalls and fire walls alike*; the first and most important protection for a physical computer network always was and remains a physical, locked, flame\\-resistant door.[\"Physical network security key to fighting low\\-tech threats\"](http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/news/article/0,289142,sid7_gci1347565,00.html#) Morisey, Michael. SearchNetworking.com, Feb 2009\\.[\"Physical Network Security\"](http://www.skullbox.net/physicalnetworksecurity.php) Rodriguez, Erik. Skullbox.com May 2005\\. Since the inception of the Internet this was the case, and structural fire walls and network firewalls were for a long time both necessary and sufficient.",
"Since about 1998 there has been an explosive increase in the use of [virtual machines](/wiki/Virtual_machine \"Virtual machine\") (VM) in addition to — sometimes instead of — physical machines to offer many kinds of computer and communications services on [local area networks](/wiki/LAN \"LAN\") and over the broader Internet. The advantages of virtual machines are well explored elsewhere.[\"The Pros and Cons of Virtual Machines in the Datacenter\"](http://www.devx.com/vmspecialreport/Article/30383) Chao, Wellie, DevX.com Jan 2006[\"Transform your Business with Virtualization\"](http://www.vmware.com/virtualization/virtual-machine.html), Vmware Virtualization Basics",
"Virtual machines can operate in isolation (for example as a guest operating system on a personal computer) or under a unified virtualized environment overseen by a supervisory [virtual machine monitor](/wiki/Virtual_machine_monitor \"Virtual machine monitor\") or \"[hypervisor](/wiki/Hypervisor \"Hypervisor\")\" process. In the case where many virtual machines operate under the same virtualized environment they might be connected together via a [virtual network](/wiki/Virtual_network \"Virtual network\") consisting of [virtualized network switches](/wiki/Virtual_switch \"Virtual switch\") between machines and [virtualized network interfaces](/wiki/Virtual_Interface \"Virtual Interface\") within machines. The resulting [virtual network](/wiki/Virtual_network \"Virtual network\") could then implement traditional network protocols (for example [TCP](/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol \"Transmission Control Protocol\")) or virtual network provisioning such as [VLAN](/wiki/VLAN \"VLAN\") or [VPN](/wiki/VPN \"VPN\"), though the latter while useful for their own reasons are in no way required.",
"There is a continued perception that virtual machines are inherently secure because they are seen as \"[sandboxed](/wiki/Sandbox_%28computer_security%29 \"Sandbox (computer security)\")\" within the host operating system.[\"Does a sandbox or virtual machine help protect your privacy?\"](http://ask-leo.com/does_a_sandbox_or_virtual_machine_help_protect_your_privacy.html) Notenboom, Leo. Oct 2008[\"Virtual machine security threat levels; don’t believe the hype\"](http://searchservervirtualization.techtarget.com/news/article/0,289142,sid94_gci1273735,00.html) Botelho, Bridget. IT Knowledge Exchange. Nov 2008[\"Meditations on a virtually secure world\"](http://searchenterpriselinux.techtarget.com/tip/Meditations-on-a-virtually-secure-world) Korelc, Justin and Ed Tittel. SearchEnterpriseLinux.com Apr 2006 It is often believed that the host, in like manner, is secured against exploitation from the virtual machine itself[\"Core Security Technologies Discovers Critical Vulnerability In Vmware's Desktop Virtualization Software\"](http://www.coresecurity.com/content/vulnerability-vmware) Core Security Technologies, Feb 2008 and that the host is no threat to the virtual machine because it is a physical asset protected by traditional physical and network security. Even when this is not explicitly assumed, early testing of virtual infrastructures often proceeds in isolated lab environments where security is not as a rule an immediate concern, or security may only come to the fore when the same solution is moving into production or onto a [computer cloud](/wiki/Cloud_computing \"Cloud computing\"), where suddenly virtual machines of different trust levels may wind up on the same virtual network running across any number of physical hosts.",
"Because they are true networks, virtual networks may end up suffering the same kinds of vulnerabilities long associated with a physical network, some of which being:\n* Users on machines within the virtual network have access to all other machines on the same virtual network.\n* Compromising or misappropriating one virtual machine on a virtual network is sufficient to provide a platform for additional attacks against other machines on the same network segment.\n* If a virtual network is internetworked to the physical network or broader Internet then machines on the virtual network might have access to external resources (and external exploits) that could leave them open to exploitation.\n* Network traffic that passes directly between machines without passing through security devices is unmonitored.",
"The problems created by the near invisibility of between\\-virtual machine (VM\\-to\\-VM) traffic on a virtual network are exactly like those found in physical networks, complicated by the fact that the packets may be moving entirely inside the hardware of a single physical host:\n* Because the virtual network traffic may never leave the physical host hardware, security administrators cannot observe VM\\-to\\-VM traffic, cannot intercept it, and so cannot know what that traffic is for.\n* Logging of VM\\-to\\-VM network activity within a single host and verification of virtual machine access for regulatory compliance purposes becomes difficult.\n* Inappropriate uses of virtual network resources and bandwidth consumption VM\\-to\\-VM are difficult to discover or rectify.\n* Unusual or inappropriate services running on or within the virtual network could go undetected.",
"There are security issues known only in virtualized environments that wreak havoc with physical security measures and practices, and some of these are touted as actual advantages of virtual machine technology over physical machines:[\"A Survey on Virtual Machine Security\"](http://www.tml.tkk.fi/Publications/C/25/papers/Reuben_final.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220062136/http://www.tml.tkk.fi/Publications/C/25/papers/Reuben\\_final.pdf \\|date\\=2012\\-02\\-20 }} Reuben, JS. Helsinki University of Technology, undated\n* VMs can be deliberately (or unexpectedly) migrated between trusted and untrusted virtualized environments where migration is enabled.\n* VMs and/or virtual storage volumes can be easily cloned and the clone made to run on any part of the virtualized environment, including a [DMZ](/wiki/DMZ_%28computing%29 \"DMZ (computing)\").\n* Many companies use their purchasing or IT departments as the IT security lead agency, applying security measures at the time a physical machine is taken from the box and initialized. Since virtual machines can be created in a few minutes by any authorized user and set running without a paper trail, they can in these cases bypass established \"first boot\" IT security practices.\n* VMs have no physical reality leaving not a trace of their creation nor (in larger virtualized installations) of their continued existence. They can be as easily destroyed as well, leaving nearly no digital signature and absolutely no physical evidence whatsoever.",
"In addition to the network traffic visibility issues and uncoordinated VM sprawl, a rogue VM using just the virtual network, switches and interfaces (all of which run in a process on the host physical hardware) can potentially break the network as could any physical machine on a physical network — and in the usual ways — though now by consuming host CPU cycles it can additionally bring down the entire virtualized environment and all the other VMs with it simply by overpowering the host physical resources the rest of the virtualized environment depend upon.",
"This was likely to become a problem, but it was perceived within the industry as a well understood problem and one potentially open to traditional measures and responses.[\"IT Audit for the Virtual Environment\"](http://www.sans.org/reading_room/analysts_program/VMware_ITAudit_Sep09.pdf) SANS.org, Dec 2009[\"POWER5 Virtualization: How to work with VLANs using the IBM Virtual I/O Server\"](http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/systems/library/es-pwr5-virtualvlan/index.html) IBM Inc. Nov 2008[\"Secure Virtual Networks\"](http://redmondmag.com/articles/2009/02/01/secure-virtual-networks.aspx) Wettern, Joern. Redmondmag.com Feb 2009[\"Why Hyper\\-V virtual networks are less secure than physical networks\"](http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com.au/articles/36232-Why-Hyper-V-virtual-networks-are-less-secure-than-physical-networks) Shields, Greg. TechTarget SearchNetworking, Oct 2009",
"### Virtual firewalls",
"One method to secure, log and monitor VM\\-to\\-VM traffic involved routing the virtualized network traffic out of the virtual network and onto the physical network via VLANs, and hence into a physical firewall already present to provide security and compliance services for the physical network. The VLAN traffic could be monitored and filtered by the physical firewall and then passed back into the virtual network (if deemed legitimate for that purpose) and on to the target virtual machine.",
"Not surprisingly, LAN managers, security experts and network security vendors began to wonder if it might be more efficient to keep the traffic entirely within the virtualized environment and secure it from there.[\"Security considerations for virtual environments\"](http://news.cnet.com/8301-13846_3-10395695-62.html) Rosenberg, David. Cnet News Nov 2009[\"Software\\-Based Access Management Protects Mixed Networks of Virtual and Physical Machines without Complex Rule Sets and High IT Overhead\"](http://www.apani.com/News-Info/Alternative-to-Hardware-based-Firewalls-and-VLANs.html) Apani Inc. Aug 2008[\"Secure Virtualized Hosting\"](http://static2.altornetworks.com/docs/Hosting.pdf) Altor Networks Inc.[\"Best Practices for Securing Virtual Networks\"](http://vmblog.com/archive/2008/03/26/best-practices-for-securing-virtual-networks-part-one-of-three.aspx) Moore, Hezi. March 2008 vmblog.com",
"A virtual firewall then is a firewall service or appliance running entirely within a virtualised environment — even as another virtual machine, but just as readily within the hypervisor itself — providing the usual packet filtering and monitoring that a physical firewall provides. The VF can be installed as a traditional software firewall on a guest VM already running within the virtualized environment; or it can be a purpose\\-built [virtual security appliance](/wiki/Virtual_security_appliance \"Virtual security appliance\") designed with virtual network security in mind; or it can be a [virtual switch](/wiki/Virtual_switch \"Virtual switch\") with additional security capabilities; or it can be a managed kernel process running within the host hypervisor that sits atop all VM activity.",
"The current direction in virtual firewall technology is a combination of security\\-capable virtual switches,[Introduction to the Nexus 1000V](http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/ps9902/index.html). Cisco Inc. and virtual security appliances. Some virtual firewalls integrate additional networking functions such as site\\-to\\-site and remote access VPN, QoS, URL filtering and more.[\"VMsafe APIs reassure wary IT security professionals\"](http://go4idm.blogspot.com/2009/08/vmsafe-apis-reassure-wary-it-security.html) Lukkad, VJ. Identity and Access Management Blog. Aug 2009[\"Should I have a Firewall for my Virtual World?\"](http://www.vminformer.com/tag/virtual-firewall/) VMInformer.[Case Study: Winsert Inc.](http://www.vmware.com/appliances/directory/uploaded_files/AltorNetworksCaseStudy-Winsert.pdf)",
""
] |
Operation
---------
Virtual firewalls can operate in different modes to provide security services, depending on the point of deployment. Typically these are either **bridge\-mode** or **hypervisor\-mode** {{Dubious \|Talk Stub\|reason\=It's VM\-mode vs hypervisor\-mode, and inside VM\-mode there are routed\-mode vs bridged mode\|date\=March 2018}}(hypervisor\-based, hypervisor\-resident). Both may come shrink wrapped as a [virtual security appliance](/wiki/Virtual_security_appliance "Virtual security appliance") and may install a virtual machine for management purposes.
A virtual firewall operating in **bridge\-mode** acts like its physical\-world firewall analog; it sits in a strategic part of the network infrastructure — usually at an inter\-network virtual switch or bridge — and intercepts network traffic destined for other network segments and needing to travel over the bridge. By examining the source origin, the destination, the type of packet it is and [even the payload](/wiki/Deep_packet_inspection "Deep packet inspection") the VF can decide if the packet is to be allowed passage, dropped, rejected, or forwarded or mirrored to some other device. Initial entrants into the virtual firewall field were largely bridge\-mode, and many offers retain this feature.
By contrast, a virtual firewall operating in **hypervisor\-mode** is not actually part of the virtual network at all, and as such has no physical\-world device analog. A hypervisor\-mode virtual firewall resides in the [virtual machine monitor](/wiki/Virtual_machine_monitor "Virtual machine monitor") or [hypervisor](/wiki/Hypervisor "Hypervisor") where it is well positioned to capture VM activity including packet injections. The entire monitored VM and all its virtual hardware, software, services, memory and storage can be examined, as can changes in these {{Citation needed\|date\=March 2018}}. Further, since a hypervisor\-based virtual firewall is not part of the network proper and is not a virtual machine its functionality cannot be monitored in turn or altered by users and software limited to running under a VM or having access only to the virtualized network.
Bridge\-mode virtual firewalls can be installed just as any other virtual machine in the virtualized infrastructure. Since it is then a virtual machine itself, the relationship of the VF to all the other VM may become complicated over time due to VMs disappearing and appearing in random ways, migrating between different physical hosts, or other uncoordinated changes allowed by the virtualized infrastructure.
Hypervisor\-mode virtual firewalls require a modification to the physical host hypervisor kernel in order to install process hooks or modules allowing the virtual firewall system access to VM information and direct access to the virtual network switches and virtualized network interfaces moving packet traffic between VMs or between VMs and the network gateway. The hypervisor\-resident virtual firewall can use the same hooks to then perform all the customary firewall functions like packet inspection, dropping, and forwarding but without actually touching the virtual network at any point. Hypervisor\-mode virtual firewalls can be very much faster than the same technology running in bridge\-mode because they are not doing packet inspection in a virtual machine, but rather from within the kernel at native hardware speeds.
|
[
"Operation\n---------",
"Virtual firewalls can operate in different modes to provide security services, depending on the point of deployment. Typically these are either **bridge\\-mode** or **hypervisor\\-mode** {{Dubious \\|Talk Stub\\|reason\\=It's VM\\-mode vs hypervisor\\-mode, and inside VM\\-mode there are routed\\-mode vs bridged mode\\|date\\=March 2018}}(hypervisor\\-based, hypervisor\\-resident). Both may come shrink wrapped as a [virtual security appliance](/wiki/Virtual_security_appliance \"Virtual security appliance\") and may install a virtual machine for management purposes.",
"A virtual firewall operating in **bridge\\-mode** acts like its physical\\-world firewall analog; it sits in a strategic part of the network infrastructure — usually at an inter\\-network virtual switch or bridge — and intercepts network traffic destined for other network segments and needing to travel over the bridge. By examining the source origin, the destination, the type of packet it is and [even the payload](/wiki/Deep_packet_inspection \"Deep packet inspection\") the VF can decide if the packet is to be allowed passage, dropped, rejected, or forwarded or mirrored to some other device. Initial entrants into the virtual firewall field were largely bridge\\-mode, and many offers retain this feature.",
"By contrast, a virtual firewall operating in **hypervisor\\-mode** is not actually part of the virtual network at all, and as such has no physical\\-world device analog. A hypervisor\\-mode virtual firewall resides in the [virtual machine monitor](/wiki/Virtual_machine_monitor \"Virtual machine monitor\") or [hypervisor](/wiki/Hypervisor \"Hypervisor\") where it is well positioned to capture VM activity including packet injections. The entire monitored VM and all its virtual hardware, software, services, memory and storage can be examined, as can changes in these {{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2018}}. Further, since a hypervisor\\-based virtual firewall is not part of the network proper and is not a virtual machine its functionality cannot be monitored in turn or altered by users and software limited to running under a VM or having access only to the virtualized network.",
"Bridge\\-mode virtual firewalls can be installed just as any other virtual machine in the virtualized infrastructure. Since it is then a virtual machine itself, the relationship of the VF to all the other VM may become complicated over time due to VMs disappearing and appearing in random ways, migrating between different physical hosts, or other uncoordinated changes allowed by the virtualized infrastructure.",
"Hypervisor\\-mode virtual firewalls require a modification to the physical host hypervisor kernel in order to install process hooks or modules allowing the virtual firewall system access to VM information and direct access to the virtual network switches and virtualized network interfaces moving packet traffic between VMs or between VMs and the network gateway. The hypervisor\\-resident virtual firewall can use the same hooks to then perform all the customary firewall functions like packet inspection, dropping, and forwarding but without actually touching the virtual network at any point. Hypervisor\\-mode virtual firewalls can be very much faster than the same technology running in bridge\\-mode because they are not doing packet inspection in a virtual machine, but rather from within the kernel at native hardware speeds.",
""
] |
Incident
--------
### Killings
| **Casualties**{{cite news\|last\=Azimy\|first\=Qais\|title\=No one asked their names\|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/3/19/no\-one\-asked\-their\-names\|access\-date\=15 April 2021\|newspaper\=Al Jazeera\|date\=19 March 2012\|archive\-date\=25 August 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825232208/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/3/19/no\-one\-asked\-their\-names\|url\-status\=live}}[Afghan Farmer Recounts Being Told Americans Killed Family](http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/g/a/2012/03/23/bloomberg_articlesM1AJI307SXKZ01-M1C9O.DTL), *[San Francisco Gate](/wiki/San_Francisco_Gate "San Francisco Gate")* (23 March 2012\) |
| --- |
| ***Killed*** Mohamed Dawood (son of Abdullah) Khudaydad (son of Mohamed Juma) Nazar Mohamed Payendo Robeena Shatarina (daughter of Sultan Mohamed) Zahra (daughter of Abdul Hamid) Nazia (daughter of Dost Mohamed) Masooma (daughter of Mohamed Wazir) Farida (daughter of Mohamed Wazir) Palwasha (daughter of Mohamed Wazir) Nabia (daughter of Mohamed Wazir) Esmatullah, age 16 (son of Mohamed Wazir) Faizullah, age 9 (son of Mohamed Wazir) Essa Mohamed (son of Mohamed Hussain) Akhtar Mohamed (son of Murrad Ali) |
***Wounded***
Haji Mohamed Naim (son of Haji Sakhawat)
Mohamed Sediq (son of Mohamed Naim)
Parween
Rafiullah
Zardana
Zulheja
* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * According to official reports, Bales left combat outpost Camp Belamby at 3:00 a.m. local time wearing [night vision goggles](/wiki/Night_vision_goggles "Night vision goggles").{{cite news \|title\=Afghans Want to Know if U.S. Soldier Acted Alone \|first\=John \|last\=Hudson \|url\=http://www.nationaljournal.com/nationalsecurity/afghans\-want\-to\-know\-if\-u\-s\-soldier\-acted\-alone\-20120312 \|journal\=\[\[National Journal]] \|date\=12 March 2012 \|access\-date\=13 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=11 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511081950/http://www.nationaljournal.com/nationalsecurity/afghans\-want\-to\-know\-if\-u\-s\-soldier\-acted\-alone\-20120312 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/sgt\-robert\-bales\-family\-man\-good\-soldier/story?id\=15942005\#.T2UEkFE5is8 \|title\=Staff Sgt. Robert Bales' Neighbors Described Afghan Massacre Suspect As 'Good Guy' \|publisher\=Abcnews.go.com \|date\=2012\-03\-17 \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-22 \|archive\-date\=19 April 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419113917/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/sgt\-robert\-bales\-family\-man\-good\-soldier/story?id\=15942005\#.T2UEkFE5is8 \|url\-status\=live }} Bales was wearing traditional Afghan clothing over his [ACU](/wiki/Army_Combat_Uniform "Army Combat Uniform").{{cite news\|title\=Revealed: Rogue US soldier dressed in Afghan clothes and wore night goggles to embark on mission of murder \|url\=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk\-world\-news/2012/03/13/revealed\-rogue\-us\-soldier\-dressed\-in\-afghan\-clothes\-and\-wore\-night\-goggles\-to\-embark\-on\-mission\-of\-murder\-86908\-23786478/ \|newspaper\=Daily Record \|date\=13 March 2012 \|access\-date\=14 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329113242/http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk\-world\-news/2012/03/13/revealed\-rogue\-us\-soldier\-dressed\-in\-afghan\-clothes\-and\-wore\-night\-goggles\-to\-embark\-on\-mission\-of\-murder\-86908\-23786478/ \|archive\-date\=29 March 2012 }}[Afghan villagers recount weekend shooting rampage](http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46714928/ns/local_news-clarksburg_wv/t/afghan-villagers-recount-weekend-shooting-rampage/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319063918/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46714928/ns/local\_news\-clarksburg\_wv/t/afghan\-villagers\-recount\-weekend\-shooting\-rampage \|date\=19 March 2012 }}, *[MSNBC](/wiki/MSNBC "MSNBC")* (13 March 2012\){{cite news \|title\=Killings baffle investigators \|url\=http://www.thenewstribune.com/2012/03/15/2067581/killings\-baffle\-investigators.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The News Tribune]] \|date\=15 March 2012 \|access\-date\=15 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120917145513/http://www.thenewstribune.com/2012/03/15/2067581/killings\-baffle\-investigators.html \|archive\-date\=17 September 2012}} He wore no body armor.{{Cite web \|date\=2012\-11\-09 \|title\=Afghan massacre: Relative recounts what he saw \|url\=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle\-news/afghan\-massacre\-relative\-recounts\-what\-he\-saw/ \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-14 \|website\=The Seattle Times \|language\=en\-US}}
According to government officials with knowledge of the investigation, the killings were carried out in two phases, with Bales returning to base in between. An Afghan guard reported a soldier returning to base at 1:30 am, and another guard reported a soldier leaving at 2:30 am.{{Cite news \|last\=Burns \|first\=Robert \|date\=2012\-03\-24 \|title\=US says soldier split killing spree \|url\=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US\_US\_AFGHANISTAN\_BALES?SITE\=AP\&SECTION\=HOME\&TEMPLATE\=DEFAULT\&CTIME\=2012\-03\-24\-16\-50\-23 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325201835/http://hosted.ap.org:80/dynamic/stories/U/US\_US\_AFGHANISTAN\_BALES?SITE\=NCSAI\&SECTION\=HOME\&TEMPLATE\=DEFAULT \|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-25 \|access\-date\=2012\-03\-26 \|work\=\[\[Salisbury Post]] \|language\=en\-US \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press\|AP]]}} Bales is believed to have first gone to Alkozai, about {{convert\|1/2\|mi}} north of Camp Belambay, then to Najiban (called [Balandi](/wiki/Balandi "Balandi") in earlier reports), located {{convert\|1\+1/2\|mi}} south of the base.Murphy, Kim and Ned Parker, "Afghan Massacre A Hard Case For Army", *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, 5 November 2012, p. 1 Four people were killed and six wounded in Alkozai, and twelve people were killed in Najiban. U.S. sentries at the base heard gunshots in Alkozai but did not take action besides attempting to view Alkozai from their post inside the base.[Murphy, Kim](/wiki/Kim_Murphy_%28journalist%29 "Kim Murphy (journalist)"), "U.S. Soldiers Heard Gunfire But Didn't Act", *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, 7 November 2012, p.21 Until 22 March, U.S. authorities recognized sixteen people killed, including nine children, four men, and three women. On 22 March that number was revised to seventeen,{{cite news \|title\=U.S. now counts 17 dead in Afghan massacre \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/afghanistan/story/2012\-03\-22/17\-dead\-in\-afghan\-massacre/53704660/1 \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|newspaper\=\[\[USA Today]] \|date\=22 March 2012 \|access\-date\=22 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=23 March 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323010545/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/afghanistan/story/2012\-03\-22/17\-dead\-in\-afghan\-massacre/53704660/1 \|url\-status\=live }} but later reduced back to sixteen.{{cite news\|title\=Army drops one charge against soldier accused in Afghan massacre\|work\=Reuters\|date\=1 June 2012\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-usa\-crime\-afghanistan\-idUSBRE8501D520120601\|access\-date\=26 June 2012\|archive\-date\=6 June 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606162320/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/01/us\-usa\-crime\-afghanistan\-idUSBRE8501D520120601\|url\-status\=live}} It was initially reported that five others were injured, and that number was eventually increased to six.
Four members of the same family were killed in Alkozai. According to a 16\-year\-old boy who was shot in the leg, Bales woke up his family members before shooting them. Another witness said she saw the man drag a woman out of her house and repeatedly hit her head against a wall.{{cite news \|title\=Afghan massacre: US soldier 'acted alone' in Kandahar \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-asia\-17343437 \|work\=\[\[BBC]] \|date\=12 March 2012 \|access\-date\=18 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=22 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822221406/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-asia\-17343437 \|url\-status\=live }}
The first victim in Najiban appears to have been Mohammad Dawood. According to Dawood's brother, Bales shot Dawood in the head but spared Dawood's wife and six children after the wife screamed at him.Levinson, Charles, "Afghan Father Copes With Aftermath", *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal "Wall Street Journal")*, 23 March 2012, p. 7\.
Eleven members of Abdul Samad's family were killed in a house in Najiban village, including his wife, four girls between the ages of two and six, four boys between eight and twelve, and two other relatives. According to a witness, "he dragged the boys by their hair and shot them in the mouth".{{cite news \|title\=US Soldier Accused in Afghanistan Massacre \|url\=http://weareaustin.com/news/top\-stories/stories/vid\_799\.shtml \|work\=\[\[KEYE\-TV]] \|date\=12 March 2012 \|access\-date\=13 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504005239/http://weareaustin.com/news/top\-stories/stories/vid\_799\.shtml \|archive\-date\=4 May 2012}} At least three of the child victims were killed by a single shot to the head of each. Their bodies were then set on fire. Another civilian, Mohammad Dawoud, age 55, was then killed in another village house.{{cite news \|title\=Afghan\-massacre suspect Staff Sgt. Robert Bales en route to U.S. \|url\=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/03/16/142253/afghan\-massacre\-suspect\-staff.html \|publisher\=\[\[The McClatchy Company]] \|date\=16 March 2012 \|access\-date\=18 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=21 May 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521032151/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/03/16/142253/afghan\-massacre\-suspect\-staff.html \|url\-status\=live }} Witnesses reported that Bales was wearing a headlamp and/or a spotlight attached to his weapon.Johnson, Kirk, "At Soldier's Hearing, Grisly Descriptions of Chaos And Horror", *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")*, 11 November 2012, p. 1Murphy, Kim, "Young Afghan Victims Testify About Massacre", *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, 12 November 2012, p. 10
Bales burned some of the victims' bodies. Witnesses said the eleven corpses from one family were shot in the head, stabbed, gathered into one room, and set on fire.{{cite news \|title\=An Afghan Comes Home to a Massacre \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/world/asia/us\-army\-sergeant\-suspected\-in\-afghanistan\-shooting.html?\_r\=1 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=12 March 2012 \|access\-date\=13 March 2012 \|first1\=Taimoor \|last1\=Shah \|first2\=Graham \|last2\=Bowley \|archive\-date\=27 April 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427155752/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/world/asia/us\-army\-sergeant\-suspected\-in\-afghanistan\-shooting.html?\_r\=1 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news\|title\=Afghans Bury Victims of American Soldier's Rampage as Restraint Is Urged \|url\=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012\-03\-12/afghans\-bury\-victims\-of\-american\-soldier\-s\-rampage\-as\-restraint\-is\-urged \|magazine\=\[\[Bloomberg Businessweek]] \|date\=12 March 2012 \|access\-date\=13 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315073251/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012\-03\-12/afghans\-bury\-victims\-of\-american\-soldier\-s\-rampage\-as\-restraint\-is\-urged \|archive\-date\=15 March 2012 }} A pile of ashes was found on the floor of one victims' house; at least one child's body was found partially charred.{{cite news \|title\=How it happened: Massacre in Kandahar \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-asia\-17334643 \|work\=\[\[BBC]] \|date\=13 March 2012 \|access\-date\=13 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=11 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011054639/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-asia\-17334643 \|url\-status\=live }} A reporter for *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* inspected the children's bodies taken to a nearby American military base and reported seeing burns on some of the legs and heads.
### Surrender and confession
Following the events at Alkozai and Balandi, Bales handed himself over into [ISAF](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force "International Security Assistance Force") custody.{{cite news\|title\=U.S. soldier kills Afghan civilians in Kandahar\|publisher\=BBC\|date\=11 March 2012\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-asia\-17332398\|access\-date\=11 March 2012\|archive\-date\=19 August 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819104907/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-asia\-17332398\|url\-status\=live}} Afghan forces spotted him leaving his outpost before the killings and U.S. commanders on base assembled their troops for a head count when it was discovered that a soldier was missing. A patrol was dispatched to find the missing soldier but did not find him before he returned to base after the killings. He was reportedly taken into custody without incident. No military operations were being conducted in the area at the time of the shootings.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/11/world/asia/afghanistan\-us\-service\-member/index.html?hpt\=hp\_t2 \|title\=U.S. soldier accused of Afghan killing spree \|publisher\=CNN \|date\=11 March 2012 \|access\-date\=12 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=6 May 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506230830/https://www.cnn.com/2012/03/11/world/asia/afghanistan\-us\-service\-member/index.html?hpt\=hp\_t2 \|url\-status\=live }}
The surveillance video from the base reportedly shows "the soldier walking up to his base covered in a traditional Afghan shawl. The soldier removes the shawl and lays his weapon on the ground, then raises his arms in surrender."{{cite news \|title\=Defense Secretary Panetta arrives in Afghanistan on unannounced visit after shooting rampage \|url\=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2012/03/14/defense\-secretary\-panetta\-arrives\-in\-afghanistan\-on\-unannounced\-visit\-after/ \|work\=\[\[Fox News Channel\|Fox News]] \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|date\=14 March 2012 \|access\-date\=15 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=20 August 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820130316/http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2012/03/14/defense\-secretary\-panetta\-arrives\-in\-afghanistan\-on\-unannounced\-visit\-after/ \|url\-status\=live }} The video has not been released to the public.
U.S. investigators suspect Bales may have departed the base before midnight, committed the murders in Alkozai, then returned to the base around 1:30 a.m. Bales may have then departed the base at 2:30 a.m. and committed the murders in Najiban. Apparently, the second departure caused the alert and the commencement of the patrol to locate the missing soldier.Burns, Robert, "Officials: Villagers Killed in Two Separate Attacks", *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post "Washington Post")*, 25 March 2012, p. 13\.
According to U.S. defense officials, upon his return to the base, Bales said: "I did it" and then told individuals what happened.{{cite news \|title\=Afghan Massacre Suspect: 'I Did It' \|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/afghan\-delegation\-fire\-site\-massacre/story?id\=15908068\#.T2E3o8UltIM \|work\=\[\[ABC News (United States)\|ABC News]] \|date\=13 March 2012 \|access\-date\=14 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=14 March 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314004407/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/afghan\-delegation\-fire\-site\-massacre/story?id\=15908068\#.T2E3o8UltIM \|url\-status\=live }} Later he retained a lawyer and refused to speak further with investigators. The U.S. flew Bales out of Afghanistan to [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") on 14 March 2012,{{cite news \|title\=Suspect in Afghan killings flown to Kuwait \|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/14/world/asia/afghanistan\-shooting/index.html \|work\=\[\[CNN]] \|date\=14 March 2012 \|access\-date\=15 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=27 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627191127/https://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/14/world/asia/afghanistan\-shooting/index.html \|url\-status\=live }} then to the [United States Disciplinary Barracks](/wiki/United_States_Disciplinary_Barracks "United States Disciplinary Barracks") at [Fort Leavenworth](/wiki/Fort_Leavenworth "Fort Leavenworth") in [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas") on 16 March.Goodwin, Liz, "[Army Staff Sgt. Robert Bales named as suspect in Afghanistan massacre](https://news.yahoo.com/blogs/lookout/military-sources-name-army-sergeant-suspected-afghanistan-massacre-224453357.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627185814/https://news.yahoo.com/blogs/lookout/military\-sources\-name\-army\-sergeant\-suspected\-afghanistan\-massacre\-224453357\.html \|date\=27 June 2021 }}", *[Yahoo! News](/wiki/Yahoo%21_News "Yahoo! News")*, 17 March 2012\. A Pentagon spokesman said the move was made because of a "legal recommendation".{{cite news \|title\=U.S. Soldier Accused of Afghan Massacre Flown Out of Country \|url\=http://www.rferl.org/content/us\_massacre\_suspect\_flown\_out\_of\_afghanistan/24515946\.html \|work\=\[\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] \|date\=14 March 2012 \|access\-date\=14 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=3 February 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203075113/http://www.rferl.org/content/us\_massacre\_suspect\_flown\_out\_of\_afghanistan/24515946\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
### Number of assailants
According to U.S. authorities, a single soldier – Staff Sergeant [Robert Bales](/wiki/Robert_Bales "Robert Bales") – conducted the attack. The U.S. military showed Afghan authorities the footage from the surveillance video at the base as proof that there was only one perpetrator of the shootings.
According to [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters"), some neighbors and relatives of the dead saw a group of U.S. soldiers arrive at their village at about 2 a.m., enter homes and open fire. "They were all drunk and shooting all over the place," said neighbor Agha Lala.{{cite news\|title\=Western forces kill 16 civilians in Afghanistan: Kabul government\|work\=Reuters\|date\=11 March 2012\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-afghanistan\-civilians\-idUSBRE82A02V20120311\|access\-date\=11 March 2012\|archive\-date\=1 February 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201000022/http://www.reuters.com/article/us\-afghanistan\-civilians\-idUSBRE82A02V20120311\|url\-status\=live}} According to *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, one of the attack's survivors and "at least five other villagers" described seeing several soldiers, while some other Afghan residents described seeing only one gunman. Some elected officials said that they believed the attack was planned, claiming that one soldier could not have carried out such an act without help.{{cite magazine \|title\=Afghans Skeptical Over Shooting Account \|url\=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,2108798,00\.html \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130204131308/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,2108798,00\.html \|archive\-date\=4 February 2013 \|magazine\=\[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]] \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|date\=12 March 2012 \|access\-date\=13 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}}
On 15 March 2012, an Afghan parliamentary probe team made up of several members of the [National Assembly of Afghanistan](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Afghanistan "National Assembly of Afghanistan") announced that up to 20 American soldiers were involved in the killings,{{cite news \|title\=Up to 20 US troops executed Panjwai massacre: probe \|url\=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2012/03/15/20\-us\-troops\-executed\-panjwai\-massacre\-probe \|agency\=\[\[Pajhwok Afghan News]] \|date\=15 March 2012 \|access\-date\=15 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=12 November 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112034325/https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2012/03/15/20\-us\-troops\-executed\-panjwai\-massacre\-probe \|url\-status\=live }} with support from two helicopters.[Roggio, Bill](/wiki/Bill_Roggio "Bill Roggio"), "[Afghan parliament delegation claims 15 US troops were involved in Kandahar massacre](http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat-matrix/archives/2012/03/afghan_parliament_delegation_c.php) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815075901/http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat\-matrix/archives/2012/03/afghan\_parliament\_delegation\_c.php \|date\=15 August 2014 }}", *[Long War Journal](/wiki/Long_War_Journal "Long War Journal")*, 17 March 2012\. They had spent two days in the province on\-site, interviewing the survivors and collecting evidence. One of the probe team members, Hamizai Lali, said: "We closely examined the site of the incident, talked to the families who lost their beloved ones, the injured people and tribal elders... The villages are one and a half kilometer from the U.S. military base. We are convinced that one soldier cannot kill so many people in two villages within one hour... \[the victims] have been killed by the two groups." Lali asked the Afghan government, the United Nations, and the international community to ensure the perpetrators were punished in Afghanistan. While visiting one of the affected villages, Hamid Karzai pointed to one of the villagers and said: "In his family, in four rooms people were killed – children and women were killed – and then they were all brought together in one room and then set on fire. That, one man cannot do."{{cite news\|title\=Afghan leader blasts US over probe into shootings \|url\=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2012/03/16/nato\-soldier\-dies\-in\-attack\-in\-east\-afghanistan \|agency\=\[\[Associated Press]] \|magazine\=\[\[U.S. News \& World Report]] \|date\=16 March 2012 \|access\-date\=17 March 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203075113/http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2012/03/16/nato\-soldier\-dies\-in\-attack\-in\-east\-afghanistan \|archive\-date\= 3 February 2016 }} However, the team later said they could not confirm that multiple soldiers took part in the killings.{{cite web \|url\=http://news.antiwar.com/2012/03/21/afghan\-officials\-change\-story\-kandahar\-massacre\-may\-have\-only\-had\-one\-shooter/ \|title\=Afghan Officials Change Story: Kandahar Massacre May Have Only Had One Shooter \|publisher\=News.antiwar.com \|date\=2012\-03\-21 \|access\-date\=2012\-04\-22 \|archive\-date\=29 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629232139/https://news.antiwar.com/2012/03/21/afghan\-officials\-change\-story\-kandahar\-massacre\-may\-have\-only\-had\-one\-shooter/ \|url\-status\=live }}
### Financial payments to victims' families
On 25 March 2012, at the office of the governor of Kandahar province, the United States gave the equivalent of [US$](/wiki/US%24 "US$")860,000 to the victims' families, allocated as $50,000 for each person killed and $10,000 for each person injured. The official who disbursed payments to the families said the money was not compensation but the U.S. government's offering to help the victims and their families.{{cite news\|title\=In Afghan killings, victim No. 17 remains unknown\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/25/world/asia/afghanistan\-killings\-money/?hpt\=hp\_t1\|work\=CNN Wire Staff\|publisher\=CNN\|access\-date\=26 March 2012\|date\=26 March 2012\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064246/http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/25/world/asia/afghanistan\-killings\-money/?hpt\=hp\_t1\|url\-status\=live}} A member of the Kandahar provincial council described the payments as assistance, but not as the kind of legal compensation that would absolve the accused.{{cite news\|last\=Matthew\|first\=Rosenberg\|title\=U.S. Pays Families of Afghan Victims in Massacre by Soldier\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/26/world/asia/us\-compensates\-afghan\-villagers\-for\-soldiers\-attack.html?\_r\=1\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=26 March 2012\|date\=25 March 2012\|archive\-date\=30 June 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630084416/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/26/world/asia/us\-compensates\-afghan\-villagers\-for\-soldiers\-attack.html?\_r\=1\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Incident\n--------",
"### Killings",
"",
"| **Casualties**{{cite news\\|last\\=Azimy\\|first\\=Qais\\|title\\=No one asked their names\\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/3/19/no\\-one\\-asked\\-their\\-names\\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2021\\|newspaper\\=Al Jazeera\\|date\\=19 March 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=25 August 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825232208/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/3/19/no\\-one\\-asked\\-their\\-names\\|url\\-status\\=live}}[Afghan Farmer Recounts Being Told Americans Killed Family](http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/g/a/2012/03/23/bloomberg_articlesM1AJI307SXKZ01-M1C9O.DTL), *[San Francisco Gate](/wiki/San_Francisco_Gate \"San Francisco Gate\")* (23 March 2012\\) |\n| --- |\n| ***Killed*** Mohamed Dawood (son of Abdullah) Khudaydad (son of Mohamed Juma) Nazar Mohamed Payendo Robeena Shatarina (daughter of Sultan Mohamed) Zahra (daughter of Abdul Hamid) Nazia (daughter of Dost Mohamed) Masooma (daughter of Mohamed Wazir) Farida (daughter of Mohamed Wazir) Palwasha (daughter of Mohamed Wazir) Nabia (daughter of Mohamed Wazir) Esmatullah, age 16 (son of Mohamed Wazir) Faizullah, age 9 (son of Mohamed Wazir) Essa Mohamed (son of Mohamed Hussain) Akhtar Mohamed (son of Murrad Ali) |",
"***Wounded***\n Haji Mohamed Naim (son of Haji Sakhawat)\n Mohamed Sediq (son of Mohamed Naim)\n Parween\n Rafiullah\n Zardana\n Zulheja",
"* + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * + - * According to official reports, Bales left combat outpost Camp Belamby at 3:00 a.m. local time wearing [night vision goggles](/wiki/Night_vision_goggles \"Night vision goggles\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Afghans Want to Know if U.S. Soldier Acted Alone \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Hudson \\|url\\=http://www.nationaljournal.com/nationalsecurity/afghans\\-want\\-to\\-know\\-if\\-u\\-s\\-soldier\\-acted\\-alone\\-20120312 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[National Journal]] \\|date\\=12 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511081950/http://www.nationaljournal.com/nationalsecurity/afghans\\-want\\-to\\-know\\-if\\-u\\-s\\-soldier\\-acted\\-alone\\-20120312 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/sgt\\-robert\\-bales\\-family\\-man\\-good\\-soldier/story?id\\=15942005\\#.T2UEkFE5is8 \\|title\\=Staff Sgt. Robert Bales' Neighbors Described Afghan Massacre Suspect As 'Good Guy' \\|publisher\\=Abcnews.go.com \\|date\\=2012\\-03\\-17 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-22 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 April 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419113917/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/sgt\\-robert\\-bales\\-family\\-man\\-good\\-soldier/story?id\\=15942005\\#.T2UEkFE5is8 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Bales was wearing traditional Afghan clothing over his [ACU](/wiki/Army_Combat_Uniform \"Army Combat Uniform\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Revealed: Rogue US soldier dressed in Afghan clothes and wore night goggles to embark on mission of murder \\|url\\=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk\\-world\\-news/2012/03/13/revealed\\-rogue\\-us\\-soldier\\-dressed\\-in\\-afghan\\-clothes\\-and\\-wore\\-night\\-goggles\\-to\\-embark\\-on\\-mission\\-of\\-murder\\-86908\\-23786478/ \\|newspaper\\=Daily Record \\|date\\=13 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329113242/http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk\\-world\\-news/2012/03/13/revealed\\-rogue\\-us\\-soldier\\-dressed\\-in\\-afghan\\-clothes\\-and\\-wore\\-night\\-goggles\\-to\\-embark\\-on\\-mission\\-of\\-murder\\-86908\\-23786478/ \\|archive\\-date\\=29 March 2012 }}[Afghan villagers recount weekend shooting rampage](http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46714928/ns/local_news-clarksburg_wv/t/afghan-villagers-recount-weekend-shooting-rampage/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319063918/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46714928/ns/local\\_news\\-clarksburg\\_wv/t/afghan\\-villagers\\-recount\\-weekend\\-shooting\\-rampage \\|date\\=19 March 2012 }}, *[MSNBC](/wiki/MSNBC \"MSNBC\")* (13 March 2012\\){{cite news \\|title\\=Killings baffle investigators \\|url\\=http://www.thenewstribune.com/2012/03/15/2067581/killings\\-baffle\\-investigators.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The News Tribune]] \\|date\\=15 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120917145513/http://www.thenewstribune.com/2012/03/15/2067581/killings\\-baffle\\-investigators.html \\|archive\\-date\\=17 September 2012}} He wore no body armor.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2012\\-11\\-09 \\|title\\=Afghan massacre: Relative recounts what he saw \\|url\\=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle\\-news/afghan\\-massacre\\-relative\\-recounts\\-what\\-he\\-saw/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-14 \\|website\\=The Seattle Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"According to government officials with knowledge of the investigation, the killings were carried out in two phases, with Bales returning to base in between. An Afghan guard reported a soldier returning to base at 1:30 am, and another guard reported a soldier leaving at 2:30 am.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Burns \\|first\\=Robert \\|date\\=2012\\-03\\-24 \\|title\\=US says soldier split killing spree \\|url\\=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US\\_US\\_AFGHANISTAN\\_BALES?SITE\\=AP\\&SECTION\\=HOME\\&TEMPLATE\\=DEFAULT\\&CTIME\\=2012\\-03\\-24\\-16\\-50\\-23 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325201835/http://hosted.ap.org:80/dynamic/stories/U/US\\_US\\_AFGHANISTAN\\_BALES?SITE\\=NCSAI\\&SECTION\\=HOME\\&TEMPLATE\\=DEFAULT \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-25 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-26 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Salisbury Post]] \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press\\|AP]]}} Bales is believed to have first gone to Alkozai, about {{convert\\|1/2\\|mi}} north of Camp Belambay, then to Najiban (called [Balandi](/wiki/Balandi \"Balandi\") in earlier reports), located {{convert\\|1\\+1/2\\|mi}} south of the base.Murphy, Kim and Ned Parker, \"Afghan Massacre A Hard Case For Army\", *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, 5 November 2012, p. 1 Four people were killed and six wounded in Alkozai, and twelve people were killed in Najiban. U.S. sentries at the base heard gunshots in Alkozai but did not take action besides attempting to view Alkozai from their post inside the base.[Murphy, Kim](/wiki/Kim_Murphy_%28journalist%29 \"Kim Murphy (journalist)\"), \"U.S. Soldiers Heard Gunfire But Didn't Act\", *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, 7 November 2012, p.21 Until 22 March, U.S. authorities recognized sixteen people killed, including nine children, four men, and three women. On 22 March that number was revised to seventeen,{{cite news \\|title\\=U.S. now counts 17 dead in Afghan massacre \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/afghanistan/story/2012\\-03\\-22/17\\-dead\\-in\\-afghan\\-massacre/53704660/1 \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[USA Today]] \\|date\\=22 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323010545/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/afghanistan/story/2012\\-03\\-22/17\\-dead\\-in\\-afghan\\-massacre/53704660/1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} but later reduced back to sixteen.{{cite news\\|title\\=Army drops one charge against soldier accused in Afghan massacre\\|work\\=Reuters\\|date\\=1 June 2012\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-usa\\-crime\\-afghanistan\\-idUSBRE8501D520120601\\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=6 June 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606162320/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/01/us\\-usa\\-crime\\-afghanistan\\-idUSBRE8501D520120601\\|url\\-status\\=live}} It was initially reported that five others were injured, and that number was eventually increased to six.",
"Four members of the same family were killed in Alkozai. According to a 16\\-year\\-old boy who was shot in the leg, Bales woke up his family members before shooting them. Another witness said she saw the man drag a woman out of her house and repeatedly hit her head against a wall.{{cite news \\|title\\=Afghan massacre: US soldier 'acted alone' in Kandahar \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-asia\\-17343437 \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC]] \\|date\\=12 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822221406/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-asia\\-17343437 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The first victim in Najiban appears to have been Mohammad Dawood. According to Dawood's brother, Bales shot Dawood in the head but spared Dawood's wife and six children after the wife screamed at him.Levinson, Charles, \"Afghan Father Copes With Aftermath\", *[Wall Street Journal](/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal \"Wall Street Journal\")*, 23 March 2012, p. 7\\.",
"Eleven members of Abdul Samad's family were killed in a house in Najiban village, including his wife, four girls between the ages of two and six, four boys between eight and twelve, and two other relatives. According to a witness, \"he dragged the boys by their hair and shot them in the mouth\".{{cite news \\|title\\=US Soldier Accused in Afghanistan Massacre \\|url\\=http://weareaustin.com/news/top\\-stories/stories/vid\\_799\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[KEYE\\-TV]] \\|date\\=12 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504005239/http://weareaustin.com/news/top\\-stories/stories/vid\\_799\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=4 May 2012}} At least three of the child victims were killed by a single shot to the head of each. Their bodies were then set on fire. Another civilian, Mohammad Dawoud, age 55, was then killed in another village house.{{cite news \\|title\\=Afghan\\-massacre suspect Staff Sgt. Robert Bales en route to U.S. \\|url\\=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/03/16/142253/afghan\\-massacre\\-suspect\\-staff.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The McClatchy Company]] \\|date\\=16 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521032151/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/03/16/142253/afghan\\-massacre\\-suspect\\-staff.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Witnesses reported that Bales was wearing a headlamp and/or a spotlight attached to his weapon.Johnson, Kirk, \"At Soldier's Hearing, Grisly Descriptions of Chaos And Horror\", *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")*, 11 November 2012, p. 1Murphy, Kim, \"Young Afghan Victims Testify About Massacre\", *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, 12 November 2012, p. 10",
"Bales burned some of the victims' bodies. Witnesses said the eleven corpses from one family were shot in the head, stabbed, gathered into one room, and set on fire.{{cite news \\|title\\=An Afghan Comes Home to a Massacre \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/world/asia/us\\-army\\-sergeant\\-suspected\\-in\\-afghanistan\\-shooting.html?\\_r\\=1 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=12 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2012 \\|first1\\=Taimoor \\|last1\\=Shah \\|first2\\=Graham \\|last2\\=Bowley \\|archive\\-date\\=27 April 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427155752/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/world/asia/us\\-army\\-sergeant\\-suspected\\-in\\-afghanistan\\-shooting.html?\\_r\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news\\|title\\=Afghans Bury Victims of American Soldier's Rampage as Restraint Is Urged \\|url\\=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012\\-03\\-12/afghans\\-bury\\-victims\\-of\\-american\\-soldier\\-s\\-rampage\\-as\\-restraint\\-is\\-urged \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg Businessweek]] \\|date\\=12 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315073251/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012\\-03\\-12/afghans\\-bury\\-victims\\-of\\-american\\-soldier\\-s\\-rampage\\-as\\-restraint\\-is\\-urged \\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2012 }} A pile of ashes was found on the floor of one victims' house; at least one child's body was found partially charred.{{cite news \\|title\\=How it happened: Massacre in Kandahar \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-asia\\-17334643 \\|work\\=\\[\\[BBC]] \\|date\\=13 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011054639/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-asia\\-17334643 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A reporter for *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* inspected the children's bodies taken to a nearby American military base and reported seeing burns on some of the legs and heads.",
"### Surrender and confession",
"Following the events at Alkozai and Balandi, Bales handed himself over into [ISAF](/wiki/International_Security_Assistance_Force \"International Security Assistance Force\") custody.{{cite news\\|title\\=U.S. soldier kills Afghan civilians in Kandahar\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|date\\=11 March 2012\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-asia\\-17332398\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819104907/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-asia\\-17332398\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Afghan forces spotted him leaving his outpost before the killings and U.S. commanders on base assembled their troops for a head count when it was discovered that a soldier was missing. A patrol was dispatched to find the missing soldier but did not find him before he returned to base after the killings. He was reportedly taken into custody without incident. No military operations were being conducted in the area at the time of the shootings.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/11/world/asia/afghanistan\\-us\\-service\\-member/index.html?hpt\\=hp\\_t2 \\|title\\=U.S. soldier accused of Afghan killing spree \\|publisher\\=CNN \\|date\\=11 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506230830/https://www.cnn.com/2012/03/11/world/asia/afghanistan\\-us\\-service\\-member/index.html?hpt\\=hp\\_t2 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The surveillance video from the base reportedly shows \"the soldier walking up to his base covered in a traditional Afghan shawl. The soldier removes the shawl and lays his weapon on the ground, then raises his arms in surrender.\"{{cite news \\|title\\=Defense Secretary Panetta arrives in Afghanistan on unannounced visit after shooting rampage \\|url\\=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2012/03/14/defense\\-secretary\\-panetta\\-arrives\\-in\\-afghanistan\\-on\\-unannounced\\-visit\\-after/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[Fox News Channel\\|Fox News]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|date\\=14 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820130316/http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2012/03/14/defense\\-secretary\\-panetta\\-arrives\\-in\\-afghanistan\\-on\\-unannounced\\-visit\\-after/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The video has not been released to the public.",
"U.S. investigators suspect Bales may have departed the base before midnight, committed the murders in Alkozai, then returned to the base around 1:30 a.m. Bales may have then departed the base at 2:30 a.m. and committed the murders in Najiban. Apparently, the second departure caused the alert and the commencement of the patrol to locate the missing soldier.Burns, Robert, \"Officials: Villagers Killed in Two Separate Attacks\", *[Washington Post](/wiki/Washington_Post \"Washington Post\")*, 25 March 2012, p. 13\\.",
"According to U.S. defense officials, upon his return to the base, Bales said: \"I did it\" and then told individuals what happened.{{cite news \\|title\\=Afghan Massacre Suspect: 'I Did It' \\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/afghan\\-delegation\\-fire\\-site\\-massacre/story?id\\=15908068\\#.T2E3o8UltIM \\|work\\=\\[\\[ABC News (United States)\\|ABC News]] \\|date\\=13 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 March 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314004407/https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/afghan\\-delegation\\-fire\\-site\\-massacre/story?id\\=15908068\\#.T2E3o8UltIM \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Later he retained a lawyer and refused to speak further with investigators. The U.S. flew Bales out of Afghanistan to [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\") on 14 March 2012,{{cite news \\|title\\=Suspect in Afghan killings flown to Kuwait \\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/14/world/asia/afghanistan\\-shooting/index.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[CNN]] \\|date\\=14 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627191127/https://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/14/world/asia/afghanistan\\-shooting/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} then to the [United States Disciplinary Barracks](/wiki/United_States_Disciplinary_Barracks \"United States Disciplinary Barracks\") at [Fort Leavenworth](/wiki/Fort_Leavenworth \"Fort Leavenworth\") in [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\") on 16 March.Goodwin, Liz, \"[Army Staff Sgt. Robert Bales named as suspect in Afghanistan massacre](https://news.yahoo.com/blogs/lookout/military-sources-name-army-sergeant-suspected-afghanistan-massacre-224453357.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627185814/https://news.yahoo.com/blogs/lookout/military\\-sources\\-name\\-army\\-sergeant\\-suspected\\-afghanistan\\-massacre\\-224453357\\.html \\|date\\=27 June 2021 }}\", *[Yahoo! News](/wiki/Yahoo%21_News \"Yahoo! News\")*, 17 March 2012\\. A Pentagon spokesman said the move was made because of a \"legal recommendation\".{{cite news \\|title\\=U.S. Soldier Accused of Afghan Massacre Flown Out of Country \\|url\\=http://www.rferl.org/content/us\\_massacre\\_suspect\\_flown\\_out\\_of\\_afghanistan/24515946\\.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] \\|date\\=14 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203075113/http://www.rferl.org/content/us\\_massacre\\_suspect\\_flown\\_out\\_of\\_afghanistan/24515946\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Number of assailants",
"According to U.S. authorities, a single soldier – Staff Sergeant [Robert Bales](/wiki/Robert_Bales \"Robert Bales\") – conducted the attack. The U.S. military showed Afghan authorities the footage from the surveillance video at the base as proof that there was only one perpetrator of the shootings.",
"According to [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\"), some neighbors and relatives of the dead saw a group of U.S. soldiers arrive at their village at about 2 a.m., enter homes and open fire. \"They were all drunk and shooting all over the place,\" said neighbor Agha Lala.{{cite news\\|title\\=Western forces kill 16 civilians in Afghanistan: Kabul government\\|work\\=Reuters\\|date\\=11 March 2012\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-afghanistan\\-civilians\\-idUSBRE82A02V20120311\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=1 February 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201000022/http://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-afghanistan\\-civilians\\-idUSBRE82A02V20120311\\|url\\-status\\=live}} According to *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, one of the attack's survivors and \"at least five other villagers\" described seeing several soldiers, while some other Afghan residents described seeing only one gunman. Some elected officials said that they believed the attack was planned, claiming that one soldier could not have carried out such an act without help.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Afghans Skeptical Over Shooting Account \\|url\\=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,2108798,00\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130204131308/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,2108798,00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=4 February 2013 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|date\\=12 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"On 15 March 2012, an Afghan parliamentary probe team made up of several members of the [National Assembly of Afghanistan](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Afghanistan \"National Assembly of Afghanistan\") announced that up to 20 American soldiers were involved in the killings,{{cite news \\|title\\=Up to 20 US troops executed Panjwai massacre: probe \\|url\\=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2012/03/15/20\\-us\\-troops\\-executed\\-panjwai\\-massacre\\-probe \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Pajhwok Afghan News]] \\|date\\=15 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112034325/https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2012/03/15/20\\-us\\-troops\\-executed\\-panjwai\\-massacre\\-probe \\|url\\-status\\=live }} with support from two helicopters.[Roggio, Bill](/wiki/Bill_Roggio \"Bill Roggio\"), \"[Afghan parliament delegation claims 15 US troops were involved in Kandahar massacre](http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat-matrix/archives/2012/03/afghan_parliament_delegation_c.php) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815075901/http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat\\-matrix/archives/2012/03/afghan\\_parliament\\_delegation\\_c.php \\|date\\=15 August 2014 }}\", *[Long War Journal](/wiki/Long_War_Journal \"Long War Journal\")*, 17 March 2012\\. They had spent two days in the province on\\-site, interviewing the survivors and collecting evidence. One of the probe team members, Hamizai Lali, said: \"We closely examined the site of the incident, talked to the families who lost their beloved ones, the injured people and tribal elders... The villages are one and a half kilometer from the U.S. military base. We are convinced that one soldier cannot kill so many people in two villages within one hour... \\[the victims] have been killed by the two groups.\" Lali asked the Afghan government, the United Nations, and the international community to ensure the perpetrators were punished in Afghanistan. While visiting one of the affected villages, Hamid Karzai pointed to one of the villagers and said: \"In his family, in four rooms people were killed – children and women were killed – and then they were all brought together in one room and then set on fire. That, one man cannot do.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Afghan leader blasts US over probe into shootings \\|url\\=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2012/03/16/nato\\-soldier\\-dies\\-in\\-attack\\-in\\-east\\-afghanistan \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[U.S. News \\& World Report]] \\|date\\=16 March 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203075113/http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2012/03/16/nato\\-soldier\\-dies\\-in\\-attack\\-in\\-east\\-afghanistan \\|archive\\-date\\= 3 February 2016 }} However, the team later said they could not confirm that multiple soldiers took part in the killings.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://news.antiwar.com/2012/03/21/afghan\\-officials\\-change\\-story\\-kandahar\\-massacre\\-may\\-have\\-only\\-had\\-one\\-shooter/ \\|title\\=Afghan Officials Change Story: Kandahar Massacre May Have Only Had One Shooter \\|publisher\\=News.antiwar.com \\|date\\=2012\\-03\\-21 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-22 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629232139/https://news.antiwar.com/2012/03/21/afghan\\-officials\\-change\\-story\\-kandahar\\-massacre\\-may\\-have\\-only\\-had\\-one\\-shooter/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Financial payments to victims' families",
"On 25 March 2012, at the office of the governor of Kandahar province, the United States gave the equivalent of [US$](/wiki/US%24 \"US$\")860,000 to the victims' families, allocated as $50,000 for each person killed and $10,000 for each person injured. The official who disbursed payments to the families said the money was not compensation but the U.S. government's offering to help the victims and their families.{{cite news\\|title\\=In Afghan killings, victim No. 17 remains unknown\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/25/world/asia/afghanistan\\-killings\\-money/?hpt\\=hp\\_t1\\|work\\=CNN Wire Staff\\|publisher\\=CNN\\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2012\\|date\\=26 March 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064246/http://www.cnn.com/2012/03/25/world/asia/afghanistan\\-killings\\-money/?hpt\\=hp\\_t1\\|url\\-status\\=live}} A member of the Kandahar provincial council described the payments as assistance, but not as the kind of legal compensation that would absolve the accused.{{cite news\\|last\\=Matthew\\|first\\=Rosenberg\\|title\\=U.S. Pays Families of Afghan Victims in Massacre by Soldier\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/26/world/asia/us\\-compensates\\-afghan\\-villagers\\-for\\-soldiers\\-attack.html?\\_r\\=1\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2012\\|date\\=25 March 2012\\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630084416/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/26/world/asia/us\\-compensates\\-afghan\\-villagers\\-for\\-soldiers\\-attack.html?\\_r\\=1\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Professional
------------
Arango made her [WTA Tour](/wiki/WTA_Tour "WTA Tour") singles debut at the [2016 Copa Colsanitas](/wiki/2016_Copa_Colsanitas "2016 Copa Colsanitas"), where she lost in the first round to Irina Falconi, winning only one game.
At the [2018 Copa Colsanitas](/wiki/2018_Copa_Colsanitas "2018 Copa Colsanitas"), she secured her first tour\-level win with a three\-set victory over fourth seed [Verónica Cepede Royg](/wiki/Ver%C3%B3nica_Cepede_Royg "Verónica Cepede Royg") from Paraguay.{{Cite web\|title\=Emiliana Arango ganó su primer partido WTA\|date\=11 April 2018\|url\=https://www.elespectador.com/deportes/tenis/emiliana\-arango\-gano\-su\-primer\-partido\-wta\-articulo\-749543\|work\=El Espectador\|volume\=\|pages\=}}
### 2022: Grand Slam debut
Arango entered a [Grand Slam tournament](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28tennis%29 "Grand Slam (tennis)") for the first time in the [French Open](/wiki/2022_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles_qualifying "2022 French Open – Women's singles qualifying") qualifying competition in 2022, and she also competed and lost in qualifying at the [Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2022_Wimbledon_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles_qualifying "2022 Wimbledon Championships – Women's singles qualifying").
### 2023: WTA 125 semifinal, WTA 1000 debut and quarterfinal, top 110
[thumb\|upright\|left\|Arango at the [2023 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2023_Wimbledon_Championships "2023 Wimbledon Championships")](/wiki/File:Arango_WMQ23_%2853061900359%29.jpg "Arango WMQ23 (53061900359).jpg")
Arango reached the semifinals at the [2023 Copa Oster](/wiki/2023_Copa_Oster_%E2%80%93_Singles "2023 Copa Oster – Singles"), losing to eventual champion [Nadia Podoroska](/wiki/Nadia_Podoroska "Nadia Podoroska") in straight sets. Having received an invitation to the [San Luis Open Challenger](/wiki/2023_San_Luis_Open_Challenger_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles "2023 San Luis Open Challenger – Women's singles"), she reached the quarterfinals. Arango also received a wildcard for the qualifying competition for the [Madrid Open](/wiki/2023_Mutua_Madrid_Open "2023 Mutua Madrid Open"). She qualified for the [Catalonia Open](/wiki/2023_Catalonia_Open_%E2%80%93_Singles "2023 Catalonia Open – Singles"), and in the main draw, she lost in the second round to [Jil Teichmann](/wiki/Jil_Teichmann "Jil Teichmann").
Arango entered and lost in the [qualifying at Roland Garros](/wiki/2023_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles_qualifying "2023 French Open – Women's singles qualifying") and in the [qualifying at Wimbledon](/wiki/2023_Wimbledon_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles_qualifying "2023 Wimbledon Championships – Women's singles qualifying").
At the [Guadalajara Open](/wiki/2023_Guadalajara_Open_Akron "2023 Guadalajara Open Akron"), on her WTA 1000 level debut she defeated, 11th seed [Anastasia Potapova](/wiki/Anastasia_Potapova "Anastasia Potapova") for her first WTA 1000 and top 30 win.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.wtatennis.com/videos/3690203/arango\-upsets\-potapova\-in\-guadalajara\-opener\-for\-first\-top\-30\-win \| title\=Arango upsets Potapova in Guadalajara opener for first Top 30 win }}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/3690149/vickery\-advances\-after\-collins\-retires\-bencic\-withdraws \| title\=Vickery advances after Collins retires; Bencic withdraws }} Next, she defeated [Sloane Stephens](/wiki/Sloane_Stephens "Sloane Stephens") in straight sets in one hour to reach the round of 16 of a WTA 1000 tournament for the first time.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/3690613/five\-things\-to\-know\-about\-colombia\-s\-emiliana\-arango \| title\=Five things to know about Colombia's Emiliana Arango }} She defeated [Taylor Townsend](/wiki/Taylor_Townsend "Taylor Townsend") to reach the quarterfinals of a WTA Tour event for the first time. She became the first Colombian player to make a WTA 1000 quarterfinal since [Fabiola Zuluaga](/wiki/Fabiola_Zuluaga "Fabiola Zuluaga") at Berlin 2004\.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/3690613/five\-things\-to\-know\-about\-colombia\-s\-emiliana\-arango \| title\=Five things to know about Colombia's Emiliana Arango }} As a result, she moved 60 positions up into the top 120 in the singles rankings on 25 September 2023\.
### 2024
Ranked No. 121, she qualified into the main draw of the [2024 Miami Open](/wiki/2024_Miami_Open "2024 Miami Open") making her debut at this WTA 1000 tournament and recorded her first win over [Tatjana Maria](/wiki/Tatjana_Maria "Tatjana Maria").
|
[
"Professional\n------------",
"Arango made her [WTA Tour](/wiki/WTA_Tour \"WTA Tour\") singles debut at the [2016 Copa Colsanitas](/wiki/2016_Copa_Colsanitas \"2016 Copa Colsanitas\"), where she lost in the first round to Irina Falconi, winning only one game.",
"At the [2018 Copa Colsanitas](/wiki/2018_Copa_Colsanitas \"2018 Copa Colsanitas\"), she secured her first tour\\-level win with a three\\-set victory over fourth seed [Verónica Cepede Royg](/wiki/Ver%C3%B3nica_Cepede_Royg \"Verónica Cepede Royg\") from Paraguay.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Emiliana Arango ganó su primer partido WTA\\|date\\=11 April 2018\\|url\\=https://www.elespectador.com/deportes/tenis/emiliana\\-arango\\-gano\\-su\\-primer\\-partido\\-wta\\-articulo\\-749543\\|work\\=El Espectador\\|volume\\=\\|pages\\=}}",
"### 2022: Grand Slam debut",
"Arango entered a [Grand Slam tournament](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28tennis%29 \"Grand Slam (tennis)\") for the first time in the [French Open](/wiki/2022_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles_qualifying \"2022 French Open – Women's singles qualifying\") qualifying competition in 2022, and she also competed and lost in qualifying at the [Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2022_Wimbledon_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles_qualifying \"2022 Wimbledon Championships – Women's singles qualifying\").",
"### 2023: WTA 125 semifinal, WTA 1000 debut and quarterfinal, top 110",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|Arango at the [2023 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2023_Wimbledon_Championships \"2023 Wimbledon Championships\")](/wiki/File:Arango_WMQ23_%2853061900359%29.jpg \"Arango WMQ23 (53061900359).jpg\")\nArango reached the semifinals at the [2023 Copa Oster](/wiki/2023_Copa_Oster_%E2%80%93_Singles \"2023 Copa Oster – Singles\"), losing to eventual champion [Nadia Podoroska](/wiki/Nadia_Podoroska \"Nadia Podoroska\") in straight sets. Having received an invitation to the [San Luis Open Challenger](/wiki/2023_San_Luis_Open_Challenger_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles \"2023 San Luis Open Challenger – Women's singles\"), she reached the quarterfinals. Arango also received a wildcard for the qualifying competition for the [Madrid Open](/wiki/2023_Mutua_Madrid_Open \"2023 Mutua Madrid Open\"). She qualified for the [Catalonia Open](/wiki/2023_Catalonia_Open_%E2%80%93_Singles \"2023 Catalonia Open – Singles\"), and in the main draw, she lost in the second round to [Jil Teichmann](/wiki/Jil_Teichmann \"Jil Teichmann\").",
"Arango entered and lost in the [qualifying at Roland Garros](/wiki/2023_French_Open_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles_qualifying \"2023 French Open – Women's singles qualifying\") and in the [qualifying at Wimbledon](/wiki/2023_Wimbledon_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles_qualifying \"2023 Wimbledon Championships – Women's singles qualifying\").",
"At the [Guadalajara Open](/wiki/2023_Guadalajara_Open_Akron \"2023 Guadalajara Open Akron\"), on her WTA 1000 level debut she defeated, 11th seed [Anastasia Potapova](/wiki/Anastasia_Potapova \"Anastasia Potapova\") for her first WTA 1000 and top 30 win.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.wtatennis.com/videos/3690203/arango\\-upsets\\-potapova\\-in\\-guadalajara\\-opener\\-for\\-first\\-top\\-30\\-win \\| title\\=Arango upsets Potapova in Guadalajara opener for first Top 30 win }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/3690149/vickery\\-advances\\-after\\-collins\\-retires\\-bencic\\-withdraws \\| title\\=Vickery advances after Collins retires; Bencic withdraws }} Next, she defeated [Sloane Stephens](/wiki/Sloane_Stephens \"Sloane Stephens\") in straight sets in one hour to reach the round of 16 of a WTA 1000 tournament for the first time.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/3690613/five\\-things\\-to\\-know\\-about\\-colombia\\-s\\-emiliana\\-arango \\| title\\=Five things to know about Colombia's Emiliana Arango }} She defeated [Taylor Townsend](/wiki/Taylor_Townsend \"Taylor Townsend\") to reach the quarterfinals of a WTA Tour event for the first time. She became the first Colombian player to make a WTA 1000 quarterfinal since [Fabiola Zuluaga](/wiki/Fabiola_Zuluaga \"Fabiola Zuluaga\") at Berlin 2004\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/3690613/five\\-things\\-to\\-know\\-about\\-colombia\\-s\\-emiliana\\-arango \\| title\\=Five things to know about Colombia's Emiliana Arango }} As a result, she moved 60 positions up into the top 120 in the singles rankings on 25 September 2023\\.",
"### 2024",
"Ranked No. 121, she qualified into the main draw of the [2024 Miami Open](/wiki/2024_Miami_Open \"2024 Miami Open\") making her debut at this WTA 1000 tournament and recorded her first win over [Tatjana Maria](/wiki/Tatjana_Maria \"Tatjana Maria\").",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
The East Valley experienced a population increase of 41 percent, going from 937,638 in 2000 to 1,324,922 in 2011, according to [U.S. Census](/wiki/United_States_Census "United States Census") data.\*[http://www.evp\-az.org/documents/2012Profile\-FINAL\_000\.pdf{{Dead link\|date\=August 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.evp-az.org/documents/2012Profile-FINAL_000.pdf{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})
The 2011 median household income in the East Valley was reported $64,659, up from $52,100 in 2000\. The 2011 median household income is also higher in the East Valley than [Metropolitan Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix_metropolitan_area "Phoenix metropolitan area"), the state of [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona"), and the entire [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States").
The median sales price of a single family home in the East Valley is $205,850\. This figure is also higher than the median price of a single family home in Metropolitan Phoenix, the West Valley, all of Arizona, and the United States.
The cost of living in the East Valley is quite low for such a thriving area. It has a composite score of 102 (NOTE: US average \= 100\), compared to 109 of Las Vegas, Nevada, 110 of Denver, Colorado, 118 of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and 147 of Los Angeles, California.
A variety of forces combined to strengthen the East Valley region's identity and political parity, but none was more important than a 30\-year surge in population that saw [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona "Mesa, Arizona") nearly triple in its population and [Chandler](/wiki/Chandler%2C_Arizona "Chandler, Arizona") grow from 29,173 to 236,123 and the town of [Gilbert](/wiki/Gilbert%2C_Arizona "Gilbert, Arizona") skyrocket from 5,717 to 208,453\. The cities in the East Valley literally grew together. The city of [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona") grew, too, but not at the same rate as it didn't quite double its population in the 30\-year span ending in 2010\.
Ironically, [The Arizona Republic](/wiki/The_Arizona_Republic "The Arizona Republic") contributed to the East Valley's separate identity in the mid\-1990s by publishing a Sunday section called *East Valley*.
Perhaps equally as ironic, the grouping of newspapers that Wahlheim had assembled did not incorporate East Valley into its nameplate until new owners had combined the newspaper's community editions into a single newspaper called *The Tribune*. It wasn't until 1999 that the newspaper retitled itself the *[East Valley Tribune](/wiki/East_Valley_Tribune "East Valley Tribune")*.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"The East Valley experienced a population increase of 41 percent, going from 937,638 in 2000 to 1,324,922 in 2011, according to [U.S. Census](/wiki/United_States_Census \"United States Census\") data.\\*[http://www.evp\\-az.org/documents/2012Profile\\-FINAL\\_000\\.pdf{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.evp-az.org/documents/2012Profile-FINAL_000.pdf{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})",
"The 2011 median household income in the East Valley was reported $64,659, up from $52,100 in 2000\\. The 2011 median household income is also higher in the East Valley than [Metropolitan Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix_metropolitan_area \"Phoenix metropolitan area\"), the state of [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\"), and the entire [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").",
"The median sales price of a single family home in the East Valley is $205,850\\. This figure is also higher than the median price of a single family home in Metropolitan Phoenix, the West Valley, all of Arizona, and the United States.",
"The cost of living in the East Valley is quite low for such a thriving area. It has a composite score of 102 (NOTE: US average \\= 100\\), compared to 109 of Las Vegas, Nevada, 110 of Denver, Colorado, 118 of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and 147 of Los Angeles, California.",
"A variety of forces combined to strengthen the East Valley region's identity and political parity, but none was more important than a 30\\-year surge in population that saw [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona \"Mesa, Arizona\") nearly triple in its population and [Chandler](/wiki/Chandler%2C_Arizona \"Chandler, Arizona\") grow from 29,173 to 236,123 and the town of [Gilbert](/wiki/Gilbert%2C_Arizona \"Gilbert, Arizona\") skyrocket from 5,717 to 208,453\\. The cities in the East Valley literally grew together. The city of [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\") grew, too, but not at the same rate as it didn't quite double its population in the 30\\-year span ending in 2010\\.",
"Ironically, [The Arizona Republic](/wiki/The_Arizona_Republic \"The Arizona Republic\") contributed to the East Valley's separate identity in the mid\\-1990s by publishing a Sunday section called *East Valley*.",
"Perhaps equally as ironic, the grouping of newspapers that Wahlheim had assembled did not incorporate East Valley into its nameplate until new owners had combined the newspaper's community editions into a single newspaper called *The Tribune*. It wasn't until 1999 that the newspaper retitled itself the *[East Valley Tribune](/wiki/East_Valley_Tribune \"East Valley Tribune\")*.",
""
] |
Education
---------
East Valley K\-12 students are served by 14 school districts, 125 charter schools and one regional career\-focused district ([East Valley Institute of Technology](/wiki/East_Valley_Institute_of_Technology "East Valley Institute of Technology")). One measure of the academic quality of East Valley schools is that the region qualified 12 schools to compete in the 2012 Arizona Academic Decathlon competition \- more than any other region.\*<http://azacadec.org/results.php> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108194419/http://www.azacadec.org/results.php \|date\=2014\-11\-08 }}
### Arizona State University
With 33 percent of its population age 25 and above holding bachelor's degrees, higher education is a priority. [Arizona State University's](/wiki/Arizona_State_University "Arizona State University") main campus in Tempe serves more than 49,000 undergraduate students and more than 10,000 graduate students. The ASU Polytechnic Campus in East Mesa serves more than 9,500 undergraduate students and nearly 1,000 graduate students.
The Aerospace and Defense Research Collaboratory, which support aerospace and defense industries is housed at the Polytechnic Campus in the College of Technology and Innovation adjacent to [Phoenix\-Mesa Gateway Airport](/wiki/Phoenix-Mesa_Gateway_Airport "Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport") in East Mesa. The airport and campus are on the grounds of what was Williams Air Force Base and in an area focused on aerospace industry development.{{Cite web \|url\=http://adrc.asu.edu/ \|title\=Aerospace \& Defense Research Collaboratory \| ADRC \|access\-date\=2012\-07\-31 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110140001/http://adrc.asu.edu/ \|archive\-date\=2012\-01\-10 \|url\-status\=dead}}
Another example is ASU's [Skysong](/wiki/Skysong%2C_the_ASU_Scottsdale_Innovation_Center "Skysong, the ASU Scottsdale Innovation Center") Center in Scottsdale, located not far from the [General Dynamics](/wiki/General_Dynamics "General Dynamics") C\-4 Systems facility. ASU describes Skysong as "an innovation center designed to help companies grow by providing business services and programs offered or facilitated by Arizona State University. These services include access to new technologies, capital networks, business education and a skilled workforce.
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.skysongcenter.com/\|title\=The ASU Scottsdale Innovation Center\|website\=www.skysongcenter.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19}}
### Community Colleges
Private colleges serve another 11,000 students in the East Valley. The community college system has enrolled 160,000 students at five East Valley colleges. They include the [Chandler\-Gilbert Community College](/wiki/Chandler-Gilbert_Community_College "Chandler-Gilbert Community College"), [Mesa Community College](/wiki/Mesa_Community_College "Mesa Community College"), [Rio Salado College](/wiki/Rio_Salado_College "Rio Salado College"), [Scottsdale Community College](/wiki/Scottsdale_Community_College "Scottsdale Community College") and [Central Arizona College](/wiki/Central_Arizona_College "Central Arizona College").
### East Valley Institute of Technology
For more than 20 years, the [East Valley Institute of Technology](/wiki/East_Valley_Institute_of_Technology "East Valley Institute of Technology") (EVIT) has offered students in 10 East Valley school districts a wide range of career and technical education courses. The courses prepare students with skills for immediate entry into the local job market, but many are on career tracks that lead to higher education. More than 60 percent of the 3,000 students taking EVIT courses go on to college.
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.evit.com/\|title\=Home \- East Valley Institute of Technology\|website\=www.evit.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19}}
```
EVIT is funded by a property tax levied on property owners in the 10 districts.
```
EVIT has two campuses. The main campus opened in [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona "Mesa, Arizona") in 1998 at a cost of $46 million. It spans 65 acres with 15 buildings. The campus's long\-time culinary and automotive technologies programs are highly regarded, but EVIT also serves the East Valley job market with such course offerings as 3D animation, electronics/robotics and engineering science.
In 2007 and 2011 new health science buildings were opened at the main campus and quickly reached capacity. Programs offered to health and science students include biotechnology; nursing; sterile processing and distribution; and dental assisting. Many of the students are on track to enter medical school.
EVIT also offers tuition\-based career education programs for adults.
In 2011 EVIT opened a 10\-acre, $17 million campus in east Mesa that is clustered with the [Arizona State University](/wiki/Arizona_State_University "Arizona State University") Polytechnic campus, the [Chandler\-Gilbert Community College](/wiki/Chandler-Gilbert_Community_College "Chandler-Gilbert Community College") Williams campus and [Phoenix\-Mesa Gateway Airport](/wiki/Phoenix-Mesa_Gateway_Airport "Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport"). It is focused on health and aviation programs. Aviation students are trained for jobs in the East Valley's and state's robust aerospace sector. Arizona is fifth in the nation in aviation and aerospace employment.
|
[
"Education\n---------",
"East Valley K\\-12 students are served by 14 school districts, 125 charter schools and one regional career\\-focused district ([East Valley Institute of Technology](/wiki/East_Valley_Institute_of_Technology \"East Valley Institute of Technology\")). One measure of the academic quality of East Valley schools is that the region qualified 12 schools to compete in the 2012 Arizona Academic Decathlon competition \\- more than any other region.\\*<http://azacadec.org/results.php> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108194419/http://www.azacadec.org/results.php \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-08 }}",
"### Arizona State University",
"With 33 percent of its population age 25 and above holding bachelor's degrees, higher education is a priority. [Arizona State University's](/wiki/Arizona_State_University \"Arizona State University\") main campus in Tempe serves more than 49,000 undergraduate students and more than 10,000 graduate students. The ASU Polytechnic Campus in East Mesa serves more than 9,500 undergraduate students and nearly 1,000 graduate students.",
"The Aerospace and Defense Research Collaboratory, which support aerospace and defense industries is housed at the Polytechnic Campus in the College of Technology and Innovation adjacent to [Phoenix\\-Mesa Gateway Airport](/wiki/Phoenix-Mesa_Gateway_Airport \"Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport\") in East Mesa. The airport and campus are on the grounds of what was Williams Air Force Base and in an area focused on aerospace industry development.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://adrc.asu.edu/ \\|title\\=Aerospace \\& Defense Research Collaboratory \\| ADRC \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-31 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110140001/http://adrc.asu.edu/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Another example is ASU's [Skysong](/wiki/Skysong%2C_the_ASU_Scottsdale_Innovation_Center \"Skysong, the ASU Scottsdale Innovation Center\") Center in Scottsdale, located not far from the [General Dynamics](/wiki/General_Dynamics \"General Dynamics\") C\\-4 Systems facility. ASU describes Skysong as \"an innovation center designed to help companies grow by providing business services and programs offered or facilitated by Arizona State University. These services include access to new technologies, capital networks, business education and a skilled workforce.",
"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.skysongcenter.com/\\|title\\=The ASU Scottsdale Innovation Center\\|website\\=www.skysongcenter.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19}}\n### Community Colleges",
"Private colleges serve another 11,000 students in the East Valley. The community college system has enrolled 160,000 students at five East Valley colleges. They include the [Chandler\\-Gilbert Community College](/wiki/Chandler-Gilbert_Community_College \"Chandler-Gilbert Community College\"), [Mesa Community College](/wiki/Mesa_Community_College \"Mesa Community College\"), [Rio Salado College](/wiki/Rio_Salado_College \"Rio Salado College\"), [Scottsdale Community College](/wiki/Scottsdale_Community_College \"Scottsdale Community College\") and [Central Arizona College](/wiki/Central_Arizona_College \"Central Arizona College\").",
"### East Valley Institute of Technology",
"For more than 20 years, the [East Valley Institute of Technology](/wiki/East_Valley_Institute_of_Technology \"East Valley Institute of Technology\") (EVIT) has offered students in 10 East Valley school districts a wide range of career and technical education courses. The courses prepare students with skills for immediate entry into the local job market, but many are on career tracks that lead to higher education. More than 60 percent of the 3,000 students taking EVIT courses go on to college.",
"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.evit.com/\\|title\\=Home \\- East Valley Institute of Technology\\|website\\=www.evit.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19}}\n```\nEVIT is funded by a property tax levied on property owners in the 10 districts.\n```",
"",
"EVIT has two campuses. The main campus opened in [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona \"Mesa, Arizona\") in 1998 at a cost of $46 million. It spans 65 acres with 15 buildings. The campus's long\\-time culinary and automotive technologies programs are highly regarded, but EVIT also serves the East Valley job market with such course offerings as 3D animation, electronics/robotics and engineering science.",
"In 2007 and 2011 new health science buildings were opened at the main campus and quickly reached capacity. Programs offered to health and science students include biotechnology; nursing; sterile processing and distribution; and dental assisting. Many of the students are on track to enter medical school.",
"EVIT also offers tuition\\-based career education programs for adults.",
"In 2011 EVIT opened a 10\\-acre, $17 million campus in east Mesa that is clustered with the [Arizona State University](/wiki/Arizona_State_University \"Arizona State University\") Polytechnic campus, the [Chandler\\-Gilbert Community College](/wiki/Chandler-Gilbert_Community_College \"Chandler-Gilbert Community College\") Williams campus and [Phoenix\\-Mesa Gateway Airport](/wiki/Phoenix-Mesa_Gateway_Airport \"Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport\"). It is focused on health and aviation programs. Aviation students are trained for jobs in the East Valley's and state's robust aerospace sector. Arizona is fifth in the nation in aviation and aerospace employment.",
""
] |
Aviation and aerospace
----------------------
The East Valley Aviation \& Aerospace Alliance estimates aerospace accounts for 35,000 high\-paying jobs and generates $3\.5 billion a year in the East Valley.\*<http://www.evaaa.org/> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117073029/http://www.evaaa.org/ \|date\=2013\-01\-17 }} The Alliance is working with the Arizona Commerce Authority to extend the sector's reach by obtaining selections of the state of Arizona as a center of excellence for development and testing of unmanned aerial systems.
Among the sector drivers in the East Valley are the Boeing Corporation, Orbital ATK, Honeywell Aerospace, Able Aerospace Services, Phoenix\-Mesa Gateway Airport, Cessna, and Arizona Laboratories for Security and Defense Research (AZLabs).
Mesa is the home of Boeing's sixth largest site where it assembles the Apache Longbow attack helicopter and the A160 Hummingbird unmanned aerial vehicle helicopter.\*<http://www.azaerospace.com/az_advantage/sucess_stories/> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915075821/http://www.azaerospace.com/az\_advantage/sucess\_stories/ \|date\=2012\-09\-15 }} Boeing will test the unmanned helicopter in restricted aerospace near the town of Florence, a short distance south of the East Valley. Boeing has a workforce in Mesa of 4,700 employees. It utilizes 576 Arizona suppliers and annually spends $1\.2 billion.
Virginia\-based Orbital ATK has about half of its workforce in the East Valley.
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/SMF\_Arizona.pdf\|title\=Northrop Grumman Corporation\|website\=Northrop Grumman\|language\=en\-us\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19}}
```
In Chandler, the company designs tests and manufactures space launch vehicles, including the Pegasus and Minotaur rockets.
```
In the town of Gilbert, Orbital ATK assembles and tests satellites. Orbital ATK describes its 135,000 square\-foot satellite facility as one of the most advanced of its kind. In the past, Orbital ATK has focused on government satellite projects. But it is ramping up Gilbert operations for a major commercial project. It will assemble and test 81 satellites for the Iridium NEXT global communications system. In a 2011 press release, Iridium CEO Matt Desch said, "With this contract, Orbital becomes part of the most significant commercial space project in the world." Iridium satellites are to be launched starting in 2015\.
The East Valley is also home of the Phoenix\-Mesa Gateway Airport one of the nation's most successful military base reuse projects.
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.phxmesagateway.org/AboutGateway.aspx\|title\=Phoenix\-Mesa Gateway Airport\|website\=www.phxmesagateway.org\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19}}
```
Formerly Williams Air Force Base, the growing reliever airport boasts a remodeled passenger terminal, convenient parking and three runways, the longest of which is 10,401 feet.
```
The shortest is 9,301 feet. The airport currently serves Allegiant Airlines. East Valley leaders see it as an international aerospace center and a catalyst for bringing 100,000 jobs to the far East Valley in 20 years. The airport is located in Foreign Trade Zone 221\. As of 2012, Gateway hosts more than 40 companies, serves 33 cities with non\-stop service via Allegiant, Frontier, and Spirit Airlines as well as eight more cities with continuing service, and contributes $685 million annually to the Arizona economy. The airport's master plan projects more than 850,000 enplanements by 2017 and 2\.2 million by 2027\.
Another promising military facility reuse project is AZLabs, formerly the [Air Force Research Laboratory](/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory "Air Force Research Laboratory").\*[http://www.defensecommunities.org/headlines/mesa\-lab\-is\-now\-azlabs\-as\-city\-creates\-new\-tech\-center/\#](http://www.defensecommunities.org/headlines/mesa-lab-is-now-azlabs-as-city-creates-new-tech-center/#) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011220320/http://www.defensecommunities.org/headlines/mesa\-lab\-is\-now\-azlabs\-as\-city\-creates\-new\-tech\-center/ \|date\=2015\-10\-11 }} The Defense Department in 2011 turned ownership of the facility over to the city of Mesa. The lab is near Phoenix\-Mesa Gateway Airport and Arizona State University Polytechnic campus. Alion Science and Technology manages the 97,500 square foot facility and describes it as ideally suited for hosting classified research programs.
The East Valley also boasts three busy general aviation airports: the Chandler Municipal Airport, Falcon Field Airport in Mesa, and the Scottsdale Airport. Falcon Field and Scottsdale Airport served as World War II pilot training fields. British military pilots trained at Falcon Field and Americans in Scottsdale. In 2011, Falcon Field was the 5th busiest general aviation airport in the country. Located adjacent to Boeing, Falcon Field contributes over $2\.3 billion to the local economy. With about 130,000 operations in 2010, Scottsdale Airport bills itself as one of the busiest single\-runway facilities in the world. It is centrally located in Scottsdale's only industrial\-zoned area. The Commerce Airpark area is headquarters to over 30 national/regional corporations and home to nearly 2,500 small and medium\-sized businesses with over 48,000 jobs.
With over 350 VFR flying days per year.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2018}}
|
[
"Aviation and aerospace\n----------------------",
"The East Valley Aviation \\& Aerospace Alliance estimates aerospace accounts for 35,000 high\\-paying jobs and generates $3\\.5 billion a year in the East Valley.\\*<http://www.evaaa.org/> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117073029/http://www.evaaa.org/ \\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-17 }} The Alliance is working with the Arizona Commerce Authority to extend the sector's reach by obtaining selections of the state of Arizona as a center of excellence for development and testing of unmanned aerial systems.",
"Among the sector drivers in the East Valley are the Boeing Corporation, Orbital ATK, Honeywell Aerospace, Able Aerospace Services, Phoenix\\-Mesa Gateway Airport, Cessna, and Arizona Laboratories for Security and Defense Research (AZLabs).",
"Mesa is the home of Boeing's sixth largest site where it assembles the Apache Longbow attack helicopter and the A160 Hummingbird unmanned aerial vehicle helicopter.\\*<http://www.azaerospace.com/az_advantage/sucess_stories/> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915075821/http://www.azaerospace.com/az\\_advantage/sucess\\_stories/ \\|date\\=2012\\-09\\-15 }} Boeing will test the unmanned helicopter in restricted aerospace near the town of Florence, a short distance south of the East Valley. Boeing has a workforce in Mesa of 4,700 employees. It utilizes 576 Arizona suppliers and annually spends $1\\.2 billion.",
"Virginia\\-based Orbital ATK has about half of its workforce in the East Valley.",
"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/SMF\\_Arizona.pdf\\|title\\=Northrop Grumman Corporation\\|website\\=Northrop Grumman\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19}}\n```\nIn Chandler, the company designs tests and manufactures space launch vehicles, including the Pegasus and Minotaur rockets.\n```",
"In the town of Gilbert, Orbital ATK assembles and tests satellites. Orbital ATK describes its 135,000 square\\-foot satellite facility as one of the most advanced of its kind. In the past, Orbital ATK has focused on government satellite projects. But it is ramping up Gilbert operations for a major commercial project. It will assemble and test 81 satellites for the Iridium NEXT global communications system. In a 2011 press release, Iridium CEO Matt Desch said, \"With this contract, Orbital becomes part of the most significant commercial space project in the world.\" Iridium satellites are to be launched starting in 2015\\.",
"The East Valley is also home of the Phoenix\\-Mesa Gateway Airport one of the nation's most successful military base reuse projects.",
"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.phxmesagateway.org/AboutGateway.aspx\\|title\\=Phoenix\\-Mesa Gateway Airport\\|website\\=www.phxmesagateway.org\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19}}\n```\nFormerly Williams Air Force Base, the growing reliever airport boasts a remodeled passenger terminal, convenient parking and three runways, the longest of which is 10,401 feet.\n```",
"The shortest is 9,301 feet. The airport currently serves Allegiant Airlines. East Valley leaders see it as an international aerospace center and a catalyst for bringing 100,000 jobs to the far East Valley in 20 years. The airport is located in Foreign Trade Zone 221\\. As of 2012, Gateway hosts more than 40 companies, serves 33 cities with non\\-stop service via Allegiant, Frontier, and Spirit Airlines as well as eight more cities with continuing service, and contributes $685 million annually to the Arizona economy. The airport's master plan projects more than 850,000 enplanements by 2017 and 2\\.2 million by 2027\\.",
"Another promising military facility reuse project is AZLabs, formerly the [Air Force Research Laboratory](/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory \"Air Force Research Laboratory\").\\*[http://www.defensecommunities.org/headlines/mesa\\-lab\\-is\\-now\\-azlabs\\-as\\-city\\-creates\\-new\\-tech\\-center/\\#](http://www.defensecommunities.org/headlines/mesa-lab-is-now-azlabs-as-city-creates-new-tech-center/#) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011220320/http://www.defensecommunities.org/headlines/mesa\\-lab\\-is\\-now\\-azlabs\\-as\\-city\\-creates\\-new\\-tech\\-center/ \\|date\\=2015\\-10\\-11 }} The Defense Department in 2011 turned ownership of the facility over to the city of Mesa. The lab is near Phoenix\\-Mesa Gateway Airport and Arizona State University Polytechnic campus. Alion Science and Technology manages the 97,500 square foot facility and describes it as ideally suited for hosting classified research programs.",
"The East Valley also boasts three busy general aviation airports: the Chandler Municipal Airport, Falcon Field Airport in Mesa, and the Scottsdale Airport. Falcon Field and Scottsdale Airport served as World War II pilot training fields. British military pilots trained at Falcon Field and Americans in Scottsdale. In 2011, Falcon Field was the 5th busiest general aviation airport in the country. Located adjacent to Boeing, Falcon Field contributes over $2\\.3 billion to the local economy. With about 130,000 operations in 2010, Scottsdale Airport bills itself as one of the busiest single\\-runway facilities in the world. It is centrally located in Scottsdale's only industrial\\-zoned area. The Commerce Airpark area is headquarters to over 30 national/regional corporations and home to nearly 2,500 small and medium\\-sized businesses with over 48,000 jobs.",
"With over 350 VFR flying days per year.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2018}}",
""
] |
Economy
-------
### Intel
No single company has had a more profound impact on the East Valley than the [Intel](/wiki/Intel "Intel") Corporation. The company has 10,300 employees working in the city of [Chandler](/wiki/Chandler%2C_Arizona "Chandler, Arizona")—the company's second largest U.S. site.
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.azcentral.com/business/articles/2011/02/18/20110218chandler\-arizona\-announces\-new\-Intel\-facility.html\|title\=New $5 billion Intel facility planned for Chandler\|website\=www.azcentral.com\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19}}
```
According to a news backgrounder that Intel prepared for a January 2012 visit by President
```
[Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama"), the company's annual economic impact in Arizona tops $2\.6 billion.{{cite web \| url\=http://newsroom.intel.com/community/intel\_newsroom/blog/2012/01/24/chip\-shot\-president\-obama\-to\-visit\-intel\-chandler\-jan\-25 \| title\=Chip Shot: President Obama to Visit Intel Chandler Jan. 25 }} This includes more than 20,000 non\-Intel jobs resulting from the company's presence in the state.
[Intel](/wiki/Intel "Intel") is currently expanding its Ocotillo campus in Chandler by building a new chip manufacturing facility, called Fab. 42\. Intel announced the $5 billion investment in its Chandler operation during a 2011 presidential visit to its [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon") campus. Intel says that Fab 42 will be the most advanced high\-volume semiconductor manufacturing plant in the world. Construction of the facility will require thousands of people to put in more than 10 million hours. The plant is scheduled to open in 2013 and permanently employ 1,000 workers.
[Intel](/wiki/Intel "Intel") began exploring locating a facility in Arizona in the late 1970s. The company bought 160 acres on West Chandler Boulevard in 1978\.
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.azcentral.com/community/chandler/articles/2011/02/25/20110225chandler\-intel\-expansion0225\.html\|title\=Decades of Chandler foresight a factor in Intel expansion, officials say.\|website\=www.azcentral.com\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19}}
```
Intel began operations in 1980.
```
Prior to the Fab 42 announcement Intel had invested over $12 billion in high\-tech manufacturing capability in the state since 1996\. Arizona is home to two high volume manufacturing facilities, Fab 12 and Fab 32\. Fab 12 began operations in 1996\. The $3 billion Fab 32 was opened in 2007\.
In addition to its economic contributions, [Intel](/wiki/Intel "Intel") has been a major contributor to the community. A fact sheet on the company's website said employees contributed $6\.6 million to the [United Way](/wiki/United_Way_of_America "United Way of America") and 127,000 volunteer hours in 2009\.
{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.intel.com/jobs/usa/sites/chandler/\|title\=Jobs at Intel in the United States\|website\=Intel\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19}}
### Growth
Prior to the [Great Recession](/wiki/Late-2000s_recession "Late-2000s recession") that marked its beginning at the end of 2007, phenomenal population growth was a powerful driver of the East Valley's economy. Even today, construction and maintenance comprises 12\.59 percent of the workforce.
{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.eastvalleytribune.com/money/article\_2dbf26dc\-804d\-11e1\-854f\-001a4bcf887a.html\|title\=Housing comeback continues with 22% jump in March sales\|last\=Tribune\|first\=Garin Groff\|work\=East Valley Tribune\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19\|language\=en}}
```
Like many
```
[Sun Belt](/wiki/Sun_Belt "Sun Belt") regions, the recession took a tremendous toll on home construction and ownership in the East Valley. But there are signs in early 2012 that the housing market is regaining strength.
As of March 2012, home sales in the [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona") market had increased by 22 percent over February, according to the Arizona Regional Multiple Listing Service as reported in the *[East Valley Tribune](/wiki/East_Valley_Tribune "East Valley Tribune")*. *[The Arizona Republic](/wiki/The_Arizona_Republic "The Arizona Republic")* reported that median March home prices in the Phoenix area climbed by 7 percent over February.
{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.azcentral.com/community/gilbert/articles/2012/01/06/20120106gilbert\-new\-home\-construction\-picked\-up\-2011\.html\|title\=Gilbert new\-home construction picked up in 2011\|work\=azcentral.com\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19}}
```
Prior to the recession, the "town" of
```
[Gilbert](/wiki/Gilbert%2C_Arizona "Gilbert, Arizona") was one of America's fastest growing cities and in 2011 the town showed the spark was still there as it issued 1,545 single\-family construction permits. That was a 46\-percent increase over 2010\. While a long way from the 5,070 single\-family construction permits issued by the town in 2004, it was outpacing in raw numbers the much larger city of Phoenix, which by November had issued less than 1,000 such permits. And *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")* in a March A1 story focused on metro Phoenix's improving housing market under the headline "Rise in Phoenix Housing Shows Plath for Other Cities."
{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204653604577251232717986316\|title\=Rise in Phoenix Housing Shows Path for Other Cities\|last\=Timiraos\|first\=Nick\|date\=2012\-03\-14\|work\=Wall Street Journal\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-19\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0099\-9660}}
[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") is often cited along with air conditioning as the genesis of the region's population boom. With three military pilot training fields in the East Valley, military personnel along with mechanics and office workers flocked to the region. Some never left and others came back after the war. The birth of [Major League Baseball](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball "Major League Baseball")’s Cactus League and marketing drives to attract tourists and retirees to the region also played roles in boosting permanent population growth. [Census](/wiki/Census "Census") numbers tell the story.
According to the East Valley Partnership, the 2011 population of the entire East Valley is 1,324,922\. With a population of 439,041 as of the 2010 [Census](/wiki/Census "Census"), [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona "Mesa, Arizona") is the East Valley's largest city and the 38th largest city in America. But in 1940, Census workers counted only 7,224 people living in Mesa. By the 1950 Census, population had more than doubled to 16,790\. It doubled again by 1960 and again in 1970 and more than doubled by 1980\. The torrid pace continued in the following two decades.
The town of [Gilbert](/wiki/Gilbert%2C_Arizona "Gilbert, Arizona") is another story of blazing growth. The outgrowth of a railroad crossing that serviced nearby farms, Gilbert numbered only 837 people in the 1940 [Census](/wiki/Census "Census"). By 2000, 109,697 people called Gilbert home. Nearly another 100,000 people were counted in the 2010 Census, which recorded the town's population at 208,453\. While retirees have contributed to the East Valley's growth and vitality, the town of Gilbert with an average age is 31\.37 demonstrates that the commonly held belief that the region is dominated by retirees is a myth.
|
[
"Economy\n-------",
"### Intel",
"No single company has had a more profound impact on the East Valley than the [Intel](/wiki/Intel \"Intel\") Corporation. The company has 10,300 employees working in the city of [Chandler](/wiki/Chandler%2C_Arizona \"Chandler, Arizona\")—the company's second largest U.S. site.",
"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.azcentral.com/business/articles/2011/02/18/20110218chandler\\-arizona\\-announces\\-new\\-Intel\\-facility.html\\|title\\=New $5 billion Intel facility planned for Chandler\\|website\\=www.azcentral.com\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19}}\n```\nAccording to a news backgrounder that Intel prepared for a January 2012 visit by President \n```",
"[Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\"), the company's annual economic impact in Arizona tops $2\\.6 billion.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://newsroom.intel.com/community/intel\\_newsroom/blog/2012/01/24/chip\\-shot\\-president\\-obama\\-to\\-visit\\-intel\\-chandler\\-jan\\-25 \\| title\\=Chip Shot: President Obama to Visit Intel Chandler Jan. 25 }} This includes more than 20,000 non\\-Intel jobs resulting from the company's presence in the state.",
"[Intel](/wiki/Intel \"Intel\") is currently expanding its Ocotillo campus in Chandler by building a new chip manufacturing facility, called Fab. 42\\. Intel announced the $5 billion investment in its Chandler operation during a 2011 presidential visit to its [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\") campus. Intel says that Fab 42 will be the most advanced high\\-volume semiconductor manufacturing plant in the world. Construction of the facility will require thousands of people to put in more than 10 million hours. The plant is scheduled to open in 2013 and permanently employ 1,000 workers.",
"[Intel](/wiki/Intel \"Intel\") began exploring locating a facility in Arizona in the late 1970s. The company bought 160 acres on West Chandler Boulevard in 1978\\.",
"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.azcentral.com/community/chandler/articles/2011/02/25/20110225chandler\\-intel\\-expansion0225\\.html\\|title\\=Decades of Chandler foresight a factor in Intel expansion, officials say.\\|website\\=www.azcentral.com\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19}}\n```\nIntel began operations in 1980.\n```",
"Prior to the Fab 42 announcement Intel had invested over $12 billion in high\\-tech manufacturing capability in the state since 1996\\. Arizona is home to two high volume manufacturing facilities, Fab 12 and Fab 32\\. Fab 12 began operations in 1996\\. The $3 billion Fab 32 was opened in 2007\\.",
"In addition to its economic contributions, [Intel](/wiki/Intel \"Intel\") has been a major contributor to the community. A fact sheet on the company's website said employees contributed $6\\.6 million to the [United Way](/wiki/United_Way_of_America \"United Way of America\") and 127,000 volunteer hours in 2009\\.",
"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.intel.com/jobs/usa/sites/chandler/\\|title\\=Jobs at Intel in the United States\\|website\\=Intel\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19}}\n### Growth",
"Prior to the [Great Recession](/wiki/Late-2000s_recession \"Late-2000s recession\") that marked its beginning at the end of 2007, phenomenal population growth was a powerful driver of the East Valley's economy. Even today, construction and maintenance comprises 12\\.59 percent of the workforce.",
"{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.eastvalleytribune.com/money/article\\_2dbf26dc\\-804d\\-11e1\\-854f\\-001a4bcf887a.html\\|title\\=Housing comeback continues with 22% jump in March sales\\|last\\=Tribune\\|first\\=Garin Groff\\|work\\=East Valley Tribune\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19\\|language\\=en}}\n```\nLike many \n```",
"[Sun Belt](/wiki/Sun_Belt \"Sun Belt\") regions, the recession took a tremendous toll on home construction and ownership in the East Valley. But there are signs in early 2012 that the housing market is regaining strength.",
"As of March 2012, home sales in the [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\") market had increased by 22 percent over February, according to the Arizona Regional Multiple Listing Service as reported in the *[East Valley Tribune](/wiki/East_Valley_Tribune \"East Valley Tribune\")*. *[The Arizona Republic](/wiki/The_Arizona_Republic \"The Arizona Republic\")* reported that median March home prices in the Phoenix area climbed by 7 percent over February.",
"{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.azcentral.com/community/gilbert/articles/2012/01/06/20120106gilbert\\-new\\-home\\-construction\\-picked\\-up\\-2011\\.html\\|title\\=Gilbert new\\-home construction picked up in 2011\\|work\\=azcentral.com\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19}}\n```\nPrior to the recession, the \"town\" of \n```",
"[Gilbert](/wiki/Gilbert%2C_Arizona \"Gilbert, Arizona\") was one of America's fastest growing cities and in 2011 the town showed the spark was still there as it issued 1,545 single\\-family construction permits. That was a 46\\-percent increase over 2010\\. While a long way from the 5,070 single\\-family construction permits issued by the town in 2004, it was outpacing in raw numbers the much larger city of Phoenix, which by November had issued less than 1,000 such permits. And *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")* in a March A1 story focused on metro Phoenix's improving housing market under the headline \"Rise in Phoenix Housing Shows Plath for Other Cities.\"",
"{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204653604577251232717986316\\|title\\=Rise in Phoenix Housing Shows Path for Other Cities\\|last\\=Timiraos\\|first\\=Nick\\|date\\=2012\\-03\\-14\\|work\\=Wall Street Journal\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-19\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0099\\-9660}}\n[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") is often cited along with air conditioning as the genesis of the region's population boom. With three military pilot training fields in the East Valley, military personnel along with mechanics and office workers flocked to the region. Some never left and others came back after the war. The birth of [Major League Baseball](/wiki/Major_League_Baseball \"Major League Baseball\")’s Cactus League and marketing drives to attract tourists and retirees to the region also played roles in boosting permanent population growth. [Census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") numbers tell the story.",
"According to the East Valley Partnership, the 2011 population of the entire East Valley is 1,324,922\\. With a population of 439,041 as of the 2010 [Census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"), [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona \"Mesa, Arizona\") is the East Valley's largest city and the 38th largest city in America. But in 1940, Census workers counted only 7,224 people living in Mesa. By the 1950 Census, population had more than doubled to 16,790\\. It doubled again by 1960 and again in 1970 and more than doubled by 1980\\. The torrid pace continued in the following two decades.",
"The town of [Gilbert](/wiki/Gilbert%2C_Arizona \"Gilbert, Arizona\") is another story of blazing growth. The outgrowth of a railroad crossing that serviced nearby farms, Gilbert numbered only 837 people in the 1940 [Census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"). By 2000, 109,697 people called Gilbert home. Nearly another 100,000 people were counted in the 2010 Census, which recorded the town's population at 208,453\\. While retirees have contributed to the East Valley's growth and vitality, the town of Gilbert with an average age is 31\\.37 demonstrates that the commonly held belief that the region is dominated by retirees is a myth.",
""
] |
Outdoor and recreation
----------------------
The East Valley is known for golf, eco\-tourism and outdoor recreation enthusiasts, including hikers, bikers, birders, river rafters and floaters, fishermen, horse\-back riders, climbers, hunters and four\-wheel drive desert explorers.
The East Valley is bounded on the north, east and south by mountains—the [Superstitions](/wiki/Superstition_Mountains "Superstition Mountains"), the San Tans, and [McDowell Mountains](/wiki/McDowell_Mountains "McDowell Mountains"). All are accessible through trails and park facilities.
The [Tonto National Forest](/wiki/Tonto_National_Forest "Tonto National Forest") hugs the East Valley as does the lower [Salt River valley](/wiki/Salt_River_valley "Salt River valley") basin and the [Sonoran Desert](/wiki/Sonoran_Desert "Sonoran Desert").
For boaters, [Saguaro Lake](/wiki/Saguaro_Lake_%28Arizona%29 "Saguaro Lake (Arizona)") is within a half hour of most East Valley locations and the 21,000 acre [Lake Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Lake "Theodore Roosevelt Lake") and the Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area is a 90\-minute drive.
In addition to the lakes, fishermen head for the [Lower Salt River](/wiki/Salt_River_%28Arizona%29 "Salt River (Arizona)") in the winter and spring. The [Arizona Game and Fish Department](/wiki/Arizona_Game_and_Fish_Department "Arizona Game and Fish Department") stock the river with [Rainbow trout](/wiki/Rainbow_trout "Rainbow trout") during those months, though an occasional bass is also caught.
A series of four national forest parks follow the [Salt River](/wiki/Salt_River_%28Arizona%29 "Salt River (Arizona)") and just minutes from the [Red Mountain Expressway](/wiki/Arizona_State_Route_202 "Arizona State Route 202"). The [Lost Dutchman State Park](/wiki/Lost_Dutchman_State_Park "Lost Dutchman State Park") is on the eastern edge of the East Valley. There are three metropolitan parks—one bordering Scottsdale, one bordering Mesa and one on the south nestled in the San Tan Mountains.
The Gilbert Riparian preserve is well known to birders and is listed in the American Auto Club's 100 sites to see in Arizona. The [Boyce Thompson Arboretum State Park](/wiki/Boyce_Thompson_Arboretum_State_Park "Boyce Thompson Arboretum State Park") with its collection of desert and riparian plants and wildlife is less than 45 minutes from most East Valley locations. The [Desert Botanical Garden](/wiki/Desert_Botanical_Garden "Desert Botanical Garden") is located on [Tempe](/wiki/Tempe%2C_Arizona "Tempe, Arizona")’s western edge.
|
[
"Outdoor and recreation\n----------------------",
"The East Valley is known for golf, eco\\-tourism and outdoor recreation enthusiasts, including hikers, bikers, birders, river rafters and floaters, fishermen, horse\\-back riders, climbers, hunters and four\\-wheel drive desert explorers.\nThe East Valley is bounded on the north, east and south by mountains—the [Superstitions](/wiki/Superstition_Mountains \"Superstition Mountains\"), the San Tans, and [McDowell Mountains](/wiki/McDowell_Mountains \"McDowell Mountains\"). All are accessible through trails and park facilities.",
"The [Tonto National Forest](/wiki/Tonto_National_Forest \"Tonto National Forest\") hugs the East Valley as does the lower [Salt River valley](/wiki/Salt_River_valley \"Salt River valley\") basin and the [Sonoran Desert](/wiki/Sonoran_Desert \"Sonoran Desert\").",
"For boaters, [Saguaro Lake](/wiki/Saguaro_Lake_%28Arizona%29 \"Saguaro Lake (Arizona)\") is within a half hour of most East Valley locations and the 21,000 acre [Lake Roosevelt](/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Lake \"Theodore Roosevelt Lake\") and the Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area is a 90\\-minute drive.",
"In addition to the lakes, fishermen head for the [Lower Salt River](/wiki/Salt_River_%28Arizona%29 \"Salt River (Arizona)\") in the winter and spring. The [Arizona Game and Fish Department](/wiki/Arizona_Game_and_Fish_Department \"Arizona Game and Fish Department\") stock the river with [Rainbow trout](/wiki/Rainbow_trout \"Rainbow trout\") during those months, though an occasional bass is also caught.",
"A series of four national forest parks follow the [Salt River](/wiki/Salt_River_%28Arizona%29 \"Salt River (Arizona)\") and just minutes from the [Red Mountain Expressway](/wiki/Arizona_State_Route_202 \"Arizona State Route 202\"). The [Lost Dutchman State Park](/wiki/Lost_Dutchman_State_Park \"Lost Dutchman State Park\") is on the eastern edge of the East Valley. There are three metropolitan parks—one bordering Scottsdale, one bordering Mesa and one on the south nestled in the San Tan Mountains.",
"The Gilbert Riparian preserve is well known to birders and is listed in the American Auto Club's 100 sites to see in Arizona. The [Boyce Thompson Arboretum State Park](/wiki/Boyce_Thompson_Arboretum_State_Park \"Boyce Thompson Arboretum State Park\") with its collection of desert and riparian plants and wildlife is less than 45 minutes from most East Valley locations. The [Desert Botanical Garden](/wiki/Desert_Botanical_Garden \"Desert Botanical Garden\") is located on [Tempe](/wiki/Tempe%2C_Arizona \"Tempe, Arizona\")’s western edge.",
""
] |
History
-------
The village lies in the historical region of [Cieszyn Silesia](/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia "Cieszyn Silesia"). It was first mentioned in a Latin document of [Diocese of Wrocław](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Wroc%C5%82aw "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław") called *[Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis](/wiki/Liber_fundationis_episcopatus_Vratislaviensis "Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis")* from around 1305 as *item in **Prochna***.{{cite book \| last \= Panic \| first \= Idzi \| author\-link \= Idzi Panic \| title \= Śląsk Cieszyński w średniowieczu (do 1528\) \|trans\-title\=Cieszyn Silesia in the Middle Ages (until 1528\) \| publisher \= Starostwo Powiatowe w Cieszynie \| year \= 2010 \| location \= Cieszyn \| pages \= 297–299 \| language \= pl \|isbn \= 978\-83\-926929\-3\-5 }}{{cite book \|first\=Wilhelm \|last\=Schulte \|author\-link\=Wilhelm Schulte \|title\=Codex Diplomaticus Silesiae T.14 Liber Fundationis Episcopatus Vratislaviensis\|place\=Breslau \|year\=1889 \|url\= http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\=19747\&from\=publication \| language \= de}}{{cite web \|url\= http://www.dokumentyslaska.pl/cds%2014/liber.html\|title\=Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis \|access\-date\=13 July 2014\|language\=la}} It meant that the village was in the process of location (the size of land to pay a [tithe](/wiki/Tithe "Tithe") from was not yet precise). The creation of the village was a part of a larger settlement campaign taking place in the late 13th century on the territory of what would later be known as [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia "Upper Silesia").
Politically the village belonged initially to the [Duchy of Teschen](/wiki/Duchy_of_Teschen "Duchy of Teschen"), formed in 1290 in the process of [feudal fragmentation of Poland](/wiki/History_of_Poland%23Fragmentation "History of Poland#Fragmentation") and was ruled by a local branch of [Silesian Piast dynasty](/wiki/Silesian_Piast_dynasty "Silesian Piast dynasty"). In 1327 the duchy became a [fee](/wiki/Fee_%28feudal_tenure%29 "Fee (feudal tenure)") of the [Kingdom of Bohemia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia "Kingdom of Bohemia"), which after 1526 became a part of the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy").
The village became a seat of a Catholic [parish](/wiki/Parish "Parish"), mentioned in the register of [Peter's Pence](/wiki/Peter%27s_Pence "Peter's Pence") payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen [deanery](/wiki/Deanery "Deanery") as *Prochna*.{{cite journal \|title\= Registrum denarii sancti Petri in archidiaconatu Opoliensi sub anno domini MCCCCXLVII per dominum Nicolaum Wolff decretorum doctorem, archidiaconum Opoliensem, ex commissione reverendi in Christo patris ac domini Conradi episcopi Wratislaviensis, sedis apostolice collectoris, collecti\|journal\= Zeitschrift des Vereins für Geschichte und Alterthum Schlesiens\|publisher\= H. Markgraf\|publication\-place\=Breslau\|volume\= 27\|year \= 1893\|pages\= 361–372\|url \= http://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\=15085\&from\=publication\| access\-date\=21 July 2014\|language\=de}}
After the 1540s [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation "Protestant Reformation") prevailed in the Duchy of Teschen and a local Catholic church was taken over by [Lutherans](/wiki/Lutheranism "Lutheranism"). It was taken from them (as one from around fifty buildings in the region) by a special commission and given back to the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") on 15 April 1654\.{{cite book \| last \= Broda \| first \= Jan \| chapter\= Materiały do dziejów Kościoła ewangelickiego w Księstwie Cieszyńskim i Państwie Pszczyńskim w XVI i XVII wieku \| title \= Z historii Kościoła ewangelickiego na Śląsku Cieszyńskim \| publisher \= Dom Wydawniczy i Księgarski „Didache“ \| year \= 1992 \| location \= Katowice \| pages \= 259–260 \| language \= pl \|isbn \= 83\-85572\-00\-7}}
In 1844\-1863 a train station has been constructed in Pruchna on the [Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway](/wiki/Emperor_Ferdinand_Northern_Railway "Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway").
After the [Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Austrian_Empire "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire") a modern [municipal division](/wiki/Municipality "Municipality") was introduced in the re\-established [Austrian Silesia](/wiki/Austrian_Silesia "Austrian Silesia"). The village as a municipality was subscribed to the [political district](/wiki/Districts_of_Austria "Districts of Austria") of [Bielsko](/wiki/Bielitz_District "Bielitz District") and the [legal district](/wiki/Legal_district "Legal district") of [Schwarzwasser](/wiki/Strumie%C5%84 "Strumień"). According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality dropped from 1525 in 1880 to 1467 in 1910 with the majority being native Polish\-speakers (95\.6%\-96\.4%) accompanied by a small German\-speaking minority (at most 59 or 4\.1% in 1890\) and Czech\-speaking (at most 20 or 1\.4% in 1900\), in terms of religion in 1910 majority were [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Roman_Catholics "Roman Catholics") (64\.1%), followed by [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants "Protestants") (35%) and [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews") (13 or 0\.9%).{{cite book \| last \= Piątkowski \| first \= Kazimierz \| title \= Stosunki narodowościowe w Księstwie Cieszyńskiem \| publisher \= Macierz Szkolna Księstwa Cieszyńskiego \| year \= 1918 \| location \= Cieszyn \| pages \= 261, 280 \| language \= pl \|url \= http://obc.opole.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\=1076 }} The village was also traditionally inhabited by [Cieszyn Vlachs](/wiki/Cieszyn_Vlachs "Cieszyn Vlachs"), speaking [Cieszyn Silesian dialect](/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesian_dialect "Cieszyn Silesian dialect").
After [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the fall of [Austria\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary "Austria-Hungary"), the [Polish–Czechoslovak War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_War "Polish–Czechoslovak War") and the division of [Cieszyn Silesia](/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia "Cieszyn Silesia") in 1920, it became a part of [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic"). It was then [annexed](/wiki/Polish_areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany "Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") at the beginning of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). After the war it was restored to [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland").
In 1945 a Catholic [Saint Anne](/wiki/Saint_Anne "Saint Anne") church was almost completely destroyed, and it had to be rebuilt. There is also a Lutheran [Resurrection of the Lord](/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus "Resurrection of Jesus") Church, and a memorial to soldiers of the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") fallen in Pruchna in the last months of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The village lies in the historical region of [Cieszyn Silesia](/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia \"Cieszyn Silesia\"). It was first mentioned in a Latin document of [Diocese of Wrocław](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Wroc%C5%82aw \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław\") called *[Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis](/wiki/Liber_fundationis_episcopatus_Vratislaviensis \"Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis\")* from around 1305 as *item in **Prochna***.{{cite book \\| last \\= Panic \\| first \\= Idzi \\| author\\-link \\= Idzi Panic \\| title \\= Śląsk Cieszyński w średniowieczu (do 1528\\) \\|trans\\-title\\=Cieszyn Silesia in the Middle Ages (until 1528\\) \\| publisher \\= Starostwo Powiatowe w Cieszynie \\| year \\= 2010 \\| location \\= Cieszyn \\| pages \\= 297–299 \\| language \\= pl \\|isbn \\= 978\\-83\\-926929\\-3\\-5 }}{{cite book \\|first\\=Wilhelm \\|last\\=Schulte \\|author\\-link\\=Wilhelm Schulte \\|title\\=Codex Diplomaticus Silesiae T.14 Liber Fundationis Episcopatus Vratislaviensis\\|place\\=Breslau \\|year\\=1889 \\|url\\= http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\\=19747\\&from\\=publication \\| language \\= de}}{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.dokumentyslaska.pl/cds%2014/liber.html\\|title\\=Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis \\|access\\-date\\=13 July 2014\\|language\\=la}} It meant that the village was in the process of location (the size of land to pay a [tithe](/wiki/Tithe \"Tithe\") from was not yet precise). The creation of the village was a part of a larger settlement campaign taking place in the late 13th century on the territory of what would later be known as [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia \"Upper Silesia\").",
"Politically the village belonged initially to the [Duchy of Teschen](/wiki/Duchy_of_Teschen \"Duchy of Teschen\"), formed in 1290 in the process of [feudal fragmentation of Poland](/wiki/History_of_Poland%23Fragmentation \"History of Poland#Fragmentation\") and was ruled by a local branch of [Silesian Piast dynasty](/wiki/Silesian_Piast_dynasty \"Silesian Piast dynasty\"). In 1327 the duchy became a [fee](/wiki/Fee_%28feudal_tenure%29 \"Fee (feudal tenure)\") of the [Kingdom of Bohemia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia \"Kingdom of Bohemia\"), which after 1526 became a part of the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\").",
"The village became a seat of a Catholic [parish](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\"), mentioned in the register of [Peter's Pence](/wiki/Peter%27s_Pence \"Peter's Pence\") payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen [deanery](/wiki/Deanery \"Deanery\") as *Prochna*.{{cite journal \\|title\\= Registrum denarii sancti Petri in archidiaconatu Opoliensi sub anno domini MCCCCXLVII per dominum Nicolaum Wolff decretorum doctorem, archidiaconum Opoliensem, ex commissione reverendi in Christo patris ac domini Conradi episcopi Wratislaviensis, sedis apostolice collectoris, collecti\\|journal\\= Zeitschrift des Vereins für Geschichte und Alterthum Schlesiens\\|publisher\\= H. Markgraf\\|publication\\-place\\=Breslau\\|volume\\= 27\\|year \\= 1893\\|pages\\= 361–372\\|url \\= http://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\\=15085\\&from\\=publication\\| access\\-date\\=21 July 2014\\|language\\=de}}",
"After the 1540s [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\") prevailed in the Duchy of Teschen and a local Catholic church was taken over by [Lutherans](/wiki/Lutheranism \"Lutheranism\"). It was taken from them (as one from around fifty buildings in the region) by a special commission and given back to the [Roman Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") on 15 April 1654\\.{{cite book \\| last \\= Broda \\| first \\= Jan \\| chapter\\= Materiały do dziejów Kościoła ewangelickiego w Księstwie Cieszyńskim i Państwie Pszczyńskim w XVI i XVII wieku \\| title \\= Z historii Kościoła ewangelickiego na Śląsku Cieszyńskim \\| publisher \\= Dom Wydawniczy i Księgarski „Didache“ \\| year \\= 1992 \\| location \\= Katowice \\| pages \\= 259–260 \\| language \\= pl \\|isbn \\= 83\\-85572\\-00\\-7}}",
"In 1844\\-1863 a train station has been constructed in Pruchna on the [Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway](/wiki/Emperor_Ferdinand_Northern_Railway \"Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway\").",
"After the [Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Austrian_Empire \"Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire\") a modern [municipal division](/wiki/Municipality \"Municipality\") was introduced in the re\\-established [Austrian Silesia](/wiki/Austrian_Silesia \"Austrian Silesia\"). The village as a municipality was subscribed to the [political district](/wiki/Districts_of_Austria \"Districts of Austria\") of [Bielsko](/wiki/Bielitz_District \"Bielitz District\") and the [legal district](/wiki/Legal_district \"Legal district\") of [Schwarzwasser](/wiki/Strumie%C5%84 \"Strumień\"). According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality dropped from 1525 in 1880 to 1467 in 1910 with the majority being native Polish\\-speakers (95\\.6%\\-96\\.4%) accompanied by a small German\\-speaking minority (at most 59 or 4\\.1% in 1890\\) and Czech\\-speaking (at most 20 or 1\\.4% in 1900\\), in terms of religion in 1910 majority were [Roman Catholics](/wiki/Roman_Catholics \"Roman Catholics\") (64\\.1%), followed by [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants \"Protestants\") (35%) and [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") (13 or 0\\.9%).{{cite book \\| last \\= Piątkowski \\| first \\= Kazimierz \\| title \\= Stosunki narodowościowe w Księstwie Cieszyńskiem \\| publisher \\= Macierz Szkolna Księstwa Cieszyńskiego \\| year \\= 1918 \\| location \\= Cieszyn \\| pages \\= 261, 280 \\| language \\= pl \\|url \\= http://obc.opole.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\\=1076 }} The village was also traditionally inhabited by [Cieszyn Vlachs](/wiki/Cieszyn_Vlachs \"Cieszyn Vlachs\"), speaking [Cieszyn Silesian dialect](/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesian_dialect \"Cieszyn Silesian dialect\").",
"After [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), the fall of [Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Austria-Hungary \"Austria-Hungary\"), the [Polish–Czechoslovak War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_War \"Polish–Czechoslovak War\") and the division of [Cieszyn Silesia](/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia \"Cieszyn Silesia\") in 1920, it became a part of [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\"). It was then [annexed](/wiki/Polish_areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany \"Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany\") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") at the beginning of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). After the war it was restored to [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\").",
"In 1945 a Catholic [Saint Anne](/wiki/Saint_Anne \"Saint Anne\") church was almost completely destroyed, and it had to be rebuilt. There is also a Lutheran [Resurrection of the Lord](/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus \"Resurrection of Jesus\") Church, and a memorial to soldiers of the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") fallen in Pruchna in the last months of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").",
""
] |
Career
------
He received the [David Berger Award](/wiki/David_Berger_Award "David Berger Award") in 1978 and the [Golden Apple Award](/wiki/Golden_Apple_Award "Golden Apple Award") in 1982\. He worked at the [Institute of Psychophysiological Medicine](/wiki/Institute_of_Psychophysiological_Medicine "Institute of Psychophysiological Medicine") in El Cajon, California, from 1970 to 1973 and became its director of psychiatry in 1974\. He became a professor of psychiatry at [Maharishi International University](/wiki/Maharishi_University_of_Management "Maharishi University of Management") in 1974\. He was adjunct professor of psychiatry at [Union Graduate School](/wiki/Union_Institute_%26_University "Union Institute & University") and director of his own practice called Age of Enlightenment Center for Holistic Health in San Diego, California, from 1972 to 1973\.
Bloomfield has authored or co\-authored 20 books and was a founder of the [American Holistic Medical Association](/wiki/American_Holistic_Medical_Association "American Holistic Medical Association").Edwards, Catherine (August 14, 2000\) That Psychiatrist on the Couch Isn't Crazy, *Insight on the News* He is the author of *Making Peace with your Parents*, *Making Peace with Yourself*, *Making Peace with Your Step\-Parents*, *Making Peace with Your Past*, *Hypericum (St. John's Wort) \& Depression*, *How to Heal Depression*, and the [bestsellers](/wiki/Bestseller "Bestseller") *How to Survive the Loss of a Love* and *[TM](/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation "Transcendental Meditation"): Discovering Inner Energy and Overcoming Stress*.Goldberg, Philip (2011\) Harmony Books, *American Veda*, p. 167 According to his publisher his books have sold more than seven million copies and have been translated into over 30 languages.
According to a 1986 survey published in the *[American Journal of Psychotherapy](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Psychotherapy "American Journal of Psychotherapy")* Bloomfield's book, *How to Survive the Loss of a Love*, was one of the top ten self\-help books recommended by the 123 American psychologists in the survey.Author unknown (July 6, 1989\) [Feeling Gloomy? A good self\-help book may actually help](https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/06/us/health-feeling-gloomy-a-good-self-help-book-may-actually-help.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm) *New York Times*, retrieved October 4, 2012 Bloomfield received the [Theodor Geisel Book Award](/wiki/Theodor_Geisel_Book_Award "Theodor Geisel Book Award") in 1999\.
Bloomfield practised [Transcendental Meditation](/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation "Transcendental Meditation"); he traveled with [Maharishi Mahesh Yogi](/wiki/Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi") in India. He was a candidate for Governor of California in 1998 on the [Natural Law Party](/wiki/Natural_Law_Party "Natural Law Party") ticket and received 27,000 votes.Unknown author (Nov. 5, 1998\) [*New York Times* election results for 1998 California Governor](https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/05/us/the-1998-elections-the-states-results-the-races-for-governor.html) *New York Times*, retrieved October 2, 2012
He has appeared in numerous TV shows including *[The Merv Griffin Show](/wiki/The_Merv_Griffin_Show "The Merv Griffin Show")*, *[Larry King Live](/wiki/Larry_King_Live "Larry King Live")*, *[The Oprah Winfrey Show](/wiki/The_Oprah_Winfrey_Show "The Oprah Winfrey Show")*, *[The View](/wiki/The_View_%28U.S._TV_series%29 "The View (U.S. TV series)")*, [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN"), *[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America "Good Morning America")* and *[20/20](/wiki/20/20_%28U.S._TV_series%29 "20/20 (U.S. TV series)")*.
Bloomfield's book *Making Peace with God* was published in October 2003\.{{cite book\|last\=Bloomfield\|first\=Harold\|title\=Making Peace With God: A Practical Guide\|year\=2003\|publisher\=Diane Pub Co\|isbn\=978\-0756784935}}
Bloomfield has received the Medical Self\-Care Book of the Year Award and the American Holistic Health Association Lifetime Achievement Award.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"He received the [David Berger Award](/wiki/David_Berger_Award \"David Berger Award\") in 1978 and the [Golden Apple Award](/wiki/Golden_Apple_Award \"Golden Apple Award\") in 1982\\. He worked at the [Institute of Psychophysiological Medicine](/wiki/Institute_of_Psychophysiological_Medicine \"Institute of Psychophysiological Medicine\") in El Cajon, California, from 1970 to 1973 and became its director of psychiatry in 1974\\. He became a professor of psychiatry at [Maharishi International University](/wiki/Maharishi_University_of_Management \"Maharishi University of Management\") in 1974\\. He was adjunct professor of psychiatry at [Union Graduate School](/wiki/Union_Institute_%26_University \"Union Institute & University\") and director of his own practice called Age of Enlightenment Center for Holistic Health in San Diego, California, from 1972 to 1973\\.",
"Bloomfield has authored or co\\-authored 20 books and was a founder of the [American Holistic Medical Association](/wiki/American_Holistic_Medical_Association \"American Holistic Medical Association\").Edwards, Catherine (August 14, 2000\\) That Psychiatrist on the Couch Isn't Crazy, *Insight on the News* He is the author of *Making Peace with your Parents*, *Making Peace with Yourself*, *Making Peace with Your Step\\-Parents*, *Making Peace with Your Past*, *Hypericum (St. John's Wort) \\& Depression*, *How to Heal Depression*, and the [bestsellers](/wiki/Bestseller \"Bestseller\") *How to Survive the Loss of a Love* and *[TM](/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation \"Transcendental Meditation\"): Discovering Inner Energy and Overcoming Stress*.Goldberg, Philip (2011\\) Harmony Books, *American Veda*, p. 167 According to his publisher his books have sold more than seven million copies and have been translated into over 30 languages.",
"According to a 1986 survey published in the *[American Journal of Psychotherapy](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Psychotherapy \"American Journal of Psychotherapy\")* Bloomfield's book, *How to Survive the Loss of a Love*, was one of the top ten self\\-help books recommended by the 123 American psychologists in the survey.Author unknown (July 6, 1989\\) [Feeling Gloomy? A good self\\-help book may actually help](https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/06/us/health-feeling-gloomy-a-good-self-help-book-may-actually-help.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm) *New York Times*, retrieved October 4, 2012 Bloomfield received the [Theodor Geisel Book Award](/wiki/Theodor_Geisel_Book_Award \"Theodor Geisel Book Award\") in 1999\\.",
"Bloomfield practised [Transcendental Meditation](/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation \"Transcendental Meditation\"); he traveled with [Maharishi Mahesh Yogi](/wiki/Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi \"Maharishi Mahesh Yogi\") in India. He was a candidate for Governor of California in 1998 on the [Natural Law Party](/wiki/Natural_Law_Party \"Natural Law Party\") ticket and received 27,000 votes.Unknown author (Nov. 5, 1998\\) [*New York Times* election results for 1998 California Governor](https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/05/us/the-1998-elections-the-states-results-the-races-for-governor.html) *New York Times*, retrieved October 2, 2012",
"He has appeared in numerous TV shows including *[The Merv Griffin Show](/wiki/The_Merv_Griffin_Show \"The Merv Griffin Show\")*, *[Larry King Live](/wiki/Larry_King_Live \"Larry King Live\")*, *[The Oprah Winfrey Show](/wiki/The_Oprah_Winfrey_Show \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\")*, *[The View](/wiki/The_View_%28U.S._TV_series%29 \"The View (U.S. TV series)\")*, [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\"), *[Good Morning America](/wiki/Good_Morning_America \"Good Morning America\")* and *[20/20](/wiki/20/20_%28U.S._TV_series%29 \"20/20 (U.S. TV series)\")*.",
"Bloomfield's book *Making Peace with God* was published in October 2003\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Bloomfield\\|first\\=Harold\\|title\\=Making Peace With God: A Practical Guide\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Diane Pub Co\\|isbn\\=978\\-0756784935}}",
"Bloomfield has received the Medical Self\\-Care Book of the Year Award and the American Holistic Health Association Lifetime Achievement Award.",
""
] |
Legislation
-----------
[350px\|thumb\|Map of state laws which ban transgender athletes from participating in the sport of their gender identity, as of September 2022:](/wiki/File:Map_of_US_laws_regarding_transgender_athletes.svg "Map of US laws regarding transgender athletes.svg")
{{legend\|\#cc3333\|Law enacted which bans trans athletes from participating in sports based on their gender identity; enforces gender classifications in sports based on registered biological sex}}
{{legend\|\#ef6548\|Law preventing trans athletes from participating in sport in their gender identity enacted, but currently blocked from enforcement via court order{{cite web \| url\=https://www.aclu.org/legal\-document/bpj\-v\-west\-virginia\-state\-board\-education\-order\-granting\-preliminary\-injunction \| title\=B.P.J. V. West Virginia State Board of Education \- Order Granting Preliminary Injunction}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.aclu.org/cases/hecox\-v\-little\|title\=Hecox v. Little\|website\=American Civil Liberties Union}}}}
### Idaho
On March 30, 2020, the [Governor of Idaho](/wiki/Governor_of_Idaho "Governor of Idaho") signed into Law House Bill No. 500 entitled "Fairness in Women's Sports Act." The bill amended Title 33 of the Idaho Code with the addition of a new chapter 62 to be known and cited as the "Fairness in Women's Sports Act." This bill established that only female students who were biologically female at birth can participate in female sports teams and athletics. It states that public schools, any school that is a member of the [Idaho High School Activities Association](/wiki/Idaho_High_School_Activities_Association "Idaho High School Activities Association"), and any higher education institution that is a member of the [NCAA](/wiki/NCAA "NCAA"), [NAIA](/wiki/National_Association_of_Intercollegiate_Athletics "National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics"), or [NJCAA](/wiki/National_Junior_College_Athletic_Association "National Junior College Athletic Association") must ensure that athletic teams are designated based on biological sex, rather than gender identity, and prohibits transgender females from participating in female sports teams.{{Cite web \|title\=HOUSE BILL 500 – Idaho State Legislature \|url\=https://legislature.idaho.gov/sessioninfo/2020/legislation/h0500/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|language\=en\-US}} The bill made Idaho the first state to outright ban transgender participation in athletics.{{Cite web \|title\=Hecox v. Little \|url\=https://www.aclu.org/cases/hecox\-v\-little \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-23 \|website\=American Civil Liberties Union \|language\=en\-US}}
The bill was introduced in response to growing concerns that allowing transgender females to compete in women's sports would create an unfair advantage due to their physiological differences. Males, as the bill outlines, having naturally higher levels of testosterone, higher red blood cell counts, high hemoglobin, larger hearts, greater lung volume per body mass, and other biologically advantageous traits, are able to generate greater power and speed during physical activity than their female counterparts.{{Cite web \|title\=The Battle of the Sexes {{!}} Psychology Today \|url\=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide\-and\-seek/201207/the\-battle\-the\-sexes \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|website\=www.psychologytoday.com \|language\=en\-US}} Citing [Neil Burton](/wiki/Neel_Burton "Neel Burton")'s article "The Battle of the Sexes" published in 2012, [Gina Kolata](/wiki/Gina_Kolata "Gina Kolata")'s article "Men, Women, and Speed. 2 Words: Got Testosterone?" published in 2008, and the work of [Doriance Lambelet Coleman](/wiki/Doriane_Lambelet_Coleman "Doriane Lambelet Coleman") among others, the bill provides extensive scientific evidence to support its claim of an inherent male advantage over females in athletic pursuits.
The legal footing of the bill is found in the U.S. Supreme court ruling in *[United States v. Virginia](/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia "United States v. Virginia")* (1996\) which stated that "sex classifications may be used to compensate women for particular economic disabilities suffered, promote equal employment opportunity, \[and] to advance full development of the talent and capacity of our Nation's people."{{Citation \|title\=United States v. Virginia Et Al. \|date\=1996\-06\-26 \|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/94\-1941\.ZS.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|language\=en\-us}} Emphasizing the final clause, the Idaho legislature argues that sex classifications are necessary for the "full development of the talent and capacity of our Nation's people" in the context of sports and athletics. The bill also cites two cases, *Kleczek v. Rhode Island Interscholastic League, Inc.* and *Petrie v. Illinois High School Association*, wherein the courts have recognized the existence of inherent physiological differences between males and females and the unfair advantage those differences give males over females in athletics. Thus, it is only through teams and sports designated based on biological sex that the state of Idaho could fully realize gender equality in sports and athletics.
House Bill No. 500 specifies that a "student may establish sex by presenting a signed physician's statement that shall indicate the student's sex based solely on: the student's internal and external reproductive anatomy; the student's normal endogenously produced levels of testosterone; and an analysis of the student's genetic makeup." The bill makes clear that even those using puberty blockers and cross\-sex hormones if born biologically males continue to have an absolute advantage over female athletes and should be excluded from female\-designated athletics.[https://legislature.idaho.gov/wp\-content/uploads/sessioninfo/2020/legislation/H0500\.pdf](https://legislature.idaho.gov/wp-content/uploads/sessioninfo/2020/legislation/H0500.pdf)
Supporters of the bill argue that it is necessary to protect the integrity of women's sports and ensure a level playing field for female athletes. Opponents of the bill argue that it is discriminatory against transgender individuals and violates their rights to equal treatment under the law as guaranteed in the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause "Equal Protection Clause") of the [U.S. Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States "Constitution of the United States"). The Bill is currently being challenged in the [U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit") as an Equal Protection Clause violation in the case *Hecox v. Little.* The plaintiffs, Lindsay Hecox, and her three friends, initially lost in the District Court of Idaho. However, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals has yet to deliver a ruling.[https://www.justice.gov/crt/case\-document/file/1345116/download](https://www.justice.gov/crt/case-document/file/1345116/download)
### Florida
Florida Governor [Ron DeSantis](/wiki/Ron_DeSantis "Ron DeSantis") signed the "Fairness In Women's Sports Act" into law on July 1, 2021\.{{Cite web \|title\=Governor Ron DeSantis Signs Fairness in Women's Sports Act \|url\=https://www.flgov.com/2021/06/01/governor\-ron\-desantis\-signs\-fairness\-in\-womens\-sports\-act/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-23 \|language\=en\-US}} This legislation is intended to maintain fairness and opportunities for female student\-athletes.{{Cite news \|last1\=McDaniel \|first1\=Justine \|last2\=Javaid \|first2\=Maham \|last3\=Rosenzweig\-Ziff \|first3\=Dan \|date\=2023\-12\-04 \|title\=A trans girl played volleyball. Now her Florida school is under investigation. \|language\=en\-US \|newspaper\=Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2023/12/02/trans\-girls\-volleyball\-florida\-high\-school/ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-04 \|issn\=0190\-8286}} Similar to the Idaho bill, the Florida Act relies on biological sex at the time of birth as declared on the student's birth certificate but does not require anatomy to be certified by a physician.{{Cite web \|title\=Section 1006\.205 \- Fairness in Women's Sports Act, Fla. Stat. § 1006\.205 {{!}} Casetext Search \+ Citator \|url\=https://casetext.com/statute/florida\-statutes/title\-xlviii\-early\-learning\-20\-education\-code/chapter\-1006\-support\-for\-learning/part\-i\-public\-k\-12\-education\-support\-for\-learning\-and\-student\-services/student\-extracurricular\-activities\-and\-athletics/section\-1006205\-fairness\-in\-womens\-sports\-act\#:\~:text\=\-%20(a)%20It%20is%20the,benefits%20that%20result%20from%20participating \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-23 \|website\=casetext.com}} The bill requires all post\-primary public institutions to designate sex\-specific sports and teams. The bill designates three categories of teams and sports. The first is male\-sex only but may allow athletes of the female sex. The second is female\-sex only and this category cannot allow students of the male sex. The third category is co\-ed and accepts students of both male and female sex.
Unlike the Idaho bill, the Florida legislation does not discuss biological differences between the male and female sex, and private schools are largely exempt from the sex\-designation requirement. This bill is also designed to protect public educational institutions from investigations, lawsuits, or complaints on the basis of female\-only sports and teams. It allows for any students or organizations who are harmed by institutions that do not maintain female\-only teams to take action for injunctive relief to file private claims within two years of the harm occurring. Harm can be defined as the deprivation of athletic opportunity, or subjection to public, athletic, or educational retaliation for reporting violations of the law. If their claims are determined to be factual they can be rewarded monetary restitution for harms that may include, physical, emotional, and psychological damage as well as attorney fees and are eligible for "any other appropriate relief"{{Cite web \|title\=Section 1006\.205 \- Fairness in Women's Sports Act, Fla. Stat. § 1006\.205 {{!}} Casetext Search \+ Citator \|url\=https://casetext.com/statute/florida\-statutes/title\-xlviii\-early\-learning\-20\-education\-code/chapter\-1006\-support\-for\-learning/part\-i\-public\-k\-12\-education\-support\-for\-learning\-and\-student\-services/student\-extracurricular\-activities\-and\-athletics/section\-1006205\-fairness\-in\-womens\-sports\-act\#:\~:text\=\-%20(a)%20It%20is%20the,benefits%20that%20result%20from%20participating \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-23 \|website\=casetext.com}} as the civil courts see fit.
### Arkansas
Arkansas Senate Bill 354 To Create The Fairness in Women's Sports Act was signed into law by the Governor on March 29, 2021\. SB354, which draws heavily from the Idaho House Bill No. 500, amends the Arkansas Code Title 6, Chapter 1, Subchapter 1 to create a section entitled "Fairness in Women's Sports Act."[https://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/Bills/FTPDocument?path\=%2FBills%2F2021R%2FPublic%2FSB354\.pdf](https://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/Bills/FTPDocument?path=%2FBills%2F2021R%2FPublic%2FSB354.pdf) The bill, like that of Idaho's, established that only female students may participate in female sports teams and athletics, and banned the participation of transgender students in any sport or athletic pursuit designated as female.
Subsequently, on April 29, 2021, the governor signed into law Senate Bill 450 To Create The Gender Integrity Reinforcement Legislation For Sports (Girls) Act; And To Create A Legal Cause Of Action For A Violation Of The Gender Integrity Reinforcement Legislation For Sports (Girls) Act.[https://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/Bills/FTPDocument?path\=%2FBills%2F2021R%2FPublic%2FSB450\.pdf](https://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/Bills/FTPDocument?path=%2FBills%2F2021R%2FPublic%2FSB450.pdf) This bill included some of the more technical language that was originally left out of SB 354 regarding the determination of gender and the defining of a "school" or "covered entity." Pulling again from Idaho House Bill, Arkansas SB 450 defines sex as a "person's immutable biological sex as objectively determined by anatomy and genetics existing at the time of birth." Senate Bill 450 also makes clear that any elementary school, high school, secondary school, or postsecondary school that is located in Arkansas and whose students or teams compete in interscholastic, intercollegiate, intramural, or club athletic teams or sports against a public school or high education institution as outlined in SB 354, must as well adhere to the bill. Thus, private schools and educational institutions now also fall under the jurisdiction of the bill. The Bill also provides an avenue for legal action to be taken against those schools and "covered entities" who are found in violation of Senate Bill 354 The Fairness in Women's Sports Act.
### Similar legislation in other states titled differently
Not all legislation barring the participation of transgender students in sports and athletics is entitled "The Fairness in Women's Sports Act." Similar legislation also exists under names such as "Save Women's Sports Act," "Fairness Act," and others. As it currently stands, in addition to Idaho, Florida, and Arkansas, legislation of this nature has passed in Mississippi \[see Senate Bill 2536],{{Cite web \|title\=SB2536 (COMMITTEE SUBSTITUTE) \- 2021 Regular Session \|url\=http://billstatus.ls.state.ms.us/documents/2021/html/SB/2500\-2599/SB2536CS.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|website\=billstatus.ls.state.ms.us}} Montana \[see House Bill 112],[https://leg.mt.gov/bills/2021/billpdf/HB0112\.pdf](https://leg.mt.gov/bills/2021/billpdf/HB0112.pdf) Ohio \[see Senate Bill 187],{{Cite web \|title\=Senate Bill 187 {{!}} 134th General Assembly {{!}} Ohio Legislature \|url\=https://www.legislature.ohio.gov/legislation/134/sb187 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|website\=www.legislature.ohio.gov}} Tennessee \[see House Bill No. 3 Senate Bill 228], and Texas \[see House Bill No. 25].{{Cite web \|title\=Texas Legislature Online \- 87(3\) History for HB 25 \|url\=https://capitol.texas.gov/BillLookup/History.aspx?LegSess\=873\&Bill\=HB25 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|website\=capitol.texas.gov}} Legislation of this nature is also pending in nearly 23 other states across the U.S.{{Cite web \|title\=Legislation Affecting LGBTQ Rights Across the Country 2021 \|url\=https://www.aclu.org/legislation\-affecting\-lgbtq\-rights\-across\-country\-2021 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-24 \|website\=American Civil Liberties Union \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Legislation\n-----------",
"[350px\\|thumb\\|Map of state laws which ban transgender athletes from participating in the sport of their gender identity, as of September 2022:](/wiki/File:Map_of_US_laws_regarding_transgender_athletes.svg \"Map of US laws regarding transgender athletes.svg\")",
"{{legend\\|\\#cc3333\\|Law enacted which bans trans athletes from participating in sports based on their gender identity; enforces gender classifications in sports based on registered biological sex}}\n{{legend\\|\\#ef6548\\|Law preventing trans athletes from participating in sport in their gender identity enacted, but currently blocked from enforcement via court order{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.aclu.org/legal\\-document/bpj\\-v\\-west\\-virginia\\-state\\-board\\-education\\-order\\-granting\\-preliminary\\-injunction \\| title\\=B.P.J. V. West Virginia State Board of Education \\- Order Granting Preliminary Injunction}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.aclu.org/cases/hecox\\-v\\-little\\|title\\=Hecox v. Little\\|website\\=American Civil Liberties Union}}}}\n### Idaho",
"On March 30, 2020, the [Governor of Idaho](/wiki/Governor_of_Idaho \"Governor of Idaho\") signed into Law House Bill No. 500 entitled \"Fairness in Women's Sports Act.\" The bill amended Title 33 of the Idaho Code with the addition of a new chapter 62 to be known and cited as the \"Fairness in Women's Sports Act.\" This bill established that only female students who were biologically female at birth can participate in female sports teams and athletics. It states that public schools, any school that is a member of the [Idaho High School Activities Association](/wiki/Idaho_High_School_Activities_Association \"Idaho High School Activities Association\"), and any higher education institution that is a member of the [NCAA](/wiki/NCAA \"NCAA\"), [NAIA](/wiki/National_Association_of_Intercollegiate_Athletics \"National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics\"), or [NJCAA](/wiki/National_Junior_College_Athletic_Association \"National Junior College Athletic Association\") must ensure that athletic teams are designated based on biological sex, rather than gender identity, and prohibits transgender females from participating in female sports teams.{{Cite web \\|title\\=HOUSE BILL 500 – Idaho State Legislature \\|url\\=https://legislature.idaho.gov/sessioninfo/2020/legislation/h0500/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The bill made Idaho the first state to outright ban transgender participation in athletics.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Hecox v. Little \\|url\\=https://www.aclu.org/cases/hecox\\-v\\-little \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-23 \\|website\\=American Civil Liberties Union \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"The bill was introduced in response to growing concerns that allowing transgender females to compete in women's sports would create an unfair advantage due to their physiological differences. Males, as the bill outlines, having naturally higher levels of testosterone, higher red blood cell counts, high hemoglobin, larger hearts, greater lung volume per body mass, and other biologically advantageous traits, are able to generate greater power and speed during physical activity than their female counterparts.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The Battle of the Sexes {{!}} Psychology Today \\|url\\=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide\\-and\\-seek/201207/the\\-battle\\-the\\-sexes \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=www.psychologytoday.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Citing [Neil Burton](/wiki/Neel_Burton \"Neel Burton\")'s article \"The Battle of the Sexes\" published in 2012, [Gina Kolata](/wiki/Gina_Kolata \"Gina Kolata\")'s article \"Men, Women, and Speed. 2 Words: Got Testosterone?\" published in 2008, and the work of [Doriance Lambelet Coleman](/wiki/Doriane_Lambelet_Coleman \"Doriane Lambelet Coleman\") among others, the bill provides extensive scientific evidence to support its claim of an inherent male advantage over females in athletic pursuits.",
"The legal footing of the bill is found in the U.S. Supreme court ruling in *[United States v. Virginia](/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia \"United States v. Virginia\")* (1996\\) which stated that \"sex classifications may be used to compensate women for particular economic disabilities suffered, promote equal employment opportunity, \\[and] to advance full development of the talent and capacity of our Nation's people.\"{{Citation \\|title\\=United States v. Virginia Et Al. \\|date\\=1996\\-06\\-26 \\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/94\\-1941\\.ZS.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|language\\=en\\-us}} Emphasizing the final clause, the Idaho legislature argues that sex classifications are necessary for the \"full development of the talent and capacity of our Nation's people\" in the context of sports and athletics. The bill also cites two cases, *Kleczek v. Rhode Island Interscholastic League, Inc.* and *Petrie v. Illinois High School Association*, wherein the courts have recognized the existence of inherent physiological differences between males and females and the unfair advantage those differences give males over females in athletics. Thus, it is only through teams and sports designated based on biological sex that the state of Idaho could fully realize gender equality in sports and athletics.",
"House Bill No. 500 specifies that a \"student may establish sex by presenting a signed physician's statement that shall indicate the student's sex based solely on: the student's internal and external reproductive anatomy; the student's normal endogenously produced levels of testosterone; and an analysis of the student's genetic makeup.\" The bill makes clear that even those using puberty blockers and cross\\-sex hormones if born biologically males continue to have an absolute advantage over female athletes and should be excluded from female\\-designated athletics.[https://legislature.idaho.gov/wp\\-content/uploads/sessioninfo/2020/legislation/H0500\\.pdf](https://legislature.idaho.gov/wp-content/uploads/sessioninfo/2020/legislation/H0500.pdf)",
"Supporters of the bill argue that it is necessary to protect the integrity of women's sports and ensure a level playing field for female athletes. Opponents of the bill argue that it is discriminatory against transgender individuals and violates their rights to equal treatment under the law as guaranteed in the [Equal Protection Clause](/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause \"Equal Protection Clause\") of the [U.S. Constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States \"Constitution of the United States\"). The Bill is currently being challenged in the [U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit\") as an Equal Protection Clause violation in the case *Hecox v. Little.* The plaintiffs, Lindsay Hecox, and her three friends, initially lost in the District Court of Idaho. However, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals has yet to deliver a ruling.[https://www.justice.gov/crt/case\\-document/file/1345116/download](https://www.justice.gov/crt/case-document/file/1345116/download)",
"### Florida",
"Florida Governor [Ron DeSantis](/wiki/Ron_DeSantis \"Ron DeSantis\") signed the \"Fairness In Women's Sports Act\" into law on July 1, 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Governor Ron DeSantis Signs Fairness in Women's Sports Act \\|url\\=https://www.flgov.com/2021/06/01/governor\\-ron\\-desantis\\-signs\\-fairness\\-in\\-womens\\-sports\\-act/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-23 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} This legislation is intended to maintain fairness and opportunities for female student\\-athletes.{{Cite news \\|last1\\=McDaniel \\|first1\\=Justine \\|last2\\=Javaid \\|first2\\=Maham \\|last3\\=Rosenzweig\\-Ziff \\|first3\\=Dan \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-04 \\|title\\=A trans girl played volleyball. Now her Florida school is under investigation. \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|newspaper\\=Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2023/12/02/trans\\-girls\\-volleyball\\-florida\\-high\\-school/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-04 \\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}} Similar to the Idaho bill, the Florida Act relies on biological sex at the time of birth as declared on the student's birth certificate but does not require anatomy to be certified by a physician.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Section 1006\\.205 \\- Fairness in Women's Sports Act, Fla. Stat. § 1006\\.205 {{!}} Casetext Search \\+ Citator \\|url\\=https://casetext.com/statute/florida\\-statutes/title\\-xlviii\\-early\\-learning\\-20\\-education\\-code/chapter\\-1006\\-support\\-for\\-learning/part\\-i\\-public\\-k\\-12\\-education\\-support\\-for\\-learning\\-and\\-student\\-services/student\\-extracurricular\\-activities\\-and\\-athletics/section\\-1006205\\-fairness\\-in\\-womens\\-sports\\-act\\#:\\~:text\\=\\-%20(a)%20It%20is%20the,benefits%20that%20result%20from%20participating \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-23 \\|website\\=casetext.com}} The bill requires all post\\-primary public institutions to designate sex\\-specific sports and teams. The bill designates three categories of teams and sports. The first is male\\-sex only but may allow athletes of the female sex. The second is female\\-sex only and this category cannot allow students of the male sex. The third category is co\\-ed and accepts students of both male and female sex.",
"Unlike the Idaho bill, the Florida legislation does not discuss biological differences between the male and female sex, and private schools are largely exempt from the sex\\-designation requirement. This bill is also designed to protect public educational institutions from investigations, lawsuits, or complaints on the basis of female\\-only sports and teams. It allows for any students or organizations who are harmed by institutions that do not maintain female\\-only teams to take action for injunctive relief to file private claims within two years of the harm occurring. Harm can be defined as the deprivation of athletic opportunity, or subjection to public, athletic, or educational retaliation for reporting violations of the law. If their claims are determined to be factual they can be rewarded monetary restitution for harms that may include, physical, emotional, and psychological damage as well as attorney fees and are eligible for \"any other appropriate relief\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Section 1006\\.205 \\- Fairness in Women's Sports Act, Fla. Stat. § 1006\\.205 {{!}} Casetext Search \\+ Citator \\|url\\=https://casetext.com/statute/florida\\-statutes/title\\-xlviii\\-early\\-learning\\-20\\-education\\-code/chapter\\-1006\\-support\\-for\\-learning/part\\-i\\-public\\-k\\-12\\-education\\-support\\-for\\-learning\\-and\\-student\\-services/student\\-extracurricular\\-activities\\-and\\-athletics/section\\-1006205\\-fairness\\-in\\-womens\\-sports\\-act\\#:\\~:text\\=\\-%20(a)%20It%20is%20the,benefits%20that%20result%20from%20participating \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-23 \\|website\\=casetext.com}} as the civil courts see fit.",
"### Arkansas",
"Arkansas Senate Bill 354 To Create The Fairness in Women's Sports Act was signed into law by the Governor on March 29, 2021\\. SB354, which draws heavily from the Idaho House Bill No. 500, amends the Arkansas Code Title 6, Chapter 1, Subchapter 1 to create a section entitled \"Fairness in Women's Sports Act.\"[https://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/Bills/FTPDocument?path\\=%2FBills%2F2021R%2FPublic%2FSB354\\.pdf](https://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/Bills/FTPDocument?path=%2FBills%2F2021R%2FPublic%2FSB354.pdf) The bill, like that of Idaho's, established that only female students may participate in female sports teams and athletics, and banned the participation of transgender students in any sport or athletic pursuit designated as female.",
"Subsequently, on April 29, 2021, the governor signed into law Senate Bill 450 To Create The Gender Integrity Reinforcement Legislation For Sports (Girls) Act; And To Create A Legal Cause Of Action For A Violation Of The Gender Integrity Reinforcement Legislation For Sports (Girls) Act.[https://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/Bills/FTPDocument?path\\=%2FBills%2F2021R%2FPublic%2FSB450\\.pdf](https://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/Bills/FTPDocument?path=%2FBills%2F2021R%2FPublic%2FSB450.pdf) This bill included some of the more technical language that was originally left out of SB 354 regarding the determination of gender and the defining of a \"school\" or \"covered entity.\" Pulling again from Idaho House Bill, Arkansas SB 450 defines sex as a \"person's immutable biological sex as objectively determined by anatomy and genetics existing at the time of birth.\" Senate Bill 450 also makes clear that any elementary school, high school, secondary school, or postsecondary school that is located in Arkansas and whose students or teams compete in interscholastic, intercollegiate, intramural, or club athletic teams or sports against a public school or high education institution as outlined in SB 354, must as well adhere to the bill. Thus, private schools and educational institutions now also fall under the jurisdiction of the bill. The Bill also provides an avenue for legal action to be taken against those schools and \"covered entities\" who are found in violation of Senate Bill 354 The Fairness in Women's Sports Act.",
"### Similar legislation in other states titled differently",
"Not all legislation barring the participation of transgender students in sports and athletics is entitled \"The Fairness in Women's Sports Act.\" Similar legislation also exists under names such as \"Save Women's Sports Act,\" \"Fairness Act,\" and others. As it currently stands, in addition to Idaho, Florida, and Arkansas, legislation of this nature has passed in Mississippi \\[see Senate Bill 2536],{{Cite web \\|title\\=SB2536 (COMMITTEE SUBSTITUTE) \\- 2021 Regular Session \\|url\\=http://billstatus.ls.state.ms.us/documents/2021/html/SB/2500\\-2599/SB2536CS.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=billstatus.ls.state.ms.us}} Montana \\[see House Bill 112],[https://leg.mt.gov/bills/2021/billpdf/HB0112\\.pdf](https://leg.mt.gov/bills/2021/billpdf/HB0112.pdf) Ohio \\[see Senate Bill 187],{{Cite web \\|title\\=Senate Bill 187 {{!}} 134th General Assembly {{!}} Ohio Legislature \\|url\\=https://www.legislature.ohio.gov/legislation/134/sb187 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=www.legislature.ohio.gov}} Tennessee \\[see House Bill No. 3 Senate Bill 228], and Texas \\[see House Bill No. 25].{{Cite web \\|title\\=Texas Legislature Online \\- 87(3\\) History for HB 25 \\|url\\=https://capitol.texas.gov/BillLookup/History.aspx?LegSess\\=873\\&Bill\\=HB25 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=capitol.texas.gov}} Legislation of this nature is also pending in nearly 23 other states across the U.S.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Legislation Affecting LGBTQ Rights Across the Country 2021 \\|url\\=https://www.aclu.org/legislation\\-affecting\\-lgbtq\\-rights\\-across\\-country\\-2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-24 \\|website\\=American Civil Liberties Union \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early years
Kostornaia began learning to skate in 2007\. Her parents initially put her in skating as a way to channel her energy. From 2012 to 2017, she was coached by Elena Zhgun in Moscow.
Kostornaia sustained an injury in 2016\.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2017}} She finished 16th at the [2017 Russian Junior Championships](/wiki/2017_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2017 Russian Figure Skating Championships"). [Eteri Tutberidze](/wiki/Eteri_Tutberidze "Eteri Tutberidze") and [Sergei Dudakov](/wiki/Sergei_Dudakov "Sergei Dudakov") became her coaches in 2017\.
### 2017–2018 season: Junior international debut
Kostornaia's international debut was in early October 2017, at a [2017–18 ISU Junior Grand Prix](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix "2017–18 ISU Junior Grand Prix") (JGP) competition in [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk "Gdańsk"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"); ranked first in the short program and second in the free skate, she won the gold medal by a margin of 1\.36 points over the silver medalist, her training partner [Daria Panenkova](/wiki/Daria_Panenkova "Daria Panenkova"). She won silver behind [Sofia Samodurova](/wiki/Sofia_Samodurova "Sofia Samodurova") at [JGP Italy](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix_in_Italy "ISU Junior Grand Prix in Italy") by a margin of 0\.04 points. Her placements qualified her for the [2017–18 Junior Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2017–18 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"), where she won silver, placing second in the short program and first in the free skate. At the senior level, Kostornaia won bronze at the [2018 Russian Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2018_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 Russian Figure Skating Championships"). She later won silver at the [2018 Russian Junior Championships](/wiki/Russian_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "Russian Junior Figure Skating Championships") behind teammate [Alexandra Trusova](/wiki/Alexandra_Trusova "Alexandra Trusova") by a margin of 0\.58 points.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2021}}
In March 2018, Kostornaia competed at the [2018 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 World Junior Figure Skating Championships"). She placed second in the short program and the free skate, winning the silver medal behind Trusova.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2021}}
### 2018–2019 season: Junior Grand Prix Final champion
[thumb\|left\|250px\|Kostornaia with [Eteri Tutberidze](/wiki/Eteri_Tutberidze "Eteri Tutberidze") (left) and [Daniil Gleikhengauz](/wiki/Daniil_Gleikhengauz "Daniil Gleikhengauz") (right) at the [2019 Russian Championships](/wiki/2019_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 Russian Figure Skating Championships")](/wiki/File:2019_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships_Alena_Kostornaia_2018-12-21_15-29-18_1545444611.jpg "2019 Russian Figure Skating Championships Alena Kostornaia 2018-12-21 15-29-18 1545444611.jpg")
Kostornaia learned to perform a [triple Axel](/wiki/Axel_jump "Axel jump") in the preceding year, and originally planned to introduce it in competition. However, she lost the jump following growth during the offseason. Kostornaia started her season by competing in the [2018 JGP series](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix "2018–19 ISU Junior Grand Prix"). She won the gold medal at her first JGP event of the season in [Linz](/wiki/Linz "Linz"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria"). She was ranked first in both the short program and the free skate and won the gold medal by a margin of more than 11 points over the silver medalist, her teammate [Alena Kanysheva](/wiki/Alena_Kanysheva "Alena Kanysheva").
She skated her second JGP event of the season at [JGP Ostrava](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix_in_the_Czech_Republic "ISU Junior Grand Prix in the Czech Republic"), where she again placed first in both the short program and the free skate. She won the gold medal by a margin of about 2 points over the silver medalist, [Kim Ye\-lim](/wiki/Kim_Ye-lim_%28figure_skater%29 "Kim Ye-lim (figure skater)"). With two JGP victories, she qualified for the [2018–19 Junior Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2018–19 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"), where she won the gold medal after placing first in both the short program and the free skate. She outscored her teammate and training partner Trusova by about 2\.5 points. At this event, Kostornaia scored her personal best score of 217\.98 points, and also set a new junior record for the short program (76\.32 points).
At the [2019 Russian Championships](/wiki/2019_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 Russian Figure Skating Championships"), Kostornaia placed third in the short program due to a fall during her step sequence, which she attributed to being "too relaxed" as she was nearing the end of the program and had already completed all of her jumping passes. She then placed third in the free skate as well, winning her second consecutive national bronze medal.
Kostornaia participated in the 2019 Russian Junior Championships, winning the short program and placing second in the free skate. She placed second overall, winning her second consecutive junior national silver medal. After the event, she was named to the Russian team for the [2019 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2019_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 World Junior Figure Skating Championships") along with training mates Trusova and [Anna Shcherbakova](/wiki/Anna_Shcherbakova "Anna Shcherbakova"). However, on 4 March, the first day of the event, Kostornaia withdrew from the competition due to a medical condition, subsequently revealed by choreographer [Daniil Gleikhengauz](/wiki/Daniil_Gleikhengauz "Daniil Gleikhengauz") to be leg inflammation that required four weeks away from training. She was replaced by [Ksenia Sinitsyna](/wiki/Ksenia_Sinitsyna "Ksenia Sinitsyna").
### 2019–2020 season: Undefeated senior international debut and European title
[thumb\|right\|265px\|Kostornaia at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France "2019 Internationaux de France")](/wiki/File:2019_Internationaux_de_France_-_FS_-_Alena_Kostornaia_-_17.jpg "2019 Internationaux de France - FS - Alena Kostornaia - 17.jpg")
For her programs, Kostornaia retained her short program from the previous season and revised a *[Twilight](/wiki/Twilight_%28film_series%29 "Twilight (film series)")*–themed exhibition program from the previous year to serve as her free skate, citing how much she enjoyed skating it. Shortly after debuting her programs at the Russian test skates, Kostornaia resumed training the [triple Axel jump](/wiki/Axel_jump "Axel jump"). Kostornaia debuted on the senior international level at the [2019 CS Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2019_CS_Finlandia_Trophy "2019 CS Finlandia Trophy"), where she placed first in both the short program and free skate. She incorporated two triple Axels in her free skate, becoming the tenth woman in history to land the jump in an international competition, and earned a total combined score of 234\.84, 22\.31 points ahead of silver medalist [Elizaveta Tuktamysheva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Tuktamysheva "Elizaveta Tuktamysheva").
Making her [senior Grand Prix](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2019–20 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") debut at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France "2019 Internationaux de France"), Kostornaia ranked first in the short program, incorporating a triple Axel into it for the first time. She then became the fourth woman ever, after [Mao Asada](/wiki/Mao_Asada "Mao Asada"), [Rika Kihira](/wiki/Rika_Kihira "Rika Kihira") and Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, to land two fully rotated triple Axels in a free skate, placing first in the segment with a personal best score of 159\.45 points. She took the gold medal over training mate and reigning [World](/wiki/2019_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 World Figure Skating Championships") and [Olympic](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics "2018 Winter Olympics") champion [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova "Alina Zagitova") by a margin of 19\.94 points. At the [2019 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2019_NHK_Trophy "2019 NHK Trophy"), Kostornaia performed a clean skate with a successful triple Axel to place first in the short program, 5\.15 points over [Rika Kihira](/wiki/Rika_Kihira "Rika Kihira"), who also landed a triple Axel, and set a new world record score of 85\.04 for the ladies' short program at the senior level. In the free, she again placed first and won the event with a personal best total score of 240\.00\. Kostornaia became the top qualifier for the [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2019–20 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") in [Torino](/wiki/Turin "Turin"), with two gold medal finishes and 30 points overall.
At the [2019–20 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2019–20 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"), she broke her own world record by scoring 85\.45 points in the short program, placing first. In spite of having the only clean free skate amongst the ladies, Kostornaia ranked second in that segment, 0\.51 point behind teammate Anna Shcherbakova. However, her lead from the short program was enough to not only win the title by almost 7 points over Shcherbakova, but also to break the world record in the combined total score, previously held by Alexandra Trusova. She became the fifth figure skater in any discipline to win the [Junior Grand Prix Final](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix_Final "ISU Junior Grand Prix Final") and [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") in consecutive years.
Kostornaia competed next at the [2020 Russian National championships](/wiki/2020_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 Russian Figure Skating Championships"), where she again won the short program, setting a ten\-point lead over second\-place Anna Shcherbakova. However, she placed second in the free skate, due to mistakes on her double Axel and triple flip\-triple toe loop combination. She received the silver medal, two points behind Shcherbakova, and secured a spot on the European and World teams.
At the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 European Figure Skating Championships"), Kostornaia was in the lead following a clean short program. She placed second in the free skate behind Shcherbakova, receiving a deduction for falling on her last jumping pass, a [triple Lutz](/wiki/Lutz_jump "Lutz jump"), but still scored enough to claim the European title by three points. Upon being interviewed after her victory, she expressed surprise at the results, as she had not expected to win in light of the mistake.
After the [2020 World Championships](/wiki/2020_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 World Figure Skating Championships") were cancelled over concern about the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), Kostornaia officially ended her season undefeated at every international competition of her senior debut.
### 2020–2021 season: Coaching changes and COVID\-19
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Kostornaia with former coaches, Sergei Rozanov (left) and [Evgeni Plushenko](/wiki/Evgeni_Plushenko "Evgeni Plushenko") (center) at the [2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2020_Rostelecom_Cup "2020 Rostelecom Cup")](/wiki/File:2020-11-20_-_Rostelecom_Cup_-_Ladies_SP_-_Alena_Kostornaia_-_Photo_02.jpg "2020-11-20 - Rostelecom Cup - Ladies SP - Alena Kostornaia - Photo 02.jpg")
On 31 July 2020, it was announced by Russian media outlet R\-Sport that Kostornaia had chosen to part ways with coach Eteri Tutberidze to train in the camp of coach [Evgeni Plushenko](/wiki/Evgeni_Plushenko "Evgeni Plushenko"). This news was first reported by Tutberidze herself via [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram "Instagram") where she claimed that the split was due to Kostornaia's refusal to share the ice with other teammates. Kostornaia herself initially declined to comment on her departure. Although she left Tutberidze with two new programs set, including a new free program to three variations of [Lovely](/wiki/Lovely_%28Billie_Eilish_and_Khalid_song%29 "Lovely (Billie Eilish and Khalid song)") by [Billie Eilish](/wiki/Billie_Eilish "Billie Eilish") and [Khalid](/wiki/Khalid_%28singer%29 "Khalid (singer)"), Plushenko stated in an interview with [TASS](/wiki/TASS "TASS") that he and his team would set two more new programs for Kostornaia for the season, potentially with international choreographers. While her new short program ended up being choreographed by her coach, Sergei Rozanov, her new free program was choreographed remotely by Canadian former ice dancer and choreographer [Shae\-Lynn Bourne](/wiki/Shae-Lynn_Bourne "Shae-Lynn Bourne") due to COVID\-19 travel restrictions.
At the 2020 Russian test skate event, Kostornaia only performed her short program as her free program was not finalized due to limited training time. Her coach, Evgeni Plushenko, also stated that Kostornaia was recovering from an unspecified injury and had not yet returned to top form. Due to the injury and late coaching change, Kostornaia was assigned to the final two events in the 2020–21 Russian Cup series, a domestic competition series used to determine qualification to the [Russian Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "Russian Figure Skating Championships"). She was also assigned to compete at the [2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2020_Rostelecom_Cup "2020 Rostelecom Cup").
[thumb\|200px\|left\|Kostornaia at the 2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/File:2020-11-20_-_Rostelecom_Cup_-_Ladies_SP_-_Alena_Kostornaia_%28cropped%29.jpg "2020-11-20 - Rostelecom Cup - Ladies SP - Alena Kostornaia (cropped).jpg")
Kostornaia opened her competitive season at the fourth stage of the domestic Russian Cup series held in [Kazan](/wiki/Kazan "Kazan"), Russia on 8 November. She won the short program by a small margin over teammate Alexandra Trusova with a score of 78\.15, despite a step\-out on her triple flip\-triple toe loop combination and a loss of control on her Biellmann spin. In the free skate, she placed second behind Trusova and won the silver medal overall. At the [2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2020_Rostelecom_Cup "2020 Rostelecom Cup"), Kostornaia cleanly skated her short program and placed first in that segment with a score of 78\.84 points, four points ahead of [Elizaveta Tuktamysheva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Tuktamysheva "Elizaveta Tuktamysheva"), who performed a triple Axel but made an error executing her combination. She dropped to the silver medal position behind Tuktamysheva in the free skate, after underrotating three triple jumps and losing levels on several non\-jump elements. She remarked afterward: "you need jumps like the triple Axel and quads to compete at the highest level, so it is in my plans and I'm working towards that."
On 4 December, it was announced that Kostornaia had withdrawn from the fifth stage of the Russian Cup after contracting [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19"). Kostornaia later withdrew from the [2021 Russian Championships](/wiki/2021_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2021 Russian Figure Skating Championships") on 22 December due to lack of training time caused by her recovery from the virus.{{cite web\|title\=Косторная не поедет в Челябинск, поскольку не успела восстановиться от болезни\|trans\-title\=Kostornaia will not participate in Russian Championships in Chelyabinsk because she has not fully recovered from her illness\|url\=https://tass.ru/sport/10322215\|date\=22 December 2020\|publisher\=\[\[TASS]]\|language\=ru}} On 19 January 2021, it was announced that Kostornaia was selected to participate in the [Channel One Russia](/wiki/Channel_One_Russia "Channel One Russia") Figure Skating Cup, a domestic team tournament featuring six skaters or teams in each discipline, competing against one another in teams of three. Kostornaia earned her place in the event because of the strength of her performance at the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 European Figure Skating Championships") as she was unable to perform at the 2021 national championships, and was chosen to compete alongside fellow top contenders Anna Shcherbakova, Alexandra Trusova, Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, [Daria Usacheva](/wiki/Daria_Usacheva "Daria Usacheva"), and [Kamila Valieva](/wiki/Kamila_Valieva "Kamila Valieva"). She later withdrew from the event on 3 February due to incomplete recovery from COVID\-19\.{{cite web\|title\=Фигуристка Косторная не выступит на командном турнире в Москве\|trans\-title\=Kostornaia will not compete at Team Event in Moscow\|url\=https://tass.ru/sport/10618823\|date\=3 February 2021\|publisher\=\[\[TASS]]\|language\=ru}}
Kostornaia announced on [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram "Instagram") on 28 January that she had developed a new free program, again choreographed by Shae\-Lynn Bourne. Vice President of the ISU Alexander Lakernik visited one of Kostornaia's training sessions to help polish the program. In addition to her new free skate to "My Way" and "Yellow Moon" by [Luca D'Alberto](/wiki/Luca_D%27Alberto "Luca D'Alberto"), Kostornaia also debuted a new short program to [Antonio Vivaldi](/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi "Antonio Vivaldi")'s *[The Four Seasons: Winter](/wiki/The_Four_Seasons_%28Vivaldi%29 "The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)")* at the 2021 Russian Cup Final. The Final was widely perceived as a contest between Kostornaia and Elizaveta Tuktamysheva for the third spot on the Russian ladies' team for the [2021 World Championships](/wiki/2021_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2021 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm"). She struggled in the short at the event, only executing a tight double toe loop after a messy landing on the triple flip in her intended triple flip\-triple\-toe loop combination, placing sixth in the segment. She maintained her standing in the free skate to finish sixth overall, two placements below Tuktamysheva. The Final marked the end to Kostornaia's competitive season as Tuktamysheva was named to the World Championship team on 1 March.
On 3 March, it was reported by [TASS](/wiki/TASS "TASS") that Kostornaia was in the process of negotiating a return to her former coach, Eteri Tutberidze, pending agreement from Tutberidze herself. When asked about the transfer, Kostornaia would neither confirm or deny the rumors. Sports.ru also reported on the situation with the additional detail that Tutberidze was hesitant to accept due to doubts that Kostornaia would be able to regain her previous form after struggling with a back injury and a stress fracture on her leg. On 6 March, it was announced that Tutberidze had accepted Kostornaia back into her group for a two\-month probationary period, during which Kostornaia would have to adhere completely to the team's training regimen and regain her triple Axel in order to continue permanently.
Due to her struggles during the [2020–21 season](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_figure_skating_season "2020–21 figure skating season"), Kostornaia was excluded from Russian national team for the [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_figure_skating_season "2021–22 figure skating season") and was instead named to the reserve team as first alternate. Main national team members and reserve team members receive the same amount of funding from the [Russian Figure Skating Federation](/wiki/Russian_Figure_Skating_Federation "Russian Figure Skating Federation"), with the primary difference between the two being the amount of funds allocated to the skater's club.{{Citation needed\|reason\=Supplied ref does not support statement about funding\|date\=September 2023}}
### 2021–2022 season: Final season with Tutberidze
Kostornaia debuted her programs for the Olympic season at the 2021 Russian test skate event where she attempted the triple Axel again for the first time since the [2019–20 season](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_figure_skating_season "2019–20 figure skating season"). She landed one of her two attempts cleanly. At her first international assignment of the season, the [2021 CS Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2021_CS_Finlandia_Trophy "2021 CS Finlandia Trophy"), Kostornaia did not attempt the triple Axel in the short program, opting instead to skate cleanly under the advisement of her coaches, and placed second in the segment behind Russian teammate [Elizaveta Tuktamysheva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Tuktamysheva "Elizaveta Tuktamysheva"). In the free program, Kostornaia struggled with her technical elements, placing fourth in the segment, but managed to remain on the podium, winning the bronze medal behind training mates [Kamila Valieva](/wiki/Kamila_Valieva "Kamila Valieva") and Tuktamysheva.
Due to travel restrictions related to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), there was concern that Kostornaia, along with several other members of the Russian delegation, would not receive her travel visa in time to compete at her first [Grand Prix](/wiki/ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") assignment of the season, the [2021 Skate Canada International](/wiki/2021_Skate_Canada_International "2021 Skate Canada International"). Fortunately, Kostornaia and her compatriots received their passports and visas on 25 October, just four days before the start of the competition. On 26 October, it was announced by [Match TV](/wiki/Match_TV "Match TV") that Kostornaia had chosen to change both of her programs in advance of [Skate Canada](/wiki/2021_Skate_Canada "2021 Skate Canada"), switching to a short program set to "[New York, New York](/wiki/Theme_from_New_York%2C_New_York "Theme from New York, New York")", and revisiting the free skate choreographer Daniil Gleikhengauz had originally set for her for the [2020–21 season](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_figure_skating_season "2020–21 figure skating season") to three variations of Billie Eilish and Khalid's "[Lovely](/wiki/Lovely_%28Billie_Eilish_and_Khalid_song%29 "Lovely (Billie Eilish and Khalid song)")."
At Skate Canada, Kostornaia placed third in the short program. She attempted and landed her triple Axel, though it was called on the quarter, and trailed behind Valieva and Tuktamysheva. She was fourth in the free skate, but remained in third place overall. She said afterward that she had "made some errors, but was pleased with my results." At her second event, the [2021 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2021_Internationaux_de_France "2021 Internationaux de France"), Kostornaia skated a clean short program without a triple Axel. She attempted and fell on it in the free skate, but landed her other jumps, taking the silver medal. She skated the free skate with dramatic makeup she cited as a tribute to Billie Eilish, "who is also not afraid to look different than others, and I really relate to that". Due to her placements at her two Grand Prix assignments, Kostornaia qualified to the final women's spot in the [2021–22 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2021–22 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"), but the event was canceled due to travel restrictions related to the [Omicron variant](/wiki/Omicron_variant "Omicron variant").{{cite news \|url\= https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/figure\-skating/isu\-grand\-prix\-final\-cancelled\-2021\-covid\-19\-1\.6270768 \|title\= Figure skating Grand Prix Final cancelled over travel rules \|work\= \[\[CBC Sports]] \|date\= 2 December 2021 }}
[thumb\|250px\|Kostornaia in April 2022](/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%28220416%29_-_%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg "Союз Чемпионов (220416) - Алёна Косторная.jpg")
On 13 December 2021, it was announced by Sports.ru that Kostornaia had been forced to withdraw from the [2022 Russian Championships](/wiki/2022_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2022 Russian Figure Skating Championships") due to a hand fracture that would keep her off the ice for 20 days. She declined to comment on the injury, but her inability to compete was largely perceived by figures in Russian figure skating as the end to her bid to qualify to the Russian team for the [2022 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics "2022 Winter Olympics"). Kostornaia later confirmed in a video on her YouTube channel that the injury was the result of a bad fall on a failed triple Axel attempt. She returned to training in February, where she suffered a new fracture in her left wrist while restoring her jumps.
In an Instagram post made on 14 December, Kostornaia stated that she planned to continue to compete for another Olympic quadrennial. On 2 March 2022, Russian media outlet Sports.ru reported that Kostornaia had been asked to leave the Tutberidze training group by her coaches and would begin training under [Elena Buianova](/wiki/Elena_Buianova "Elena Buianova"). She commenced training with Buianova on 8 March.
### 2022–2023 season: Transition to pair skating
On 7 August 2022, Kostornaia's coach, Elena Buyanova, announced that Kostornaia would undergo hip surgery on 8 August to repair an existing injury. The surgery was later delayed, and ultimately took place in September. In January 2023, Buyanova announced that she was no longer coaching Kostornaia, as the skater had opted to transition to [pairs](/wiki/Pair_skating "Pair skating"), teamed with Georgy Kunitsa and coached by Sergei Roslyakov.
Kostornaia/Kunitsa did not compete on the Russian domestic circuit during the spring of 2023, opting to spend that time strengthening their skills as a team.
### 2023–2024 season: Debut of Kostornaia/Kunitsa
Kostornaia/Kunitsa made their domestic debut as a team at the 2023 Russian test skate event in September.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early years",
"Kostornaia began learning to skate in 2007\\. Her parents initially put her in skating as a way to channel her energy. From 2012 to 2017, she was coached by Elena Zhgun in Moscow.",
"Kostornaia sustained an injury in 2016\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2017}} She finished 16th at the [2017 Russian Junior Championships](/wiki/2017_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2017 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"). [Eteri Tutberidze](/wiki/Eteri_Tutberidze \"Eteri Tutberidze\") and [Sergei Dudakov](/wiki/Sergei_Dudakov \"Sergei Dudakov\") became her coaches in 2017\\.",
"### 2017–2018 season: Junior international debut",
"Kostornaia's international debut was in early October 2017, at a [2017–18 ISU Junior Grand Prix](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix \"2017–18 ISU Junior Grand Prix\") (JGP) competition in [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk \"Gdańsk\"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"); ranked first in the short program and second in the free skate, she won the gold medal by a margin of 1\\.36 points over the silver medalist, her training partner [Daria Panenkova](/wiki/Daria_Panenkova \"Daria Panenkova\"). She won silver behind [Sofia Samodurova](/wiki/Sofia_Samodurova \"Sofia Samodurova\") at [JGP Italy](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix_in_Italy \"ISU Junior Grand Prix in Italy\") by a margin of 0\\.04 points. Her placements qualified her for the [2017–18 Junior Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2017–18 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"), where she won silver, placing second in the short program and first in the free skate. At the senior level, Kostornaia won bronze at the [2018 Russian Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2018_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"). She later won silver at the [2018 Russian Junior Championships](/wiki/Russian_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"Russian Junior Figure Skating Championships\") behind teammate [Alexandra Trusova](/wiki/Alexandra_Trusova \"Alexandra Trusova\") by a margin of 0\\.58 points.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2021}}",
"In March 2018, Kostornaia competed at the [2018 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\"). She placed second in the short program and the free skate, winning the silver medal behind Trusova.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2021}}",
"### 2018–2019 season: Junior Grand Prix Final champion",
"[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|Kostornaia with [Eteri Tutberidze](/wiki/Eteri_Tutberidze \"Eteri Tutberidze\") (left) and [Daniil Gleikhengauz](/wiki/Daniil_Gleikhengauz \"Daniil Gleikhengauz\") (right) at the [2019 Russian Championships](/wiki/2019_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 Russian Figure Skating Championships\")](/wiki/File:2019_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships_Alena_Kostornaia_2018-12-21_15-29-18_1545444611.jpg \"2019 Russian Figure Skating Championships Alena Kostornaia 2018-12-21 15-29-18 1545444611.jpg\")\nKostornaia learned to perform a [triple Axel](/wiki/Axel_jump \"Axel jump\") in the preceding year, and originally planned to introduce it in competition. However, she lost the jump following growth during the offseason. Kostornaia started her season by competing in the [2018 JGP series](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix \"2018–19 ISU Junior Grand Prix\"). She won the gold medal at her first JGP event of the season in [Linz](/wiki/Linz \"Linz\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"). She was ranked first in both the short program and the free skate and won the gold medal by a margin of more than 11 points over the silver medalist, her teammate [Alena Kanysheva](/wiki/Alena_Kanysheva \"Alena Kanysheva\").",
"She skated her second JGP event of the season at [JGP Ostrava](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix_in_the_Czech_Republic \"ISU Junior Grand Prix in the Czech Republic\"), where she again placed first in both the short program and the free skate. She won the gold medal by a margin of about 2 points over the silver medalist, [Kim Ye\\-lim](/wiki/Kim_Ye-lim_%28figure_skater%29 \"Kim Ye-lim (figure skater)\"). With two JGP victories, she qualified for the [2018–19 Junior Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2018–19 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"), where she won the gold medal after placing first in both the short program and the free skate. She outscored her teammate and training partner Trusova by about 2\\.5 points. At this event, Kostornaia scored her personal best score of 217\\.98 points, and also set a new junior record for the short program (76\\.32 points).",
"At the [2019 Russian Championships](/wiki/2019_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"), Kostornaia placed third in the short program due to a fall during her step sequence, which she attributed to being \"too relaxed\" as she was nearing the end of the program and had already completed all of her jumping passes. She then placed third in the free skate as well, winning her second consecutive national bronze medal.",
"Kostornaia participated in the 2019 Russian Junior Championships, winning the short program and placing second in the free skate. She placed second overall, winning her second consecutive junior national silver medal. After the event, she was named to the Russian team for the [2019 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2019_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\") along with training mates Trusova and [Anna Shcherbakova](/wiki/Anna_Shcherbakova \"Anna Shcherbakova\"). However, on 4 March, the first day of the event, Kostornaia withdrew from the competition due to a medical condition, subsequently revealed by choreographer [Daniil Gleikhengauz](/wiki/Daniil_Gleikhengauz \"Daniil Gleikhengauz\") to be leg inflammation that required four weeks away from training. She was replaced by [Ksenia Sinitsyna](/wiki/Ksenia_Sinitsyna \"Ksenia Sinitsyna\").",
"### 2019–2020 season: Undefeated senior international debut and European title",
"[thumb\\|right\\|265px\\|Kostornaia at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France \"2019 Internationaux de France\")](/wiki/File:2019_Internationaux_de_France_-_FS_-_Alena_Kostornaia_-_17.jpg \"2019 Internationaux de France - FS - Alena Kostornaia - 17.jpg\")\nFor her programs, Kostornaia retained her short program from the previous season and revised a *[Twilight](/wiki/Twilight_%28film_series%29 \"Twilight (film series)\")*–themed exhibition program from the previous year to serve as her free skate, citing how much she enjoyed skating it. Shortly after debuting her programs at the Russian test skates, Kostornaia resumed training the [triple Axel jump](/wiki/Axel_jump \"Axel jump\"). Kostornaia debuted on the senior international level at the [2019 CS Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2019_CS_Finlandia_Trophy \"2019 CS Finlandia Trophy\"), where she placed first in both the short program and free skate. She incorporated two triple Axels in her free skate, becoming the tenth woman in history to land the jump in an international competition, and earned a total combined score of 234\\.84, 22\\.31 points ahead of silver medalist [Elizaveta Tuktamysheva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Tuktamysheva \"Elizaveta Tuktamysheva\").",
"Making her [senior Grand Prix](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2019–20 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") debut at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France \"2019 Internationaux de France\"), Kostornaia ranked first in the short program, incorporating a triple Axel into it for the first time. She then became the fourth woman ever, after [Mao Asada](/wiki/Mao_Asada \"Mao Asada\"), [Rika Kihira](/wiki/Rika_Kihira \"Rika Kihira\") and Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, to land two fully rotated triple Axels in a free skate, placing first in the segment with a personal best score of 159\\.45 points. She took the gold medal over training mate and reigning [World](/wiki/2019_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 World Figure Skating Championships\") and [Olympic](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics \"2018 Winter Olympics\") champion [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova \"Alina Zagitova\") by a margin of 19\\.94 points. At the [2019 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2019_NHK_Trophy \"2019 NHK Trophy\"), Kostornaia performed a clean skate with a successful triple Axel to place first in the short program, 5\\.15 points over [Rika Kihira](/wiki/Rika_Kihira \"Rika Kihira\"), who also landed a triple Axel, and set a new world record score of 85\\.04 for the ladies' short program at the senior level. In the free, she again placed first and won the event with a personal best total score of 240\\.00\\. Kostornaia became the top qualifier for the [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2019–20 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") in [Torino](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\"), with two gold medal finishes and 30 points overall.",
"At the [2019–20 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2019–20 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"), she broke her own world record by scoring 85\\.45 points in the short program, placing first. In spite of having the only clean free skate amongst the ladies, Kostornaia ranked second in that segment, 0\\.51 point behind teammate Anna Shcherbakova. However, her lead from the short program was enough to not only win the title by almost 7 points over Shcherbakova, but also to break the world record in the combined total score, previously held by Alexandra Trusova. She became the fifth figure skater in any discipline to win the [Junior Grand Prix Final](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix_Final \"ISU Junior Grand Prix Final\") and [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") in consecutive years.",
"Kostornaia competed next at the [2020 Russian National championships](/wiki/2020_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"), where she again won the short program, setting a ten\\-point lead over second\\-place Anna Shcherbakova. However, she placed second in the free skate, due to mistakes on her double Axel and triple flip\\-triple toe loop combination. She received the silver medal, two points behind Shcherbakova, and secured a spot on the European and World teams.",
"At the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 European Figure Skating Championships\"), Kostornaia was in the lead following a clean short program. She placed second in the free skate behind Shcherbakova, receiving a deduction for falling on her last jumping pass, a [triple Lutz](/wiki/Lutz_jump \"Lutz jump\"), but still scored enough to claim the European title by three points. Upon being interviewed after her victory, she expressed surprise at the results, as she had not expected to win in light of the mistake.",
"After the [2020 World Championships](/wiki/2020_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 World Figure Skating Championships\") were cancelled over concern about the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), Kostornaia officially ended her season undefeated at every international competition of her senior debut.",
"### 2020–2021 season: Coaching changes and COVID\\-19",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Kostornaia with former coaches, Sergei Rozanov (left) and [Evgeni Plushenko](/wiki/Evgeni_Plushenko \"Evgeni Plushenko\") (center) at the [2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2020_Rostelecom_Cup \"2020 Rostelecom Cup\")](/wiki/File:2020-11-20_-_Rostelecom_Cup_-_Ladies_SP_-_Alena_Kostornaia_-_Photo_02.jpg \"2020-11-20 - Rostelecom Cup - Ladies SP - Alena Kostornaia - Photo 02.jpg\")\nOn 31 July 2020, it was announced by Russian media outlet R\\-Sport that Kostornaia had chosen to part ways with coach Eteri Tutberidze to train in the camp of coach [Evgeni Plushenko](/wiki/Evgeni_Plushenko \"Evgeni Plushenko\"). This news was first reported by Tutberidze herself via [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram \"Instagram\") where she claimed that the split was due to Kostornaia's refusal to share the ice with other teammates. Kostornaia herself initially declined to comment on her departure. Although she left Tutberidze with two new programs set, including a new free program to three variations of [Lovely](/wiki/Lovely_%28Billie_Eilish_and_Khalid_song%29 \"Lovely (Billie Eilish and Khalid song)\") by [Billie Eilish](/wiki/Billie_Eilish \"Billie Eilish\") and [Khalid](/wiki/Khalid_%28singer%29 \"Khalid (singer)\"), Plushenko stated in an interview with [TASS](/wiki/TASS \"TASS\") that he and his team would set two more new programs for Kostornaia for the season, potentially with international choreographers. While her new short program ended up being choreographed by her coach, Sergei Rozanov, her new free program was choreographed remotely by Canadian former ice dancer and choreographer [Shae\\-Lynn Bourne](/wiki/Shae-Lynn_Bourne \"Shae-Lynn Bourne\") due to COVID\\-19 travel restrictions.",
"At the 2020 Russian test skate event, Kostornaia only performed her short program as her free program was not finalized due to limited training time. Her coach, Evgeni Plushenko, also stated that Kostornaia was recovering from an unspecified injury and had not yet returned to top form. Due to the injury and late coaching change, Kostornaia was assigned to the final two events in the 2020–21 Russian Cup series, a domestic competition series used to determine qualification to the [Russian Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"Russian Figure Skating Championships\"). She was also assigned to compete at the [2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2020_Rostelecom_Cup \"2020 Rostelecom Cup\").",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|left\\|Kostornaia at the 2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/File:2020-11-20_-_Rostelecom_Cup_-_Ladies_SP_-_Alena_Kostornaia_%28cropped%29.jpg \"2020-11-20 - Rostelecom Cup - Ladies SP - Alena Kostornaia (cropped).jpg\")\nKostornaia opened her competitive season at the fourth stage of the domestic Russian Cup series held in [Kazan](/wiki/Kazan \"Kazan\"), Russia on 8 November. She won the short program by a small margin over teammate Alexandra Trusova with a score of 78\\.15, despite a step\\-out on her triple flip\\-triple toe loop combination and a loss of control on her Biellmann spin. In the free skate, she placed second behind Trusova and won the silver medal overall. At the [2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2020_Rostelecom_Cup \"2020 Rostelecom Cup\"), Kostornaia cleanly skated her short program and placed first in that segment with a score of 78\\.84 points, four points ahead of [Elizaveta Tuktamysheva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Tuktamysheva \"Elizaveta Tuktamysheva\"), who performed a triple Axel but made an error executing her combination. She dropped to the silver medal position behind Tuktamysheva in the free skate, after underrotating three triple jumps and losing levels on several non\\-jump elements. She remarked afterward: \"you need jumps like the triple Axel and quads to compete at the highest level, so it is in my plans and I'm working towards that.\"",
"On 4 December, it was announced that Kostornaia had withdrawn from the fifth stage of the Russian Cup after contracting [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\"). Kostornaia later withdrew from the [2021 Russian Championships](/wiki/2021_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2021 Russian Figure Skating Championships\") on 22 December due to lack of training time caused by her recovery from the virus.{{cite web\\|title\\=Косторная не поедет в Челябинск, поскольку не успела восстановиться от болезни\\|trans\\-title\\=Kostornaia will not participate in Russian Championships in Chelyabinsk because she has not fully recovered from her illness\\|url\\=https://tass.ru/sport/10322215\\|date\\=22 December 2020\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TASS]]\\|language\\=ru}} On 19 January 2021, it was announced that Kostornaia was selected to participate in the [Channel One Russia](/wiki/Channel_One_Russia \"Channel One Russia\") Figure Skating Cup, a domestic team tournament featuring six skaters or teams in each discipline, competing against one another in teams of three. Kostornaia earned her place in the event because of the strength of her performance at the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 European Figure Skating Championships\") as she was unable to perform at the 2021 national championships, and was chosen to compete alongside fellow top contenders Anna Shcherbakova, Alexandra Trusova, Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, [Daria Usacheva](/wiki/Daria_Usacheva \"Daria Usacheva\"), and [Kamila Valieva](/wiki/Kamila_Valieva \"Kamila Valieva\"). She later withdrew from the event on 3 February due to incomplete recovery from COVID\\-19\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Фигуристка Косторная не выступит на командном турнире в Москве\\|trans\\-title\\=Kostornaia will not compete at Team Event in Moscow\\|url\\=https://tass.ru/sport/10618823\\|date\\=3 February 2021\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[TASS]]\\|language\\=ru}}",
"Kostornaia announced on [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram \"Instagram\") on 28 January that she had developed a new free program, again choreographed by Shae\\-Lynn Bourne. Vice President of the ISU Alexander Lakernik visited one of Kostornaia's training sessions to help polish the program. In addition to her new free skate to \"My Way\" and \"Yellow Moon\" by [Luca D'Alberto](/wiki/Luca_D%27Alberto \"Luca D'Alberto\"), Kostornaia also debuted a new short program to [Antonio Vivaldi](/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi \"Antonio Vivaldi\")'s *[The Four Seasons: Winter](/wiki/The_Four_Seasons_%28Vivaldi%29 \"The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)\")* at the 2021 Russian Cup Final. The Final was widely perceived as a contest between Kostornaia and Elizaveta Tuktamysheva for the third spot on the Russian ladies' team for the [2021 World Championships](/wiki/2021_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2021 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\"). She struggled in the short at the event, only executing a tight double toe loop after a messy landing on the triple flip in her intended triple flip\\-triple\\-toe loop combination, placing sixth in the segment. She maintained her standing in the free skate to finish sixth overall, two placements below Tuktamysheva. The Final marked the end to Kostornaia's competitive season as Tuktamysheva was named to the World Championship team on 1 March.",
"On 3 March, it was reported by [TASS](/wiki/TASS \"TASS\") that Kostornaia was in the process of negotiating a return to her former coach, Eteri Tutberidze, pending agreement from Tutberidze herself. When asked about the transfer, Kostornaia would neither confirm or deny the rumors. Sports.ru also reported on the situation with the additional detail that Tutberidze was hesitant to accept due to doubts that Kostornaia would be able to regain her previous form after struggling with a back injury and a stress fracture on her leg. On 6 March, it was announced that Tutberidze had accepted Kostornaia back into her group for a two\\-month probationary period, during which Kostornaia would have to adhere completely to the team's training regimen and regain her triple Axel in order to continue permanently.",
"Due to her struggles during the [2020–21 season](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_figure_skating_season \"2020–21 figure skating season\"), Kostornaia was excluded from Russian national team for the [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_figure_skating_season \"2021–22 figure skating season\") and was instead named to the reserve team as first alternate. Main national team members and reserve team members receive the same amount of funding from the [Russian Figure Skating Federation](/wiki/Russian_Figure_Skating_Federation \"Russian Figure Skating Federation\"), with the primary difference between the two being the amount of funds allocated to the skater's club.{{Citation needed\\|reason\\=Supplied ref does not support statement about funding\\|date\\=September 2023}}",
"### 2021–2022 season: Final season with Tutberidze",
"Kostornaia debuted her programs for the Olympic season at the 2021 Russian test skate event where she attempted the triple Axel again for the first time since the [2019–20 season](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_figure_skating_season \"2019–20 figure skating season\"). She landed one of her two attempts cleanly. At her first international assignment of the season, the [2021 CS Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2021_CS_Finlandia_Trophy \"2021 CS Finlandia Trophy\"), Kostornaia did not attempt the triple Axel in the short program, opting instead to skate cleanly under the advisement of her coaches, and placed second in the segment behind Russian teammate [Elizaveta Tuktamysheva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Tuktamysheva \"Elizaveta Tuktamysheva\"). In the free program, Kostornaia struggled with her technical elements, placing fourth in the segment, but managed to remain on the podium, winning the bronze medal behind training mates [Kamila Valieva](/wiki/Kamila_Valieva \"Kamila Valieva\") and Tuktamysheva.",
"Due to travel restrictions related to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), there was concern that Kostornaia, along with several other members of the Russian delegation, would not receive her travel visa in time to compete at her first [Grand Prix](/wiki/ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") assignment of the season, the [2021 Skate Canada International](/wiki/2021_Skate_Canada_International \"2021 Skate Canada International\"). Fortunately, Kostornaia and her compatriots received their passports and visas on 25 October, just four days before the start of the competition. On 26 October, it was announced by [Match TV](/wiki/Match_TV \"Match TV\") that Kostornaia had chosen to change both of her programs in advance of [Skate Canada](/wiki/2021_Skate_Canada \"2021 Skate Canada\"), switching to a short program set to \"[New York, New York](/wiki/Theme_from_New_York%2C_New_York \"Theme from New York, New York\")\", and revisiting the free skate choreographer Daniil Gleikhengauz had originally set for her for the [2020–21 season](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_figure_skating_season \"2020–21 figure skating season\") to three variations of Billie Eilish and Khalid's \"[Lovely](/wiki/Lovely_%28Billie_Eilish_and_Khalid_song%29 \"Lovely (Billie Eilish and Khalid song)\").\"",
"At Skate Canada, Kostornaia placed third in the short program. She attempted and landed her triple Axel, though it was called on the quarter, and trailed behind Valieva and Tuktamysheva. She was fourth in the free skate, but remained in third place overall. She said afterward that she had \"made some errors, but was pleased with my results.\" At her second event, the [2021 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2021_Internationaux_de_France \"2021 Internationaux de France\"), Kostornaia skated a clean short program without a triple Axel. She attempted and fell on it in the free skate, but landed her other jumps, taking the silver medal. She skated the free skate with dramatic makeup she cited as a tribute to Billie Eilish, \"who is also not afraid to look different than others, and I really relate to that\". Due to her placements at her two Grand Prix assignments, Kostornaia qualified to the final women's spot in the [2021–22 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2021–22 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"), but the event was canceled due to travel restrictions related to the [Omicron variant](/wiki/Omicron_variant \"Omicron variant\").{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/figure\\-skating/isu\\-grand\\-prix\\-final\\-cancelled\\-2021\\-covid\\-19\\-1\\.6270768 \\|title\\= Figure skating Grand Prix Final cancelled over travel rules \\|work\\= \\[\\[CBC Sports]] \\|date\\= 2 December 2021 }}\n[thumb\\|250px\\|Kostornaia in April 2022](/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%28220416%29_-_%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg \"Союз Чемпионов (220416) - Алёна Косторная.jpg\")\nOn 13 December 2021, it was announced by Sports.ru that Kostornaia had been forced to withdraw from the [2022 Russian Championships](/wiki/2022_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2022 Russian Figure Skating Championships\") due to a hand fracture that would keep her off the ice for 20 days. She declined to comment on the injury, but her inability to compete was largely perceived by figures in Russian figure skating as the end to her bid to qualify to the Russian team for the [2022 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics \"2022 Winter Olympics\"). Kostornaia later confirmed in a video on her YouTube channel that the injury was the result of a bad fall on a failed triple Axel attempt. She returned to training in February, where she suffered a new fracture in her left wrist while restoring her jumps.",
"In an Instagram post made on 14 December, Kostornaia stated that she planned to continue to compete for another Olympic quadrennial. On 2 March 2022, Russian media outlet Sports.ru reported that Kostornaia had been asked to leave the Tutberidze training group by her coaches and would begin training under [Elena Buianova](/wiki/Elena_Buianova \"Elena Buianova\"). She commenced training with Buianova on 8 March.",
"### 2022–2023 season: Transition to pair skating",
"On 7 August 2022, Kostornaia's coach, Elena Buyanova, announced that Kostornaia would undergo hip surgery on 8 August to repair an existing injury. The surgery was later delayed, and ultimately took place in September. In January 2023, Buyanova announced that she was no longer coaching Kostornaia, as the skater had opted to transition to [pairs](/wiki/Pair_skating \"Pair skating\"), teamed with Georgy Kunitsa and coached by Sergei Roslyakov.",
"Kostornaia/Kunitsa did not compete on the Russian domestic circuit during the spring of 2023, opting to spend that time strengthening their skills as a team.",
"### 2023–2024 season: Debut of Kostornaia/Kunitsa",
"Kostornaia/Kunitsa made their domestic debut as a team at the 2023 Russian test skate event in September.",
""
] |
### 2019–2020 season: Undefeated senior international debut and European title
[thumb\|right\|265px\|Kostornaia at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France "2019 Internationaux de France")](/wiki/File:2019_Internationaux_de_France_-_FS_-_Alena_Kostornaia_-_17.jpg "2019 Internationaux de France - FS - Alena Kostornaia - 17.jpg")
For her programs, Kostornaia retained her short program from the previous season and revised a *[Twilight](/wiki/Twilight_%28film_series%29 "Twilight (film series)")*–themed exhibition program from the previous year to serve as her free skate, citing how much she enjoyed skating it. Shortly after debuting her programs at the Russian test skates, Kostornaia resumed training the [triple Axel jump](/wiki/Axel_jump "Axel jump"). Kostornaia debuted on the senior international level at the [2019 CS Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2019_CS_Finlandia_Trophy "2019 CS Finlandia Trophy"), where she placed first in both the short program and free skate. She incorporated two triple Axels in her free skate, becoming the tenth woman in history to land the jump in an international competition, and earned a total combined score of 234\.84, 22\.31 points ahead of silver medalist [Elizaveta Tuktamysheva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Tuktamysheva "Elizaveta Tuktamysheva").
Making her [senior Grand Prix](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2019–20 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") debut at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France "2019 Internationaux de France"), Kostornaia ranked first in the short program, incorporating a triple Axel into it for the first time. She then became the fourth woman ever, after [Mao Asada](/wiki/Mao_Asada "Mao Asada"), [Rika Kihira](/wiki/Rika_Kihira "Rika Kihira") and Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, to land two fully rotated triple Axels in a free skate, placing first in the segment with a personal best score of 159\.45 points. She took the gold medal over training mate and reigning [World](/wiki/2019_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 World Figure Skating Championships") and [Olympic](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics "2018 Winter Olympics") champion [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova "Alina Zagitova") by a margin of 19\.94 points. At the [2019 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2019_NHK_Trophy "2019 NHK Trophy"), Kostornaia performed a clean skate with a successful triple Axel to place first in the short program, 5\.15 points over [Rika Kihira](/wiki/Rika_Kihira "Rika Kihira"), who also landed a triple Axel, and set a new world record score of 85\.04 for the ladies' short program at the senior level. In the free, she again placed first and won the event with a personal best total score of 240\.00\. Kostornaia became the top qualifier for the [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2019–20 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") in [Torino](/wiki/Turin "Turin"), with two gold medal finishes and 30 points overall.
At the [2019–20 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2019–20 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"), she broke her own world record by scoring 85\.45 points in the short program, placing first. In spite of having the only clean free skate amongst the ladies, Kostornaia ranked second in that segment, 0\.51 point behind teammate Anna Shcherbakova. However, her lead from the short program was enough to not only win the title by almost 7 points over Shcherbakova, but also to break the world record in the combined total score, previously held by Alexandra Trusova. She became the fifth figure skater in any discipline to win the [Junior Grand Prix Final](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix_Final "ISU Junior Grand Prix Final") and [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") in consecutive years.
Kostornaia competed next at the [2020 Russian National championships](/wiki/2020_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 Russian Figure Skating Championships"), where she again won the short program, setting a ten\-point lead over second\-place Anna Shcherbakova. However, she placed second in the free skate, due to mistakes on her double Axel and triple flip\-triple toe loop combination. She received the silver medal, two points behind Shcherbakova, and secured a spot on the European and World teams.
At the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 European Figure Skating Championships"), Kostornaia was in the lead following a clean short program. She placed second in the free skate behind Shcherbakova, receiving a deduction for falling on her last jumping pass, a [triple Lutz](/wiki/Lutz_jump "Lutz jump"), but still scored enough to claim the European title by three points. Upon being interviewed after her victory, she expressed surprise at the results, as she had not expected to win in light of the mistake.
After the [2020 World Championships](/wiki/2020_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 World Figure Skating Championships") were cancelled over concern about the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), Kostornaia officially ended her season undefeated at every international competition of her senior debut.
|
[
"### 2019–2020 season: Undefeated senior international debut and European title",
"[thumb\\|right\\|265px\\|Kostornaia at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France \"2019 Internationaux de France\")](/wiki/File:2019_Internationaux_de_France_-_FS_-_Alena_Kostornaia_-_17.jpg \"2019 Internationaux de France - FS - Alena Kostornaia - 17.jpg\")\nFor her programs, Kostornaia retained her short program from the previous season and revised a *[Twilight](/wiki/Twilight_%28film_series%29 \"Twilight (film series)\")*–themed exhibition program from the previous year to serve as her free skate, citing how much she enjoyed skating it. Shortly after debuting her programs at the Russian test skates, Kostornaia resumed training the [triple Axel jump](/wiki/Axel_jump \"Axel jump\"). Kostornaia debuted on the senior international level at the [2019 CS Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2019_CS_Finlandia_Trophy \"2019 CS Finlandia Trophy\"), where she placed first in both the short program and free skate. She incorporated two triple Axels in her free skate, becoming the tenth woman in history to land the jump in an international competition, and earned a total combined score of 234\\.84, 22\\.31 points ahead of silver medalist [Elizaveta Tuktamysheva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Tuktamysheva \"Elizaveta Tuktamysheva\").",
"Making her [senior Grand Prix](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2019–20 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") debut at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France \"2019 Internationaux de France\"), Kostornaia ranked first in the short program, incorporating a triple Axel into it for the first time. She then became the fourth woman ever, after [Mao Asada](/wiki/Mao_Asada \"Mao Asada\"), [Rika Kihira](/wiki/Rika_Kihira \"Rika Kihira\") and Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, to land two fully rotated triple Axels in a free skate, placing first in the segment with a personal best score of 159\\.45 points. She took the gold medal over training mate and reigning [World](/wiki/2019_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 World Figure Skating Championships\") and [Olympic](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics \"2018 Winter Olympics\") champion [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova \"Alina Zagitova\") by a margin of 19\\.94 points. At the [2019 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2019_NHK_Trophy \"2019 NHK Trophy\"), Kostornaia performed a clean skate with a successful triple Axel to place first in the short program, 5\\.15 points over [Rika Kihira](/wiki/Rika_Kihira \"Rika Kihira\"), who also landed a triple Axel, and set a new world record score of 85\\.04 for the ladies' short program at the senior level. In the free, she again placed first and won the event with a personal best total score of 240\\.00\\. Kostornaia became the top qualifier for the [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2019–20 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") in [Torino](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\"), with two gold medal finishes and 30 points overall.",
"At the [2019–20 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2019–20 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"), she broke her own world record by scoring 85\\.45 points in the short program, placing first. In spite of having the only clean free skate amongst the ladies, Kostornaia ranked second in that segment, 0\\.51 point behind teammate Anna Shcherbakova. However, her lead from the short program was enough to not only win the title by almost 7 points over Shcherbakova, but also to break the world record in the combined total score, previously held by Alexandra Trusova. She became the fifth figure skater in any discipline to win the [Junior Grand Prix Final](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix_Final \"ISU Junior Grand Prix Final\") and [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") in consecutive years.",
"Kostornaia competed next at the [2020 Russian National championships](/wiki/2020_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"), where she again won the short program, setting a ten\\-point lead over second\\-place Anna Shcherbakova. However, she placed second in the free skate, due to mistakes on her double Axel and triple flip\\-triple toe loop combination. She received the silver medal, two points behind Shcherbakova, and secured a spot on the European and World teams.",
"At the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 European Figure Skating Championships\"), Kostornaia was in the lead following a clean short program. She placed second in the free skate behind Shcherbakova, receiving a deduction for falling on her last jumping pass, a [triple Lutz](/wiki/Lutz_jump \"Lutz jump\"), but still scored enough to claim the European title by three points. Upon being interviewed after her victory, she expressed surprise at the results, as she had not expected to win in light of the mistake.",
"After the [2020 World Championships](/wiki/2020_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 World Figure Skating Championships\") were cancelled over concern about the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), Kostornaia officially ended her season undefeated at every international competition of her senior debut.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Formation and early years (2002–2003\)
The band was formed in 2002 by [Johnny Borrell](/wiki/Johnny_Borrell "Johnny Borrell"), after having performed across London with the likes of [The Libertines](/wiki/The_Libertines "The Libertines") as a solo acoustic singer\-songwriter. It is often reported that Borrell was a member of the Libertines,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gigwise.com/photos/85049/ \|title\=11 years on: 11 facts about The Libertines' debut, Up The Bracket \|publisher\=Gigwise \|date\=2020\-01\-14 \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}} but [Carl Barat](/wiki/Carl_Barat "Carl Barat") has since revealed that he was just taught the bass lines for four songs to play for a showcase for [Rough Trade Records](/wiki/Rough_Trade_Records "Rough Trade Records") and failed to turn up for it and never played with the band live.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=L20A\_LU4SX8C\&q\=borrell\&pg\=PT31 \|title\=Kids in the Riot: High and Low with The Libertines \- Pete Welsh \- Google Books \|date\=2009\-12\-17 \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18\|isbn\=9780857126962 \|last1\=Welsh \|first1\=Pete \|publisher\=Omnibus Press }} Borrell first enlisted Swedish\-born guitarist Björn Ågren via an advert in the NME,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.lep.co.uk/whats\-on/music/love\-in\-the\-razorlight\-1\-127930 \|title\=Love in the Razorlight \- Lancashire Evening Post \|publisher\=Lep.co.uk \|date\=2007\-05\-18 \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18 \|archive\-date\=9 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209001454/https://www.lep.co.uk/whats\-on/music/love\-in\-the\-razorlight\-1\-127930 \|url\-status\=dead }} who then introduced fellow\-Swede bassist Carl Dalemo to Borrell. They rehearsed in east London for six months before playing their first gig on 17 September 2002 at [Dingwalls](/wiki/Dingwalls "Dingwalls") in Camden, London supporting the [Von Bondies](/wiki/Von_Bondies "Von Bondies"). Former NME journalist Roger Morton, who had been managing the band from the beginning, began looking to get the band into a recording studio and a session was booked at [Liam Watson](/wiki/Liam_Watson_%28record_producer%29 "Liam Watson (record producer)")'s [Toe Rag Studios](/wiki/Toe_Rag_Studios "Toe Rag Studios") to record early versions of the tracks *[Rip It Up](/wiki/Rip_It_Up_%28Razorlight_song%29 "Rip It Up (Razorlight song)")*, *[Rock 'n' Roll Lies](/wiki/Rock_%27n%27_Roll_Lies "Rock 'n' Roll Lies")* and *In the City*. The results of these sessions gained radio play on the John Kennedy Show on [XFM](/wiki/XFM "XFM") who described the band as being "the best unsigned band in Britain", and led to A\&R attention.{{cite web \|author\=by \[redacted] May 21st, 2003 \|url\=http://drownedinsound.com/news/7023\-razorlight\-and\-the\-darkness\-sign\-to\-the\-man \|title\=Razorlight and The Darkness sign to The Man / Music News // Drowned In Sound \|publisher\=Drownedinsound.com \|date\=2003\-05\-21 \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18 \|archive\-date\=9 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209170413/http://drownedinsound.com/news/7023\-razorlight\-and\-the\-darkness\-sign\-to\-the\-man \|url\-status\=dead }} Following a bidding war to sign the band, they signed to [Mercury Records](/wiki/Mercury_Records "Mercury Records").
### *Up All Night* (2004–2005\)
The band released their debut album *[Up All Night](/wiki/Up_All_Night_%28Razorlight_album%29 "Up All Night (Razorlight album)")* on 28 June 2004, reaching number 3 in the UK album charts.{{cite web\|url\=http://top40\-charts.com/chart.php?cid\=26\&date\=2004\-07\-04 \|title\=UK Top 20 Albums @ Top40\-Charts.com – 40 Top 20 \& Top 40 Music Charts from 25 Countries \|publisher\=Top40\-charts.com \|date\=4 July 2004 \|access\-date\=13 April 2011}} The critical reception was generally positive, receiving good reviews from *[NME](/wiki/NME "NME")*, *[Q](/wiki/Q_magazine "Q magazine")* magazine and *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_Magazine "Billboard Magazine")*. Drummer Shïan Smith\-Pancorvo left the band in April and was replaced by [Andy Burrows](/wiki/Andy_Burrows "Andy Burrows") the following month.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-174\-1355209\|title\=RAZORLIGHT UNVEIL NEW DRUMMER \| NME\|website\=\[\[NME]]\|date\=8 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208234055/https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-174\-1355209\|access\-date\=14 December 2020\|archive\-date\=8 December 2019}} *Up All Night* was re\-issued in April 2005, including the stand\-alone single *[Somewhere Else](/wiki/Somewhere_Else_%28Razorlight_song%29 "Somewhere Else (Razorlight song)")* as a bonus track, and peaked at Number 2\.
In July 2005, the band performed at [Hyde Park](/wiki/Hyde_Park%2C_London "Hyde Park, London"), London as part of the [Live 8](/wiki/Live_8 "Live 8") series of concerts. However, the band came under fire for being the only band to not donate their extra revenue to charity. The band subsequently claimed that due to their "fledgling status", they were unable to make such a commitment.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nmefestivals.com/t\_in\_the\_park/news/112932 \|title\=Festivals Guide 2011 \|work\=NME \|location\=UK \|access\-date\=13 April 2011}}
Razorlight contributed the song "Kirby's House" to the [War Child](/wiki/War_Child_%28charity%29 "War Child (charity)") charity album *[Help!: A Day in the Life](/wiki/Help%21:A_Day_in_the_Life "A Day in the Life")*. A shorter alternative version of the song was included on the band's second album, *[Razorlight](/wiki/Razorlight_%28album%29 "Razorlight (album)")*.
In the midst of their first American headlining tour in support of *Up All Night*, Razorlight created a stir in Denver, Colorado, when they stormed off stage five songs into their set during a show at the Larimer Lounge.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vh1\.com/news/articles/1496362/20050128/razorlight.jhtml?headlines\=true\|title\=End Of Razorlight's Tour Marred By Onstage Freak\-Out, Illness
\|publisher\=VH1 \|access\-date\=2 October 2011}}{{dead link\|date\=November 2023\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} After stumbling around stage, frontman Borrell shouted into the microphone "I'm going to kill myself now," and ran off the stage. The band's official statement stated that he was suffering from stagefright.
A later laryngitis infection led to the cancellation of the Los Angeles date of the tour.
### *Razorlight* (2006–2007\)
Razorlight debuted several new songs from their forthcoming second album live on 30 March 2006 at the Albert Hall in London, as part of [Teenage Cancer Trust](/wiki/Teenage_Cancer_Trust "Teenage Cancer Trust") concerts, organised by [Roger Daltrey](/wiki/Roger_Daltrey "Roger Daltrey"). On 2 July, they played to a sold\-out Hyde Park Calling, where they performed before The Who. The band went on to play on the beach opposite [Brighton](/wiki/Brighton "Brighton")'s [West Pier](/wiki/West_Pier "West Pier") on 12 July in a free concert as part of a [Vodafone](/wiki/Vodafone "Vodafone") TBA event broadcast on [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 "Channel 4").
Razorlight released their second album *[Razorlight](/wiki/Razorlight_%28album%29 "Razorlight (album)")* on 17 July 2006, in the United Kingdom and it debuted at No. 1 in the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart "UK Albums Chart") a week later. It received mixed reviews, [*Q* magazine](/wiki/Q_magazine "Q magazine") giving it a rare 5/5 rating, whilst Pitchfork Media gave it 2\.8/10\. The lead single from the album, *In the Morning* was released as a single on 3 July 2006, which peaked at No. 3 in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart "UK Singles Chart"). To date, it is their third biggest single after *Somewhere Else*, which peaked at No. 2, and *America*, which peaked at No. 1\. It also reached No. 2 on [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes_Store "ITunes Store"). In 2007, Razorlight were nominated for two [BRIT Awards](/wiki/BRIT_Awards "BRIT Awards") – one for Best British Band and the other for Best Song, *[America](/wiki/America_%28Razorlight_song%29 "America (Razorlight song)")*. They were also nominated for two [NME](/wiki/NME "NME") Brit Awards for Best Band and Best Album.
Razorlight supported [Queen \+ Paul Rodgers](/wiki/Queen_%2B_Paul_Rodgers "Queen + Paul Rodgers") on 15 July, in front of 60,000 people. This gig had been rescheduled following the [July 2005 London bombings](/wiki/July_2005_London_bombings "July 2005 London bombings"). In December of the same year, they supported [Oasis](/wiki/Oasis_%28band%29 "Oasis (band)"), at Cardiff's [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium"). They also supported [The Rolling Stones](/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones "The Rolling Stones") in Cologne and Paris. The band played their biggest tour to date in October–November 2006 and also supported [Richard Ashcroft](/wiki/Richard_Ashcroft "Richard Ashcroft") at the [Lancashire County Cricket Club](/wiki/County_Ground%2C_Old_Trafford "County Ground, Old Trafford") on 17 June. They headlined [Reading](/wiki/Reading_Festival "Reading Festival") on 24 August, and Leeds on 25 August 2007\. They also played the Main Stage on 19 May in Preston for Radio 1's [Big Weekend](/wiki/Big_Weekend "Big Weekend") alongside bands such as [Kasabian](/wiki/Kasabian "Kasabian") and [Kaiser Chiefs](/wiki/Kaiser_Chiefs "Kaiser Chiefs"). On 7 July 2007, Razorlight performed at both the [UK leg](/wiki/Live_Earth_concert%2C_London "Live Earth concert, London") of [Live Earth](/wiki/Live_Earth "Live Earth") at [Wembley Stadium](/wiki/Wembley_Stadium "Wembley Stadium"), London and [T in the Park](/wiki/T_in_the_Park "T in the Park"). In November 2006 the band were hospitalised after traces of radioactive poisoning were detected on their plane. Their [British Airways](/wiki/British_Airways "British Airways") return flight from Moscow was a scheduled route used by Russian ex\-spy [Alexander Litvinenko](/wiki/Alexander_Litvinenko "Alexander Litvinenko").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/the\-automatic/25343 \|title\=Bands caught up in spy poison scandal \|work\=NME \|location\=UK \|date\=6 December 2006 \|access\-date\=13 April 2011}}
The same month they supported the Mando Diao "Ode to Ochrasy Tour" in Germany.
### *Slipway Fires* and Burrows' departure (2008–2009\)
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|Razorlight in 2009](/wiki/File:Razorlight-KEXP.jpg "Razorlight-KEXP.jpg")
Razorlight were due to perform for BBC [Children in Need](/wiki/Children_in_Need "Children in Need") 2008, but were forced to cancel due to Borrell suffering with vocal problems. The band made a donation to the charity. After months of working on new material, some of which was written by Borrell on the island of [Tiree](/wiki/Tiree "Tiree") in the [Inner Hebrides](/wiki/Inner_Hebrides "Inner Hebrides"), Razorlight released their third studio album, *[Slipway Fires](/wiki/Slipway_Fires "Slipway Fires")*, on 3 November 2008 with the lead single, *[Wire to Wire](/wiki/Wire_to_Wire_%28song%29 "Wire to Wire (song)")*, released on 20 October 2008\. The second single from the album, *[Hostage of Love](/wiki/Hostage_of_Love "Hostage of Love")*, however, received little commercial attention and failed to enter the charts. As a result, a planned third single *Burberry Blue Eyes* was cancelled. Borrell later stated that the album was their weakest, and that the "album was just about greed – that's the only way I see that record". He added that after writing songs in the Inner Hebrides "I came back to London and the label had already booked studio time even though I wasn't really confident in the songs. The songs I wrote came from this place of total mental breakdown and they were shoe\-horned into a pop album, which just didn't work. I was very conscious that I didn't tell anyone in the band what I thought about their part of a song, because I couldn't face the consequences of saying that and the tantrums that would ensue".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wow247\.co.uk/2014/04/23/johnny\-borrell\-interview\-razorlight\-23144/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313044433/http://www.wow247\.co.uk/2014/04/23/johnny\-borrell\-interview\-razorlight\-23144/ \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-13 \|title\=Johnny Borrell interview: 'Razorlight is still treated like a cash cow' \| WOW247 \|date\=2014\-04\-23 \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}}
On 5 March 2009, it was announced that [Andy Burrows](/wiki/Andy_Burrows "Andy Burrows") had quit the band to "pursue other musical ventures". [Johnny Borrell](/wiki/Johnny_Borrell "Johnny Borrell") stated that although "over the last two albums and five years Andy has been an integral part of Razorlight and we will miss him", the band would continue.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nme.com/news/Razorlight/43251\|title\=Andy Burrows quits Razorlight – exclusive\|website\=\[\[NME]]\|date\=9 March 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309205840/http://www.nme.com/news/Razorlight/43251\|access\-date\=14 December 2020\|archive\-date\=9 March 2009}} Burrows initially claimed that his time with the band had been "an amazing experience", but later went on to state that he "hated being in the band. Johnny and I didn't get on. Now I've got my freedom. He never wanted people to know that we both wrote songs". A well publicised fight between Borrell and Burrows occurred in 2006 at the Hawley Arms in Camden, London over songwriting credits for the song *America* with it being reported that Burrows was the main songwriter of the song.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity\-news/razorlight\-ex\-drummer\-andy\-burrows\-382078\|title\=Razorlight ex drummer Andy Burrows breaks silence on bust\-ups with Jonny Borrell \- 3am \& Mirror Online\|website\=\[\[Daily Mirror]]\|date\=27 June 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627210453/http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity\-news/razorlight\-ex\-drummer\-andy\-burrows\-382078\|access\-date\=14 December 2020\|archive\-date\=27 June 2015}}{{cite web\|author\=Michael Leonard \|url\=https://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/razorlight\-split\-andy\-burrows\-leaves\-199167 \|title\=Razorlight split: Andy Burrows leaves \|publisher\=MusicRadar \|date\=2017\-01\-25 \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}} In 2019, Burrows revealed that he had bumped into Borrell in central London three years prior and was "brushed off". He stated that Borrell "acted like I was a stranger, it was the weirdest thing. I think I went off and got extremely drunk, but felt very weird for a couple of days… it was almost like seeing a ghost".{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/former\-razorlight\-star\-andy\-burrows\-johnny\-borrell\-acts\-like\-im\-a\-stranger\-37792170\.html\|title\=Former Razorlight star Andy Burrows: Johnny Borrell acts like I'm a stranger \- Independent.ie\|date\=11 March 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311094956/https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/former\-razorlight\-star\-andy\-burrows\-johnny\-borrell\-acts\-like\-im\-a\-stranger\-37792170\.html\|access\-date\=14 December 2020\|archive\-date\=11 March 2019}} In 2016, Borrell admitted that the band were collaborative and that Burrows had helped shape the sound of the second album, stating that "I rate the drummer Andy Burrows. He was a great drummer with a melodic ear – but if you want to figure out who was taking Razorlight in which direction, then maybe have a listen to what we're each doing now. I'm playing psychedelic blues\-tango, and his stuff is so middle of the road it's got more white lines than [Liam Gallagher](/wiki/Liam_Gallagher "Liam Gallagher") in 1997".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-1196189\|title\=Johnny Borrell hits out at 'middle of the road' ex\-Razorlight drummer Andy Burrows\|website\=\[\[NME]]\|date\=23 December 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223220117/http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-1196189\|access\-date\=14 December 2020\|archive\-date\=23 December 2017}}
Following Burrows' departure, the band enlisted [David 'Skully' Sullivan Kaplan](/wiki/David_%27Skully%27_Sullivan_Kaplan "David 'Skully' Sullivan Kaplan") as a temporary replacement to fulfil live commitments, and soon became an official member. He had previously worked for the band's booking agent.{{cite web\|author\=Adam Zacharias \|url\=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/citytimes/in\-the\-city/shine\-a\-light \|title\=Shine a 'Light \|work\=City Times \|date\=October 18, 2012 \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}} With a top 5 album and single in Germany, the band toured America, Australia and Europe before returning to the UK for shows in May at [The O2](/wiki/The_O2_%28London%29 "The O2 (London)") and [Manchester Evening News Arena](/wiki/Manchester_Evening_News_Arena "Manchester Evening News Arena") followed by UK festivals. Towards the end of the album tour cycle, the band previewed the new song *Dr. Boushitan* at several German gigs.{{cite web\|url\=https://twitter.com/razorlight/status/3980021681 \|title\=Twitter / razorlight: Last night in Offenbach we \|publisher\=Twitter \|date\=14 September 2009 \|access\-date\=13 April 2011}}{{Primary source inline\|date\=January 2020}}
### Aborted fourth album, Dalemo and Ågren's departure and hiatus (2009–2019\)
In December 2009, Borrell revealed that the band were working with [Steve Lillywhite](/wiki/Steve_Lillywhite "Steve Lillywhite") and [Dave McCracken](/wiki/Dave_McCracken "Dave McCracken") on a new album and that they were eager to get the new songs out "soon".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.universal\-music.de/razorlight/news/news\-zum\-neuen\-razorlight\-album\-doku\-ueber\-die\-bandkarriere\-83593 \|title\=Razorlight \| News \| News zum neuen Razorlight\-Album, Doku über die Bandkarriere! \|publisher\=Universal\-music.de \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}} However, a UK and Europe tour of December 2010 featured an unannounced new band line\-up.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=gYJjw\_1H34k \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/gYJjw\_1H34k \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-22 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Johnny Borrell (Razorlight) \- Vertical Women @ Luxor, Cologne (Oct 28, 2010\) \|date\=30 October 2010 \|publisher\=YouTube \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}}{{cbignore}} The band previewed several new tracks on tour, including Vertical Women and If It Bleeds.{{cite web\|url\=https://www1\.wdr.de/fernsehen/rockpalast/rheinkultur\-zwanzigelf\-razorlight\-100\.html \|title\=Besetzung \& Setlist von Razorlight beim Rheinkultur Festival 2011 \- Rockpalast \- Fernsehen \- WDR \|date\= 5 January 2016\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}}
On 26 January 2011 it was officially announced that Dalemo and Ågren had left the band, having "agreed on an amicable parting following unproductive early recording sessions for a new album late last year". The duo were replaced by guitarist Gus Robertson and bassist Freddie Stitz{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-25\-1289004\|title\=Razorlight announce Björn Agren and Carl Dalemo's replacements \- NME\|website\=\[\[NME]]\|date\=11 January 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111225316/https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-25\-1289004\|access\-date\=14 December 2020\|archive\-date\=11 January 2019}} The new line\-up was officially revealed on 26 January 2011 via a new press photo. The photo was widely mocked on social media.{{cite web\|url\=https://diymag.com/archive/razorlight\-line\-up\-changes\-unveiled\-by\-amazing\-press\-photo/ \|title\=Razorlight Line Up Changes Unveiled By Amazing Press Photo \| DIY \|publisher\=Diymag.com \|date\=2011\-01\-26 \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}} Borrell responded that "if people were laughing, then good! You shouldn't change what people ridicule you for, because in reality it's your strength".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-19\-1268788\|title\=Johnny Borrell: 'I've considered renaming Razorlight' \- NME\|website\=\[\[NME]]\|date\=6 April 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406022929/http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-19\-1268788\|access\-date\=14 December 2020\|archive\-date\=6 April 2018}}
The new line\-up of the band, with Borrell as the only original member, toured the UK and Europe in September and October 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thesourcemag.net/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&catid\=50:blog\-by\-piers\-thomson\&id\=268:rotten\-hill\-bar\-a\-grill\-ii\-\&Itemid\=76 \|title\=Rotten Hill Bar \& Grill II \|publisher\=thesourcemag.net \|access\-date\=13 April 2011}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gigwise.com/news/58355/razorlight\-Johnny\-Borrell\-Plays\-Surprise\-First\-Gig\-With\-New\-Band \|title\=razorlight Johnny Borrell Plays Surprise First Gig With New Band \|publisher\=Gigwise \|access\-date\=13 April 2011}} The band played several festivals including Get Loaded in the Park on Clapham Common on Sunday 12 June,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.getloadedinthepark.com/ViewNews.aspx?Id\=38 \|title\=Get Loaded in the Park 2011\. Sunday 12 June. Clapham Common – razorlight HEADLINE GET LOADED IN THE PARK! \|publisher\=Getloadedinthepark.com \|access\-date\=13 April 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120904133904/http://www.getloadedinthepark.com/ViewNews.aspx?Id\=38 \|archive\-date\=4 September 2012 }} Guilfest on 16 July 2011 and Shakedown Festival in Brighton on 17 September 2011\. The band also headlined OsFest in Shropshire on 3 June 2012, Splendour Festival in Nottingham on 21 July 2012, [Bingley Music Live](/wiki/Bingley_Music_Live "Bingley Music Live") on 1 September 2012 and The Big Feastival the next day on 2 September 2012\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/music/features/jamie\-oliver\-and\-alex\-james\-perform\-at\-the\-big\-feastival\-8102673\.html\|title\=Jamie Oliver and Alex James perform at The Big Feastival\|work\=The Independent\|date\=3 September 2012}}
In May 2011, Borrell revealed that the new band line\-up were continuing work on the fourth album, and that they were "really gelling as a band and a group of people and we're really enjoying working together. There's a really good atmosphere, it feels great, really, really good. There are some songs coming together. But it'll be ready when it's ready".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.contactmusic.com/news/razorlight\-working\-on\-fourth\-album\_1221139 \|title\=Razorlight Working On Fourth Album \|publisher\=contactmusic.com \|date\=25 May 2011}} The band were set to work with either former Suede guitarist [Bernard Butler](/wiki/Bernard_Butler "Bernard Butler") or Steve Lillywhite producing. In October 2012, Kaplan confirmed that they had completed the album and were waiting to mix it. He revealed further song titles, *Good To Be Dead*, *Boys* and *Reveal Yourself*.
However, on 27 March 2013, Borrell announced that Razorlight was to be put on hold whilst he prepared to release solo material.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-9\-1258162\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180406021514/http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-9\-1258162\|archive\-date \= 6 April 2018\|title \= Johnny Borrell puts Razorlight on hold to focus on solo career \- NME\|website \= \[\[NME]]\|date \= 27 March 2013}} Borrell later revealed that Mercury refused to release the album, stating that the band "really felt we had a record that we wanted to put out, but my label was very fractured and it was very hard to communicate with them. The label was focused on having a super\-mega hit".{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-7\-1254016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20180406022939/http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-7\-1254016\|archive\-date \= 6 April 2018\|title \= Johnny Borrell says Razorlight's record label refused to release band's final album \- NME\|website \= \[\[NME]]\|date \= 25 July 2013}}
In July 2013, he released his debut solo album *[Borrell 1](/wiki/Borrell_1 "Borrell 1")* via [Stiff Records](/wiki/Stiff_Records "Stiff Records"). The album sold poorly, with the record label releasing a statement poking fun at the fact that it sold only 594 copies in its first week of release.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stiff\-records.com/news/johnny\-borrell\-album\-sales\-594\-and\-counting\-/ \|title\=Stiff \- Johnny Borrell album sales: 594 and counting \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905133412/http://www.stiff\-records.com/news/johnny\-borrell\-album\-sales\-594\-and\-counting\-/ \|archive\-date\=5 September 2014 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/johnny\-borrell\-6\-1252398\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003040605/http://www.nme.com/news/music/johnny\-borrell\-6\-1252398\|archive\-date\=3 October 2017\|title\=Johnny Borrell's debut solo album sells 594 copies in first week on sale \- NME\|website\=\[\[NME]]\|date\=29 July 2013}} When questioned about the statement, Borrell responded that he "had almost no knowledge of that statement and I'm not sure who put it out or even what it said. My manager told me that it was really weird and, yeah, it was really weird" and that "labels are scum".{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/may/29/razorlight\-johnny\-borrell\-record\-labels\-scum \|title\=Razorlight's Johnny Borrell: 'Record labels are scum' \| Music \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|date\= 29 May 2014\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18\|last1\=Jonze \|first1\=Tim }}
Following the commercial failure of the solo album and despite the hiatus announced the previous year, Razorlight began playing numerous festival through 2014 and 2015, such as [Y Not Festival](/wiki/Y_Not_Festival "Y Not Festival"),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=A9wj45oTZWA \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/A9wj45oTZWA \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-22 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Y Not 2014 2nd Announcement \|via\=YouTube \|date\=17 March 2014 \|access\-date\=2 August 2014}}{{cbignore}}
[Tartan Heart Festival](/wiki/Tartan_Heart_Festival "Tartan Heart Festival"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tartanheartfestival.co.uk/ \|title\=Tartan Heart Festival 2014 \|publisher\=Tartanheartfestival.co.uk \|access\-date\=2 August 2014}} [Festival Internacional de Benicàssim](/wiki/Festival_Internacional_de_Benic%C3%A0ssim "Festival Internacional de Benicàssim") and Volksfest in [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth "Plymouth").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/s\-Johnny/story\-20876049\-detail/story.html \|title\=Here's Johnny! \|work\=Plymouth Herald \|date\=28 March 2014 \|access\-date\=2 August 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714231456/http://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/s\-Johnny/story\-20876049\-detail/story.html \|archive\-date\=14 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead }} On 4 June 2014 at the [Electric Ballroom](/wiki/Electric_Ballroom "Electric Ballroom") in [Camden](/wiki/Camden_Town "Camden Town"), Razorlight played on the tenth anniversary of their debut album. João Mello, an 18\-year\-old Brazilian who played saxophone on Borrell's solo project, played bass.{{cite news\|title\=Razorlight to play London date on 10th anniversary of debut album\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/razorlight/76637\|access\-date\=9 September 2014\|work\=\[\[NME]]\|date\=10 April 2014}}
### *Olympus Sleeping* and return of Ågren (2018–2019\)
While announcing his new solo single *My World, Your Life* on 3 May 2018, Borrell also announced that a new Razorlight album would be released that year.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/johnny\-borrell\-drops\-new\-solo\-track\-world\-life\-razorlight\-promise\-return\-2307523\|title\=Johnny Borrell drops new solo track 'My World, Your Life' as Razorlight announce first new album in 10 years – NME\|date\=3 May 2018\|work\=NME\|access\-date\=3 May 2018}} The album was released on 26 October, titled *Olympus Sleeping*. Four songs were immediately released with promo videos, along with the announcement of a UK tour.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-new\-album\-songs\-olympus\-sleeping\-uk\-tour\-johnny\-borrell\-interview\-2018\-2371367\|title\='A love letter to rock n' roll' – Here are four new Razorlight songs and Johnny Borrell's comeback interview\|last\=Trendell\|first\=Andrew\|date\=28 August 2018\|work\=\[\[NME]]\|access\-date\=19 September 2018}} Borrell stated that the album "was about embracing English indie guitar pop". The song *Good Night* was previously played live in 2013 prior to the hiatus with Kaplan receiving a songwriting credit.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ZnhrWmgLLW8 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/ZnhrWmgLLW8 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-22 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Razorlight \- Good Night \- AVO Sessions \|date\=27 June 2013 \|publisher\=YouTube \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}}{{cbignore}}
The new line\-up featured guitarist David Ellis (who co\-wrote several of the songs on the album and also appeared on Borrell's solo single *My World, Your Life*), bassist Harry Deacon (formerly of Kid Wave) and drummer David Kaplan.
Although drummer David Kaplan appeared in press shots for the album and toured in support of it, the album was recorded with drummer [Martin Chambers](/wiki/Martin_Chambers "Martin Chambers"). Borrell met Chambers at a [David A. Stewart](/wiki/David_A._Stewart "David A. Stewart") birthday gig and asked him if he'd like to play on the new album. Ellis and Borrell shared bass duties on the album. Kaplan left the band sometime in mid\-2019\.{{cite web\|author\=Contributor: Charlie Raven / Alamy Stock Photo \|url\=https://www.alamy.com/victorious\-festival\-southsea\-common\-portsmouth\-uk\-2019\-credit\-charlie\-ravenalamy\-image330871280\.html \|title\=Victorious Festival, Southsea Common, Portsmouth, UK 2019\. Credit: Charlie Raven/Alamy Stock Photo: 330871280 \|publisher\=Alamy \|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18}} In July 2019, the band released the stand\-alone single *Cops \& Robbers*, which featured Borrell on drums.{{cite web\|date\=2019\-07\-26\|title\=Razorlight are back with a new single, 'Cops And Robbers' \| Dork\|url\=https://www.readdork.com/news/razorlight\-are\-back\-with\-a\-new\-single\-cops\-and\-robbers\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-18\|publisher\=Readdork.com}}
In November 2019, it was announced that original guitarist Björn Ågren had rejoined the band and would be taking part in the December 2019 tour. The duo were joined by keyboardist [Reni Lane](/wiki/Reni_Lane "Reni Lane"), bassist Ben Ellis and drummer Mat Hector.{{Cite web\|date\=3 December 2019\|title\=RAZORLIGHT BJORN AGAIN \- Original guitarist re\-joins band for December tour \| XS Noize \| Online Music Magazine\|url\=https://www.xsnoize.com/razorlight\-bjorn\-again\-original\-guitarist\-re\-joins\-band\-for\-december\-tour/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203164555/https://www.xsnoize.com/razorlight\-bjorn\-again\-original\-guitarist\-re\-joins\-band\-for\-december\-tour/\|archive\-date\=3 December 2019\|access\-date\=14 December 2020}} Ellis and Deacon left the band sometime prior to the tour. In 2020, the band released the single "Burn, Camden, Burn", which was recorded in 2009\. It features on the [Apple TV](/wiki/Apple_TV "Apple TV") series *[Trying](/wiki/Trying_%28TV_series%29 "Trying (TV series)")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-share\-new\-track\-burn\-camden\-burn\-and\-discuss\-return\-of\-guitarist\-bjorn\-agren\-2657861\|title\=Razorlight share new track 'Burn Camden Burn' and discuss return of guitarist Bjorn Agren\|website\=\[\[NME]]\|date\=1 May 2020}}
### Return of Burrows and Dalemo, *Planet Nowhere*
In April 2021, the band announced the return of the original lineup, featuring Borrell and Ågren, as well as Andy Burrows and Carl Dalemo with a livestreamed concert to be held on 2 June 2021\.This marked the first appearance of the classic lineup in over a decade.{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-04\-29\|title\=Razorlight's original lineup have reunited after decade\-long hiatus\|url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlights\-original\-lineup\-have\-reunited\-after\-decade\-long\-hiatus\-2930335\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-29\|website\=NME\|language\=en\-GB}}
In an August 2021 interview, Carl Dalemo told local Swedish newspaper *Nya Lidköpings\-Tidningen* that the band had been working on new music since April. Dalemo added that with him living in Sweden, and COVID\-19 complicating travel, he was not able to make it to some of the gigs during early summer.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nlt.se/2021/08/27/redo\-att\-inta\-scenen\-med\-razorlight\-for\-forsta\-gangen\-pa\-tio\-ar/\|title \= Redo att inta scenen med Razorlight – för första gången på tio år\|date \= 27 August 2021}}
With the reformed lineup, Razorlight released a greatest hits album with two newly\-recorded tracks in 2022 and underwent a UK tour in spring 2023, culminating with a show at [Hammersmith Odeon](/wiki/Hammersmith_Odeon "Hammersmith Odeon") in London.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-announce\-new\-best\-of\-2023\-uk\-tour\-dates\-3346755 \| title\=Razorlight announce new Best of 2023 UK tour dates \| website\=\[\[NME]] \| date\=10 November 2022 }} The show was relocated from [Brixton Academy](/wiki/Brixton_Academy "Brixton Academy") after the venue was closed due to the fatal concert crush in December.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-reschedule\-london\-live\-show\-add\-additional\-dates\-2023\-tour\-3415626 \| title\=Razorlight reschedule London show and add additional UK tour dates \| website\=\[\[NME]] \| date\=17 March 2023 }}
In July 2024, Razorlight announced their fifth album *[Planet Nowhere](/wiki/Planet_Nowhere "Planet Nowhere")*, for release on 25 October. {{cite web \| url\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\-interview\-planet\-nowhere\-taylor\-swift\-courtney\-love\-indie\-3778245 \| title\=Razorlight's classic line\-up announce first new album since 2008 and tell us: "We were ready to ceremonially end the band" \| website\=\[\[NME]] \| date\=26 July 2024 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Formation and early years (2002–2003\\)",
"The band was formed in 2002 by [Johnny Borrell](/wiki/Johnny_Borrell \"Johnny Borrell\"), after having performed across London with the likes of [The Libertines](/wiki/The_Libertines \"The Libertines\") as a solo acoustic singer\\-songwriter. It is often reported that Borrell was a member of the Libertines,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gigwise.com/photos/85049/ \\|title\\=11 years on: 11 facts about The Libertines' debut, Up The Bracket \\|publisher\\=Gigwise \\|date\\=2020\\-01\\-14 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}} but [Carl Barat](/wiki/Carl_Barat \"Carl Barat\") has since revealed that he was just taught the bass lines for four songs to play for a showcase for [Rough Trade Records](/wiki/Rough_Trade_Records \"Rough Trade Records\") and failed to turn up for it and never played with the band live.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=L20A\\_LU4SX8C\\&q\\=borrell\\&pg\\=PT31 \\|title\\=Kids in the Riot: High and Low with The Libertines \\- Pete Welsh \\- Google Books \\|date\\=2009\\-12\\-17 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18\\|isbn\\=9780857126962 \\|last1\\=Welsh \\|first1\\=Pete \\|publisher\\=Omnibus Press }} Borrell first enlisted Swedish\\-born guitarist Björn Ågren via an advert in the NME,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.lep.co.uk/whats\\-on/music/love\\-in\\-the\\-razorlight\\-1\\-127930 \\|title\\=Love in the Razorlight \\- Lancashire Evening Post \\|publisher\\=Lep.co.uk \\|date\\=2007\\-05\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209001454/https://www.lep.co.uk/whats\\-on/music/love\\-in\\-the\\-razorlight\\-1\\-127930 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} who then introduced fellow\\-Swede bassist Carl Dalemo to Borrell. They rehearsed in east London for six months before playing their first gig on 17 September 2002 at [Dingwalls](/wiki/Dingwalls \"Dingwalls\") in Camden, London supporting the [Von Bondies](/wiki/Von_Bondies \"Von Bondies\"). Former NME journalist Roger Morton, who had been managing the band from the beginning, began looking to get the band into a recording studio and a session was booked at [Liam Watson](/wiki/Liam_Watson_%28record_producer%29 \"Liam Watson (record producer)\")'s [Toe Rag Studios](/wiki/Toe_Rag_Studios \"Toe Rag Studios\") to record early versions of the tracks *[Rip It Up](/wiki/Rip_It_Up_%28Razorlight_song%29 \"Rip It Up (Razorlight song)\")*, *[Rock 'n' Roll Lies](/wiki/Rock_%27n%27_Roll_Lies \"Rock 'n' Roll Lies\")* and *In the City*. The results of these sessions gained radio play on the John Kennedy Show on [XFM](/wiki/XFM \"XFM\") who described the band as being \"the best unsigned band in Britain\", and led to A\\&R attention.{{cite web \\|author\\=by \\[redacted] May 21st, 2003 \\|url\\=http://drownedinsound.com/news/7023\\-razorlight\\-and\\-the\\-darkness\\-sign\\-to\\-the\\-man \\|title\\=Razorlight and The Darkness sign to The Man / Music News // Drowned In Sound \\|publisher\\=Drownedinsound.com \\|date\\=2003\\-05\\-21 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209170413/http://drownedinsound.com/news/7023\\-razorlight\\-and\\-the\\-darkness\\-sign\\-to\\-the\\-man \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Following a bidding war to sign the band, they signed to [Mercury Records](/wiki/Mercury_Records \"Mercury Records\").",
"### *Up All Night* (2004–2005\\)",
"The band released their debut album *[Up All Night](/wiki/Up_All_Night_%28Razorlight_album%29 \"Up All Night (Razorlight album)\")* on 28 June 2004, reaching number 3 in the UK album charts.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://top40\\-charts.com/chart.php?cid\\=26\\&date\\=2004\\-07\\-04 \\|title\\=UK Top 20 Albums @ Top40\\-Charts.com – 40 Top 20 \\& Top 40 Music Charts from 25 Countries \\|publisher\\=Top40\\-charts.com \\|date\\=4 July 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2011}} The critical reception was generally positive, receiving good reviews from *[NME](/wiki/NME \"NME\")*, *[Q](/wiki/Q_magazine \"Q magazine\")* magazine and *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_Magazine \"Billboard Magazine\")*. Drummer Shïan Smith\\-Pancorvo left the band in April and was replaced by [Andy Burrows](/wiki/Andy_Burrows \"Andy Burrows\") the following month.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-174\\-1355209\\|title\\=RAZORLIGHT UNVEIL NEW DRUMMER \\| NME\\|website\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|date\\=8 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208234055/https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-174\\-1355209\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2019}} *Up All Night* was re\\-issued in April 2005, including the stand\\-alone single *[Somewhere Else](/wiki/Somewhere_Else_%28Razorlight_song%29 \"Somewhere Else (Razorlight song)\")* as a bonus track, and peaked at Number 2\\.",
"In July 2005, the band performed at [Hyde Park](/wiki/Hyde_Park%2C_London \"Hyde Park, London\"), London as part of the [Live 8](/wiki/Live_8 \"Live 8\") series of concerts. However, the band came under fire for being the only band to not donate their extra revenue to charity. The band subsequently claimed that due to their \"fledgling status\", they were unable to make such a commitment.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nmefestivals.com/t\\_in\\_the\\_park/news/112932 \\|title\\=Festivals Guide 2011 \\|work\\=NME \\|location\\=UK \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2011}}",
"Razorlight contributed the song \"Kirby's House\" to the [War Child](/wiki/War_Child_%28charity%29 \"War Child (charity)\") charity album *[Help!: A Day in the Life](/wiki/Help%21:A_Day_in_the_Life \"A Day in the Life\")*. A shorter alternative version of the song was included on the band's second album, *[Razorlight](/wiki/Razorlight_%28album%29 \"Razorlight (album)\")*.",
"In the midst of their first American headlining tour in support of *Up All Night*, Razorlight created a stir in Denver, Colorado, when they stormed off stage five songs into their set during a show at the Larimer Lounge.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vh1\\.com/news/articles/1496362/20050128/razorlight.jhtml?headlines\\=true\\|title\\=End Of Razorlight's Tour Marred By Onstage Freak\\-Out, Illness\n \\|publisher\\=VH1 \\|access\\-date\\=2 October 2011}}{{dead link\\|date\\=November 2023\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}} After stumbling around stage, frontman Borrell shouted into the microphone \"I'm going to kill myself now,\" and ran off the stage. The band's official statement stated that he was suffering from stagefright.",
"A later laryngitis infection led to the cancellation of the Los Angeles date of the tour.",
"### *Razorlight* (2006–2007\\)",
"Razorlight debuted several new songs from their forthcoming second album live on 30 March 2006 at the Albert Hall in London, as part of [Teenage Cancer Trust](/wiki/Teenage_Cancer_Trust \"Teenage Cancer Trust\") concerts, organised by [Roger Daltrey](/wiki/Roger_Daltrey \"Roger Daltrey\"). On 2 July, they played to a sold\\-out Hyde Park Calling, where they performed before The Who. The band went on to play on the beach opposite [Brighton](/wiki/Brighton \"Brighton\")'s [West Pier](/wiki/West_Pier \"West Pier\") on 12 July in a free concert as part of a [Vodafone](/wiki/Vodafone \"Vodafone\") TBA event broadcast on [Channel 4](/wiki/Channel_4 \"Channel 4\").",
"Razorlight released their second album *[Razorlight](/wiki/Razorlight_%28album%29 \"Razorlight (album)\")* on 17 July 2006, in the United Kingdom and it debuted at No. 1 in the [UK Albums Chart](/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart \"UK Albums Chart\") a week later. It received mixed reviews, [*Q* magazine](/wiki/Q_magazine \"Q magazine\") giving it a rare 5/5 rating, whilst Pitchfork Media gave it 2\\.8/10\\. The lead single from the album, *In the Morning* was released as a single on 3 July 2006, which peaked at No. 3 in the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart \"UK Singles Chart\"). To date, it is their third biggest single after *Somewhere Else*, which peaked at No. 2, and *America*, which peaked at No. 1\\. It also reached No. 2 on [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes_Store \"ITunes Store\"). In 2007, Razorlight were nominated for two [BRIT Awards](/wiki/BRIT_Awards \"BRIT Awards\") – one for Best British Band and the other for Best Song, *[America](/wiki/America_%28Razorlight_song%29 \"America (Razorlight song)\")*. They were also nominated for two [NME](/wiki/NME \"NME\") Brit Awards for Best Band and Best Album.",
"Razorlight supported [Queen \\+ Paul Rodgers](/wiki/Queen_%2B_Paul_Rodgers \"Queen + Paul Rodgers\") on 15 July, in front of 60,000 people. This gig had been rescheduled following the [July 2005 London bombings](/wiki/July_2005_London_bombings \"July 2005 London bombings\"). In December of the same year, they supported [Oasis](/wiki/Oasis_%28band%29 \"Oasis (band)\"), at Cardiff's [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\"). They also supported [The Rolling Stones](/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones \"The Rolling Stones\") in Cologne and Paris. The band played their biggest tour to date in October–November 2006 and also supported [Richard Ashcroft](/wiki/Richard_Ashcroft \"Richard Ashcroft\") at the [Lancashire County Cricket Club](/wiki/County_Ground%2C_Old_Trafford \"County Ground, Old Trafford\") on 17 June. They headlined [Reading](/wiki/Reading_Festival \"Reading Festival\") on 24 August, and Leeds on 25 August 2007\\. They also played the Main Stage on 19 May in Preston for Radio 1's [Big Weekend](/wiki/Big_Weekend \"Big Weekend\") alongside bands such as [Kasabian](/wiki/Kasabian \"Kasabian\") and [Kaiser Chiefs](/wiki/Kaiser_Chiefs \"Kaiser Chiefs\"). On 7 July 2007, Razorlight performed at both the [UK leg](/wiki/Live_Earth_concert%2C_London \"Live Earth concert, London\") of [Live Earth](/wiki/Live_Earth \"Live Earth\") at [Wembley Stadium](/wiki/Wembley_Stadium \"Wembley Stadium\"), London and [T in the Park](/wiki/T_in_the_Park \"T in the Park\"). In November 2006 the band were hospitalised after traces of radioactive poisoning were detected on their plane. Their [British Airways](/wiki/British_Airways \"British Airways\") return flight from Moscow was a scheduled route used by Russian ex\\-spy [Alexander Litvinenko](/wiki/Alexander_Litvinenko \"Alexander Litvinenko\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/the\\-automatic/25343 \\|title\\=Bands caught up in spy poison scandal \\|work\\=NME \\|location\\=UK \\|date\\=6 December 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2011}}\nThe same month they supported the Mando Diao \"Ode to Ochrasy Tour\" in Germany.",
"### *Slipway Fires* and Burrows' departure (2008–2009\\)",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|Razorlight in 2009](/wiki/File:Razorlight-KEXP.jpg \"Razorlight-KEXP.jpg\")\nRazorlight were due to perform for BBC [Children in Need](/wiki/Children_in_Need \"Children in Need\") 2008, but were forced to cancel due to Borrell suffering with vocal problems. The band made a donation to the charity. After months of working on new material, some of which was written by Borrell on the island of [Tiree](/wiki/Tiree \"Tiree\") in the [Inner Hebrides](/wiki/Inner_Hebrides \"Inner Hebrides\"), Razorlight released their third studio album, *[Slipway Fires](/wiki/Slipway_Fires \"Slipway Fires\")*, on 3 November 2008 with the lead single, *[Wire to Wire](/wiki/Wire_to_Wire_%28song%29 \"Wire to Wire (song)\")*, released on 20 October 2008\\. The second single from the album, *[Hostage of Love](/wiki/Hostage_of_Love \"Hostage of Love\")*, however, received little commercial attention and failed to enter the charts. As a result, a planned third single *Burberry Blue Eyes* was cancelled. Borrell later stated that the album was their weakest, and that the \"album was just about greed – that's the only way I see that record\". He added that after writing songs in the Inner Hebrides \"I came back to London and the label had already booked studio time even though I wasn't really confident in the songs. The songs I wrote came from this place of total mental breakdown and they were shoe\\-horned into a pop album, which just didn't work. I was very conscious that I didn't tell anyone in the band what I thought about their part of a song, because I couldn't face the consequences of saying that and the tantrums that would ensue\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wow247\\.co.uk/2014/04/23/johnny\\-borrell\\-interview\\-razorlight\\-23144/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313044433/http://www.wow247\\.co.uk/2014/04/23/johnny\\-borrell\\-interview\\-razorlight\\-23144/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-13 \\|title\\=Johnny Borrell interview: 'Razorlight is still treated like a cash cow' \\| WOW247 \\|date\\=2014\\-04\\-23 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}}",
"On 5 March 2009, it was announced that [Andy Burrows](/wiki/Andy_Burrows \"Andy Burrows\") had quit the band to \"pursue other musical ventures\". [Johnny Borrell](/wiki/Johnny_Borrell \"Johnny Borrell\") stated that although \"over the last two albums and five years Andy has been an integral part of Razorlight and we will miss him\", the band would continue.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nme.com/news/Razorlight/43251\\|title\\=Andy Burrows quits Razorlight – exclusive\\|website\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|date\\=9 March 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309205840/http://www.nme.com/news/Razorlight/43251\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2009}} Burrows initially claimed that his time with the band had been \"an amazing experience\", but later went on to state that he \"hated being in the band. Johnny and I didn't get on. Now I've got my freedom. He never wanted people to know that we both wrote songs\". A well publicised fight between Borrell and Burrows occurred in 2006 at the Hawley Arms in Camden, London over songwriting credits for the song *America* with it being reported that Burrows was the main songwriter of the song.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity\\-news/razorlight\\-ex\\-drummer\\-andy\\-burrows\\-382078\\|title\\=Razorlight ex drummer Andy Burrows breaks silence on bust\\-ups with Jonny Borrell \\- 3am \\& Mirror Online\\|website\\=\\[\\[Daily Mirror]]\\|date\\=27 June 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627210453/http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity\\-news/razorlight\\-ex\\-drummer\\-andy\\-burrows\\-382078\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2015}}{{cite web\\|author\\=Michael Leonard \\|url\\=https://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/razorlight\\-split\\-andy\\-burrows\\-leaves\\-199167 \\|title\\=Razorlight split: Andy Burrows leaves \\|publisher\\=MusicRadar \\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-25 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}} In 2019, Burrows revealed that he had bumped into Borrell in central London three years prior and was \"brushed off\". He stated that Borrell \"acted like I was a stranger, it was the weirdest thing. I think I went off and got extremely drunk, but felt very weird for a couple of days… it was almost like seeing a ghost\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/former\\-razorlight\\-star\\-andy\\-burrows\\-johnny\\-borrell\\-acts\\-like\\-im\\-a\\-stranger\\-37792170\\.html\\|title\\=Former Razorlight star Andy Burrows: Johnny Borrell acts like I'm a stranger \\- Independent.ie\\|date\\=11 March 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311094956/https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/music/former\\-razorlight\\-star\\-andy\\-burrows\\-johnny\\-borrell\\-acts\\-like\\-im\\-a\\-stranger\\-37792170\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=11 March 2019}} In 2016, Borrell admitted that the band were collaborative and that Burrows had helped shape the sound of the second album, stating that \"I rate the drummer Andy Burrows. He was a great drummer with a melodic ear – but if you want to figure out who was taking Razorlight in which direction, then maybe have a listen to what we're each doing now. I'm playing psychedelic blues\\-tango, and his stuff is so middle of the road it's got more white lines than [Liam Gallagher](/wiki/Liam_Gallagher \"Liam Gallagher\") in 1997\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-1196189\\|title\\=Johnny Borrell hits out at 'middle of the road' ex\\-Razorlight drummer Andy Burrows\\|website\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|date\\=23 December 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223220117/http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-1196189\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2017}}",
"Following Burrows' departure, the band enlisted [David 'Skully' Sullivan Kaplan](/wiki/David_%27Skully%27_Sullivan_Kaplan \"David 'Skully' Sullivan Kaplan\") as a temporary replacement to fulfil live commitments, and soon became an official member. He had previously worked for the band's booking agent.{{cite web\\|author\\=Adam Zacharias \\|url\\=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/citytimes/in\\-the\\-city/shine\\-a\\-light \\|title\\=Shine a 'Light \\|work\\=City Times \\|date\\=October 18, 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}} With a top 5 album and single in Germany, the band toured America, Australia and Europe before returning to the UK for shows in May at [The O2](/wiki/The_O2_%28London%29 \"The O2 (London)\") and [Manchester Evening News Arena](/wiki/Manchester_Evening_News_Arena \"Manchester Evening News Arena\") followed by UK festivals. Towards the end of the album tour cycle, the band previewed the new song *Dr. Boushitan* at several German gigs.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/razorlight/status/3980021681 \\|title\\=Twitter / razorlight: Last night in Offenbach we \\|publisher\\=Twitter \\|date\\=14 September 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2011}}{{Primary source inline\\|date\\=January 2020}}",
"### Aborted fourth album, Dalemo and Ågren's departure and hiatus (2009–2019\\)",
"In December 2009, Borrell revealed that the band were working with [Steve Lillywhite](/wiki/Steve_Lillywhite \"Steve Lillywhite\") and [Dave McCracken](/wiki/Dave_McCracken \"Dave McCracken\") on a new album and that they were eager to get the new songs out \"soon\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.universal\\-music.de/razorlight/news/news\\-zum\\-neuen\\-razorlight\\-album\\-doku\\-ueber\\-die\\-bandkarriere\\-83593 \\|title\\=Razorlight \\| News \\| News zum neuen Razorlight\\-Album, Doku über die Bandkarriere! \\|publisher\\=Universal\\-music.de \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}} However, a UK and Europe tour of December 2010 featured an unannounced new band line\\-up.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=gYJjw\\_1H34k \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/gYJjw\\_1H34k \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Johnny Borrell (Razorlight) \\- Vertical Women @ Luxor, Cologne (Oct 28, 2010\\) \\|date\\=30 October 2010 \\|publisher\\=YouTube \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}}{{cbignore}} The band previewed several new tracks on tour, including Vertical Women and If It Bleeds.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www1\\.wdr.de/fernsehen/rockpalast/rheinkultur\\-zwanzigelf\\-razorlight\\-100\\.html \\|title\\=Besetzung \\& Setlist von Razorlight beim Rheinkultur Festival 2011 \\- Rockpalast \\- Fernsehen \\- WDR \\|date\\= 5 January 2016\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}}",
"On 26 January 2011 it was officially announced that Dalemo and Ågren had left the band, having \"agreed on an amicable parting following unproductive early recording sessions for a new album late last year\". The duo were replaced by guitarist Gus Robertson and bassist Freddie Stitz{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-25\\-1289004\\|title\\=Razorlight announce Björn Agren and Carl Dalemo's replacements \\- NME\\|website\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|date\\=11 January 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111225316/https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-25\\-1289004\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=11 January 2019}} The new line\\-up was officially revealed on 26 January 2011 via a new press photo. The photo was widely mocked on social media.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://diymag.com/archive/razorlight\\-line\\-up\\-changes\\-unveiled\\-by\\-amazing\\-press\\-photo/ \\|title\\=Razorlight Line Up Changes Unveiled By Amazing Press Photo \\| DIY \\|publisher\\=Diymag.com \\|date\\=2011\\-01\\-26 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}} Borrell responded that \"if people were laughing, then good! You shouldn't change what people ridicule you for, because in reality it's your strength\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-19\\-1268788\\|title\\=Johnny Borrell: 'I've considered renaming Razorlight' \\- NME\\|website\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|date\\=6 April 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406022929/http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-19\\-1268788\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=6 April 2018}}",
"The new line\\-up of the band, with Borrell as the only original member, toured the UK and Europe in September and October 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thesourcemag.net/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&catid\\=50:blog\\-by\\-piers\\-thomson\\&id\\=268:rotten\\-hill\\-bar\\-a\\-grill\\-ii\\-\\&Itemid\\=76 \\|title\\=Rotten Hill Bar \\& Grill II \\|publisher\\=thesourcemag.net \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2011}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gigwise.com/news/58355/razorlight\\-Johnny\\-Borrell\\-Plays\\-Surprise\\-First\\-Gig\\-With\\-New\\-Band \\|title\\=razorlight Johnny Borrell Plays Surprise First Gig With New Band \\|publisher\\=Gigwise \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2011}} The band played several festivals including Get Loaded in the Park on Clapham Common on Sunday 12 June,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.getloadedinthepark.com/ViewNews.aspx?Id\\=38 \\|title\\=Get Loaded in the Park 2011\\. Sunday 12 June. Clapham Common – razorlight HEADLINE GET LOADED IN THE PARK! \\|publisher\\=Getloadedinthepark.com \\|access\\-date\\=13 April 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120904133904/http://www.getloadedinthepark.com/ViewNews.aspx?Id\\=38 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 September 2012 }} Guilfest on 16 July 2011 and Shakedown Festival in Brighton on 17 September 2011\\. The band also headlined OsFest in Shropshire on 3 June 2012, Splendour Festival in Nottingham on 21 July 2012, [Bingley Music Live](/wiki/Bingley_Music_Live \"Bingley Music Live\") on 1 September 2012 and The Big Feastival the next day on 2 September 2012\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/music/features/jamie\\-oliver\\-and\\-alex\\-james\\-perform\\-at\\-the\\-big\\-feastival\\-8102673\\.html\\|title\\=Jamie Oliver and Alex James perform at The Big Feastival\\|work\\=The Independent\\|date\\=3 September 2012}}",
"In May 2011, Borrell revealed that the new band line\\-up were continuing work on the fourth album, and that they were \"really gelling as a band and a group of people and we're really enjoying working together. There's a really good atmosphere, it feels great, really, really good. There are some songs coming together. But it'll be ready when it's ready\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.contactmusic.com/news/razorlight\\-working\\-on\\-fourth\\-album\\_1221139 \\|title\\=Razorlight Working On Fourth Album \\|publisher\\=contactmusic.com \\|date\\=25 May 2011}} The band were set to work with either former Suede guitarist [Bernard Butler](/wiki/Bernard_Butler \"Bernard Butler\") or Steve Lillywhite producing. In October 2012, Kaplan confirmed that they had completed the album and were waiting to mix it. He revealed further song titles, *Good To Be Dead*, *Boys* and *Reveal Yourself*.",
"However, on 27 March 2013, Borrell announced that Razorlight was to be put on hold whilst he prepared to release solo material.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-9\\-1258162\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180406021514/http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-9\\-1258162\\|archive\\-date \\= 6 April 2018\\|title \\= Johnny Borrell puts Razorlight on hold to focus on solo career \\- NME\\|website \\= \\[\\[NME]]\\|date \\= 27 March 2013}} Borrell later revealed that Mercury refused to release the album, stating that the band \"really felt we had a record that we wanted to put out, but my label was very fractured and it was very hard to communicate with them. The label was focused on having a super\\-mega hit\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-7\\-1254016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20180406022939/http://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-7\\-1254016\\|archive\\-date \\= 6 April 2018\\|title \\= Johnny Borrell says Razorlight's record label refused to release band's final album \\- NME\\|website \\= \\[\\[NME]]\\|date \\= 25 July 2013}}",
"In July 2013, he released his debut solo album *[Borrell 1](/wiki/Borrell_1 \"Borrell 1\")* via [Stiff Records](/wiki/Stiff_Records \"Stiff Records\"). The album sold poorly, with the record label releasing a statement poking fun at the fact that it sold only 594 copies in its first week of release.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stiff\\-records.com/news/johnny\\-borrell\\-album\\-sales\\-594\\-and\\-counting\\-/ \\|title\\=Stiff \\- Johnny Borrell album sales: 594 and counting \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905133412/http://www.stiff\\-records.com/news/johnny\\-borrell\\-album\\-sales\\-594\\-and\\-counting\\-/ \\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2014 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nme.com/news/music/johnny\\-borrell\\-6\\-1252398\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003040605/http://www.nme.com/news/music/johnny\\-borrell\\-6\\-1252398\\|archive\\-date\\=3 October 2017\\|title\\=Johnny Borrell's debut solo album sells 594 copies in first week on sale \\- NME\\|website\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|date\\=29 July 2013}} When questioned about the statement, Borrell responded that he \"had almost no knowledge of that statement and I'm not sure who put it out or even what it said. My manager told me that it was really weird and, yeah, it was really weird\" and that \"labels are scum\".{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/may/29/razorlight\\-johnny\\-borrell\\-record\\-labels\\-scum \\|title\\=Razorlight's Johnny Borrell: 'Record labels are scum' \\| Music \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|date\\= 29 May 2014\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18\\|last1\\=Jonze \\|first1\\=Tim }}",
"Following the commercial failure of the solo album and despite the hiatus announced the previous year, Razorlight began playing numerous festival through 2014 and 2015, such as [Y Not Festival](/wiki/Y_Not_Festival \"Y Not Festival\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=A9wj45oTZWA \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/A9wj45oTZWA \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Y Not 2014 2nd Announcement \\|via\\=YouTube \\|date\\=17 March 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2014}}{{cbignore}}\n[Tartan Heart Festival](/wiki/Tartan_Heart_Festival \"Tartan Heart Festival\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tartanheartfestival.co.uk/ \\|title\\=Tartan Heart Festival 2014 \\|publisher\\=Tartanheartfestival.co.uk \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2014}} [Festival Internacional de Benicàssim](/wiki/Festival_Internacional_de_Benic%C3%A0ssim \"Festival Internacional de Benicàssim\") and Volksfest in [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth \"Plymouth\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/s\\-Johnny/story\\-20876049\\-detail/story.html \\|title\\=Here's Johnny! \\|work\\=Plymouth Herald \\|date\\=28 March 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714231456/http://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/s\\-Johnny/story\\-20876049\\-detail/story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} On 4 June 2014 at the [Electric Ballroom](/wiki/Electric_Ballroom \"Electric Ballroom\") in [Camden](/wiki/Camden_Town \"Camden Town\"), Razorlight played on the tenth anniversary of their debut album. João Mello, an 18\\-year\\-old Brazilian who played saxophone on Borrell's solo project, played bass.{{cite news\\|title\\=Razorlight to play London date on 10th anniversary of debut album\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/razorlight/76637\\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2014\\|work\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|date\\=10 April 2014}}",
"### *Olympus Sleeping* and return of Ågren (2018–2019\\)",
"While announcing his new solo single *My World, Your Life* on 3 May 2018, Borrell also announced that a new Razorlight album would be released that year.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/johnny\\-borrell\\-drops\\-new\\-solo\\-track\\-world\\-life\\-razorlight\\-promise\\-return\\-2307523\\|title\\=Johnny Borrell drops new solo track 'My World, Your Life' as Razorlight announce first new album in 10 years – NME\\|date\\=3 May 2018\\|work\\=NME\\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2018}} The album was released on 26 October, titled *Olympus Sleeping*. Four songs were immediately released with promo videos, along with the announcement of a UK tour.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-new\\-album\\-songs\\-olympus\\-sleeping\\-uk\\-tour\\-johnny\\-borrell\\-interview\\-2018\\-2371367\\|title\\='A love letter to rock n' roll' – Here are four new Razorlight songs and Johnny Borrell's comeback interview\\|last\\=Trendell\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=28 August 2018\\|work\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2018}} Borrell stated that the album \"was about embracing English indie guitar pop\". The song *Good Night* was previously played live in 2013 prior to the hiatus with Kaplan receiving a songwriting credit.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ZnhrWmgLLW8 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/ZnhrWmgLLW8 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Razorlight \\- Good Night \\- AVO Sessions \\|date\\=27 June 2013 \\|publisher\\=YouTube \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}}{{cbignore}}",
"The new line\\-up featured guitarist David Ellis (who co\\-wrote several of the songs on the album and also appeared on Borrell's solo single *My World, Your Life*), bassist Harry Deacon (formerly of Kid Wave) and drummer David Kaplan.",
"Although drummer David Kaplan appeared in press shots for the album and toured in support of it, the album was recorded with drummer [Martin Chambers](/wiki/Martin_Chambers \"Martin Chambers\"). Borrell met Chambers at a [David A. Stewart](/wiki/David_A._Stewart \"David A. Stewart\") birthday gig and asked him if he'd like to play on the new album. Ellis and Borrell shared bass duties on the album. Kaplan left the band sometime in mid\\-2019\\.{{cite web\\|author\\=Contributor: Charlie Raven / Alamy Stock Photo \\|url\\=https://www.alamy.com/victorious\\-festival\\-southsea\\-common\\-portsmouth\\-uk\\-2019\\-credit\\-charlie\\-ravenalamy\\-image330871280\\.html \\|title\\=Victorious Festival, Southsea Common, Portsmouth, UK 2019\\. Credit: Charlie Raven/Alamy Stock Photo: 330871280 \\|publisher\\=Alamy \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18}} In July 2019, the band released the stand\\-alone single *Cops \\& Robbers*, which featured Borrell on drums.{{cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-07\\-26\\|title\\=Razorlight are back with a new single, 'Cops And Robbers' \\| Dork\\|url\\=https://www.readdork.com/news/razorlight\\-are\\-back\\-with\\-a\\-new\\-single\\-cops\\-and\\-robbers\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-18\\|publisher\\=Readdork.com}}",
"In November 2019, it was announced that original guitarist Björn Ågren had rejoined the band and would be taking part in the December 2019 tour. The duo were joined by keyboardist [Reni Lane](/wiki/Reni_Lane \"Reni Lane\"), bassist Ben Ellis and drummer Mat Hector.{{Cite web\\|date\\=3 December 2019\\|title\\=RAZORLIGHT BJORN AGAIN \\- Original guitarist re\\-joins band for December tour \\| XS Noize \\| Online Music Magazine\\|url\\=https://www.xsnoize.com/razorlight\\-bjorn\\-again\\-original\\-guitarist\\-re\\-joins\\-band\\-for\\-december\\-tour/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203164555/https://www.xsnoize.com/razorlight\\-bjorn\\-again\\-original\\-guitarist\\-re\\-joins\\-band\\-for\\-december\\-tour/\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2020}} Ellis and Deacon left the band sometime prior to the tour. In 2020, the band released the single \"Burn, Camden, Burn\", which was recorded in 2009\\. It features on the [Apple TV](/wiki/Apple_TV \"Apple TV\") series *[Trying](/wiki/Trying_%28TV_series%29 \"Trying (TV series)\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-share\\-new\\-track\\-burn\\-camden\\-burn\\-and\\-discuss\\-return\\-of\\-guitarist\\-bjorn\\-agren\\-2657861\\|title\\=Razorlight share new track 'Burn Camden Burn' and discuss return of guitarist Bjorn Agren\\|website\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\|date\\=1 May 2020}}",
"### Return of Burrows and Dalemo, *Planet Nowhere*",
"In April 2021, the band announced the return of the original lineup, featuring Borrell and Ågren, as well as Andy Burrows and Carl Dalemo with a livestreamed concert to be held on 2 June 2021\\.This marked the first appearance of the classic lineup in over a decade.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-29\\|title\\=Razorlight's original lineup have reunited after decade\\-long hiatus\\|url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlights\\-original\\-lineup\\-have\\-reunited\\-after\\-decade\\-long\\-hiatus\\-2930335\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-29\\|website\\=NME\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"In an August 2021 interview, Carl Dalemo told local Swedish newspaper *Nya Lidköpings\\-Tidningen* that the band had been working on new music since April. Dalemo added that with him living in Sweden, and COVID\\-19 complicating travel, he was not able to make it to some of the gigs during early summer.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nlt.se/2021/08/27/redo\\-att\\-inta\\-scenen\\-med\\-razorlight\\-for\\-forsta\\-gangen\\-pa\\-tio\\-ar/\\|title \\= Redo att inta scenen med Razorlight – för första gången på tio år\\|date \\= 27 August 2021}}\nWith the reformed lineup, Razorlight released a greatest hits album with two newly\\-recorded tracks in 2022 and underwent a UK tour in spring 2023, culminating with a show at [Hammersmith Odeon](/wiki/Hammersmith_Odeon \"Hammersmith Odeon\") in London.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-announce\\-new\\-best\\-of\\-2023\\-uk\\-tour\\-dates\\-3346755 \\| title\\=Razorlight announce new Best of 2023 UK tour dates \\| website\\=\\[\\[NME]] \\| date\\=10 November 2022 }} The show was relocated from [Brixton Academy](/wiki/Brixton_Academy \"Brixton Academy\") after the venue was closed due to the fatal concert crush in December.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-reschedule\\-london\\-live\\-show\\-add\\-additional\\-dates\\-2023\\-tour\\-3415626 \\| title\\=Razorlight reschedule London show and add additional UK tour dates \\| website\\=\\[\\[NME]] \\| date\\=17 March 2023 }}",
"In July 2024, Razorlight announced their fifth album *[Planet Nowhere](/wiki/Planet_Nowhere \"Planet Nowhere\")*, for release on 25 October. {{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.nme.com/news/music/razorlight\\-interview\\-planet\\-nowhere\\-taylor\\-swift\\-courtney\\-love\\-indie\\-3778245 \\| title\\=Razorlight's classic line\\-up announce first new album since 2008 and tell us: \"We were ready to ceremonially end the band\" \\| website\\=\\[\\[NME]] \\| date\\=26 July 2024 }}",
""
] |
Governor of Taita Taveta County
-------------------------------
Granton Samboja was elected the second governor of Taita Taveta county during the [2017 general elections](/wiki/2017_Kenyan_general_election "2017 Kenyan general election") held on 8 August that year. He was sworn into office on 21 August 2017 at an inauguration ceremony where his predecessor [John Mruttu](/wiki/John_Mruttu "John Mruttu"), was present.{{Cite web\|last\=KNA\|date\=2017\-08\-23\|title\=New governor inherits Sh600 million debt\|url\=https://businesstoday.co.ke/new\-governor\-met\-sh0\-6\-billion\-debt/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Business Today Kenya\|language\=en\-US}}
### Controversy over academic qualifications
As soon as Governor Samboja was inaugurated, controversies emerged over whether he had a university degree. Electoral law as applied in the 2017 general elections explicitly stated that a candidate for governor should have had a degree from a university recognized in Kenya.{{Cite book\|last\=IEBC\|title\=A handbook on elective positions in Kenya\|publisher\=Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission\|year\=2017\|location\=Nairobi\|pages\=16}} Court cases were filed in both Nairobi and Mombasa seeking to nullify Samboja's election on grounds that he did not have a university degree.{{Cite web\|last\=Wakaya\|first\=Jeremiah\|date\=2018\-01\-15\|title\=Temporary relief for Governor Samboja as Voi court strikes out petition » Capital News\|url\=https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2018/01/temporary\-relief\-governor\-samboja\-voi\-court\-strikes\-petition/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Capital News\|language\=en\-US}} During court proceedings, copies of academic certificates the governor claimed he had earned from [Kenyatta University](/wiki/Kenyatta_University "Kenyatta University") were declared fake. The university submitted an affidavit stating that Samboja, “had not applied for, obtained admission or attended the institution as a student for a certificate, diploma and degree in Project Management, Human Resource Management and Bachelor of Commerce respectively.”{{Cite web\|title\=Governor Granton Samboja was not at KU student, court told\|url\=https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/governor\-granton\-samboja\-not\-ku\-student\-court\-told\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Nairobi News\|date\=18 September 2017 \|language\=en\-US}} The court cases eventually fizzled out and Samboja remained in office.
### Petition to dissolve the county assembly
In July 2019, Governor Granton Samboja initiated a petition to have President Uhuru Kenyatta dissolve the county assembly of Taita Taveta. Samboja was angered by a disagreement with the county assembly over allocations totalling 5\.3 billion Kenya Shillings for the 2019/2020 budget.{{Cite web\|last\=KNA\|date\=3 July 2019\|title\=Governor Samboja urges President Kenyatta to dissolve County administration\|url\=https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/governor\-samboja\-urges\-president\-kenyatta\-to\-dissolve\-county\-administration/\|access\-date\=26 February 2021\|website\=Kenya News Agency}} Samboja accused members of the county assembly of unilaterally allocating millions of shillings to their electoral wards. On its part, the county assembly accused Samboja of allocating county government funds to non\-crucial functions.{{Cite web\|last\=CORRESPONDENT\|date\=2019\-07\-02\|title\=Governor Samboja kicks off process of dissolving Taita Taveta County govt » Capital News\|url\=https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2019/07/governor\-samboja\-kicks\-off\-process\-of\-dissolving\-taita\-taveta\-county\-govt/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Capital News\|language\=en\-US}}
In October 2019, Samboja's petition was handed over to President Uhuru Kenyatta who then forwarded it to the [Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission](/wiki/Independent_Electoral_and_Boundaries_Commission "Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission") (IEBC) for verification of the petitioners’ signatures.{{Cite web\|last\=Kamunde\|first\=Muraya\|date\=2019\-10\-30\|title\=Uhuru hands over petition to dissolve Taita Taveta County govt to IEBC\|url\=https://www.kbc.co.ke/uhuru\-hands\-over\-petition\-to\-dissolve\-taita\-taveta\-county\-govt\-to\-iebc/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=KBC {{!}} Kenya's Watching\|language\=en\-US}} Under the law, IEBC had to confirm if the signatures met the legal threshold that a petition to dissolve the county assembly be supported by at least 10% of registered voters in the county. In this particular case, the petition needed at least 15,500 verified signatures because the total number of registered voters in Taita Taveta County was 155,000\.{{Cite web\|title\=What next for Taita Taveta? IEBC receives petition to dissolve county gov't\|url\=https://citizentv.co.ke/news/what\-next\-for\-taita\-taveta\-iebc\-receives\-petition\-to\-dissolve\-county\-government\-291698/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Citizentv.co.ke\|date\=30 October 2019 \|language\=en\-US}} On 6 November 2019, IEBC announced that Samboja's petition had the support of 21,861 registered voters, confirming that it had met the required threshold.{{Cite web\|last\=Ruto\|first\=Japhet\|date\=2019\-11\-06\|title\=IEBC approves petition to dissolve Taita Taveta county government\|url\=https://www.tuko.co.ke/323195\-iebc\-approves\-petition\-dissolve\-taita\-taveta\-county\-government.html\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Tuko.co.ke \- Kenya news.\|language\=en}} The governor's supporters saw this as a victory.
### Impeachment by the County Assembly
As Governor Samboja carried out his plan to dissolve the county assembly, the members of the assembly were plotting a counter\-move: impeaching the governor. The plot came to a fruition on October 9, 2019 when 30 out of 33 members of the county assembly (MCAs) voted to impeach Samboja.{{Cite web\|title\=Taita Taveta Governor Granton Samboja impeached\|url\=https://citizentv.co.ke/news/taita\-taveta\-governor\-granton\-samboja\-impeached\-285734/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Citizentv.co.ke\|date\=9 October 2019 \|language\=en\-US}}
The passing of the motion of impeachment in the county assembly kicked of a flurry of court cases aimed at stopping the impeachment process from going to the National Senate. Under Kenya's 2010 Constitution, the Senate has final say to either uphold or reject the impeachment.{{Cite web\|last\=National Council for Law Reporting\|title\=County Governments Act No. 17 of 2012\|url\=http://www.parliament.go.ke/sites/default/files/2017\-05/CountyGovernmentsAct\_No17of2012\_1\.pdf\|access\-date\=26 February 2021\|website\=Parliament of Kenya}} On October 22, 2019, the Senate resolved to proceed with the impeachment proceedings despite court cases blocking proceedings on the matter.{{Cite web\|date\=23 October 2019\|title\=Senators renew battle with courts in Samboja impeachment case\|url\=https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/news/senators\-renew\-battle\-with\-courts\-in\-samboja\-impeachment\-case\-2268462\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Business Daily\|language\=en}} Two days later, the Senate cleared Governor Granton Samboja of the allegations raised by the county assembly.{{Cite web\|last\=Wanambisi\|first\=Laban\|date\=2019\-10\-24\|title\=Samboja survives impeachment as Senate says charges by County Assembly unsubstantiated » Capital News\|url\=https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2019/10/samboja\-survives\-impeachment\-as\-senate\-says\-charges\-by\-county\-assembly\-unsubstantiated/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Capital News\|language\=en\-US}} This allowed him to continue his tenure in office.
### Border disputes with neighbouring counties
Taita Taveta County has long standing border disagreements with [Makueni](/wiki/Makueni_County "Makueni County") and [Kwale](/wiki/Kwale_County "Kwale County") counties. The dispute with Makueni county is over which county should be collecting taxes in [Mtito Andei](/wiki/Mtito_Andei "Mtito Andei") township which lies on the border. A similar dispute with Kwale revolves around [Mackinnon Road](/wiki/Mackinnon_Road "Mackinnon Road") township. Officials of the Taita Taveta county government say lost revenue due to the border disputes could be as much as 60 million Kenya Shillings annually.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-10\-05\|title\=How county loses revenue due to boundary disputes\|url\=https://www.pd.co.ke/news/how\-county\-loses\-revenue\-due\-to\-boundary\-disputes\-54467/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=People Daily\|language\=en\-GB}}
On July 11, 2020, Governor Samboja and Kwale governor [Salim Mvurya](/wiki/Salim_Mvurya "Salim Mvurya") met and agreed to form a joint technical committee of surveyors to resolve the border dispute.{{Cite web\|last\=KNA\|date\=12 July 2020\|title\=Kwale and Taita Taveta governors meet to resolve border dispute\|url\=https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/kwale\-and\-taita\-taveta\-governors\-meet\-to\-resolve\-border\-dispute/\|access\-date\=26 February 2020\|website\=Kenya News Agency}}
On July 4, 2020, Samboja surprised the county by signing a resolution agreement for a little\-known border dispute with [Kajiado](/wiki/Kajiado_County "Kajiado County") county. The agreement to resolve a border dispute at Rongo was signed by Samboja and Kajiado county governor [Joseph Ole Lenku](/wiki/Joseph_Ole_Lenku "Joseph Ole Lenku").{{Cite web\|title\=Samboja, Lenku ink deal to end 50\-year border row\|url\=https://www.the\-star.co.ke/counties/coast/2020\-07\-06\-samboja\-lenku\-ink\-deal\-to\-end\-50\-year\-border\-row/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=The Star\|language\=en\-KE}} The agreement quickly fell into controversy when local leaders demanded that it be made public.{{Cite web\|last\=KNA\|date\=6 July 2020\|title\=Make Taita\-Taveta, Kajiado counties border accord public – leaders\|url\=https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/make\-taita\-taveta\-kajiado\-counties\-border\-accord\-public\-leaders/\|access\-date\=26 February 2021\|website\=Kenya News Agency}}
### Crisis in the health sector
Governor Granton Samboja inherited a public health system plagued by years of chronic underfunding, corruption and workers’ strikes. The situation affects all of the counties of Kenya. A policy brief published by [KEMRI](/wiki/Kenya_Medical_Research_Institute "Kenya Medical Research Institute") [Wellcome Trust](/wiki/Wellcome_Trust "Wellcome Trust") in June 2020 indicates that health workers’ discontent and unrest worsened after 2013 when public health functions were devolved from the national government to county governments. A pattern developed in which health workers go on strike but return to work with their concerns remaining largely unresolved. The reason given by doctors and nurses for the numerous strikes is failure by county governments to implement Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBAs) with their respective unions.{{Cite book\|last\=Waithaka\|first\=Dennis\|title\=Health worker strikes in Kenya\|publisher\=KEMRI Wellcome Trust\|year\=2020\|pages\=2}}
### Management of county markets
One of the first programs in Governor Granton Samboja's administration was to upgrade the open air markets in Taita Taveta county. During the upgrade, traders at those markets had to be relocated to new locations far away from their customers. This sparked off protests.
In March 2018, traders in Voi town were relocated to a site more than two kilometres away from the town centre.{{Cite web\|last\=gracemaina\|date\=2018\-03\-09\|title\=Traders in Voi agree to relocate to new market\|url\=https://www.kbc.co.ke/traders\-voi\-town\-agree\-relocate\-new\-market/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=KBC {{!}} Kenya's Watching\|language\=en\-US}} The market in Voi town was upgraded and officially opened by Deputy President William Ruto on October 1, 2018\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://twitter.com/williamsruto/status/1046714510181060608\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Twitter\|language\=en}} However, it took more than two years for the county government to connect the new structures to electricity. Similar market upgrading projects in Wundanyi, Mwatate and Taveta towns resulted in huge losses to the business community.{{Cite web\|date\=2019\-09\-19\|title\=Difficult Economic Times in Taita Taveta County, Kenya\|url\=http://voi2day.com/difficult\-economic\-times\-in\-taita\-taveta\-county\-kenya/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=voi2day\|language\=en}}
Governor Samboja got into trouble with traders at Mghange market in March 2020 when he ordered that the market be closed on Sundays because it is a day for worship.{{Cite web\|last\=pm\|first\=Noni Ireri on 12 March 2020\-6:01\|title\=Governor Bans Trading on Sunday, Ignites Protest\|url\=https://www.kenyans.co.ke/news/50775\-governor\-banishes\-traders\-town\-forces\-them\-church\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Kenyans.co.ke\|date\=12 March 2020 \|language\=EN}}
### Stand on sale of khat
In September 2019, Governor Granton Samboja banned the sale of [khat](/wiki/Khat "Khat") leaves in Taita Taveta County.{{Cite web\|last\=Kwaela\|date\=16 September 2019\|title\=Governor Samboja bans sale of miraa in Taita Taveta\|url\=https://kwaela.co.ke/governor\-samboja\-bans\-sale\-of\-miraa\-in\-taita\-taveta/\|access\-date\=26 February 2021\|website\=Kwaela News Network}} The leaves, popular known as muguka, are a cheap stimulant chewed by young men throughout Kenya. The chewing of khat and its leaves has been blamed for creating a [culture](/wiki/Culture "Culture") of idleness among young men. Enforcement of the ban was however not sustained and consumption of khat continues.
### Handling of disputes between camel herders and farmers
Conflict between [camel](/wiki/Camel "Camel") herders mostly from the [Somali](/wiki/Somalis "Somalis") community and farmers in Taita Taveta county had been simmering for years. In 2018, the county government of Taita Taveta halted the issuance of grazing licenses and ordered camel herders out of the county.{{Cite web\|last\=Murikira\|first\=Janet\|date\=2018\-08\-06\|title\=Why Taita Taveta County is kicking out Camels {{!}} Mombasa County News {{!}} Baraka FM 95\.5 FM\|url\=https://barakafm.org/2018/08/06/why\-taita\-taveta\-county\-is\-kicking\-out\-camels/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|language\=en\-US}} In July 2019, Governor Samboja was among politicians summoned by the [Directorate of Criminal Investigations](/wiki/Criminal_Investigation_Department_%28Kenya%29 "Criminal Investigation Department (Kenya)") to record statements over his remarks amidst clashes between Somali herders and local farmers.{{Cite web\|date\=2019\-07\-08\|title\=Governor, Senator and MPs from one county at DCI headquarters\|url\=https://www.pulselive.co.ke/news/governor\-granton\-samboja\-senator\-jones\-mwaruma\-and\-mps\-questioned\-at\-dci\-headquarters/jxp7d29\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Pulse Live Kenya\|language\=en\-US}} The previous month, a farmer was killed allegedly by camel herders.{{Cite web\|last\=Wakaya\|first\=Jeremiah\|date\=2019\-06\-10\|title\=Voi leaders demand action against administrators protecting brutal herders » Capital News\|url\=https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2019/06/voi\-leaders\-demand\-action\-against\-administrators\-protecting\-brutal\-herders/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=Capital News\|language\=en\-US}} In retaliation, the slain man's community attacked and killed at least 20 camels. The tension between camel herders and farmers remains unresolved.
### Sand harvesting
Governor Samboja banned [sand](/wiki/Sand "Sand") harvesting in December 2019 after several homes were destroyed by floods along the [Voi River](/wiki/Voi_River "Voi River"). Samboja blamed sand harvesting for the flooding. The ban on sand harvesting was lifted in March 2020 but tough conditions were set for those wanting to participate in the business. Among the conditions was the formation of sand harvesting cooperative societies at the various locations where sand is harvested. The cooperatives have to seek environmental impact assessment for the sand harvesting sites and that each truckload of sand pay cess levies to the county government.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-05\-05\|title\=Taita Taveta county is well placed to become the largest supplier of building sand to the coast region.\|url\=http://voi2day.com/taita\-taveta\-county\-is\-well\-placed\-to\-become\-the\-largest\-supplier\-of\-building\-sand\-to\-the\-coast\-region/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=voi2day\|language\=en}}
### Stand on sharing of revenue from Tsavo National Park
Samboja has several times reiterated his stand that Taita Taveta county must get a bigger share of revenue from [Tsavo National Park](/wiki/Tsavo_East_National_Park "Tsavo East National Park"). The park is the largest wildlife conservation area in Kenya and occupies over 60% of Taita Taveta county. “The county notes with concern that despite Article 69(1\) granting our people access to revenue generated from natural resources, no guidelines have been put in place to ensure that our people benefit from the revenue collected from the Tsavo National Park,” Samboja told the National Senate on July 15, 2020\.{{Cite web\|date\=2020\-07\-15\|title\=Samboja asks Senate to compel KWS to share parks revenue with his county\|url\=https://www.k24tv.co.ke/news/samboja\-asks\-senate\-to\-compel\-kws\-to\-share\-parks\-revenue\-with\-his\-county\-23995/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=K24 TV\|language\=en\-US}}
### Election as Chairman, Jumuiya ya Kaunti za Pwani
Governor Granton Samboja was elected chairman of the coastal economic bloc on 10 February 2021\.{{Cite web\|title\=H.E Granton Samboja elected new Chairman, Jumuiya ya Kaunti za Pwani\|url\=https://www.kenya\-today.com/news/h\-e\-granton\-samboja\-elected\-new\-chairman\-jumuiya\-ya\-kaunti\-za\-pwani\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|website\=www.kenya\-today.com\|date\=10 February 2021 }} The economic bloc, known in Swahili as the Jumuiya ya Kaunti za Pwani (JKP), consists of the six counties at the Kenyan coast. The member counties are Kilifi, Kwale, Lamu, Mombasa, Taita Taveta and Tana River.{{Cite web\|title\=Jumuiya ya Kaunti za Pwani – Just another WordPress site\|url\=https://jumuiya.org/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-26\|language\=en\-US}}
### 2022 gubernatorial campaign
Samboja ran for re\-election in the [2022 general elections](/wiki/2022_Kenyan_general_election "2022 Kenyan general election") but lost to [Andrew Mwadime](/wiki/Andrew_Mwadime "Andrew Mwadime") "Wakujaa."{{Cite web \|last\=Kagonye \|first\=Fred \|title\=Granton Samboja loses governorship race \|url\=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/politics/article/2001453118/granton\-samboja\-loses\-governorship\-race \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-26 \|website\=The Standard \|language\=en}} Samboja's term as governor ended on 25 August 2022 when Wakujaa was inaugurated as the third governor of Taita Taveta county.{{Cite web \|title\=Mwadime sworn in as Taita Taveta's third governor \|url\=https://www.the\-star.co.ke/counties/coast/2022\-08\-25\-mwadime\-sworn\-in\-as\-taita\-tavetas\-third\-governor/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-26 \|website\=The Star \|language\=en\-KE}}
|
[
"Governor of Taita Taveta County\n-------------------------------",
"Granton Samboja was elected the second governor of Taita Taveta county during the [2017 general elections](/wiki/2017_Kenyan_general_election \"2017 Kenyan general election\") held on 8 August that year. He was sworn into office on 21 August 2017 at an inauguration ceremony where his predecessor [John Mruttu](/wiki/John_Mruttu \"John Mruttu\"), was present.{{Cite web\\|last\\=KNA\\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-23\\|title\\=New governor inherits Sh600 million debt\\|url\\=https://businesstoday.co.ke/new\\-governor\\-met\\-sh0\\-6\\-billion\\-debt/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Business Today Kenya\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Controversy over academic qualifications",
"As soon as Governor Samboja was inaugurated, controversies emerged over whether he had a university degree. Electoral law as applied in the 2017 general elections explicitly stated that a candidate for governor should have had a degree from a university recognized in Kenya.{{Cite book\\|last\\=IEBC\\|title\\=A handbook on elective positions in Kenya\\|publisher\\=Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission\\|year\\=2017\\|location\\=Nairobi\\|pages\\=16}} Court cases were filed in both Nairobi and Mombasa seeking to nullify Samboja's election on grounds that he did not have a university degree.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Wakaya\\|first\\=Jeremiah\\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-15\\|title\\=Temporary relief for Governor Samboja as Voi court strikes out petition » Capital News\\|url\\=https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2018/01/temporary\\-relief\\-governor\\-samboja\\-voi\\-court\\-strikes\\-petition/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Capital News\\|language\\=en\\-US}} During court proceedings, copies of academic certificates the governor claimed he had earned from [Kenyatta University](/wiki/Kenyatta_University \"Kenyatta University\") were declared fake. The university submitted an affidavit stating that Samboja, “had not applied for, obtained admission or attended the institution as a student for a certificate, diploma and degree in Project Management, Human Resource Management and Bachelor of Commerce respectively.”{{Cite web\\|title\\=Governor Granton Samboja was not at KU student, court told\\|url\\=https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/governor\\-granton\\-samboja\\-not\\-ku\\-student\\-court\\-told\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Nairobi News\\|date\\=18 September 2017 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The court cases eventually fizzled out and Samboja remained in office.",
"### Petition to dissolve the county assembly",
"In July 2019, Governor Granton Samboja initiated a petition to have President Uhuru Kenyatta dissolve the county assembly of Taita Taveta. Samboja was angered by a disagreement with the county assembly over allocations totalling 5\\.3 billion Kenya Shillings for the 2019/2020 budget.{{Cite web\\|last\\=KNA\\|date\\=3 July 2019\\|title\\=Governor Samboja urges President Kenyatta to dissolve County administration\\|url\\=https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/governor\\-samboja\\-urges\\-president\\-kenyatta\\-to\\-dissolve\\-county\\-administration/\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2021\\|website\\=Kenya News Agency}} Samboja accused members of the county assembly of unilaterally allocating millions of shillings to their electoral wards. On its part, the county assembly accused Samboja of allocating county government funds to non\\-crucial functions.{{Cite web\\|last\\=CORRESPONDENT\\|date\\=2019\\-07\\-02\\|title\\=Governor Samboja kicks off process of dissolving Taita Taveta County govt » Capital News\\|url\\=https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2019/07/governor\\-samboja\\-kicks\\-off\\-process\\-of\\-dissolving\\-taita\\-taveta\\-county\\-govt/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Capital News\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"In October 2019, Samboja's petition was handed over to President Uhuru Kenyatta who then forwarded it to the [Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission](/wiki/Independent_Electoral_and_Boundaries_Commission \"Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission\") (IEBC) for verification of the petitioners’ signatures.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Kamunde\\|first\\=Muraya\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-30\\|title\\=Uhuru hands over petition to dissolve Taita Taveta County govt to IEBC\\|url\\=https://www.kbc.co.ke/uhuru\\-hands\\-over\\-petition\\-to\\-dissolve\\-taita\\-taveta\\-county\\-govt\\-to\\-iebc/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=KBC {{!}} Kenya's Watching\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Under the law, IEBC had to confirm if the signatures met the legal threshold that a petition to dissolve the county assembly be supported by at least 10% of registered voters in the county. In this particular case, the petition needed at least 15,500 verified signatures because the total number of registered voters in Taita Taveta County was 155,000\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=What next for Taita Taveta? IEBC receives petition to dissolve county gov't\\|url\\=https://citizentv.co.ke/news/what\\-next\\-for\\-taita\\-taveta\\-iebc\\-receives\\-petition\\-to\\-dissolve\\-county\\-government\\-291698/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Citizentv.co.ke\\|date\\=30 October 2019 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} On 6 November 2019, IEBC announced that Samboja's petition had the support of 21,861 registered voters, confirming that it had met the required threshold.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Ruto\\|first\\=Japhet\\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-06\\|title\\=IEBC approves petition to dissolve Taita Taveta county government\\|url\\=https://www.tuko.co.ke/323195\\-iebc\\-approves\\-petition\\-dissolve\\-taita\\-taveta\\-county\\-government.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Tuko.co.ke \\- Kenya news.\\|language\\=en}} The governor's supporters saw this as a victory.",
"### Impeachment by the County Assembly",
"As Governor Samboja carried out his plan to dissolve the county assembly, the members of the assembly were plotting a counter\\-move: impeaching the governor. The plot came to a fruition on October 9, 2019 when 30 out of 33 members of the county assembly (MCAs) voted to impeach Samboja.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Taita Taveta Governor Granton Samboja impeached\\|url\\=https://citizentv.co.ke/news/taita\\-taveta\\-governor\\-granton\\-samboja\\-impeached\\-285734/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Citizentv.co.ke\\|date\\=9 October 2019 \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"The passing of the motion of impeachment in the county assembly kicked of a flurry of court cases aimed at stopping the impeachment process from going to the National Senate. Under Kenya's 2010 Constitution, the Senate has final say to either uphold or reject the impeachment.{{Cite web\\|last\\=National Council for Law Reporting\\|title\\=County Governments Act No. 17 of 2012\\|url\\=http://www.parliament.go.ke/sites/default/files/2017\\-05/CountyGovernmentsAct\\_No17of2012\\_1\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2021\\|website\\=Parliament of Kenya}} On October 22, 2019, the Senate resolved to proceed with the impeachment proceedings despite court cases blocking proceedings on the matter.{{Cite web\\|date\\=23 October 2019\\|title\\=Senators renew battle with courts in Samboja impeachment case\\|url\\=https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/news/senators\\-renew\\-battle\\-with\\-courts\\-in\\-samboja\\-impeachment\\-case\\-2268462\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Business Daily\\|language\\=en}} Two days later, the Senate cleared Governor Granton Samboja of the allegations raised by the county assembly.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Wanambisi\\|first\\=Laban\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-24\\|title\\=Samboja survives impeachment as Senate says charges by County Assembly unsubstantiated » Capital News\\|url\\=https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2019/10/samboja\\-survives\\-impeachment\\-as\\-senate\\-says\\-charges\\-by\\-county\\-assembly\\-unsubstantiated/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Capital News\\|language\\=en\\-US}} This allowed him to continue his tenure in office.",
"### Border disputes with neighbouring counties",
"Taita Taveta County has long standing border disagreements with [Makueni](/wiki/Makueni_County \"Makueni County\") and [Kwale](/wiki/Kwale_County \"Kwale County\") counties. The dispute with Makueni county is over which county should be collecting taxes in [Mtito Andei](/wiki/Mtito_Andei \"Mtito Andei\") township which lies on the border. A similar dispute with Kwale revolves around [Mackinnon Road](/wiki/Mackinnon_Road \"Mackinnon Road\") township. Officials of the Taita Taveta county government say lost revenue due to the border disputes could be as much as 60 million Kenya Shillings annually.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-05\\|title\\=How county loses revenue due to boundary disputes\\|url\\=https://www.pd.co.ke/news/how\\-county\\-loses\\-revenue\\-due\\-to\\-boundary\\-disputes\\-54467/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=People Daily\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"On July 11, 2020, Governor Samboja and Kwale governor [Salim Mvurya](/wiki/Salim_Mvurya \"Salim Mvurya\") met and agreed to form a joint technical committee of surveyors to resolve the border dispute.{{Cite web\\|last\\=KNA\\|date\\=12 July 2020\\|title\\=Kwale and Taita Taveta governors meet to resolve border dispute\\|url\\=https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/kwale\\-and\\-taita\\-taveta\\-governors\\-meet\\-to\\-resolve\\-border\\-dispute/\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2020\\|website\\=Kenya News Agency}}",
"On July 4, 2020, Samboja surprised the county by signing a resolution agreement for a little\\-known border dispute with [Kajiado](/wiki/Kajiado_County \"Kajiado County\") county. The agreement to resolve a border dispute at Rongo was signed by Samboja and Kajiado county governor [Joseph Ole Lenku](/wiki/Joseph_Ole_Lenku \"Joseph Ole Lenku\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Samboja, Lenku ink deal to end 50\\-year border row\\|url\\=https://www.the\\-star.co.ke/counties/coast/2020\\-07\\-06\\-samboja\\-lenku\\-ink\\-deal\\-to\\-end\\-50\\-year\\-border\\-row/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=The Star\\|language\\=en\\-KE}} The agreement quickly fell into controversy when local leaders demanded that it be made public.{{Cite web\\|last\\=KNA\\|date\\=6 July 2020\\|title\\=Make Taita\\-Taveta, Kajiado counties border accord public – leaders\\|url\\=https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/make\\-taita\\-taveta\\-kajiado\\-counties\\-border\\-accord\\-public\\-leaders/\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2021\\|website\\=Kenya News Agency}}",
"### Crisis in the health sector",
"Governor Granton Samboja inherited a public health system plagued by years of chronic underfunding, corruption and workers’ strikes. The situation affects all of the counties of Kenya. A policy brief published by [KEMRI](/wiki/Kenya_Medical_Research_Institute \"Kenya Medical Research Institute\") [Wellcome Trust](/wiki/Wellcome_Trust \"Wellcome Trust\") in June 2020 indicates that health workers’ discontent and unrest worsened after 2013 when public health functions were devolved from the national government to county governments. A pattern developed in which health workers go on strike but return to work with their concerns remaining largely unresolved. The reason given by doctors and nurses for the numerous strikes is failure by county governments to implement Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBAs) with their respective unions.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Waithaka\\|first\\=Dennis\\|title\\=Health worker strikes in Kenya\\|publisher\\=KEMRI Wellcome Trust\\|year\\=2020\\|pages\\=2}}",
"### Management of county markets",
"One of the first programs in Governor Granton Samboja's administration was to upgrade the open air markets in Taita Taveta county. During the upgrade, traders at those markets had to be relocated to new locations far away from their customers. This sparked off protests.",
"In March 2018, traders in Voi town were relocated to a site more than two kilometres away from the town centre.{{Cite web\\|last\\=gracemaina\\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-09\\|title\\=Traders in Voi agree to relocate to new market\\|url\\=https://www.kbc.co.ke/traders\\-voi\\-town\\-agree\\-relocate\\-new\\-market/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=KBC {{!}} Kenya's Watching\\|language\\=en\\-US}} The market in Voi town was upgraded and officially opened by Deputy President William Ruto on October 1, 2018\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/williamsruto/status/1046714510181060608\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Twitter\\|language\\=en}} However, it took more than two years for the county government to connect the new structures to electricity. Similar market upgrading projects in Wundanyi, Mwatate and Taveta towns resulted in huge losses to the business community.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-09\\-19\\|title\\=Difficult Economic Times in Taita Taveta County, Kenya\\|url\\=http://voi2day.com/difficult\\-economic\\-times\\-in\\-taita\\-taveta\\-county\\-kenya/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=voi2day\\|language\\=en}}",
"Governor Samboja got into trouble with traders at Mghange market in March 2020 when he ordered that the market be closed on Sundays because it is a day for worship.{{Cite web\\|last\\=pm\\|first\\=Noni Ireri on 12 March 2020\\-6:01\\|title\\=Governor Bans Trading on Sunday, Ignites Protest\\|url\\=https://www.kenyans.co.ke/news/50775\\-governor\\-banishes\\-traders\\-town\\-forces\\-them\\-church\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Kenyans.co.ke\\|date\\=12 March 2020 \\|language\\=EN}}",
"### Stand on sale of khat",
"In September 2019, Governor Granton Samboja banned the sale of [khat](/wiki/Khat \"Khat\") leaves in Taita Taveta County.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Kwaela\\|date\\=16 September 2019\\|title\\=Governor Samboja bans sale of miraa in Taita Taveta\\|url\\=https://kwaela.co.ke/governor\\-samboja\\-bans\\-sale\\-of\\-miraa\\-in\\-taita\\-taveta/\\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2021\\|website\\=Kwaela News Network}} The leaves, popular known as muguka, are a cheap stimulant chewed by young men throughout Kenya. The chewing of khat and its leaves has been blamed for creating a [culture](/wiki/Culture \"Culture\") of idleness among young men. Enforcement of the ban was however not sustained and consumption of khat continues.",
"### Handling of disputes between camel herders and farmers",
"Conflict between [camel](/wiki/Camel \"Camel\") herders mostly from the [Somali](/wiki/Somalis \"Somalis\") community and farmers in Taita Taveta county had been simmering for years. In 2018, the county government of Taita Taveta halted the issuance of grazing licenses and ordered camel herders out of the county.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Murikira\\|first\\=Janet\\|date\\=2018\\-08\\-06\\|title\\=Why Taita Taveta County is kicking out Camels {{!}} Mombasa County News {{!}} Baraka FM 95\\.5 FM\\|url\\=https://barakafm.org/2018/08/06/why\\-taita\\-taveta\\-county\\-is\\-kicking\\-out\\-camels/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|language\\=en\\-US}} In July 2019, Governor Samboja was among politicians summoned by the [Directorate of Criminal Investigations](/wiki/Criminal_Investigation_Department_%28Kenya%29 \"Criminal Investigation Department (Kenya)\") to record statements over his remarks amidst clashes between Somali herders and local farmers.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-07\\-08\\|title\\=Governor, Senator and MPs from one county at DCI headquarters\\|url\\=https://www.pulselive.co.ke/news/governor\\-granton\\-samboja\\-senator\\-jones\\-mwaruma\\-and\\-mps\\-questioned\\-at\\-dci\\-headquarters/jxp7d29\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Pulse Live Kenya\\|language\\=en\\-US}} The previous month, a farmer was killed allegedly by camel herders.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Wakaya\\|first\\=Jeremiah\\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-10\\|title\\=Voi leaders demand action against administrators protecting brutal herders » Capital News\\|url\\=https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2019/06/voi\\-leaders\\-demand\\-action\\-against\\-administrators\\-protecting\\-brutal\\-herders/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=Capital News\\|language\\=en\\-US}} In retaliation, the slain man's community attacked and killed at least 20 camels. The tension between camel herders and farmers remains unresolved.",
"### Sand harvesting",
"Governor Samboja banned [sand](/wiki/Sand \"Sand\") harvesting in December 2019 after several homes were destroyed by floods along the [Voi River](/wiki/Voi_River \"Voi River\"). Samboja blamed sand harvesting for the flooding. The ban on sand harvesting was lifted in March 2020 but tough conditions were set for those wanting to participate in the business. Among the conditions was the formation of sand harvesting cooperative societies at the various locations where sand is harvested. The cooperatives have to seek environmental impact assessment for the sand harvesting sites and that each truckload of sand pay cess levies to the county government.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-05\\-05\\|title\\=Taita Taveta county is well placed to become the largest supplier of building sand to the coast region.\\|url\\=http://voi2day.com/taita\\-taveta\\-county\\-is\\-well\\-placed\\-to\\-become\\-the\\-largest\\-supplier\\-of\\-building\\-sand\\-to\\-the\\-coast\\-region/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=voi2day\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Stand on sharing of revenue from Tsavo National Park",
"Samboja has several times reiterated his stand that Taita Taveta county must get a bigger share of revenue from [Tsavo National Park](/wiki/Tsavo_East_National_Park \"Tsavo East National Park\"). The park is the largest wildlife conservation area in Kenya and occupies over 60% of Taita Taveta county. “The county notes with concern that despite Article 69(1\\) granting our people access to revenue generated from natural resources, no guidelines have been put in place to ensure that our people benefit from the revenue collected from the Tsavo National Park,” Samboja told the National Senate on July 15, 2020\\.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-15\\|title\\=Samboja asks Senate to compel KWS to share parks revenue with his county\\|url\\=https://www.k24tv.co.ke/news/samboja\\-asks\\-senate\\-to\\-compel\\-kws\\-to\\-share\\-parks\\-revenue\\-with\\-his\\-county\\-23995/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=K24 TV\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Election as Chairman, Jumuiya ya Kaunti za Pwani",
"Governor Granton Samboja was elected chairman of the coastal economic bloc on 10 February 2021\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=H.E Granton Samboja elected new Chairman, Jumuiya ya Kaunti za Pwani\\|url\\=https://www.kenya\\-today.com/news/h\\-e\\-granton\\-samboja\\-elected\\-new\\-chairman\\-jumuiya\\-ya\\-kaunti\\-za\\-pwani\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|website\\=www.kenya\\-today.com\\|date\\=10 February 2021 }} The economic bloc, known in Swahili as the Jumuiya ya Kaunti za Pwani (JKP), consists of the six counties at the Kenyan coast. The member counties are Kilifi, Kwale, Lamu, Mombasa, Taita Taveta and Tana River.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Jumuiya ya Kaunti za Pwani – Just another WordPress site\\|url\\=https://jumuiya.org/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-26\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### 2022 gubernatorial campaign",
"Samboja ran for re\\-election in the [2022 general elections](/wiki/2022_Kenyan_general_election \"2022 Kenyan general election\") but lost to [Andrew Mwadime](/wiki/Andrew_Mwadime \"Andrew Mwadime\") \"Wakujaa.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kagonye \\|first\\=Fred \\|title\\=Granton Samboja loses governorship race \\|url\\=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/politics/article/2001453118/granton\\-samboja\\-loses\\-governorship\\-race \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-26 \\|website\\=The Standard \\|language\\=en}} Samboja's term as governor ended on 25 August 2022 when Wakujaa was inaugurated as the third governor of Taita Taveta county.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mwadime sworn in as Taita Taveta's third governor \\|url\\=https://www.the\\-star.co.ke/counties/coast/2022\\-08\\-25\\-mwadime\\-sworn\\-in\\-as\\-taita\\-tavetas\\-third\\-governor/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-26 \\|website\\=The Star \\|language\\=en\\-KE}}",
""
] |
Life
----
Educated at [George Watson's College](/wiki/George_Watson%27s_College "George Watson's College"), Edinburgh, the [University of Edinburgh](/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh "University of Edinburgh") and [Jesus College, Oxford](/wiki/Jesus_College%2C_Oxford "Jesus College, Oxford"), he served in the [REME](/wiki/REME "REME") and SEAC from 1941 to 1946\. He was admitted as an [advocate](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates "Faculty of Advocates") in 1953, served as an Advocate Depute from 1964 to 1970 (from 1967 as a Senior Advocate Depute). He was appointed a [Queen's Counsel](/wiki/Queen%27s_Counsel "Queen's Counsel") in 1967\.
He was an unsuccessful candidate for [Caithness and Sutherland](/wiki/Caithness_and_Sutherland_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Caithness and Sutherland (UK Parliament constituency)") in 1959, [Edinburgh North](/wiki/Edinburgh_North_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Edinburgh North (UK Parliament constituency)") in [a May 1960 by\-election](/wiki/1960_Edinburgh_North_by-election "1960 Edinburgh North by-election"), and [Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles](/wiki/Roxburgh%2C_Selkirk_and_Peebles_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles (UK Parliament constituency)") in 1964 and 1965\. He was elected and sat for [Edinburgh Leith](/wiki/Edinburgh_Leith_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Edinburgh Leith (UK Parliament constituency)") from 1970 until 1979\.
He served as [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate "Lord Advocate") from March 1974 until May 1979, and was appointed a [Privy Counsellor](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom "Privy Council of the United Kingdom") in 1974\. In 1979 he was appointed to the [Court of Session](/wiki/Court_of_Session "Court of Session") and [High Court of Justiciary](/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary "High Court of Justiciary") as a [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice "Senator of the College of Justice"), with the judicial title Lord Murray. His uncle [David King Murray](/wiki/David_King_Murray%2C_Lord_Birnam "David King Murray, Lord Birnam") had been a Senator of the College of Justice from 1945 to 1955\.
In April 1977, the [Young Liberals](/wiki/National_League_of_Young_Liberals "National League of Young Liberals")' annual conference unanimously passed a motion to call on the [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28UK%29 "Liberal Party (UK)") leader ([David Steel](/wiki/David_Steel "David Steel")) to move for the [impeachment](/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_Kingdom "Impeachment in the United Kingdom") of Murray for allegedly mishandling a murder case. Despite the urgings of the then chairman of the Young Liberals, [Peter Hain](/wiki/Peter_Hain "Peter Hain"), Steel did not table such a motion in the House of Commons, but Murray agreed that the Commons still have the right to initiate an impeachment motion.
Lord Murray was an active supporter of the World Court Project U.K., part of a worldwide network directed to obtaining a decision on the legality of using nuclear weapons. Success came in 1996, when the International Court of Justice ruled, in an advisory opinion, that the use of such weapons and the threat to use them would generally be illegal as contrary to international humanitarian law.
He died on 27 September 2016 at the age of 94\.[Ronald J.K Lord Murray : Obituary](http://announce.jpress.co.uk/edinburgh-evening-news-and-scotsman-publications/obituary/ronald-j-k-lord-murray/48145000)
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Educated at [George Watson's College](/wiki/George_Watson%27s_College \"George Watson's College\"), Edinburgh, the [University of Edinburgh](/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh \"University of Edinburgh\") and [Jesus College, Oxford](/wiki/Jesus_College%2C_Oxford \"Jesus College, Oxford\"), he served in the [REME](/wiki/REME \"REME\") and SEAC from 1941 to 1946\\. He was admitted as an [advocate](/wiki/Faculty_of_Advocates \"Faculty of Advocates\") in 1953, served as an Advocate Depute from 1964 to 1970 (from 1967 as a Senior Advocate Depute). He was appointed a [Queen's Counsel](/wiki/Queen%27s_Counsel \"Queen's Counsel\") in 1967\\.",
"He was an unsuccessful candidate for [Caithness and Sutherland](/wiki/Caithness_and_Sutherland_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Caithness and Sutherland (UK Parliament constituency)\") in 1959, [Edinburgh North](/wiki/Edinburgh_North_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh North (UK Parliament constituency)\") in [a May 1960 by\\-election](/wiki/1960_Edinburgh_North_by-election \"1960 Edinburgh North by-election\"), and [Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles](/wiki/Roxburgh%2C_Selkirk_and_Peebles_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles (UK Parliament constituency)\") in 1964 and 1965\\. He was elected and sat for [Edinburgh Leith](/wiki/Edinburgh_Leith_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Edinburgh Leith (UK Parliament constituency)\") from 1970 until 1979\\.",
"He served as [Lord Advocate](/wiki/Lord_Advocate \"Lord Advocate\") from March 1974 until May 1979, and was appointed a [Privy Counsellor](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Privy Council of the United Kingdom\") in 1974\\. In 1979 he was appointed to the [Court of Session](/wiki/Court_of_Session \"Court of Session\") and [High Court of Justiciary](/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary \"High Court of Justiciary\") as a [Senator of the College of Justice](/wiki/Senator_of_the_College_of_Justice \"Senator of the College of Justice\"), with the judicial title Lord Murray. His uncle [David King Murray](/wiki/David_King_Murray%2C_Lord_Birnam \"David King Murray, Lord Birnam\") had been a Senator of the College of Justice from 1945 to 1955\\.",
"In April 1977, the [Young Liberals](/wiki/National_League_of_Young_Liberals \"National League of Young Liberals\")' annual conference unanimously passed a motion to call on the [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28UK%29 \"Liberal Party (UK)\") leader ([David Steel](/wiki/David_Steel \"David Steel\")) to move for the [impeachment](/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Impeachment in the United Kingdom\") of Murray for allegedly mishandling a murder case. Despite the urgings of the then chairman of the Young Liberals, [Peter Hain](/wiki/Peter_Hain \"Peter Hain\"), Steel did not table such a motion in the House of Commons, but Murray agreed that the Commons still have the right to initiate an impeachment motion.",
"Lord Murray was an active supporter of the World Court Project U.K., part of a worldwide network directed to obtaining a decision on the legality of using nuclear weapons. Success came in 1996, when the International Court of Justice ruled, in an advisory opinion, that the use of such weapons and the threat to use them would generally be illegal as contrary to international humanitarian law.",
"He died on 27 September 2016 at the age of 94\\.[Ronald J.K Lord Murray : Obituary](http://announce.jpress.co.uk/edinburgh-evening-news-and-scotsman-publications/obituary/ronald-j-k-lord-murray/48145000)",
""
] |
Chinese forces
--------------
### National Revolutionary Army
{{Main\|National Revolutionary Army}}
[thumb\|Flag of the [National Revolutionary Army](/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army "National Revolutionary Army") (later as the [Republic of China Army](/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army "Republic of China Army"))](/wiki/File:Republic_of_China_Army_Flag.svg "Republic of China Army Flag.svg")
With [Chiang Kai\-shek](/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek "Chiang Kai-shek") as the highest commander, the NRA is recognized as the unified armed force of China during the war. Throughout its lifespan, it employed approximately 5,700,000 [regulars](/wiki/Regular_combatant "Regular combatant"), in 370 [Standard Divisions](/wiki/Division_%28military%29 "Division (military)") ({{zh\|s\=正式师\|t\=正式師\|links\=no}}), 46 New Divisions ({{zh\|s\=新编师\|t\=新編師\|links\=no}}), 12 [Cavalry Divisions](/wiki/Cavalry "Cavalry") ({{zh\|s\=骑兵师\|t\=騎兵師\|links\=no}}), eight New Cavalry Divisions ({{zh\|s\=新编骑兵师\|t\=新編騎兵師\|links\=no}}), 66 Temporary Divisions ({{zh\|s\=暂编师\|t\=暫編師\|links\=no}}), and 13 [Reserve Divisions](/wiki/Military_reserve_force "Military reserve force") ({{zh\|s\=预备师\|t\=預備師\|links\=no}}), for a grand total of 515 divisions.
However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and many were not active at the same time. The number of active divisions, at the start of the war in 1937, was about 170 NRA divisions. The average NRA division had 4,000–5,000 troops. A Chinese army was roughly the equivalent to a Japanese division in terms of manpower but the Chinese forces largely lacked artillery, heavy weapons, and motorized transport.
The shortage of military hardware meant that three to four Chinese armies had the firepower of only one Japanese division. Because of these material constraints, available artillery and heavy weapons were usually assigned to specialist brigades rather than to the general division, which caused more problems as the Chinese command structure lacked precise coordination. The relative fighting strength of a Chinese division was even weaker when relative capacity in aspects of warfare, such as [intelligence](/wiki/Military_intelligence "Military intelligence"), [logistics](/wiki/Logistics "Logistics"), [communications](/wiki/Military_communications "Military communications"), and medical services, are taken into account.
Although Chiang Kai\-shek is recognized as the highest commander in name, his power on NRA was in the effect limited. This was due to the fact that the NRA was an alliance of powers such as warlords, regional militarists and communists. Before the alliance was formed under the pressure of Japanese invasion, these powers had their own land, struggled or allied with each other under their own interests and mutual conflicts were common. Because of this, NRA could be unofficially divided into 3 groups, Central Army, Regional Army and Communist forces.
Loyal to Chiang Kai\-shek, the Central Army({{zh\|s\=中央军\|t\=中央軍\|links\=no}}) was best equipped. Most of the officers in the Central Army were trained by the [Whampoa Military Academy](/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy "Whampoa Military Academy"), where Chiang Kai\-shek served as the first president. Before the war, the Central Army mainly controlled east China.
The Regional Army ({{zh\|s\=省军\|t\=省軍\|links\=no}}) consisted of various types of strengths from all the parts of China. Before the war, these strengths governed certain places and most of them admitted Chiang Kai\-shek's leader position. However, they didn't really follow Chiang's command, nor received Chiang's assistance. They generally ran independently. The notable strengths under this category included [Guangxi](/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique "New Guangxi clique"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi_clique "Shanxi clique"), [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan_clique "Yunnan clique") and [Ma clique](/wiki/Ma_clique "Ma clique").
After the [Xi'an Incident](/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident "Xi'an Incident"), Chiang stopped his offensive against the Chinese Red Army. Communists were then incorporated into the NRA to form the [Eighth Route Army](/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army "Eighth Route Army") and the [New Fourth Army](/wiki/New_Fourth_Army "New Fourth Army"), although their *de facto* commander was still [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong "Mao Zedong"). Communists also led a large number of militias during the war.
The NRA expanded from about 1\.2 million in 1937 to 5\.7 million in August 1945, organized in 300 divisions.{{cite book\|author\=David Murray Horner\|title\=The Second World War: The Pacific\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DShPzguQ64UC\&pg\=PA14\|accessdate\=March 6, 2011\|date\=July 24, 2003\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-96845\-4\|pages\=14–15}} This included the incorporation of women's battalions and corps to the army, such as the [Guangxi Women's Battalion](/wiki/Guangxi_Women%27s_Battalion "Guangxi Women's Battalion").{{Cite book\|last\=Chung\|first\=Mary Keng Mun\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qQ5VtyB0EgsC\&dq\=Guangxi\+Women%27s\+Battalion\&pg\=PA72\|title\=Chinese Women in Christian Ministry: An Intercultural Study\|date\=2005\|publisher\=Peter Lang\|isbn\=978\-0\-8204\-5198\-5\|language\=en}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=q52yAAAAIAAJ\&q\=Guangxi\+Women's\+Battalion\|title\=Women of China\|date\=2001\|publisher\=Foreign Language Press\|language\=en}}{{Cite book\|last\=Zhu\|first\=Pingchao\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vbdnCgAAQBAJ\&dq\=Guangxi\+women\+students\+army\&pg\=PR9\|title\=Wartime Culture in Guilin, 1938–1944: A City at War\|date\=2015\-10\-30\|publisher\=Lexington Books\|isbn\=978\-0\-7391\-9684\-7\|language\=en}}
|
[
"Chinese forces\n--------------",
"### National Revolutionary Army",
"{{Main\\|National Revolutionary Army}}\n[thumb\\|Flag of the [National Revolutionary Army](/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army \"National Revolutionary Army\") (later as the [Republic of China Army](/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army \"Republic of China Army\"))](/wiki/File:Republic_of_China_Army_Flag.svg \"Republic of China Army Flag.svg\")",
"With [Chiang Kai\\-shek](/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek \"Chiang Kai-shek\") as the highest commander, the NRA is recognized as the unified armed force of China during the war. Throughout its lifespan, it employed approximately 5,700,000 [regulars](/wiki/Regular_combatant \"Regular combatant\"), in 370 [Standard Divisions](/wiki/Division_%28military%29 \"Division (military)\") ({{zh\\|s\\=正式师\\|t\\=正式師\\|links\\=no}}), 46 New Divisions ({{zh\\|s\\=新编师\\|t\\=新編師\\|links\\=no}}), 12 [Cavalry Divisions](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\") ({{zh\\|s\\=骑兵师\\|t\\=騎兵師\\|links\\=no}}), eight New Cavalry Divisions ({{zh\\|s\\=新编骑兵师\\|t\\=新編騎兵師\\|links\\=no}}), 66 Temporary Divisions ({{zh\\|s\\=暂编师\\|t\\=暫編師\\|links\\=no}}), and 13 [Reserve Divisions](/wiki/Military_reserve_force \"Military reserve force\") ({{zh\\|s\\=预备师\\|t\\=預備師\\|links\\=no}}), for a grand total of 515 divisions.",
"However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and many were not active at the same time. The number of active divisions, at the start of the war in 1937, was about 170 NRA divisions. The average NRA division had 4,000–5,000 troops. A Chinese army was roughly the equivalent to a Japanese division in terms of manpower but the Chinese forces largely lacked artillery, heavy weapons, and motorized transport.",
"The shortage of military hardware meant that three to four Chinese armies had the firepower of only one Japanese division. Because of these material constraints, available artillery and heavy weapons were usually assigned to specialist brigades rather than to the general division, which caused more problems as the Chinese command structure lacked precise coordination. The relative fighting strength of a Chinese division was even weaker when relative capacity in aspects of warfare, such as [intelligence](/wiki/Military_intelligence \"Military intelligence\"), [logistics](/wiki/Logistics \"Logistics\"), [communications](/wiki/Military_communications \"Military communications\"), and medical services, are taken into account.",
"Although Chiang Kai\\-shek is recognized as the highest commander in name, his power on NRA was in the effect limited. This was due to the fact that the NRA was an alliance of powers such as warlords, regional militarists and communists. Before the alliance was formed under the pressure of Japanese invasion, these powers had their own land, struggled or allied with each other under their own interests and mutual conflicts were common. Because of this, NRA could be unofficially divided into 3 groups, Central Army, Regional Army and Communist forces.",
"Loyal to Chiang Kai\\-shek, the Central Army({{zh\\|s\\=中央军\\|t\\=中央軍\\|links\\=no}}) was best equipped. Most of the officers in the Central Army were trained by the [Whampoa Military Academy](/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy \"Whampoa Military Academy\"), where Chiang Kai\\-shek served as the first president. Before the war, the Central Army mainly controlled east China.",
"The Regional Army ({{zh\\|s\\=省军\\|t\\=省軍\\|links\\=no}}) consisted of various types of strengths from all the parts of China. Before the war, these strengths governed certain places and most of them admitted Chiang Kai\\-shek's leader position. However, they didn't really follow Chiang's command, nor received Chiang's assistance. They generally ran independently. The notable strengths under this category included [Guangxi](/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique \"New Guangxi clique\"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi_clique \"Shanxi clique\"), [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan_clique \"Yunnan clique\") and [Ma clique](/wiki/Ma_clique \"Ma clique\").",
"After the [Xi'an Incident](/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident \"Xi'an Incident\"), Chiang stopped his offensive against the Chinese Red Army. Communists were then incorporated into the NRA to form the [Eighth Route Army](/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army \"Eighth Route Army\") and the [New Fourth Army](/wiki/New_Fourth_Army \"New Fourth Army\"), although their *de facto* commander was still [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong \"Mao Zedong\"). Communists also led a large number of militias during the war.",
"The NRA expanded from about 1\\.2 million in 1937 to 5\\.7 million in August 1945, organized in 300 divisions.{{cite book\\|author\\=David Murray Horner\\|title\\=The Second World War: The Pacific\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DShPzguQ64UC\\&pg\\=PA14\\|accessdate\\=March 6, 2011\\|date\\=July 24, 2003\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-96845\\-4\\|pages\\=14–15}} This included the incorporation of women's battalions and corps to the army, such as the [Guangxi Women's Battalion](/wiki/Guangxi_Women%27s_Battalion \"Guangxi Women's Battalion\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Chung\\|first\\=Mary Keng Mun\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qQ5VtyB0EgsC\\&dq\\=Guangxi\\+Women%27s\\+Battalion\\&pg\\=PA72\\|title\\=Chinese Women in Christian Ministry: An Intercultural Study\\|date\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Peter Lang\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8204\\-5198\\-5\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=q52yAAAAIAAJ\\&q\\=Guangxi\\+Women's\\+Battalion\\|title\\=Women of China\\|date\\=2001\\|publisher\\=Foreign Language Press\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Zhu\\|first\\=Pingchao\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vbdnCgAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=Guangxi\\+women\\+students\\+army\\&pg\\=PR9\\|title\\=Wartime Culture in Guilin, 1938–1944: A City at War\\|date\\=2015\\-10\\-30\\|publisher\\=Lexington Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7391\\-9684\\-7\\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
### National Revolutionary Army
{{Main\|National Revolutionary Army}}
[thumb\|Flag of the [National Revolutionary Army](/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army "National Revolutionary Army") (later as the [Republic of China Army](/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army "Republic of China Army"))](/wiki/File:Republic_of_China_Army_Flag.svg "Republic of China Army Flag.svg")
With [Chiang Kai\-shek](/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek "Chiang Kai-shek") as the highest commander, the NRA is recognized as the unified armed force of China during the war. Throughout its lifespan, it employed approximately 5,700,000 [regulars](/wiki/Regular_combatant "Regular combatant"), in 370 [Standard Divisions](/wiki/Division_%28military%29 "Division (military)") ({{zh\|s\=正式师\|t\=正式師\|links\=no}}), 46 New Divisions ({{zh\|s\=新编师\|t\=新編師\|links\=no}}), 12 [Cavalry Divisions](/wiki/Cavalry "Cavalry") ({{zh\|s\=骑兵师\|t\=騎兵師\|links\=no}}), eight New Cavalry Divisions ({{zh\|s\=新编骑兵师\|t\=新編騎兵師\|links\=no}}), 66 Temporary Divisions ({{zh\|s\=暂编师\|t\=暫編師\|links\=no}}), and 13 [Reserve Divisions](/wiki/Military_reserve_force "Military reserve force") ({{zh\|s\=预备师\|t\=預備師\|links\=no}}), for a grand total of 515 divisions.
However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and many were not active at the same time. The number of active divisions, at the start of the war in 1937, was about 170 NRA divisions. The average NRA division had 4,000–5,000 troops. A Chinese army was roughly the equivalent to a Japanese division in terms of manpower but the Chinese forces largely lacked artillery, heavy weapons, and motorized transport.
The shortage of military hardware meant that three to four Chinese armies had the firepower of only one Japanese division. Because of these material constraints, available artillery and heavy weapons were usually assigned to specialist brigades rather than to the general division, which caused more problems as the Chinese command structure lacked precise coordination. The relative fighting strength of a Chinese division was even weaker when relative capacity in aspects of warfare, such as [intelligence](/wiki/Military_intelligence "Military intelligence"), [logistics](/wiki/Logistics "Logistics"), [communications](/wiki/Military_communications "Military communications"), and medical services, are taken into account.
Although Chiang Kai\-shek is recognized as the highest commander in name, his power on NRA was in the effect limited. This was due to the fact that the NRA was an alliance of powers such as warlords, regional militarists and communists. Before the alliance was formed under the pressure of Japanese invasion, these powers had their own land, struggled or allied with each other under their own interests and mutual conflicts were common. Because of this, NRA could be unofficially divided into 3 groups, Central Army, Regional Army and Communist forces.
Loyal to Chiang Kai\-shek, the Central Army({{zh\|s\=中央军\|t\=中央軍\|links\=no}}) was best equipped. Most of the officers in the Central Army were trained by the [Whampoa Military Academy](/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy "Whampoa Military Academy"), where Chiang Kai\-shek served as the first president. Before the war, the Central Army mainly controlled east China.
The Regional Army ({{zh\|s\=省军\|t\=省軍\|links\=no}}) consisted of various types of strengths from all the parts of China. Before the war, these strengths governed certain places and most of them admitted Chiang Kai\-shek's leader position. However, they didn't really follow Chiang's command, nor received Chiang's assistance. They generally ran independently. The notable strengths under this category included [Guangxi](/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique "New Guangxi clique"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi_clique "Shanxi clique"), [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan_clique "Yunnan clique") and [Ma clique](/wiki/Ma_clique "Ma clique").
After the [Xi'an Incident](/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident "Xi'an Incident"), Chiang stopped his offensive against the Chinese Red Army. Communists were then incorporated into the NRA to form the [Eighth Route Army](/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army "Eighth Route Army") and the [New Fourth Army](/wiki/New_Fourth_Army "New Fourth Army"), although their *de facto* commander was still [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong "Mao Zedong"). Communists also led a large number of militias during the war.
The NRA expanded from about 1\.2 million in 1937 to 5\.7 million in August 1945, organized in 300 divisions.{{cite book\|author\=David Murray Horner\|title\=The Second World War: The Pacific\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DShPzguQ64UC\&pg\=PA14\|accessdate\=March 6, 2011\|date\=July 24, 2003\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-96845\-4\|pages\=14–15}} This included the incorporation of women's battalions and corps to the army, such as the [Guangxi Women's Battalion](/wiki/Guangxi_Women%27s_Battalion "Guangxi Women's Battalion").{{Cite book\|last\=Chung\|first\=Mary Keng Mun\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qQ5VtyB0EgsC\&dq\=Guangxi\+Women%27s\+Battalion\&pg\=PA72\|title\=Chinese Women in Christian Ministry: An Intercultural Study\|date\=2005\|publisher\=Peter Lang\|isbn\=978\-0\-8204\-5198\-5\|language\=en}}{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=q52yAAAAIAAJ\&q\=Guangxi\+Women's\+Battalion\|title\=Women of China\|date\=2001\|publisher\=Foreign Language Press\|language\=en}}{{Cite book\|last\=Zhu\|first\=Pingchao\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vbdnCgAAQBAJ\&dq\=Guangxi\+women\+students\+army\&pg\=PR9\|title\=Wartime Culture in Guilin, 1938–1944: A City at War\|date\=2015\-10\-30\|publisher\=Lexington Books\|isbn\=978\-0\-7391\-9684\-7\|language\=en}}
|
[
"### National Revolutionary Army",
"{{Main\\|National Revolutionary Army}}\n[thumb\\|Flag of the [National Revolutionary Army](/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army \"National Revolutionary Army\") (later as the [Republic of China Army](/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army \"Republic of China Army\"))](/wiki/File:Republic_of_China_Army_Flag.svg \"Republic of China Army Flag.svg\")",
"With [Chiang Kai\\-shek](/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek \"Chiang Kai-shek\") as the highest commander, the NRA is recognized as the unified armed force of China during the war. Throughout its lifespan, it employed approximately 5,700,000 [regulars](/wiki/Regular_combatant \"Regular combatant\"), in 370 [Standard Divisions](/wiki/Division_%28military%29 \"Division (military)\") ({{zh\\|s\\=正式师\\|t\\=正式師\\|links\\=no}}), 46 New Divisions ({{zh\\|s\\=新编师\\|t\\=新編師\\|links\\=no}}), 12 [Cavalry Divisions](/wiki/Cavalry \"Cavalry\") ({{zh\\|s\\=骑兵师\\|t\\=騎兵師\\|links\\=no}}), eight New Cavalry Divisions ({{zh\\|s\\=新编骑兵师\\|t\\=新編騎兵師\\|links\\=no}}), 66 Temporary Divisions ({{zh\\|s\\=暂编师\\|t\\=暫編師\\|links\\=no}}), and 13 [Reserve Divisions](/wiki/Military_reserve_force \"Military reserve force\") ({{zh\\|s\\=预备师\\|t\\=預備師\\|links\\=no}}), for a grand total of 515 divisions.",
"However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and many were not active at the same time. The number of active divisions, at the start of the war in 1937, was about 170 NRA divisions. The average NRA division had 4,000–5,000 troops. A Chinese army was roughly the equivalent to a Japanese division in terms of manpower but the Chinese forces largely lacked artillery, heavy weapons, and motorized transport.",
"The shortage of military hardware meant that three to four Chinese armies had the firepower of only one Japanese division. Because of these material constraints, available artillery and heavy weapons were usually assigned to specialist brigades rather than to the general division, which caused more problems as the Chinese command structure lacked precise coordination. The relative fighting strength of a Chinese division was even weaker when relative capacity in aspects of warfare, such as [intelligence](/wiki/Military_intelligence \"Military intelligence\"), [logistics](/wiki/Logistics \"Logistics\"), [communications](/wiki/Military_communications \"Military communications\"), and medical services, are taken into account.",
"Although Chiang Kai\\-shek is recognized as the highest commander in name, his power on NRA was in the effect limited. This was due to the fact that the NRA was an alliance of powers such as warlords, regional militarists and communists. Before the alliance was formed under the pressure of Japanese invasion, these powers had their own land, struggled or allied with each other under their own interests and mutual conflicts were common. Because of this, NRA could be unofficially divided into 3 groups, Central Army, Regional Army and Communist forces.",
"Loyal to Chiang Kai\\-shek, the Central Army({{zh\\|s\\=中央军\\|t\\=中央軍\\|links\\=no}}) was best equipped. Most of the officers in the Central Army were trained by the [Whampoa Military Academy](/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy \"Whampoa Military Academy\"), where Chiang Kai\\-shek served as the first president. Before the war, the Central Army mainly controlled east China.",
"The Regional Army ({{zh\\|s\\=省军\\|t\\=省軍\\|links\\=no}}) consisted of various types of strengths from all the parts of China. Before the war, these strengths governed certain places and most of them admitted Chiang Kai\\-shek's leader position. However, they didn't really follow Chiang's command, nor received Chiang's assistance. They generally ran independently. The notable strengths under this category included [Guangxi](/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique \"New Guangxi clique\"), [Shanxi](/wiki/Shanxi_clique \"Shanxi clique\"), [Yunnan](/wiki/Yunnan_clique \"Yunnan clique\") and [Ma clique](/wiki/Ma_clique \"Ma clique\").",
"After the [Xi'an Incident](/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident \"Xi'an Incident\"), Chiang stopped his offensive against the Chinese Red Army. Communists were then incorporated into the NRA to form the [Eighth Route Army](/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army \"Eighth Route Army\") and the [New Fourth Army](/wiki/New_Fourth_Army \"New Fourth Army\"), although their *de facto* commander was still [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong \"Mao Zedong\"). Communists also led a large number of militias during the war.",
"The NRA expanded from about 1\\.2 million in 1937 to 5\\.7 million in August 1945, organized in 300 divisions.{{cite book\\|author\\=David Murray Horner\\|title\\=The Second World War: The Pacific\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DShPzguQ64UC\\&pg\\=PA14\\|accessdate\\=March 6, 2011\\|date\\=July 24, 2003\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-96845\\-4\\|pages\\=14–15}} This included the incorporation of women's battalions and corps to the army, such as the [Guangxi Women's Battalion](/wiki/Guangxi_Women%27s_Battalion \"Guangxi Women's Battalion\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Chung\\|first\\=Mary Keng Mun\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qQ5VtyB0EgsC\\&dq\\=Guangxi\\+Women%27s\\+Battalion\\&pg\\=PA72\\|title\\=Chinese Women in Christian Ministry: An Intercultural Study\\|date\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Peter Lang\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8204\\-5198\\-5\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=q52yAAAAIAAJ\\&q\\=Guangxi\\+Women's\\+Battalion\\|title\\=Women of China\\|date\\=2001\\|publisher\\=Foreign Language Press\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Zhu\\|first\\=Pingchao\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vbdnCgAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=Guangxi\\+women\\+students\\+army\\&pg\\=PR9\\|title\\=Wartime Culture in Guilin, 1938–1944: A City at War\\|date\\=2015\\-10\\-30\\|publisher\\=Lexington Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7391\\-9684\\-7\\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
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